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234969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20inverse%20trigonometric%20functions | List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions | The following is a list of indefinite integrals (antiderivatives) of expressions involving the inverse trigonometric functions. For a complete list of integral formulas, see lists of integrals.
The inverse trigonometric functions are also known as the "arc functions".
C is used for the arbitrary constant of integration that can only be determined if something about the value of the integral at some point is known. Thus each function has an infinite number of antiderivatives.
There are three common notations for inverse trigonometric functions. The arcsine function, for instance, could be written as sin−1, asin, or, as is used on this page, arcsin.
For each inverse trigonometric integration formula below there is a corresponding formula in the list of integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions.
Arcsine function integration formulas
Arccosine function integration formulas
Arctangent function integration formulas
Arccotangent function integration formulas
Arcsecant function integration formulas
Arccosecant function integration formulas
Arc functions | [
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234974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke%20%28disambiguation%29 | Stroke (disambiguation) | A stroke or brain stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death.
Stroke or stroking may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Stroke (composition), a 2010 orchestral composition by Joan Tower
Stroke (film), a 1992 Canadian short film
Stroke (journal), a cardiology journal
Stroke: Songs for Chris Knox, a 2009 benefit compilation album
"The Stroke", a 1981 song by Billy Squier
The Strokes, a rock band
"Stroke", a 2019 song by Banks from III
"Strokin, a 1986 song by Clarence Carter
Health conditions
Myocardial infarction or heart stroke
Sunstroke, a condition caused by overexposure to the sun
Sports
Rowing stroke, the action of moving an oar through the water to propel a boat forward
Stroke (position), in the sport of rowing, the rower seated closest to the stern
Stroke, a scuba diver who is not following the rules of Doing It Right
Stroke play, a scoring system used in golf
Swimming stroke, a swimming style
The Stroke (wrestling maneuver)
Writing and graphics
Stroke (CJK character), part of a Chinese character
Stroke, a trace of ink in handwriting
Stroke, a line that makes up part or all of a letter in typeface anatomy
Stroke, one of the two basic methods of drawing a path in vector graphics
Bar (diacritic) or stroke
Slash (punctuation), the typographical character
Other uses
Stroke (engine), a single action of some engines
Stroke (Fast One), a deception
Stroke, the recognition, attention or responsiveness that one person gives another in transactional analysis
Stroke City, a nickname for Derry, Northern Ireland
Stroking, a form of a social grooming
See also
Different Strokes (disambiguation) | [
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234977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Bernardo | Paul Bernardo | Paul Kenneth Bernardo (born August 27, 1964), also known as Paul Jason Teale, is a Canadian serial killer and serial rapist. He is known for initially committing a series of rapes in Scarborough, Ontario, a suburb of Toronto, between 1987 and 1990. He subsequently committed three murders with his then-wife Karla Homolka; among these victims was her young sister Tammy Homolka. After his capture and conviction, Bernardo was sentenced to life imprisonment and was later declared a dangerous offender, thus making it unlikely that he will ever be released from prison.
Early life
Paul Bernardo's father, Kenneth, sexually abused his daughter. He also fondled a girl and was charged with child molestation in 1975. Bernardo's mother, depressed about her husband's abuse, withdrew from family life and lived in the basement of their home in Scarborough, in eastern Metropolitan Toronto.
In his book Lethal Marriage, Nick Pron describes the young Bernardo: "He was always happy. A young boy who smiled a lot. And he was so cute; with his dimpled good looks and sweet smile, that many of the mothers just wanted to pinch him on the cheek whenever they saw him. He was the perfect child they all wanted; polite, well mannered, doing well in school, so sweet in his Boy Scout uniform." Beneath the charming facade, however, Bernardo had developed dark sexual fantasies and enjoyed humiliating women in public and beating women he dated. When Bernardo was 16, his mother told him that he was conceived illegitimately during an extramarital affair. Disgusted, he began openly insulting her.
Bernardo attended Sir Wilfrid Laurier Collegiate Institute in Scarborough, and then went to University of Toronto Scarborough in 1982, and worked for Amway, whose sales culture deeply affected him: "He bought the books and tapes of famous motivational get-rich-and-famous experts." Bernardo and his friends practised pickup techniques on young women they met in bars, and were fairly successful. In October 1987, he met Karla Homolka, and they were sexually attracted to each other almost immediately. Unlike the other women he knew, she encouraged his sadistic sexual behaviour. During his trial, it was reported that Bernardo was keenly interested in the 1991 Bret Easton Ellis novel, American Psycho, and "read it as his Bible", though it turned out it actually belonged to his wife and accomplice Karla Homolka; and it is unlikely that Bernardo ever read it.
Scarborough Rapist cases
Bernardo committed multiple sexual assaults, escalating in viciousness, in and around Scarborough. He attacked most of his victims after stalking them as they got off buses late in the evening.
Known incidents are:
May 4, 1987: Rape of a 21-year-old Scarborough woman in front of her parents' house, after Bernardo followed her home
May 14, 1987: Rape of a 19-year-old woman in the backyard of her parents' house
July 17, 1987: Attempted rape of a young woman. Although he beat the victim, he abandoned the attack when she fought back
September 29, 1987: Attempted rape of a 15-year-old girl. Bernardo broke into a house in Scarborough and entered the victim's bedroom. He jumped on her back, put his hand over her mouth, threatened her with a knife, bruised the side of her face and bit her ear. Bernardo fled when the victim's mother entered the room and screamed. Nineteen-years-old at the time of the crime, Anthony Hanemaayer was convicted of the sexual assault in 1989 and served a sixteen-month prison sentence, but was exonerated after Bernardo admitted to the crime in 2006.
December 16, 1987: Rape of a 15-year-old girl. The next day Metropolitan Toronto Police issued a warning to women in Scarborough traveling alone at night, especially those riding buses.
December 23, 1987: Rape of a 17-year-old girl with a knife he used to threaten his victims. At this point, he began to be known as the Scarborough Rapist.
April 18, 1988: Bernardo attacked a 17-year-old girl
May 25, 1988: Bernardo was nearly caught by a uniformed Metro Toronto investigator staking out a bus shelter. Although the investigator noticed Bernardo hiding under a tree and pursued him on foot, Bernardo escaped.
May 30, 1988: Rape of an 18-year-old woman in Mississauga, Ontario, about southwest of Scarborough
October 4, 1988: Attempted rape in Scarborough. Although his intended victim fought him off, he inflicted two stab wounds to her thigh and buttock which required 12 stitches.
November 16, 1988: Rape of an 18-year-old woman in the backyard of her parents' house
November 17, 1988: Metro Police formed a task force to capture the Scarborough Rapist
December 27, 1988: Attempted rape, with a neighbour chasing Bernardo off
June 20, 1989: Attempted rape; the young woman fought, and her screams alerted neighbours. Bernardo fled with scratches on his face.
August 15, 1989: Rape of a 22-year-old woman
November 21, 1989: Rape of a 15-year-old girl Bernardo saw in a bus shelter
December 22, 1989: Rape of a 19-year-old woman
May 26, 1990: Rape of a 19-year-old woman. His victim's vivid recollection of her attacker enabled police to create a computer composite portrait, which was released two days later by police and published in Toronto and area newspapers.
July 1990: Two months after police received tips that Bernardo resembled the Scarborough Rapist composite, he was interviewed by two police detectives
Investigation and release
From May to September 1990, police submitted more than 130 suspects' samples for DNA testing.
Police received two tips that the person they were seeking was Bernardo. The first, in June, had been filed by a bank employee. The second was from Tina Smirnis, wife of one of the three Smirnis brothers who were among Bernardo's closest friends. Smirnis told detectives that Bernardo "had been 'called in' on a previous rape investigation – once in December, 1987 – but he had never been interviewed". He frequently talked about his sex life to Smirnis and said that he liked rough sex.
Police interviewed Bernardo on November 20, 1990, for 35 minutes. Bernardo voluntarily provided samples for forensic testing. When the detectives asked Bernardo why he thought he was being investigated for the rapes, he admitted that he resembled the composite. Reportedly, detectives found Bernardo more credible than Smirnis.
"Schoolgirl Killer" murders
Tammy Homolka
By 1990, Bernardo was spending long periods of time with Homolka's family, who liked him. Although he was engaged to Karla, he flirted with her younger sister Tammy. Bernardo had not told them that he had lost his job as an accountant and was smuggling cigarettes across the nearby Canada–United States border. He had become obsessed with Tammy, peering into her window and entering her room to masturbate while she slept. Karla Homolka helped Bernardo by breaking the windows in her sister's room, allowing him access. In July, he took Tammy across the border to get beer for a party; Bernardo later told his fiancée that "they got drunk and began making out".
According to Bernardo's testimony at his trial, Karla Homolka laced spaghetti sauce with crushed valium she had stolen from her employer at Martindale Animal Clinic. She served it to her sister, who soon lost consciousness. Bernardo then raped Tammy while Karla watched. Tammy woke up after one minute. Over the summer, he supplied Tammy and her friends with gifts, food and soft drinks with "a film and a few white flecks on the top".
Six months before their 1991 wedding, Karla Homolka stole the anesthetic agent halothane from the clinic. On December 23, 1990, Karla and Bernardo administered sleeping pills to the 15-year-old in a rum-and-eggnog cocktail. When Tammy lost consciousness, Karla and Bernardo undressed her and Karla applied a Halothane-soaked cloth to her sister's nose and mouth. Karla wanted to "give Tammy's virginity to Bernardo for Christmas"; according to her, Bernardo was disappointed that he was not Karla's first sex partner. With Tammy's parents sleeping upstairs, they videotaped themselves raping her in the basement. Tammy began to vomit; they tried to revive her and called 911 after hiding evidence, dressing Tammy and moving her into her bedroom. A few hours later, Tammy was pronounced dead at St. Catharines General Hospital without regaining consciousness.
Despite their behavior (vacuuming and washing laundry in the middle of the night) and despite a chemical burn on Tammy's face, the Regional Municipality of Niagara coroner and the Homolka family accepted Bernardo and Homolka's version of events. The official cause of Tammy Homolka's death was accidental: choking on vomit after consumption of alcohol. Bernardo and Karla subsequently videotaped themselves, with Karla wearing Tammy's clothing and pretending to be her. They moved out of the Homolka house to a rented Port Dalhousie bungalow to allow Homolka's parents to grieve.
Jane Doe
On June 7, 1991, Homolka invited a 15-year-old girl she had befriended at a pet shop two years earlier, known as "Jane Doe" in the trials, for a "girls' night out." After an evening of shopping and dining, Homolka plied "Jane Doe" with alcohol laced with Halcion. When the girl lost consciousness, Homolka called Bernardo to tell him that his surprise wedding gift was ready. Bernardo videotaped Homolka raping the girl before he himself sexually assaulted her. The next morning, "Jane Doe" was nauseated but thought that her vomiting was from drinking alcohol for the first time, and did not realize that she had been sexually assaulted.
In August, "Jane Doe" was invited back to Port Dalhousie to "spend the night" and was again drugged. Homolka called 911 for help after the girl stopped breathing while being raped. Homolka called back a few minutes later to say that "everything is all right" and the ambulance was recalled without follow-up. "Jane Doe" survived.
Leslie Mahaffy
Early in the morning on June 15, 1991, Bernardo detoured through Burlington (halfway between Toronto and St. Catharines) to steal licence plates and found Leslie Mahaffy. The 14-year-old had missed her curfew after attending a friend's wake and was locked out of her house. Bernardo left his car and approached Mahaffy, saying that he wanted to break into a neighbour's house. Unfazed, she asked if he had any cigarettes. When Bernardo led her to his car he blindfolded her, forced her into the car, drove her to Port Dalhousie and informed Homolka that they had a victim.
Bernardo and Homolka videotaped themselves torturing and sexually abusing Mahaffy while they listened to Bob Marley and David Bowie. At one point Bernardo said, "You're doing a good job, Leslie, a damned good job", adding: "The next two hours are going to determine what I do to you. Right now, you're scoring perfect." On another segment of tape played at Bernardo's trial, the assault escalated. Mahaffy cried out in pain, and begged Bernardo to stop. In the Crown description of the scene, he was sodomizing her while her hands were bound with twine.
Mahaffy later told Bernardo that her blindfold seemed to be slipping, which signaled the possibility that she could identify her attackers if she lived. The following day, Bernardo claimed, Homolka fed her a lethal dose of Halcion; Homolka claimed that Bernardo strangled her. They put Mahaffy's body in their basement, and the day after that the Homolka family had dinner at the house. After the Homolkas and their remaining daughter Lori left, Bernardo and Homolka decided that the best way to dispose of the evidence would be to dismember Mahaffy and encase each part of her remains in cement. Bernardo bought a dozen bags of cement at a hardware store the following day; he kept the receipts, which were damaging at his trial. Bernardo used his grandfather's circular saw to dismember Mahaffy. Bernardo and Homolka made a number of trips to dump the cement blocks in Lake Gibson, south of Port Dalhousie. At least one of the blocks weighed 90 kg (200 pounds) and was beyond their ability to sink. It lay near the shore, where it was found by Michael Doucette and his son Michael Jr while on a fishing expedition on June 29, 1991. Mahaffy's orthodontic appliance was instrumental in identifying her.
Homolka was released from prison on July 4, 2005. Several days before, Bernardo was interviewed by police and his lawyer Tony Bryant. According to Bryant, Bernardo said that he had always intended to free the girls he and Homolka kidnapped. However, when Mahaffy's blindfold fell off (allowing her to see Bernardo's face) Homolka was concerned that Mahaffy would identify Bernardo and report them to the police. Bernardo claimed that Homolka planned to murder Mahaffy by injecting an air bubble into her bloodstream, triggering an air embolism.
Kristen French
During the after-school hours of April 16, 1992 (Maundy Thursday), Bernardo and Homolka drove through St. Catharines to look for potential victims. Although students were still going home, the streets were generally empty. As they passed Holy Cross Secondary School, a Catholic high school in the city's north end, they spotted 15-year-old Kristen French walking briskly to her nearby home. They pulled into the parking lot of nearby Grace Lutheran Church and Homolka got out of the car, map in hand, pretending to need assistance. When French looked at the map Bernardo attacked from behind, brandishing a knife and forcing her into the front seat of their car. From the back seat, Homolka subdued French by pulling her hair.
French took the same route home every day, taking about 15 minutes to get home and care for her dog. Soon after she should have arrived, her parents became convinced that she met with foul play and notified police. Within 24 hours the Niagara Regional Police Service (NRP) assembled a team, searched French's route and found several witnesses who had seen the abduction from different locations (giving police a fairly-clear picture). French's shoe, recovered from the parking lot, underscored the seriousness of the abduction.
Over the Easter weekend Bernardo and Homolka videotaped themselves torturing, raping and sodomizing French, forcing her to drink large amounts of alcohol and submit to Bernardo. At his trial, Crown prosecutor Ray Houlahan said that Bernardo always intended to kill her because she was never blindfolded and could identify her captors. The following day, Bernardo and Homolka murdered French before going to the Homolkas' for Easter dinner. Homolka testified at her trial that Bernardo strangled French for seven minutes while she watched. Bernardo said that Homolka beat French with a rubber mallet because she tried to escape, and French was strangled with a noose around her neck which was secured to a hope chest; Homolka then went to fix her hair.
French's nude body was found on April 30, 1992, in a ditch in Burlington, about 45 minutes from St. Catharines and a short distance from the cemetery where Mahaffy is buried. She had been washed, and her hair was cut off. Although it was thought that French's hair was removed as a trophy, Homolka testified that it was cut to impede identification.
Other victims
Shortly after Tammy Homolka's funeral her parents left town and Lori visited her grandparents in Mississauga, leaving the house empty. According to author Stephen Williams, during the weekend of January 12, 1991, Bernardo abducted a girl, took her to the house, raped her while Homolka watched and dropped her off on a deserted road near Lake Gibson. Bernardo and Homolka called her "January girl".
At about 5:30 a.m. on April 6, 1991, Bernardo abducted a 14-year-old who was warming up as coxswain for a local rowing team. The girl was distracted by a blonde woman who waved at her from her car, enabling Bernardo to drag her into the shrubbery near the rowing club. He sexually assaulted her and forced her to remove her clothes and wait five minutes (during which he disappeared).
Derek Finkle's 1997 book No Claim to Mercy presented evidence tying Bernardo to the murder of Elizabeth Bain, who disappeared on June 19, 1990 (three weeks after the last known attack of the Scarborough Rapist). Bain told her mother that she was going to "check the tennis schedule" at the University of Toronto Scarborough; three days later, her car was found with a large bloodstain on the back seat.
Robert Baltovich, who has consistently maintained his innocence, was convicted of second-degree murder in the death of his girlfriend on March 31, 1992. At trial, his lawyers suggested that the then-unidentified Scarborough Rapist was responsible for the crime. Baltovich served eight years of a life sentence before he was released pending appeal. In September 2004 his appeal was processed, with his lawyers alleging that he had been wrongfully convicted and Bernardo was guilty of the murder. The Court of Appeal for Ontario set aside Baltovich's conviction on December 2, 2004, but on July 15, 2005, the Attorney General of Ontario announced that he would face a new trial. On April 22, 2008, after a series of pretrial motions (including the presentation of evidence implicating Bernardo in Bain's murder), Crown prosecutor Philip Kotanen told the court that he would call no evidence and asked the jury to find Baltovich not guilty of second-degree murder.
On March 29, 1992, Bernardo stalked and videotaped two sisters from his car and followed them to their parents' house; the sisters incorrectly recorded his licence-plate number. One sister reported the incident to the NRP on March 31, 1992, and received an incident number to report further information. With French under Homolka's guard on April 18, 1992, Bernardo went out to buy dinner and rent a movie. He was spotted by one of the sisters, who attempted to track him to his house. Although she lost him, she got a better description of his licence plate and car and reported them to police. Her information was mishandled by police, falling into the "black hole" to which Judge Archie Campbell referred in the Campbell Report of 1996 (an inquiry into police mishandling of evidence in the case).
In 2006, Bernardo confessed to at least 10 more sexual assaults dating to March 1986, including the 1987 assault of a 15-year-old girl. Another man, Anthony Hanemaayer, had been convicted of the assault and served a full sentence for it. On June 25, 2008, the Court of Appeal for Ontario overturned the conviction and exonerated Hanemaayer.
Investigation and arrest
Homolka and Bernardo were questioned by police several times in connection with the Scarborough Rapist investigation, Tammy Homolka's death, and Bernardo's stalking of other women before the death of French. The officer filed a report, and on 12 May 1992 an NRP sergeant and constable briefly interviewed Bernardo. The officers decided that he was an unlikely suspect, although Bernardo admitted that he had been questioned in connection with the Scarborough rapes. Three days later, the Green Ribbon Task Force was created to investigate the murders of Mahaffy and French. Bernardo and Homolka had applied to have their names legally changed to Teale, which Bernardo had taken from the serial killer in the 1988 film Criminal Law (notwithstanding the fact the killer's name was spelled "Thiel" in the film). At the end of May, John Motile (an acquaintance of Smirnis and Bernardo) reported Bernardo as a possible murder suspect.
In December 1992, the Centre of Forensic Sciences finally began testing DNA samples provided by Bernardo two years earlier. On 27 December, he severely beat Homolka on the limbs, head and face with a flashlight. Claiming that she had been in an automobile accident, the severely-bruised Homolka returned to work on 4 January 1993. Her skeptical co-workers called her parents, and although they rescued her the following day by physically removing her from the house, Homolka went back in, frantically searching for something. Her parents took her to St. Catharines General Hospital, where she gave a statement to the NRP that she was a battered spouse and filed charges against Bernardo. He was arrested, and later released on his own recognizance. A friend who found Bernardo's suicide note intervened, and Homolka moved in with relatives in Brampton.
Arrest
Twenty-six months after Bernardo submitted a DNA sample, Toronto police were informed that it matched that of the Scarborough Rapist and immediately placed him under 24-hour surveillance. Metro Toronto Sexual Assault Squad investigators interviewed Homolka on February 9, 1993. Despite hearing their suspicions about Bernardo, Homolka focused on his abuse of her. Later that night she told her aunt and uncle that Bernardo was the Scarborough Rapist, that she and Bernardo were involved in the rape and murder of Mahaffy and French and that the rapes were recorded on videotape. The NRP reopened its investigation of Tammy Homolka's death. Two days later Homolka met with Niagara Falls lawyer George Walker, who sought legal immunity from Crown prosecutor Houlahan in exchange for her cooperation. She was also placed under 24-hour surveillance.
The couple's name change was approved on February 13, 1993. The next day, Walker met with Crown Criminal Law Office director Murray Segal. After Walker told Segal about the videotapes of the rapes, Segal advised him that, due to Homolka's involvement in the crimes, full immunity was not a possibility.
On February 17, Metro Sexual Assault Squad and Green Ribbon Task Force detectives arrested Bernardo on several charges and obtained a search warrant. Because his link to the murders was weak, the warrant was limited; no evidence which was not expected and documented in the warrant could be removed from the premises, and all videotapes found by police had to be viewed in the house. Damage had to be kept to a minimum; police could not tear down walls looking for the videotapes. The search of the house (including updated warrants) lasted 71 days, and the only tape found by police had a brief segment of Homolka performing oral sex on "Jane Doe".
On May 5, Walker was informed that the government was offering Homolka a plea bargain of 12 years which she had one week to accept. If she declined, the government would charge her with two counts of first-degree murder, one count of second-degree murder and other crimes. Walker accepted the offer, and Homolka later agreed to it. On May 14 Homolka's plea bargain was finalized, and she began giving statements to police investigators. She told police that Bernardo boasted that he had raped as many as 30 women (twice as many as the police suspected), calling him "the happy rapist".
Publication ban
Citing the need to protect Bernardo's right to a fair trial, a publication ban was imposed on Homolka's preliminary inquiry. The Crown had applied for the ban, which was imposed on July 5 by Francis Kovacs of the Ontario Court of Justice (General Division). Homolka, through her lawyers, supported the ban; Bernardo's lawyers argued that he would be prejudged by the ban, since Homolka had been portrayed as his victim. Four media outlets and one author also opposed the ban. Some lawyers argued that rumours could damage the future trial process more than the publication of evidence. In February 1994, Homolka divorced Bernardo.
Public access to the Internet effectively nullified the court's order, as did proximity to the American border (since the ban was only in effect in Ontario). US journalists, not subject to the publication ban, published details of Homolka's testimony which were distributed by "electronic ban-breakers". Newspapers in Buffalo, Detroit, Washington, D.C., New York City and the United Kingdom, as well as radio and television stations along the Canadian-U.S. border, reported details gleaned from Homolka's trial. The syndicated series A Current Affair aired two programs on the crimes. Canadians brought copies of The Buffalo News across the border, prompting orders to the NRP to arrest all those with more than one copy at the border; extra copies were confiscated. Copies of other newspapers, including The New York Times, were turned back at the border or not accepted by distributors in Ontario. Gordon Domm, a retired police officer who defied the publication ban by distributing details from foreign media, was convicted of two counts of contempt of court.
Trial, conviction, and incarceration
Bernardo was tried for the murders of French and Mahaffy in 1995, and his trial included detailed testimony from Homolka and videotapes of the rapes. Bernardo testified that the deaths were accidental, later claiming that his wife was the actual killer. On September 1, 1995, Bernardo was convicted of a number of offences, including the two first-degree murders and two aggravated sexual assaults, and sentenced to life in prison without parole for at least 25 years. He was designated a dangerous offender, making him unlikely to ever be released.
In a plea bargain (a 12-year sentence for manslaughter), Homolka testified against Bernardo in his murder trial. The plea bargain was criticized by many Canadians, since Bernardo's first defence lawyer (Ken Murray) withheld videotapes for 17 months. They were considered crucial evidence, and prosecutors said that they would never have agreed to the plea bargain if they had seen the tapes. Murray was later acquitted of obstruction of justice and faced a disciplinary hearing by the Law Society of Upper Canada.
Although Bernardo was kept in the segregation unit at Kingston Penitentiary for his own safety, he was attacked and harassed; he was punched in the face by another inmate when he returned from a shower in 1996. In June 1999, five convicts tried to storm his segregation range and a riot squad used gas to disperse them.
The Toronto Star reported on February 21, 2006, that Bernardo admitted sexually assaulting at least 10 other women in attacks not previously attributed to him. Most were in 1986, a year before what police called the reign of terror by the Scarborough Rapist. Authorities suspected Bernardo in other crimes, including a string of rapes in Amherst, New York, and the drowning of Terri Anderson in St. Catharines, but he has never acknowledged his involvement. Bernardo's lawyer, Anthony G. Bryant, reportedly forwarded the information to legal authorities in November 2005.
In 2006, Bernardo gave a prison interview suggesting that he had reformed and would make a good parole candidate. He became eligible to petition a jury to be allowed to apply for early parole in 2008 under the faint hope clause (since he committed multiple murders before the 1997 criminal-code amendment), but did not do so. In 2015, Bernardo became eligible (and applied) for day parole in Toronto. According to the victims' lawyer, Tim Danson, it is unlikely that Bernardo will ever be released from prison because of his dangerous offender status. In September 2013, he was moved from Kingston Penitentiary (which was closing) to Millhaven Institution in Bath, Ontario, where he is reportedly segregated from the other inmates.
In November 2015, Bernardo self-published A MAD World Order, a violent, fictional, 631-page e-book on Amazon. By November 15, the book was reportedly an Amazon bestseller, but was removed from the website due to a public outcry.
In October 2018, Bernardo had been set to go to trial for possession of a "shank" weapon while incarcerated (a 5 cm long screw attached to a pen). However, the prosecution dropped the charges due to their determination that there was no reasonable probability of conviction.
Bernardo became eligible for parole in February 2018. On 17 October 2018, he was denied day and full parole by the Parole Board of Canada. His next parole hearing took place on 22 June 2021; It took only one hour of deliberation by the presiding judge for his application to be turned down.
Law-enforcement review
After Bernardo's 1995 conviction, the Ontario government appointed Archie Campbell to review the roles played by the police services during the investigation. In his 1996 report, Campbell found that lack of coordination, cooperation and communications by police and other elements of the judicial system contributed to a serial predator "falling through the cracks". One of Campbell's key recommendations was for an automated case-management system for Ontario's police services to use in investigations of homicides and sexual assaults. Ontario is the only place in the world with this type of computerized case-management network. Since 2002, all municipal police services and the Ontario Provincial Police have had access to PowerCase.
Psychology
Bernardo scored 35 out of 40 on the Psychopathy Checklist, a psychological assessment tool used to assess the presence of psychopathy in individuals. This is classified as clinical psychopathy. At his October 17, 2018 parole meeting, evidence from expert psychiatric reports found that he had "deviant sexual interests and [he] met the diagnostic criteria of sexual sadism, voyeurism, and paraphilia not otherwise specified.” The reports furthermore stated that he "met the criteria for narcissistic personality disorder and [met the requirement for] a diagnosis of psychopathy,” meaning he was thereby "more likely to repeat violent sexual offending." The reports concluded that Bernardo "showed minimal insight into [his] offending, which is consistent with file information that suggests [he] has been keen over the years to come up with [his] own unsubstantiated reasons for [his] criminal behaviour.”
In popular culture
Episodes of Law & Order ("Fools for Love", season 10), Law & Order: Special Victims Unit ("Damaged", season 4 and "Pure", season 6), Close to Home ("Truly, Madly, Deeply", season 2) and The Inspector Lynley Mysteries (2007's "Know Thine Enemy") were inspired by the case. Under the Canadian publication ban in force at the time, "Fools for Love" could not be shown on Canadian television when it aired on February 23, 2000. The second episode of The Mentalist concerned a respectable, murderous husband-and-wife team. The Criminal Minds episode "Mr. and Mrs. Anderson" contains a serial-killer couple loosely based on Bernardo and Homolka, and the Bernardo case was mentioned by the Behavioral Analysis Unit team when they delivered their profile to the local police.
Dark Heart, Iron Hand, an MSNBC documentary rebroadcast as "To Love and To Kill" on MSNBC Investigates, concerned the case. In 2004, producers from Quantum Entertainment (a Los Angeles-based production company) announced the release of Karla, with the working title Deadly.
The 1993 Rush song "Nobody's Hero" references the murder of a young girl in Port Dalhousie, drummer Neil Peart's hometown.
Another documentary aired on the Discovery+ streaming service via the sub-channel Investigation Discovery entitled The Ken & Barbie Killers: The Lost Tapes. It premiered on December 12th, 2021, and consisted of 4 episodes.
See also
List of serial killers by country
References
Further reading
External links
1964 births
Living people
1980s crimes in Canada
1988 crimes in Canada
1989 crimes in Canada
1990s murders in Canada
20th-century Canadian criminals
Canadian kidnappers
Canadian male criminals
Canadian murderers of children
Canadian people convicted of murder
Canadian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Canadian rapists
Canadian serial killers
Crime in Toronto
Fugitives
Male serial killers
People convicted of murder by Canada
People from Scarborough, Toronto
People from St. Catharines
People with antisocial personality disorder
People with narcissistic personality disorder
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Canada
Publication bans in Canadian case law
Torture in Canada
University of Toronto alumni
Violence against women in Canada | [
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234978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Isaak | Chris Isaak | Christopher Joseph Isaak (born June 26, 1956) is an American musician and occasional actor. He is widely known for his hit "Wicked Game", as well as the songs "Baby Did a Bad Bad Thing" and "Somebody's Crying". He is known for his signature 1950s rock & roll style and crooner sound, as well as his falsetto and reverb-laden music. He is closely associated with film director David Lynch, who has used his music in numerous films and gave him a role in the film Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me. His songs generally focus on the themes of love, loss, and heartbreak. With a career spanning four decades, he has released a total of 12 studio albums, toured, and received numerous award nominations. He has been called the Roy Orbison of the 1990s and is also often compared to Elvis Presley, Ricky Nelson, and Duane Eddy.
Early life
Family
Isaak was born in Stockton, California, at St. Joseph's Medical Center, to Dorothy (née Vignolo; 1931–2021), and Joseph "Joe" Isaak (1929–2012), a forklift driver. His father's family is Catholic Black Sea German from North Dakota. Isaak's mother is Italian American, from Genoa.
Education
Isaak attended Amos Alonzo Stagg High School in Stockton, graduating in 1974. He was class president all three years, culminating with his election as student body president in his senior year, along with being the 1974 graduating class valedictorian and head of the all-male cheer squad. He subsequently attended a local college, San Joaquin Delta Community College, before transferring to the University of the Pacific, graduating with a bachelor's degree in English and communications arts in 1981.
He was also in an exchange program that allowed him to study in Japan. After graduating from college, Isaak put together his first band, Silvertone. This rockabilly outfit consisted of James Calvin Wilsey (guitar), Rowland Salley (bass), and Kenney Dale Johnson (drums), who remained with Isaak as his permanent backing band.
Career
Music career
In 1985, Isaak signed a contract with Warner Bros. Records and released his first album, Silvertone, to critical acclaim, including from John Fogerty. The name was taken from the band he formed after graduating college; a reference to the Silvertone guitar brand popularized during the 1950s. The album's sound was raw and diverse, mingling country blues with conventional folk ballads. Although the album was a critical success, it failed to sell respectably. Two tracks from the album, "Gone Ridin'" and "Livin' for Your Lover", featured in David Lynch's 1986 film Blue Velvet.
Isaak's self-titled follow-up album was released in 1986 and managed to scrape into the Billboard 200. The album saw Isaak hone his style to sophisticated R&B. The artwork for Chris Isaak was photographed by fashion photographer Bruce Weber.
Warner Bros. moved Isaak to their Reprise Records label in 1988. That same year, "Suspicion of Love" by Isaak appeared in Married to the Mob, a hit movie starring Matthew Modine, Michelle Pfeiffer, and Dean Stockwell.
Isaak's best known song is "Wicked Game". In an interview with Mark Needham, an engineer who worked with Isaak on "Wicked Game", Needham claimed that it took several years to put the track together. First released on the 1989 album Heart Shaped World, an instrumental version of the song was subsequently featured in the 1990 David Lynch film Wild at Heart. Lee Chesnut, an Atlanta radio station music director who was obsessed with Lynch films, played the vocal version and it became the station's most-requested song. Chesnut spread the word to other radio stations and the single became a national top 10 hit in February 1991, peaking at number 6. It also reached No. 10 in the UK Singles Chart. The music video for the song was directed by Herb Ritts and was an MTV and VH1 hit; shot in black and white, it featured Isaak and supermodel Helena Christensen in a sensual encounter on the beach, caressing each other and whispering in each other's ears. Another less-seen version of "Wicked Game" is directed by David Lynch and comprises scenes from the film Wild at Heart. "Wicked Game" featured as the backing music in the 2001 TV advertisement for the Jaguar X-Type in the UK.
"Two Hearts" from Isaak's fourth album, San Francisco Days, was featured in the closing credits of True Romance, a 1993 film directed by Tony Scott, written by Quentin Tarantino, and starring Christian Slater and Patricia Arquette.
In 1995, Isaak split with longtime guitarist James Calvin Wilsey. That year's Forever Blue, Isaak's fifth album, and the accompanying tour featured Hershel Yatovitz on guitar. The album was nominated for a Grammy for Best Rock Album, and the single "Somebody's Crying" was nominated for a Grammy for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance. On March 15, 1996, the album was certified Platinum by the RIAA. "Baby Did a Bad Bad Thing" was featured in Stanley Kubrick's final film, Eyes Wide Shut, in 1999. The music video for the song was directed by Herb Ritts (his second collaboration with Isaak); it was shot in color and featured Isaak and French supermodel Laetitia Casta in a motel room.
Isaak composed a theme song for U.S. late-night television variety-talk show The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn.
The record producer Erik Jacobsen was instrumental in Isaak's sound for 15 years. Jacobsen is known for his production work with The Lovin' Spoonful, as well as on solo albums by Spoonful's John Sebastian and Jerry Yester. Isaak ceased working with Jacobsen on his 2002 album Always Got Tonight. "Life Will Go On" from this album was featured in Chasing Liberty, a 2004 film starring Mandy Moore and Matthew Goode.
In 2007, a live performance of Isaak singing Fats Domino's hit "Blueberry Hill" with Johnny Hallyday at La Cigale was released on Hallyday's live album La Cigale : 12-17 Décembre 2006. At the end of this recording, one can hear Isaak thanking the French rock-'n'-roll star, referring to him as "The King". Also in 2007, Isaak opened for Stevie Nicks on the first leg of her Crystal Visions Tour.
For his 2009 album Mr. Lucky, Isaak collaborated with producer John Shanks.
Isaak contributed a cover of Buddy Holly's "Crying, Waiting, Hoping" for a tribute album, Listen to Me: Buddy Holly, released in September 2011. The next month, he released Beyond the Sun, an album of cover songs (except for one original) that was recorded in Memphis, Tennessee, at the Sun Records studio.
On September 7, 2015, it was announced that Isaak would be performing at the 2015 AFL Grand Final, along with English singer Ellie Goulding and Canadian musician Bryan Adams.
In 2016, Isaak did the "First Comes the Night Tour".
In 2018 a remix version of "Wicked Game" was used in an Alfa Romeo TV commercial for the Stelvio/Giulia models with the vehicles performing a sort of ice ballet.
Guitars
Isaak revealed in a 2002 interview with Acoustic Guitar that he uses a one-of-a-kind Gibson:
Isaak also plays a Gibson J-200 acoustic guitar, which he uses for songwriting.
Acting and other work
In addition to his work as a musician, Isaak has appeared in numerous feature films and television shows as an actor, sometimes as a main character, but mostly playing smaller roles. A few of his larger parts in films were in David Lynch's Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me in 1992 and in the 1993 Bernardo Bertolucci-directed Little Buddha, in which he starred alongside Bridget Fonda and Keanu Reeves. Some other motion pictures featuring Isaak include Married to the Mob (1988), The Silence of the Lambs (1991), That Thing You Do! (1996), A Dirty Shame (2004), and The Informers (2008).
Isaak guest-starred in the special Super Bowl XXX edition of the television sitcom Friends ("The One After the Superbowl, Part One") in 1996, and in 1998 he co-starred in the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon as astronaut Ed White, who was the first American astronaut to do a spacewalk and who died in the 1967 Apollo 1 fire.
From March 2001 to March 2004, Isaak starred in his own television show, The Chris Isaak Show. It aired in the United States on the cable television network Showtime. This adult sitcom featured Isaak and his band playing themselves, and the episode plots were based on fictional accounts of the backstage world of Isaak—the rock star next door.
In 2009, The Biography Channel aired The Chris Isaak Hour, a one-hour music interview and performance show hosted by Isaak. The series premiere featured Trisha Yearwood and included their first-ever performance of "Breaking Apart", a song from Isaak's 1998 album Speak of the Devil that the two recorded as a duet for his 2009 album Mr. Lucky. The guests on the remaining seven episodes of the series were: Stevie Nicks, Glen Campbell, Michael Bublé, Chicago, The Smashing Pumpkins, Yusuf Islam, and Jewel.
In April 2010, Isaak was the special guest during Conan O'Brien's The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour performance at the Nob Hill Masonic Center in San Francisco, California.
On September 29, 2011, Isaak received the Stockton Arts Commission STAR Award in his hometown of Stockton, California.
In 2014, Isaak voiced the character of Enoch, the apparent ruler of the town of Pottsfield, in the second episode of the animated television miniseries Over the Garden Wall.
On May 3, 2015, Isaak was confirmed to be replacing Natalie Bassingthwaighte as a judge on the seventh season of The X Factor Australia. He joined James Blunt and returning judges Guy Sebastian and Dannii Minogue.
Discography
Silvertone (1985)
Chris Isaak (1986)
Heart Shaped World (1989)
San Francisco Days (1993)
Forever Blue (1995)
Baja Sessions (1996)
Speak of the Devil (1998)
Always Got Tonight (2002)
Christmas (2004)
Mr. Lucky (2009)
Beyond the Sun (2011)
First Comes the Night (2015)
Filmography
Film
Married to the Mob – 'The Clown' (1988)
The Silence of the Lambs – SWAT Commander (1991)
Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me – Special Agent Chester Desmond (1992)
Little Buddha – Dean Conrad (1993)
That Thing You Do! – Uncle Bob (1996)
A Dirty Shame – Vaughn Stickles (2004)
The Informers – Les (2008)
Television
Wiseguy – Berated lounge singer (1987)
The Larry Sanders Show - Himself (season 4, episode 6, 1995 - The P.A.)
Friends – Rob Donnan (season 2, episode 12, 1996 – "The One After the Superbowl")
From the Earth to the Moon – Astronaut Edward White II (1998)
Melrose Place – Himself/Musical Guest (season 7, episode 28, 1998 – Ryan's Choice)
The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn – Himself (season 3, episode 40, June 29, 2001)
The Greatest – Himself (50 Sexiest Video Moments, 2003)
Ed – Jamie Decker (season 3, episode 20, 2003 – "Second Chances")
The Greatest – Himself/Host (100 Greatest Videos, 2003)
The Chris Isaak Show – Himself (2001–2004)
American Dreams – Roy Orbison (season 2, episode 14, 2004 – "Old Enough to Fight")
The Footy Show – Himself (Grand Final, 2004)
The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson – Michael Caine in Space (season 2, episode 177, 2006)
Great Performances Jerry Lee Lewis: Last Man Standing Live – Himself (2007)
The Bill Engvall Show – Himself (season 1, episode 6, 2007)
Australian Idol – Himself (season 6, November 9–10, 2008)
The Chris Isaak Hour – Himself/Host (2009)
George Stroumboulopoulos Tonight – Himself (season 2, episode 23, 2011)
Conan – Himself (episode 192, January 4, 2012)
Loose Women – Himself (September 28, 2012)
The Tonight Show – Himself (January 13, 2014)
Hot in Cleveland – Chase Jackson (one episode, 2014)
Over the Garden Wall – Enoch (one episode, 2014)
Adventure Time – 7718 (one episode, 2015)
The X Factor Australia – Himself – Judge/Mentor (2015)
Sheriff Callie's Wild West – Johnny Strum (voice) (season 2, 2016)
Music video
Elton John – "Sacrifice" – Man (1989)
Awards and nominations
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1985
| rowspan="9" | MTV Video Music Awards
| rowspan="2" | "Dancin'"
| Most Experimental Video
|
|-
| Best Direction in a Video
|
|-
| rowspan="8" | 1991
| rowspan="7" | "Wicked Game"
| Video of the Year
|
|-
| Best Direction in a Video
|
|-
| Viewer's Choice
|
|-
| Best Editing in a Video
|
|-
| Best Male Video
|
|-
| Best Cinematography in a Video
|
|-
| Best Video from a Film
|
|-
| Pollstar Concert Industry Awards
| Tour
| Small Hall Tour of the Year
|
|-
| rowspan=2|1992
| ASCAP Pop Music Awards
| "Wicked Game"
| Most Performed Song
|
|-
| Brit Awards
| rowspan="2" | Himself
| Best International Breakthrough
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1995
| Music Television Awards
| Best Male
|
|-
| Razzie Awards
| Little Buddha
| Worst New Star
|
|-
| MTV Video Music Awards
| rowspan="2" | "Somebody's Crying"
| Best Male Video
|
|-
| rowspan="6" | 1996
| rowspan="2" | Grammy Awards
| Best Male Rock Vocal Performance
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | Forever Blue
| Best Rock Album
|
|-
| rowspan="5" | California Music Awards
| Outstanding Album
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | Himself
| Outstanding Male Vocalist
|
|-
| Bay Area Musician of the Year
|
|-
| Himself & Silvertone
| Outstanding Group
|
|-
| rowspan="2"|1999
| Himself
| Outstanding Male Vocalist
|
|-
| MVPA Awards
| "Please"
| Best Adult Contemporary Video
|
|-
| 2000
| Online Film & Television Association Awards
| "Baby Did a Bad Bad Thing"
| Best Adapted Song
|
|-
| 2001
| Television Critics' Association Awards
| The Chris Isaak Show
| Individual Achievement in Comedy
|
|-
| 2003
| MVPA Awards
| rowspan="2" | "Wicked Game"
| MVPA Hall of Fame
|
|-
| 2004
| ASCAP Film & TV Awards
| Most Performed Theme
|
References
External links
Chris Isaak.com, official site of Chris Isaak
Chris Isaak at Recordnet.com: Page with stories, multimedia and more about Chris Isaak from The Record in Stockon, CA, Isaak's hometown.
Chris Isaak concert history
1956 births
American male singer-songwriters
American soft rock musicians
Male actors from California
American people of German-Russian descent
American people of Italian descent
American expatriates in Australia
Living people
Musicians from Stockton, California
University of the Pacific (United States) alumni
Warner Records artists
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
20th-century American guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
Singer-songwriters from California
Guitarists from California
American male guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
Vanguard Records artists | [
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234979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saku%20Suurhall | Saku Suurhall | Saku Suurhall is a multi-purpose indoor arena in the Haabersti subdistrict of the Estonian capital, Tallinn. Opened in November 2001, it is the largest multi-purpose hall in the country and holds up to 10,000 people. It is named after the Estonian brewery and soft drink company Saku.
It generally hosts basketball games, as well as sport competitions, trade fairs, corporate events and concerts.
History
The Saku Suurhall opened in November 2001. Since 2002, the Saku Suurhall is a member of the European Arenas Association (EAA).
A total of 13,220 m² spread over four floors. Every year around 300 events take place in the hall, of which about 70 are major events. It accommodates up to 10,000 spectators, of which 7,200 are seated. The first event in the hall was the Irish dance show Lord of the Dance.
Past events
Music
Eurovision Song Contest 2002
Pirate Station Future (November 22, 2008) & Immortal (December 18, 2009)
Eesti Laul 2016 Final (March 5, 2016)
Eesti Laul 2017 Final (March 4, 2017)
Eesti Laul 2018 Final (March 3, 2018)
Eesti Laul 2019 Final (February 16, 2019)
Eesti Laul 2020 Final (February 29, 2020)
Sports
The annual Tallinn International Horse Show since 2002.
Europe's biggest extreme sports festival, Simpel Session, is held here every year since 2004.
2002 and 2008 European Karate Championships (both 2–4 May)
2010 European Figure Skating Championships (19–24 January 2010)
2013 FIBA Europe Under-20 Championship (9–21 July 2013)
2015 Toyota Four Nations Cup (20–22 August 2015)
Concerts
Alice Cooper
Alice in Chains
Avril Lavigne
Backstreet Boys
Bastille
Bob Dylan
Bring Me The Horizon
Bryan Adams
Cascada
Chase & Status
Chris Rea
Cirque du Soleil
Darren Hayes
Deep Purple
Def Leppard
Demis Roussos
Depeche Mode
Disturbed
Ed Sheeran
Elton John
Enrique Iglesias
Flyleaf
Foreigner
Good Charlotte
Gregorian
Hurts
Imagine Dragons
Irina Allegrova
Iron Maiden
James Blunt
Jamiroquai
Joe Cocker
Judas Priest
Korn
Kraftwerk
Kylie Minogue
Lenny Kravitz
Limp Bizkit
Lordi
Mamma Mia!
Mariah Carey
Marilyn Manson
Mark Knopfler
Massive Attack
Metallica
Michael Bublé
Muse
Nazareth
Nelly
Nero
Nightwish
OneRepublic
Ozzy Osbourne
Patricia Kaas
Paul van Dyk
Pet Shop Boys
Phil Collins
P!nk
Placebo
Plácido Domingo
Rammstein
R.E.M.
Ray Charles
REO Speedwagon
Rihanna
Roxette
Ruslana
Sade
Sarah Brightman
Scorpions
Seal
Simple Minds
Simply Red
Smokie
Sting
Styx
Suzi Quatro
t.A.T.u.
The Bravery
The Prodigy
The Sweet
Thirty Seconds To Mars
Tiësto
Tom Jones
Toto Cutugno
Underworld
Vanessa-Mae
Vanilla Ninja
Vaya Con Dios
Whitesnake
Yes
See also
List of indoor arenas in Estonia
References
External links
Music venues in Estonia
Music venues completed in 2001
Sports venues completed in 2001
2001 establishments in Estonia
Sports venues in Estonia
Basketball venues in Estonia
Indoor arenas in Estonia
Indoor ice hockey venues in Estonia
Sports venues in Tallinn | [
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234983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psy-Geo-Conflux | Psy-Geo-Conflux | Psy-Geo-Conflux (better known as Conflux) is an annual New York City festival dedicated to psychogeography, where visual, performance and sound artists, writers, urban adventurers, researchers and the public gather for four days to explore the physical and psychological landscape of the city.
Founding
Conflux was co-founded by David Mandl of the Brooklyn Psychogeographical Association and Glowlab's Christina Ray. The first Psy-Geo-Conflux event was held in May 2003 at ABC No Rio in New York. Psychogeographers from the U.S., Canada, UK, France and the Netherlands conducted experimental walks using computer code, decks of cards and other systems for navigation; a mobile-phone-guided drift through the streets of New York; a life-sized chess game using humans as pieces; several talks and presentations; a noise parade; an art exhibition; and a night of psychogeography-inspired live music, DJs, and video. Village Voice writer Bryan Zimmerman noted, "The event is centered around a seasoned yet growing field of creative recreation and alt-geographic exploration called psychogeography. Trying to define this obtuse field is an adventure itself, although a relatively straightforward definition includes "the study of the effects of the geographic environment on the emotions and behavior of individuals." One of the boldest characteristics of psychogeography may be its ability to influence and bring together all kinds of artists, social scientists, philosophers, urban provocateurs and spelunkers, and even traditional geographers, in an entirely accessible venue-public space.".
History
Conflux 2004 featured a full program of events over the course of four days, including experimental walks using altered maps and navigational aids; high-tech drifts through the city using wearable computing devices; a walking presentation of an urban documentary project commissioned by the New Museum of Contemporary Art; a gallery exhibition; a series of temporary installations, lectures, audio and video works and more. The second annual event took place at PARTICIPANT INC non-profit arts center on the Lower East Side, and included over 50 participating international artists and groups.
In 2005, Conflux was replicated by Providence Initiative for Psychogeographic Studies in Providence, Rhode Island in an event known as Provflux. An additional Conflux-related event titled "Open Lab" was held at Art Interactive in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The 3rd annual Conflux festival was held in Brooklyn for the first time on September 14–17 2006. McCaig-Welles Gallery in Williamsburg served as Conflux headquarters, with events taking place in and around the gallery. The 4th annual festival was held at in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, the 5th annual festival at the Center for Architecture in lower Manhattan, the 6th annual festival at New York University in the Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development on September 18-20th, and the 7th annual festival was held on October 8–10 at NYU Steinhardt's Barney Building, in 2010.
Notes
Bibliography
In Brooklyn, a Confluxion Junction by Martha Schwendener, New York Times, September 18, 2007
Ambling Through the Psy.Geo.Conflux by Patrick Ellis, CIAC Magazine Special Issue: The Virtual City, Autumn, 2004.
Adrift on Memory Bliss by Andrea Moed, Knowledge Circuit [University of Minnesota Design Institute], September 12, 2004.
A New Way of Walking:Artist-explorers called psychogeographers are changing the way we experience the city by Joseph Hart, Utne magazine, July / August 2004
PSY-GEO-CONFLUX by Alan Lockwood, New York Press [Vol 17 - Issue 19], May 12–18, 2004, p. 42.
Psy.Geo.Conflux 2004, psicogeografia a New York, Neural.it, November 7, 2017.
Three Days of Psychogeographic Heaven – An Overview of the PsyGeoConflux 2003 in NYC by Dave Mandl, Christina Ray, et al., Year Zero One Issue #12 [Psychogeography - Space, Place and Perception], Summer 2003.
Street Artists, Fighting Over Gentrified Streets by Corey Kilgannon, The New York Times, May 12, 2003, Section B, page 6.
External links
Conflux Festival website
Glowlab
ABC No Rio
Festivals in New York City
Psychogeography | [
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234984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20movement | Social movement | A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one. This may be to carry out, resist or undo a social change. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals, organizations or both. Definitions of the term are slightly varied. Social movements have been described as "organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites". They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations.
Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics. Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame.
Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature) and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent.
Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action.
Definitions
Mario Diani argues that nearly all definitions share three criteria: "a network of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups and/or organizations, engaged in a political or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity"
Sociologist Charles Tilly defines social movements as a series of contentious performances, displays and campaigns by which ordinary people make collective claims on others. For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people's participation in public politics. He argues that there are three major elements to a social movement:
Campaigns: a sustained, organized public effort making collective claims of target authorities;
Repertoire (repertoire of contention): employment of combinations from among the following forms of political action: creation of special-purpose associations and coalitions, public meetings, solemn processions, vigils, rallies, demonstrations, petition drives, statements to and in public media, and pamphleteering; and
WUNC displays: participants' concerted public representation of worthiness, unity, numbers, and commitments on the part of themselves and/or their constituencies.
Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as "collective challenges [to elites, authorities, other groups or cultural codes] by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities." He specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups.
The sociologists John McCarthy and Mayer Zald define as a social movement as "a set of opinions and beliefs in a population which represents preferences for changing some elements of the social structure and/or reward distribution of a society."
According to Paul van Seeters and Paul James, defining a social movement entails a few minimal conditions of 'coming together':
History
Beginning
The early growth of social movements was connected to broad economic and political changes in England in the mid-18th century, including political representation, market capitalization, and proletarianization.
The first mass social movement catalyzed around the controversial political figure John Wilkes. As editor of the paper The North Briton, Wilkes vigorously attacked the new administration of Lord Bute and the peace terms that the new government accepted at the 1763 Treaty of Paris at the end of the Seven Years' War. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, a move that Wilkes denounced as unlawful - the Lord Chief Justice eventually ruled in Wilkes favour. As a result of this, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes - people began chanting "Wilkes and Liberty" in the streets.
After a later period of exile brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the King's Bench Prison on 10 May 1768, a mass movement of support emerged, with large demonstrations in the streets under the slogan "No liberty, no King."
Stripped of the right to sit in Parliament, Wilkes became an Alderman of London in 1769, and an activist group called the Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights began aggressively promoting his policies. This was the first ever sustained social movement: it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. However, the movement was careful not to cross the line into open rebellion; - it tried to rectify the faults in governance through appeals to existing legal precedents and was conceived of as an extra-Parliamentary form of agitation to arrive at a consensual and constitutional arrangement. The force and influence of this social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movement's demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional and press freedom was extended to the coverage of Parliamentary debates.
A much larger movement of anti-Catholic protest was triggered by the Papists Act 1778, which eliminated a number of the penalties and disabilities endured by Roman Catholics in England, and formed around Lord George Gordon, who became the President of the Protestant Association in 1779. The Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon. Gordon was an articulate propagandist and he inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule. The situation deteriorated rapidly, and in 1780, after a meeting of the Protestant Association, its members subsequently marched on the House of Commons to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act, which the government refused to do. Soon, large riots broke out across London and embassies and Catholic owned businesses were attacked by angry mobs.
Other political movements that emerged in the late 18th century included the British abolitionist movement against slavery (becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and the second great petition drive of 1806), and possibly the upheaval surrounding the French and American Revolutions. In the opinion of Eugene Black (1963), "...association made possible the extension of the politically effective public. Modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century [and] the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it.
Growth and spread
From 1815, Britain after victory in the Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval characterised by the growing maturity of the use of social movements and special-interest associations. Chartism was the first mass movement of the growing working-class in the world. It campaigned for political reform between 1838 and 1848 with the People's Charter of 1838 as its manifesto – this called for universal suffrage and the implementation of the secret ballot, amongst other things. The term "social movements" was introduced in 1848 by the German Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book Socialist and Communist Movements since the Third French Revolution (1848) in which he introduced the term "social movement" into scholarly discussions - actually depicting in this way political movements fighting for the social rights understood as welfare rights.
The labor movement and socialist movement of the late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social movements, leading to the formation of communist and social democratic parties and organisations. These tendencies were seen in poorer countries as pressure for reform continued, for example in Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1905 and of 1917, resulting in the collapse of the Czarist regime around the end of the First World War.
In 1945, Britain after victory in the Second World War entered a period of radical reform and change. In the post-war period, Feminism, gay rights movement, peace movement, Civil Rights Movement, anti-nuclear movement and environmental movement emerged, often dubbed the New Social Movements They led, among other things, to the formation of green parties and organisations influenced by the new left. Some find in the end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global social movement, the anti-globalization movement. Some social movement scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization, the potential for the emergence of new type of social movement is latent—they make the analogy to national movements of the past to describe what has been termed a global citizens movement.
Key processes
Several key processes lie behind the history of social movements. Urbanization led to larger settlements, where people of similar goals could find each other, gather and organize. This facilitated social interaction between scores of people, and it was in urban areas that those early social movements first appeared. Similarly, the process of industrialization which gathered large masses of workers in the same region explains why many of those early social movements addressed matters such as economic wellbeing, important to the worker class. Many other social movements were created at universities, where the process of mass education brought many people together. With the development of communication technologies, creation and activities of social movements became easier – from printed pamphlets circulating in the 18th century coffeehouses to newspapers and Internet, all those tools became important factors in the growth of the social movements. Finally, the spread of democracy and political rights like the freedom of speech made the creation and functioning of social movements much easier.
Mass mobilization
Nascent social movements often fail to achieve their objectives because they fail to mobilize sufficient numbers of people. Srdja Popovic, author of Blueprint for Revolution, and spokesperson for OTPOR!, says that movements succeed when they address issues that people actually care about. "It's unrealistic to expect people to care about more than what they already care about, and any attempt to make them do so is bound to fail." Activists too often make the mistake of trying to convince people to address their issues. A mobilization strategy aimed at large-scale change often begins with action a small issue that concerns many people. For instance, Mahatma Gandhi's successful overthrow of British rule in India began as a small protest focused on the British tax on salt.
Popovic also argues that a social movement has little chance of growing if it relies on boring speeches and the usual placard waving marches. He argues for creating movements that people actually want to join. OTPOR! succeeded because it was fun, funny, and invented graphic ways of ridiculing dictator Slobodan Milosevic. It turned fatalism and passivity into action by making it easy, even cool, to become a revolutionary; branding itself within hip slogans, rock music and street theatre. Tina Rosenberg, in Join the Club, How Peer Pressure can Transform the World, shows how movements grow when there is a core of enthusiastic players who encourage others to join them.
Types of social movement
Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement:
Scope:
reform movement - movements advocating changing some norms or laws. Examples of such a movement would include a trade union with a goal of increasing workers rights, a green movement advocating a set of ecological laws, or a movement supporting introduction of a capital punishment or the right to abortion. Some reform movements may aim for a change in custom and moral norms, such as condemnation of pornography or proliferation of some religion.
radical movement - movements dedicated to changing value systems in a fundamental way. Examples would include the Civil Rights Movement which demanded full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans, regardless of race; the Polish Solidarity (Solidarność) movement which demanded the transformation of a Stalinist political and economic system into a democracy; or the South African shack dwellers' movement Abahlali baseMjondolo which demands the full inclusion of shack dwellers into the life of cities.
Type of change:
innovation movement - movements which want to introduce or change particular norms, values, etc. The singularitarianism movement advocating deliberate action to effect and ensure the safety of the technological singularity is an example of an innovation movement.
conservative movement - movements which want to preserve existing norms, values, etc. For example, the anti-technology 19th century Luddites movement or the modern movement opposing the spread of the genetically modified food could be seen as conservative movements in that they aimed to fight specific technological changes.
Targets:
group-focus movements - focused on affecting groups or society in general, for example, advocating the change of the political system. Some of these groups transform into or join a political party, but many remain outside the reformist party political system.
individual-focused movements - focused on affecting individuals. Most religious movements would fall under this category.
Methods of work:
peaceful movements - various movements which use nonviolent means of protest as part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance, also often called civil resistance. The American Civil Rights Movement, Polish Solidarity movement or the nonviolent, civil disobedience-orientated wing of the Indian independence movement would fall into this category.
violent movements - various movements which resort to violence; they are usually armed and in extreme cases can take a form of a paramilitary or terrorist organization. Examples: the Rote Armee Fraktion, Al-Qaida.
Old and new:
old movements - movements for change have existed for many centuries. Most of the oldest recognized movements, dating to late 18th and 19th centuries, fought for specific social groups, such as the working class, peasants, whites, aristocrats, Protestants, men. They were usually centered around some materialistic goals like improving the standard of living or, for example, the political autonomy of the working class.
new movements - movements which became dominant from the second half of the 20th century. Notable examples include the American civil rights movement, second-wave feminism, gay rights movement, environmentalism and conservation efforts, opposition to mass surveillance, etc. They are usually centered around issues that go beyond but are not separate from class.
Range:
global movements - social movements with global (transnational) objectives and goals. Movements such as the first (where Marx and Bakunin met), second, third and fourth internationals, the World Social Forum, the Peoples' Global Action and the anarchist movement seek to change society at a global level.
local movements - most of the social movements have a local scope. They are focused on local or regional objectives, such as protecting a specific natural area, lobbying for the lowering of tolls in a certain motorway, or preserving a building about to be demolished for gentrification and turning it into a social center.
Identification of supporters
A difficulty for scholarship of movements is that for most, neither insiders to a movement nor outsiders apply consistent labels or even descriptive phrases. Unless there is a single leader who does, or a formal system of membership agreements, activists will typically use diverse labels and descriptive phrases that require scholars to discern when they are referring to the same or similar ideas, declare similar goals, adopt similar programs of action, and use similar methods. There can be great differences in the way that is done, to recognize who is and who is not a member or an allied group:
Insiders: Often exaggerate the level of support by considering people supporters whose level of activity or support is weak, but also reject those that outsiders might consider supporters because they discredit the cause, or are even seen as adversaries
Outsiders: Those not supporters who may tend to either underestimate or overestimate the level or support or activity of elements of a movement, by including or excluding those that insiders would exclude or include.
It is often outsiders rather than insiders that apply the identifying labels for a movement, which the insiders then may or may not adopt and use to self-identify. For example, the label for the levellers political movement in 17th-century England was applied to them by their antagonists, as a term of disparagement. Yet admirers of the movement and its aims later came to use the term, and it is the term by which they are known to history.
Caution must always be exercised in any discussion of amorphous phenomena such as movements to distinguish between the views of insiders and outsiders, supporters and antagonists, each of whom may have their own purposes and agendas in characterization or mischaracterization of it.
Dynamics of social movements
Social movements have a life cycle: they are created, they grow, they achieve successes or failures and eventually, they dissolve and cease to exist.
They are more likely to evolve in the time and place which is friendly to the social movements: hence their evident symbiosis with the 19th century proliferation of ideas like individual rights, freedom of speech and civil disobedience. Social movements occur in liberal and authoritarian societies but in different forms. These new movements are activated by a wish for change in social customs, ethics and values which oppress certain communities. The birth of a social movement needs what sociologist Neil Smelser calls an initiating event: a particular, individual event that will begin a chain reaction of events in the given society leading to the creation of a social movement. The root of this event must be the result of some common discontent among a community. Hence, making emergence the first step to a social movement. This discontent will act as the chain that links common people together, as they share the same experiences and feelings of oppression. "Within this stage, social movements are very preliminary and there is little to no organization. Instead this stage can be thought of as widespread discontent (Macionis, 2001; Hopper, 1950)." Emergence is prior to any sort of organized resistance to the condition of society. Jonathan Christiansen's essay on the four stages of social movement dissects further into the historical sociology of how each stage affects the whole movement. The Civil Rights Movement's early stages are an example of the public display of protest that is utilized to push a movement into the next stages. "It was not until after the Brown v. the Board of Education Supreme court decision (1954), which outlawed segregation in Public schools, and following the arrest of Rosa Parks in Montgomery, Alabama for refusing to comply with segregation laws on city buses by giving up her bus seat to a white man, that the American Civil Rights Movement would proceed to the next stage – coalescence." The impact of a black woman, Rosa Parks, riding in the whites-only section of the bus (although she was not acting alone or spontaneously—typically activist leaders lay the groundwork behind the scenes of interventions designed to spark a movement). This leads into coalesce because now the common dilemma and source of oppression is being pinned down, allowing for organizations and appearance to the public eye to be established. The Polish Solidarity movement, which eventually toppled the communist regimes of Eastern Europe, developed after trade union activist Anna Walentynowicz was fired from work. The South African shack dwellers' movement Abahlali baseMjondolo grew out of a road blockade in response to the sudden selling off of a small piece of land promised for housing to a developer. Such an event is also described as a volcanic model – a social movement is often created after a large number of people realize that there are others sharing the same value and desire for a particular social change.
This third stage, bureaucratization, is when movements must become more organized, centered around a more systematic model. The set up and system for going about the construct must be more formal, with people taking on specific roles and responsibilities. "In this phase their political power is greater than in the previous stages in that they may have more regular access to political elites." In this stage, one organization may take over another one in order to obtain a greater status and formal alliance. This 'taking over' may be a positive or negative move for organizations. Ella Baker, an activist who played a role in the NAACP, had proposed to the students of the student movement to start their own organization. This becomes known as the SNCC, the student nonviolent coordinating committee (1960s). The students could have join forces with the SCLC, an already existing organization, but that would have been a poor bureaucratizing decision, as they would succumb to old ideologies. New and progressive ideas that challenge prior authority are crucial to social change.
The declining of a social movement does not necessarily mean failure. There are multiple routes in which a movement may take before proceeding into decline. Success of a movement would result in permanent changes within the society and/or government that would result in a loss of need for protest. Failure is often the result of the incapability to keep a common focus, and work towards the goal in mind. "Failure of social movements due to organizational or strategic failings is common for many organizations." Such a route would result in the gradual breaking up of an organization, and out of the stages of movement. Co-optation results when people or groups are integrated and shift away from the social movement's initial concerns and values. Repression is another example, when the movement is slowly wiped away from the public platform through means of an outside force, usually being the government. The last route into declining is going mainstream, which is generally perceived as an overall success. This is when goals of the movement are taken into society as a part of daily life, making it a 'social norm.' For example, birth control is still a greatly debated topic on a government level, but it has been accepted into social life as a common thing that exists.
It is important to recognize that though movements may disintegrate and cease to be active, the impact that they have in the social realm is success in its own way. It sparks the notion in new generations that the possibility to organize and make change is there.
Social movement theories
Sociologists have developed several theories related to social movements [Kendall, 2005]. Some of the better-known approaches are outlined below. Chronologically they include:
marxist theory (1880s)
collective behavior/collective action theories (1950s)
relative deprivation theory (1960s)
value-added theory (1960s)
resource mobilization (1970s)
political process theory (1980s)
framing theory (1980s) (closely related to social constructionist theory)
new social movement theory (1980s)
Deprivation theory
Deprivation theory argues that social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good(s) or resource(s). According to this approach, individuals who are lacking some good, service, or comfort are more likely to organize a social movement to improve (or defend) their conditions.
There are two significant problems with this theory. First, since most people feel deprived at one level or another almost all the time, the theory has a hard time explaining why the groups that form social movements do when other people are also deprived. Second, the reasoning behind this theory is circular – often the only evidence for deprivation is the social movement. If deprivation is claimed to be the cause but the only evidence for such is the movement, the reasoning is circular.
Mass society theory
Mass society theory argues that social movements are made up of individuals in large societies who feel insignificant or socially detached. Social movements, according to this theory, provide a sense of empowerment and belonging that the movement members would otherwise not have.
Very little support has been found for this theory. Aho (1990), in his study of Idaho Christian Patriotism, did not find that members of that movement were more likely to have been socially detached. In fact, the key to joining the movement was having a friend or associate who was a member of the movement.
Structural strain theory
Social Strain Theory, is the "proposal that pressure derived from social factors, such as lack of income or lack of quality education, drives individuals to commit crime."
structural conduciveness - people come to believe their society has problems
structural strain - people experience deprivation
growth and spread of a solution - a solution to the problems people are experiencing is proposed and spreads
precipitating factors - discontent usually requires a catalyst (often a specific event) to turn it into a social movement
lack of social control - the entity that is to be changed must be at least somewhat open to the change; if the social movement is quickly and powerfully repressed, it may never materialize
mobilization - this is the actual organizing and active component of the movement; people do what needs to be done
This theory is also subject to circular reasoning as it incorporates, at least in part, deprivation theory and relies upon it, and social/structural strain for the underlying motivation of social movement activism. However, social movement activism is, like in the case of deprivation theory, often the only indication that there was strain or deprivation.
Resource mobilization theory
Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources in social movement development and success. Resources are understood here to include: knowledge, money, media, labor, solidarity, legitimacy, and internal and external support from power elite. The theory argues that social movements develop when individuals with grievances are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action.The emphasis on resources offers an explanation why some discontented/deprived individuals are able to organize while others are not.
In contrast to earlier collective behavior perspectives on social movements—which emphasized the role of exceptional levels of deprivation, grievance, or social strain in motivating mass protest—Resource Mobilization perspectives hold "that there is always enough discontent in any society to supply the grass-roots support for a movement if the movement is effectively organized and has at its disposal the power and resources of some established elite group" Movement emergence is contingent upon the aggregation of resources by social movement entrepreneurs and movement organizations, who use these resources to turn collective dissent in to political pressure. Members are recruited through networks; commitment is maintained by building a collective identity, and through interpersonal relationships.
Resource Mobilization Theory views social movement activity as "politics by other means": a rational and strategic effort by ordinary people to change society or politics. The form of the resources shapes the activities of the movement (e.g., access to a TV station will result in the extensive use TV media). Movements develop in contingent opportunity structures that influence their efforts to mobilize; and each movement's response to the opportunity structures depends on the movement's organization and resources
Critics of this theory argue that there is too much of an emphasis on resources, especially financial resources. Some movements are effective without an influx of money and are more dependent upon the movement members for time and labor (e.g., the civil rights movement in the U.S.).
Political process theory
Political process theory is similar to resource mobilization in many regards, but tends to emphasize a different component of social structure that is important for social movement development: political opportunities. Political process theory argues that there are three vital components for movement formation: insurgent consciousness, organizational strength, and political opportunities.
Insurgent consciousness refers back to the ideas of deprivation and grievances. The idea is that certain members of society feel like they are being mistreated or that somehow the system is unjust. The insurgent consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that movement members (or potential movement members) feel and serves as the motivation for movement organization.
Organizational strength falls inline with resource-mobilization theory, arguing that in order for a social movement to organize it must have strong leadership and sufficient resources.
Political opportunity refers to the receptivity or vulnerability of the existing political system to challenge. This vulnerability can be the result of any of the following (or a combination thereof):
growth of political pluralism
decline in effectiveness of repression
elite disunity; the leading factions are internally fragmented
a broadening of access to institutional participation in political processes
support of organized opposition by elites
One of the advantages of the political process theory is that it addresses the issue of timing or emergence of social movements. Some groups may have the insurgent consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because political opportunities are closed, they will not have any success. The theory, then, argues that all three of these components are important.
Critics of the political process theory and resource-mobilization theory point out that neither theory discusses movement culture to any great degree. This has presented culture theorists an opportunity to expound on the importance of culture.
One advance on the political process theory is the political mediation model, which outlines the way in which the political context facing movement actors intersects with the strategic choices that movements make. An additional strength of this model is that it can look at the outcomes of social movements not only in terms of success or failure but also in terms of consequences (whether intentional or unintentional, positive or negative) and in terms of collective benefits.
Framing perspective
Reflecting the cultural turn in the social sciences and humanities more broadly, recent strains of social movement theory and research add to the largely structural concerns seen in the resource mobilization and political process theories by emphasizing the cultural and psychological aspects of social movement processes, such as collectively shared interpretations and beliefs, ideologies, values and other meanings about the world. In doing so, this general cultural approach also attempts to address the free-rider problem. One particularly successful take on some such cultural dimensions is manifested in the framing perspective on social movements.
While both resource mobilization theory and political process theory include, or at least accept, the idea that certain shared understandings of, for example, perceived unjust societal conditions must exist for mobilization to occur at all, this is not explicitly problematized within those approaches. The framing perspective has brought such shared understandings to the forefront of the attempt to understand movement creation and existence by, e.g., arguing that, in order for social movements to successfully mobilize individuals, they must develop an injustice frame. An injustice frame is a collection of ideas and symbols that illustrate both how significant the problem is as well as what the movement can do to alleviate it,
"Like a picture frame, an issue frame marks off some part of the world. Like a building frame, it holds things together. It provides coherence to an array of symbols, images, and arguments, linking them through an underlying organizing idea that suggests what is essential - what consequences and values are at stake. We do not see the frame directly, but infer its presence by its characteristic expressions and language. Each frame gives the advantage to certain ways of talking and thinking, while it places others out of the picture."
Important characteristics of the injustice frames include:
Facts take on their meaning by being embedded in frames, which render them relevant and significant or irrelevant and trivial.
People carry around multiple frames in their heads.
Successful reframing involves the ability to enter into the worldview of our adversaries.
All frames contain implicit or explicit appeals to moral principles.
In emphasizing the injustice frame, culture theory also addresses the free-rider problem. The free-rider problem refers to the idea that people will not be motivated to participate in a social movement that will use up their personal resources (e.g., time, money, etc.) if they can still receive the benefits without participating. In other words, if person X knows that movement Y is working to improve environmental conditions in his neighborhood, he is presented with a choice: join or not join the movement. If he believes the movement will succeed without him, he can avoid participation in the movement, save his resources, and still reap the benefits - this is free-riding. A significant problem for social movement theory has been to explain why people join movements if they believe the movement can/will succeed without their contribution. Culture theory argues that, in conjunction with social networks being an important contact tool, the injustice frame will provide the motivation for people to contribute to the movement.
Framing processes includes three separate components:
Diagnostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the problem or what they are critiquing
Prognostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the desirable solution to the problem
Motivational frame: the movement organization frames a "call to arms" by suggesting and encouraging that people take action to solve the problem
Social movement and social networking
For more than ten years, social movement groups have been using the Internet to accomplish organizational goals. It has been argued that the Internet helps to increase the speed, reach and effectiveness of social movement-related communication as well as mobilization efforts, and as a result, it has been suggested that the Internet has had a positive impact on the social movements in general. The systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements (2007 WikiLeaks, 2009 Moldova, 2009 Austria student protest, 2009 Israel-Gaza, 2009 Iran green revolution, 2009 Toronto G20, 2010 Venezuela, 2010 Germany Stuttgart21, 2011 Egypt, 2011 England, 2011 US Occupy movement, 2011 Spain Indignados, 2011 Greece Aganaktismenoi movements, 2011 Italy, 2011 Wisconsin labor protests, 2012 Israel Hamas, 2013 Brazil Vinegar, 2013 Turkey).
Many discussions have been generated recently on the topic of social networking and the effect it may play on the formation and mobilization of social movement. For example, the emergence of the Coffee Party first appeared on the social networking site, Facebook. The party has continued to gather membership and support through that site and file sharing sites, such as Flickr. The 2009–2010 Iranian election protests also demonstrated how social networking sites are making the mobilization of large numbers of people quicker and easier. Iranians were able to organize and speak out against the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad by using sites such as Twitter and Facebook. This in turn prompted widespread government censorship of the web and social networking sites.
The sociological study of social movements is quite new. The traditional view of movements often perceived them as chaotic and disorganized, treating activism as a threat to the social order. The activism experienced in the 1960s and 1970s shuffled in a new world opinion about the subject. Models were now introduced to understand the organizational and structural powers embedded in social movements.
See also
List of social movements
Civil resistance
Counterculture of the 1960s
Countermovement
Moral shock
New social movements
Nonviolent resistance
Political movement
Reform movement
Revolutionary movement
Social defence
Social equality
Teaching for social justice
Union organizer
Online social movements
References
Further reading
David F. Aberle. 1966. The Peyote Religion among the Navaho. Chicago: Aldine.
James Alfred Aho. 1990. Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian Patriotism. Washington: University of Washington Press.
Paul Almeida. 2019. Social Movements: The Structure of Collective Mobilization. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Herbert G. Blumer 1969. "Collective Behavior." In Alfred McClung Lee, ed., Principles of Sociology. Third Edition. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, pp. 65–121.
Mark Chaves. 1997. Ordaining Women: Culture and Conflict in Religious Organizations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Graeme Chesters and Ian Welsh. Complexity and Social Movements: Multitudes at the Edge of Chaos Routledge 2006.
Mario Diani and Doug McAdam, Social movements and networks, Oxford University Press, 2003.
Susan Eckstei, ed. Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements, Updated Edition, University of California Press 2001.
Anthony Giddens. 1985. The Nation-State and Violence. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
Jeff Goodwin and James M. Jasper. 2009. The Social Movements Reader. Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell.
Angelique Haugerud, No Billionaire Left Behind: Satirical Activism in America, Stanford University Press, 2013.
James M. Jasper. 1997. The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography, and Creativity in Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
James M. Jasper. 2014. Protest: A Cultural Introduction to Social Movements. Polity Press.
Diana Kendall, Sociology In Our Times, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
William Kornhauser. 1959. The Politics of Mass Society. New York: Free Press.
Donna Maurer. 2002. Vegetarianism: Movement or Moment? Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Armand L. Mauss. 1975. Social Problems of Social Movements. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Denton E. Morrison. 1978. "Some Notes toward Theory on Relative Deprivation, Social Movements, and Social Change." In Louis E. Genevie, ed., Collective Behavior and Social Movements. Itasca, Ill.: Peacock. pp. 202–209.
Immanuel Ness, ed. Encyclopedia of American Social Movements, 2004. .
Jeff Pugh. 2008. "Vectors of Contestation: Social Movements and Party Systems in Ecuador and Colombia." Latin American Essays XXI: 46-65.
Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. .
Neil J. Smelser. 1962. Theory of Collective Behavior. New York: Free Press.
David Snow, Sarah A. Soule and Hanspeter Kriesi, ed. Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, Blackwell, 2004.
Suzanne Staggenborg, Social Movements, Oxford University Press, 2008.
Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Collective Action, Social Movements and Politics, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Charles Tilly, 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1978.
Charles Tilly, Social Movements, 1768–2004, Boulder, CO, Paradigm Publishers, 2004 262 pp. (hardback) / (paperback)
Leonard Weinberg, 2013. Democracy and Terrorism. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Quintan Wiktorowicz, Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.
Marco G. Giugni, How Social Movements Matter, University of Minnesota Press, 1999,
Rod Bantjes, Social Movements in a Global Context, CSPI, 2007,
Michael Barker, Conform or Reform? Social Movements and the Mass Media, Fifth-Estate-Online - International Journal of Radical Mass Media Criticism. February 2007. Fifth-estate-online.co.uk
Dennis Chong, Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement, University of Chicago Press, 1991,
External links
Mobilization - journal
Interface: a Journal For and About Social Movements
Comparative politics
Social change | [
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] |
234985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20logarithmic%20functions | List of integrals of logarithmic functions | The following is a list of integrals (antiderivative functions) of logarithmic functions. For a complete list of integral functions, see list of integrals.
Note: x > 0 is assumed throughout this article, and the constant of integration is omitted for simplicity.
Integrals involving only logarithmic functions
, the logarithmic integral.
Integrals involving logarithmic and power functions
, etc.
Integrals involving logarithmic and trigonometric functions
Integrals involving logarithmic and exponential functions
(if is a positive integer)
(if is a positive integer)
these generalization was given by Toyesh
n consecutive integrations
For consecutive integrations, the formula
generalizes to
See also
References
Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, 1964. A few integrals are listed on page 69.
Toyesh Prakash Sharma,"https://www.isroset.org/pdf_paper_view.php?paper_id=2214&7-ISROSET-IJSRMSS-05130.pdf
Logarithmic functions | [
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234986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20Reform | Imperial Reform | Imperial Reform (, ) is the name given to repeated attempts in the 15th and 16th centuries to adapt the structure and the constitutional order (Verfassungsordnung) of the Holy Roman Empire to the requirements of the early modern state and to give it a unified government under either the Imperial Estates or the emperor's supremacy.
First attempts
From 1434 to 1438, at imperial diets in Eger and Nuremberg, the first attempts at Imperial Reform were undertaken, partly on the initiative of Emperor Sigismund, partly by the prince-electors. Feuds were banned, and discussions were held on a revision of the rights of coinage and escort (Geleitrecht) and an administrative division of the Empire into imperial circles. All the proposals foundered, however, on the opposing interests of emperor and imperial princes.
Both parties were striving to create a more workable government of the empire, but they were working in opposite directions. The emperor was interested in strengthening his central control; the princes wanted collegiate, corporate leadership in which they could participate. The journals of the time, including publications like the Reformatio Sigismundi, show that the educated classes that represented the small territorial lordships of the counts and barons (Freiherren) as well as the imperial knights but also the imperial cities and the smaller ecclesiastical territories supported the emperor having a powerful position, because it offered better protection against the demands of their own lords. The emperor himself, however, who from the time of Sigismund's successor, Albert II, almost always came from the House of Habsburg, used imperial politics generally only if it served to support his own personal base of power at home.
Reform measures from 1495
In 1495, an attempt was made at an Imperial Diet in the City of Worms to give the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire a new structure, commonly referred to as Imperial Reform.
The fundamental idea of the reform was largely based on the theory of political concordance between the emperor and the Imperial States, developed by Nicholas of Kues.
After the fall of the House of Hohenstaufen in the mid-13th century, the power of the emperors gradually declined in favour of the Estates of the Realm, especially of the prince-electors assigned by the Golden Bull of 1356. The autonomous estates had nevertheless become painfully aware of the disadvantages of the absence of a centralised authority on the occasions of threats and armed conflicts like the Hussite Wars.
Maximilian I of Habsburg was elected King of the Romans from 1486. At the 1495 Diet, Maximilian asked the representatives of the estates not only for contributions but also for an imperial tax to be raised and for troops to be committed for his wars against the Ottomans in the East and the France in Italy. The deputies, led by Chancellor Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild, the Archbishop of Mainz, agreed in principle to a Common Penny tax paid directly to the Empire, but in return set conditions:
The constitution of an Imperial Government, which placed power in the hand of the princes, with the emperor as a honourary chairman. Maximilian refused this restriction of his authority from outset, and did not consent until the Diet of Augsburg, 1500, after the states had conceded their own Landsknecht troops to him, only to abolish the Government two years later.
The Perpetual Public Peace established the Empire as a single body of law that excluded feuds as means of politics between the vassals.
Reception of Roman law: Roman law was adopted as the official law for the whole Empire
The related installation of the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), a supreme court for all of the Empire's territory. This Court originally had its seat at Frankfurt am Main; it moved to Speyer in 1523 and finally to Wetzlar in 1693
Maximilian generally opposed the institutions that weakened his power, but he supported, the Land Peace, adoption of Roman law, sounder administrative procedures, better record-keeping, qualifications for offices etc. Responding to the proposal that an Imperial Council (the later Reichsregiment) should be created, he agreed and welcomed the participation of the Estates, but he alone should be the one who appointed members and the council should function only during his campaigns. He supported modernizing reforms (which he himself pioneered in his Austrian lands), but also wanted to tie it to his personal control, above all by permanent taxation, which the Estates consistently opposed. In 1504, when he was strong enough to propose his own ideas of such a Council, the cowered Estates tried to resist. At his strongest point though, he still failed to find a solution for the common tax matter, which led to disasters in Italy later. Meanwhile, he explored Austria's potential as a base for Imperial power and built his government largely with officials drawn from the lower aristocracy and burghers in Southern Germany.
Reception of Roman Law
At the 1495 Diet, the Reception of Roman Law was accelerated and formalized. The Roman Law was made binding in German courts, except in the case it was contrary to local statutes. In practice, it became the basic law throughout Germany, displacing Germanic local law to a large extent, although Germanic law was still operative at the lower courts. Other than the desire to achieve legal unity and other factors, the adoption also highlighted the continuity between the Ancient Roman empire and the Holy Roman Empire. To realize his resolve to reform and unify the legal system, the emperor frequently intervened personally in matters of local legal matters, overriding local charters and customs. This practice was often met with irony and scorn from local councils, who wanted to protect local codes.
The legal reform seriously weakened the ancient Vehmic court (Vehmgericht, or Secret Tribunal of Westphalia, traditionally held to be instituted by Charlemagne but this theory is now considered unlikely.), although it would not be abolished completely until 1811 (when it was abolished under the order of Jérôme Bonaparte).
Further development
The establishment in 1500 of six (from 1512 on: ten) Imperial Circles with their own Circle Diets. The Circles, originally meant as constituencies of the Imperial Government, enabled a more uniform administration of the Empire to better execute the Perpetual Public Peace, taxation and the raising of troops.
Maximilian responded to the establishment by establishing the concurrent Aulic Council (Reichshofrat) in 1497. Throughout the modern period, the Aulic Council remained by far the faster and more efficient among the two Courts. The Reichskammergericht on the other hand was often torn by matters related to confessional alliance. Around 1497-1498, as part of his administrative reforms, he restructured his Privy Council (Geheimer Rat), a decision which today induces much scholarly discussion. Apart from balancing the Reichskammergericht with the Reichshofrat, this act of restructuring seemed to suggest that, as Westphal quoting Ortlieb, the "imperial ruler – independent of the existence of a supreme court – remained the contact person for hard pressed subjects in legal disputes as well, so that a special agency to deal with these matters could appear sensible" (as also shown by the large number of supplications he received).
According to Thomas Brady Jr. and Jan-Dirk Müller, the most important governmental changes targeted the heart of the regime: the chancery. Early in Maximilian's reign, the Court Chancery at Innsbruck competed with the Imperial Chancery (which was under the elector-archbishop of Mainz, the senior Imperial chancellor). By referring the political matters in Tyrol, Austria as well as Imperial problems to the Court Chancery, Maximilian gradually centralized its authority. The two chanceries became combined in 1502. Jan-Dirk Müller opines that this chancery became the decisive government institution since 1502. In 1496, the emperor created a general treasury (Hofkammer) in Innsbruck, which became responsible for all the hereditary lands. The chamber of accounts (Raitkammer) at Vienna was made subordinate to this body. Under Paul von Liechtenstein, the Hofkammer was entrusted with not only hereditary lands' affairs, but Maximilian's affairs as the German king too.
Maximilian tried to direct the Reform according to his monarchical-centralization agenda. Whaley notes that the real foundation of his Imperial power lay with his networks of allies and clients, especially the less powerful Estates, who helped him to recover his strength in 1502 - his first reform proposals as King of the Romans in 1486 were about the creation of a network of regional unions. According to Whaley, "More systematically than any predecessor, Maximilian exploited the potential of regional leagues and unions to extend imperial influence and to create the possibility of imperial government in the Reich." To the Empire, the mechanisms involving such regional institutions bolstered the Land Piece (Ewiger Landfriede) declared in 1495 as well as the creation of the Imperial Circles.) between 1500 and 1512, although they were only fully functional some decades later.
The Swiss Confederacy did not accept the resolutions of the Imperial Diet and explicitly refused to pay the Common Penny, one of the circumstances leading to the Swabian War of 1499 and the Confederacy's exemption from imperial legislation. Due to the obstinate resistance of several States the collection of the tax was finally suspended in 1505.
The reform was more or less concluded with the Imperial Execution Order of 1555, part of the Peace of Augsburg, which regulated more details of the responsibilities of the Imperial Circle Estates.
Emergence of a national political culture
Maximilian and Charles V (despite the fact both emperors were internationalists personally) were the first who mobilized the rhetoric of the Nation, firmly identified with the Reich by the contemporary humanists. With encouragement from Maximilian and his humanists, iconic spiritual figures were reintroduced or became notable. The humanists rediscovered the work Germania, written by Tacitus. According to Peter H. Wilson, the female figure of Germania was reinvented by the emperor as the virtuous pacific Mother of Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Whaley further suggests that, despite the later religious divide, "patriotic motifs developed during Maximilian's reign, both by Maximilian himself and by the humanist writers who responded to him, formed the core of a national political culture."
Maximilian's reign also witnessed the gradual emergence of the German common language, with the notable roles of the imperial chancery and the chancery of the Wettin Elector Frederick the Wise. The development of the printing industry together with the emergence of the postal system (the first modern one in the world), initiated by Maximilian himself with contribution from Frederick III and Charles the Bold, led to a revolution in communication and allowed ideas to spread. Unlike the situation in more centralized countries, the decentralized nature of the Empire made censorship difficult.
Terence McIntosh comments that the expansionist, aggressive policy pursued by Maximilian I and Charles V at the inception of the early modern German nation (although not to further the aims specific to the German nation per se), relying on German manpower as well as utilizing fearsome Landsknechte and mercenaries, would affect the way neighbours viewed the German polity, although in the longue durée, Germany tended to be at peace.
Evaluation
The Reform's purpose and its level of succcess have been interpreted differently depending on the period and the scholar.
Duncan Hardy notes that, "The earliest historians to engage with this topic, who coined and popularized the notion of 'imperial reform' (Reicksreform), judged it as a well-intentioned partial failure. For Leopold von Ranke and Erich Molitor, imperial reform was a missed opportunity: an attempt to impose nation-statehood on the Empire from above, inspired by 'patriotic' reform-minded polemicists, which foundered on the particularistic ambitions of the monarchy and the princes, but nevertheless engendered
substantial constitutional shifts." In his influential 1984 study of Reichsreform, Heinz Angermeier took a less top—down view, but also saw the reformist initiatives as "the product of a dialectic between the Empire’s un-state-like constitution and the state-forming ambitions of its constituent authorities".
More recently, Georg Schmidt, also tying the matter of statehood to the Reform, argues that the Empire’s early modern development was a kind of state formation, and that the reforms of 1495 'directed the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation onto the path towards statehood'.
Another scholar whose approach is close to Schmidt's is Joachim Whaley with his 2012 work Germany and the Holy Roman Empire. Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia 1493-1648. Robert von Friedeburg opines that Whaley brings out many compelling arguments but there are also certain problems: "Indeed, from the 1650s and then in particular the 1740s onwards, this reviewer finds that Whaley’s attempt to downplay the problems of addressing the Empire as ‘state’ has an increasing price."
According to Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger, different sides in the Reform sought different goals and had different strategies. Maximilian sought to raise revenues to repulse the Ottomans in the East and the French in Italy and at the same time wanted to assert central authority and his ascension provided the direct incentive for the Reform. The Estates on the other hand wanted to make sure they had a voice in the government if they were to provide him with money. Berthold von Henneberg played a crucial role in coording the formulation of Reform laws in the Diet of 1491. Stollberg-Rilinger remarks that Henneberg's political platform was remarkably coherent. In the end though, the political frame and future-oriented structures that emerged after the Reform was not the product of a carefully laid out plan by any side, but the result of compromises on practical issues. Stollberg-Rilinger notes that, "Maximilian I's rule set the stage for the structural evolution of the Empire in the following three hundred years." Stollberg also links the development of the Reform to the concentration of supranational power in the Habsburgs' hand, which manifested in the successful dynastic marriages of Maximilian and his descendants (and the succcessful defense of those lands, notably the rich Low Countries) as well as Maximilian's development of a revolutionary post system that helped the Habsburgs to maintain control of their territories.
Duncan notes that Peter Moraw joins Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger in presenting "the accelerated change and consolidation within the Empire around 1495/1500 as pragmatic responses to intensified consolidation and interconnection within the Empire, which were in turn the products of wider forces (greater military and fiscal demands and demographic growth, among others). While the reforms of this period ushered in a new 'constitutional' arrangement, in which power was formally divided between the monarchy and the estates, their long-term effects were unintended, and their implementation was presented as a restoration of (imagined) good old customs and order. The notion that structural change was founded upon a unified reform programme contained in fifteenth-century treatises and polemics has also been called into question."
Brady Jr. notes that, the Empire, now the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, gained most of its institutions, that endured until its final demise in the nineteenth century. Thomas Brady Jr. opines that the Imperial Reform was successful, although perhaps at the expense of the reform of the Church, partly because Maximilian was not really serious about the religious matter.
According to Brady Jr., the Empire, after the Imperial Reform, was a political body of remarkable longevity and stability, "resembled in some respects the monarchical polities of Europe’s western tier, and in others the loosely integrated, elective polities of East Central Europe." The new corporate German Nation, instead of simply obeying the emperor, negotiated with him.
Wilson tied the Reform to the territorial and power expansion of the Habsburgs: "The family's territorial expansion coincided with the high point of imperial reform around 1520, accelerating and transforming that process. The material power that made the dynasty the obvious choice as emperors, also threatened German liberties. The emperor assumed a Janus-faced position as the Empire’s sovereign and its most powerful prince. The imperial Estates appreciated a strong emperor capable of repelling the Ottomans, and were prepared to relinquish some of their cherished liberties to institutions they believed would bind the Habsburgs to performing their imperial duties. The Habsburgs accepted greater constitutional checks on prerogatives as the price for a more potent infrastructure to mobilize the additional resources from the imperial Estates needed to meet their own ambitions and commitments." He calls the post-Reform Empire "a mixed monarchy in which the emperor shared power with an increasingly finely graduated hierarchy of princes, lords and cities collectively known as the imperial Estates". The institutions and structures developed by Imperial Reform mostly served German lands, while the Habsburg monarchy "remained closely entwined with the Empire", but deliberately refrained from including their other territories in its framework. "Instead, they developed their own institutions to manage what was, effectively, a parallel dynastic-territorial empire and which gave them an overwhelming superiority of resources, in turn allowing them to retain an almost unbroken grip on the imperial title over the next three centuries."
See also
Augsburg Interim
Diet of Worms (1495)
Sources
Karl Zeumer: Quellensammlung zur Geschichte der deutschen Reichsverfassung in Mittelalter und Neuzeit. 2nd expanded edition. Mohr, Tübingen,1913. (Full text at Wikisource)
Lorenz Weinrich (ed.): Quellen zur Reichsreform im Spätmittelalter = De reformando regni Teutonici statu in medioaevo posteriore fontes selectae. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 2001, (Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters 39).
Notes
References
Further reading
Heinz Angermeier: Die Reichsreform. 1410–1555. Die Staatsproblematik in Deutschland zwischen Mittelalter und Gegenwart. Beck, Munich, 1984, (Likewise: Munich, Univ., Diss., 1954).
Mattias G. Fischer: Reichsreform und „Ewiger Landfrieden“. Über die Entwicklung des Fehderechts im 15. Jahrhundert bis zum absoluten Fehdeverbot von 1495. Scientia-Verlag, Aalen, 2007, (Untersuchungen zur deutschen Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte Neue Folge 35) Likewise: Göttingen, Univ., Diss., 2002.
Hermann Heimpel: Studien zur Kirchen- und Reichsreform des 15. Jahrhunderts. Winter, Heidelberg, 1974, (Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse 1974, 1).
Victor von Kraus: Das Nürnberger Reichsregiment. Gründung und Verfall. 1500–1502. Ein Stück deutscher Verfassungs-Geschichte aus dem Zeitalter Maximilians. Nach archivalischen Quellen dargestellt. Wagner, Innsbruck, 1883 (Neudruck: Scientia-Verlag, Aalen, 1969).
Karl-Friedrich Krieger: König, Reich und Reichsreform im Spätmittelalter. 2nd revised edition. Oldenbourg, Munich, 2005, (Enzyklopädie Deutscher Geschichte 14). Contains a comprehensive bibliography.
1490s in law
Political history of the Holy Roman Empire
Legal history of the Holy Roman Empire
1490s in the Holy Roman Empire
1495 in Europe | [
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234989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest%20Territory | Northwest Territory | The Northwest Territory, also known as the Old Northwest and formally known as the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio, was formed from unorganized western territory of the United States after the American Revolutionary War. Established in 1787 by the Congress of the Confederation through the Northwest Ordinance, it was the nation's first post-colonial organized incorporated territory.
At the time of its creation, the territory included all the land west of Pennsylvania, northwest of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River below the Great Lakes, and what later became known as the Boundary Waters. The region was ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Paris of 1783. Throughout the Revolutionary War, the region was part of the British Province of Quebec. It spanned all or large parts of six eventual U.S. states (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the northeastern part of Minnesota). Reduced to present-day Ohio, eastern Michigan and a sliver of southeastern Indiana with the formation of Indiana Territory July 4, 1800, it ceased to exist March 1, 1803, when the southeastern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the state of Ohio, and the remainder attached to Indiana Territory.
Initially, the territory was governed by martial law under a governor and three judges. As population increased, a legislature was formed as were a succession of counties, eventually totaling thirteen. At the time of its creation the Northwest Territory was a vast wilderness, long-populated by Native American cultures including the Delaware, Miami, Potawatomi, Shawnee and others; there were only a handful of French colonial settlements, plus Clarksville at the Falls of the Ohio. By the time of the territory's dissolution, there were dozens of towns and settlements, a few with thousands of settlers, chiefly along the Ohio and Miami Rivers and the south shore of Lake Erie in Ohio. Conflicts between settlers and Native American inhabitants of the Territory resulted in the Northwest Indian War culminating in General "Mad" Anthony Wayne's victory at Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The subsequent Treaty of Greenville in 1795 opened the way for settlement of southern and western Ohio.
Area
The Northwest Territory included all the then-owned land of the United States west of Pennsylvania, east of the Mississippi River, and northwest of the Ohio River. It incorporated most of the former Ohio Country except a portion in western Pennsylvania, and eastern Illinois Country. It covered all of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, as well as the northeastern part of Minnesota. Lands west of the Mississippi River were the Louisiana Province of New Spain, formerly New France (acquired by the United States in 1803 by the Louisiana Purchase); lands north of the Great Lakes were the British Province of Upper Canada, and lands south of the Ohio River constituted Kentucky County, Virginia, admitted to the union as the state of Kentucky in 1792. The area included more than and comprised about 1/3 of the land area of the United States at the time of its creation. It was inhabited by about 45,000 Native Americans and 4,000 traders, mostly Canadien and British. Among the tribes inhabiting the region were the Shawnee, Delaware, Miami, Wyandot, Ottawa and Potawatomi. Notably, the Miami capital along with British trading posts was at Kekionga at the site of present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana. Neutralizing Kekionga became the focus of the Northwest Indian War, the driving events in the early evolution of the territory.
History
Integration of the Northwest Territory into a political unit, and settlement, depended on three factors: relinquishment by the British, extinguishment of states' claims west of the Appalachians, and usurpation or purchase of lands from the Native Americans. These objectives were accomplished correspondingly by the American Revolutionary War, provisions in the Articles of Confederation, and various treaties preceding the Northwest Indian War including Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) and Treaty of Fort McIntosh (1785). The treaty process extended well beyond the War and existence of the Territory as a political entity.
New France
European exploration of the region began with French-Canadian voyageurs in the 17th century, followed by French missionaries and French fur traders. French-Canadian explorer Jean Nicolet was the first recorded European entrant into the region, landing in 1634 at the current site of Green Bay, Wisconsin (although Étienne Brûlé is stated by some sources as having explored Lake Superior and possibly inland Wisconsin in 1622). The French exercised control from widely separate posts in the region, which they claimed as New France; among these was the post at Fort Detroit, founded in 1701. France ceded the territory to the Kingdom of Great Britain as part of the Indian Reserve in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, after being defeated in the French and Indian War.
British control
From the 1750s to the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812, the British had a long-standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state, a large Native American state that would cover most of the Old Northwest. It would be independent of the United States and allied with the British government, who would use it to block American westward expansion and to build up their control of the fur trade headquartered in Montreal.
A new colony, named Charlotina, was proposed for establishment in the southern Great Lakes region before the events of Pontiac's War, after which the Crown issued the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited white colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. This action angered American colonists interested in expansion, as well as those who had already settled in the area. In 1774, by the Quebec Act, Britain annexed the region to the Province of Quebec in order to provide a civil government and to centralize British administration of the Montreal-based fur trade. The prohibition of settlement west of the Appalachians remained, contributing to the American Revolution.
In February 1779, George Rogers Clark of the Virginia Militia captured Kaskaskia and Vincennes from British commander Henry Hamilton. Virginia capitalized on Clark's success by laying claim to the whole of the Old Northwest, calling it Illinois County, Virginia, until 1784, when it ceded its land claims to the federal government.
Britain officially ceded the area north of the Ohio River and west of the Appalachians to the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War with the Treaty of Paris (1783), but the British continued to maintain a presence in the region as late as 1815, the end of the War of 1812.
Cessions by the states
Several states (Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and Connecticut) had competing claims on the territory: Virginia claimed all of what were formerly Illinois Country and Ohio Country; Massachusetts claimed what are today southern Michigan and Wisconsin; Connecticut claimed a narrow strip across the territory just south of the Great Lakes; New York claimed an elastic portion of Iroquois lands between Lake Erie and the Ohio River. The western boundary of Pennsylvania was also ill-defined. Virginia's jurisdiction was limited to a few French settlements at the extreme western edge of the territory. Massachusetts's and Connecticut's claims were effectively lines on paper. New York had no colonial settlements or territorial government in the claimed lands.
The western border of Pennsylvania, previously assumed to run in a north by northeast zigzag, was resolved in 1780 by the Continental Congress. The Mason–Dixon line was extended westward to a point five degrees of longitude (about 260 miles) from the Delaware River and the western boundary extended to run due north from the westernmost extent of the Mason–Dixon line to the 43rd parallel. This incorporated the eastern part of Ohio Country as western Pennsylvania, and set the eastern boundary of federal lands.
"Unlanded" states, such as Maryland, refused to ratify the Articles of Confederation so long as these states were allowed to keep their western territory, fearing that those states could continue to grow and tip the balance of power in their favor under the proposed system of federal government. As a concession to obtain ratification, these states ceded their claims on the territory to the federal government: New York in 1780, Virginia in 1784, and Massachusetts and Connecticut in 1785. So the majority of the territory became public land owned by the U.S. government. Virginia and Connecticut reserved two areas to use as compensation to military veterans: The Virginia Military District and the Connecticut Western Reserve
Thomas Jefferson's Land Ordinance of 1784 was the first organization of the territory by the United States; it provided a process for dividing the territory into individual states. The Land Ordinance of 1785 established a standardized system for surveying the land into saleable lots, although Ohio was partially surveyed several times using different methods, resulting in a patchwork of land surveys in Ohio. Some older French communities' property claims based on earlier systems of long, narrow lots also were retained. The rest of the Northwest Territory was divided into roughly uniform square townships and sections, which facilitated land sales and development. The ordinance also stipulated that the territory would eventually form three to five new states.
Founding
Under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, General St. Clair was appointed governor. When the territory was divided in 1800, he briefly served as governor of the Northwest Territory remnant that included Ohio, the eastern half of Michigan, and a sliver of southeastern Indiana called "The Gore."
St. Clair formally established the government on July 15, 1788, at Marietta. In 1790, he renamed the settlement of Losantiville Cincinnati, after the Society of the Cincinnati, and moved the administrative and military center to Fort Washington.
As Governor, he formulated the Maxwell's Code (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written criminal and civil laws of the territory. Maxwell's Code consisted of thirty-seven different laws with the stipulation that the laws had to have been passed previously in one of the original thirteen states. The laws restructured the court system then in effect in the Northwest Territory. They also protected residents against excessive taxes and declared that English common law would be the basis of legal decisions and laws in the Northwest Territory.
Northwest Indian War
The young United States government, deeply in debt following the Revolutionary War and lacking authority to tax under the Articles of Confederation, planned to raise revenue from the methodical sale of land in the Northwest Territory. This plan necessarily called for the removal of both Native American villages and squatters from lands west of Appalachia, loosely, the territory called "Ohio Country" and beyond. Difficulties with Native American tribes and a supporting British military presence presented continuing obstacles for American expansion.
The area making up the Ohio Country had been contested for over a century, beginning with the 17th-century Beaver Wars. The Western Confederacy, or Western Indian Confederacy, was a loose confederacy of Native Americans in the Great Lakes region of the United States created following the American Revolutionary War. Congress passed the Proclamation of 1783, which recognized Native American rights to the land. A council held in 1785 at Fort Detroit declared that the confederacy would deal jointly with the United States, forbade individual tribes from dealing directly with the United States, and declared the Ohio River as the boundary between their lands and those of the American settlers.
The Northwest Territory's first governor, Arthur St. Clair, sought to end Native American claims to Ohio land and thus clear the way for white settlement. In 1789, he succeeded in getting certain Native Americans to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but many native leaders had not been invited to participate in the negotiations or had refused to do so. Rather than settling the Native Americans' claims, the treaty provoked an escalation of the "Northwest Indian War" (or "Little Turtle's War"). Mutual hostilities led to a campaign by General Josiah Harmar, whose 1,500 militiamen were defeated by the Native Americans in October 1790.
A group of squatters had moved up to the area near present-day Stockport now in Morgan County, Ohio and settled along flood plain, or "bottom" land, of the Muskingum River, some 30 miles north of an Ohio Company of Associates settlement at Marietta, Ohio.The Big Bottom massacre occurred on January 2, 1791. Lenape and Wyandot warriors stormed the incomplete blockhouse and killed eleven men, one woman, and two children. (Accounts vary as to the number of casualties.) Rufus Putnam wrote to President Washington that "we shall be so reduced and discouraged as to give up the settlement [Marietta following the Big Bottom disaster]."
In March 1791, St. Clair succeeded Harmar as commander of the United States Army and was commissioned as a major general. He led a punitive expedition involving two Regular Army regiments and some militia. In October 1791 as an advance post for his campaign, Fort Jefferson (Ohio), was built under his direction. Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named Fort Deposit. One month later, near modern-day Fort Recovery, his force advanced to the location of Native American settlements near the headwaters of the Wabash River, but on November 4 they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket. More than 600 soldiers and scores of women and children were killed in the battle, known as "St. Clair's Defeat" and many other names. It remains the greatest defeat of a US Army by Native Americans in history, with about 623 American soldiers killed in action and about 50 Native American killed. Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair resigned his army commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington, but continued to serve as Governor of the Northwest Territory.
After St. Clair's ignominious defeat, In June 1792, President Washington tapped revolutionary war hero Major General "Mad" Anthony Wayne to avenge St. Clair and assert sovereignty over the western frontier. Wayne was commissioned to form a new army of 5120 professional soldiers, dubbed the "Legion of the United States". Wayne recruited and trained his army in Pennsylvania, and moved them to southwestern Ohio in fall of 1793. There they were joined by the Kentucky Militia under Major General Charles Scott. Over the next ten months, the armies marched north up the Great Miami and Maumee River valleys toward the Miami capital of Kekionga. Along the way Wayne's legion built a series of outpost forts including Fort Greene Ville, Fort Recovery and Fort Defiance. Fierce battles occurred around some of these but none of Wayne's forts were ever taken by the Native Americans.
In mid 1794, the British built Fort Miamis near what is today Toledo, Ohio, to forestall Wayne's putative advance on the British stronghold at Detroit. The final battle of Wayne's campaign occurred within the scope of this fort. The military campaign of Gen. Wayne against the Western Confederacy, who were supported by a company of troops from Lower Canada, culminated with victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Following the battle, in fall 1794, Wayne's army marched unopposed to Kekionga where they constructed Fort Wayne, a defiant symbol of U.S. sovereignty in the heart of Native American Country.
Jay's Treaty, in 1794, temporarily helped to smooth relations with British traders in the region, where British citizens outnumbered American citizens throughout the 1790s. The following year, the Treaty of Greenville secured peace on the western frontier and opened most of southern and eastern Ohio for American settlement.
Settlement
Sporadic westward emigrant settlements had already resumed late in the war after the Iroquois Confederacy's power was broken and the tribes scattered by the 1779 Sullivan Expedition. Soon after the Revolution ended, land-hungry migrants started moving west. A gateway trading post developed as the town of Brownsville, Pennsylvania, which was a key outfitting center west of the mountains. Other wagon roads, such as the Kittanning Path surmounting the gaps of the Allegheny in central Pennsylvania, or trails along the Mohawk River in New York, enabled a steady stream of settlers to reach the near west and the lands bordering the Mississippi. This activity stimulated the development of the eastern parts of the eventual National Road by private investors. The Cumberland–Brownsville toll road linked the water routes of the Potomac River with the Monongahela River of the Ohio/Mississippi riverine systems in the days when water travel was the only good alternative to walking and riding. Most of the territory and its successors was settled by emigrants passing through the Cumberland Narrows, or along the Mohawk Valley in New York State.
The Continental Congress' title to the lands north of the Ohio River was derived from the Treaty of Paris (1783), the Treaty of Fort McIntosh, and the cessions of four states. Settlement was through several means: squatters, direct U.S. government land sales to settlers, sales of tracts of land to land companies, and state sales of land to veterans in the Virginia Military District and Connecticut Western Reserve. The first area to be surveyed was the Seven Ranges along the eastern border of Ohio in 1786–1789. Direct sales of federal lands to individual homesteaders started here. In some cases, the government granted or donated land for special purposes.
Settlement followed the forts, whether garrisoned or not. Lack of a garrison meant that threat of Native American attack had become negligible. This was true everywhere in Ohio before 1800 except the northwest sector above the Greenville Treaty line. It became true in Indiana after the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811; by 1813 Battle of the Thames where Tecumseh was defeated and killed, the frontier had essentially moved to west of the Mississippi. The first U.S. military garrisons in the territory were Fort Patrick Henry, Vincennes, Indiana (1779), Fort Clark at Falls of the Ohio, Indiana (1783), and Fort Harmar in Ohio (1785). The first settlements were at these locations.
The first land grant was to George Rogers Clark in 1781 at Falls of the Ohio on the Indiana side; he went on to found the settlement of Clarksville. The first two land purchases were large tracts of land sold to John Symmes (Symmes Purchase) in 1788 and two tracts sold to Ohio Company in 1787 and 1792 (Purchase on the Muskingum). Settlement of these areas was spearheaded by Losantiville and Marietta, respectively. In 1792, Congress donated 100,000 acres to Ohio Company as a buffer zone against Native American incursion around the settled area. The vexing land claims by inhabitants of the old French Vincennes Tract were finally resolved by what was dubbed the 'Vincennes donation lands' embodied in a federal land act of 1791. Federal land sales in Indiana (then a part of Indiana Territory starting in 1800) began in 1801, through the Cincinnati land office.
After the Revolutionary War ended, Rufus Putnam (the "Father of Ohio") and Manasseh Cutler were instrumental in creating the Northwest Ordinance, which opened up the Northwest Territory for settlement. This land was used to serve as compensation for what was owed to Revolutionary War veterans. It was at Putnam's recommendation that the land was surveyed and laid out in townships of six miles square. He organized and led the first group of veterans to the territory. They settled at Marietta, Ohio, where they built a large fort called Campus Martius.
Putnam and Cutler insisted the Northwest Territory be a free territory, with no slavery. They were both from Puritan New England, and the Puritans strongly believed that slavery was morally wrong. The Northwest Territory doubled the size of the United States, and establishing it as free of slavery proved to be of tremendous importance in the following decades. It encompassed what became Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota.
Putnam, in the Puritan tradition, was influential in establishing education in the Northwest Territory. Substantial amounts of land were set aside for schools. Putnam had been one of the primary benefactors in the founding of Leicester Academy in Massachusetts, and similarly, in 1798, he created the plan for the construction of the Muskingum Academy (now Marietta College) in Ohio. In 1780, the directors of the Ohio Company appointed him superintendent of all its affairs relating to settlement north of the Ohio River. In 1796, he was commissioned by President George Washington as Surveyor-General of United States Lands. In 1788, he served as a judge in the Northwest Territory's first court. In 1802, he served in the convention to form a constitution for the State of Ohio.
In the 1800 United States census, following the passage of an organic act by the 6th U.S. Congress creating the Indiana Territory in 1800, seven counties in the Northwest Territory reported the following population counts:
According to the 1800 Census of the United States, the Northwest Territory (i.e. the pending state of Ohio) had a population, excluding Native Americans, of over 45,000, and Indiana Territory, a population of about 5,600. By the time of Ohio statehood, there were as many as 50 named towns in Northwest and Indiana Territories, a few, like Vincennes, with thousands of settlers, and dozens of unnamed settlements below the Treaty Line in Ohio.
Following settlement of the frontier, the great wave of colonial immigration flowed westward, founding the great cities of the eventual 6 states of the Territory which is now the midwestern United States early in the 19th century: Detroit (<1800), Cleveland (1796), Columbus (1812), Indianapolis (1822), Chicago (1833), Milwaukee (1846), Minneapolis (1847).
Statehood for Ohio
A Federalist, St. Clair hoped to see two states made of the old Ohio Country to increase Federalist power in Congress. He was resented by Ohio Democratic-Republicans for his apparent partisanship, high-handedness and arrogance in office. In 1802, his opposition to plans for Ohio statehood led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him from office as territorial governor. He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803. The first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, in part a reaction to St. Clair's method of governance.
In preparation for Ohio's statehood, Congress split the Northwest Territory into two sections in 1800. A new territory, Indiana Territory, encompassed all land west of the present Indiana–Ohio border and its northward extension to Lake Superior, except for a wedge-shaped area of present-day Indiana in the southeast known as "the gore". It, along with everything east of the new territory remained part of the Northwest Territory. This legislation was signed into law by President John Adams on May 7, 1800, and became effective on July 4. Later, on April 30, 1802, Congress passed an enabling act for Ohio that authorized the residents of the eastern portion of the Northwest Territory to form a state constitution and government, and be admitted to the Union. When Ohio was admitted as the 17th state on March 1, 1803, the land not included in the new state, including the gore, became part of Indiana Territory, and the Northwest Territory went out of existence.
Ongoing disputes with the British over the region were a contributing factor to the War of 1812. Britain irrevocably ceded claim to the former Northwest Territory with the Treaty of Ghent in 1814.
Northwest Ordinance
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the Northwest Territory, and defined its boundaries, form of government, and administrative structure. In particular, it defined the bodies of government, established the legal basis of land ownership, provided for abolition and transfer of state territorial claims, made rules for admission of new states, established public education, recognized and codified 'natural rights', prohibited slavery, and defined the land rights and applicability of laws to the Native Americans.
Law and government
At first, the territory had a modified form of martial law. The governor was also the senior army officer within the territory, and he combined legislative and executive authority. But a supreme court was established, and he shared legislative powers with the court. County governments were organized as soon as the population was sufficient, and these assumed local administrative and judicial functions. Washington County was the first of these, at Marietta in 1788. This was an important event, as this court was the first establishment of civil and criminal law in the pioneer country.
As soon as the number of free male settlers exceeded 5,000, the territorial legislature was to be created, and this happened in 1798. The full mechanisms of government were put in place, as outlined in the Northwest Ordinance. A bicameral legislature consisted of a House of Representatives and a Council. The first House had 22 representatives, apportioned by population of each county. The House then nominated 10 citizens to be Council members. The nominations were sent to the U.S. Congress, which appointed five of them as the council. This assembly became the legislature of the Territory, although the governor retained veto power.
Article VI of the Articles of Compact within the Northwest Ordinance prohibited the owning of slaves within the Northwest Territory. Territorial governments evaded this law by use of indenture laws. The Articles of Compact prohibited legal discrimination on the basis of religion within the territory.
The township formula created by Thomas Jefferson was first implemented in the Northwest Territory through the Land Ordinance of 1785. The square surveys of the Northwest Territory became a hallmark of the Midwest, as sections, townships, counties (and states) were laid out scientifically, and land was sold quickly and efficiently (although not without some speculative aberrations).
Officials
Arthur St. Clair was the territory's governor until November 1802, when President Thomas Jefferson removed him from office and appointed Charles Willing Byrd, who served the position until Ohio became a state and elected its first governor, Edward Tiffin, on March 3, 1803. The Supreme Court consisted of (1) John Cleves Symmes; (2) James Mitchell Varnum, who died in 1789, replaced by George Turner, who resigned in 1796, and was replaced by Return Jonathan Meigs, Jr.; and (3) Samuel Holden Parsons, who died in 1789, replaced by Rufus Putnam, who resigned 1796, and was replaced by Joseph Gilman. There were three secretaries: Winthrop Sargent (July 9, 1788 – May 31, 1798); William Henry Harrison (June 29, 1798 – December 31, 1799); and Charles Willing Byrd (January 1, 1800 – March 1, 1803).
The territory's first common pleas court opened at Marietta on September 2, 1788. Its first judges were General Rufus Putnam, General Benjamin Tupper, and Colonel Archibald Crary. Ebenezer Sproat was the first sheriff, Paul Fearing became the first attorney to practice in the territory, and Colonel William Stacy was foreman of the first grand jury. Griffin Greene was appointed justice of the peace.
General Assembly
The General Assembly of the Northwest Territory consisted of a Legislative Council (five members chosen by Congress) and a House of Representatives consisting of 22 members elected by the male freeholders in nine counties. The first session of the Assembly was held in September 1799. Its first important task was to select a non-voting delegate to the U.S. Congress. Locked in a power struggle with Governor St. Clair, the legislature narrowly elected William Henry Harrison as the first delegate over the governor's son, Arthur St. Clair, Jr. Subsequent congressional delegates were William McMillan (1800–1801) and Paul Fearing (1801–1803).
Land ownership
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the concept of fee simple ownership, by which ownership was in perpetuity with unlimited power to sell or give it away.
Prohibition of slavery
The ordinance was the first of its kind in prohibiting slavery in a U.S. territory.
Native American lands
In regards to the Delaware Native Americans living in the region, Congress decided, on July 27, 1787, that 10,000 acres on the Muskingum River in the present state of Ohio would "be set apart and the property thereof be vested in the Moravian Brethren . . . or a society of the said Brethren for civilizing the Native Americans and promoting Christianity."
Education
The Northwest Ordinance called for a public university for the education, settlement and eventual statehood of the frontier of Ohio and beyond. Article 3 stated, "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged."
The Land Ordinance of 1785 created an innovation in public education when it reserved resources for local public schools. The ordinance divided the territory into 36 mile2 townships, and each township was further divided into 36 one mile2 tracts for purposes of sale. The ordinance then stated that "there shall be reserved from sale the lot No. 16 of every township for the maintenance of public schools within the said township."
In 1801, Jefferson Academy was established in Vincennes. As Vincennes University, it remains the oldest public institution of higher learning in the Northwest Territory.
The next year, American Western University was founded in Athens, Ohio, upstream of the Hocking River, due to its location directly between Chillicothe (an original capital of Ohio) and Marietta. It was formally established on February 18, 1804, as Ohio University.
Settlements and forts
Forts, garrisons and settlements established in the territory northwest of the River Ohio between 1778–1803 (excluding those established in Indiana Territory after 1800). They are listed by present-day location and year established or of U.S. possession. Most forts were military garrisons only. General Anthony Wayne, during his Ohio Country campaign 1792–1795, built or rebuilt 10 such forts: forts (in order by date) Lafayette, Greene Ville, Recovery, Adams, Definance, Deposit, Wayne, Loramie, Piqua, and St. Mary's. Early settlements were outside or nearby forts: Clarksville, Vincennes, Kaskaskia (French), Losantiville, and the Ohio Company settlements at Marietta and Waterford/Beverly. Later, after the Treaty of Greenville, settlements no longer needed to be spearheaded by forts, and sprang up quickly below the Treaty Line.
Fort Laurens (aka Lawrence), Ohio, 1778, now Bolivar
Cahokia, Illinois, 1778
Fort Gage, Kaskaskia, Illinois, 1779, an AmericanFrench settlement
Fort Patrick Henry, Vincennes, Indiana 1779
Clarksville, Indiana, 1783 (opposite Fort Nelson, Virginia, now Louisville, Kentucky)
Fort Finney, Ohio, 1785, abandoned 17861787
Fort Harmar, Ohio, 1785
Norristown, 1785; reestablished as Jefferson, 1795, now Martins Ferry
Fort Finney, Indiana, 1786, renamed Fort Steuben in 1791; now Jeffersonville
Fort Steuben, Ohio, January 1787, abandoned May 1790
Steubenville Ohio, 1797
Marietta, Ohio, July 1788
Columbia, Ohio, November 1788
Losantiville (Cincinnati), Ohio, December 1788
North Bend, Ohio, February 1789
Waterford and Beverly, Ohio, spring 1789
Fort Washington, Ohio, summer 1789 (later relocated and became the Newport Barracks, KY)
Massie's Station, Virginia Military District, 1790, renamed Manchester
Fort Dilles, Ohio, 1790, later called Dilles Bottom
Gallipolis, Ohio, October 1790
Big Bottom, Ohio, December 1790 (squatter settlement, site of Big Bottom Massacre in 1791)
Fort Frye, Ohio, January – February 1791 (not a U.S. military garrison)
Fort Hamilton, Ohio, September 1791
Fort Jefferson, Ohio, October 1791 (originally Fort Deposit)
Fort St. Clair, Ohio, 1792
Fort Greene Ville, Ohio, November 1793
Fort Recovery, Ohio, December 1793 – March 1794
Fort Adams, Ohio, August 1794
Fort Massac, Illinois, June – October 1794
Fort Defiance, Ohio, August 1794 (Battle of Fallen Timbers, August 1794)
Fort Deposit, Ohio, September – October 1794
Fort Wayne, Indiana, October 1794
Fort Loramie (or Laramie), Ohio, winter 1794–95
Fort Piqua, Ohio, winter 1794–95
Fort St. Mary's, Ohio, October 1795
Chillicothe, Ohio, 1796
Cleveland, Connecticut Western Reserve, 1796
Fort Miami, Ohio (British held until 1796)
Fort Lernoult (previously Fort Detroit), Michigan (British held until 1796)
Fort Mackinac, Michigan (British held until 1796)
Williamsburg, Ohio, 1796
Dayton, Ohio, 1796
Newellstown, Ohio, 1796, renamed St. Clairsville
Athens, Ohio, 1797
Franklinton, Ohio, 1797
Mentor, Ohio, 1797
Warren, Ohio, 1798
Bethel, Ohio, 1798
Westbourne, Ohio, 1799, renamed Zanesville in 1801
Lancaster, Ohio, 1800
Springfield, Ohio, 1801
Youngstown, Ohio, 1802
Coshocton, Ohio, 1802
Lawrenceburg, Indiana, 1802 (Within the Northwest Territory's Hamilton County until 1803)
New Lisbon, Ohio, 1803, later renamed Lisbon
Xenia, Ohio, 1803
Counties
Thirteen counties were formed by Governor Arthur St. Clair during the territory's existence:
Washington County, with its seat at Marietta, was the first county formed in the territory, proclaimed on July 26, 1788, by territorial governor St. Clair. Its original boundaries were proclaimed as all of present-day Ohio east of a line extending due south from the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, but this did not take into account Connecticut's still unresolved claim of the Western Reserve. It kept these boundaries until 1796.
Hamilton County, with its seat at Cincinnati, was proclaimed on January 2, 1790. The same proclamation officially changed Cincinnati's name from Losantiville into its present form. Its original boundaries claimed all land north of the Ohio River between the Great Miami River and Little Miami River as far north as Standing Stone Fork (now Loramie Creek), just north of present-day Piqua. In 1792 Hamilton County was expanded to encompass all lands between the mouths of the Great Miami and Cuyahoga Rivers, as well as all of what is now the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Its territory was reduced several times after 1796.
St. Clair County, with its seat at Kaskaskia was proclaimed on April 27, 1790. It originally encompassed most of present-day Illinois south of the Illinois River. It lost most of its southern lands in the formation of Randolph County in 1795, necessitating the transfer of the county seat to Cahokia, but expanded to the north to take in northwest present-day Illinois and most of present-day Wisconsin in 1801 after becoming part of Indiana Territory.
Knox County, with its seat at Vincennes, was proclaimed on June 20, 1790, and encompassed the majority of the territory's land area – all land between St. Clair County and Hamilton County, extending north to Canada.
Randolph County was formed October 5, 1795, with its seat at Kaskaskia and encompassed the southern half of what was St. Clair County.
Wayne County was formed on August 15, 1796, out of portions of Hamilton County and unorganized land, with its seat at Detroit, which had been evacuated by the British five weeks previously. Wayne County originally covered all of Michigan's Lower Peninsula, northwestern Ohio, northern Indiana and a small portion of the present Lake Michigan shoreline, including the site of present-day Chicago. On November 1, 1798, it was split into the four townships of Detroit, Hamtramck, Mackinaw, and Sargent. The lands west of the extension of the present Indiana-Ohio border became part of Indiana Territory in 1800; the eastern portion of the county's land in Ohio were folded into Trumbull County that same year. The territory north of the Ordinance Line became part of Indiana Territory in 1803 as a reorganized Wayne County; the remainder reverted to unorganized status after Ohio statehood.
Adams County was formed on July 10, 1797, with its seat at Manchester; it encompassed most of present-day south-central Ohio.
Jefferson County was formed July 29, 1797, with its seat at Steubenville, carved out of Washington County and originally encompassed all of what is now northeastern Ohio.
Ross County was organized on August 20, 1798, with its seat at Chillicothe and was carved out of portions of Knox, Hamilton and Washington counties.
Knox, Randolph and St. Clair counties were separated from the territory effective July 4, 1800, and, along with the western part of Wayne County, and unorganized lands in what are now Minnesota and Wisconsin, became the Indiana Territory.
Trumbull County was proclaimed July 10, 1800, out of the Western Reserve portion of Jefferson and Wayne Counties, with its county seat at Warren, chosen over rivals Cleveland and Youngstown.
Clermont County was formed December 6, 1800, out of Hamilton County, with its seat at Williamsburg. In contrast with most other Northwest Territory counties, Clermont County's original boundaries are only slightly larger than its present-day limits.
Fairfield County was proclaimed December 9, 1800, formed out of Ross and Washington counties, with its seat at Lancaster.
Belmont County was proclaimed September 7, 1801, formed out of Washington and Jefferson counties, with its seat at St. Clairsville.
The Northwest Territory ceased to exist upon Ohio statehood on March 1, 1803; the lands in Ohio that were previously part of Wayne County but not included in Trumbull County reverted to an unorganized status until new counties could be formed. The remainder of Wayne County, roughly the eastern half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan and the eastern tip of the Upper Peninsula, was attached to Indiana Territory. A sliver of Hamilton County along the southwestern border (the Greenville Treaty line) comprising a portion of the Whitewater River drainage basin and known as "The Gore" was also ceded to Indiana Territory.
See also
Old Southwest, analogous lands south of the Ohio River
Louisiana Purchase, lands west of the Mississippi River
Historic regions of the United States
Ohio Company
Zane's trace
Notes
References
Further reading
Barr, Daniel P. The Boundaries Between Us: Natives and Newcomers Along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750–1850 (Kent State University Press, 2006)
Beatty-Medina, Charles, and Melissa Rinehart, eds. Contested Territories: Native Americans and Non-natives in the Lower Great Lakes, 1700–1850 (Michigan State University Press, 2012)
Buley, R. Carlyle. "Pioneer health and medical practices in the old northwest prior to 1840." Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1934): 497–520. in JSTOR
Calloway, Colin G. The Victory with No Name: The Native American Defeat of the First American Army (Oxford University Press, 2014)
Davis, James E. "" New Aspects of Men and New Forms of Society": The Old Northwest, 1790–1820." Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (1976): 164–172. in JSTOR
Elkins, Stanley, and Eric McKitrick. "A Meaning for Turner's Frontier: Part I: Democracy in the Old Northwest." Political Science Quarterly (1954): 321–353. in JSTOR
Esarey, Logan. "Elements of Culture in the Old Northwest." Indiana Magazine of History (1957): 257–264. online
Heath, William. William Wells and the Struggle for the Old Northwest (University of Oklahoma Press, 2015) he lived 1770–1812
Kuhns, Frederck I., "Home Missions and Education in the Old Northwest." Journal of the Presbyterian Historical Society (1953): 137–155. in JSTOR
Owens, Robert M. Mr. Jefferson's hammer: William Henry Harrison and the origins of American Indian policy (University of Oklahoma Press, 2012)
Ubbelohde, Carl. "History and the Midwest as a Region." Wisconsin Magazine of History (1994): 35–47. in JSTOR
Older sources
Original manuscript written late in Joseph Barker's life, prior to his death in 1843
External links
Facsimile of 1789 Act
The Territory's Executive Journal
Maumee Valley Heritage Corridor
Prairie Fire: The Illinois Country 1673–1818, Illinois Historical Digitization Projects at Northern Illinois University Libraries
Former organized territories of the United States
History of the Midwestern United States
Pre-statehood history of Illinois
Pre-statehood history of Indiana
Pre-statehood history of Michigan
Pre-statehood history of Minnesota
Pre-statehood history of Ohio
Pre-statehood history of Wisconsin
Midwestern United States
1787 establishments in the United States
1803 disestablishments in the United States | [
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234991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torii%20Hunter | Torii Hunter | Torii Kedar Hunter (; born July 18, 1975) is an American former professional baseball center fielder and right fielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Minnesota Twins, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and Detroit Tigers from 1997 through 2015. Hunter was a five-time All-Star, won nine consecutive Gold Glove Awards as a center fielder, and was a two-time Silver Slugger Award winner.
High school career
Born and raised in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, Hunter attended Pine Bluff High School. Hunter, along with his three brothers, lived in a downtown
and fairly impoverished neighborhood just off Main Street. Hunter began playing baseball at the age of eight and football a few years later, excelling as both a quarterback and a free safety. At Pine Bluff High, Hunter excelled in baseball, football, basketball, and track. Early on in high school, Hunter was actually a stand out in sports other than baseball, but would receive All-State honors for his junior and senior seasons. According to the head coach of the team, Hunter once hit a ball for a home run. In 1992, Hunter made the U.S. Junior Olympic team, and when he struggled to pay the $500 fee for the team, Hunter wrote then-governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton a letter asking for help, which Clinton accepted. Hunter had the option of attending The University of Arkansas to play baseball, but opted to play professional baseball instead.
Professional career
Minnesota Twins
The Twins selected Hunter with the 20th overall pick in the 1993 draft using a compensation pick from the Cincinnati Reds for signing John Smiley. Hunter made his debut with the Twins as a pinch runner in Baltimore on August 22, 1997. It was not until 1999 that Hunter began starting regularly, playing in 135 games for the Twins. He finished with only one error in 292 chances in the outfield.
Hunter exploded onto the scene in the beginning of April in 2000, but his batting average dropped to .207 by the end of May. He was subsequently sent down to Triple-A Salt Lake to work on his mechanics at the plate; however with Hunter's new approach at the plate, he caught fire in the month of June, capping it with a two-home run, seven-RBI game and being named the Twins' Minor League Player of the Week and Player of the Month. After a 16-game hitting streak, four consecutive games with home runs and three grand slams, Hunter was recalled by the Twins on July 28. Hunter was named both Best Defensive Outfielder and Most Exciting Player in Pacific Coast League by Baseball America for 2000.
In 2001, Hunter led the Twins in at bats, home runs and outfield assists (with 14 – tied for second best in the league), and was second in RBI and total bases, leading the Twins to their first winning season since 1992. Hunter led all major league center fielders in range factor (3.29), and was named Best Defensive Outfielder in the American League by Baseball America. He also won his first Rawlings Gold Glove Award in 2001.
In 2002, Hunter began to post near-MVP numbers, and was a contender for the award a good portion of the year. In the month of April, he went 39–105 (a .371 average) with nine home runs and 20 RBI, winning American League Player of the Month honors.
Hunter was selected by the fans to his first All-Star Game, in Milwaukee in 2002, becoming the first Twin since Kirby Puckett in 1995 to start an All-Star game in center field. One of the biggest moments came in the first inning, when, with two outs, Barry Bonds sent what appeared to be a towering home run to right-center field. Hunter, who had built a reputation for his outfield thievery in the American League, jumped and caught the ball over the wall (accomplishing a personal goal he set of robbing one from Bonds). Although there were no awards given at the All-Star game, because the game ended in a tie, the catch was later awarded as the This Year in Baseball Best Defensive Play of the Year by the fans.
Hunter, along with an improved team and solid bullpen pitching, led a resurgence in the latter half of the season which powered the Twins to win the American League Central Division. The team would advance to the ALCS, where they would lose to the Anaheim Angels four games to one. The Angels went on to win their first World Series championship.
Despite losing in the ALCS, it was still a very good year for the ballclub, and by far the best year for Hunter. He led the club in home runs, RBIs, and stolen bases, and was tied for the lead in games and doubles. Hunter won the team's Calvin R. Griffith Award as Most Valuable Twin for 2002. He ended the season sixth in the MVP voting, and also earned his second Gold Glove in center field. Hunter was additionally voted baseball's Best Defensive Player Award for 2002 by the fans.
Hunter struggled offensively in 2003. Although he played in a career high 154 games, he often struggled at the plate, achieving an OPS of .763 and a batting average of just .250, .039 lower than in 2002. He stole just six bases, while being thrown out seven times. His defense was still strong enough to win his third straight Gold Glove for his play in center field.
Hunter missed much of the 2005 season after breaking his ankle and tearing ligaments when he attempted to scale the right field wall in Fenway Park on July 29. Despite playing essentially only half a season, Hunter was awarded his fifth consecutive Gold Glove.
On the last day of the 2006 regular season, Hunter hit his career-high 31st home run, helping the Twins to their fourth division title in five years.
On October 10, the Twins notified Hunter that they had picked up his $12 million option for the 2007 season, keeping him from becoming a free agent.
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
After turning down a three-year, $45 million deal in August 2007 from the Twins, Hunter signed a five-year contract with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim worth $90 million. He replaced Gary Matthews Jr. as the everyday center fielder.
In 2009, he was named #44 on the Sporting News list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball. A panel of 100 baseball people, many of them members of the Baseball Hall of Fame and winners of major baseball awards, were polled to arrive at the list.
Hunter hit three home runs in one game against the San Diego Padres on June 13, 2009. It was the first time in his career he had accomplished the feat. Hunter was selected to represent Los Angeles in the 2009 All-Star Game, making his third appearance, but he was unable to participate. He was on the disabled list because he had crashed into the outfield wall at Dodger Stadium and at AT&T Park, separating his right shoulder. This sidelined him for more than a month.
Hunter batted .299 with 22 homers and 90 RBIs in 2009. After the 2009 season, Hunter won his ninth consecutive Gold Glove award for the outfield, and a Silver Slugger Award.
On September 2, 2011, Hunter said in an interview with the Minneapolis Star-Tribune that he wanted to retire as a member of the Angels, but he became a free agent following the 2012 season.
Detroit Tigers
On November 14, 2012, it was announced that Hunter and the Detroit Tigers had reached a two-year agreement worth $26 million. He would be playing right field and batting second for most of the season. After Hunter signed with the Tigers, pitcher Rick Porcello let him have #48, which Hunter has worn for his entire career, and Porcello changed his uniform to #21.
On June 16, 2013, Hunter hit his 300th career home run in a game against the Minnesota Twins, in the city where his major league career started (Minneapolis). On July 1, Hunter was voted in as a reserve outfielder in the AL player voting for the 2013 Major League All-Star Game. It was his fifth career All-Star selection. As of the All-Star break, Torii was hitting .315 with seven home runs and 44 RBIs.
Hunter finished the 2013 regular season with a .304 batting average, 17 home runs and 84 RBIs. Batting in front of Miguel Cabrera for most of the season, Torii was walked only 26 times, helping him to the highest at-bats total of his major league career (606), as well as a career-high 184 hits.
In Game 2 of the ALCS Hunter injured himself flipping over the low Fenway Park bullpen wall in pursuit of a David Ortiz game-tying grand slam.
On May 12, 2014, the normally easygoing Hunter had a heated exchange with Baltimore Orioles hurler Bud Norris after Norris hit Hunter in the ribs with a fastball during a 4–1 Tiger win at Oriole Park at Camden Yards, sparking a bench-clearing incident. The two continued shouting at each other as Norris headed to the dugout after being ejected. Hunter was hitting .298 for the 2014 season at the conclusion of that contest.
Hunter finished the 2014 regular season with a .286 batting average, 17 home runs, and 83 RBIs.
Return to the Minnesota Twins
On December 2, 2014, Hunter agreed to a one-year deal worth $10.5 million with the Minnesota Twins, with whom he had previously played from 1997 to 2007. The deal became official on December 3, 2014. During a game on June 10, 2015, Hunter was ejected by umpire Mark Ripperger and reacted by heaving pieces of equipment and then taking off his uniform shirt and throwing it to the ground. Hunter received a 2-game suspension for his antics. Over his final season, Hunter batted .240, hit 22 homers, and drove in 81 runs.
On October 26, 2015, Hunter announced his retirement from baseball.
Career statistics
In 2372 games over 19 seasons, Hunter posted a .277 batting average (2452-for-8857) with 1296 runs, 498 doubles, 39 triples, 353 home runs, 1391 RBI, 195 stolen bases, 661 bases on balls, .331 on-base percentage and .461 slugging percentage. He finished his career with a .990 fielding percentage playing primarily at center and right field. In 48 postseason games, he hit .274 (51-for-186) with 26 runs, 12 doubles, 4 home runs, 20 RBI and 17 walks.
Highlights, records, and notable statistics
Hunter began the 2007 season with one of the fastest starts to a season in his career, featuring a 23-game hitting streak starting in mid-April and ending on May 10. In 2007, Hunter also hit three grand slams: April 17 in Seattle, May 18 in Milwaukee, and August 15 again in Seattle.
Hunter has been awarded nine consecutive American League Gold Glove Awards (2001–2009) for his defensive talents in center field, and he has been selected to the All-Star Game five times.
On May 30, 2011, Hunter collected his 1,000th RBI off of Joakim Soria, which was also a go-ahead two-run home run to give the Angels a 9–8 lead, a game which they eventually won 10–8. Hunter was the 268th person to collect 1,000 RBI
On August 15, 2012, Hunter was sliding home when he accidentally slashed umpire Greg Gibson by his left eye with his rubber cleats. Gibson was not seriously injured. Hunter noted that he had been wearing metal cleats on Sunday and Monday, but had switched to rubber cleats the previous day.
On June 16, 2013, Hunter hit his 300th career home run off Twins pitcher P. J. Walters.
Charity
Hunter contributes to many charities, including the "Torii Hunter Project Education Initiative", which provides college scholarships to students in California, Arkansas, Nevada and Minnesota, the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a partnership with Major League Baseball to help maintain and improve baseball diamonds in inner cities, the Big Brothers and the Prostate Cancer Foundation, and in addition, Hunter helped fund construction of a youth softball field in Placentia, California in 2008. This work has resulted in Hunter being presented with the Branch Rickey Award in 2009, which rewards excellence in charity work.
Controversy
In a discussion about the number of black players in the Major Leagues, Hunter said during a USA Today-hosted committee to improve baseball panel that black Latinos do not count. "People see dark faces out there, and the perception is that they're African-American. They're not us. They're impostors. Even people I know come up and say: 'Hey, what color is Vladimir Guerrero? Is he a black player?' I say, 'Come on, he's Dominican. He's not black.' ... As African-American players, we have a theory that baseball can go get an imitator and pass them off as us. It's like they had to get some kind of dark faces, so they go to the Dominican or Venezuela because you can get them cheaper. It's like, 'Why should I get this kid from the South Side of Chicago and have Scott Boras represent him and pay him $5 million when you can get a Dominican guy for a bag of chips?' ... I'm telling you, it's sad." Though Hunter does not dispute the accuracy of the quotes, he has insisted that these statements merely distinguish between different cultures and do not reflect negative feelings toward other races.
Hunter also has indicated that he would be uncomfortable with having a homosexual teammate, citing his Biblical upbringing as the motivator behind his discomfort.
Personal life
Hunter resides during the off-season in the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex suburb of Prosper, Texas with his wife Katrina, whom he met in high school. He is a cousin of former MLB outfielder Choo Freeman. Despite the same spelling, Hunter was not named after torii, the gates to a Japanese Shinto shrine. Hunter says jokingly, "I think, when my mom filled out the paperwork after I was born, she accidentally put two 'I's." Hunter is a Christian.
His older son, Torii Jr., played football and baseball at Notre Dame beginning in 2013. Torii Jr. currently plays baseball professionally in the Angels organization after being selected by the team in the 23rd round of the 2016 MLB Draft. His younger son, Monshadrik "Money" Hunter, is a defensive back for the Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League.
In 2012, Hunter's son, Darius McClinton-Hunter, was arrested and accused of sexual assault. A grand jury declined to indict McClinton-Hunter on the grounds of insufficient evidence. The accuser recanted her claims first in a recorded telephone conversation and again in a deposition for a $10 million lawsuit Darius McClinton-Hunter filed against her for her false allegations. Hunter, playing for the Angels at the time, took a 14-game hiatus in the wake of his son's arrest.
Hunter is a Republican, endorsing gubernatorial candidate Asa Hutchinson in his successful attempt to become governor of Arkansas.
See also
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball career games played leaders
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career extra base hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career putouts as a center fielder leaders
2021 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting
References
External links
1975 births
Living people
Minnesota Twins players
Los Angeles Angels players
Detroit Tigers players
African-American baseball players
American League All-Stars
Baseball players from Arkansas
Gold Glove Award winners
Major League Baseball center fielders
Sportspeople from Pine Bluff, Arkansas
People from Prosper, Texas
Gulf Coast Twins players
Fort Wayne Wizards players
Fort Myers Miracle players
Hardware City Rock Cats players
New Britain Rock Cats players
Salt Lake Buzz players
Rancho Cucamonga Quakes players
African-American Christians
Silver Slugger Award winners
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople | [
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234992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical%20%28Chinese%20characters%29 | Radical (Chinese characters) | A Chinese radical () or indexing component is a graphical component of a Chinese character under which the character is traditionally listed in a Chinese dictionary. This component is often a semantic indicator similar to a morpheme, though sometimes it may be a phonetic component or even an artificially extracted portion of the character. In some cases the original semantic or phonological connection has become obscure, owing to changes in character meaning or pronunciation over time.
The English term "radical" is based on an analogy between the structure of characters and inflection of words in European languages. Radicals are also sometimes called "classifiers", but this name is more commonly applied to grammatical classifiers (measure words).
History
In the earliest Chinese dictionaries, such as the Erya (3rd century BC), characters were grouped together in broad semantic categories.
Because the vast majority of characters are phono-semantic compounds (), combining a semantic component with a phonetic component, each semantic component tended to recur within a particular section of the dictionary. In the 2nd century AD, the Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen organized his etymological dictionary Shuowen Jiezi by selecting 540 recurring graphic elements he called bù (部 , "categories"). Most were common semantic components, but they also included shared graphic elements such as a dot or horizontal stroke. Some were even artificially extracted groups of strokes, termed "glyphs" by Serruys (1984, p. 657), which never had an independent existence other than being listed in Shuowen. Each character was listed under only one element, which is then referred to as the radical for that character. For example, characters containing 女 nǚ "female" or 木 mù "tree, wood" are often grouped together in the sections for those radicals.
Mei Yingzuo's 1615 dictionary Zihui made two further innovations. He reduced the list of radicals to 214, and arranged characters under each radical in increasing order of the number of additional strokes – the "radical-and-stroke-count" method still used in the vast majority of present-day Chinese dictionaries. These innovations were also adopted by the more famous Kangxi Dictionary of 1716. Thus the standard 214 radicals introduced in the Zihui are usually known as the Kangxi radicals. These were first called bùshǒu (部首, literally "section header") in the Kangxi Dictionary. Although there is some variation in such lists – depending primarily on what secondary radicals are also indexed – these canonical 214 radicals of the Kangxi Dictionary still serve as the basis for most modern Chinese dictionaries. Some of the graphically similar radicals are combined in many dictionaries, such as 月 yuè "moon" and the 月 form (⺼) of 肉 ròu, "meat, flesh".
After the writing system reform in Mainland China, the traditional set of Kangxi Radicals became unsuitable for indexing Simplified Chinese characters. In 1983, the Committee for Reforming the Chinese Written Language and the State Administration of Publication of China published The Table of Unified Indexing Chinese Character Components (Draft) (). In 2009, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China and the State Language Work Committee issued The Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components (GF 0011-2009 ), which includes 201 principal indexing components and 100 associated indexing components (In China's normative documents, "radical" is defined as any component or piānpáng of Chinese characters, while is translated as "indexing component".).
Shape and position within characters
Radicals may appear in any position in a character. For example, 女 appears on the left side in the characters 姐, 媽, 她, 好 and 姓, but it appears at the bottom in 妾. However, there are two radicals that have the shape 阝, but are indexed as different radicals depending on where they appear. When used with the abbreviated radical form of 邑 yì "city" it gives 都 dū "metropolis", also read as dōu "all-city" it appears on the right, but when used with the abbreviated radical form of 阜 fù "mound, hill" (as in 陸 lù "land") it appears on the left. However, there are regularities in the positioning next to ("within") most characters, depending on function: semantic components tend to appear on the top or on the left side of the character; similarly, phonetic components tend to appear on the right side of the character or at its bottom. These are loose rules, though, and exceptions are plenty. Sometimes, the radical may span more than one side, as in 園 = 囗 "enclosure" + 袁, or 街 = 行 "go, movement" + 圭. More complicated combinations exist, such as 勝 = 力 "strength" + 朕—the radical is in the lower-right quadrant.
Many character components (including radicals) are distorted or changed to fit into a block with others. They may be narrowed, shortened, or may have different shapes entirely. Changes in shape, rather than simple distortion, may result in fewer pen strokes. In some cases, combinations may have alternates. The shape of the component can depend on its placement with other elements in the character.
Some of the most important variant combining forms (besides 邑 → 阝 and 阜 → 阝per the above) are:
刀 "knife" → 刂 when placed to the right of other elements:
examples: 分, 召 ~ 刖
counter-example: 切
人 "man" → 亻 on the left:
囚, 仄, 坐 ~ 他
counter-example: 从
心 "heart" → 忄 on the left:
杺, 您, 恭* ~ 快
(*) 心 occasionally becomes ⺗ when written at the foot of a character.
手 "hand" → 扌 on the left:
杽, 拏, 掱 ~ 扡
counter-example: 拜
水 "water" → 氵 on the left:
汆, 呇, 沊 ~ 池
counter-example: 沝
火 "fire" → 灬 at the bottom:
伙, 秋, 灱 ~ 黑
counter-example: 災
犬 "dog" → 犭 on the left:
伏, 状 ~ 狙
counter-example: 㹜
Semantic components
Over 80% of Chinese characters are phono-semantic compounds (): a semantic component gives a broad category of meaning – the phonetic component suggests the sound. Usually, the radical is the semantic component.
Thus, although some authors use the term "radical" for semantic components (義符 yìfú), others distinguish the latter as "determinatives" or "significs" or by some other term.
Many radicals are merely artificial extractions of portions of characters, some of which further truncated or changed when applied (such as 亅 jué or juě in 了 liǎo), as explained by Serruys (1984), who therefore prefers the term "glyph" extraction rather than graphic extraction. This is even truer of modern dictionaries, which cut radicals to less than half the number in Shuowen, at which point it becomes impossible to have enough to cover a semantic element of every character. A sample of the Far Eastern Chinese English Dictionary of mere artificial extraction of a stroke from sub-entries:
一 in 丁 dīng and 且 qiě
乙 yǐ in 九 jiǔ
亅 jué/juě in 了 liǎo/le
二 èr in 亞 yà/yǎ
田 tián in 禺 yù
豕 shǐ in 象 xiàng.
Phonetic components
Radicals sometimes instead play a phonetic role:
In some cases, chosen radicals used phonetically coincidentally are in keeping, in step, semantically.
Character simplification
The character simplification adopted in the People's Republic of China and elsewhere has modified a number of components, including those used as radicals. This has created a number of new radical forms. For instance, in traditional writing, the character 金 jīn is written 釒(that is, with the same number of strokes, and only a minor variation) as a radical, but in simplified characters is written 钅 as a radical. That means, simplified writing has created a significant difference not present in traditional writing. A character using this radical is yín "silver"; traditionally: 銀, simplified: 银.
Dictionary lookup
Many dictionaries support using radical classification to index and lookup characters, although many present-day dictionaries supplement it with other methods as well. For example, modern dictionaries in PRC usually use the Pinyin transcription of a character to perform character lookup. Following the "section-header-and-stroke-count" method of Mei Yingzuo, characters are listed by their radical and then ordered by the number of strokes needed to write them.
The steps involved in looking up a character are:
Identify the radical under which the character is most likely to have been indexed. If one does not know, then the component on the left side or top is often a good first guess.
Find the section of the dictionary associated with that radical.
Count the number of strokes in the remaining portion of the character.
Find the pages listing characters under that radical that have that number of additional strokes.
Find the appropriate entry or experiment with different choices for steps 1 and 3.
For example, consider the character 信 xìn, meaning "truth", "faith", "sincerity", and "trust". Its radical is 亻 rén "human" (a compressed form of 人) and there are seven additional strokes in the remaining portion (言 yán, "speech"). To look up this character in a dictionary, one finds the radical for "human" in the part of dictionary that indexes radicals. The various radicals will be organized by the number of strokes they themselves contain. 人 and its compressed version 亻 contain only two strokes, so it will be near the beginning of the list. Locating it, one can see the page for the index on that radical, and one then normally passes through the lists of characters with one additional stroke, two additional strokes, etc. until one reaches the entries with seven additional strokes. If the chosen radical matches the radical used by the dictionary compiler (which can be difficult to guarantee for more complicated characters), and if both the user and the dictionary compiler count strokes the same way (also often a problem with characters that the user is unfamiliar with), the entry will be in that list, and will appear next to an entry number or a page number where the full dictionary entry for that character can be found.
As a rule of thumb, components at the left or top of the character, or elements which surround the rest of the character, are the ones most likely to be used as radical. For example, 信 is typically indexed under the left-side component 人 instead of the right-side 言; and 套 is typically indexed under the top 大 instead of the bottom 長. There are, however, idiosyncratic differences between dictionaries, and except for simple cases, the same character cannot be assumed to be indexed the same way in two different dictionaries.
In order to further ease dictionary lookup, dictionaries sometimes list radicals both under the number of strokes used to write their canonical form and under the number of strokes used to write their variant forms. For example, 心 can be listed as a four-stroke radical but might also be listed as a three-stroke radical because it is usually written as 忄 when it forms a part of another character. This means that the dictionary user need not know that the two are etymologically identical.
It is sometimes possible to find a single character indexed under multiple radicals. For example, many dictionaries list 義 under either 羊 or 戈 (the radical of its lower part 我). Furthermore, with digital dictionaries, it is now possible to search for characters by cross-reference. Using this "multi-component method" a relatively new development enabled by computing technology, the user can select all of a character's components from a table and the computer will present a list of matching characters. This eliminates the guesswork of choosing the correct radical and calculating the correct stroke count, and cuts down searching time significantly. One can query for characters containing both 羊 and 戈, and get back only five characters (羢, 義, 儀, 羬 and 羲) to search through. The Academia Sinica's 漢字構形資料庫 Chinese character structure database also works this way, returning only seven characters in this instance. Harbaugh's Chinese Characters dictionary similarly allows searches based on any component. Some modern computer dictionaries allow the user to draw characters with a mouse, stylus or finger, ideally tolerating a degree of imperfection, thus eliminating the problem of radical identification altogether.
Variations in the number of radicals
Though radicals are widely accepted as a method to categorize Chinese characters and to locate a certain character in a dictionary, there is no universal agreement about either the exact number of radicals, or the set of radicals. This is because radicals are merely arbitrarily chosen categories for lexicographical purposes.
The 214 Kangxi radicals act as a de facto standard, which may not be duplicated exactly in every Chinese dictionary, but which few dictionary compilers can afford to completely ignore. They serve as the basis for many computer encoding systems. Specifically, the Unicode standard's radical-stroke charts are based on the Kangxi radicals or radicals.
The count of commonly used radicals in modern abridged dictionaries is often less than 214. The Oxford Concise English–Chinese Dictionary (), for example, has 188. A few dictionaries also introduce new radicals based on the principles first used by Xu Shen, treating groups of radicals that are used together in many different characters as a kind of radical.
In modern practice, radicals are primarily used as lexicographic tools and as learning aids when writing characters. They have become increasingly disconnected from meaning, etymology and phonetics.
Limitations and flexibility
Some of the radicals used in Chinese dictionaries, even in the era of Kangxi, were not standalone current-usage characters; they indexed unique characters that lacked more obvious qualifiers. The radical 鬯 (chàng "sacrificial wine") indexes only a few characters. Modern dictionaries tend to eliminate these when it is possible to find some more widely used graphic element under which a character can be categorized. Some do indexing under more than one radical and/or set of key elements to make it easier to find characters.
Unicode
See also
Chinese character description languages
List of kanji radicals by stroke count
List of kanji radicals by frequency
Notes
References
Works cited
(revised 2003)
(English translation of Wénzìxué Gàiyào 文字學概要, Shangwu, 1988.)
Translated from the French original ca. 1915 by L. Davrout, S.J., orig. Catholic Mission Press; reprinted in US – Dover; Taiwan – Lucky Book Co. Dover paperback .
Further reading
Luó Zhènyù (羅振玉) 1958. 增訂殷墟書契考釋 (revised and enlarged edition on the interpretation of oracle bone inscriptions). Taipei: Yiwen Publishing (cited in Wu 1990).
Serruys, Paul L-M. (1984) "On the System of the Pu Shou 部首 in the Shuo-wen chieh-tzu 說文解字", in 中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊 Zhōngyāng Yánjiūyuàn Lìshǐ Yǔyán Yánjiūsuǒ Jíkān, v. 55:4, pp. 651–754.
Xu Shen Shuōwén Jǐezì (說文解字), is most often accessed in annotated versions, the most famous of which is Duan Yucai (1815). 說文解字注 Shuōwén Jǐezì Zhù (commentary on the Shuōwén Jíezì), compiled 1776–1807, and still reproduced in facsimile by various publishers. The reproduction by 天工書局 Tiāngōng Books (1998) in Taipei is useful because the seal characters are highlighted in red ink.
External links
Chinese Character Radicals List of Chinese Character Radicals
汉语大词典部首表 a list of radicals in the Hanyu Da Cidian
List of Chinese Character Radicals A comprehensive list of Chinese character radicals with translations
Chinese characters
Collation
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234993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Memorial | Albert Memorial | The Albert Memorial, directly north of the Royal Albert Hall in Kensington Gardens, London, was commissioned by Queen Victoria in memory of her beloved husband Prince Albert, who died in 1861. Designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the Gothic Revival style, it takes the form of an ornate canopy or pavilion tall, in the style of a Gothic ciborium over the high altar of a church, sheltering a statue of the prince facing south. It took over ten years to complete, the £120,000 cost (the equivalent of about £10,000,000 in 2010) met by public subscription.
The memorial was opened in July 1872 by Queen Victoria, with the statue of Albert ceremonially "seated" in 1876.
It has been Grade I listed since 1970.
Commission and design
When Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861, at the age of 42, the thoughts of those in government and public life turned to the form and shape of a suitable memorial, with several possibilities, such as establishing a university or international scholarships, being mentioned. Queen Victoria, however, soon made it clear that she desired a memorial "in the common sense of the word". The initiative was taken by the Lord Mayor of London, William Cubitt, who, at a meeting on 14 January 1862, appointed a committee to raise funds for a design to be approved by the Queen. The control and future course of the project, though, moved away from Mansion House, and ended up being controlled by people close to the Queen, rather than the Mayor. Those who determined the overall direction from that point on were the Queen's secretary, General Charles Grey, and the keeper of the privy purse, Sir Charles Phipps. Later, following the deaths of Grey and Phipps, their roles were taken on by Sir Henry Ponsonby and Sir Thomas Biddulph. Eventually, a four-man steering committee was established, led by Sir Charles Lock Eastlake. Eastlake had overall control for the project until his death in 1865. An initial proposal for an obelisk memorial failed, and this was followed in May 1862 by the appointment of a seven-strong committee of architects. A range of designs were submitted and examined. Two of the designs (those by Philip Charles Hardwick and George Gilbert Scott) were passed to the Queen in February 1863 for a final decision to be made. Two months later, after lengthy deliberations and negotiations with the government over the costs of the memorial, Scott's design was formally approved in April 1863.
Architectural influences
The popularity of the Prince Consort led to the creation of several "Albert Memorials" around the United Kingdom. The Kensington memorial was not the earliest; the first memorial depicting the Prince to be erected was Thomas Worthington's Albert Memorial in Albert Square, Manchester, unveiled in 1865. Both memorials present the figure of Prince Albert enclosed within a Gothic ciborium, and the similarities of design have been remarked on. (The earliest memorial to be erected was the Prince Albert Memorial in Swanage, in 1862, in the form of an obelisk.)
There is some controversy as to whether the memorial in Manchester was influenced by the publication of Scott's design, or whether Scott was himself inspired by Worthington's design, or whether both architects decided on their canopy designs independently.
Worthington's design was published in The Builder on 27 September 1862, before Scott's final design was unveiled. However, writing in his Recollections, Gilbert Scott suggested his own design was original: My idea in designing the Memorial was to erect a kind of ciborium to protect a statue of the Prince; and its special characteristic was that the ciborium was designed in some degree on the principles of the ancient shrines. These shrines were models of imaginary buildings, such as had never in reality been erected; and my idea was to realise one of these imaginary structures with its precious materials, its inlaying, its enamels, etc. etc. ... this was an idea so new as to provoke much opposition.
The Albert Memorial was not the first revivalist design for a canopied statue in a Gothic style – the Scott Monument in Edinburgh had been designed by George Meikle Kemp over twenty years earlier, and may itself have influenced Worthington's designs for Manchester.
Statue of Albert
The commission to make the seated figure of Prince Albert for the memorial was initially given to Baron Carlo Marochetti, a favourite sculptor of Queen Victoria. However, his first version was rejected by the architect of the monument, Sir George Gilbert Scott, and Marochetti died in late 1867, before a satisfactory second version could be completed. In May 1868, John Henry Foley, sculptor of the monument's Asia group, was commissioned to make the portrait, and his sketch model approved in December of that year. A full-sized model was placed on the monument in 1870, and the design approved by the Queen. The final statue was cast in bronze by Henry Prince and Company, of Southwark; Foley died in August 1874 before casting was complete.
The gilt bronze statue was ceremonially "seated" in 1875, three years after the memorial opened. Albert is shown looking south, towards the Royal Albert Hall. He is robed as a Knight of the Garter, and holds a catalogue of the Great Exhibition, which was located nearby in Hyde Park.
Frieze of Parnassus
The central part of the memorial is surrounded by the elaborate sculptural Frieze of Parnassus (named after Mount Parnassus, the favorite resting place for the Greek muses), which depicts 169 individual composers, architects, poets, painters, and sculptors. Musicians and poets were placed on the south side, with painters on the east side, sculptors on the west side, and architects on the north side. Henry Hugh Armstead carved the figures on the south and east side, the painters, musicians and poets (80 in total), and grouped them by national schools. John Birnie Philip carved the figures on the west and north side, the sculptors and architects, and arranged them in chronological order.
Allegorical sculptures
At the corners of the central area, and at the corners of the outer area, there are two programmes of allegorical sculpture, or at least sculptures of personifications: four groups depicting Victorian industrial arts and sciences (agriculture, commerce, engineering and manufacturing), and four more groups representing the traditional four continents: Africa, the Americas, Asia and Europe at the four corners, each continent-group including several ethnographic figures and a large animal: A camel for Africa, a bison for the Americas, an elephant for Asia and a bull for Europe.
These groups represent something of a blend of traditional iconography for the continents personified, and an attempt to update them.
Canopy
The form of the monument "is clearly derived" from the Gothic Scaliger Tombs outside a church in Verona. The mosaics for each side and beneath the canopy of the Memorial were designed by Clayton and Bell and manufactured by the firm of Salviati of Murano, Venice.
The memorial's canopy features several mosaics as external and internal decorative artworks. Each of the four external mosaics shows a central allegorical figure of the four arts (poetry, painting, architecture and sculpture), supported by two historical figures either side. The historical figures are: King David and Homer (POESIS – poetry), Apelles and Raphael (painting), Solomon and Ictinus (architecture), and Phidias and Michelangelo (sculpture). Materials used in the mosaics include enamel, polished stone, agate, onyx, jasper, cornelian, crystal, marble, and granite.
Around the canopy, below its cornice, is a dedicatory legend split into four parts, one for each side. The legend reads: Queen Victoria And Her People • To The Memory Of Albert Prince Consort • As A Tribute Of Their Gratitude • For A Life Devoted to the Public Good.
The pillars and niches of the canopy feature eight statues representing the practical arts and sciences: Astronomy, Geology, Chemistry, Geometry (on the four pillars) and Rhetoric, Medicine, Philosophy and Physiology (in the four niches).
Near the top of the canopy's tower are eight statues of the moral and Christian virtues, including the four cardinal virtues and the three theological virtues. The virtues are: Faith, Hope, Charity and Humility, and Fortitude, Prudence, Justice and Temperance. Humility is considered to be annexed to the virtue of temperance. Above these, towards the top of the tower, are gilded angels raising their arms heavenwards. At the very top of the tower is a gold cross.
Foundations
Below the Memorial is a large undercroft, consisting of numerous brick arches, which serves as the foundation that supports the large weight of the stone and metal used to build the monument.
Architects
The memorial was planned by a committee of architects led by Sir George Gilbert Scott. The other architects, some of whom died during the course of the project, or were replaced, included Carlo Marochetti, Thomas Leverton Donaldson, William Tite, Sydney Smirke, James Pennethorne, Matthew Digby Wyatt, Philip C. Hardwick, William Burn and Edward Middleton Barry.
Sculptors
The sculptor Henry Hugh Armstead coordinated this massive effort among many artists of the Royal Academy, including Thomas Thornycroft (carved the "Commerce" group), Patrick MacDowell (carved the "Europe" group, his last major work), John Bell (carved the "America" group), John Henry Foley (carved the "Asia" group and started the statue of Albert), William Theed (carved the "Africa" group), William Calder Marshall, James Redfern (carved the four Christian and four moral virtues including Fortitude), John Lawlor (carved the "Engineering" group) and Henry Weekes (carved the "Manufactures" group). The Scottish sculptor William Calder Marshall carved the "Agriculture" group. The figure of Albert himself, although begun by Foley, was completed by Thomas Brock, in what was Brock's first major work.
Armstead created some 80 of the figure sculptures on the southern and eastern sides of the memorial's podium. The north and west sides were carved by the sculptor John Birnie Philip. Armstead also sculpted the bronze statues representing Astronomy, Chemistry, Rhetoric, and Medicine.
Henry Weekes carved the allegorical work Manufactures (1864–70). Although Weekes was not on Queen Victoria's original list of sculptors, being selected to work on the project only after John Gibson declined to participate, his group occupies the preferable south side of the finished monument. A central female figure holds an hourglass, symbolising the critical nature of time to industry, while an ironworker stands at his anvil and a potter and weaver offer their wares.
Later history
On 23rd of March, 1958, Spike Milligan included the Albert Memorial as part of his Goon Show episode 'The First Albert Memorial to the Moon'! However, the statue of Prince Albert was removed to a place of safety before the rest of the memorial was transformed into a spaceship.
By the late 1990s the Memorial had fallen into a state of some decay. A thorough restoration was carried out by Mowlem which included cleaning, repainting, and re-gilding the entire monument as well as carrying out structural repairs. In the process the cross on top of the monument, which had been put on sideways during an earlier restoration attempt, was returned to its correct position. Some of the restoration, including repairs to damaged friezes, were of limited success.
The centrepiece of the Memorial is a seated figure of Prince Albert. Following restoration, this is now covered in gold leaf. For eighty years the statue had been covered in black paint. Various theories had existed that it was deliberately blackened during World War I to prevent it becoming a target for Zeppelin bombing raids or domestic anti-German sentiment. However, English Heritage's research prior to the restoration suggests that the black coating pre-dates 1914 and may have been a response to atmospheric pollution that had destroyed the original gold leaf surface. Further restoration work, including re-pointing the steps surrounding the memorial, commenced in the summer of 2006.
Public afternoon tours are held on the first Sunday each month allowing visitors a closer look at the Frieze of Parnassus.
See also
List of public art in Kensington Gardens § Albert Memorial
References
External links
The Albert Memorial at the Survey of London online:
Design and commissioning
Description
Albertopolis: Albert Memorial—Architecture of the memorial (RIBA)
BBC News News story about the restoration, dated 11 May 1998
IanVisits blog—Under Albert: the foundations under the memorial, dated 7 February 2007
V&A Collections Images and details of Scott's original model for the memorial
1872 sculptures
Buildings and structures completed in 1875
Grade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Grade I listed monuments and memorials
George Gilbert Scott buildings and structures
Gothic Revival architecture in London
Monuments and memorials in London
Monuments and memorials to Albert, Prince Consort
Royal monuments in the United Kingdom
Victorian era
Tourist attractions in the City of Westminster
Kensington Gardens
1872 establishments in the United Kingdom | [
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234994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicoleta%20Alexandru | Nicoleta Alexandru | Nicoleta Alexandru (; born 5 November 1968), whose stage name is Nicola (), is a Romanian singer. She is best known for representing Romania at the 2003 Eurovision Song Contest.
Life and career
Nicoleta Alexandru was born in Bucharest, Romania. Nicola began her solo career in 1992 and has since toured extensively and made numerous television, radio and stage appearances. In 2003, she was awarded the Woman of the Year award by Avantaje magazine, her song "Lângă mine" was awarded "The Song of the Year" prize by București and Actualitati Radio stations, and she was awarded Mamaia and Love Song Festival trophies for the same song.
On 1 March 2003, after a huge response to her song "Don't Break My Heart," Nicola won the Romanian national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest at Riga. In the international final, she came in 10th place. She released her fourth LP, Best Of Nicola, that same year. Building on the recognition gained from the Eurovision Song Contest, the album sold more copies than expected for a Romanian artist and was certified platinum. That year she also won "Best Female" at the TV K Lumea awards.
In January 2005, she released "De mă vei chema" which went on to spawn two hit singles; "De mă vei chema" and "Honey". She subsequently launched the video for lead single "De mă vei chema," which was filmed near Bucharest. It featured her backing band, consisting of Andrei Stanoevici, Cătălin Dalvarea, Ștefan Corbu and her ex-husband Mihai Alexandru. Nominated for her success, she faced tough competition for "Best Pop" and "Best Female" at the MTV Romania Music Awards 2005; the latter she went on to win. In late 2005, it was announced she and her husband, Mihai Alexandru, were set to divorce after 15 years of marriage. The divorce became big news in Romanian tabloids, not only because of her fame, but also the nature of the divorce and his status as a high-profile music producer.
In summer 2007, Nicola returned to the charts with "Doar noi doi". The video was filmed on location in Barcelona, Spain. Later on in the year, she released "Dacă-i tarziu," which was set to launch her fourth studio album, but the release was held back to participate in Romania's national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. Her song, "Fairytale Story", placed 7th out of 12 songs in the national final. Nicola then went on to release the single, "Leave No Heart Behind," in fall 2008, which was written by Thomas Nichols, who co-wrote songs by Céline Dion and All Saints.
On 21 August 2009, Nicola launched her studio album, "Thank You". The first single released from the album was My Love, which was co-worked with Kord. The single has a music video, which was directed by Dragoș Buliga.
Discography
Albums
Cu tălpile goale (1999) ("Barefoot")
Turquoise (2000)
Vamos a Mamaia
Domnul președinte
Ce mult te vreau
I Feel Good
Freak d'a disk
Turquoise
Iarna (Milioane)
Mr. Joe
Hercules
Lângă mine (2002) ("Beside Me")
Lângă mine
Undeva, cândva
I Do
Eu
Îți mulțumesc
Cântec pentru Iisus
Te așteaptă cineva
Undeva, cândva – rmx
Best of Nicola (2003)
Lângă mine
Dincolo de noapte e zi
Îți mulțumesc
Turquoise
Lângă mine (phantom winter tale rmx)
Iarna (Milioane)
Dincolo de noapte e zi (rmx)
Don't Break My Heart
Cu tălpile goale
I Do
Halimah
Undeva, cândva
Vamos a Mamaia
Lângă mine (phantom rmx)
De mă vei chema (2005) ("If You Call Me")
De mă vei chema
Honey
Ascunde-mă de ploaie
A venit
Don't Break My Heart
Nu știam
Power of Love
Love Is...
Ascunde-mă de ploaie – rmx
Îți mulțumesc (feat. Dana Dorian)
Thank You (2009)
My Love (Tango remix by Kord)
My Love (white vers.)
My Love (extended)
Leave No Heart Hehind
Doar noi doi
Fairytale Story
Omule de pe stradă
Thank You
Poveste
Vise în doi
Dacă-i târziu
The Winner Takes It All
Dansez
Yeah, Yeah
References
External links
www.nicola.ro-NICOLA Official Website
NICOLA Official MySpace
1968 births
Living people
20th-century Romanian women singers
21st-century Romanian women singers
Romanian women pop singers
English-language singers from Romania
Musicians from Bucharest
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Romania
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003 | [
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234997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Nash | Francis Nash | Francis Nash (October 7, 1777) was a brigadier general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Prior to the war, he was a lawyer, public official, and politician in Hillsborough, North Carolina, and was heavily involved in opposing the Regulator movement, an uprising of settlers in the North Carolina piedmont between 1765 and 1771. Nash was also involved in North Carolina politics, representing Hillsborough on several occasions in the colonial North Carolina General Assembly.
Nash quickly became engaged in revolutionary activities, and served as a delegate to the first three Patriot provincial congresses. In 1775, he was named lieutenant colonel of the 1st North Carolina Regiment under Colonel James Moore, and served briefly in the southern theater of the Revolutionary War before being ordered north. Nash was made a brigadier general in 1777 upon Moore's death, and given command of the North Carolina brigade of the Continental Army under General George Washington. He led North Carolina's soldiers in the Philadelphia campaign, but was wounded at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777, and died several days later. Nash was one of ten Patriot generals to die from wounds received in combat between 1775 and 1781. He is honored by several city and county names, including those of Nashville, Tennessee; Nashville, North Carolina; and Nash County, North Carolina.
Early life and family
Nash was born around 1742 in Amelia County, Virginia (in an area that would later become Prince Edward County) to John and Ann Owen Nash. His parents were originally from Wales, and several of his seven siblings, including at least one brother, were born there. One of Nash's brothers was Abner Nash, who later became a statesman in North Carolina.
By 1763, Francis Nash had moved along with Abner to Childsburgh, which later became Hillsborough. There Francis started a law practice, and became a clerk of court in 1763, a position which paid an annual stipend of £100 sterling. The Nash brothers also owned substantial property in the town, and established a mill on the Eno River, while Francis invested in a local store. From 1764 to 1765, he served his first term in the North Carolina Assembly representing Orange County.
In 1770, Nash married Sarah Moore, the daughter of colonial jurist Maurice Moore, niece of James Moore, and sister of future United States Supreme Court Justice Alfred Moore. Their union produced two daughters: Ann, who died as a child, and Sarah, who went on to marry John Waddell, the son of North Carolina colonial soldier Hugh Waddell. Sarah was the grandmother to American Civil War Confederate blockade runner James Iredell Waddell. Francis Nash had two children out of wedlock, one of whom some scholars identify as a son also named Francis Nash, possibly born in 1770 or 1771. The mother of one of the children was reported as Hillsborough barmaid Ruth Jackson. Francis Nash the elder provided Jackson with property west of Hillsborough, and several slaves.
War of the Regulation and pre-Revolution politics
Nash showed an interest in military affairs while living in Hillsborough, and received informal military training from a retired English soldier living there. He worked his way up through the Orange County militia ranks until he eventually became its commanding colonel. During the War of the Regulation, in 1768, he ordered the militia to put down several riots incited by the Regulators, but the militiamen were sympathetic towards the rioters and refused. Nash entered into a pact with others including Edmund Fanning, Adlai Osborne, and future governor Alexander Martin, to protect one another's property against Regulator threats, but the parties to that agreement lived at great distances from each other, rendering the pact ineffective.
Along with Fanning, who was a personal friend, Nash was accused of extorting money from Hillsborough's residents. Regulator leaders attempted to have Nash tried for corruption, but the charges against him were dismissed. In September 1770, a group of Regulators took control of Hillsborough, forcing Nash and other public officials to flee for fear of bodily harm. Nash subsequently fought alongside Governor William Tryon in the Battle of Alamance against the Regulator militia. He served in the "Lower House" of the colonial Assembly in 1771 and from 1773 to 1775 as a representative for Hillsborough.
In 1774, Royal Governor Josiah Martin postponed the scheduled convening of the Province of North Carolina House of Burgesses to prevent the North Carolina Assembly from selecting delegates to the proposed Continental Congress, which was to begin in Philadelphia in September. In response, members of the Assembly, many of whom would later become Patriot supporters, convened the First North Carolina Provincial Congress in August 1774. Nash and his brother, Abner, were both elected to that body, along with 69 other North Carolinians, which then selected delegates to the Continental Congress. Governor Martin condemned the Provincial Congress as an extra-legal body not permitted to assemble and represent the people of North Carolina. In an attempt to quash its work, the Governor called the House of Burgesses to convene on April 5, 1775, but the Second North Carolina Provincial Congress met in a session several hours before the Assembly was set to open and many of the congressional delegates, including Nash, voted to support the work of the Continental and Provincial Congresses. In response, Martin dissolved the Assembly on April 8, 1775. Nash was a representative of the House of Burgesses that met until April 8. The Royal government would never again call an Assembly to session in North Carolina.
American Revolutionary War
Southern theater
In 1775, Nash served in the Third North Carolina Provincial Congress, which organized eight regiments of soldiers on instructions from the Continental Congress. Later that year, the Provincial Congress appointed Nash lieutenant colonel of the 1st North Carolina Regiment under the command of then-colonel James Moore. In November, the 1st North Carolina was formally integrated into the Continental Army organization. Nash served as an officer under Moore during the maneuvers that led up to the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in February 1776 but, like Moore, did not participate in the battle, arriving after its conclusion.
During April 1776, Nash was promoted to colonel to replace Moore, who had been promoted to brigadier general. Nash took part in the expedition to aid Charleston in 1776, which culminated in the Battle of Sullivan's Island. Immediately prior to that engagement, Nash had been ordered by Major General Charles Lee, commander of the Southern Department, to relieve William Moultrie's South Carolina troops on Sullivan's Island, but the British assault prevented that relief. Moultrie would go on to successfully defend the island from a much larger British force, while Nash's unit guarded the unfinished rear of Fort Sullivan.
Philadelphia campaign
Nash returned with his regiment to North Carolina in anticipation of joining General George Washington's army in the north, but fears of British and Indian attacks in Georgia prevented any such action, and caused Nash to remain in his home state. On February 5, 1777, he was promoted to brigadier general by the Continental Congress. He was also tasked with recruiting more soldiers from the western part of the state, but was forced to abandon that task after James Moore's death on April 15, 1777. Nash was then placed in command of the North Carolina brigade. Although fellow North Carolinian Robert Howe's commission as a brigadier general predated Nash's, Howe had been made commander of the Southern Department of the Continental Army, and he was forced to remain in command of the troops defending South Carolina. Nash marched north to join Washington's army and commanded all nine North Carolina Continental Army regiments at the Battle of Brandywine.
Battle of Germantown and death
After the British captured Philadelphia on September 26, 1777, Washington took to the offensive and struck at the main part of the British Army near Philadelphia in the Battle of Germantown on October 4. Initially, the North Carolina brigade was intended to serve in the Continental Army's reserve but Washington, out of a desire to defend his flank, ordered Nash into action. Nash was commanding a fighting retreat, slowly moving his unit backwards to stall the British advance, when he was mortally wounded by a cannonball that struck him in the hip and killed his horse. The same cannonball killed Major James Witherspoon, son of John Witherspoon, the president of Princeton University and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Nash may have also been blinded by a musket ball that struck him in the head. Thomas Paine, who saw him taken off the battlefield, later stated that Nash's wounds had made him unrecognizable.
Nash was treated by Washington's personal physician, James Craik, who could not stem his bleeding, which was reported to have fully soaked through two mattresses. Nash succumbed to his wounds on October 7 at a private residence near Kulpsville, Pennsylvania. His final words are alleged to have been "From the first dawn of the Revolution I have been ever on the side of liberty and my country". He was buried in the Towamencin Mennonite Meetinghouse Cemetery in Towamencin Township, Pennsylvania, on October 9, 1777, along with other officers who had perished at Germantown. Most of the Continental Army's senior officers, including Washington himself, attended the funeral service. Nash's friend and colleague Alexander Martin, who later became Governor of the State of North Carolina and who had witnessed Nash's wounding, later composed a funeral poem in the fallen general's honor.
Legacy
Nash was one of ten Patriot generals who died during the American Revolutionary War. After his death, on April 29, 1784, Congress awarded his heirs a land grant representing 84 months of Continental Army service, which exceeded Nash's actual service time. Nashville, Tennessee (originally called "Fort Nashborough"), Nashville, North Carolina, the city of Nashville, Georgia, and Nash County, North Carolina, are named in his honor. In 1906, a stone arch was erected on the grounds of Guilford Courthouse National Military Park in Nash's honor, but it was demolished in 1937. Nash's home in Hillsborough is now known as the Nash-Hooper House, as it was purchased by William Hooper, a signatory to the Declaration of Independence, after Nash's death. In 1938, a historical marker was placed near the house commemorating Nash's life and service. The Nash-Hooper House was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971. It is located in the Hillsborough Historic District.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Photographs of grave monuments of Nash
1740s births
1777 deaths
People from Prince Edward County, Virginia
American people of Welsh descent
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from North Carolina
United States military personnel killed in the American Revolutionary War
North Carolina lawyers
People of colonial North Carolina
People from Hillsborough, North Carolina
Members of the North Carolina Provincial Congresses
Members of the North Carolina House of Burgesses | [
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] |
234998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20hyperbolic%20functions | List of integrals of hyperbolic functions | The following is a list of integrals (anti-derivative functions) of hyperbolic functions. For a complete list of integral functions, see list of integrals.
In all formulas the constant a is assumed to be nonzero, and C
denotes the constant of integration.
Integrals involving only hyperbolic sine functions
also:
also:
Integrals involving only hyperbolic cosine functions
also:
also:
or times The Logistic Function
Other integrals
Integrals of hyperbolic tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant functions
Integrals involving hyperbolic sine and cosine functions
also:
Integrals involving hyperbolic and trigonometric functions
Exponentials
Hyperbolic functions | [
-0.8573058247566223,
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234999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speak%20of%20the%20devil | Speak of the devil | "Speak of the devil" is the short form of the English-language idiom "Speak of the devil and he doth appear" (or its alternative form "speak of the devil and he shall appear"). The form "talk of the devil" is also in use in England. It is used when an object of discussion unexpectedly becomes present during the conversation.
It can also be used about a topic that quickly becomes relevant, such as the onset of rain or a car breaking down. Used in this sense it can be seen as an alternative to the phrase "tempting fate".
The phrase may be traced back to the 16th century and for a long time it implied the prohibition of mentioning the devil. In the modern times it has lost its sinister meaning.
References
English-language idioms
Demonology
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235000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most%20valuable%20player | Most valuable player | In sports, a most valuable player award is an honor typically bestowed upon an individual as the most performing player (or players) in an entire league, for a particular competition, or on a specific team. Initially used in professional sports, the term is now also commonly used in amateur sports, as well as in other unrelated fields such as media, business,, music and multiplayer video games. In many sports, MVP awards are presented for a specific match—in other words, a player of the match award. This is particularly true for high profile matches like championship games.
The term is most common in the United States and Canada. In most other countries around the world, "player of the year" is used for a season-spanning award and "player of the match" for individual games. In Australia, Australian rules football clubs and leagues use the term "best and fairest", while those playing rugby league use "player of the year", such as the Dally M Medal. The National Basketball League, however, uses the American-style "MVP" for its awards.
In many cases the awards are voted on by members of the media. In others the vote is by players, coaches, or umpires. In recent years, online polls from the public decide some awards.
Sports
Examples include:
Major League Baseball's American and National Leagues, AL & NL Championship Series, and World Series; also All-Star Game
National Football League regular season and Super Bowl; also Pro Bowl
Hart Memorial Trophy and Lester B. Pearson/Ted Lindsay Award (National Hockey League regular season) and Conn Smythe Trophy (playoffs); the All-Star Game also has an MVP
National Basketball Association regular season and Finals; also NBA All-Star Game
Woman National Basketball Association regular season and Finals
EuroLeague MVP
Major League Soccer regular season and MLS Cup; also MLS All-Star Game
FIVB Tournaments
Canadian Football League regular season, East Division, West Division, and Grey Cup; also "Most Valuable Canadian" awards for the regular season and Grey Cup
College football's Heisman Trophy
NCAA Basketball Tournament; there are also various awards for the player(s) selected as player of the year
Indian Premier League
National Basketball League regular season and Grand Final
Leigh Matthews Trophy, given by the AFL Players Association to the AFL's most valuable player (as opposed to the Brownlow Medal, given to the fairest and best)
Philippine Basketball Association regular season, PBA Finals; also PBA All-Star Game
European League of Football both for their regular season and their Championship Game
See also
Athlete of the Year
Most Outstanding Player (disambiguation)
References
Sports competitors
Sports trophies and awards
Terminology used in multiple sports | [
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235003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago%20de%20Cuba | Santiago de Cuba | Santiago de Cuba is the second-largest city in Cuba and the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province. It lies in the southeastern area of the island, some southeast of the Cuban capital of Havana.
The municipality extends over , and contains the communities of Antonio Maceo, Bravo, Castillo Duany, Daiquirí, El Caney, El Cobre, El Cristo, Guilera, Leyte Vidal, Moncada and Siboney.
Historically Santiago de Cuba has long been the second-most important city on the island after Havana, and remains the second-largest. It is on a bay connected to the Caribbean Sea and is an important sea port. In the 2012 population census, the city of Santiago de Cuba recorded a population of 431,272 people.
History
Santiago de Cuba was the fifth village founded by Spanish conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar on July 25, 1515. The settlement was destroyed by fire in 1516, and was immediately rebuilt. This was the starting point of the expeditions led by Juan de Grijalba and Hernán Cortés to the coasts of Mexico in 1518, and in 1538 by Hernando de Soto's expedition to Florida. The first cathedral was built in the city in 1528. From 1522 until 1589, Santiago was the capital of the Spanish colony of Cuba.
The city was plundered by French forces in 1553, and by English forces in 1603. More than 50 years later the English raided again in 1662 under Christopher Myngs.
The city had a huge influx of French and British immigrants in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Some eighteen thousand refugees, both ethnic French whites and free people of color, and African freedmen, came from Saint-Domingue in the summer of 1803 during the last days of the Haitian slave revolt, which had started in 1791. Other refugees had emigrated from Saint-Domingue earlier in the revolution. Haiti declared its independence as a republic in 1804.
The French were withdrawing surviving troops after suffering heavy losses from warfare and yellow fever. The immigrants, who included freedmen as France had abolished slavery on Saint-Domingue, struggled to maintain their freedom in Cuba, which was still a slave society. Cuba initially allowed only white refugees, women of color, children, and loyal "domestics" to land; French troops and all men of color over the age of thirteen were held off shore, to be rapidly deported to the mainland, as they were considered a revolutionary threat. Some French soldiers joined other refugees in Charleston, South Carolina, or New York City; others went to New Orleans.
The refugees who stayed added to the city's eclectic cultural mix, already rich with Spanish and African culture. Some of the women and children were impressed into slavery again, although they had been free. In 1809, after Napoleon Bonaparte's forces invaded Spain, French citizens were ordered out of Cuba. Most went to the United States, and thousands settled in New Orleans, with the freedmen increasing its African culture, as most had been born in Africa. The ethnic French whites and free people of color, generally with longer ties to French culture, added their flavor to the culture of the city as well.
Near the end of the century, during the Spanish–American War, Santiago was the site of the major defeat of Spanish troops at San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898. After capturing the surrounding hills, United States General William Rufus Shafter laid siege to the city. Spain later surrendered to the United States after Admiral William T. Sampson destroyed the Spanish Atlantic fleet just outside Santiago's harbor on July 3, 1898. Cuba had declared independence from Spain but was occupied by US troops for several years. Historians suggest they were there to ensure the sugar economy continued to be productive.
José Martí, a Cuban poet, writer, and national hero, is buried in Santa Ifigenia Cemetery in this city.
Role in the Cuban Revolution
Santiago was the home of the 20th-century revolutionary hero Frank País. On July 26, 1953, the Cuban Revolution began with an ill-prepared armed attack on the Moncada Barracks by a small contingent of rebels led by Fidel Castro. Shortly after this disastrous incident, País began talking with students and young working people informally, drawing around him what became an extremely effective urban revolutionary alliance. He and his followers developed highly organized cells, coordinating a large-scale urban resistance that became instrumental in the success of the Cuban Revolution.
País' group prepared carefully, accruing weapons, collecting money, collecting medical supplies. They published a cheap newsletter that reported news critical of the government, attempting to counter Batista's censorship of the mainline press.
In the summer of 1955, País's organization merged with Castro's July 26 Movement. País became the leader of the new organization in Oriente province. Two years later he was betrayed to the police and was fatally shot after his capture.
On January 1, 1959, Fidel Castro proclaimed the victory of the Cuban Revolution from a balcony on Santiago de Cuba's city hall. The ashes of País were interred in Santa Ifigenia Cemetery, where Marti had been buried.
Culture
Santiago de Cuba was the hometown of poet José María Heredia. The Teatro Heredia, which hosts theater and cultural events, is named in his honor. The mural relief portrait on the building façade depicts Juan Almeida Bosque, a commander of insurgent forces in the Cuban Revolution.
It is the birthplace of the world-famous Bacardi brand, which was started by Facundo Bacardi Masso in 1862. It now houses a museum that displays the extensive art collection of the Bacardí family.
Santiago de Cuba is well known for its cultural life. Some of Cuba's most famous musicians, including Compay Segundo, Ibrahim Ferrer and Eliades Ochoa (all of whom participated in the film Buena Vista Social Club) and trova composer Ñico Saquito (Benito Antonio Fernández Ortiz) were born in the city or in one of the villages surrounding it. They have contributed to the typical, country-like music of the city.
Santiago de Cuba is well known for its traditional dances, most notably son, from which salsa has been derived. The city celebrates Carnival in July, although it typically precedes Lent. With the city preoccupied with the holiday, Castro chose July 26 to enter undetected into the city to assault the Moncada Barracks. During Carnival, traditional conga music is played in the streets on a traditional pentatonic trumpet, called the trompeta china.
A relatively high number of residents of the city adhere to Afro-Cuban religions, most notably santería. The city hosts an important community of descendants of immigrants from the early 19th century from what is now Haiti. Some aspects of the religious "vodún" heritage of the city can be traced back to this community.
The city features several historic architectural styles, from Baroque to neoclassical. Many colonial buildings have huge windows and balconies, where people can enjoy views of the steep streets and wooded hills. Preserved historical treasures include the first Spanish dwelling in the Americas, the first cathedral in Cuba, Cobre mine, the first copper mine opened in the Americas; and the first Cuban museum.
World Heritage Site
The local citadel of San Pedro de la Roca is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as "the most complete, best-preserved example of Spanish-American military architecture, based on Italian and Renaissance design principles".
World Heritage Biosphere Reserve
The Baconao Park was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Biosphere Reserve List in 1987.
Geography
Santiago de Cuba is located in the southeast of the island at coordinates 20° 01' 17.42" N 75° 49' 45.75" W, some of the capital, Havana. Historically Santiago de Cuba has been the second-largest city in Cuba, behind Havana. It features a bay connected to the Caribbean Sea and is a major port. The municipality of Santiago de Cuba, its capital city, is the most populated municipality of Cuba.
The city has developed at the foot of the bay and is surrounded on land by the Sierra Maestra. It has a hot and humid climate. The landscapes includes the complexity of urban elements, and natural greenery and marine settings, all at the same time. It has an irregular offset to the bay, which contributed to the development of an urban setting where the avenues and streets are steep or descend.
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Santiago de Cuba has a tropical savanna climate with no significant wet and dry periods through the year.
Demographics
In the 2012 population census the city of Santiago de Cuba recorded a population of 431,272 people.
Communications
Santiago is served by Antonio Maceo Airport. Cubana de Aviación connects the city with Havana, Port Au Prince, and Santo Domingo, with other airlines connecting to other cities in the Caribbean and North America.
The public transport in the city, as in Havana, is carried out by two divisions, Omnibus Metropolitanos (OM) and Metrobus. The Metrobus serves the inner-city urban area, with a maximum distance of . Omnibus Metropolitanos (OM) connects the adjacent towns and municipalities in the metropolitan area with the city center, with a maximum distance of .
Ferrocarriles de Cuba railways and ASTRO inter-city buses connect the city with Havana's Central Railway Station and with most other main cities of Cuba. The main railway station, also known as "General Senén Casas", is an important hub of the national railways. Located in the city centre, near the harbour, this was completely rebuilt in 1997.
The city of Santiago is also crossed by the Carretera Central highway and by the southern section of the A1 motorway, largely unbuilt, that will link it with Havana when it is completed.
Schools
The main tertiary education institution is the University of Santiago de Cuba (Universidad de Oriente - Santiago de Cuba, UO).
Natives and residents
Yordenis Ugas - boxer
Desi Arnaz - television/film actor, producer and bandleader
Emilio Bacardí - industrialist and philanthropist
Eusebia Cosme - declamdora negra, actress
Orestes Destrade - professional baseball player
Emilio Estefan - music producer and husband of singer Gloria Estefan
Silvina Fabars - National Dance Award recipient of 2014 and principal dancer of the Conjunto Folclórico Nacional
Ibrahim Ferrer - musician
Sindo Garay - musician
José María Heredia y Heredia - poet
Pancho Herrera- professional baseball player
Alberto Juantorena - Olympic gold medallist, 1976 Olympics
Faizon Love - television/film actor, comedian
Konnan - professional wrestler
Olga Guillot - singer
Paul Lafargue - journalist, literary critic, political writer and activist
La Lupe - salsa singer
Antonio Maceo Grajales - independence hero
Rita Marley - singer and wife of reggae singer Bob Marley
José Martí - independence hero; interred in Santiago de Cuba
Miguel Matamoros - musician
Eliades Ochoa - musician
Frank Pais - revolutionary and urban organizer for the 26th of July Movement
Richard Pérez-Peña - New York Times reporter
Carmen Quidiello – poet, playwright, First Lady of the Dominican Republic (1963)
Jorge Reyes - author
Jorge Mas Canosa
Marco Rizo - pianist, composer and arranger
Mariblanca Sabas Alomá - feminist and journalist
Esteban Salas y Castro - Baroque composer
Ñico Saquito (Benito Antonio Fernández Ortiz) - musician and trova composer
Compay Segundo - musician
International relations
Twin towns – Sister cities
Santiago de Cuba is twinned with:
Diadema, São Paulo, Brazil
Naples, Italy
Oakland, California, United States
Rosario, Argentina
See also
1766 Cuba earthquake
Battle of Santiago de Cuba, 1898
Carnaval of Santiago de Cuba
Communidad Hebrea Hatikva
List of cities in Cuba
List of places in Cuba
Oriente Province
Santa Ifigenia Cemetery - burial place for many important figures of Santiago de Cuba
References
Bibliography
External links
Municipality webpage
Map of Santiago Bay from 1639
Cities in Cuba
Populated places in Santiago de Cuba Province
Port cities in Cuba
Populated places established in 1515
1515 establishments in the Spanish West Indies
1510s establishments in Cuba
World Heritage Sites in Cuba | [
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235012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20places%20in%20Cuba | List of places in Cuba | This is a list of places in Cuba.
Cities
Bayamo
Camagüey
Ciego de Ávila
Cienfuegos
Guantánamo
Havana
Holguín
Las Tunas
Matanzas
Pinar del Río
Sancti Spíritus
Santa Clara
Santiago de Cuba
Provinces
Camagüey Province
Ciego de Ávila Province
Cienfuegos Province
Ciudad de La Habana
Granma Province
Guantánamo Province
Holguín Province
La Habana Province (1976-2011)
Artemisa Province (2011-present)
Mayabeque Province (2011-present)
Las Tunas Province
Matanzas Province
Pinar del Río Province
Sancti Spiritus Province
Santiago de Cuba Province
Villa Clara Province
Historic provinces
Pinar del Río
La Habana
Matanzas
Las Villas (before 1940, "Santa Clara"), contained the present day provinces of Cienfuegos, Villa Clara and Sancti Spíritus
Camagüey (before 1899, "Puerto Príncipe"), contained the present day provinces of Camagüey and Ciego de Ávila
Oriente (before 1905, "Santiago de Cuba"), contained the present day provinces of Las Tunas, Granma, Holguín, Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo
Special territories
Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, treaty enclave of the United States
Geographic features
Gulfs and bays: Gulf of Batabanó, Bay of Havana, Ensenada de la Broa, Bay of Cárdenas, Gulf of Cazones, Gulf of Guacanayabo, Guantánamo Bay, Bay of Pigs, Bay of Santa Clara, Bay of Matanzas
Islands: Colorados Archipelago; Canarreos Archipelago: Isla de la Juventud (Isla de Pinos), Cayo Largo del Sur, Ernst Thälmann Island (Cayo Blanco), Jardines del Rey, Sabana-Camaguey Archipelago: Cayo Coco, Cayo Romano, Cayo Guajaba, Cayo Guillermo, Cayo Sabinal; Jardines de la Reina; Cayo Saetia
Rivers: Almendares River, Cauto River, Toa River
Lakes: Laguna de Leche, Ariguanabo, Zaza Reservoir (man-made)
Mountains: Loma del Capiro, Topes de Collantes, Escambray Mountains, Mogotes de Jumagua, Sierra Cristal, Sierra Maestra, Sierra del Rosario, San Juan Hill, Cuchillas del Toa, Pico Turquino, El Yunque
Other: Guanahacabibes Peninsula, Hicacos Peninsula, Viñales Valley, Zapata Peninsula, Escaleras de Jaruco
Municipalities
The provinces of Cuba are divided into 200 municipalities (municipios). They were defined by Cuban Law Number 1304 of July 3, 1976.
References
Places
Cuba | [
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235017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candyass | Candyass | Candyass is the debut album by American industrial rock band Orgy. It was released on August 18, 1998.
Track listing
Singles
"Blue Monday" release date: February 9, 1999
"Stitches" release date: November 23, 1999
Personnel
Jay Gordon – vocals, programming, additional synthesizers
Ryan Shuck – rhythm guitar
Amir Derakh – lead guitar, additional engineering
Paige Haley – bass
Bobby Hewitt – drums
Chad Fridirici – engineering, mixing on "Gender", pro-tool editing
Josh Abraham – production, additional engineering, programming, additional synthesizers
Dave Ogilvie – mixing
David Kahne – mixing on "Stiches", "Fetisha"
Jay Baumgardner – mixing on "Pantomime"
Tom Baker – mastering
Brian Virtue – assistant engineer
Cope Till – assistant engineer
Doug Trantow – assistant engineer
Anthony Valcic – programming
Jonathan Davis – additional vocals on "Revival"
Elijah Blue Allman – additional vocals on "Revival", additional synthesizers
Troy Van Leeuwen – additional guitars on "Social Enemies" and "Dissention"
Steve Gerdes – art direction, design
Joseph Cultice – photography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Notes
References
Orgy (band) albums
1998 debut albums
Reprise Records albums
Warner Records albums
Albums produced by Josh Abraham | [
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235022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian%20von%20Fersen | Fabian von Fersen | Baron Fabian von Fersen (February 7, 1626 – July 30, 1677) was a Swedish general, freelord, field-marshal and governor general of Skåne, Halland and Blekinge. He served the Swedish Empire in multiple wars and received appointments Field Marshal, and then Governor General of the Scanian lands, which included the provinces of Skåne, Halland and Blekinge in 1676.
Early life
Military career
Death
After his death he was buried in St Mary's Cathedral, Reval (Modern-day Tallinn), where a sarcophagus created by the sculptor Johann Gustav Stockenberg was erected in his memory.
References
1626 births
1677 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish nobility
17th-century Swedish military personnel
Swedish people of German descent
17th-century Swedish politicians
Burials at St Mary's Cathedral, Tallinn
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235024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14%3A59 | 14:59 | 14:59 is the third studio album by American rock band Sugar Ray, released on January 12, 1999. It entered the top 20 on the Billboard 200, peaking at number 17 and certified quadruple-platinum by the RIAA. The album shows the band moving into a more mainstream pop rock sound, due to the success of their single "Fly" off their prior album, Floored. The album's title is a self-deprecating reference to the "15 minutes of fame" critics claimed the band was riding on.
Background
In 1997, Sugar Ray released their second album, Floored. Late in the recording sessions, the band recorded a much poppier track, the reggae song "Fly". The track became a surprise hit. The track's massive success inspired the band to further pursue the sound on their following album, 14:59.
Sound
The album's sound has elements of alternative rock and pop rock. "Aim for Me" is a punk rock track in the vein of Green Day and "Falls Apart" and "Personal Space Invader" take influence from The Police's Synchronicity and Men Without Hats, while "Burning Dog" has a skate punk sound similar to The Offspring and "Live & Direct" features vocals from KRS-One. In addition, "Every Morning" (that has been called an acoustic pop number), "Someday" and "Ode to the Lonely Hearted" are reminiscent of previous hit single "Fly". The album also features two comedic songs titled "New Direction", the former being death metal and the latter a circus music instrumental.
Promotion and release
The song "Glory" was used in the film American Pie, and featured on the soundtrack album.
Reception
The album was generally well received by critics. Paul Pearson of AllMusic wrote, "Their third album showed an alarming overhaul in their approach...from their metal shellac toward a calmer, melodious pastiche of songs. and concluded that 14:59 has such catchiness and charm that it's a guilty pleasure of high order, and a bigger step than one might have expected from Sugar Ray." NME'''s referred to the album as a "hellishly difficult record to hate...Not that this is especially inspired stuff, but, if you wanted a soundtrack for the kind of sun-kissed pool-party the sleeve depicts, 14:59 is maybe as good as you could get today." Rolling Stone praised the album for its diversity and for not sticking too closely to the sound of "Fly" stating that the band instead "...go[es] off the deep end with gorgeous psychedelic guitar hooks and drum loops, and Mark McGrath's wise-guy futon talk... everything they play is shaped by the cut-and-paste aesthetic of the sampler." Robert Christgau picked out the album's song, "Every Morning", as a choice cut.
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly was less positive and stated: "It's genuinely hard to hate Sugar Ray; [...] Still, listening to '14:59' is a somewhat sad, depressing experience. [...] The album is the sound of a band resigned to the possibility that they may be one-hit wunderkinds and that the 2 million fans who bought their last album may have moved on to Barenaked Ladies."
Track listing
Sugar Ray sold a different version of the 14:59 album to audiences that attended their live tour. This album included 5 tracks not found on the retail version. These tracks are:
The hit "Fly" from their previous Floored album
The original demo recording of "Aim for Me"
A live acoustic version of "Every Morning"
The radio edit of "Falls Apart"
"Rivers", a song written in the style of and in tribute to Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo
Personnel
Mark McGrath – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
Rodney Sheppard – lead guitar, backing vocals
Murphy Karges – bass, guitar, backing vocals
Stan Frazier – drums, percussion, guitar, programming, backing vocals, co-lead vocals on Someday''
Craig "DJ Homicide" Bullock – turntables, samples, programming, keyboards, backing vocals
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
Sugar Ray albums
1999 albums
Atlantic Records albums
Albums produced by David Kahne
Albums produced by Ralph Sall | [
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235025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ngela%20Carrasco | Ángela Carrasco | Ángela Altagracia Carrasco Rodríguez (born 1951) better known as Ángela Carrasco is a Dominican singer.
Angela Carrasco was born 23 January 1951 in Monte Cristi, Dominican Republic. At age 7, she first appeared in an advertising world, singing the theme for a drink to a tune that composed by Salvador Sturla.
Carrasco was one of a group of Latin American divas in the 1970s, including Susana Giménez, Charytín Goyco, Iris Chacón, Ednita Nazario, and Yolandita Monge.
Early life and career
Carrasco moved from her native country to Spain, where she enjoyed success. She had her first hit when she was chosen to play Mary Magdalene together with Camilo Sesto in the first Spanish version of Jesus Christ Superstar in the mid-1970s. She also hit the airwaves in the late 1970s, with songs such as "Cariño Mio" ("Love of Mine") and "Quererte a Ti" ("Loving You"). "Quererte a Ti" in particular gave her much exposure all over Latin America, in the United States and Europe. She later had a great comeback with albums such as Dama del Caribe and Candela, as well as Angela. Her single "Boca Rosa" peaked at number-one in the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in late 1988.
Angela continued to make music, and after her A Puro Dolor, she released a new album, Muy Personal, which included some new songs in new styles as well as remakes of some of her most famous songs such as "No, no hay nadie mas" and "No se como amarle" from Jesus Christ Superstar. She has also taken several steps into theater. In 1993, Carrasco earned the Lo Nuestro Award for Tropical Female Artist of the Year.
References
External links
[ Her Allmusic page]
1951 births
Living people
20th-century Dominican Republic women singers
Dominican Republic people of Spanish descent
Latin Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Women in Latin music | [
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235027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger%20%28Edwin%20McCain%20album%29 | Messenger (Edwin McCain album) | Messenger is Edwin McCain's third major-label album, released on June 15, 1999. It was recorded at Tree Sound Studios & Southern Tracks in Atlanta, and Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles, and released by Lava Records.
Track listing
All tracks composed by McCain except "A Prayer to St. Peter," composed by John Gorka (actually called "Let Them In" on his 2001 CD entitled The Company You Keep), and "I Could Not Ask for More" composed by Diane Warren.
"Wish in This World" - 3:43
"Beautiful Life" - 5:04
"Promise of You" - 5:31
"Ghosts of Jackson Square" - 4:14
"I Could Not Ask for More" - 4:35
"Do Your Thing" - 4:33
"A Prayer to St. Peter" - 3:43
"Go Be Young" - 3:43
"Anything Good About Me" - 3:47
"I'll Be (Acoustic Version)" - 4:35
"Sign on the Door" - 5:58
"See Off This Mountain" - 7:00
Charts
Album
Singles
Notes
1999 albums
Edwin McCain albums
Lava Records albums
Albums produced by Matt Serletic | [
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235029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth%20root | Nth root | In mathematics, an nth root of a number x is a number r which, when raised to the power n, yields x:
where n is a positive integer, sometimes called the degree of the root. A root of degree 2 is called a square root and a root of degree 3, a cube root. Roots of higher degree are referred by using ordinal numbers, as in fourth root, twentieth root, etc. The computation of an th root is a root extraction.
For example, 3 is a square root of 9, since 3 = 9, and −3 is also a square root of 9, since (−3) = 9.
Any non-zero number considered as a complex number has different complex th roots, including the real ones (at most two). The th root of 0 is zero for all positive integers , since . In particular, if is even and is a positive real number, one of its th roots is real and positive, one is negative, and the others (when ) are non-real complex numbers; if is even and is a negative real number, none of the th roots is real. If is odd and is real, one th root is real and has the same sign as , while the other () roots are not real. Finally, if is not real, then none of its th roots are real.
Roots of real numbers are usually written using the radical symbol or radix , with denoting the positive square root of if is positive; for higher roots, denotes the real th root if is odd, and the positive nth root if is even and is positive. In the other cases, the symbol is not commonly used as being ambiguous. In the expression , the integer n is called the index and is called the radicand.
When complex th roots are considered, it is often useful to choose one of the roots, called principal root, as a principal value. The common choice is to choose the principal th root of as the th root, with the greatest real part, and, when there are two (for real and negative), the one with a positive imaginary part. This makes the th root a function that is real and positive for real and positive, and is continuous in the whole complex plane, except for values of that are real and negative.
A difficulty with this choice is that, for a negative real number and an odd index, the principal th root is not the real one. For example, has three cube roots, , and The real cube root is and the principal cube root is
An unresolved root, especially one using the radical symbol, is sometimes referred to as a surd or a radical. Any expression containing a radical, whether it is a square root, a cube root, or a higher root, is called a radical expression, and if it contains no transcendental functions or transcendental numbers it is called an algebraic expression.
Roots can also be defined as special cases of exponentiation, where the exponent is a fraction:
Roots are used for determining the radius of convergence of a power series with the root test. The th roots of 1 are called roots of unity and play a fundamental role in various areas of mathematics, such as number theory, theory of equations, and Fourier transform.
History
An archaic term for the operation of taking nth roots is radication.
Definition and notation
An nth root of a number x, where n is a positive integer, is any of the n real or complex numbers r whose nth power is x:
Every positive real number x has a single positive nth root, called the principal nth root, which is written . For n equal to 2 this is called the principal square root and the n is omitted. The nth root can also be represented using exponentiation as x.
For even values of n, positive numbers also have a negative nth root, while negative numbers do not have a real nth root. For odd values of n, every negative number x has a real negative nth root. For example, −2 has a real 5th root, but −2 does not have any real 6th roots.
Every non-zero number x, real or complex, has n different complex number nth roots. (In the case x is real, this count includes any real nth roots.) The only complex root of 0 is 0.
The nth roots of almost all numbers (all integers except the nth powers, and all rationals except the quotients of two nth powers) are irrational. For example,
All nth roots of integers are algebraic numbers.
The term surd traces back to al-Khwārizmī (c. 825), who referred to rational and irrational numbers as audible and inaudible, respectively. This later led to the Arabic word "" (asamm, meaning "deaf" or "dumb") for irrational number being translated into Latin as "surdus" (meaning "deaf" or "mute"). Gerard of Cremona (c. 1150), Fibonacci (1202), and then Robert Recorde (1551) all used the term to refer to unresolved irrational roots, that is, expressions of the form in which and are integer numerals and the whole expression denotes an irrational number. Quadratic irrational numbers, that is, irrational numbers of the form are also known as "quadratic surds".
Square roots
A square root of a number x is a number r which, when squared, becomes x:
Every positive real number has two square roots, one positive and one negative. For example, the two square roots of 25 are 5 and −5. The positive square root is also known as the principal square root, and is denoted with a radical sign:
Since the square of every real number is nonnegative, negative numbers do not have real square roots. However, for every negative real number there are two imaginary square roots. For example, the square roots of −25 are 5i and −5i, where i represents a number whose square is .
Cube roots
A cube root of a number x is a number r whose cube is x:
Every real number x has exactly one real cube root, written . For example,
and
Every real number has two additional complex cube roots.
Identities and properties
Expressing the degree of an nth root in its exponent form, as in , makes it easier to manipulate powers and roots. If is a non-negative real number,
Every non-negative number has exactly one non-negative real nth root, and so the rules for operations with surds involving non-negative radicands and are straightforward within the real numbers:
Subtleties can occur when taking the nth roots of negative or complex numbers. For instance:
but, rather,
Since the rule strictly holds for non-negative real radicands only, its application leads to the inequality in the first step above.
Simplified form of a radical expression
A non-nested radical expression is said to be in simplified form if
There is no factor of the radicand that can be written as a power greater than or equal to the index.
There are no fractions under the radical sign.
There are no radicals in the denominator.
For example, to write the radical expression in simplified form, we can proceed as follows. First, look for a perfect square under the square root sign and remove it:
Next, there is a fraction under the radical sign, which we change as follows:
Finally, we remove the radical from the denominator as follows:
When there is a denominator involving surds it is always possible to find a factor to multiply both numerator and denominator by to simplify the expression.Richard Zippel, "Simplification of Expressions Involving Radicals", Journal of Symbolic Computation 1:189–210 (1985) . For instance using the factorization of the sum of two cubes:
Simplifying radical expressions involving nested radicals can be quite difficult. It is not obvious for instance that:
The above can be derived through:
Let , with and coprime and positive integers. Then is rational if and only if both and are integers, which means that both and are nth powers of some integer.
Infinite series
The radical or root may be represented by the infinite series:
with . This expression can be derived from the binomial series.
Computing principal roots
Using Newton's method
The th root of a number can be computed with Newton's method, which starts with an initial guess and then iterates using the recurrence relation
until the desired precision is reached. For computational efficiency, the recurrence relation is commonly rewritten
This allows to have only one exponentiation, and to compute once for all the first factor of each term.
For example, to find the fifth root of 34, we plug in and (initial guess). The first 5 iterations are, approximately:
(All correct digits shown.)
The approximation is accurate to 25 decimal places and is good for 51.
Newton's method can be modified to produce various generalized continued fraction for the nth root. For example,
Digit-by-digit calculation of principal roots of decimal (base 10) numbers
Building on the digit-by-digit calculation of a square root, it can be seen that the formula used there, , or , follows a pattern involving Pascal's triangle. For the nth root of a number is defined as the value of element in row of Pascal's Triangle such that , we can rewrite the expression as . For convenience, call the result of this expression . Using this more general expression, any positive principal root can be computed, digit-by-digit, as follows.
Write the original number in decimal form. The numbers are written similar to the long division algorithm, and, as in long division, the root will be written on the line above. Now separate the digits into groups of digits equating to the root being taken, starting from the decimal point and going both left and right. The decimal point of the root will be above the decimal point of the radicand. One digit of the root will appear above each group of digits of the original number.
Beginning with the left-most group of digits, do the following procedure for each group:
Starting on the left, bring down the most significant (leftmost) group of digits not yet used (if all the digits have been used, write "0" the number of times required to make a group) and write them to the right of the remainder from the previous step (on the first step, there will be no remainder). In other words, multiply the remainder by and add the digits from the next group. This will be the current value c.
Find p and x, as follows:
Let be the part of the root found so far, ignoring any decimal point. (For the first step, ).
Determine the greatest digit such that .
Place the digit as the next digit of the root, i.e., above the group of digits you just brought down. Thus the next p will be the old p times 10 plus x.
Subtract from to form a new remainder.
If the remainder is zero and there are no more digits to bring down, then the algorithm has terminated. Otherwise go back to step 1 for another iteration.
Examples
Find the square root of 152.2756.
1 2. 3 4
/
\/ 01 52.27 56
01 10·1·0·1 + 10·2·0·1 ≤ 1 < 10·1·0·2 + 10·2·0·2 x = 1
01 y = 10·1·0·1 + 10·2·0·1 = 1 + 0 = 1
00 52 10·1·1·2 + 10·2·1·2 ≤ 52 < 10·1·1·3 + 10·2·1·3 x = 2
00 44 y = 10·1·1·2 + 10·2·1·2 = 4 + 40 = 44
08 27 10·1·12·3 + 10·2·12·3 ≤ 827 < 10·1·12·4 + 10·2·12·4 x = 3
07 29 y = 10·1·12·3 + 10·2·12·3 = 9 + 720 = 729
98 56 10·1·123·4 + 10·2·123·4 ≤ 9856 < 10·1·123·5 + 10·2·123·5 x = 4
98 56 y = 10·1·123·4 + 10·2·123·4 = 16 + 9840 = 9856
00 00 Algorithm terminates: Answer is 12.34
Find the cube root of 4192 to the nearest hundredth.
1 6. 1 2 4
3 /
\/ 004 192.000 000 000
004 10·1·0·1 + 10·3·0·1 + 10·3·0·1 ≤ 4 < 10·1·0·2 + 10·3·0·2 + 10·3·0·2 x = 1
001 y = 10·1·0·1 + 10·3·0·1 + 10·3·0·1 = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1
003 192 10·1·1·6 + 10·3·1·6 + 10·3·1·6 ≤ 3192 < 10·1·1·7 + 10·3·1·7 + 10·3·1·7 x = 6
003 096 y = 10·1·1·6 + 10·3·1·6 + 10·3·1·6 = 216 + 1,080 + 1,800 = 3,096
096 000 10·1·16·1 + 10·3·16·1 + 10·3·16·1 ≤ 96000 < 10·1·16·2 + 10·3·16·2 + 10·3·16·2 x = 1
077 281 y = 10·1·16·1 + 10·3·16·1 + 10·3·16·1 = 1 + 480 + 76,800 = 77,281
018 719 000 10·1·161·2 + 10·3·161·2 + 10·3·161·2 ≤ 18719000 < 10·1·161·3 + 10·3·161·3 + 10·3·161·3 x = 2
015 571 928 y = 10·1·161·2 + 10·3·161·2 + 10·3·161·2 = 8 + 19,320 + 15,552,600 = 15,571,928
003 147 072 000 10·1·1612·4 + 10·3·1612·4 + 10·3·1612·4 ≤ 3147072000 < 10·1·1612·5 + 10·3·1612·5 + 10·3·1612·5 x = 4
The desired precision is achieved:
The cube root of 4192 is about 16.12
Logarithmic calculation
The principal nth root of a positive number can be computed using logarithms. Starting from the equation that defines r as an nth root of x, namely with x positive and therefore its principal root r also positive, one takes logarithms of both sides (any base of the logarithm will do) to obtain
The root r is recovered from this by taking the antilog:
(Note: That formula shows b raised to the power of the result of the division, not b multiplied by the result of the division.)
For the case in which x is negative and n is odd, there is one real root r which is also negative. This can be found by first multiplying both sides of the defining equation by −1 to obtain then proceeding as before to find |r|, and using .
Geometric constructibility
The ancient Greek mathematicians knew how to use compass and straightedge to construct a length equal to the square root of a given length, when an auxiliary line of unit length is given. In 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved that an nth root of a given length cannot be constructed if n is not a power of 2.
Complex roots
Every complex number other than 0 has n different nth roots.
Square roots
The two square roots of a complex number are always negatives of each other. For example, the square roots of are and , and the square roots of are
If we express a complex number in polar form, then the square root can be obtained by taking the square root of the radius and halving the angle:
A principal root of a complex number may be chosen in various ways, for example
which introduces a branch cut in the complex plane along the positive real axis with the condition , or along the negative real axis with .
Using the first(last) branch cut the principal square root maps to the half plane with non-negative imaginary(real) part. The last branch cut is presupposed in mathematical software like Matlab or Scilab.
Roots of unity
The number 1 has n different nth roots in the complex plane, namely
where
These roots are evenly spaced around the unit circle in the complex plane, at angles which are multiples of . For example, the square roots of unity are 1 and −1, and the fourth roots of unity are 1, , −1, and .
nth roots
Every complex number has n different nth roots in the complex plane. These are
where η is a single nth root, and 1, ω, ω, ... ω are the nth roots of unity. For example, the four different fourth roots of 2 are
In polar form, a single nth root may be found by the formula
Here r is the magnitude (the modulus, also called the absolute value) of the number whose root is to be taken; if the number can be written as a+bi then . Also, is the angle formed as one pivots on the origin counterclockwise from the positive horizontal axis to a ray going from the origin to the number; it has the properties that and
Thus finding nth roots in the complex plane can be segmented into two steps. First, the magnitude of all the nth roots is the nth root of the magnitude of the original number. Second, the angle between the positive horizontal axis and a ray from the origin to one of the nth roots is , where is the angle defined in the same way for the number whose root is being taken. Furthermore, all n of the nth roots are at equally spaced angles from each other.
If n is even, a complex number's nth roots, of which there are an even number, come in additive inverse pairs, so that if a number r1 is one of the nth roots then r2 = –r1 is another. This is because raising the latter's coefficient –1 to the nth power for even n yields 1: that is, (–r1) = (–1) × r1 = r1.
As with square roots, the formula above does not define a continuous function over the entire complex plane, but instead has a branch cut at points where θ / n is discontinuous.
Solving polynomials
It was once conjectured that all polynomial equations could be solved algebraically (that is, that all roots of a polynomial could be expressed in terms of a finite number of radicals and elementary operations). However, while this is true for third degree polynomials (cubics) and fourth degree polynomials (quartics), the Abel–Ruffini theorem (1824) shows that this is not true in general when the degree is 5 or greater. For example, the solutions of the equation
cannot be expressed in terms of radicals. (cf. quintic equation)
Proof of irrationality for non-perfect nth power x
Assume that is rational. That is, it can be reduced to a fraction , where and are integers without a common factor.
This means that .
Since x is an integer, and must share a common factor if . This means that if , is not in simplest form. Thus b should equal 1.
Since and , .
This means that and thus, . This implies that is an integer. Since x is not a perfect nth power, this is impossible. Thus is irrational.
See also
Nth root algorithm
Shifting nth root algorithm
Radical symbol
Algebraic number
Geometric mean
Nested radical
Twelfth root of two
Super-root
References
External links
Elementary algebra
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235030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger | Messenger | Messenger, Messengers, The Messenger or The Messengers may refer to:
People
Courier, a person or company that delivers messages, packages, or mail
Messenger (surname)
Bicycle messenger, a bicyclist who transports packages through cities
Messenger-at-arms, an officer of the Scottish Court of Session
Messenger of the Court, a court officer responsible for carrying communications and executing other orders
Prophets and messengers in Islam
Muhammad and other prophets in Islam, who were known as Messengers of Allah (God)
Science and technology
Biology and chemistry
Chemical messenger, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, a molecule used for cellular signalling
Messenger RNA (mRNA), RNA that carries information from DNA to the ribosome sites of protein synthesis in a cell
Electronics and computing
Instant messenger, a tool for online text communication
Messenger (software), an instant messaging service by Meta (Facebook)
Microsoft Messenger service, an instant messaging service by Microsoft
Windows Live Messenger, the client for said service, formerly named MSN Messenger
Windows Messenger, a predecessor of the above client
Yahoo! Messenger, an instant messaging service by Yahoo!
Windows Messenger service, a networking component of earlier versions of Microsoft Windows
Space exploration
MESSENGER, a NASA probe to Mercury launched in 2004
Transport
Messenger cable, a continuous loop of cable or chain attached to a capstan used to raise the anchor cables on 17th–19th century sailing ships
Miles Messenger, a British 1940s liaison aircraft
Messenger (sternwheeler), an 1876 sternwheel steamboat of the Puget Sound Mosquito Fleet
Verville-Sperry M-1 Messenger, 1921 American biplane
Messenger (HBC vessel), operated by the HBC from 1897-1906, see Hudson's Bay Company vessels
Literature
Messenger (novel), a 2004 novel written by Lois Lowry
The Messenger (Silva novel), a 2006 novel by Daniel Silva
The Messenger (Zusak novel), a 2002 novel by Markus Zusak
The Messenger, a 2001 fantasy novel by Douglas Niles
Periodicals
Fort Dodge Messenger, a newspaper printed in Fort Dodge, Iowa, United States
Messenger (magazine), a Mormon fundamentalist publication
Messenger Newspapers, a group of newspapers in Adelaide, South Australia
The Messenger (astronomy magazine), a quarterly astronomical journal published by the European Southern Observatory
The Messenger (magazine), a monthly magazine associated with the Harlem Renaissance
Messenger of the Sacred Heart, a Jesuit magazine published in Ireland
The Missionary Messenger, a journal of the British Methodist Episcopal Church in Toronto, Canada
The Messenger (Madisonville, Kentucky), a U.S. newspaper published in Madisonville, Kentucky
The Messenger (Mount Airy, North Carolina), a U.S. newspaper published in Mount Airy, North Carolina
Il Messaggero ("The Messenger"), a newspaper based in Rome, Italy
Messenger, an American magazine published by the Church of the Brethren.
Messenger of Mathematics, a British mathematics journal published between 1872 and 1929, sometimes abbreviated as Messenger
In film and television
Mohammad, Messenger of God, a 1976 film directed by Moustapha Akkad, chronicling the life and times of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad
The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc, a 1999 film directed by Luc Besson and starring Milla Jovovich
"Messenger", an episode of Power Rangers SPD
The Messenger (1918 film), a film starring Oliver Hardy
The Messenger (1937 film), directed by Raymond Rouleau
The Messenger (1986 film), a 1986 film directed by Fred Williamson
Messengers, a 2004 drama film starring Michele Hicks
The Messenger (2008 film), a film by Çağan Irmak
The Messenger (2009 film), a film by Oren Moverman
The Messenger (2015 British film), a horror film directed by David Blair
The Messenger (2015 Canadian film), a documentary film directed by Su Rynard
The Messengers (film), 2007 horror film directed by the Pang Brothers
The Messengers (TV series), a 2015 American television series
In gaming
The Messenger (2001 video game), 2001 adventure game
The Messenger (2018 video game), 2018 platform game developed by Sabotage
In music
Messenger Records, a record label
The Messenger, piano composition by Valentyn Sylvestrov
Groups
The Messengers (producers), a musical songwriting and production duo
The Messengers Choir, East African gospel group based in the United States
Paul Kelly and the Messengers, an Australian rock band, active 1987–1992
Messengers (American band), an American Christian metal band
Messengers (Scottish band)
Albums
Messenger (Edwin McCain album), 1999
Messenger (Jimmy Little album), 1999
Messenger (Joe Pug album), 2010
Messengers (album), 2007, by August Burns Red
The Messenger (Ernest Dawkins album), 2006
The Messenger (Casey Jones album), 2006
The Messenger (Kurt Elling album), 1997
The Messenger (Matt Joe Gow and the Dead Leaves album), 2009
The Messenger (Johnny Marr album), 2013
Songs
"The Messenger" (song), by Daniel Lanois
"The Messenger", by Domine on their 2007 album Ancient Spirit Rising
"The Messenger", by Linkin Park on their 2010 album A Thousand Suns
"The Messenger", by Patrick Wolf on his 2009 album The Bachelor
"Messenger", by Blonde Redhead on their 2004 album Misery Is a Butterfly
"Messenger", by Paul McCartney on his 1997 album Standing Stone
Other uses
Messenger (horse) (1780–1808), an English thoroughbred horse
Messenger (Plymouth sculpture), a 2018 bronze statue of a female actor in Plymouth, England
The Messenger (David Wynne sculpture), a 1981 bronze statue of a horse and rider in Sutton, London
The Messenger (painting), a 1674 painting by Johannes Verkolje
See also
Messenger bag, a type of bag often used by bicycle messengers
Messenger Feast, a celebration of the Inupiaq and Yup'ik peoples of Alaska
قاصد (disambiguation), Arabic for messenger | [
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235032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thou | Thou | The word thou is a second-person singular pronoun in English. It is now largely archaic, having been replaced in most contexts by the word you. It is used in parts of Northern England and in Scots (). Thou is the nominative form; the oblique/objective form is thee (functioning as both accusative and dative), the possessive is thy (adjective) or thine (as an adjective before a vowel or as a pronoun) and the reflexive is thyself. When thou is the grammatical subject of a finite verb in the indicative mood, the verb form typically ends in -(e)st (e.g., "thou goest"; "thou do(e)st"), but in some cases just -t (e.g., "thou art"; "thou shalt").
Originally, thou was simply the singular counterpart to the plural pronoun ye, derived from an ancient Indo-European root. In Middle English, thou was sometimes abbreviated by putting a small "u" over the letter thorn: þͧ. Starting in the 1300s, thou and thee were used to express familiarity, formality, or contempt, for addressing strangers, superiors, or inferiors, or in situations when indicating singularity to avoid confusion was needed; concurrently, the plural forms, ye and you began to also be used for singular: typically for addressing rulers, superiors, equals, inferiors, parents, younger persons, and significant others. In the 17th century, thou fell into disuse in the standard language, often regarded as impolite, but persisted, sometimes in an altered form, in regional dialects of England and Scotland, as well as in the language of such religious groups as the Society of Friends. The use of the pronoun is also still present in poetry.
Early English translations of the Bible used the familiar singular form of the second person, which mirrors common usage trends in other languages. The familiar and singular form is used when speaking to God in French (in Protestantism both in past and present, in Catholicism since the post-Vatican II reforms), German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Scottish Gaelic and many others (all of which maintain the use of an "informal" singular form of the second person in modern speech). In addition, the translators of the King James Version of the Bible attempted to maintain the distinction found in Biblical Hebrew, Aramaic and Koine Greek between singular and plural second-person pronouns and verb forms, so they used thou, thee, thy, and thine for singular, and ye, you, your, and yours for plural.
In standard modern English, thou continues to be used in formal religious contexts, in wedding ceremonies, in literature that seeks to reproduce archaic language, and in certain fixed phrases such as "fare thee well". For this reason, many associate the pronoun with solemnity or formality. Many dialects have compensated for the lack of a singular/plural distinction caused by the disappearance of thou and ye through the creation of new plural pronouns or pronominals, such as yinz, yous and y'all or the colloquial you guys. Ye remains common in some parts of Ireland, but the examples just given vary regionally and are usually restricted to colloquial speech.
Grammar
Because thou has passed out of common use, its traditional forms are often confused by those imitating archaic speech.
Declension
The English personal pronouns have standardized declension according to the following table:
Conjugation
Verb forms used after thou generally end in -est (pronounced ) or -st in the indicative mood in both the present and the past tenses. These forms are used for both strong and weak verbs.
Typical examples of the standard present and past tense forms follow. The e in the ending is optional; early English spelling had not yet been standardized. In verse, the choice about whether to use the e often depended upon considerations of meter.
to know: thou knowest, thou knewest
to drive: thou drivest, thou drovest
to make: thou makest, thou madest
to love: thou lovest, thou lovedst
to want: thou wantest
Modal verbs also have -(e)st added to their forms:
can: thou canst
could: thou couldst
may: thou mayest
might: thou mightst
should: thou shouldst
would: thou wouldst
ought to: thou oughtest to
A few verbs have irregular thou forms:
to be: thou art (or thou beest), thou wast (or thou wert; originally thou were)
to have: thou hast, thou hadst
to do: thou dost (or thou doest in non-auxiliary use) and thou didst
shall: thou shalt
will: thou wilt
A few others are not inflected:
must: thou must
In Proto-English, the second-person singular verb inflection was -es. This came down unchanged from Indo-European and can be seen in quite distantly related Indo-European languages: Russian знаешь, znayesh, thou knowest; Latin amas, thou lovest. (This is parallel to the history of the third-person form, in Old English -eþ, Russian, знает, znayet, he knoweth, Latin amat he loveth.) The from -es to modern English -est, which took place separately at around the same time in the closely related German and West Frisian languages, is understood to be caused by an assimilation of the consonant of the pronoun, which often followed the verb. This is most readily observed in German: liebes du → liebstu → liebst du (lovest thou).
Comparison
In Dutch, the equivalent of "thou", du, also became archaic and fell out of use and was replaced by the Dutch equivalent of "you", gij (later jij or u), just as it has in English, with the place of the informal plural taken by jullie (compare English y’all).
In the subjunctive and imperative moods, the ending in -(e)st is dropped (although it is generally retained in thou wert, the second-person singular past subjunctive of the verb to be). The subjunctive forms are used when a statement is doubtful or contrary to fact; as such, they frequently occur after if and the poetic and.
If thou be Johan, I tell it thee, right with a good advice ...;
Be Thou my vision, O Lord of my heart ...
I do wish thou wert a dog, that I might love thee something ...
And thou bring Alexander and his paramour before the Emperor, I'll be Actaeon ...
O WERT thou in the cauld blast, ... I'd shelter thee ...
In modern regional English dialects that use thou or some variant, such as in Yorkshire and Lancashire, it often takes the third person form of the verb -s. This comes from a merging of Early Modern English second person singular ending -st and third person singular ending -s into -s (the latter a northern variation of -þ (-th)).
The present indicative form art ("þu eart") goes back to West Saxon Old English (see OED s.v. be IV.18) and eventually became standard, even in the south (e.g. in Shakespeare and the Bible). For its influence also from the North, cf. Icelandic þú ert. The preterite indicative of be is generally thou wast.
Etymology
Thou originates from Old English , and ultimately via Grimm's law from the Proto-Indo-European *tu, with the expected Germanic vowel lengthening in accented monosyllabic words with an open syllable. Thou is therefore cognate with Icelandic and Old Norse , German and Continental Scandinavian , Latin and all major Romance languages, Irish, Kurdish, Lithuanian and Latvian or , Greek (), Slavic ты / ty or ти / ti, Armenian (/), Hindi तू (), Bengali: তুই (tui), Persian () and Sanskrit त्वम् (). A cognate form of this pronoun exists in almost every other Indo-European language.
History
Old and Middle English
In Old English, thou was governed by a simple rule: thou addressed one person, and ye more than one. Beginning in the 1300s thou was gradually replaced by the plural ye as the form of address for a superior person and later for an equal. For a long time, however, thou remained the most common form for addressing an inferior person.
The practice of matching singular and plural forms with informal and formal connotations is called the T–V distinction and in English is largely due to the influence of French. This began with the practice of addressing kings and other aristocrats in the plural. Eventually, this was generalized, as in French, to address any social superior or stranger with a plural pronoun, which was felt to be more polite. In French, tu was eventually considered either intimate or condescending (and to a stranger, potentially insulting), while the plural form vous was reserved and formal.
General decline in Early Modern English
Fairly suddenly in the 17th century, thou began to decline in the standard language (that is, particularly in and around London), often regarded as impolite or ambiguous in terms of politeness. It persisted, sometimes in an altered form, particularly in regional dialects of England and Scotland farther from London, as well as in the language of such religious groups as the Society of Friends. Reasons commonly maintained by modern linguists as to the decline of thou in the 17th century include the increasing identification of you with "polite society" and the uncertainty of using thou for inferiors versus you for superiors (with you being the safer default) amidst the rise of a new middle class.
In the 18th century, Samuel Johnson, in A Grammar of the English Tongue, wrote: "in the language of ceremony ... the second person plural is used for the second person singular", implying that thou was still in everyday familiar use for the second-person singular, while you could be used for the same grammatical person, but only for formal contexts. However, Samuel Johnson himself was born and raised not in the south of England, but in the West Midlands (specifically, Lichfield, Staffordshire), where the usage of thou persists until the present day (see below), so it is not surprising that he would consider it entirely ordinary and describe it as such. By contrast, for most speakers of southern British English, thou had already fallen out of everyday use, even in familiar speech, by sometime around 1650. Thou persisted in a number of religious, literary and regional contexts, and those pockets of continued use of the pronoun tended to undermine the obsolescence of the T–V distinction.
One notable consequence of the decline in use of the second person singular pronouns thou, thy, and thee is the obfuscation of certain sociocultural elements of Early Modern English texts, such as many character interactions in Shakespeare's plays, which were mostly written from 1589 to 1613. Although Shakespeare is far from consistent in his writings, his characters primarily tend to use thou (rather than you) when addressing another who is a social subordinate, a close friend, or a hated wrongdoer.
Usage
Use as a verb
Many European languages contain verbs meaning "to address with the informal pronoun", such as German duzen, the Norwegian noun dus refers to the practice of using this familiar form of address instead of the De/Dem/Deres formal forms in common use, French tutoyer, Spanish tutear, Swedish dua, Dutch jijen en jouen, Ukrainian тикати (tykaty), Russian тыкать (tykat'), Polish tykać, Romanian tutui, Hungarian tegezni, Finnish sinutella, etc. Although uncommon in English, the usage did appear, such as at the trial of Sir Walter Raleigh in 1603, when Sir Edward Coke, prosecuting for the Crown, reportedly sought to insult Raleigh by saying,
I thou thee, thou traitor!
In modern English: I "thou" you, you traitor!
here using thou as a verb meaning to call (someone) "thou" or "thee". Although the practice never took root in Standard English, it occurs in dialectal speech in the north of England. A formerly common refrain in Yorkshire dialect for admonishing children who misused the familiar form was:
Don't thee tha them as thas thee!
In modern English: Don't you "tha" those who "tha" you!
In other words: Don't use the familiar form "tha" towards those who refer to you as "tha". ("tha" being the local dialectal variant of "thou")
And similar in Lancashire dialect:
Don't thee me, thee; I's you to thee!
In standard English: Don't "thee" me, you! I'm "you" to you!
See further the Wiktionary page on thou as a verb.
Religious uses
As William Tyndale translated the Bible into English in the early 16th century, he preserved the singular and plural distinctions that he found in his Hebrew and Greek originals. He used thou for the singular and ye for the plural regardless of the relative status of the speaker and the addressee. Tyndale's usage was standard for the period and mirrored that found in the earlier Wycliffe's Bible and the later King James Bible. But as the use of thou in non-dialect English began to decline in the 18th century, its meaning nonetheless remained familiar from the widespread use of the latter translation.
The 1662 Book of Common Prayer, which is still an authorized form of worship in the Church of England and much of the Anglican Communion, also uses the word thou to refer to the singular second person.
Quakers formerly used thee as an ordinary pronoun; the stereotype has them saying thee for both nominative and accusative cases. This was started at the beginning of the Quaker movement by George Fox, who called it "plain speaking", as an attempt to preserve the egalitarian familiarity associated with the pronoun. Most Quakers have abandoned this usage. At its beginning, the Quaker movement was particularly strong in the northwestern areas of England and particularly in the north Midlands area. The preservation of thee in Quaker speech may relate to this history. Modern Quakers who choose to use this manner of "plain speaking" often use the "thee" form without any corresponding change in verb form, for example, is thee or was thee.
In Latter-day Saint prayer tradition, the terms "thee" and "thou" are always and exclusively used to address God, as a mark of respect.
In many of the Quranic translations, particularly those compiled by the Ahmadiyya, the terms thou and thee are used. One particular example is The Holy Quran - Arabic Text and English translation, translated by Maulvi Sher Ali.
In the English translations of the scripture of the Baháʼí Faith, the terms thou and thee are also used. Shoghi Effendi, the head of the religion in the first half of the 20th century, adopted a style that was somewhat removed from everyday discourse when translating the texts from their original Arabic or Persian to capture some of the poetic and metaphorical nature of the text in the original languages and to convey the idea that the text was to be considered holy.
The Revised Standard Version of the Bible, which first appeared in 1946, retained the pronoun thou exclusively to address God, using you in other places. This was done to preserve the tone, at once intimate and reverent, that would be familiar to those who knew the King James Version and read the Psalms and similar text in devotional use. The New American Standard Bible (1971) made the same decision, but the revision of 1995 (New American Standard Bible, Updated edition) reversed it. Similarly, the 1989 Revised English Bible dropped all forms of thou that had appeared in the earlier New English Bible (1970). The New Revised Standard Version (1989) omits thou entirely and claims that it is incongruous and contrary to the original intent of the use of thou in Bible translation to adopt a distinctive pronoun to address the Deity. When referring to God, "thou" is often capitalized for clarity and reverence.
Literary uses
Shakespeare
Like his contemporaries William Shakespeare uses thou both in the intimate, French-style sense, and also to emphasize differences of rank, but he is by no means consistent in using the word, and friends and lovers sometimes call each other ye or you as often as they call each other thou, sometimes in ways that can be analysed for meaning, but often apparently at random.
For example, in the following passage from Henry IV, Shakespeare has Falstaff use both forms with Henry. Initially using "you" in confusion on waking he then switches to a comfortable and intimate "thou".
Prince: Thou art so fat-witted with drinking of old sack, and unbuttoning thee after supper, and sleeping upon benches after noon, that thou hast forgotten to demand that truly which thou wouldest truly know. What a devil hast thou to do with the time of the day? ...
Falstaff: Indeed, you come near me now, Hal ... And, I prithee, sweet wag, when thou art a king, as God save thy GraceMajesty, I should say; for grace thou wilt have none –
While in Hamlet, Shakespeare uses discordant second person pronouns to express Hamlet's antagonism towards his mother.
Queen Gertrude: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended..
Hamlet: Mother, you have my father much offended.
More recent uses
Except where everyday use survives in some regions of England, the air of informal familiarity once suggested by the use of thou has disappeared; it is used often for the opposite effect with solemn ritual occasions, in readings from the King James Bible, in Shakespeare and in formal literary compositions that intentionally seek to echo these older styles. Since becoming obsolete in most dialects of spoken English, it has nevertheless been used by more recent writers to address exalted beings such as God, a skylark, Achilles, and even The Mighty Thor. In The Empire Strikes Back, Darth Vader addresses the Emperor with the words: "What is thy bidding, my master?" In Leonard Cohen's song "Bird on the Wire", he promises his beloved that he will reform, saying "I will make it all up to thee." In Diana Ross's song, "Upside Down", (written by Chic's Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards) there is the lyric "Respectfully I say to thee I'm aware that you're cheatin'." .
The converse—the use of the second person singular ending -est for the third person—also occurs ("So sayest Thor!"―spoken by Thor). This usage often shows up in modern parody and pastiche in an attempt to make speech appear either archaic or formal. The forms thou and thee are often transposed.
Current usage
You is now the standard English second-person pronoun and encompasses both the singular and plural senses. In some dialects, however, thou has persisted, and in others thou is retained for poetic and/or literary use. Further, in others the vacuum created by the loss of a distinction has led to the creation of new forms of the second-person plural, such as y'all in the Southern United States or yous by some Australians and heard in what are generally considered working class dialects in and near cities in the northeastern United States. The forms vary across the English-speaking world and between literature and the spoken language. It also survives as a fossil word in the commonly-used phrase "holier-than-thou".
Persistence of second-person singular
In traditional dialects, thou is used in the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, Durham, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire and some western parts of Nottinghamshire. Such dialects normally also preserve distinct verb forms for the singular second person, for example thee coost (standard English: you could, archaic: thou couldst) in northern Staffordshire. The word thee is used in the East Shropshire dialect which is now largely confined to the Dawley area of Telford and referred to as the Dawley dialect. Throughout rural Yorkshire, the old distinction between nominative and objective is preserved. The possessive is often written as thy in local dialect writings, but is pronounced as an unstressed tha, and the possessive form of tha has in modern usage almost exclusively followed other English dialects in becoming yours or the local word your'n (from your one):
The apparent incongruity between the archaic nominative, objective and genitive forms of this pronoun on the one hand and the modern possessive form on the other may be a signal that the linguistic drift of Yorkshire dialect is causing tha to fall into disuse; however, a measure of local pride in the dialect may be counteracting this.
Some other variants are specific to certain areas. In Sheffield, the pronunciation of the word was somewhere in between a /d/ and a /th/ sound, with the tongue at the bottom of the mouth; this led to the nickname of the "dee-dahs" for people from Sheffield. In Lancashire and West Yorkshire, ta was used as an unstressed shortening of thou, which can be found in the song "On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at". These variants are no longer in use.
In rural North Lancashire between Lancaster and the North Yorkshire border tha is preserved in colloquial phrases such as "What would tha like for thi tea?" (What would you like for your dinner), and appen tha waint" ("perhaps you won't"happen being the dialect word for perhaps) and "tha knows" (you know). This usage in Lancashire is becoming rare, except for elderly and rural speakers.
The use of the word "thee" in the song "I Predict a Riot" by Leeds band Kaiser Chiefs ("Watching the people get lairy / is not very pretty, I tell thee") caused some comment by people who were unaware that the word is still in use in the Yorkshire dialect.
The word "thee" is also used in the song Upside Down "Respectfully, I say to thee / I'm aware that you're cheating".
The use of the phrase "tha knows" has been widely used in various songs by Arctic Monkeys, a popular band from High Green, a suburb of Sheffield. Alex Turner, the band's lead singer, has also often replaced words with "tha knows" during live versions of the songs.
The use persists somewhat in the West Country dialects, albeit somewhat affected. Some of the Wurzels songs include "Drink Up Thy Zider" and "Sniff Up Thy Snuff".
Thoo has also been used in the Orcadian Scots dialect in place of the singular informal thou. In Shetland dialect, the other form of Insular Scots, du and dee are used. The word "thou" has been reported in the North Northern Scots Cromarty dialect as being in common use in the first half of the 20th century and by the time of its extinction only in occasional use.
Use in cinema
The word thou can occasionally be heard in films recorded in certain English dialect. In Ken Loach's films Kes, The Price of Coal and Looks and Smiles, the word is used frequently in the dialogue. It is used occasionally, but much less frequently, in the 1963 film This Sporting Life.
In the 2018 film Peterloo, the word is used by many of the working-class characters in Lancashire, including Samuel Bamford.
Use in video games
All forms of thou appear in in-game dialogues of the Souls video game series. The games are set in late medieval dark fantasy worlds. An earlier example is the original Dragon Quest for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Thou is also used in the Persona series regularly in the phrase, "I am thou, thou art I"—a localization of the original Japanese use of the archaic second-person pronoun nanji (and ware in the first person). Many forms of thou appeared throughout the "Godmaster" expansion DLC of Hollow Knight. Another example of thou being used in video games can be found in the Splatoon series, in which shop owner Jelfonzo speaks in archaic English, and often uses the word.
See also
T–V distinction
Notes
References
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language, 5th ed.
Burrow, J. A., Turville-Petre, Thorlac. A Book of Middle English.
Daniel, David. The Bible in English: Its History and Influence. .
Smith, Jeremy. A Historical Study of English: Form, Function, and Change.
"Thou, pers. pron., 2nd sing." Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1989). Oxford English Dictionary.
Trudgill, Peter. (1999) Blackwell Publishing. Dialects of England.
Further reading
Brown, Roger and Gilman, Albert. The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity, 1960, reprinted in: Sociolinguistics: the Essential Readings, Wiley-Blackwell, 2003,
Byrne, St. Geraldine. Shakespeare's use of the pronoun of address: its significance in characterization and motivation, Catholic University of America, 1936 (reprinted Haskell House, 1970) .
Quirk, Raymond. Shakespeare and the English Language, in Kenneth Muir and Sam Schoenbaum, eds, A New Companion to Shakespeare Studies*, 1971, Cambridge UP
Wales, Katie. Personal Pronouns in Present-Day English.
Walker, Terry. Thou and you in early modern English dialogues: trials, depositions, and drama comedy, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007,
External links
A Grammar of the English Tongue by Samuel Johnson – includes description of 18th century use
Contemporary use of thou in Yorkshire
Thou: The Maven's Word of the Day
You/Thou in Shakespeare's Work (archived forum discussion)
A Note on Shakespeare's Grammar by Seamus Cooney
Archaic English words and phrases
English grammar
King James Only movement
Middle English personal pronouns
Personal pronouns
Etiquette
English words | [
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235047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issues%20%28Korn%20album%29 | Issues (Korn album) | Issues is the fourth studio album by American nu metal band Korn. It was released on November 16, 1999 through Immortal Records. The album was promoted throughout 2000 by the band's highly successful Sick and Twisted Tour.
Recording and production
During one of the band's recording sessions, journalist Chris Connelly asked about how the recording was coming along, to which drummer David Silveria responded that it "Sounds like the music is a little more simplified and heavier. Kind of heavier grooves, more than the last couple. So kind of more similar to the beginning, except Jon is a much better singer now, so it's all coming together."
In October 1999, Korn posted "Falling Away from Me" on their website as a free MP3 download, although it was against the advice of its attorneys. A statement on the band's site relates: "We're so psyched about [the new album] that we wanted to give all you guys, the true Korn fans — a gift from us." Also at this time, the band attempted to start an online chain email, by posting the letter online and asking fans to email the letter to 10 other people and to then sign the "I Downloaded the Korn Single for Free" guestbook on the band's site. For each person who signed, Korn donated 25 cents to the charities Childhelp USA and Children of the Night. It raised over $250,000.
The album featured four different covers each designed by Korn fans as part of an MTV contest (the winning cover, submitted in a pizza box, was designed by Alfredo Carlos; another album cover for special limited edition of the album features a cartoonish half-caricature for the band). There was also a fifth cover selected for the limited tour edition of the album.
Release and commercial performance
Issues sold almost 575,000 copies in its first six days of being released and went to number 1 on the Billboard 200, preventing both Dr. Dre's 2001 and Celine Dion's All the Way... A Decade of Song from going to number 1. To celebrate the release of Issues, Korn performed the entire album in its running order at Harlem's famed Apollo Theater. On December 22, 1999, a month after the album's release date, Issues was certified 3x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). According to Nielsen Soundscan, Issues sold at least 3,047,076 copies in the United States. On Billboard year-end chart for the year 2000, Issues was at number 19.
Three songs from Issues were released as singles: "Falling Away from Me", "Make Me Bad", and "Somebody Someone". On December 25, 1999, "Falling Away from Me" went to number 8 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. "Falling Away from Me" was on that chart for sixteen weeks. "Falling Away from Me" also went to number 7 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart and number 7 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. On April 22, 2000, "Make Me Bad" went to number 14 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. "Make Me Bad" was on that chart for 12 weeks. "Make Me Bad" also went to number 9 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart and number 7 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. "Falling Away from Me" went to number 1 on MTV's Total Request Live many times during both November and December 1999.
Critical reception
The album received mixed to positive reviews. According to the band in the booklet that comes with Greatest Hits, Vol. 1 album, they did not want to be part of a popular trend and wanted to do their own thing. The band admits that with Brendan O'Brien working alongside them, they were more focused during recording because he didn't let them just fool around and party, so there was a lot less drinking this time around.
In 2021, it was named one of the 20 best metal albums of 1999 by Metal Hammer magazine.
Track listing
All songs written by Korn.
The song "Dirty" ends at 3:43, with the rest of the song is the static or white noise.
In the advance version, this song ends at 3:46 without the static, followed by an alternative version of "Am I Going Crazy". This version does not contain the reversed channel and has a different mix in the drums and no bass.
All Mixed Up (EP)
All Mixed Up is an EP by Korn released as a bonus disc alongside the album Issues featuring previously unreleased mixes and a previously unreleased song. The EP was made available for purchase separately on February 9, 2001.
Track listing
Personnel
Korn
Jonathan Davis – vocals, bagpipes, additional drums, programming, digeridoo on "Dirty"
Fieldy – bass guitar, programming
Munky – guitars
Head – guitars, vocals
David Silveria – drums, percussion
Additional personnel
Brendan O'Brien – producer, mixing
Nick DiDia – recording
Tobias Miller – additional engineering, editing
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Chart positions
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
Certifications
References
1999 albums
Albums produced by Brendan O'Brien (record producer)
Epic Records albums
Korn albums
Immortal Records albums | [
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] |
235054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20the%20Fat | Charles the Fat | Charles III (13 June 839 – 13 January 888), also known as Charles the Fat, was the emperor of the Carolingian Empire from 881 to 888. A member of the Carolingian dynasty, Charles was the youngest son of Louis the German and Hemma, and a great-grandson of Charlemagne. He was the last Carolingian emperor of legitimate birth and the last to rule over all the realms of the Franks.
Over his lifetime, Charles became ruler of the various kingdoms of Charlemagne's former empire. Granted lordship over Alamannia in 876, following the division of East Francia, he succeeded to the Italian throne upon the abdication of his older brother Carloman of Bavaria who had been incapacitated by a stroke. Crowned emperor in 881 by Pope John VIII, his succession to the territories of his brother Louis the Younger (Saxony and Bavaria) the following year reunited the kingdom of East Francia. Upon the death of his cousin Carloman II in 884, he inherited all of West Francia, thus reuniting the entire Carolingian Empire.
Usually considered lethargic and inept—he is known to have had repeated illnesses and is believed to have suffered from epilepsy—he twice purchased peace with Viking raiders, including at the infamous Siege of Paris which led to his downfall.
The reunited empire did not last. During a coup led by his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia in November 887, Charles was deposed in East Francia, Lotharingia, and the Kingdom of Italy. Forced into quiet retirement, he died of natural causes in January 888, just a few weeks after his deposition. The Empire quickly fell apart after his death, splintering into five separate successor kingdoms; the territory it had occupied was not entirely reunited under one ruler until the conquests of Napoleon.
Nickname and number
The nickname "Charles the Fat" (Latin Carolus Crassus) is not contemporary. It was first used by the Annalista Saxo (the anonymous "Saxon Annalist") in the twelfth century. There is no contemporary reference to Charles's physical size, but the nickname has stuck and is the common name in most modern European languages (French Charles le Gros, German Karl der Dicke, Italian Carlo il Grosso).
His numeral is roughly contemporary. Regino of Prüm, a contemporary of Charles's recording his death, calls him "Emperor Charles, third of that name and dignity" (Latin Carolus imperator, tertius huius nominis et dignitatis).
Biography
Youth and inheritance
Charles was the youngest of the three sons of Louis the German, first King of East Francia, and Hemma from the House of Welf. An incident of demonic possession is recorded in his youth, in which he was said to have been foaming at the mouth before he was taken to the altar of the church. This greatly affected him and his father. He was described as: "… a very Christian prince, fearing God, with all his heart keeping His commandments, very devoutly obeying the orders of the Church, generous in alms-giving, practising unceasingly prayer and song, always intent upon celebrating the praises of God."
In 859, Charles was made Count of the Breisgau, an Alemannic march bordering southern Lotharingia. In 863 his rebellious eldest brother Carloman revolted against their father. The next year Louis the Younger followed Carloman in revolt and Charles joined him. Carloman received rule over the Duchy of Bavaria. In 865, the elder Louis was forced to divide his remaining lands among his heirs: the Duchy of Saxony (along with the Duchy of Franconia and the Duchy of Thuringia) went to Louis, Alemannia (the Duchy of Swabia along with Rhaetia) went to Charles, and Lotharingia was to be divided between the younger two.
When in 875 the Emperor Louis II, who was also King of Italy, died having agreed with Louis the German that Carloman would succeed him in Italy, Charles the Bald of West Francia invaded the peninsula and had himself crowned king and emperor. Louis the German sent first Charles and then Carloman himself, with armies containing Italian forces under Berengar of Friuli, their cousin, to the Italian kingdom. These wars, however, were not successful until the death of Charles the Bald in 877.
In 876 Louis the German died and the inheritance was divided as planned after a conference at Ries, though Charles received less of his share of Lotharingia than planned. In his charters, Charles's reign in Germania is dated from his inheritance in 876.
Acquisition of Italy
Three brothers ruled in cooperation and avoided wars over the division of their patrimony: a rare occurrence in the Early Middle Ages. In 877, Carloman finally inherited Italy from his uncle Charles the Bald. Louis divided Lotharingia and offered a third to Carloman and a third to Charles. In 878, Carloman returned his Lotharingian share to Louis, who then divided it evenly with Charles. In 879, Carloman was incapacitated by a stroke and divided his domains between his brothers: Bavaria went to Louis and Italy to Charles. Charles dated his reign in Italia from this point, and from then he spent most of his reign until 886 in his Italian kingdom.
In 880, Charles joined Louis III of France and Carloman II, the joint kings of West Francia, in failed siege of Boso of Provence in Vienne from August to September. Provence, legally a part of the Italian kingdom from 863, had rebelled under Boso. In August 882, Charles sent Richard, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Autun, to take the city, which he finally did in September. After this, Boso was restricted to the vicinity of Vienne.
Imperial coronation
On 18 July 880, Pope John VIII sent a letter to Guy II of Spoleto seeking peace, but the duke ignored him and invaded the Papal States. John responded by begging the aid of Charles in his capacity as king of Italy and crowned Charles emperor on 12 February 881. This was accompanied by hopes of a general revival in western Europe, but Charles proved to be unequal to the task. Charles did little to help against Guy II. Papal letters as late as November were still petitioning Charles for action.
As emperor, Charles began the construction of a palace at Sélestat in Alsace. He modelled it after the Palace at Aachen which was built by Charlemagne, whom he consciously sought to emulate, as indicated by the Gesta Karoli Magni of Notker the Stammerer. As Aachen was located in the kingdom of his brother, it was necessary for Charles to build a new palace for his court in his own power base of western Alemannia. Sélestat was also more centrally located than Aachen.
In February 882, Charles convoked a diet in Ravenna. The duke, emperor, and pope made peace and Guy and his uncle, Guy of Camerino, vowed to return the papal lands. In a March letter to Charles, John claimed that the vows went unfulfilled. In 883, Guy of Camerino, now duke of Spoleto, was accused of treason at an imperial synod held at Nonantula late in May. He returned to Spoleto and made an alliance with the Saracens. Charles sent Berengar against Guy III. Berengar was initially successful until an epidemic of disease, which ravaged all of Italy, affecting the emperor and his entourage as well as Berengar's army, forced him to retreat.
In 883, Charles signed a treaty with Giovanni II Participazio, Doge of Venice, granting that any assassin of a doge who fled to the territory of the Empire would be fined 100 lbs of gold and banished.
Rule in East Francia
In the early 880s, the remnants of the Great Heathen Army, defeated by Alfred the Great at the Battle of Ethandun in 878, began to settle in the Low Countries. Charles's brother Louis the Younger had opposed them with some success, but he died after a short campaign on 20 January 882, leaving his throne to Charles, who reunited the whole East Frankish kingdom.
After returning from Italy, Charles held an assembly at Worms with the purpose of dealing with the Vikings. Armies from the whole East Francia were assembled in the summer under Arnulf, Duke of Carinthia, and Henry, Count of Saxony. The chief Viking camp was then besieged at Asselt. Charles then opened negotiations with the Viking chiefs Godfrid and Sigfred. Godfrid accepted Christianity and became Charles's vassal. He was married to Gisela, daughter of Lothair II of Lotharingia. Sigfred was bribed off. Despite the insinuations of some modern historians, no contemporary account criticised Charles's actions during this campaign. In 885, fearing Godfrid and his brother-in-law, Hugh, Duke of Alsace, Charles arranged for a conference at Spijk near Lobith, where the Viking leader fell into his trap. Godfrid was executed, and Hugh was blinded and sent to Prüm.
From 882 to 884, the Wilhelminer War engulfed the March of Pannonia (later March of Austria). Arnulf of Carinthia, Charles's illegitimate nephew, made an alliance with the rebel Engelschalk II against Aribo of Austria, Charles's appointed margrave of the region. Svatopluk I, ruler of Great Moravia, agreed to help Aribo and in 884 at Kaumberg took an oath of fidelity to Charles. Though the emperor lost his vassals of the Wilhelminer family and his relationship with his nephew was broken, he gained powerful new allies in the Moravian dux and other Slavic duces of the region.
Rule in West Francia
When Carloman II of West Francia died on 12 December 884, the nobles of the kingdom invited Charles to assume the kingship. Charles gladly accepted, it being the third kingdom to "fall into his lap". According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Charles succeeded to all of the kingdom of Carloman except Brittany, but this does not seem to have been true. It is likely that Charles was crowned by Geilo, Bishop of Langres, as rex in Gallia on 20 May 885 at Grand in the Vosges in southern Lorraine. Although Geilo even developed a special West Frankish seal for him, Charles's government in the West was always very distant and he left most day-to-day business to the higher nobility.
Though West Francia (the future France) was far less menaced by the Vikings than the Low Countries, it was heavily hit nonetheless. In 885, a huge fleet led by Sigfred sailed up the Seine, for the first time in years, and besieged Paris. Sigfred demanded a bribe again, but this time Charles refused. He was in Italy at the time and Odo, Count of Paris, sneaked some men through enemy lines to seek his aid. Charles sent Henry of Saxony to Paris. In 886, as disease began to spread through Paris, Odo himself went to Charles to seek support. Charles brought a large army and encircled the army of Rollo and set up a camp at Montmartre. However, Charles had no intention of fighting. He sent the attackers up the Seine to ravage Burgundy, which was in revolt. When the Vikings withdrew from France next spring, he gave them 700 pounds of promised silver. Charles's prestige in France was greatly diminished.
Charles issued a number of charters for West Frankish recipients during his stay in Paris during and after the siege. He recognised rights and privileges granted by his predecessors to recipients in the Spanish March and Provence, but especially in Neustria, where he had contact with Nantes at a time when the Breton duke Alan I was known to be powerful in the county of Nantes. It is probable that Charles granted Alan the right to be titled rex; as emperor he would have had that prerogative and Alan's use of the title appears legitimate. A charter dated to between 897 and 900 makes reference to the soul of Karolus, on whose behalf Alan had ordered prayers to be said in the monastery of Redon. This was probably Charles the Fat.
Succession problems
Charles, childless by his marriage to Richgard, tried to have his illegitimate son by an unknown concubine, Bernard, recognised as his heir in 885, but this met with opposition from several bishops. He had the support of Pope Hadrian III, whom he invited to an assembly in Worms in October 885, but the pope died on the way there, just after crossing the river Po. Hadrian was going to remove the obstructing bishops for Charles, as he doubted he could do this himself, and legitimize Bernard. Based on the unfavouring attitude shown by the chronicler responsible for the Mainz continuation of the Annales Fuldenses, the chief of Charles's opponents in this matter was most likely Liutbert, Archbishop of Mainz. Because Charles had called together the "bishops and counts of Gaul" as well as the pope to meet him at Worms, it is likely that he had plans to make Bernard King of Lotharingia. Notker the Stammerer, who considered Bernard as a possible heir, wrote in his Deeds of Charlemagne:
After the failure of this first attempt, Charles set about to try again. He had the term proles (offspring) inserted into his charters (it had not been in previous years), in a likely attempt to legitimize Bernard. In early 886 Charles met the new Pope Stephen V and probably negotiated for the recognition of his illegitimate son as heir. An assembly was planned for April and May of the following year at Waiblingen. Pope Stephen cancelled his planned attendance on 30 April 887. Nevertheless, at Waiblingen, Berengar, who after a brief feud with Liutward had lost the favour of the emperor, came in early May 887, made peace with the emperor and compensated for his actions of the previous year by dispensing great gifts.
Charles eventually abandoned his plans for Bernard and instead adopted Louis of Provence as his son at an assembly at Kirchen in May. It is possible, however, that the agreement with Louis was only designed to engender support for Bernard's subkingship in Lotharingia. In June or July, Berengar arrived in Kirchen, probably pining to be declared Charles's heir; he may in fact have been so named in Italy, where he was acclaimed (or made himself) king immediately after Charles's deposition. Odo, Count of Paris, may have had a similar purpose in visiting Charles at Kirchen. On the other hand, the presence of these magnates at these two great assemblies may merely have been necessary to confirm Charles's illegitimate son as his heir (Waiblingen), a plan which failed when the pope refused to attend, and then to confirm Louis instead (Kirchen).
Deposition, death, and legacy
With Charles increasingly seen as spineless and incompetent, matters came to a head in late 887. In the summer of that year, having given up on plans for his son's succession, Charles received Odo and Berengar, Margrave of Friuli, a relative of his, at his court. He may have accepted neither, one, or both of these as his heir in their respective kingdoms. His inner circle then began to fall apart. First, he accused his wife Richgard of having an affair with his chief minister and archchancellor, Liutward, bishop of Vercelli. She proved her innocence in an ordeal of fire and left him for the monastic life. He then turned against Liutward, who was hated by all, and removed him from office, appointing Liutbert (archbishop of Mainz), in his place.
In that year, his first cousin once removed, Ermengard of Provence, daughter of the Emperor Louis II and wife of Boso of Provence, brought her son Louis the Blind to him for protection. Charles confirmed Louis in Provence (he may even have adopted him) and allowed them to live at his court. He probably intended to make Louis heir to the whole realm and the imperium. On 11 November, he called an assembly to Frankfurt. While there he received news that an ambitious nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia, had fomented a general rebellion and was marching into Germany with an army of Bavarians and Slavs. The next week saw the collapse of all his support in East Francia. The last to abandon him were his loyal Alemanni, though the men of Lotharingia never seem to have formally accepted his deposition. By 17 November, Charles was out of power, though the exact course of events is unknown. Aside from rebuking his faithlessness, he did little to prevent Arnulf's move—he had recently been ill again—but assured that Bernard was entrusted to his care and possibly Louis too. He asked for a few estates in Swabia on which to live out his days and thus received Naudingen (Donaueschingen). There he died six weeks later, on 13 January 888.
The Empire fell apart, never to be restored. According to Regino of Prüm, each part of the realm elected a "kinglet" from its own "bowels"—the bowels being the regions inside the realm. It is probable that Arnulf desired the whole empire, but the only part he received other than East Francia was Lotharingia. The French elected Odo, although he was opposed at first by Guy III of Spoleto, who also opposed Arnulf in Lotharingia. Guy sought the kingship in Italy after his failures in Francia, despite Berengar having already been crowned. Louis was crowned in Provence, as Charles had intended, and he sought the support of Arnulf and gained it, probably through supplication to him. Odo would eventually submit to Arnulf's supremacy as well. In Upper Burgundy, one Rudolph, a dux of the region, was elected as king in a distinctly non-Carolingian creation, probably the result of his failure to succeed in the whole of Lotharingia. In Aquitaine, Ranulf II declared himself king and took the guardianship of the young Charles the Simple, the Carolingian heir to the West, refusing to recognise Odo's election.
It is unknown if these elections were a response to Charles's East Frankish deposition or to his death. Only those of Arnulf and Berengar can be certainly placed before his death. Only the magnates of the East ever formally deposed him. He was buried with honour in Reichenau after his death and the Annales Fuldenses heap praises on his piety and godliness. Indeed, contemporary opinion of Charles is consistently kinder than later historiography, though it is a modern suggestion that his lack of apparent successes is the excusable result of near constant illness and infirmity.
Charles was the subject of a hortative piece of Latin prose, the Visio Karoli Grossi, designed to champion the cause of Louis the Blind and warn the Carolingians that their continued rule was not certain if they did not have "divine" (i.e. ecclesiastical) favour.
See also
Family tree of the German monarchs
Notes
References
Bibliography
Airlie, Stuart. "‘Sad stories of the death of kings’: Narrative Patterns and Structures of Authority in Regino of Prüm's Chronicle." In Elizabeth M. Tyler and Ross Balzaretti (eds.), Narrative and History in the Early Medieval West, pp. 105–32. Brepols, 2006.
Duckett, Eleanor. Death and Life in the Tenth Century. University of Michigan Press, 1968.
Leyser, Karl. Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries. London, 1994.
MacLean, Simon. Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the end of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge University Press: 2003.
Reuter, Timothy. Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800–1056. Longman, 1991.
Reuter, Timothy (trans.) The Annals of Fulda. (Manchester Medieval series, Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II.) Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992.
Smith, Julia M. H. Province and Empire: Brittany and the Carolingians. Cambridge University Press: 1992.
External links
Annales Fuldenses translated by Timothy Reuter, with commentary (subscription needed)., medievalsources.co.uk
839 births
888 deaths
9th-century Holy Roman Emperors
9th-century kings of West Francia
9th-century kings of Italy
9th-century kings of East Francia
9th-century dukes of Bavaria
Kings of Bavaria
Kings of Saxony
Kings of Lotharingia
Dukes of Swabia
Frankish warriors
Royalty and nobility with disabilities
Burials at the Imperial Abbey of Reichenau
Carolingian dynasty | [
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235056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J-Tull%20Dot%20Com | J-Tull Dot Com | {{Album ratings
| rev1 = AllMusic
| rev1Score = <ref>
J-Tull Dot Com is the 20th studio album by the British band Jethro Tull, released in 1999 on Papillon, the Chrysalis Group's late 1990s heritage record label. It was released four years after their 1995 album Roots to Branches and continues in the same vein, marrying hard rock with Eastern music influences. It is the first album to feature Jonathan Noyce on bass, who would remain with the band until 2007 in Jethro Tull's longest ever unchanged line-up. This was the last Jethro Tull album to feature all original, new material for 23 years (until the release of The Zealot Gene in 2022), although the band did release a Christmas album in 2003, which contained a mixture of new material, re-recordings of Tull's own suitably themed material and arrangements of traditional Christmas music.
Track listing
On some versions of the CD there is a period of silence after "A Gift of Roses", followed by the title track of Anderson's (at the time unreleased) solo album The Secret Language of Birds. The track is preceded by a brief spoken word introduction by Anderson. This extends the length of "A Gift of Roses" to 9:16.
Personnel
Jethro Tull
Ian Anderson – vocals, flute, acoustic guitar, bouzouki
Martin Barre – acoustic guitar, electric guitar
Jonathan Noyce – bass guitar
Andrew Giddings – piano, keyboards, Hammond organ, accordion
Doane Perry – drums, percussion
Additional personnel
Najma Akhtar – backing vocals (on "Dot Com")
References
External links
Ground and Sky review
Progressive World review
January 2000 Interview
1999 albums
Jethro Tull (band) albums
Varèse Sarabande albums
Albums produced by Ian Anderson | [
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235077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse%20transcription%20polymerase%20chain%20reaction | Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction | Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique combining reverse transcription of RNA into DNA (in this context called complementary DNA or cDNA) and amplification of specific DNA targets using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). It is primarily used to measure the amount of a specific RNA. This is achieved by monitoring the amplification reaction using fluorescence, a technique called real-time PCR or quantitative PCR (qPCR). Combined RT-PCR and qPCR are routinely used for analysis of gene expression and quantification of viral RNA in research and clinical settings.
The close association between RT-PCR and qPCR has led to metonymic use of the term qPCR to mean RT-PCR. Such use may be confusing, as RT-PCR can be used without qPCR, for example to enable molecular cloning, sequencing or simple detection of RNA. Conversely, qPCR may be used without RT-PCR, for example to quantify the copy number of a specific piece of DNA.
Nomenclature
The combined RT-PCR and qPCR technique has been described as quantitative RT-PCR or real-time RT-PCR (sometimes even called quantitative real-time RT-PCR), has been variously abbreviated as qRT-PCR, RT-qPCR, RRT-PCR, and rRT-PCR. In order to avoid confusion, the following abbreviations will be used consistently throughout this article:
Not all authors, especially earlier ones, use this convention and the reader should be cautious when following links. RT-PCR has been used to indicate both real-time PCR (qPCR) and reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR).
History
Since its introduction in 1977, Northern blot has been used extensively for RNA quantification despite its shortcomings: (a) time-consuming technique, (b) requires a large quantity of RNA for detection, and (c) quantitatively inaccurate in the low abundance of RNA content. However, since PCR was invented by Kary Mullis in 1983, RT PCR has since displaced Northern blot as the method of choice for RNA detection and quantification.
RT-PCR has risen to become the benchmark technology for the detection and/or comparison of RNA levels for several reasons: (a) it does not require post PCR processing, (b) a wide range (>107-fold) of RNA abundance can be measured, and (c) it provides insight into both qualitative and quantitative data. Due to its simplicity, specificity and sensitivity, RT-PCR is used in a wide range of applications from experiments as simple as quantification of yeast cells in wine to more complex uses as diagnostic tools for detecting infectious agents such as the avian flu virus and SARS-CoV-2.
Principles
In RT-PCR, the RNA template is first converted into a complementary DNA (cDNA) using a reverse transcriptase (RT). The cDNA is then used as a template for exponential amplification using PCR. The use of RT-PCR for the detection of RNA transcript has revolutionized the study of gene expression in the following important ways:
Made it theoretically possible to detect the transcripts of practically any gene
Enabled sample amplification and eliminated the need for abundant starting material required when using northern blot analysis
Provided tolerance for RNA degradation as long as the RNA spanning the primer is intact
One-step RT-PCR vs two-step RT-PCR
The quantification of mRNA using RT-PCR can be achieved as either a one-step or a two-step reaction. The difference between the two approaches lies in the number of tubes used when performing the procedure. The two-step reaction requires that the reverse transcriptase reaction and PCR amplification be performed in separate tubes. The disadvantage of the two-step approach is susceptibility to contamination due to more frequent sample handling. On the other hand, the entire reaction from cDNA synthesis to PCR amplification occurs in a single tube in the one-step approach. The one-step approach is thought to minimize experimental variation by containing all of the enzymatic reactions in a single environment. It eliminates the steps of pipetting cDNA product, which is labor-intensive and prone to contamination, to PCR reaction. The further use of inhibitor-tolerant polymerases, polymerase enhancers with an optimized one-step RT-PCR condition, supports the reverse transcription of the RNA from unpurified or crude samples, such as whole blood and serum. However, the starting RNA templates are prone to degradation in the one-step approach, and the use of this approach is not recommended when repeated assays from the same sample is required. Additionally, the one-step approach is reported to be less accurate compared to the two-step approach. It is also the preferred method of analysis when using DNA binding dyes such as SYBR Green since the elimination of primer-dimers can be achieved through a simple change in the melting temperature. Nevertheless, the one-step approach is a relatively convenient solution for the rapid detection of target RNA directly in biosensing.
End-point RT-PCR vs real-time RT-PCR
Quantification of RT-PCR products can largely be divided into two categories: end-point and real-time. The use of end-point RT-PCR is preferred for measuring gene expression changes in small number of samples, but the real-time RT-PCR has become the gold standard method for validating quantitative results obtained from array analyses or gene expression changes on a global scale.
End-point RT-PCR
The measurement approaches of end-point RT-PCR requires the detection of gene expression levels by the use of fluorescent dyes like ethidium bromide, P32 labeling of PCR products using phosphorimager, or by scintillation counting. End-point RT-PCR is commonly achieved using three different methods: relative, competitive and comparative.
Relative RT-PCR Relative quantifications of RT-PCR involves the co-amplification of an internal control simultaneously with the gene of interest. The internal control is used to normalize the samples. Once normalized, a direct comparison of relative transcript abundances across multiple samples of mRNA can be made. One precaution to note is that the internal control must be chosen so that it is not affected by the experimental treatment. The expression level should be constant across all samples and with the mRNA of interest for the results to be accurate and meaningful. Because the quantification of the results are analyzed by comparing the linear range of the target and control amplification, it is crucial to take into consideration the starting target molecules concentration and their amplification rate prior to starting the analysis. The results of the analysis are expressed as the ratios of gene signal to internal control signal, which the values can then be used for the comparison between the samples in the estimation of relative target RNA expression.
Competitive RT-PCR Competitive RT-PCR technique is used for absolute quantification. It involves the use of a synthetic “competitor” RNA that can be distinguished from the target RNA by a small difference in size or sequence. It is important for the design of the synthetic RNA be identical in sequence but slightly shorter than the target RNA for accurate results. Once designed and synthesized, a known amount of the competitor RNA is added to experimental samples and is co-amplified with the target using RT-PCR. Then, a concentration curve of the competitor RNA is produced and it is used to compare the RT-PCR signals produced from the endogenous transcripts to determine the amount of target present in the sample.
Comparative RT-PCR Comparative RT-PCR is similar to the competitive RT-PCR in that the target RNA competes for amplification reagents within a single reaction with an internal standard of unrelated sequence. Once the reaction is complete, the results are compared to an external standard curve to determine the target RNA concentration. In comparison to the relative and competitive quantification methods, comparative RT-PCR is considered to be the more convenient method to use since it does not require the investigator to perform a pilot experiment; in relative RT-PCR, the exponential amplification range of the mRNA must be predetermined and in competitive RT-PCR, a synthetic competitor RNA must be synthesized.
Real-time RT-PCR
The emergence of novel fluorescent DNA labeling techniques in the past few years has enabled the analysis and detection of PCR products in real-time and has consequently led to the widespread adoption of real-time RT-PCR for the analysis of gene expression. Not only is real-time RT-PCR now the method of choice for quantification of gene expression, it is also the preferred method of obtaining results from array analyses and gene expressions on a global scale. Currently, there are four different fluorescent DNA probes available for the real-time RT-PCR detection of PCR products: SYBR Green, TaqMan, molecular beacons, and scorpion probes. All of these probes allow the detection of PCR products by generating a fluorescent signal. While the SYBR Green dye emits its fluorescent signal simply by binding to the double-stranded DNA in solution, the TaqMan probes', molecular beacons' and scorpions' generation of fluorescence depend on Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) coupling of the dye molecule and a quencher moiety to the oligonucleotide substrates.
SYBR Green When the SYBR Green binds to the double-stranded DNA of the PCR products, it will emit light upon excitation. The intensity of the fluorescence increases as the PCR products accumulate. This technique is easy to use since designing of probes is not necessary given lack of specificity of its binding. However, since the dye does not discriminate the double-stranded DNA from the PCR products and those from the primer-dimers, overestimation of the target concentration is a common problem. Where accurate quantification is an absolute necessity, further assay for the validation of results must be performed. Nevertheless, among the real-time RT-PCR product detection methods, SYBR Green is the most economical and easiest to use.
TaqMan probes TaqMan probes are oligonucleotides that have a fluorescent probe attached to the 5' end and a quencher to the 3' end. During PCR amplification, these probes will hybridize to the target sequences located in the amplicon and as polymerase replicates the template with TaqMan bound, it also cleaves the fluorescent probe due to polymerase 5'- nuclease activity. Because the close proximity between the quench molecule and the fluorescent probe normally prevents fluorescence from being detected through FRET, the decoupling results in the increase of intensity of fluorescence proportional to the number of the probe cleavage cycles. Although well-designed TaqMan probes produce accurate real-time RT-PCR results, it is expensive and time-consuming to synthesize when separate probes must be made for each mRNA target analyzed. Additionally, these probes are light sensitive and must be carefully frozen as aliquots to prevent degradation.
Molecular beacon probes Similar to the TaqMan probes, molecular beacons also make use of FRET detection with fluorescent probes attached to the 5' end and a quencher attached to the 3' end of an oligonucleotide substrate. However, whereas the TaqMan fluorescent probes are cleaved during amplification, molecular beacon probes remain intact and rebind to a new target during each reaction cycle. When free in solution, the close proximity of the fluorescent probe and the quencher molecule prevents fluorescence through FRET. However, when molecular beacon probes hybridize to a target, the fluorescent dye and the quencher are separated resulting in the emittance of light upon excitation. As is with the TaqMan probes, molecular beacons are expensive to synthesize and require separate probes for each RNA target.
Scorpion probes The scorpion probes, like molecular beacons, will not be fluorescent active in an unhybridized state, again, due to the fluorescent probe on the 5' end being quenched by the moiety on the 3' end of an oligonucleotide. With Scorpions, however, the 3' end also contains sequence that is complementary to the extension product of the primer on the 5' end. When the Scorpion extension binds to its complement on the amplicon, the Scorpion structure opens, prevents FRET, and enables the fluorescent signal to be measured.
Multiplex probes TaqMan probes, molecular beacons, and scorpions allow the concurrent measurement of PCR products in a single tube. This is possible because each of the different fluorescent dyes can be associated with a specific emission spectra. Not only does the use of multiplex probes save time and effort without compromising test utility, its application in wide areas of research such as gene deletion analysis, mutation and polymorphism analysis, quantitative analysis, and RNA detection, make it an invaluable technique for laboratories of many discipline.
Two strategies are commonly employed to quantify the results obtained by real-time RT-PCR; the standard curve method and the comparative threshold method.
Application
The exponential amplification via reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction provides for a highly sensitive technique in which a very low copy number of RNA molecules can be detected. RT-PCR is widely used in the diagnosis of genetic diseases and, semiquantitatively, in the determination of the abundance of specific different RNA molecules within a cell or tissue as a measure of gene expression.
Research methods
RT-PCR is commonly used in research methods to measure gene expression. For example, Lin et al. used qRT-PCR to measure expression of Gal genes in yeast cells. First, Lin et al. engineered a mutation of a protein suspected to participate in the regulation of Gal genes. This mutation was hypothesized to selectively abolish Gal expression. To confirm this, gene expression levels of yeast cells containing this mutation were analyzed using qRT-PCR. The researchers were able to conclusively determine that the mutation of this regulatory protein reduced Gal expression. Northern blot analysis is used to study the RNA's gene expression further.
Gene insertion
RT-PCR can also be very useful in the insertion of eukaryotic genes into prokaryotes. Because most eukaryotic genes contain introns, which are present in the genome but not in the mature mRNA, the cDNA generated from a RT-PCR reaction is the exact (without regard to the error-prone nature of reverse transcriptases) DNA sequence that would be directly translated into protein after transcription. When these genes are expressed in prokaryotic cells for the sake of protein production or purification, the RNA produced directly from transcription need not undergo splicing as the transcript contains only exons. (Prokaryotes, such as E. coli, lack the mRNA splicing mechanism of eukaryotes).
Genetic disease diagnosis
RT-PCR can be used to diagnose genetic disease such as Lesch–Nyhan syndrome. This genetic disease is caused by a malfunction in the HPRT1 gene, which clinically leads to the fatal uric acid urinary stone and symptoms similar to gout. Analyzing a pregnant mother and a fetus for mRNA expression levels of HPRT1 will reveal if the mother is a carrier and if the fetus will likely to develop Lesch–Nyhan syndrome.
Cancer detection
Scientists are working on ways to use RT-PCR in cancer detection to help improve prognosis, and monitor response to therapy. Circulating tumor cells produce unique mRNA transcripts depending on the type of cancer. The goal is to determine which mRNA transcripts serve as the best biomarkers for a particular cancer cell type and then analyze its expression levels with RT-PCR.
RT-PCR is commonly used in studying the genomes of viruses whose genomes are composed of RNA, such as Influenzavirus A, retroviruses like HIV and SARS-CoV-2.
Challenges
Despite its major advantages, RT-PCR is not without drawbacks. The exponential growth of the reverse transcribed complementary DNA (cDNA) during the multiple cycles of PCR produces inaccurate end point quantification due to the difficulty in maintaining linearity. In order to provide accurate detection and quantification of RNA content in a sample, qRT-PCR was developed using fluorescence-based modification to monitor the amplification products during each cycle of PCR. The extreme sensitivity of the technique can be a double edged sword since even the slightest DNA contamination can lead to undesirable results. A simple method for elimination of false positive results is to include anchors, or tags, to the 5' region of a gene specific primer. Additionally, planning and design of quantification studies can be technically challenging due to the existence of numerous sources of variation including template concentration and amplification efficiency. Spiking in a known quantity of RNA into a sample, adding a series of RNA dilutions generating a standard curve, and adding in a no template copy sample (no cDNA) may used as controls.
Protocol
RT-PCR can be carried out by the one-step RT-PCR protocol or the two-step RT-PCR protocol.
One-step RT-PCR
One-step RT-PCR subjects mRNA targets (up to 6 kb) to reverse transcription followed by PCR amplification in a single test tube. It is important to note that using intact, high quality RNA and a sequence-specific primer will produce the best results.
Once a one-step RT-PCR kit with a mix of reverse transcriptase, Taq DNA polymerase, and a proofreading polymerase is selected and all necessary materials and equipment are obtained a reaction mix is to be prepared. The reaction mix includes dNTPs, primers, template RNA, necessary enzymes, and a buffer solution. The reaction mix is added to a PCR tube for each reaction, followed by template RNA. The PCR tubes are then placed in a thermal cycler to begin cycling. In the first cycle, synthesis of cDNA occurs. The second cycle is the initial denaturation wherein reverse transcriptase is inactivated. The remaining 40-50 cycles are the amplification, which includes denaturation, annealing, and elongation. When amplification is complete, the RT-PCR products can be analyzed with gel electrophoresis.
(PCR Applications Manual and Biotools)
Two-step RT-PCR
Two-step RT-PCR, as the name implies, occurs in two steps. First the reverse transcription and then the PCR. This method is more sensitive than the one-step method. Kits are also useful for two-step RT-PCR. Just as for one-step PCR, use only intact, high quality RNA for the best results. The primer for two-step PCR does not have to be sequence specific.
Step one
First combine template RNA, primer, dNTP mix, and nuclease-free water in a PCR tube. Then, add an RNase inhibitor and reverse transcriptase to the PCR tube. Next, place the PCR tube into a thermal cycler for one cycle wherein
annealing, extending, and inactivating of reverse transcriptase occurs. Finally, proceed directly to step two which is PCR or store product on ice until PCR can be performed.
Step two
Add master mix which contains buffer, dNTP mix, MgCl2, Taq polymerase and nuclease-free water to each PCR tube. Then add the necessary primer to the tubes. Next, place the PCR tubes in a thermal cycler for 30 cycles of the amplification program. This includes: denaturation, annealing, and elongation. The products of RT-PCR can be analyzed with gel electrophoresis.
Publication guidelines
Quantitative RT-PCR assay is considered to be the gold standard for measuring the number of copies of specific cDNA targets in a sample but it is poorly standardized. As a result, while there are numerous publications utilizing the technique, many provide inadequate experimental detail and use unsuitable data analysis to draw inappropriate conclusions. Due to the inherent variability in the quality of any quantitative PCR data, not only do reviewers have a difficult time evaluating these manuscripts, but the studies also become impossible to replicate. Recognizing the need for the standardization of the reporting of experimental conditions, the Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments (MIQE, pronounced mykee) guidelines have been published by an international consortium of academic scientists. The MIQE guidelines describe the minimum information necessary for evaluating quantitative PCR experiments that should be required for publication for encouraging better experimental practice and ensuring the relevance, accuracy, correct interpretation, and repeatability of quantitative PCR data.
Besides reporting guidelines, the MIQE stresses the need to standardize the nomenclature associated with quantitative PCR to avoid confusion; for example, the abbreviation qPCR should be used for quantitative real-time PCR, while RT-qPCR should be used for reverse transcription-qPCR, and genes used for normalisation should be referred to as reference genes instead of housekeeping genes. It also proposes that commercially derived terms like TaqMan probes should not be used, but instead referred to as hydrolysis probes. Additionally, it is proposed that quantification cycle (Cq) be used to describe the PCR cycle used for quantification instead of threshold cycle (Ct), crossing point (Cp), and takeoff point (TOP), which refer to the same value but were coined by different manufacturers of real-time instruments.
The guideline consists of the following elements: 1) experimental design, 2) sample, 3) nucleic acid extraction, 4) reverse transcription, 5) qPCR target information, 6) oligonucleotides, 7) protocol, 8) validation, and 9) data analysis. Specific items within each element carry a label of either E (essential) or D (desirable). Those labelled E are considered critical and indispensable while those labelled D are considered peripheral yet important for best-practices.
References
External links
RT-PCR protocols from Penn state University
Database of validated PCR primer sets (website critique)
Animation to illustrate RT-PCR procedure, from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
The Reference in qPCR – an Academic & Industrial Information Platform
Top 5 Government Rt Pcr Centres in Mumbai
Laboratory techniques
Molecular biology
Polymerase chain reaction
Biotechnology
fr:RT-PCR#Après transcription inverse | [
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235082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon%20boat | Dragon boat | A dragon boat is a human-powered watercraft originating from the Pearl River Delta region of China's southern Guangdong Province. These were made of teak, but in other parts of China, different kinds of wood are used. It is one of a family of traditional paddled long boats found throughout Asia, Africa, the Pacific islands, and Puerto Rico. The sport of dragon boat racing has its roots in an ancient folk ritual of contending villagers, which dates back 2000 years throughout southern China, and even further to the original games of Olympia in ancient Greece. Both dragon boat racing and the ancient Olympiad included aspects of religious observances and community celebrations, along with competitions.
Dragon boat racing has been a traditional Chinese paddled watercraft activity for over 2000 years and began as a modern international sport in Hong Kong in 1976. These boats are typically made of carbon fiber, fiberglass, and other lightweight materials. For competition events, dragon boats are generally rigged with decorative Chinese dragon heads and tails. At other times (such as during training), decorative regalia is usually removed, although the drum often remains aboard for drummers to practice. For races, there are 18-20 people in a standard boat, and 8-10 in a small boat, not including the steersperson (helm) and the drummer.
In December 2007, the central government of the People's Republic of China added the Dragon Boat Festival, along with the Qingming and Mid-Autumn festivals, to the schedule of national holidays.
History
Similar to the use of outrigger canoes or Polynesian va'a, dragon boat racing has a rich background of ancient ceremonial, ritualistic and religious traditions, and thus, the modern competitive aspect is but one small part of this complex dragon boat culture. The use of dragon boats for racing and dragons are believed by scholars, sinologists, and anthropologists to have originated in southern central China more than 2500 years ago, in Dongting Lake and along the banks of the Chang Jiang (now called the Yangtze) during the same era when the games of ancient Greece were being established at Olympia. Dragon boat racing has been practiced continuously since this period as the basis for annual water rituals and festival celebrations, and for the traditional veneration of the Chinese dragon water deity. The celebration was an important part of the ancient Chinese agricultural society, celebrating the summer rice planting. Dragon boat racing was historically situated in the Chinese subcontinent's southern-central "rice bowl"; where there were rice paddies, so there were dragon boats, too.
Of the twelve animals which make up the traditional Chinese zodiac, only the Dragon is a mythical creature. All the rest are non-mythical animals, yet all twelve of the zodiac creatures were well known to members of ancient Chinese agrarian communities. Dragons were traditionally believed to be the rulers of water on earth: rivers, lakes, and seas; they were also thought to dominate the waters of the heavens: clouds, mists, and rains. There are earth dragons, mountain dragons, and sky or celestial dragons (Tian Long) in Chinese tradition. Mythical dragons and serpents are also found widely in many cultures around the world.
Traditional dragon boat racing, in China, coincides with the 5th day of the 5th Chinese lunar month (varying from late May to June on the modern Gregorian Calendar). The summer solstice occurs around 21 June and is the reason why Chinese refer to their festival as "Duan Wu" or "Duen Ng". Both the sun and the dragon are considered to be male (the moon and the mythical phoenix, however, are considered to be female). The sun and the dragon are at their most potent during this time of the year, so cause for observing this through ritual celebrations such as dragon boat racing. It is also the time of year when rice seedlings must be transplanted in their paddy fields to allow for wet rice cultivation. Wu or Ng refers to the sun at its highest position in the sky during the day, the meridian of 'high noon'. Duan or Duen refers to upright or directly overhead. Thus, Duan Wu is an ancient reference to the maximum position of the sun in the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year or the summer solstice.
Venerating the dragon deity was meant to avert misfortune and calamity and encourage rainfall, which is needed for the fertility of the crops and thus, for the prosperity of an agrarian way of life. Celestial dragons were considered the controllers of rain, monsoons, winds, and clouds. The Emperor was "The Dragon" or the "Son of Heaven", and Chinese people sometimes refer to themselves as "dragons" because of its spirit of strength and vitality. Unlike dragons in European mythology, which are typically considered to be evil and demonic, Asian dragons are regarded as wholesome and benevolent, and thus worthy of veneration, not slaying. If rainfall is insufficient, however, drought and famine can result. Veneration of dragons in China seems to be associated with annually ensuring life-giving water and bountiful rice harvests in south-central China.
Another ritual called Awakening of the Dragon involves a Taoist priest dotting the bulging eyes of the carved dragon head attached to the boat. Doing so symbolizes the dragon ending its slumber and reenergizing its spirit, or ch'i. In modern dragon boat festivals, a representative can be invited to step forward to dot the eyes on a dragon boat head with a brush dipped in red paint.
Not understanding the significance of Duanwu, 19th-century European observers of the racing ritual referred to the associated spectacle as a "dragon boat festival". This is the term that has become known in the West. Dragon boat racing, like Duanwu, is observed and celebrated in many areas of east Asia with a significant population of ethnic Chinese such as Singapore, Malaysia, and the Riau Islands, as well as having been adopted by the Ryukyu Islands since ancient times. The date on which races were held is referred to as the "double fifth", since Duanwu is reckoned as the fifth day of the fifth lunar month, which often falls on the Gregorian calendar month of June and occasionally in May or July. Duanwu is reckoned annually in accordance with the traditional calendar system of China, which is a combination of solar and lunar cycles, unlike the solar-based Gregorian calendar system.
The Khmer Empire used dragon boats in their naval battles. Today, Cambodia honors the use of dragon boats by the Khmer Empire's navy by hosting dragon boat competitions at the Bon Om Touk water festival. The world's longest dragon boat is located in Cambodia and known as the Kambojika Putta Khemara Tarei.
Crew
The crew of a standard dragon boat typically consists of 22 team members: 20 paddlers in pairs facing toward the bow of the boat, 1 drummer or caller at the bow facing toward the paddlers, and 1 steerer standing at the rear of the boat. Dragon boats, however, do vary in length and the crew size changes accordingly, from small dragon boats with only 10 paddlers up to traditional boats which have upwards of 50 paddlers, plus drummer(s) and steerer.
Drummer
The pulsation of the drum beats produced by the drummer may be considered the "heartbeat" of the dragon boat. The drummer leads the paddlers throughout a race using the rhythmic drum beat to indicate the frequency and synchronization of all the paddlers' strokes (that is, the cadence, picking up or accelerating the pace, slowing the rate, etc.). The drummer may issue commands to the crew through a combination of hand signals and voice calls, and also generally exhorts the crew to perform at their peak. A drummer is typically mandatory during racing events, but if he or she is not present during training, it is typical for the sweep to direct the crew during a race. The drummer's role is both tactical and ceremonial. In official competitions, such as world championships, drummers must physically beat the drum, else the team may be issued a penalty. In other events or practices, the drummer of an experienced team may not hit the drum, as the team can paddle naturally together, without a drum beat.
Good drummers should be able to synchronize their drumming with the strokes of the leading pair of paddlers, rather than the other way around.
Paddlers
Pairs of paddlers sit facing forward in the boat, and use a specific type of paddle which, unlike equipment used in rowing, is not rigged to the boat in any way. The paddlers face the direction of boat-movement, dragon boaters thus "paddle," like a canoe; while rowers "row" travelling opposite the way they face as in Olympic sculling.
The paddle now accepted by the International Dragon Boat Organization has a standardized, fixed blade surface area and distinctive shape derived from the paddle shapes characteristic of that used by inhabitants of the Pearl River delta region of Guangdong Province, China adjacent to Hong Kong. The IDBF Paddle Specification 202a (PS202a) has straight flared edges and circular arced shoulders, based geometrically on an equilateral triangle positioned between the blade face and the neck of the shaft.
The first pair of paddlers, called "pacers," "strokes" or "timers," set the pace for the team and are responsible for synchronizing their strokes with one another, because it is critical that all paddlers are synchronized. The direction of the dragon boat while racing is set by the steerer, but for docking and other maneuvers, individual paddlers may be asked to paddle (while others either stop the boat or rest) according to the commands given by the drummer or steerer.
There are generally three different strokes used by paddlers: a (normal) forward stroke, a backstroke, and a draw stroke.
Steerer
The direction of a dragon boat's movement is controlled by the steerer standing in the back of the boat. Many terms exist for the person steering the boat, such as steerer, steersperson, steerman, sweep, and helm.
The steerer manipulates a long (typically 9-feet) straight oar, called a steering oar. The steering oar is situated in the upside-down U-shaped oar lock. The oar lock is housed on top of the steering arm, which sticks out perpendicularly on the back-left of a dragon boat.
The oar is used to both steer the boat as it is moving and adjust the positioning of the boat. To steer, a steerer will put the blade of the oar into the water and either push the handle away from him/her, or pull it toward him/her. Doing so will turn the boat right or left, respectively.
A steerer can also use the steering oar to adjust the position of the boat by cranking. When a steerer cranks the steering oar, the stern of the boat moves either to the left or right, spinning the boat. This is typically executed to turn the boat around at practice or to ensure a boat is lined up straight and pointing directly down a racecourse.
A steerer uses calls to direct the paddlers. The steerer may call "paddles up" to prepare to paddle and "take it away!" to commence paddling. The steerer may use other calls such as "hold the boat" for the paddlers to brake using their paddles or "let it ride" for them to lift their paddles out of the water.
The steerer is also the person to who calls the demands in the race for paddlers to better their placement and time in the event that they are participating in.
Racing
Modern dragon boat racing is organized at the international level by the International Dragon Boat Federation (IDBF), the world governing body for the sport. The IDBF is a member of the Global Association of International Sports Federations (Sportaccord) and is a founding federation of the AIMS Group (Alliance of Independent Recognized Members of Sport) within Sportaccord. AIMS is an IOC-Recognized Multi Sports Organization. The International Canoe Federation (ICF) also has a dragon boat program for those of its Member Canoe Federations with an interest in dragon boat. Both Sport and Festival racing are very competitive and many paddlers train year round, using paddling machines or pools in addition to on-water sessions.
A festival race is typically a sprint event of several hundred meters, with 500 meters being the most common. Races measuring 200, 1000, and 2000 meters are also standard distances in international competition. Races measuring 2000 meters are normally held on a 500-meter course, requiring teams to do two loops. Teams start and end at the same end of the course, and complete three 180-degree turns. Other distances may also be used in local festivals, such as 100 or 250 meters, or another distance, depending on the size of the body of water.
Organizations, recognition and popular culture
The established International Federation for dragon boat sport is the International Dragon Boat Federation (IDBF). In 2007, the IDBF was recognized as a member of SportAccord (the former General Association of International Sports Federations, GAISF) which is part of the Olympic Movement, after SportAccord considered the historical and cultural backgrounds and identities of dragon boat sports.
IDBF member associations or federations have been established in 89 countries or territories since 1991. The IDBF is not presently an Olympic International Federation of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), but the IOC is currently considering the IDBF application for Olympic Federation status.
Accidents and incidents
On 17 January 2010, a dragon boat capsized while training in Penang, Malaysia killed 6 paddlers on board.
On 11 February 2011, a dragon boat capsized while training due to wind in Præstø, Denmark killing one paddler.
On 9 June 2016, three people drowned after their dragon boat capsized during a race in Fujian Province, China
On 22 April 2018, seventeen drowned in a dragon boat accident on the Taohua River in Guilin, China
On 25 September 2019, seven people drowned near Boracay, Philippines
See also
Nouka Baich
References
Dragon boat racing
Rowing boats
Chinese inventions
Traditional boats
Canoes
Vietnamese traditions | [
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235083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chainsaw | Chainsaw | A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable gasoline-, electric-, or battery-powered saw that cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain driven along a guide bar. It is used in activities such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression, and harvesting of firewood. Chainsaws with specially designed bar-and-chain combinations have been developed as tools for use in chainsaw art and chainsaw mills. Specialized chainsaws are used for cutting concrete during construction developments. Chainsaws are sometimes used for cutting ice; for example, ice sculpture and winter swimming in Finland.
History
In surgery
The origin of chain saws in surgery is debated. A "flexible saw", consisting of a fine serrated link chain held between two wooden handles, was pioneered in the late 18th century (c. 1783–1785) by two Scottish doctors, John Aitken and James Jeffray, for symphysiotomy and excision of diseased bone, respectively. It was illustrated in the second edition of Aitken's Principles of Midwifery, or Puerperal Medicine (1785) in the context of a pelviotomy. In 1806, Jeffray published Cases of the Excision of Carious Joints, which collected a paper previously published by H. Park in 1782 and a translation of an 1803 paper by French physician P. F. Moreau, with additional observations by Park and Jeffray. In it, Jeffray reported having conceived the idea of a saw "with joints like the chain of a watch" independently very soon after Park's original 1782 publication, but that he was not able to have it produced until 1790, after which it was used in the anatomy lab and occasionally lent out to surgeons. Park and Moreau described successful excision of diseased joints, particularly the knee and elbow, and Jeffray explained that the chain saw would allow a smaller wound and protect the adjacent muscles, nerves, and veins. While symphysiotomy had too many complications for most obstetricians, Jeffray's ideas about the excision of the ends of bones became more accepted, especially after the widespread adoption of aneasthetics. For much of the 19th century the chain saw was a useful surgical instrument, but it was superseded in 1894 by the Gigli twisted-wire saw, which was substantially cheaper to manufacture, and gave a quicker, narrower cut, without risk of breaking and being entrapped in the bone.
A precursor of the chainsaw familiar today in the timber industry was another medical instrument developed around 1830, by German orthopaedist Bernhard Heine. This instrument, the osteotome, had links of a chain carrying small cutting teeth with the edges set at an angle; the chain was moved around a guiding blade by turning the handle of a sprocket wheel. As the name implies, this was used to cut bone.
For cutting wood
The earliest patent for a practical "endless chain saw" (a saw comprising a chain of links carrying saw teeth and running in a guide frame) was granted to Samuel J. Bens of San Francisco on January 17, 1905, his intent being to fell giant redwoods. The first portable chainsaw was developed and patented in 1918 by Canadian millwright James Shand. After he allowed his rights to lapse in 1930, his invention was further developed by what became the German company Festo in 1933. The company, now operating as Festool, produces portable power tools. Other important contributors to the modern chainsaw are Joseph Buford Cox and Andreas Stihl; the latter patented and developed an electric chainsaw for use on bucking sites in 1926 and a gasoline-powered chainsaw in 1929, and founded a company to mass produce them. In 1927, Emil Lerp, the founder of Dolmar, developed the world's first gasoline-powered chainsaw and mass produced them.
World War II interrupted the supply of German chain saws to North America, so new manufacturers sprang up, including Industrial Engineering Ltd (IEL) in 1939, the forerunner of Pioneer Saws Ltd and part of Outboard Marine Corporation, the oldest manufacturer of chainsaws in North America.
In 1944, Claude Poulan was supervising German prisoners cutting pulpwood in East Texas. Poulan utilized an old truck fender and fashioned it into a curved piece utilized to guide the chain. The "bow guide" now allowed the chainsaw to be utilized by a single operator.
McCulloch in North America started to produce chainsaws in 1948. The early models were heavy, two-person devices with long bars. Often, chainsaws were so heavy that they had wheels like dragsaws. Other outfits used driven lines from a wheeled power unit to drive the cutting bar.
After World War II, improvements in aluminum and engine design lightened chainsaws to the point where one person could carry them. In some areas, the skidder (chainsaw) crews have been replaced by the feller buncher and harvester.
Chainsaws have almost entirely replaced simple man-powered saws in forestry. They are made in many sizes, from small electric saws intended for home and garden use, to large "lumberjack" saws. Members of military engineer units are trained to use chainsaws, as are firefighters to fight forest fires and to ventilate structure fires.
Three main types of chainsaw sharpeners are used: handheld file, electric chainsaw, and bar-mounted.
The first electric chainsaw was invented by Stihl in 1926. Corded chainsaws became available for sale to the public from the 1960s onwards, but these were never as successful commercially as the older gas-powered type due to limited range, dependency upon the presence of an electrical socket, plus the health and safety risk of the blade's proximity to the cable.
For most of the early 21st century petrol driven chainsaws remained the most common type, but they faced competition from cordless lithium battery powered chainsaws from the late 2010s onwards. Although most cordless chainsaws are small and suitable only for hedge trimming and tree surgery, Husqvarna and Stihl began manufacturing full size chainsaws for cutting logs during the early 2020s. These became particularly popular in California due to state restrictions on gas powered chainsaws, plus the ready availability of interchangeable rechargable batteries at most hardware stores.
Construction
A chainsaw consists of several parts:
Engine
Chainsaw engines are traditionally either a two-stroke gasoline (petrol) internal combustion engine (usually with a cylinder volume of 30 to 120 cm3) or an electric motor driven by a battery or electric power cord. In a petrol chainsaw, fuel is generally supplied to the engine by a carburetor at the intake.
To allow use in any orientation, modern gas chainsaws use a diaphragm carburetor, which draws fuel from the tank using the alternating pressure differential within the crankcase. Early engines used carburetors with gravity fed float chambers, which caused the engine to stall when tilted. The carburetor may need to be adjusted to maintain an appropriate idle speed and air-fuel ratio, such as when moving to a higher/lower altitude or as the air filter clogs. Carburetors are adjusted either by the operator or, in some saws, automatically by an electronic control unit.
To prevent vibration induced injury and reduce user fatigue, saws generally have a anti-vibration system to physically decouple the handles from the engine and bar. This is achieved by constructing the saw in two pieces, connected by springs or rubber in the same way an automobile suspension isolates the chassis from the wheels and road. In cold weather, carburetor icing can occur, so many saws have a vent between the cylinders and carburetor which may be opened to allow hot air to pass. Cold temperature can also contribute to vibration-induced injury, and some saws have a small alternator connected to resistive heating elements in the handles and/or carburetor.
Drive mechanism
Typically, a centrifugal clutch and sprocket are used.
The centrifugal clutch expands with increasing speed, engaging a drum. On this drum sits either a fixed sprocket or an exchangeable one. The clutch has three jobs: When the engine runs idle (typically 2500-2700 rpm) the chain does not move. When the clutch is engaged and the chain stops in the wood for another reason, it protects the engine. Most importantly, it protects the operator in case of a kickback. Here, the chain brake stops the drum, and the clutch releases immediately.
Guide bar
A guide bar, typically an elongated bar with a round end of wear-resistant alloy steel typically 40 to 90 cm (16 to 36 in) in length, is used. An edge slot guides the cutting chain. Specialized, loop-style bars, called bow bars, were also used at one time for bucking logs and clearing brush, although they are now rarely encountered due to increased hazards of operation.
All guide bars have some elements for operation:
Gauge
The lower part of the chain runs in the gauge. Here, the lubrication oil is pulled by the chain to the nose. This is basically the thickness of the drive links.
0.063 in or 1.6 mm
0.058 in or 1.5 mm
0.050 in or 1.3 mm
0.043 in or 1.1 mm
Oil holes
The end of the saw power head has two oil holes, one on each side. These holes must match with the outlet of the oil pump. The pump sends the oil through the hole in the lower part of the gauge.
Saw bar producers provide a large variety of bars matching different saws.
Grease holes at bar nose
Through this hole, grease is pumped, typically each tank filling to keep the nose sprocket well lubricated.
Guide slot
Here, one or two bolts from the saw run through. The clutch cover is put on top of the bar and it is secured through these bolts. The number of bolts is determined by the size of the saw.
Bar types
Different bar types are available:
Laminated bars consist of different layers to reduce the weight of the bar.
Solid bars are solid steel, intended for professional use. They commonly have an exchangeable nose, since the sprocket at the bar nose wears out faster than the bar.
Safety bars are laminated bars with a small sprocket at the nose. The small nose reduces the kickback effect. Such bars are used on consumer saws.
Cutting chain
Usually, each segment in a chain (which is constructed from riveted metal sections similar to a bicycle chain, but without rollers) features small, sharp, cutting teeth. Each tooth takes the form of a folded tab of chromium-plated steel with a sharp angular or curved corner and two beveled cutting edges, one on the top plate and one on the side plate. Left-handed and right-handed teeth are alternated in the chain. Chains are made in varying pitch and gauge; the pitch of a chain is defined as half of the length spanned by any three consecutive rivets (e.g., 8 mm, 0.325 inch), while the gauge is the thickness of the drive link where it fits into the guide bar (e.g., 1.5 mm, 0.05 inch). The conventional "full complement" chain has one tooth for every two drive links. "Full skip" chain has one tooth for every three drive links. Built into each tooth is a depth gauge or "raker", which rides ahead of the tooth and limits the depth of cut, typically to around 0.5 mm (0.025"). Depth gauges are critical to safe chain operation. If left too high, they cause very slow cutting; if filed too low, the chain becomes more prone to kick back. Low depth gauges also cause the saw to vibrate excessively. Vibration is uncomfortable for the operator and is detrimental to the saw.
Tensioning mechanism
The tension of the cutting chain is adjusted so that it neither binds on nor comes loose from the guide bar. The tensioner for doing so is either operated by turning a screw or a manual wheel. The tensioner is either in a lateral position underneath the exhaust or integrated into the clutch cover.
Lateral tensioners have the advantage that the clutch cover is easier to mount, but the disadvantage that it is more difficult to reach nearby the bar. Tensioners through the clutch cover are easier to operate, but the clutch cover is more difficult to attach.
When turning the screw, a hook in a bar hole moves the bar either out (tensioning) or in, making the chain lose. Tension is right when it can be moved easily by hand and not hanging loose from the bar. When tensioning, hold the bar nose up and pull the bar nuts tight. Otherwise, the chain might derail.
The underside of each link features a small, metal finger called a "drive link", which locates the chain on the bar, helps to carry lubricating oil around the bar, and engages with the engine's drive sprocket inside the body of the saw. The engine drives the chain around the track by a centrifugal clutch, engaging the chain as engine speed increases under power, but allowing it to stop as the engine speed slows to idle speed.
Consistent improvement to overall chainsaw design, including adding safety features, have taken place over the years. These include chain-brake systems, better chain design, and lighter, more ergonomic saws, including fatigue-reducing antivibration systems.
As chainsaw carving has become more popular, manufacturers are making special short, narrow-tipped bars (called "quarter-tipped" "nickel-tipped", or "dime-tipped" bars, based on the size of their tips). Some chainsaws are built specifically for carving applications. Echo sponsors a carving series.
Safety features
Today's chainsaws have multiple safety features to protect the operator. These include:
Chain brake
A chain brake activator is located forward of the upper handle and is activated by a kickback event. When triggered, it tensions a band around the clutch drum, stopping the chain within milliseconds.
A chain catcher is located between the saw body and the clutch cover. In most cases, it resembles a hook made of aluminum. It is used to stop the chain when it derails from the bar and shortens the length of the chain. When derailing, the chain swings from underneath the saw towards the operator. This prevents the chain from hitting the operator, which hits the rear handle guard instead.
A rear handle guard protects the hand of the operator when the chain derails.
Some chains have safety features as safety links as on micro chisel saws. These links keep the saw close to the gap between two cutting links and lift the chain when the space at the safety link is full with saw chips, which lifts the chain and lets it cut slower. Nonprofessional chains have less aggressive teeth, by having shallower depth gauges.
Protective clothing is designed to protect operators in the event of a moving chain touching their clothing by snarling the chain and sprocket, by using special synthetic fibers woven into the garment.
Maintenance
Two-stroke chainsaws require about 2–5% of oil in the fuel to lubricate the engine, while the motor in electrical chain-saws is normally lubricated for life. Most modern gasoline-operated saws today require a fuel mix of 2% (1:50). Gasoline that contains ethanol can result in problems for the equipment because ethanol dissolves plastic, rubber, and other material. This leads to problems, especially on older equipment. A workaround for this problem is to run fresh fuel only and run the saw dry at the end of the work.
Separate chain oil or bar oil is used for the lubrication of the bar and chain on all types of chainsaws. The chain oil is depleted quickly because it tends to be thrown off by chain centrifugal force, and it is soaked up by sawdust. On two-stroke chainsaws, the chain oil reservoir is usually filled up at the same time as refueling. The reservoir is normally large enough to provide sufficient chain oil between refueling. Lack of chain oil, or using an oil of incorrect viscosity, is a common source of damage to chainsaws, and tends to lead to rapid wear of the bar, or the chain seizing or coming off the bar. In addition to being quite thick, chain oil is particularly sticky (due to "tackifier" additives) to reduce the amount thrown off the chain. Although motor oil is a common emergency substitute, it is lost even faster, so leaves the chain under-lubricated.
The oil is pumped from a small pump to a hole in the bar. From there, the lower ends of each chain drive link take a portion of the oil into the gauge towards the bar nose. The pump outlet and bar hole must be aligned. Since the bar is moving out and inwards depending on the chain length, the oil outlet on the saw side has a banana-style long shape.
Chains must be kept sharp to perform well. They become blunt rapidly if they touch soil, metal, or stones. When blunt, they tend to produce powdery sawdust, rather than the longer, clean shavings characteristic of a sharp chain; a sharp saw also needs very little force from the operator to push it into the cut. Specially-hardened chains (made with tungsten carbide) are used for applications where the soil is likely to contaminate the cut, such as for cutting through roots.
A clear sign of a blunt chain is the vibrations of the saw. A sharp chain pulls itself into the wood without pressing on the saw.
Since the air intake filter tends to clog up with sawdust, it must be cleaned from time to time but is not a problem during normal operation.
Safety
Despite safety features and protective clothing, injuries can still arise from chainsaw use, from the large forces involved in the work, from the fast-moving, sharp chain, or the vibration and noise of the machinery.
A common accident arises from "kickback" when a chain tooth at the tip of the guide bar catches on wood without cutting through it. This throws the bar (with its moving chain) in an upward arc toward the operator, which can cause serious injury or even death.
Another dangerous situation occurs when heavy timber begins to fall or shift before a cut is complete. The chainsaw operator may be trapped or crushed. Similarly, timber falling in an unplanned direction may harm the operator or other workers, or an operator working at a height may fall or be injured by falling timber.
Like other hand-held machinery, the operation of chainsaws can cause vibration white finger, tinnitus, or industrial deafness. These symptoms were very common before vibration dampening using rubber or steel spring was introduced. Heated handles are additional help. Newer, lighter, and easier to wield cordless electric chainsaws use brushless motors, which further decrease noise and vibration compared to traditional petroleum-powered models.
The risks associated with chainsaw use mean that protective clothing such as chainsaw boots, chaps, and hearing protectors are normally worn while operating them, and many jurisdictions require that operators be certified or licensed to work with chainsaws. Injury can also result if the chain breaks during operation due to poor maintenance or attempting to cut inappropriate materials.
Gasoline-powered chainsaws expose operators to harmful carbon monoxide gas, especially indoors or in partially enclosed outdoor areas.
Drop starting, or turning on a chainsaw by dropping it with one hand while pulling the starting cord with the other, is a safety violation in most states in the U.S. Keeping both hands on the saw for stability is essential for safe chainsaw use.
Safe and effective chainsaw and crosscut use on federally administered public lands within the United States has been codified since 2016 in the Final Directive for National Saw Program issued by the United States Forest Service, which specifies the training, testing, and certification process for employees and unpaid volunteers who operate chainsaws within public lands.
Working techniques
Chainsaw training is designed to provide working technical knowledge and skills to safely operate the equipment.
Sizeup – This is scouting and planning safe cuts for the felling direction, danger zones, and retreat paths, before starting the saw. The tree's location relative to other objects, support, and tension determines a safe fall, splits off, or if the saw will jam. Several factors to consider are tree lean and bend, wind direction, branch arrangement, snow load, obstacles and damaged, rotting tree parts, which might behave unexpectedly when cut. A tree may have to fall in its natural direction if it is too dangerous or impossible to fell in a desired direction. The aim is for the tree to fall safely for limbing and cross-cutting the log. The goal is to avoid having the tree fall on another tree or obstacle.
Felling – After clearing the tree's base undergrowth for the retreat path and the felling direction; felling is properly done with three main cuts. To control the fall, the directional cut line should run 1/4 of the tree diameter to make a 45-degree wedge, which should be 90 degrees to the felling direction and perfectly horizontal. The top cut should be made first and then the bottom cut is made to form the directional cut line at the wedge point. A narrow or nonexistent hinge lessens felling direction control. From the opposite side of the wedge, the final felling cut is finished 1/10th of the tree diameter from the direction cut line. The felling cut is made horizontally and slightly (1.5–2 inches; ) above the bottom cut. When the hinge is properly set, the felling cut will begin the fall in the desired direction. A sitback is when a tree moves back opposite the intended direction. Placing a wedge in the felling cut can prevent a sitback from pinching the saw.
Freeing – Working a badly fallen tree that may have become trapped in other trees. Working out maximum tension locations to decide the safest way to release tension, and a winch may be needed in complicated situations. To avoid cutting straight through a tree in tension, one or two cuts at the tension point of sufficient depth to reduce tension may be necessary. After tension releases, cuts are made outside the bend.
Limbing – Cutting the branches off the log. The operator must be able to properly reach the cut to avoid kickback.
Bucking – Cross-cutting the felled log into sections. Setup is made to avoid binding the chainsaw within the changing log tensions and compressions. Safe bucking is started at the log high-side and then sections worked offside, toward the butt end. The offside log falls and allows for gravity to help prevent binds. The log's kerf movement while cutting can help to indicate binds. Additional equipment (lifts, bars, wedges, and winches) and special cutting techniques can help prevent binds.
Binds – This is when the chainsaw is at risk or is stuck in the log compression. A log bound chainsaw is unsafe and must be carefully removed to prevent equipment damage.
Top bind – The tension area on log bottom, compression on top.
Bottom bind – The tension area on log top, compression on bottom.
Side bind – Sideways pressure exerted on the log.
End bind – Weight compresses the log's entire cross-section.
Brushing and slashing – This is quickly clearing small trees and branches under five inches () in diameter. Hand piler may follow along to move out debris.
As a sawmill
When fastened into a special guide frame, a chainsaw can be used as a portable sawmill to cut bulk wood into planks or boards. Such usage is called a chainsaw mill or Alaskan sawmill.
Cutting stone, concrete, and brick
Special chainsaws can cut concrete, brick, and natural stone. These use similar chains to ordinary chainsaws, but with cutting edges embedded with diamond grit. They may use gasoline or hydraulic power, and the chain is lubricated with water, because of high friction and to remove stone dust. The machine is used in construction, for example, in cutting deep, square holes in walls or floors, in stone sculpture for removing large chunks of stone during pre-carving, by fire departments for gaining access to buildings, and in restoration of buildings and monuments for removing parts with minimal damage to the surrounding structure. More recently, concrete chainsaws with electric motors of 230 volts have also been developed.
Because the material to be cut is not fibrous, much less kickback occurs. So, the most-used method of cutting is plunge-cutting, by pushing the tip of the blade into the material. With this method, square cuts as small as the blade width can be achieved. Pushback can occur if a block shifts when nearly cut through and pinches the blade, but overall, the machine is less dangerous than a wood-cutting chainsaw.
See also
Bandsaw
Chainsaws in popular culture
Circular saw
Jigsaw
Portable sawmill
Saw chain
Small engine
References
External links
"How a Chainsaw Works", Popular Science, August 1951
Chainsaws
Gardening tools
Habitat management equipment and methods
Logging
Saws
Woodworking hand-held power tools | [
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235085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricky%20Martin%20%281999%20album%29 | Ricky Martin (1999 album) | Ricky Martin is the self-titled fifth studio album and first English album by Puerto Rican singer Ricky Martin. It was released on May 11, 1999, by Columbia Records. Following the release of four Spanish-language albums, and the huge success of his fourth studio album, Vuelve (1998), Martin announced the recording of his first English language album. He worked with producers KC Porter, Robi Rosa, and Desmond Child to create the album. Musically, Ricky Martin consists of dance-pop tracks, power ballads, mid-tempo pop songs, and rock numbers. After the album's release, Martin embarked on the worldwide Livin' la Vida Loca Tour, which was the highest-grossing tour of 2000 by a Latin artist.
The album was supported by four singles. The lead single "Livin' la Vida Loca" topped the charts in more than 20 countries and is considered to be Martin's biggest hit and one of the best-selling singles of all time. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for five consecutive weeks, becoming Martin's first number one single on the chart. Follow-up singles "She's All I Ever Had", "Shake Your Bon-Bon", and "Private Emotion" became number one and top 10 hits around the world. Ricky Martin received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who complimented its various genres and styles. Paste ranked the album as one of the "10 Best Solo Albums by Former Boy Band Members" in 2020. It was nominated for Best Pop Album at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards.
The album was a commercial success. It debuted atop the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 661,000 copies, becoming the largest sales week by any album in 1999 and breaking the record as the largest first-week sales for any pop or Latin artist in history. Additionally, it made Martin the first male Latin act in history to debut at number one on Billboard 200. Ricky Martin also topped the charts in Australia, Canada, and Spain, among others. The album has received several certifications, including 7× platinum in the United States, and diamond in Canada. Only within three months, it became the best-selling album ever by a Latin artist. It is generally seen as the album that began the "Latin explosion" and paved the way for a large number of other Latin artists such as Jennifer Lopez, Shakira, Christina Aguilera, Marc Anthony, Santana, and Enrique Iglesias.
Background and recording
In 1998, Ricky Martin released his fourth studio album, Vuelve. The album experienced both critical and commercial success, spending 26 weeks atop the US Billboard Top Latin Albums chart. "La Copa de la Vida" was released as the second single from the album, and became the official song of the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France. It topped the charts in more than 30 countries, and Martin performed it at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards, which was greeted with a massive standing ovation and met with acclaim from music critics. On October 22, 1998, CNN confirmed that Martin had started working on his first English language album, following the huge success of Vuelve. On March 6, 1999, almost two weeks after his Grammy performance, it was announced that the album had been set for release in May. While the album was still untitled at the time, American musician Diane Warren revealed that she contributed two songs to the album, which was produced by KC Porter, Robi Rosa, and Desmond Child. During an interview with the Orlando Sentinel, Martin told the newspaper that this album has Asian influences:
On April 24, 1999, Billboard revealed the album's title as eponymous in an article, mentioning that it was initially set for retail on May 25, 1999. However, the huge interest in the disc encouraged Columbia Records to decide to rush the album to release two weeks ahead of schedule, on May 11. Tom Corson, the senior vice president of marketing at Columbia explained: "Quite simply, the market has demanded it. People have been wanting this record for a while, and it's now reached the point where we have to get it out there immediately." Tim Devin, the general manager of Tower Records in New York added about Martin: "He's always been one of our strongest Latin artists, but interest in him has picked up considerably since that performance." In an interview with MTV, Martin told the channel about the album's title: "I cannot wear a mask to go on stage. Those are my influences. This is Ricky Martin. That's why the album is called Ricky Martin. As simple is that. We want to keep it simple. Like Einstein said, 'Let's make it simple, but not simpler than what it is.' And this is me."
Music and lyrics
Ricky Martin is a primarily English language album composed of 14 songs, consisting dance-pop tracks, power ballads, mid-tempo pop songs, and "straight-ahead" rock numbers. Ed Morales from Democrat and Chronicle stated that the album "runs the gamut from ska and rock' n' roll to Latin pop". "Livin' la Vida Loca" () is a rock-etched up-tempo pop song that features Latin percussion rhythms and horn riffs mixed with surf rock-inspired guitar riffs. It has salsa-rock fusion influences, and is about an irresistible, particularly sinister wild woman who lives on the edge, seducing others into her crazy world. The album also contains a Spanish-language version of "Livin' la Vida Loca", which was recorded under the same title.
In "Spanish Eyes", Martin refers to sultriness, tango, and dance over salsa descarga and up-tempo beats. The ballad "She's All I Ever Had" uses an Indian guitar and lyrically, is the tale of a man missing his woman, as he continues to live and breathe for her. It also has a Spanish version titled "Bella" (). Martin dedicated the track to his grandmother who died a year earlier. "Shake Your Bon-Bon" is a salsa party track and features a mix of pop, R&B, Middle Eastern riffs, and Latin horns, as well as a fusion of Latin percussion with retro organ. A Spanglish guitar-based down-tempo duet along with Madonna, "Be Careful (Cuidado con mi corazón)" mixes acoustic and electronic elements.
"I Am Made of You" is a "metal-type" ballad and uses electric guitar and drums that create a theme of "nostalgia and rock", while "Love You for a Day" is a "high-energy" Latin funk track featuring Latin elements, such as lengthy descargas, piano tumbaos, Latin percussion, and horns. The ballad "Private Emotion", which features a guest appearance by Swedish singer Meja is a cover version of a song under the same title by the Hooters for their fifth studio album Out of Body (1993). "You Stay With Me" is a slow ballad with "heart-wrenching" lyrics, and "I Count the Minutes" is a homage to the 1980s. Ricky Martin also features the Spanglish radio edit versions of "La Copa de la Vida" and "María", which were released as singles for Martin's previous albums. This version of "María" is remixed by Puerto Rican DJ Pablo Flores, who upped the tempo and the sex appeal of the song, turning the slow-burn flamenco laced track into an up-tempo samba tune in a house bassline. "La Copa de la Vida" is a samba-rooted Latin pop song, and features elements of batucada, salsa, dance, mambo, and Europop. Throughout the song, Martin carries a "soccer-heavy" message with fully positive lyrics.
Singles
Columbia Records released "Livin' la Vida Loca" to radio stations on March 23, 1999, as the lead single from the album. The song topped the charts in more than 20 countries and is considered to be Martin's biggest hit, and one of the best-selling singles of all time. In the United States, it topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for five consecutive weeks, becoming Martin's first number one single on the chart. Additionally, it broke several records on Billboard charts. It also spent eight consecutive weeks atop the Canada Top Singles chart and topped the country's year-end chart. In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number one and stayed there for three weeks, making Martin the first Puerto Rican artist in history to hit number one. The track was ranked as the best '90s pop song by Elle, and was listed among the Best Latin Songs of All Time by Billboard. It was nominated for four categories at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards, including Record of the Year and Song of the Year. Its Spanish version reached the summit of the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in the United States, and was nominated for Record of the Year at the 2000 Latin Grammy Awards.
"She's All I Ever Had" was released as the second single from the album on June 15, 1999. It peaked at numbers two and three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Canada Top Singles charts, respectively. The Spanish version, "Bella" topped the charts in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Panama, as well as Billboards Hot Latin Tracks chart. It also peaked at number two in Honduras, Nicaragua, and Puerto Rico. The third single from Ricky Martin, "Shake Your Bon-Bon" was released on October 12, 1999; it reached the top 10 in Canada, Finland, and New Zealand, as well as the top 15 in Spain, Scotland, and the United Kingdom. In the United States, it peaked at number 22 on the Hot 100. The album's final single, "Private Emotion", was launched on February 8, 2000. It reached number one in the Czech Republic, and was a top 10 hit in Finland, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Music videos were filmed for both English and Spanish versions of "Livin' la Vida Loca", "She's All I Ever Had", "Bella", "Shake Your Bon-Bon", and "Private Emotion".
Marketing
Release
Ricky Martin was released worldwide by Columbia Records on May 11, 1999. The European edition of Ricky Martin includes the Spanish version of "Spanish Eyes", titled "La Diosa Del Carnaval" (), as well as a new track "I'm On My Way", while the Spanglish radio edit versions of "La Copa de la Vida" and "María" are not featured. This track list has been also used for the African, Asian, and Latin American editions. The Chinese edition contains both "La Copa de la Vida" and "María" in addition to the standard Asian track list. The Spanish release uses the same track list as the European, but "Por Arriba, Por Abajo" () from Martin's previous album, Vuelve, has been added as a hidden track as well. According to The Wall Street Journal, Martin succeeded Leonardo DiCaprio as "the reigning king of heartthrobs" to become the most popular male celebrity on the American shopping website eBay in 1999, following the album's release. Many Martin products and items were on sale at the time, such as his posters, autographs, Pepsi cans, wall clocks, plastic dolls, autographed Ricky Martin CDs, and "Livin' la Vida Loca" sheet musics.
Live performances
To further promote Ricky Martin, he embarked on the worldwide Livin' la Vida Loca Tour. The tour began on October 21, 1999, at the Miami Arena in Miami, Florida, and concluded on October 25, 2000, at the Colonial Stadium in Melbourne, with concerts throughout North America, Europe, Oceania, and Asia. In the United States, the Livin' la Vida Loca Tour was the highest-grossing tour of 2000 by a Latin artist, earning over $36.3 million with 44 dates and drawing 617,488 fans. According to Billboard Boxscore, the tour grossed $51.3 million in Canada, Mexico, and the United States, with 60 shows and drawing an audience of 875,151. International dates were not reported to Boxscore and would push the tour's grosses higher. In addition to his tour, Martin performed singles from Ricky Martin on many television programs and award shows. He performed "Livin' la Vida Loca" at the 1999 World Music Awards, the 1999 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards, Saturday Night Live, The Rosie O'Donnell Show, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and Bingolotto TV Show. At the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards, he performed "She's All I Ever Had" and "Livin' la Vida Loca", accompanied by a group of impressive women dressed in glitter. To promote the album's material in the United Kingdom, Martin delivered performances of "Livin' la Vida Loca" and "Shake Your Bon-Bon" on the BBC's Top of the Pops on August 6, 1999, and November 19, 1999, respectively.
Critical reception
Ricky Martin has been met with generally favorable reviews from music critics. In a retrospective review for AllMusic, senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars and said that despite moments of filler and outdated production, its songs are balanced well between various genres and styles on "a big, bold album with something to please everyone, from his longtime Latin fans to housewives with a weakness for dramatic ballads". He noted that all tracks have been constructed carefully on their own, and complimented Martin's "fine voice and undeniable charisma" that bring all tracks "alive", calling him "a true star". Rolling Stones James Hunter felt it lacks the excitement of Martin's 1998 album Vuelve because of its remixes and Warren-penned songs. However, he said that Martin's take on Latin pop is made interesting enough by highlights such as "Livin' la Vida Loca", "Shake Your Bon-Bon", and the "perfectly constructed ballad" sung with Madonna.
The News Journal critic Jena Montgomery complimented Ricky Martin for alternating between "infectious tunes" and "somber, seductive ballads", stating that his "upbeat pop tunes will undoubtedly catch your ear and stay in your head" and the ballads "are strikingly well-written and performed". She added that Martin "sings with such passion and tenderness" that "keeps you hanging on, begging for more". Steve Dollar from The Atlanta Journal-Constitution described the album as "shockingly irresistible", and Jim Farber from Daily News thought it is "certainly an improvement over Martin's four Spanish records". The Indianapolis Star reviewer Diana Penner gave it three out of four stars, describing Martin's pop tunes as "melodic and eminently listenable". She also highlighted "Livin' la Vida Loca", confessing that she does not know any "more happy-snappy catchy melody" than that. Another author of The Indianapolis Star praised Martin for mixing styles well from pop to funk, and noted the album tracks' Latin rhythms that make "Martin automatically separate himself from the rest of" popular male artists".
The Times staff assured Martin would be a "household name" before the end of the summer, and described the project as "cheesy, breezy, mass-appeal pop". The staff also called the duet with Madonna "superb" and celebrated Martin's "sincerely" singing with Meja. In a retrospective review for Billboard, Leila Cobo described Ricky Martin as "an album that went from percussion-filled dance tracks" to "smooth, unabashedly romantic ballads". She ranked "Livin' la Vida Loca" as the best track on the album and praised most of the other tracks of the record, naming "Private Emotion" the "under-appreciated jewel" of the album and calling it a "gorgeous ballad". She noted "immediately hummable melodies, traces of nostalgia and rock" in "I Am Made of You", labeling the track "a beauty". In another article, she described Ricky Martin as dazzling. Coinciding with the album's 20th anniversary, Celia San Miguel of Tidal Magazine gave it a positive review, highlighting "Livin' la Vida Loca" for its "clever fusion of ska, rock, mambo, swing and pop sounds", and "She's All I Ever Had" for Martin's "charismatic heartthrob and his passionate and emotive vocals". She stated that "in 1999, Martin's star power became undeniable". In 2020, Daniella Boik from Paste acknowledged the album as Martin's most influential album since starting his solo career.
Accolades
In 2019, Stacker ranked Ricky Martin as the 18th best album by an LGBTQ musician. In 2020, Paste ranked it at number eight on the list of "Best Solo Albums by Former Boy Band Members". The album has received a number of awards and nominations. It was nominated for Best Pop Album at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards, but lost to Brand New Day by Sting.
Commercial performance
Ricky Martin debuted atop the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 661,000 copies, according to data compiled by Nielsen SoundScan for the chart dated May 29, 1999. It became the largest sales week by any album in 1999, surpassing I Am... by Nas, which had sold 471,000 copies in its first week. It also broke the record as the largest first-week sales for any pop or Latin artist in history, as well as any Columbia Records artist during the SoundScan era. With this album, Martin became the first male Latin act in history to debut at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart. Additionally, he became the first artist to simultaneously top the Billboard 200, Hot Latin Tracks, Hot Dance Music/Club Play, Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales, Top 40 Tracks, and the Billboard Hot 100. The following week, the album sold 471,000 copies, while Millennium by Backstreet Boys debuted at number one on Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 1.13 million copies, breaking Ricky Martins record as the largest sales week by an album in 1999.
Ricky Martin sold a total of six million copies in the United States in 1999 and was the third best-selling album of the year in the country, only behind Millennium, and ...Baby One More Time by Britney Spears. In January 2000, Ricky Martin was certified 7× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over seven million copies in the US and breaking the record as the best-selling album by a Latin artist in the country. As of January 2011, the album has sold over 6,958,000 copies in the country, according to Nielsen SoundScan, with an additional 987,000 sold at BMG Music Clubs, making it Martin's best-selling album in the US. Nielsen SoundScan does not count copies sold through clubs like the BMG Music Service, which were significantly popular in the 1990s.
The album debuted at number one in Australia, on the chart issue dated May 23, 1999. It was later certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 210,000 copies in the country. In Canada, it peaked at number one on both the RPMs Top 100 CDs chart and the Billboards Canadian Albums Chart, and was certified diamond by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA), denoting shipments of over one million units in the region. The album also reached number one in Spain, where it was certified triple platinum by the Productores de Música de España (Promusicae), denoting shipments of over 300,000 copies. Additionally, Ricky Martin peaked at number one in Europe, Finland, New Zealand, and Norway, as well as the top five in many countries, such as Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom. In Japan, it was certified million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ), denoting shipments of over one million units. Only within three months, Ricky Martin became the best-selling album ever by a Latin artist. According to different sources, the album has sold over 15 million copies or even 17 million copies worldwide.
Legacy and influence
Martin is regarded by the media as the "Original Latin Crossover King". Angie Romero from Billboard wrote: "If you look up 'crossover' in the dictionary, there should be a photo of Ricky shaking his bon bon and/or 'Livin' la Vida Loca'." Following his performance of "The Cup of Life" at the Grammys, and the success of "Livin' la Vida Loca" and Ricky Martin (1999), he opened the gates for many Latin artists such as Jennifer Lopez, Shakira, Christina Aguilera, Marc Anthony, Santana, and Enrique Iglesias who released their crossover albums and followed him onto the top of the charts. Jim Farber from Daily News noted that Ricky Martin "provides a textbook example of how to mix Latin beats with pop tunes and rock intonations". Lucas Villa from Spin wrote about Martin's global success in 1999: "When the world went loca for Ricky, he led the way for other Latin music superstars like Spain's Enrique Iglesias, Colombia's Shakira and Nuyoricans like Jennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony to make their marks beyond the Spanish-speaking crowds." St. Louis Post-Dispatch critic Kevin C. Johnson described Martin as Latin music's "pretty-faced poster boy" who is "taking the music to places Jon Secada, Selena and Santana never could". He also mentioned that even "Gloria Estefan at her peak, failed to muster up the kind of hype and hoopla surrounding Martin".
Celia San Miguel of Tidal Magazine stated that Martin "highlighted the public's thirst for a different kind of pop" in 1999, noting the album's "fusion-heavy" and "hip-shaking rhythms associated with Latin music". She mentioned that the album "spawned 1999's Latin music boom", emphasizing the fact that Martin created the "spark" of the "Latin Pop Explosion", which was followed by 1999 albums, On the 6 by Lopez, Enrique by Iglesias, and Anthony's eponymous album. She continued crediting "Martin and the paths he created" responsible for the Latin music and Spanish and Spanglish lyrics being "a commonplace phenomenon on English-language radio" in 2019. In her review for Grammy.com, Ana Monroy Yglesias said Martin led a "major music moment in 1999" with Ricky Martin, and along with him, "the first major boom of Spanish-language artists", such as Shakira and Lopez, came into the "U.S. pop landscape". Geoff Mayfield from Billboard stated: "Martin's triumph isn't just a big win for Latin music or the Sony camp but a big day for the entire music industry."
According to Pitchfork, the music industry took in revenues of $23.7 billion in 1999, making it the peak year of the business in history. It was also a significant growth in compare with 1998. The website highlighted ...Baby One More Time, Ricky Martin, and Millennium as examples of "blockbuster albums" which produced the result. Also, Rolling Stones Rob Sheffield described 1999 as "the year music exploded", mentioning Spears, Aguilera, Martin, NSYNC, and the Backstreet Boys as "a new breed of stars" who got born. Additionally, Jason Lipshutz from Billboard labeled 1999 "[the] Best Musical Year of the '90s".
Track listing
Personnel
Credits for Ricky Martin adapted from AllMusic and the album liner notes.
Recording and mixing locations
The Gentlemen's Club, Miami Beach, Florida
Sound Chamber, Modesto, California
Crescent Moon Studios, Coral Terrace, Florida
Guerilla Beach Studios, Toledo, Ohio
Enterprise Studios, Burbank, California
Right Track Recording, Manhattan
Ocean Way Recording, Los Angeles
Clinton Recording Studio, New York City
Wallyworld, Pittsburgh
The Hit Factory, New York City
Barking Doctor Recording, Mount Kisco, New York
Heaven Studios, Miami
Tone King Studios, Cardinal, Ontario
Musicians and technical
Ricky Martin performer, primary artist, vocals, background vocals
KC Porter composer, producer
Robi Rosa composer, guest artist, acoustic guitar, producer, background vocals
Desmond Child composer, producer
Ethel Abelson violin
Murray Adler violin
Walter Afanasieff drum programming, producer
Martin Agee violin
Donna Allen background vocals
Lamar Alsop violin
Richard Altenbach violin
Rusty Anderson guitar
Tommy Anthony acoustic guitar, electric guitar
Jonathan Antin hair stylist
Iris Aponte production coordination
Chris Apostle project coordinator
Kenny Aronoff drums, guest artist
Vaje Ayrikian cello
Julien Barber viola
Randall Barlow composer, engineer, guitar, programming, string arrangements, trumpet
Eric Bazilian composer, 12 string acoustic guitar, electric guitar
Jennifer Bellusci performer
Brian Benning violin
Robert Berg viola
Ian Blake composer, producer
Gustavo Bonnet assistant engineer
Alfred Brown viola
Ruth Bruegger violin
Denyse Buffum viola
Olbin Burgos percussion, shaker
Kenneth Burward-Hoy viola
Eve Butler violin
Jorge Calandrelli conductor, string arrangements
David Campbell conductor, orchestra contractor
Darius Campo violin
Scott Canto engineer
Randy Cantor arranger, keyboards, programming
Sue Ann Carwell background vocals
Jorge Casas performer
Susan Chatman violin
Robert Chausow violin
Rob Chiarelli engineer
Joe Chiccarelli engineer
Brian Coleman production coordination
Tony Concepcion flugelhorn, trumpet
Roberta Cooper cello
Larry Corbett cello
Paulinho Da Costa percussion
Brian Dembow viola
Joel Derouin violin
John Dexter viola
Thomas Diener viola
Assa Drori violin
Bruce Dukov concert master, violin
Charles Dye engineer, mixing
Max Ellen violin
Mark Endert engineer
Luis Enrique guest artist, percussion
Jerry Epstein viola
Stephen Erdody cello
Luis Gómez Escolar composer
Emilio Estefan, Jr. executive producer
David Ewart violin
Mary Helen Ewing viola
Benny Faccone engineer
Henry Ferber violin
Michael Ferril violin
Stefanie Fife cello
Alfred Figueroa assistant engineer
Pablo Flores producer
Dave Frazier engineer
Virginia Frazier violin
Tod French cello
Erik Friedlander cello
Matthew Funes viola
Armen Garabedian violin
Berj Garabedian violin
Hector Garrido conductor, horn arrangements, string arrangements
Javier Garza engineer
David Gleeson engineer
Harris Goldman violin
Jules Gondar engineer
Diva Goodfriend-Koven alto flute
Erwin Gorostiza art direction, design
Endre Granat violin
Lynn Grants viola
Maurice Grants cello
Julie Green viloncello
Jeff Gregory assistant engineer
Henry Gronnier violin
Alan Grunfeld violin
Mick Guzauski mixing
Gyan guest artist
Juliet Haffner viola
Don Hahn engineer
Clayton Haslop violin
John Hayhurst viola
Paquito Hechavarria piano
David Heiss viloncello
Leo Herrera assistant engineer
Al Hershberger violin
Gerry Hilera violin
Tiffany Yi Hu violin
Rob Hyman composer, organ
Joanna Ifrah A&R
Ted Jensen mastering
Skyler Jett performer, background vocals
Lisa Johnson violin
Pat Johnson violin
Pat Johnson violin
Karen Karlsrud violin
Dennis Karmazyn cello
Suzie Katayama cello
Khris Kellow programming
Aimee Kreston violin
John Kricker trombone
Sebastián Krys engineer
Janet Lakatos viola
Michael Landau electric guitar
Regis Landiorio violin
Ann Leathers violin
Damian leGassick keyboards, programming
Brian Leonard violin
Lee Levin drums
Elizabeth Lim violin
Richard Locker cello
Daniel Lopez percussion
Manny López guitar
Craig Lozowick assistant engineer, engineer
Madonna composer, guest artist, performer, primary artist, producer
Nathan Malki assistant engineer, engineer
Tony Mardini assistant engineer
Mark Markman violin
Peter McCabe engineer
Patrick McCarthy engineer, mixing
Hugh McDonald bass
Ángelo Medina executive producer
Meja duet, guest artist, primary artist
Lester Mendez programming
Steve Menezes assistant engineer
Vicky Miscolczy viola
Dennis Molchan violin
Conesha Monet background vocals
Jorge Moraga viola
Horia Moroaica violin
Herman "Teddy" Mulet horn
Jennifer Munday violin
Dan Neufeld viola
George Noriega bass, bazouki, composer, nylon string guitar, organ, producer, sitar
Laura Oatts violin
William Orbit composer, Guest Artist, guitar, keyboards, producer
Germán Ortiz assistant engineer
Rik Pekkonen engineer
Archie Pena percussion
Bob Peterson violin
Freddy Piñero, Jr. engineer
Barbara Porter violin
Jim Porto assistant engineer
Anthony Posk violin
Sue Pray viola
Rachel Purkin violin
Rita Quintero background vocals
Matthew Raimondi violin
Dave Reitzas engineer
Steve Richards cello
Claytoven Richardson background vocals
Karen Ritscher viola
Gil Romero violin
Anatoly Rosinsky violin
Elliot Rosoff violin
Danita Ruiz project coordinator
Eddie Salkin alto flute
Bob Sanov violin
Sheldon Sanov violin
Elliot Scheiner engineer
Laura Seaton violin
Jon Secada composer, guest artist, background vocals
Dan Shea keyboards, programming
Mark Orrin Shuman cello
David Siegel clarinet
Daniel Smith cello
Rafael Solano percussion
Eve Sprecher violin
Rudy Stein cello
David Stenske viola
Dale Stuckenbruck violin
Ricardo Suarez bass
Marti Sweet violin
Gerald Tarack violin
Dana Teboe trombone
Richard Treat cello
Mari Tsumura violin
Diego Uchitel photography
Robert Valdez engineer
Jose Luis Vega image construction
John Walz cello
Dan Warner acoustic guitar
Diane Warren composer
Miwako Watanabe violin
Belinda Whitney-Barratt violin
Chris Wiggins assistant engineer
Ed Williams assistant engineer
Elizabeth Wilson violin
John Wittenberg violin
Ming Yeh violin
Ken Yerke violin
Juan Vincente Zambrano arranger, keyboards
Mihail Zinovyev viola
Shari Zippert violin
Wassim Zreik assistant engineer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
See also
1990s in music
1999 in British music charts
1999 in music
Latin music in Canada
List of best-selling albums in Japan
List of best-selling Latin albums
List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 1999
List of certified albums in Canada
List of diamond-certified albums in Canada
List of European number-one hits of 1999
List of number-one albums from the 1990s (New Zealand)
List of number-one albums in Australia during the 1990s
List of number-one albums of 1999 (Canada)
List of number-one albums of 1999 (Spain)
List of top 25 albums for 1999 in Australia
List of top 25 albums for 2000 in Australia
Notes
References
1999 albums
Ricky Martin albums
Albums produced by Desmond Child
Albums produced by Emilio Estefan
Albums produced by Madonna (entertainer)
Albums produced by William Orbit
Columbia Records albums
Albums produced by Draco Rosa
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235086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallen%20Leaf%20Lake%20%28Washington%29 | Fallen Leaf Lake (Washington) | Fallen Leaf Lake, once called Dead Lake, is a lake in Camas, Washington. Once home to Dead Lake Cemetery, its graves were moved to Camas Cemetery in 1984.
This property had been owned by the local Camas paper mill for decades. Most recently, the mill was owned by the Georgia-Pacific Corporation, a subsidiary of Koch Industries, Inc. In 2011, the property surrounding Fallen Leaf Lake was purchased from Koch RP Holdings I, LLC by the City of Camas, Washington for use as a city park.
References
Camas, Washington
Lakes of Clark County, Washington
Lakes of Washington (state) | [
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235089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedrus%20%28fabulist%29 | Phaedrus (fabulist) | Gaius Julius Phaedrus (; ; Phaîdros) was a 1st-century CE Roman fabulist and the first versifier of a collection of Aesop's fables into Latin. Few facts are known about him for certain and there was little mention of his work during late antiquity. It was not until the discovery of a few imperfect manuscripts during and following the Renaissance that his importance emerged, both as an author and in the transmission of the fables.
Biography
A recent statement of the few facts that past scholars have tried to deduce from autobiographical hints given by Phaedrus in his poems has summarised them as follows:
He was born in Macedonia, probably in Pydna, about 15 BCE, came to Rome as a slave and was freed by Augustus. He probably had some teaching function between then and the time of Tiberius, under whom the first book of his poems appeared. Envious competitors interpreted the morals of some fables as being critical of the regime and he was tried by Sejanus, probably at the time of the latter’s fall. In the prologue to his third book, we find Phaedrus pleading with a certain Eutychus to intercede on his behalf. Surviving the turbulent times into old age, possibly under Caligula and Claudius, he produced two more books and died towards the middle of the first century CE.
There is, however, no evidence to support any of this and certain facts conflict with the traditional account. What Phaedrus had to say about himself might as plausibly be reinterpreted to prove that he was born in Rome and spent the whole of his life there as a free citizen.
Work
Phaedrus is now recognized as the first writer to compile entire books of fables in Latin, retelling the Aesopic tales in senarii, a loose iambic metre. The dates of composition and publication are unknown. However, Seneca the Younger, writing between 41 and 43 CE, recommended in a letter to Claudius' freedman Polybius that he turn his hand to Latinising Aesop, 'a task hitherto not attempted by Roman genius' (Ad Polybium 8.3). This suggests that nothing was known of Phaedrus' work at that date. By the mid-80s Martial was imitating him and mentions his mischievous humour (improbi jocos Phaedri). The next reference is a homage by his fellow fabulist Avianus near the start of the 5th century, who claims the five books of fables as one of his sources in the dedication of his own work.
A 9th century manuscript of the fables of Phaedrus was only discovered in France towards the end of the 16th century. This was published in 1596 by Pierre Pithou as Fabularum Aesopiarum libri quinque and was followed by two more editions before century's end. Near the beginning of the 18th century, a manuscript of the 15th-century bishop Niccolò Perotti was discovered at Parma containing sixty-four fables of Phaedrus, of which some thirty were previously unknown. These new fables were first published in 1808, and their versions were afterwards superseded by the discovery of a much better preserved manuscript of Perotti in the Vatican Library, published in 1831. Scholars realised that Phaedrus' work had also served as the basis for Mediaeval fable collections that went by the name of Romulus and at the start of the 20th century the Swedish scholar Carl Magnus Zander (1845–1923) reconstructed 30 additional fables from their prose recensions there.
What had survived of Phaedrus' five books in Pithou's manuscript was of unequal length and seemed to indicate that material has been lost. This was supported by the apology in the prologue to the first book for including talking trees, of which there are no examples in the text that survives although there was one in the Perotti appendix. In fact only 59 out of 94 in the Pithou manuscript were even animal fables. The author's aim at the start was to follow Aesop in creating a work that "moves one to mirth and warns with wise advice". As the work progressed, however, he widened his focus and now claimed to be "refining" Aesopic material and even adding to it. In later books we find tales of Roman events well after the time of Aesop such as "Tiberius and the slave" (II.5) and "Augustus and the accused wife" (III.9), as well as the poet's personal reply to envious detractors (IV.21); there are also anecdotes in which Aesop figures from the later biographical tradition (II.3; III.3; IV.5; and items 9 and 20 in Perotti's appendix). Finally he makes a distinction between matter and manner in the epilogue to the fifth book, commenting that
I write in Esop’s style, not in his name,
And for the most part I the subject claim.
Tho' some brief portion Esop might indite,
The more I from my own invention write,
The style is ancient but the matter’s new.
He also claims a place in the Latin literary tradition by echoing well-known and respected writers. It is to be noticed, however, that where Phaedrus and the slightly earlier poet Horace adapted the same fable to satirical themes, they often used different versions of it. In Horace a crow (cornicula) is the subject of The Bird in Borrowed Feathers; in Phaedrus it is a jackdaw (graculus). In the case of The Horse that Lost its Liberty, Phaedrus has it disputing with a boar and Horace with a stag. Neither do they agree in their account of The Frog and the Ox. Horace follows the story found in Greek sources; the frog's motivation is different in Phaedrus, and it is his version that Martial follows later. Moreover, in following the model of Aesop, the enfranchised slave, Phaedrus' satire is sharper and restores "the ancient function of the fable as a popular expression against the dominant classes". Another commentator points out that "the Aesopian fable has been a political creature from its earliest origins, and Phaedrus, (who was La Fontaine's model), though more openly subversive, has claims to be the first proletarian satiric poet".
Editions
The fables of Phaedrus soon began to be published as school editions, both in the original Latin and in prose translation. Since the 18th century there have also been four complete translations into English verse. The first was by Christopher Smart into octosyllabic couplets (London 1753). Brooke Boothby's "The Esopean Fables of Phedrus" were included in his Fables and Satires (Edinburgh, 1809) and also used octosyllables but in a more condensed manner:
What Esop taught his beasts in Greek,
Phedrus in Latin made them speak:
In English, I from him translate,
And his brief manner imitate.
It was followed by the Reverend Frederick Toller's A poetical version of the fables of Phædrus (London, 1854). These were translated more diffusely into irregular verses of five metrical feet and each fable was followed by a prose commentary. The most recent translation by P. F. Widdows also includes the fables in the Perotti appendix and all are rendered into a free version of Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse.
Phaedrus versions were translated individually by a variety of other poets into different languages. A small selection in various poetic forms appeared in the Poems & Translations (London 1769) of Ashley Cowper (1701–88). There were many more poems distinctively styled in La Fontaine's Fables; others followed by Ivan Krylov in Russian; Gregory Skovoroda and Leonid Hlibov in Ukrainian; and a more complete collection by Volodymyr Lytvynov in 1986.
References
Further reading
The fables of Phædrus, with a literal English translation, London 1828
Champlin, Edward. "Phaedrus the Fabulous". The Journal of Roman Studies 95, 2005, pp. 97–123.
Glauthier, Patrick. “Phaedrus, Callimachus and the Recusatio to Success.” Classical Antiquity, 28.2, 2009, pp. 248–278.
Henderson, John. “Phaedrus' "Fables:" The Original Corpus.” Mnemosyne, 52.3, 1999, pp. 308–329.
Henderson, John. Telling Tales on Caesar: Roman Stories from Phaedrus. Oxford University Press, 2001.
Jennings, Victoria. "Borrowed Plumes: Phaedrus' Fables, Phaedrus' Failures." Writing Politics in Imperial Rome. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2009.
Lefkowitz, Jeremy B. "Grand Allusions: Vergil in Phaedrus." AJPh 137.3, 2016, pp. 487–509.
Lefkowitz, Jeremy B. "Innovation and Artistry in Phaedrus' Morals." Mnemosyne 70.3, 2017, pp. 417–435.
Libby, Brigitte B. “The Intersection of Poetic and Imperial Authority in Phaedrus' Fables.” The Classical Quarterly, 60.2, 2010, pp. 545–558.
Polt, Christopher B. “Polity Across the Pond: Democracy, Republic and Empire in Phaedrus' Fables 1.2.” The Classical Journal, 110.2, 2015, pp. 161–190.
External links
Pithou's editio princeps (Troyes: Jean Oudot, 1596)
1st-century Romans
Fabulists
Latin-language writers
Silver Age Latin writers
Roman Imperial era slaves and freedmen | [
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] |
235090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricky%20Martin%20%28disambiguation%29 | Ricky Martin (disambiguation) | Ricky Martin (born 1971) is a Puerto Rican musician.
It may also refer to:
Ricky Martin (1991 album), an album by Ricky Martin
Ricky Martin (1999 album), an album by Ricky Martin
See also
Richard Martin (disambiguation)
Martin, Ricky | [
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235093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double%20whole%20note | Double whole note | In music, a double whole note (American), breve, or double note is lasting two times as long as a whole note (or semibreve). It is the second-longest note value still in use in modern music notation. The longest notated note is the longa, which could be double or triple the length of a breve, although its use is most commonly found in early music. The longest notated note (though now obsolete) is the maxima.
History
In medieval mensural notation, the brevis was one of the shortest note lengths in use, hence its name, which is the Latin etymon of "brief". In "perfect" rhythmic mode, the brevis was a third of a longa, or in "imperfect" mode, half a longa.
Form
In modern notation, a breve is commonly represented in either of two ways: by a hollow oval note head, like a whole note, with one or two vertical lines on either side, as on the left and right of the image, or as the rectangular shape also found in older notation, shown in the middle of the image.
Because it lasts longer than a bar in most modern time signatures in common use, the breve is rarely encountered except in English music, where the half-note is often used as the beat unit.
Breve (double-whole) rest
A related symbol is the double whole rest (double rest or breve rest), which usually denotes a silence for the same duration.) Double whole rests are drawn as filled-in rectangles occupying the whole vertical space between the second and third lines from the top of the musical staff. They are often used in long silent passages which are not divided into separate bars to indicate a rest of two bars, regardless of the duration of each bar. This and longer rests are collectively known as multiple rests. They are also used to represent whole bar rest for time signature only.
Alla breve
Alla breve, the time signature , takes its name from the note value breve. In the mensural notation of the Renaissance, it was an alternative term for proportio dupla, which meant that the brevis was to be considered the unit of time (tactus), instead of the usual semibrevis. The old symbol , used as an alternative to the numerical proportion 2:1 in mensural notation, is carried over into modern notational practice to indicate a smaller relative value per note shape. It is normally used for music in a relatively quick tempo, where it indicates two minim (half note) beats in a bar of four crotchets (quarter notes), while is the equivalent of , with four crotchet beats.
See also
List of musical symbols
Notes
References
Note values | [
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235094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Without%20Remorse | Without Remorse | Without Remorse is a thriller novel, written by Tom Clancy and published on August 11, 1993. Set during the Vietnam War, it serves as an origin story of John Clark, one of the recurring characters in the Ryanverse. Without Remorse introduces Clark as former Navy SEAL John Kelly and explains how he changed his name. G.P. Putnam's Sons paid $14 million for the North American rights, a record for a single book. The book debuted at number one on The New York Times Best Seller list.
Plot
In 1970, former Navy SEAL John Kelly, who recently lost his pregnant wife, Patricia, in a car accident, picks up a hitchhiker named Pam on his way to his home on Battery Island in the Chesapeake Bay. They quickly become lovers, and over time Kelly discovers her full name, Pamela Madden, and that she is a runaway who became a drug mule and prostitute; she has recently escaped from her drug-dealer/pimp Henry Tucker. Kelly, along with the help of doctors Sam and Sarah Rosen, help rehabilitate her from barbiturates. Weeks after recovering, Kelly and Pam go to Baltimore for follow-up treatment. Kelly takes them scouting through the neighborhood where her pimps work. One of them recognizes Pam and pursues them in a car chase. Kelly is gravely wounded by a shotgun blast, while Pam is recaptured and later tortured, gang-raped, and killed.
In Vietnam, a U.S. target drone discovers Air Force Colonel Robin Zacharias as a prisoner of war in a secret camp administered by the NVA. Since Zacharias possesses highly classified knowledge and has been declared killed in action, Admiral Dutch Maxwell arranges a secret rescue mission for him as well as other American POWs held in the camp. Unbeknownst to them, Soviet colonel Nikolay Grishanov has been interrogating the prisoners; he later lobbies his government to transport Zacharias and his fellow prisoners into the Soviet Union, citing their intelligence value. However, friction between the Soviets and the North Vietnamese leads the latter to decide to kill the POWs.
Meanwhile, Kelly recovers from his wounds with the help of Dr. Rosen and his head nurse, Sandra "Sandy" O'Toole. Vowing to exact revenge on the people responsible for Pam's death, he wages a private war on Tucker's drug ring, eliminating some of its players and saving some female drug mules in the process. He recruits Rosen and O'Toole to help rehabilitate one of the rescued prostitutes, Doris Brown. He later obtains more information on the drug ring from brutally torturing one of Pam's pimps, William Grayson, using a pressure chamber designed to simulate deep-water diving conditions; he is then left to die from severe decompression sickness.
Later, Kelly is approached by Admiral Maxwell to lead the rescue mission on Zacharias and other American POWs, since he is familiar with the area from his days in the UDT and had previously gone behind enemy lines to rescue Maxwell's son. Kelly pauses his personal vendetta, and proceeds to Vietnam. A KGB mole informs the Soviets of the rescue mission, compromising it. However, Kelly manages to capture Grishanov while escaping from the camp, who is then used as leverage to negotiate the transfer of Colonel Zacharias and his fellow prisoners to the Hanoi Hilton, where they will be confirmed as alive and eventually returned.
Upon returning from Vietnam, Kelly finds out that Doris and her father Raymond had been killed and continues his mission. He finds out that the heroin processed by Tucker's drug ring was smuggled into the U.S. through the corpses of dead American soldiers, and also deduces that a corrupt police officer is on Tucker's payroll. Meanwhile, the CIA try to recruit him following his actions in Vietnam, and due to Kelly's difficult position, they agree to help him escape his legal troubles in return for the assassination of the mole who had jeopardized the Vietnam operation. Kelly forces the supposed mole, an aide to the Special Assistant to the National Security Advisor, to kill himself, inadvertently leaving the real mole, a Senate aide and anti-war activist, active. He then rushes to complete his vendetta, finally killing Tucker and his remaining cohorts. Corrupt police Lieutenant Mark Charon is incidentally murdered by the criminals.
Emmet Ryan, the lead police investigator in the series of killings on drug dealers in Baltimore, identifies Kelly as the murderer. He confronts him on his boat, where Kelly confesses. He bargains with the detective for one more hour of liberty before being arrested; Ryan agrees, but Kelly fakes his death by capsizing his boat. He is then rescued by his CIA superiors, who recruit him under his new identity as John Clark. He quietly resumes contact with O'Toole and marries her. Three years later, Zacharias and his fellow POWs are released after the end of the American involvement in the Vietnam War.
Characters
Baltimore
John Terrence Kelly: Former Navy SEAL, later a full-time operative for the Central Intelligence Agency under the name John Clark.
Pamela "Pam" Madden: Kelly's lover. Drug mule and prostitute who escaped from Henry Tucker
Dr Sam Rosen: Professor of neurosurgery at Johns Hopkins University.
Dr Sarah Rosen: Pharmacologist and professor at Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Sam Rosen's wife.
Sandra "Sandy" O'Toole: a Vietnam war widow and nurse-practitioner at Johns Hopkins Hospital.
Henry Tucker: Pimp and leader of the Baltimore drug ring.
William "Billy" Grayson: Drug dealer working for Tucker.
Doris Brown: Pam's fellow drug mule and prostitute.
Lt Emmet Ryan: Lieutenant at the Baltimore Police Department (Homicide Division) and Jack Ryan's father. Jack himself also appears briefly to announce his decision to join the Marines to his parents.
Lt Mark Charon: Lieutenant at the Baltimore City Police Department (Narcotics Division), on Tucker's payroll
Manuel "Portagee" Oreza: Quartermaster First Class for the United States Coast Guard, Kelly's friend. Pursued Kelly when he faked his death, believes him to be dead.
Vietnam
Colonel Robin Zacharias: fighter-bomber pilot for the United States Air Force who helped in the formulation of the Strategic Air Command war plans. Shot down and captured by the North Vietnamese Army during a Wild Weasel attack on their SAM sites.
Colonel Nikolay Yevgeniyevich "Kolya" Grishanov: The sole interrogator at the POW camp holding Zacharias.
Vice Admiral Winslow Holland "Dutch" Maxwell: Assistant chief of naval operations (Air) for the United States Navy. Formed the rescue mission (codename "Boxwood Green") and personally recruited Kelly to take part in the operation.
Rear Admiral Casimir Podulski: Aide to Vice Admiral Maxwell. Involved in the planning and execution of Boxwood Green
Admiral James Greer: Rear admiral for the U.S. Navy who started working for the CIA. Supervised Boxwood Green and later recruits Kelly into the agency.
Robert Ritter: Senior executive in the Operations Division of the CIA. Supervised Boxwood Green and also recruits Kelly into the agency.
Walter "Wally" Hicks: Aide to the Special Assistant to the National Security Advisor. Misidentified as the KGB mole by Ritter and was killed by Kelly under the pretense of a heroin overdose.
Peter Henderson: Minor Senate aide, revealed to be a KGB mole (codename "Cassius") that burned Boxwood Green. Appears in Red Rabbit (2002); later caught by the CIA in The Hunt for Red October (1984) and made as double agent. He was later offered his freedom in The Cardinal of the Kremlin (1988) due to the importance of secret information on the Soviet Union that he brought.
Themes
Without Remorse is said to be inspired by David Morrell's novel First Blood (1972) as well a string of action films that feature violent and "psycho" Vietnam veterans of the 1980s. Clancy subverted the cliché by framing Kelly's rage and frustration as "pro-social". Moreover, it gave him a platform to express his disgust with the U.S. government for neglecting Vietnam veterans, who "understand the arts of war".
Regarding the message of the novel, Clancy said: "The central question in this book is: What is justice? And how is justice applied? What if you're in the situation where a great wrong has been done and the law does not respond to it? Now, is your duty as a citizen just to forget about it and permit society as a whole to make that mistake? Or is your duty as a citizen to become the instrument of justice, if you can do so in a controlled and structured and just way? Do you have the moral right to become the instrument of justice yourself?"
Development
Clancy started working on Without Remorse in 1971. He later went back to the previously abandoned story in 1992, spending about four months on the novel. He explained the process: "You gotta tell a good story if people are going to read it. I think you have an ethical obligation to deal with those issues as truthfully as possible. So, there's an educational aspect to what I do."
In 1992, Putnam paid $14 million for the North American rights, a record for a single book.
Reception
Commercially, the book debuted at number one on the New York Times bestseller list for the week of August 29, 1993.
Critically, Without Remorse received generally positive reviews. Dallas Morning News hailed it as "Mr. Clancy's best", while the San Diego Union-Tribune praised it as "a non-stop emotional roller coaster". However, Kirkus Reviews gave it a mixed verdict, stating that it is "twice as long as the two rather creaky storylines can bear, but the millions of midlevel, desk-bound, action-loving bureaucrats whose adventurous wishes Clancy so faithfully fulfills are unlikely to complain." Publishers Weekly also gave it a mixed review, bemoaning Clancy's "attempts to rationalize this amoral crusade with passages of introspection by characters who are either noble warriors or human scum" as well as "failings of style and moral judgment"; however, they agree that "this overlong, often melodramatic novel seems destined to follow its predecessors to the top of the bestseller lists."
Film adaptation
Savoy Pictures first bought the film rights to Without Remorse soon after the novel was released for $2.5 million. At one point, Keanu Reeves was offered the role as Clark for $7 million but declined. Variety magazine reported that Laurence Fishburne and Gary Sinise were later attached to star in the adaptation; however, production was shut down due to script problems and financial woes with the production company. The film went under development hell for years until Christopher McQuarrie signed on with Paramount Pictures to direct the adaptation in 2012. Tom Hardy was approached by Paramount to play Clark, and Kevin Costner was slated to reprise his role as mentor William Harper from another Clancy-based film, Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit (2014), but this version was scrapped.
In 2017, it was announced that Akiva Goldsman signed on with the same studio to produce another film adaptation starring Clark, Rainbow Six. On September 20, 2018, Michael B. Jordan was announced to be playing the character in a two-part film series, which will be composed of Without Remorse and Rainbow Six and with Goldsman, Jordan, Josh Appelbaum, and Andre Nemec producing. Stefano Sollima is currently in talks to direct the film. On January 9, 2019, Variety announced that Taylor Sheridan will rewrite the screenplay. Tom Clancy's Without Remorse was released on Prime Video on April 30, 2021
References
1993 American novels
American thriller novels
Techno-thriller novels
Prequel novels
Novels by Tom Clancy
Ryanverse
Novels set during the Vietnam War
G. P. Putnam's Sons books
Novels about prisoners of war
Novels set in Vietnam
Novels set in Baltimore
Novels set in Washington, D.C.
Novels set in Pittsburgh | [
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] |
235096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camas%20Cemetery | Camas Cemetery | Camas Cemetery is a cemetery in Camas, Washington that was first used in 1860.
The Camas Catholic Cemetery, also known as Dead Lake Cemetery, was located on NE Lake road near Lacamas Lake. In 1984 the graves from there were moved to the new Camas Cemetery and a monument stands now with the names of those moved.
Sources
External links
Camas, Washington
Cemeteries in Washington (state)
Protected areas of Clark County, Washington | [
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235097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nong%20Bua%20Lamphu%20province | Nong Bua Lamphu province | Nong Bua Lamphu (, , ) is one of Thailand's seventy-seven provinces (changwat) lies in upper northeastern Thailand also called Isan. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Udon Thani, Khon Kaen, and Loei.
Geography
Nong Bua Lam Phu is in the heart of the Khorat Plateau. The total forest area is or 11.7 percent of provincial area.
Paleontological remains
Chalawan, an extinct genus of crocodylin, is known solely from its holotype collected in the early-1980s from a road-cut near the town of Nong Bua Lam Phu, in the upper part of the Phu Kradung Formation. This single specimen is the most well preserved vertebrate fossil that has been found from the formation. It contains a single species, Chalawan thailandicus.
History
Nong Bua Lam Phu is famous as the spot where in the 16th century Naresuan, the king-liberator of Siam, came to learn of the outcome of a war between the Lao and Burmese in the area of Vientiane. This place was long a Lao stronghold. During the existence of the Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang (1354–1707), Nong Bua Lam Phu was traditionally given to the crown prince (Uparat) to rule. It was the birthplace of the principal wife of Chao Siribunyasan (), the last independent king of Vientiane. In 1827, Chao Anou of Vientiane designated Phagna Narin to be governor at the onset of the Laotian Rebellion of 1826–1828.
Under Thai rule, the province originally consisted of five amphoe (districts) in Udon Thani province. In 1993 Udon was decentralized and a separate province of Nong Bua Lam Phu was created. It is one of the newest provinces of Thailand, together with Amnat Charoen province, Sa Kaeo province, and Bueng Kan province.
Economy
Nong Bua Lamphu is the poorest province in Thailand according to the Bangkok Post. Incomes, as of 2018, average 41,000 baht annually.
The province is largely agricultural. Sticky rice has long been the area's traditional crop, although there has been a shift to sugarcane due to low rice prices and sugarcane's resistance to flooding. In 2016, more than one third of the available agricultural land in Nong Bua Lamphu was used for sugarcane plantations. According to the provincial Office of Agricultural Economics, sugarcane cultivation is expected to rise. In contrast, the area devoted to rice farming shrunk by 73 percent from 2000 to 2016.
Symbols
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into six districts (amphoe). The districts are further divided into 59 subdistricts (tambon) and 636 villages (muban).
{|
|---valign=top
||
Mueang Nong Bua Lam Phu
Na Klang
Non Sang
</td>
<li>Si Bun Rueang
<li>Suwannakhuha
<li>Na Wang
|}
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Nong Bua Lamphu Provincial Administration Organisation () and 24 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Nong Bua Lamphu has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 23 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 43 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at the sub-national level using the Human Achievement Index (HAI), a composite index covering eight key areas of human development. The National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
References
External links
Province page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand
Website of province (Thai only)
Nong Bua Lam Phu provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp
Isan
Provinces of Thailand | [
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235102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Reeves%20%28DLG-24%29 | USS Reeves (DLG-24) | USS Reeves (DLG/CG-24), a United States Navy ship named after Admiral Joseph Mason Reeves (Commander-in-Chief of the US Fleet, 1934–1936), was a built by the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, in Bremerton, Washington.
Reeves began her history as a Leahy-class destroyer leader (DLG-24) when her keel was laid down on 1 July 1960. She was launched on 12 May 1962 and commissioned on 15 May 1964. Mrs. Joseph M. Reeves, Jr., daughter-in-law of Vice Adm. Reeves, was the ship's sponsor.
Reeves was later reclassified as a guided missile cruiser (CG-24) on 30 June 1975. On 12 November 1993, Reeves was decommissioned and stricken from the Navy Register at Pearl Harbor Naval Base. Reeves remained in mothballs until she was sunk as a target ship on 31 May 2001.
Operational history
The 1960s
The second Reeves, DLG-24, was laid down 1 July 1960 by the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington; launched 12 May 1962; sponsored by Mrs. Joseph M. Reeves, Jr.; and commissioned 15 May 1964, Capt. Wynne A. Stevens, Jr., in command.
Following an extended trial and shakedown period, Reeves was homeported at Long Beach where she underwent availability and further training. On 10 April 1965, she departed for her first tour with the 7th Fleet in the western Pacific (WESTPAC). Deployed for just over six months, she operated primarily in support of Allied operations off the coast of the Republic of Vietnam, serving as an anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) picket, first with TG 77.3 built around aircraft carrier , then with TG 77.6 centered on aircraft carrier . Returning to Long Beach on 3 November 1965, she conducted local operations for the remainder of the year and into 1966. On 26 May 1966, she got underway for Japan and a two-year nonrotated tour with the 7th Fleet. Arriving at her new homeport of Yokosuka on 16 June, she departed shortly thereafter and on 7 July and anchored at Da Nang. to begin another tour off the embattled coast. For the next two years, she regularly sailed south from Japan for combat air-sea rescue (CSAR) tours off Vietnam, compiling a total of 493 days underway, 312 of which were spent in the Gulf of Tonkin.
Reeves rotated back to the United States in August 1968 and operated out of Long Beach for the remainder of the year, participating in local operations, as well testing and evaluating radar systems. In early 1969, Reeves was ordered to Maine for overhaul and modernization at Bath Iron Works. Arriving on 31 March, she was placed out of commission (special) on 10 April and the extensive modification work began.
The 1970s
Reeves was recommissioned 29 August 1970 at Bath. She spent the period from 10 September – 19 November making the passage from Bath to her new home port at Pearl Harbor. The uncommonly long duration of the passage was due to frequent stops along the way at various ports for additional work to be done and by a three-week refresher training (REFTRA) period in the vicinity of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. After arriving at Pearl Harbor, Reeves engaged in numerous exercises and operations in the waters around Hawaii.
June 1971 found Reeves steaming westward for another deployment in the Gulf of Tonkin. Reeves returned to Pearl Harbor on 20 December 1971 and remained in the Hawaii and west coast areas until September 1972 where she participated in various operations and exercises, notably a Midshipman cruise in July. She departed Hawaii on 18 September, headed for her second WESTPAC deployment since recommissioning, arriving at Subic Bay Naval Base, Philippine Islands 14 days later. After six months in the western Pacific, stationed off the coast of Vietnam, Reeves sailed into port at Pearl Harbor on 17 March 1973.
She remained in the Hawaiian Islands into 1980. She was reclassified a guided missile cruiser (CG-24), on 30 June 1975. Reeves, after a period of dry-dock and training exercises in the mid-Pacific from after October 1977, deployed to the Strait of Hormuz in late January 1980 as a response to the embassy hostage situation with Iran of November the year prior.
The 1980s
USS Reeves arrived at Yokosuka, Japan on 14 August 1980 to change homeports with USS Worden (CG-18), and the crew transfer taking place on 19 August 1980, with 119 Reeves crew moving on board USS Worden for the trip to USS Wordens new homeport of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, while 104 Worden crewmen transferred to USS Reeves to remain in Japan.
During most of the 1980s, Reeves was forward deployed to the WESTPAC and homeported in Yokosuka. During that time, she served as the AAW picket for Battle Group Alpha centered around Midway. Her nickname during that time was, "the Only Cruiser in Town".
From 24 February to 5 June 1981 USS Reeves, under the command of Captain James White Egerton USN, deployed with Battle Group Alpha on a Westpac/Indian Ocean Cruise. From 6 to 11 May 1981, USS Reeves and Battle Group Alpha docked at Perth/Fremantle, Western Australia for R&R after exercising with the Royal Australian Navy's aircraft carrier group centered on .
In March 1986, she participated in a Team Spirit exercise off the coast of the Republic of Korea. Later that year, Reeves conducted REFTRA in the Philippines which was quickly followed her involvement in special operations (SPECOPS). SPECOPS consisted of conducting surveillance operations on the Soviet aircraft carrier off the coast of Vladivostok, which was home to the Soviet Pacific Fleet. During this operation, Reeves blasted either the Bruce Springsteen song "Born in the U.S.A." or Jefferson Starship's "Layin' It on the Line" over the ship's 1MC when in the proximity of Soviet naval vessels.
On 5 November 1986, Reeves led and into the harbor of Qingdao (Tsing Tao), the People's Republic of China (PRC) for a historic six-day port visit. This would be the first time that U.S. Navy vessels had moored in China since the repair ship departed in 1949 in the face of the communist advance which forced the evacuation of Americans from China. The visit was hosted by soldiers and sailors of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN).
During the port call hundreds of Navy men took advantage of several tours, arranged by their Chinese hosts, that included stops at Qingdao's carpet, embroidery, jade and shell factories. Others made it a point to sample the beer at the city's world-renowned Tsingtao brewery. A fortunate few were able to leave the port city on tours to Qufu, birthplace of Confucius, the capital city of Beijing, the Forbidden City, and the Great Wall of China.
The port visit was important because it provided visible evidence of growing Sino-American cooperation. Adm. James Lyons, commander of the United States Pacific Fleet, was embarked in Reeves during the visit. Shortly after arriving in Qingdao, he said there are "three pillars" in the US-China military relationship; high level visits, military exchanges and a limited amount of military technology cooperation. "I see this port visit as strengthening all three pillars," he said.
Throughout their stay, the crews of the visiting ships held lectures and discussion sessions on Navy shipboard organization, management, training, propulsion, logistics and weapons systems for their Chinese hosts. At the time such navy-to-navy orientations were conducted with many countries. However, this was the Navy's first opportunity for such an exchange with China.
During May 1987, Reeves found herself involved with yet another Team Spirit exercise. Reeves was deployed to the Persian Gulf from July to December 1987 where she participated in the first of nine Operation Earnest Will tanker reflagging operations beginning on 23 July. Her primary duty was to escort commercial vessels through the Strait of Hormuz. In March 1988 she was involved again with the Team Spirit exercises.
On 26 June 1989, Reeves and the destroyer rescued 92 Vietnamese refugees in the South China Sea, about southwest of the Philippines. The refugees were pulled from their sinking vessel and provided with medical assistance and other care before being delivered to a United Nations refugee organization in Thailand a week later.
On 30 October 1989 an F/A-18 Hornet aircraft from USS Midway mistakenly dropped a 500-pound general-purpose bomb on the deck of Reeves during training exercises in the Indian Ocean, creating a hole in the bow through the line locker one compartment forward of the fore missile house, sparking small fires, sending shrapnel back to the fantail and injuring five sailors. Reeves was south of Diego Garcia at the time of the incident.
Fate
Reeves was decommissioned on 12 November 1993, stored at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility (NISMF), Pearl Harbor. She was ultimately used as a target ship on 31 May 2001 during a sink exercise (SINKEX) off the coast of Queensland, Australia during a joint U.S. and Australian naval exercise. Her final resting place is where she lies at a depth of .
Awards
Reeves earned three battle stars for Vietnam service.
Combat Action Ribbon, 01-Jul-1967 to 02-Jul-1967
Navy Unit Commendation, 15-Jun-1966 to 26-Jul-1968
Meritorious Unit Commendation, 27-Jul-1982 to 01-May-1984 and as a part of "Battle group A" 08-Sep-1988 to 11-Dec-1989
Battle E, 01-Jul-1974 to 01-Apr-1976, 01-Jan-1979 to 30-Jun-1980, 01-Jul-1983 to 31-Dec-1984
Navy Expeditionary Medal, 15-Feb-1980 to 05-May-1980 (Iran/Indian Ocean), 17-Mar-1981 to 19-May-1981 (Iran/Indian Ocean), 01-Jul-1987 to 23-Jul-1987
National Defense Service Medal (2 stars)
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, 07-May-1965 to 28-Oct-1965 (Vietnam), 24-Jul-1987 to 26-Sep-1987 (Persian Gulf),15-Sep-1989 to 24-Oct-1989 (Persian Gulf)
Vietnam Service Medal
Humanitarian Services Medal, 19-Sep-1981
Sea Service Deployment Ribbon
Navy Overseas Service Ribbon
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Reclassification from DLG to CG
In 1975, the "double-ender" Leahy-class guided missile destroyer leaders (DLG) were reclassified as guided missile cruisers (CG), as were other similar ships. The class was given an AAW upgrade during the late-1960s and early 1970s, with Terrier launchers modified to fire Terrier or Standard SM-1ER missiles. The 3"/50 guns were replaced by Harpoon missile launcher, the Terrier launchers were upgraded to fire the Standard SM-2ER missile, and 2 Phalanx CIWS canisters were added. All were upgraded under the late-1980s New Threat Upgrade (NTU) program, which included combat system capability improvements to the ship's Air Search Radars (AN/SPS-48E and AN/SPS-49), Fire Control Radars (AN/SPG-55B), and Combat Direction System (CDS). These improvements provided an accurate means of coordinating the engagement of multiple air targets with SM-2 Extended Range missiles. During the NTU overhaul, all spaces were renovated, berthing and food service areas were refurbished, and the engineering plant was fully overhauled.
Electronics
Combat Information Processing
Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS)
Communication
OE-82 satellite communication antenna
SSR-1 receiver
3x WSC-3 transceivers
Fire Control
SAM 4x Mk 76 Terrier FCS
ASW Mk 114
Weapons Direction System
Mk 14 WDS
Role
Modern guided missile cruisers, such as Reeves, performed primarily in a Battle Force role. These ships were multi-mission (AAW – anti-air warfare, ASW – anti-surface warfare, ASUW – anti-submarine warfare) surface combatants capable of supporting carrier or battleship battle groups, amphibious forces, or of operating independently and as flagships of surface action groups. Due to their extensive combat capability, these ships were designated as Battle Force Capable (BFC) units.
Photo galleries
References
Sources
GlobalSecurity.org entry on Leahy-class cruisers
GlobalSecurity.org entry on USS Reeves
navsource.org: USS Reeves
Warfighter's Encyclopedia entry on Surface Ships – Cruisers
External links
All Hands reports on USS Reeves Qingdao port visit (Downloads as a PDF)
TANDEM TECH, May 28, 2001 Australian Navy news release on USS Reeves sinking
The Guardian report on USS Reeves sinking
NavySite.de website entry on USS Reeves
USS Reeves Association Homepage
Leahy-class cruisers
Ships built in Bremerton, Washington
1962 ships
Cold War cruisers of the United States
Vietnam War cruisers of the United States
Ships sunk as targets | [
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235104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark%20Side%20of%20the%20Spoon | Dark Side of the Spoon | Dark Side of the Spoon is the seventh studio album by American industrial metal band Ministry, released on June 8, 1999 by Warner Bros. Records. "Bad Blood" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 2000.
Background
Dark Side of the Spoon features less aggressive songs than Ministry's previous albums, and frontman Al Jourgensen had intended it to be the case. He wanted to branch out from the "drug-infused" records of The Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Taste and Psalm 69 to more "unfamiliar territory".
In his autobiography, Jourgensen confirmed that the title has two meanings: one of which is a play on words referencing Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon and the other is the blackened (or dark side) of a spoon heated to dissolve heroin, as several members of the band suffered from long-term addiction to said substance at the time.
The saxophone part of the song "10/10" is taken from the last 22 seconds of "Group Dancers" on the Charles Mingus album The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady. "Whip and Chain" and "Bad Blood" feature vocals from Ty Coon, Al Jourgensen's girlfriend at the time.
In 2021, Jourgensen listed "Nursing Home" and "Supermanic Soul" in his top ten favorite Ministry songs.
Packaging controversy
The album's cover, which features a nude, obese woman sitting in front of a black board with "I will be god" written repeatedly on it; gained controversy and resulted in the album being pulled from Kmart. Jourgensen originally had the idea of having a child drawing on the blackboard but Barker suggested to have a fat woman instead to evoke the image of 'fattened Americans doing what they're told.'
Reception
AllMusic critic Steve Huey wrote: "While it is a better record than Filth Pig, that's largely because of a few strong moments propping up a number of surprisingly bland attempts at aggression." Huey further stated that the record "can't be considered the successful expansion of their sound that would bode well for the future." Elisabeth Vincentelli of Entertainment Weekly thought that "time may have finally caught up with these thrash-industrial veterans", remarking that the record "doesn't get that fast or heavy again" after the first track, "Supermanic Soul". Describing the record as "a contrary beast", NME wrote that the record "amounts to an uneven, frequently unfunny knot of confusion" and further stated: "It's as though Jourgensen's swapped his black humour for a black dog that won't stop howling, however much he beats it."
Reviewing for Rolling Stone, Neva Chonin thought that the record "sinks into the same complacent rut" as Filth Pig, further explaining: "From the stentorian rhythms and predictably ghoulish vocal samples to the bellowed doomsday incantations and chugging wall of guitars, everything here feels like a reflex." Spin critic Mark Lepage wrote that Dark Side of the Spoon does not achieve the standards that the band set on Psalm 69, "not delivering enough of the medicine."
Track listing
Hidden tracks
After the end of track 9, tracks of silence begin. There are 58 silent tracks on the album, totaling 10:26
Tracks 15–67 are all approximately four seconds in length.
"Everybody" is track 68 (track 69 on the Japanese edition). Houses of the Molé, another Ministry album, features a hidden track called "Walrus" which is also track 69. According to BMI, track 68 is called "Summertime". Allmusic and the official website of the band refers to this track as "Everybody". ITunes lists this track as "Dialogue".
Personnel
Ministry
Al Jourgensen – vocals, slide guitar, electronics, banjo (6), saxophone, production
Paul Barker – bass, electronics, vocals (8), production
Rey Washam – drums, electronics
Louis Svitek – guitar, electronics
Additional personnel
Ty Coon – vocals (2, 3, 68)
Yvonne Gage – vocals (4)
Zlatko Hukic – guitar, electronics
Jason Bacher – engineering
Jeff Dehaven – engineering
Bryan Kenny – engineering
Esther Nevarez – engineering
Brad Kopplin – engineering
Tom Baker – mastering
Paul Elledge – art direction, photography
Chart positions
References
1999 albums
Ministry (band) albums
Warner Records albums
Albums produced by Al Jourgensen
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235106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investiture%20Controversy | Investiture Controversy | The Investiture Controversy, also called Investiture Contest, was a conflict between the church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops (investiture) and abbots of monasteries and the pope himself. A series of popes in the 11th and 12th centuries undercut the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and other European monarchies, and the controversy led to nearly 50 years of civil war in Germany.
It began as a power struggle between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV (then King, later Holy Roman Emperor) in 1076. The conflict ended in 1122, when Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V agreed on the Concordat of Worms. The agreement required bishops to swear an oath of fealty to the secular monarch, who held authority "by the lance" but left selection to the church. It affirmed the right of the church to invest bishops with sacred authority, symbolized by a ring and staff. In Germany (but not Italy and Burgundy), the Emperor also retained the right to preside over elections of abbots and bishops by church authorities, and to arbitrate disputes. Holy Roman Emperors renounced the right to choose the pope.
In the meantime, there was also a brief but significant investiture struggle between Pope Paschal II and King Henry I of England from 1103 to 1107. The earlier resolution to that conflict, the Concordat of London, was very similar to the Concordat of Worms.
Background
After the decline of the Western Roman Empire, investiture was performed by members of the ruling nobility (and was known as lay investure) despite theoretically being a task of the church. Many bishops and abbots were themselves part of the ruling nobility. Given that most members of the European nobility practiced primogeniture, and willed their titles of nobility to the eldest surviving male heir, surplus male siblings often sought careers in the upper levels of the church hierarchy. This was particularly true where the family may have established a proprietary church or abbey on their estate. Since a substantial amount of wealth and land was usually associated with the office of a bishop or abbot, the sale of church offices—a practice known as "simony"—was an important source of income for leaders among the nobility, who themselves owned the land and by charity allowed the building of churches. Emperors had been heavily relying on bishops for their secular administration, as they were not hereditary or quasi-hereditary nobility with family interests. They justified their power by the theory of the divine right of kings.
Many of the papal selections before 1059 were influenced politically and militarily by European powers, often with a king or emperor announcing a choice which would be rubber-stamped by church electors. The Holy Roman Emperors of the Ottonian dynasty believed they should have the power to appoint the pope. Since the ascendance of the first of that line, Otto the Great (936–72), the bishops had been princes of the empire, had secured many privileges, and had become to a great extent feudal lords over great districts of the imperial territory. The control of these great units of economic and military power was for the king a question of primary importance due to its effect on imperial authority. It was essential for a ruler or nobleman to appoint (or sell the office to) someone who would remain loyal.
Problems with simony became particularly unpopular as Pope Benedict IX was accused of selling the papacy in 1045. Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, reigning from 1046 to 1056, settled the papal schism and named several popes, the last emperor to successfully dominate the selection process. Six-year-old Henry IV became King of the Germans in 1056.
Pope Nicholas II
Benedict X was elected under the influence of the Count of Tusculum, allegedly by bribing the electors. Dissenting cardinals elected Pope Nicholas II in 1058 at Siena. Nicholas II successfully waged war against Benedict X and regained control of the Vatican. Nicholas II convened a synod in the Lateran on Easter in 1059. The results were codified in the papal bull In nomine Domini. It declared that leaders of the nobility would have no part in the selection of popes (though the Holy Roman Emperor might confirm the choice) and that electors would be cardinals (which would later evolve into the College of Cardinals) assembled in Rome. The bull also banned lay investiture. In response, all the bishops in Germany (who supported the Emperor) assembled in 1061 and declared all the decrees of Nicolas II null and void. Nevertheless, the elections of Pope Alexander II and Pope Gregory VII proceeded according to church rules, without the involvement of the Emperor.
Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII
In 1075, Pope Gregory VII composed the Dictatus papae, though this was not published at the time, cataloging principles of his Gregorian Reforms. One clause asserted that the pope held the exclusive power to depose an emperor. It declared that the Roman church was founded by God alone—that the papal power (the auctoritas of Pope Gelasius) was the sole universal power; in particular, a council held in the Lateran Palace from 24 to 28 February the same year decreed that the pope alone could appoint or depose churchmen or move them from see to see. By this time, Henry IV was no longer a child, and he continued to appoint his own bishops. He reacted to this declaration by sending Gregory VII a letter in which he withdrew his imperial support of Gregory as pope in no uncertain terms: the letter was headed "Henry, king not through usurpation but through the holy ordination of God, to Hildebrand, at present not pope but false monk". It called for the election of a new pope. His letter ends, "I, Henry, king by the grace of God, with all of my Bishops, say to you, come down, come down!", and is often quoted with "and to be damned throughout the ages", which is a later addition.
The situation was made even more dire when Henry IV installed his chaplain, Tedald, a Milanese priest, as Bishop of Milan, when another priest of Milan, Atto, had already been chosen in Rome by the pope. In 1076 Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry, and deposed him as German king, releasing all Christians from their oath of allegiance.
Enforcing these declarations was a different matter, but the advantage gradually came to be on the side of Gregory VII. German princes and the aristocracy were happy to hear of the king's deposition. They used religious reasons to continue the rebellion started at the First Battle of Langensalza in 1075, and to seize royal holdings. Aristocrats claimed local lordships over peasants and property, built forts, which had previously been outlawed, and built up localized fiefdoms to secure their autonomy from the empire.
This combination of factors forced Henry IV to back down, as he needed time to marshal his forces to fight the rebellion. In 1077, he traveled to Canossa in northern Italy, where the Pope was staying in the castle of Countess Matilda, to apologize in person. The pope was suspicious of Henry's motives, and did not believe he was truly repentant. As penance for his sins, and echoing his own punishment of the Saxons after the First Battle of Langensalza, he wore a hair shirt and stood barefoot in the snow in what has become known as the Walk to Canossa. Gregory lifted the excommunication, but the German aristocrats, whose rebellion became known as the Great Saxon Revolt, were not as willing to give up their opportunity and elected a rival king, Rudolf von Rheinfeld. Three years later, Pope Gregory declared his support for von Rheinfeld and then on the Lenten synod of 7 March 1080 excommunicated Henry IV again. In turn, Henry called a council of bishops at Brixen that proclaimed Gregory illegitimate. The internal revolt against Henry effectively ended that same year, however, when Rudolf von Rheinfeld died.
Henry IV named Guibert of Ravenna (who he had invested as bishop of Ravenna) to be pope, referring to Clement III (known by the Catholic Church as Antipope Clement III) as "our pope". In October 1080, troops raised by the pro-Imperial bishops of Northern Italy clashed with the pro-papal forces of Countess Matilda in the battle of Volta Mantovana. The pro-Imperial forces were victorious, and in March 1081 Henry IV marched from the Brenner pass into the march of Verona unopposed, entering Milan in April that year. He then attacked Rome and besieged the city with the intent of forcibly removing Gregory VII and installing Clement III. The city of Rome withstood the siege, but the Vatican and St. Peter's fell in 1083. On the outskirts of the city, Henry gained thirteen cardinals who became loyal to his cause. The next year the city of Rome surrendered and Henry triumphantly entered the city. On Palm Sunday, 1084, Henry IV solemnly enthroned Clement at St. Peter's Basilica; on Easter Day, Clement returned the favour and crowned Henry IV as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
Gregory VII was meanwhile still resisting a few hundred yards away from the basilica in the Castel Sant'Angelo, then known as the house of Cencius. Gregory called on his allies for help, and Robert Guiscard (the Norman ruler of Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria) responded, entering Rome on 27 May 1084. The Normans came in force and attacked with such strength that Henry and his army fled. Gregory VII was rescued, but Rome was plundered in the process, for which the citizens of Rome blamed him. As a result, Gregory VII was forced to leave Rome under the protection of the Normans, fleeing to Salerno, where he grew ill and died on 25 May 1085. The last words he uttered were, "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile."
Upon the death of Gregory, the cardinals elected a new pope, Pope Victor III. He owed his elevation to the influence of the Normans. Antipope Clement III still occupied St. Peter's. When Victor III died, the cardinals elected Pope Urban II (1088–99). He was one of three men Gregory VII suggested as his successor. Urban II preached the First Crusade, which united Western Europe, and more importantly, reconciled the majority of bishops who had abandoned Gregory VII.
The reign of Henry IV showed the weakness of the German monarchy. The ruler was dependent upon the good will of the great men, the nobility of his land. These were technically royal officials and hereditary princes. He was also dependent on the resources of the churches. Henry IV alienated the Church of Rome and many of the magnates in his own kingdom. Many of these spent years in open or subversive rebellion. Henry failed to create a proper bureaucracy to replace his disobedient vassals. The magnates became increasingly independent, and the Church withdrew support. Henry IV spent the last years of his life desperately grasping to keep his throne. It was a greatly diminished kingdom.
Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor
The Investiture Controversy continued for several decades as each successive pope tried to diminish imperial power by stirring up revolt in Germany. These revolts were gradually successful. The reign of Henry IV ended with a diminished kingdom and waning power. Many of his underlords had been in constant or desultory revolt for years. Henry IV's insistence that Antipope Clement III was the real pope had initially been popular with some of the nobles, and even many of the bishops of Germany. But as years passed, this support was slowly withdrawn. The idea that the German king could and should name the pope was increasingly discredited and viewed as an anachronism from a by-gone era. The Empire of the Ottos was virtually lost because of Henry IV.
On 31 December 1105, Henry IV was forced to abdicate and was succeeded by his son Henry V, who had rebelled against his father in favor of the papacy, and made his father renounce the legality of his antipopes before he died. Nevertheless, Henry V chose another antipope, Gregory VIII.
Henry V realised swift action and a change in his father's policy was necessary. Pope Paschal II rebuked Henry V for appointing bishops in Germany. The king crossed the Alps with an army in 1111. The pope, who was weak and had few supporters was forced to suggest a compromise, the abortive Concordat of 1111. Its simple and radical solution of the Investiture Controversy between the prerogatives of regnum and sacerdotium proposed that German churchmen would surrender their lands and secular offices to the emperor and constitute a purely spiritual church. Henry gained greater control over the lands of his kingdom, especially those that had been in the hands of the church, but of contested title. He would not interfere with ecclesiastical affairs and churchmen would avoid secular services. The church would be given autonomy and to Henry V would be restored large parts of his empire that his father had lost. Henry V was crowned by Pope Paschal II as the legitimate Holy Roman Emperor. When the concessions of land were read in St. Peter's, the crowd erupted in anger. Henry took the pope and cardinals hostage until the pope granted Henry V the right of investiture. Then he returned to Germany—crowned emperor and apparent victor over the papacy.
The victory was as short-lived as that of his father, Henry IV over Gregory VII. The clergy urged Paschal to rescind his agreement, which he did in 1112. The quarrel followed the predictable course: Henry V rebelled and was excommunicated. Riots broke out in Germany, a new Antipope Gregory VIII was appointed by the German king, and nobles loyal to Rome seceded from Henry. The civil war continued, just as under Henry IV. It dragged on for another ten years. Like his father before him, Henry V was faced with waning power. He had no choice but to give up investiture and the old right of naming the pope. The Concordat of Worms was the result. After the Concordat, the German kings never had the same control over the Church as had existed in the time of the Ottonian dynasty. Henry V was received back into communion and recognized as legitimate emperor as a result.
Henry V died without heirs in 1125, three years after the Concordat. He had designated his nephew, Frederick von Staufen duke of Swabia, also known as Frederick II, Duke of Swabia as his successor. Instead, churchmen elected Lothair III. A long civil war erupted between the Staufen, also known as Hohenstaufen, and the heirs of Lothar III, paving the way for the rise to power of the Hohenstaufen Frederick I (1152–1190).
English investiture controversy (1102–07)
At the time of Henry IV's death, Henry I of England and the Gregorian papacy were also embroiled in a controversy over investiture, and its solution provided a model for the eventual solution of the issue in the empire.
William the Conqueror had accepted a papal banner and the distant blessing of Pope Alexander II upon his invasion, but had successfully rebuffed the pope's assertion after the successful outcome, that he should come to Rome and pay homage for his fief, under the general provisions of the Donation of Constantine.
The ban on lay investiture in Dictatus papae did not shake the loyalty of William's bishops and abbots. In the reign of Henry I, the heat of exchanges between Westminster and Rome induced Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, to give up mediating and retire to an abbey. Robert of Meulan, one of Henry's chief advisors, was excommunicated, but the threat of excommunicating the king remained unplayed. The papacy needed the support of English Henry while German Henry was still unbroken. A projected crusade also required English support.
Henry I commissioned the Archbishop of York to collect and present all the relevant traditions of anointed kingship. On this topic, the historian Norman Cantor would note: "The resulting 'Anonymous of York' treatises are a delight to students of early-medieval political theory, but they in no way typify the outlook of the Anglo-Norman monarchy, which had substituted the secure foundation of administrative and legal bureaucracy for outmoded religious ideology."
Concordat of London (1107)
The Concordat of London, agreed in 1107, was a forerunner of a compromise that was later taken up in the Concordat of Worms. In England, as in Germany, the king's chancery started to distinguish between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the prelates. Bowing to political reality and employing this distinction, Henry I of England gave up his right to invest his bishops and abbots while reserving the custom of requiring them to swear homage for the "temporalities" (the landed properties tied to the episcopate) directly from his hand, after the bishop had sworn homage and feudal vassalage in the commendation ceremony (commendatio), like any secular vassal. The system of vassalage was not divided among great local lords in England as it was in France, since the king was in control by right of the conquest.
Later developments in England
Henry I of England perceived a danger in placing monastic scholars in his chancery and turned increasingly to secular clerks, some of whom held minor positions in the Church. He often rewarded these men with the titles of bishop and abbot. Henry I expanded the system of scutage to reduce the monarchy's dependence on knights supplied from church lands. Unlike the situation in Germany, Henry I of England used the Investiture Controversy to strengthen the secular power of the king. It would continue to boil under the surface. The controversy would surface in the Thomas Becket affair under Henry II of England, the Great Charter of 1217, the Statutes of Mortmain and the battles over Cestui que use under Henry VII of England, and finally come to a head under Henry VIII of England.
Concordat of Worms (1122)
The European mainland experienced about 50 years of fighting, with efforts by Lamberto Scannabecchi, the future Pope Honorius II, and the 1121 Diet of Würzburg to end the conflict. On 23 September 1122, near the German city of Worms, Pope Callixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V entered into an agreement, now known as the Concordat of Worms, that effectively ended the Investiture Controversy. It eliminated lay investiture, while allowing secular leaders some room for unofficial but significant influence in the appointment process.
By the terms of the agreement, the election of bishops and abbots in Germany was to take place in the emperor's presence (or his legate's) as judge ("without violence") between potentially disputing parties, free of bribes, thus retaining to the emperor a crucial role in choosing these great territorial magnates of the Empire. But absent a dispute, the canons of the cathedral were to elect the bishop, monks were to choose the abbot. Beyond the borders of Germany, in Burgundy and Italy, the election would be handled by the church without imperial interference.
Callixtus' reference to the feudal homage due the emperor on appointment is guarded: "shall do unto thee for these what he rightfully should" was the wording of the privilegium granted by Callixtus. The emperor's right to a substantial imbursement (payment) on the election of a bishop or abbot was specifically denied.
The emperor renounced the right to invest ecclesiastics with ring and crosier, the symbols of their spiritual power, and guaranteed election by the canons of cathedral or abbey and free consecration. To make up for this and symbolise the worldly authority of the bishop which the pope had always recognised to derive from the Emperor, another symbol, the scepter, was invented, which would be handed over by the king (or his legate).
The two ended by promising mutual aid when requested and by granting one another peace. The Concordat was confirmed by the First Council of the Lateran in 1123.
Terminology
In modern terminology, a concordat is an international convention, specifically one concluded between the Holy See and the civil power of a country to define the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state in matters in which both are concerned. Concordats began during the First Crusade's end in 1098.
The Concordat of Worms () is sometimes called the Pactum Callixtinum by papal historians, since the term "concordat" was not in use until Nicolas of Cusa's De concordantia catholica of 1434.
Legacy
Local authority
In the long term, the decline of imperial power would divide Germany until the 19th century. Similarly, in Italy, the investiture controversy weakened the emperor's authority and strengthened local separatists.
While the monarchy was embroiled in the dispute with the Church, its power declined, and the localized rights of lordship over peasants increased, which eventually led to:
Increased serfdom that reduced rights for the majority
Local taxes and levies increased, while royal coffers declined
Localized rights of justice where courts did not have to answer to royal authority
Selection of leaders
The papacy grew stronger, and the laity became engaged in religious affairs, increasing its piety and setting the stage for the Crusades and the great religious vitality of the 12th century.
German kings still had de facto influence over the selection of German bishops, though over time, German princes gained influence among church electors. The bishop-elect would then be invested by the Emperor (or representative) with the scepter and, sometime afterwards, by his ecclesial superior with ring and staff. The resolution of the Controversy produced a significant improvement in the character of men raised to the episcopacy. Kings no longer interfered so frequently in their election, and when they did, they generally nominated more worthy candidates for the office.
The Concordat of Worms did not end the interference of European monarchs in the selection of the pope. Practically speaking, the German kings retained a decisive voice in the selection of the hierarchy. All kings supported King John of England's defiance of Pope Innocent III ninety years after the Concordat of Worms in the matter concerning Stephen Langton. In theory, the pope named his bishops and cardinals. In reality, more often than not, Rome consecrated the clergy once it was notified by the kings who the incumbent would be. Recalcitrance by Rome would lead to problems in the kingdom. For the most part it was a no-win situation for Rome. In this, the Concordat of Worms changed little. The growth of canon law in the Ecclesiastical Courts was based on the underlying Roman law and increased the strength of the Roman Pontiff.
Disputes between popes and Holy Roman Emperors continued until northern Italy was lost to the empire entirely, after the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. Emperor Otto IV marched on Rome and commanded Pope Innocent III to annul the Concordat of Worms and to recognise the imperial crown's right to make nominations to all vacant benefices. The church would crusade against the Holy Roman Empire under Frederick II. As historian Norman Cantor put it, the controversy "shattered the early-medieval equilibrium and ended the interpenetration of ecclesia and mundus". Indeed, medieval emperors, which were "largely the creation of ecclesiastical ideals and personnel", were forced to develop a secular bureaucratic state, whose essential components persisted in the Anglo-Norman monarchy.
Kings continued to attempt to control either the direct leadership of the church, or indirectly through political means for centuries. This is seen most clearly in the Avignon Papacy when the popes moved from Rome to Avignon. The conflict in Germany and northern Italy arguably left the culture ripe for various Protestant sects, such as the Cathars, the Waldensians and ultimately Jan Hus and Martin Luther.
Authority and reform
Though the Holy Roman Emperor retained some power over imperial churches, his power was damaged irreparably because he lost the religious authority that previously belonged to the office of the king. In France, England, and the Christian state in Spain, the king could overcome rebellions of his magnates and establish the power of his royal demesne because he could rely on the Church, which, for several centuries, had given him a mystical authority. From time to time, rebellious and recalcitrant monarchs might run afoul of the Church. These could be excommunicated, and after an appropriate time and public penance, be received back into the communion and good graces of the Church.
Of the three reforms Gregory VII and his predecessors and successor popes had attempted, the most successful had been that in regard to celibacy of the clergy. Simony had been partially checked. Against lay investiture they won only a limited success, and one that seemed less impressive as the years passed. During the time following the Concordat of Worms, the Church gained in both stature and power.
The wording of the Concordat of Worms was ambiguous, skirted some issues and avoided others altogether. This has caused some scholars to conclude that the settlement turned its back on Gregory VII's and Urban II's genuine hopes for reform. The emperor's influence in episcopal matters was preserved, and he could decide disputed elections. If the compromise was a rebuke to the most radical vision of the liberty of the Church, on at least one point its implication was firm and unmistakable: the king, even an emperor, was a layman, and his power at least morally limited (hence, totalitarianism was unacceptable). According to the opinion of W. Jordan, the divine right of kings was dealt a blow from which it never completely recovered, yet unfettered authority and Caesaropapism was not something the later Mediaevals and Early Moderns understood by the phrase "by the grace of God" (which many of them ardently defended). If anything, a blow was dealt to subconsciously remaining pre-Christian Germanic feelings of "royal hail".
Unifications of Germany and Italy
It was the consequence of this lengthy episode that a whole generation grew up in Germany and Northern Italy in an atmosphere of war, doubt and scepticism. The papal backers had been busy propounding arguments to show that royal power was not of divine origin. They had been so successful that the moral authority of the Emperor had been undermined in the minds of many of his subjects. Serious divisions existed from this battle over the Investiture Controversy, which fractured large portions of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany and Italy. Davis argues these rifts were so deep and lasting that neither Germany nor Italy were able to form a cohesive nation-state until the 19th century. A similar situation arose from the French revolution, which caused fractures in France that still exist. The effect of Henry IV's excommunication, and his subsequent refusal to repent left a turbulence in central Europe that lasted throughout the Middle Ages. It may have been emblematic of certain German attitudes toward religion in general, and the perceived relevance of the German Emperor in the universal scheme of things.
German culture
The catastrophic political consequences of the struggle between pope and emperor also led to a cultural disaster. Germany lost intellectual leadership in western Europe. In 1050, German monasteries were great centres of learning and art and German schools of theology and canon law were unsurpassed and probably unmatched anywhere in Europe. The long civil war over investiture sapped the energy of both German churchmen and intellectuals. They fell behind advances in philosophy, law, literature and art taking place in France and Italy. In many ways, Germany never caught up during the rest of the Middle Ages. Universities were established in France, Italy, Spain and England by the early 13th century. Notable are the University of Bologna, 1088, Oxford University, 1096, the University of Salamanca, 1134, the University of Paris, 1150, and the University of Cambridge, 1207. The first German university, the Heidelberg University, was not established until 1386. It was immediately steeped in mediaeval nominalism and early Protestantism.
Development of liberty and prosperity in northern Europe
The political scientist Bruce Bueno de Mesquita argues that the Concordat of Worms contained within itself the germ of nation-based sovereignty that would one day be confirmed in the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The Concordat of Worms created an incentive structure for the rulers of the Catholic parts of Europe such that in the northern regions, local rulers were motivated to raise the prosperity and liberty of their subjects because such reforms helped those rulers assert their independence from the pope.
With the Concordat of Worms, the pope became the de facto selector of bishops, as his recommendations all but guaranteed a candidate's nomination. Instead of myriad local customs, it all came down to negotiations between the pope and the local secular ruler. Therefore, the influence of the pope in the region became the common deciding factor across the Catholic parts of Europe.
As a consequence of the Concordat, if the local ruler rejected the pope's nominee for bishop, the ruler could keep the revenue of the diocese for himself, but the pope could retaliate in various ways, such as: ordering the local priests to not perform certain sacraments such as marriages, which would annoy the ruler's subjects; forgiving oaths made by the vassals to the ruler; and even excommunicating the ruler, thereby undermining his moral legitimacy. Eventually, the ruler would have to give in to the pope and accept a bishop. The longer a local ruler could hold out against the pope, the more leverage the ruler had to demand a bishop who suited his interests.
In a region where the pope's influence was weak, the local priests might have performed sacraments anyway, having calculated that defying the pope was not as dangerous as angering their parishioners; the ruler's vassals might have honored their oaths anyway because the pope could not protect them from their lord's wrath; and the subjects might still have respected their ruler despite excommunication.
If the pope's influence in a diocese was weak, the local ruler could force the pope to choose between getting the tax revenue and appointing a loyal bishop. If said diocese was relatively poor, the pope would stubbornly hold out until the local ruler accepted the pope's choice of bishop. During this standoff, the pope would not get any money from the diocese, but this was fine with him because the diocese didn't yield much money anyway. But if said diocese was prosperous, the pope wanted to resolve the dispute more quickly so that he could sooner get that ample revenue flowing into his coffers, and so he was more inclined to let the local ruler pick the bishop.
A local secular ruler could stimulate the economy of his domain, and thereby collect more tax revenue, by giving his subjects more liberty and more participation in politics. The local ruler was required to raise enough tax revenue so that he could provide sufficient rewards to his essential supporters in order to secure their loyalty. But liberalization and democratization would also make his subjects more assertive, which in itself made the ruler's hold on power less secure. Generally, a shrewd ruler would permit his people just enough liberty that he could raise sufficient tax revenue to provide his essential supporters with just enough rewards to keep them loyal (see selectorate theory for a thorough explanation of these trade-offs). In this specific context, the ruler of a diocese also had to consider whether to raise additional money, by risking liberalization, to convince the pope to compromise on the choice of bishop.
Under this incentive structure, if the pope's influence in a region was strong, the local ruler would see little point in liberalizing his state. He would raise more tax revenue, but it would not be enough to get out from under the pope's thumb which was just too strong. Liberalization would make his people more assertive and the pope would incite them to revolt. The pope would get both the money and his choice of bishop. Thus, the local ruler decided that oppressing his people was the sounder strategy for political survival.
On the other hand, if the pope's influence in the region was weak, the local ruler calculated that liberalizing his state, thereby making it more prosperous, could give him enough leverage to get his choice of bishop. The pope would try to incite the people to revolt, but to weak effect. Thus, the local ruler could hold out for longer against the pope, and the pope would concede. The local ruler would get his preferred bishop, and the pope would get the money.
In the Catholic regions of Europe, the pope's influence was weaker the further away a region was from Rome because in general it is difficult to project power over long distances and across difficult terrain such as mountains. This, Bueno de Mesquita argues, is why the northern regions of Europe, such as England and the Netherlands, became more prosperous and free than the southern regions. He further argues that this dynamic is what enabled the Protestant Reformation, which mostly happened in northern Europe. The northern parts of Europe were so prosperous and the influence of the pope there was so weak, their local rulers could reject the pope's bishops indefinitely.
Cultural references
Science fiction writer Poul Anderson's novel The Shield of Time (1980) depicts two alternate history scenarios. In one, the imperial power completely and utterly defeated the Papacy, and in the other, the Papacy emerged victorious with the imperial power humbled and marginalized. Both end with a highly authoritarian and repressive 20th century that is completely devoid of democracy or civil rights. The conclusion stated by a protagonist is that the outcome in actual history (neither power gained a clear victory, with both continuing to counterbalance each other) was the best from the point of view of human liberty.
See also
History of the papacy (1048–1257)
Cluniac Reforms
First Council of the Lateran
Petrus Crassus
Charter of Liberties
Statutes of Mortmain
Quia Emptores
Cestui que
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Primary sources
Bettenson, Henry, and Chris Maunder, eds. (2011). Documents of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press.
Slocum, Kenneth, ed. (2010). Sources in Medieval Culture and History. pp. 170–75.
Secondary and tertiary sources
Further reading
Primary sources
Secondary and tertiary sources
External links
"The Concordat of Worms", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4
11th century in the Papal States
12th century in the Papal States
11th century in the Holy Roman Empire
12th century in the Holy Roman Empire
11th-century Christianity
12th-century Christianity
Christian terminology
1100s in England
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
Salian dynasty
Matilda of Tuscany | [
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29349290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Eccles%20%28Royal%20Navy%20officer%29 | John Eccles (Royal Navy officer) | Admiral Sir John Arthur Symons Eccles, (20 June 1898 – 1 March 1966) was a Royal Navy officer who served as Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleet from 1955 until his retirement in 1958.
Naval career
Eccles joined the Royal Navy in 1916 during the First World War. He also served in the Second World War as Captain of on the China Station.
Eccles then became Commander of the Royal Navy Barracks at Chatham in 1948. He was appointed Flag Officer commanding the Australian Fleet in 1949 and Admiral commanding the Reserves in 1952. He went on to be Flag Officer Air (Home) in 1953 and Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleet and NATO Allied Commander-in-Chief Eastern Fleet in 1955 before retiring in 1958.
References
|-
1898 births
1966 deaths
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order
Royal Navy admirals
Military personnel from London
Royal Navy personnel of World War I
Royal Navy officers of World War II | [
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235107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TLC%20%28TV%20network%29 | TLC (TV network) | TLC (originally an initialism for The Learning Channel) is an American pay television channel owned by Discovery, Inc. Initially focused on educational and learning content; by the late 1990s, the network began to primarily focus towards reality series involving lifestyles, family life, and personal stories.
As of February 2015, TLC is available to watch in approximately 95 million American households (81.6% of households with cable television) in the United States.
History
1972–1980: Early history as the Appalachian Educational Satellite Project
TLC's history traces to the 1972 formation of the Appalachian Educational Satellite Project (AESP), a distance education project formed by the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), in participation with the Education Satellite Communication Demonstration (ESCD), a partnership with the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and NASA intended to transmit instructional, career and health programming via satellite to provide televised educational material to public schools and universities in the Appalachian region. ARC submitted a proposal to participate in the ESCD and use the ATS-6 communications satellite (launched into orbit in 1974) to disseminate "career education" programming to teachers at no cost; the consortium set up 15 earth station receiver sites across eight states in conjunction with local education service agencies.
The ATS-6 temporarily ceased service to the Appalachian region after being re-orbited to India in September 1975; by the time the satellite reoriented to the United States the following year, the number of earth receivers used to transmit AESP content increased to 45 sites in Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina (some of which also acted as relays to local television stations in the region). All programming offered through the project was accepted for academic credit at 12 universities in the region. In October 1978, NASA disclosed the ATS-6 would suspend transmissions for 12 months due to technical problems with the satellite. As a result, ARC decided to purchase transponder time on the commercial Satcom I communications satellite, in order to continue its distance education offerings.
1980–1998: From ACSN to The Learning Channel, "A place for learning minds"
The non-profit Appalachian Community Service Network (ACSN) was incorporated in April 1980, maintaining a board of directors appointed by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The ACSN television service launched in October 1980 as ACSN – The Learning Channel; unlike the closed-circuit AESP, the network distributed its programming available directly to cable systems for home viewing. Its programming also expanded to include "informational" content. (NASA immediately launched NASA TV as the ACSN's internal replacement.) By 1982, ACSN claimed that it "achieved the fastest rate of growth of all basic cable programming services," with availability on around 70 cable affiliates reaching 1.5 million subscribers; by this point, 70 universities granted academic credit for telecourses carried on the network. On January 1, 1984, the network shortened its name to The Learning Channel.
The channel mostly featured documentary content pertaining to nature, science, history, current events, medicine, technology, cooking, home improvement, and other information-based topics. These are often agreed to have been more focused, more technical, and of a more academic nature than the content that was being broadcast at the time on its eventual rival, The Discovery Channel, which launched in 1985. TLC was geared toward an inquisitive and narrow audience during this time, and had modest ratings. An exception to this viewership commonality was Captain's Log (produced and hosted by Mark Graves, a.k.a. Captain Mark Gray), a weekly primetime boating safety series that aired from 1987 to 1990; the program often achieved between a 4.5 to 6 rating share and was the highest compensated series in the history of TLC with over 30 times the compensation of any other series on the network.
In 1986, Infotech, Inc.—then-owner of the Financial News Network (FNN)—acquired a 51% interest in The Learning Channel for $3 million; the American Community Service Network retained a 31.5% share of the network, with the remaining 17.5% owned by network management.
On February 15, 1991, The Discovery Channel, Inc.—owners of the namesake cable channel—announced it had reached an agreement to acquire The Learning Channel from ACSN and Infotech (the latter of which was in the process of a bankruptcy-led asset liquidation to repay creditors, subsequently resulting in the sale of the Financial News Network to a joint venture of NBC and Cablevision that integrated the network with rival financial news channel CNBC) for $12.75 million (equivalent to $ million today). Under Discovery, The Learning Channel continued to focus primarily on instructional and educational programming for much of the 1990s; however, in what preceded its later expansion of such content, it also began to include shows less focused on education and geared more toward attracting popular consumption and mass marketing. In 1992, the network's name was shortened to "TLC," although the full name remained in use on alternating basis.
TLC continued to offer educational programs such as Paleoworld (a show about prehistoric creatures), though more and more of its programming began to be devoted to niche audiences for shows regarding subjects like home improvement (Hometime and Home Savvy were two of the first), arts and crafts, crime programs such as The New Detectives, medical programming (particularly reality-based shows following real patients through the process of operations), and other shows that appealed to daytime audiences, particularly housewives. This was to be indicative of a major change in programming content and target audience over the next few years.
1998–2006: "Life Unscripted", new direction
Perhaps due to poor ratings from a narrow target audience, TLC began to explore new avenues starting in the late 1990s, deemphasizing educational material in favor of entertainment. "Ready Set Learn", the network's children's program block, was slowly reduced through the years as the network deliberately redirected viewers towards the full-day lineup of children's programming on Discovery Kids. The block was dropped completely in late 2008, and Cable in the Classroom programming, meant for recording by teachers, had completely disappeared by the early 2000s.
In 1998, the channel began to distance itself from its original name "The Learning Channel", and instead began to advertise itself only as "TLC". During this period, there was a huge shift in content, with most new programming being geared towards reality-drama and interior design shows. The huge success of shows like Trading Spaces, Junkyard Wars, A Wedding Story, and A Baby Story exemplified this new shift in programming towards more mass-appeal shows.
This came at a time when Discovery itself was overhauling much of its own programming, introducing shows like American Chopper (which Discovery moved to TLC for a time). Much of the old, more educationally focused programming can still be found occasionally dispersed amongst other channels owned by Discovery Communications. Most of TLC's programming today is geared towards reality-based drama or interests such as home design, emergency room or medical dramas, extreme weather, law enforcement, dating, and human interest programs.
2006–2008: "Live and learn", attempted turnaround
On March 27, 2006, the network launched a new look and promotional campaign, dropping the "Life Unscripted" tag and introducing a new theme, "Live and learn", trying to turn around the network's reliance on decorating shows and reality programming. As part of the new campaign, the channel's original name, "The Learning Channel", returned to occasional usage in promotions. The new theme also played on life lessons, which featured heavily in the network's advertising and promotional clips. This campaign used humor to appeal to a target audience in their 30s.
2008–present: Return to reality programming
In early March 2008, TLC launched a slightly refreshed look and promotional campaign, alongside a new slogan: "Life surprises". This new slogan came as TLC began to shift even more to personal stories, and away from the once-dominating home improvement shows. Programs focused on family life became the core of the channel. Jon & Kate Plus 8, which by 2008 was the highest-rated program on TLC, and Little People, Big World were joined by 17 Kids and Counting (which became 18 Kids and Counting and then 19 Kids and Counting as the Duggars, the family that the series centers on, expanded), and Table for 12 in 2008 and 2009 respectively. The series Toddlers & Tiaras also debuted in 2008, and proved popular enough to spawn a spin-off in 2012, Here Comes Honey Boo Boo, focusing on the family life of recurring contestant Alana "Honey Boo Boo" Thompson, which was canceled in 2014. Also premiering on TLC in 2009 was Cake Boss, which focuses on the head baker at Carlo's Bakery and his staff, who mostly consist of his family.
In July 2014, TLC introduced a new slogan and promotional campaign, "Everyone Needs a Little TLC", which continued to build upon the network's current focus on personal stories and family life.
In 2017, home design programming began to return to the network with the premiere of Nate & Jeremiah By Design; the series was renewed for a second season. In April 2018, TLC premiered a revival of Trading Spaces (which accompanied the season 2 premiere of Nate & Jeremiah By Design); the season premiere and an accompanying reunion special were seen by 2.8 million viewers, marking the network's highest-rated Saturday primetime program since 2010.
In March 2018, Discovery Communications acquired Scripps Networks Interactive, and was renamed Discovery, Inc. TLC president Nancy Daniels left the network to become the chief brand officer of Discovery's factual networks, to replace the outgoing Rich Ross. She was replaced by Scripps Networks' chief programmer Kathleen Finch as chief brand officer of Discovery's lifestyle networks, overseeing TLC and the six networks formerly owned by SNI (such as HGTV and Food Network), among others. In 2019, HGTV and TLC premiered a co-commissioned revival of another former TLC series, While You Were Out; new episodes premiered on both networks simultaneously, with HGTV airing an alternate cut of the episode focusing more on the renovation process.
The case against Josh Duggar is just the latest in a series of scandals involving the alleged sexual abuse of children by people linked to TLC programs. Last year, former "Little People, Big World" star Jacob Roloff said he was molested by a producer on the series. The producer could not be reached for comment. In 2017, Toby Willis, who appeared with his wife and 12 musically gifted children (who, like the Duggars, were home-schooled and had names beginning with J) in "The Willis Family," pleaded guilty to four counts of child rape. TLC also canceled the controversial, highly rated "Here Comes Honey Boo Boo in 2014 when it was reported that June Shannon, mother of series star Alana "Honey Boo Boo" Thompson, was dating a man convicted of child molestation. In 2011, Remigio "Remy" Gonzalez, who appeared in several episodes of "Cake Boss," pleaded guilty to sexually assaulting a 13-year-old girl. And Andrea Clevenger, a mother who featured in the series "Cheer Perfection," pleaded guilty to sexual assault of a 13-year-old boy in 2014.
Programming
High-definition feed
A high definition simulcast of TLC was launched on September 1, 2007. It is currently available on many subscription-television systems in the United States and Canada.
International
Middle East and North Africa
OSN— a paid platform in the Middle East and North Africa—launched TLC HD and broadcast it with the Discovery Network, using the same form as the American TLC channel and adding new exclusive Arabic-English programs from its production as "Nidaa".
It is broadcast in Israel, by satellite provider yes.
The Americas
Canada
TLC's American feed is available in Canada on most cable and satellite providers, as it is authorized for carriage as a foreign cable television service by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission; save for a few differences it features the same programming schedule as that seen in the United States.
Latin America
The Latin American TLC HD, was launched on December 1, 2009, exclusively in high-definition, in the same style as the American channel (most of TLC's programming is available in standard-definition on Discovery Home & Health). On November 1, 2011, the Latin American version of Discovery Travel & Living was relaunched as TLC: Travel & Living Channel, which now also has a dedicated feed for Brazil.
Europe
United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland
An English-language version of the channel was originally launched in 1994 across Europe and was subsequently renamed Discovery Home and Leisure and later Discovery Real Time as part of Discovery's slate of themed channels. TLC relaunched in the UK and the Republic of Ireland on April 30, 2013.
Romania
TLC Romania was launched on 20 January 2011, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in this country.
Bulgaria
In early 2013 the channel launched in
Bulgaria.
Finland
In November 2016, TLC began to appear free, before that TLC was payment channel in Finland.
Portugal
In November 2011, TLC Portugal debuted on ZON TV (now NOS TV) distributor and satellite services and after on MEO TV.
Greece
On October 3, 2011, TLC Greece debuted on the Conn-x TV IPTV and OTE TV satellite services.
Germany
TLC Germany launched on April 10, 2014 on cable, IPTV and satellite services in both HD and SD.
Norway
A Norwegian version of the channel was launched on March 4, 2010 as TLC Norway, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in Norway.
Poland
On October 1, 2010, the Polish version of Discovery Travel & Living was relaunched as TLC Poland, replacing the European version of Discovery Travel & Living in Poland.
The Balkans
TLC Balkans was also launched on October 1, 2010, replacing the European version of the "Travel & Living Channel" in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and North Macedonia. TLC Balkans' playout is from Belgrade, Serbia.
Netherlands/Flanders (Belgium)
On July 4, 2011, a Dutch version was launched, time sharing with Animal Planet's standard definition feed. Animal Planet remained a 24-hour service for high-definition viewers. TLC became a 24-hour channel on January 8, 2013. It is also available in HD.
Switzerland
On June 3, 2014, the Swiss cable provider UPC Cablecom launched TLC in Switzerland.
Turkey
On November 6, 2015, TLC Turkey began broadcasting replacing CNBC-e channel.
Asia
On September 1, 2010, the Asia Pacific versions of Discovery Travel & Living were relaunched as TLC, with the acronym standing for "Travel and Living Channel".
India
An Indian version was launched in 2006 under the jurisdiction of Discovery Channel. It was relaunched as TLC on September 1, 2010.
South Korea
A South Korean version was launched on December 4, 2013 under the Discovery Communications and CMB (Central Media Broadcasting Korea). The channel was replaced by EXF (Extreme Fun TV) on May 1, 2016.
Sub-Saharan Africa & South Africa
The network airs throughout the region on DStv, and launched on September 1, 2011.
References
External links
TLC Norway official website
TLC Poland official website
TLC Russian official website
English-language television stations in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 1972
Television channels in North Macedonia
Discovery Networks
Defunct agencies of the United States government
1972 establishments in the United States
Television networks in the United States | [
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235109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrius | Babrius | Babrius (, Bábrios; century), also known as Babrias () or Gabrias (), was the author of a collection of Greek fables, many of which are known today as Aesop's Fables.
Life
Practically nothing is known of him. He is supposed to have been a Hellenized Roman, whose original name may have been Valerius. He lived in the East, probably in Syria, where the fables seem first to have gained popularity. The address to "a son of King Alexander" has caused much speculation, with the result that dates varying between the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD have been assigned to Babrius. The Alexander referred to may have been Alexander Severus (AD 222–235), who was fond of having literary men of all kinds about his court. "The son of Alexander" has further been identified with a certain Branchus mentioned in the fables, and it is suggested that Babrius may have been his tutor; probably, however, Branchus is a purely fictitious name. There is no mention of Babrius in ancient writers before the beginning of the 3rd century AD. As appears from surviving papyrus fragments, his work is to be dated before c. 200 AD (and probably not much earlier, for his language and style seem to show that he belonged to that period).
Work of Richard Bentley
The first critic who made Babrius more than a mere name was Richard Bentley. In a careful examination of these prose Aesopian fables, which had been handed down in various collections from the time of Maximus Planudes, Bentley discovered traces of versification, and was able to extract a number of verses which he assigned to Babrius. Tyrwhitt followed up the researches of Bentley, and for some time the efforts of scholars were directed towards reconstructing the metrical original of the prose fables.
1842 find
In 1842 the Greek Minoides Mynas came upon a manuscript of Babrius in the convent of Great Lavra on Mount Athos, now in the British Museum. This manuscript contained 123 fables out of the supposed original number, 160. They are arranged alphabetically, but break off at the letter O. The fables are written in choliambic, that is, limping or imperfect iambic verse, having a spondee as the last foot, a meter originally appropriated to scurrilous verse. The style is extremely good, the expression being terse and pointed, the versification correct and elegant, and the construction of the stories is fully equal to that in the prose versions. The genuineness of this collection of the fables was generally admitted by scholars. In 1857, Mynas professed to have discovered at Mount Athos another manuscript containing 94 fables and a preface. As the monks refused to sell this manuscript, he made a copy of it, which was sold to the British Museum, and was published in 1859 by Sir G Cornewall Lewis. This, however, was soon considered to be a forgery. Six more fables were brought to light by P Knoll from a Vatican manuscript edited by A. Eberhard.
Editions
Editions include:
Boissonade (1844)
Lachmann (1845)
Schneider (1853)
Johann Adam Hartung (1858, edition and German translation)
Eberhard (1876)
Gitlbauer (1882)
Rutherford (1883)
Knoll, Fabularum Babrianarum Paraphrasis Bodleiana (1877)
Feuillet (1890)
Desrousseaux (1890)
Passerat (1892)
Croiset (1892)
Crusius (1897)
See also:
Mantels, Über die Fabeln des B. (1840)
Crusius, De Babrii Aetate (1879)
Ficus, De Babrii Vita (1889)
J Weiner, Quaestiones Babrianae (1891)
Conington, Miscellaneous Writings, ii. 460-491
Marchiano, Babrio (1899)
Fusci, Babrio (1901)
Christoffersson, Studia de Fabvlis Babrianis (1901).
Early translations in English were made by Davies (1860) and in French by Levêque (1890), and in many other languages. More contemporary translations are by Denison B. Hull (University of Chicago Press) and Ben E. Perry (Harvard University Press).
In 1941, Heritage Press produced a "fine book" edition of Aesop, translated and adapted by Munro Leaf as juvenalia and lavishly illustrated by Robert Lawson.
In 1998, Penguin Classics released a new translation by Olivia and Robert Temple entitled, Aesop: The Complete Fables in reference to the fact that some previous translations were partial. Working from the Chambry text published in 1927, the Temple translation includes 358 fables; Robert Temple acknowledges on page xxiv that scholars will in all likelihood challenge the "Aesopian" origin of some of them.
Notes
References
External links
Roman-era poets
Greek literature (post-classical)
Ancient Greek poets
Iambic poets
2nd-century poets
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown | [
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235110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilayer%20switch | Multilayer switch | A multilayer switch (MLS) is a computer networking device that switches on OSI layer 2 like an ordinary network switch and provides extra functions on higher OSI layers. The MLS was invented by engineers at Digital Equipment Corporation.
Switching technologies are crucial to network design, as they allow traffic to be sent only where it is needed in most cases, using fast, hardware-based methods. Switching uses different kinds of network switches. A standard switch is known as a layer 2 switch and is commonly found in nearly any LAN. Layer 3 or layer 4 switches require advanced technology (see managed switch) and are more expensive, and thus are usually only found in larger LANs or in special network environments.
Multilayer switch
Multi-layer switching combines layer 2, 3 and 4 switching technologies and provides high-speed scalability with low latency. Multi-layer switching can move traffic at wire speed and also provide layer 3 routing. There is no performance difference between forwarding at different layers because the routing and switching is all hardware basedrouting decisions are made by specialized ASIC with the help of content-addressable memory.
Multi-layer switching can make routing and switching decisions based on the following
MAC address in a data link frame
Protocol field in the data link frame
IP address in the network layer header
Protocol field in the network layer header
Port numbers in the transport layer header
MLSs implement QoS in hardware. A multilayer switch can prioritize packets by the 6 bit differentiated services code point (DSCP). These 6 bits were originally used for type of service. The following 4 mappings are normally available in an MLS:
From OSI layer 2, 3 or 4 to IP DSCP (for IP packets) or IEEE 802.1p
From IEEE 802.1p to IP DSCP
From IP DSCP to IEEE 802.1p
From VLAN IEEE 802.1p to port egress queue.
MLSs are also able to route IP traffic between VLANs like a common router. The routing is normally as quick as switching (at wire speed).
Layer-2 switching
Layer-2 switching uses the MAC address of the host's network interface cards (NICs) to decide where to forward frames. Layer 2 switching is hardware-based, which means switches use application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs) to build and maintain the Forwarding information base and to perform packet forwarding at wire speed. One way to think of a layer-2 switch is as multiport bridge.
Layer-2 switching is highly efficient because there is no modification to the frame required. Encapsulation of the packet changes only when the data packet passes through dissimilar media (such as from Ethernet to FDDI). Layer-2 switching is used for workgroup connectivity and network segmentation (breaking up collision domains). This allows a flatter network design with more network segments than traditional networks joined by repeater hubs and routers.
Layer-2 switches have the same limitations as bridges. Bridges break up collision domains, but the network remains one large broadcast domain which can cause performance issues and limits the size of a network. Broadcast and multicasts, along with the slow convergence of spanning tree, can cause major problems as the network grows. Because of these problems, layer-2 switches cannot completely replace routers. Bridges are good if a network is designed by the 80/20 rule: users spend 80 percent of their time on their local segment.
Layer-3 switching
A layer-3 switch can perform some or all of the functions normally performed by a router. Most network switches, however, are limited to supporting a single type of physical network, typically Ethernet, whereas a router may support different kinds of physical networks on different ports.
Layer-3 switching is solely based on (destination) IP address stored in the header of IP datagram (layer-4 switching may use other information in the header). The difference between a layer-3 switch and a router is the way the device is making the routing decision. Traditionally, routers use microprocessors to make forwarding decisions in software, while the switch performs only hardware-based packet switching (by specialized ASIC with the help of content-addressable memory). However, many routers now also have advanced hardware functions to assist with forwarding.
The main advantage of layer-3 switches is the potential for lower network latency as a packet can be routed without making extra network hops to a router. For example, connecting two distinct segments (e.g. VLANs) with a router to a standard layer-2 switch requires passing the frame to the switch (first L2 hop), then to the router (second L2 hop) where the packet inside the frame is routed (L3 hop) and then passed back to the switch (third L2 hop). A layer-3 switch accomplishes the same task without the need for a router (and therefore additional hops) by making the routing decision itself, i.e. the packet is routed to another subnet and switched to the destination network port simultaneously.
Because many layer-3 switches offer the same functionality as traditional routers they can be used as cheaper, lower latency replacements in some networks. Layer 3 switches can perform the following actions that can also be performed by routers:
determine paths based on logical addressing
check and recompute layer-3 header checksums
examine and update time to live (TTL) field
process and respond to any option information
update Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) managers with Management Information Base (MIB) information
The benefits of layer 3 switching include the following:
fast hardware-based packet forwarding with low latency
lower per-port cost compared to pure routers
flow accounting
Quality of service (QoS)
IEEE has developed hierarchical terminology that is useful in describing forwarding and switching processes. Network devices without the capability to forward packets between subnetworks are called end systems (ESs, singular ES), whereas network devices with these capabilities are called intermediate systems (ISs). ISs are further divided into those that communicate only within their routing domain (intradomain IS) and those that communicate both within and between routing domains (interdomains IS). A routing domain is generally considered as portion of an internetwork under common administrative authority and is regulated by a particular set of administrative guidelines. Routing domains are also called autonomous systems.
A common layer-3 capability is an awareness of IP multicast through IGMP snooping. With this awareness, a layer-3 switch can increase efficiency by delivering the traffic of a multicast group only to ports where the attached device has signaled that it wants to listen to that group.
Layer-3 switches typically support IP routing between VLANs configured on the switch. Some layer-3 switches support the routing protocols that routers use to exchange information about routes between networks.
Layer 4 switching
Layer 4 switching means hardware-based layer 3 switching technology that can also consider the type of network traffic (for example, distinguishing between UDP and TCP). Layer 4 switching provides additional datagram inspection by reading the port numbers found in the transport layer header to make routing decisions (i.e. ports used by HTTP, FTP and VoIP). These port numbers are found in RFC 1700 and reference the upper-layer protocol, program, or application.
Using layer-4 switching, the network administrator can configure a layer-4 switch to prioritize data traffic by application. Layer-4 information can also be used to help make routing decisions. For example, extended access lists can filter packets based on layer-4 port numbers. Another example is accounting information gathered by open standards using sFlow.
A layer-4 switch can use information in the transport-layer protocols to make forwarding decisions. Principally this refers to an ability to use source and destination port numbers in TCP and UDP communications to allow, block and prioritize communications.
Layer 4–7 switch, web switch, or content switch
Some switches can use packet information up to OSI layer 7; these may be called layer 4–7 switches, , , web switches or application switches.
Content switches are typically used for load balancing among groups of servers. Load balancing can be performed on HTTP, HTTPS, VPN, or any TCP/IP traffic using a specific port. Load balancing often involves destination network address translation so that the client of the load-balanced service is not fully aware of which server is handling its requests. Some layer 4–7 switches can perform Network address translation (NAT) at wire speed. Content switches can often be used to perform standard operations such as SSL encryption and decryption to reduce the load on the servers receiving the traffic, or to centralize the management of digital certificates. Layer 7 switching is a technology used in a content delivery network.
Some applications require that repeated requests from a client are directed at the same application server. Since the client isn't generally aware of which server it spoke to earlier, content switches define a notion of stickiness. For example, requests from the same source IP address are directed to the same application server each time. Stickiness can also be based on SSL IDs, and some content switches can use cookies to provide this functionality.
Layer 4 load balancer
The router operates on the transport layer and makes decisions on where to send the packets. Modern load balancing routers can use different rules to make decisions on where to route traffic. This can be based on least load, or fastest response times, or simply balancing requests out to multiple destinations providing the same services. This is also a redundancy method, so if one machine is not up, the router will not send traffic to it.
The router may also have NAT capability with port and transaction awareness and performs a form of port translation for sending incoming packets to one or more machines that are hidden behind a single IP address.
Layer 7
Layer-7 switches may distribute the load based on uniform resource locators (URLs), or by using some installation-specific technique to recognize application-level transactions. A layer-7 switch may include a web cache and participate in a content delivery network (CDN).
See also
Application delivery controller
Bridge router
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
Residential gateway
References
External links
What is the difference between a Layer-3 switch and a router?
Multilayer Switching
Networking hardware | [
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235118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Gunion%20Rutherford | William Gunion Rutherford | William Gunion Rutherford (17 July 1853 – 19 July 1907) was a Scottish scholar.
Life
He was born in Peeblesshire on 17 July 1853 and educated at St Andrews and Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in natural science. His intention to enter medical profession was abandoned in favour of a scholastic career. From 1883 to 1901 he was Head Master of Westminster School; and his death deprived classical scholarship in the UK of one of its most brilliant modern representatives. He was also a Fellow of University College, Oxford for a time.
Work
Rutherford devoted special attention to Attic Greek idioms and the language of Aristophanes. His most important work, New Phrynichus (1881), dealing with the Atticisms of Phrynichus Arabius, was supplemented by his Babrius (1883), a specimen of the later Greek language, which was the chief subject of Christian August Lobeck's earlier commentary (1820) on Phrynichus. His edition (1896-1905) of the Aristophanic scholia from the Ravenna manuscript was less successful. Mention may also be made of his Elementary Greek Accidence and Lex Rex, a list of cognate words in Greek, Latin and English.
In the year 1900, Rutherford produced an English translation of some parts of the Bible, called "Five Pauline Epistles - A New Translation." This work was a translation of the books of Romans, first and second Thessalonians, and first and second Corinthians, with a brief analysis.
William G. Rutherford died on 19 July 1907, two days after his 54th birthday.
Family
On 3 January 1884, he married Constance Gordon Renton.
References
External links
1853 births
1907 deaths
People from the Scottish Borders
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Fellows of University College, Oxford
Scottish scholars and academics
Head Masters of Westminster School | [
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] |
235124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20cryptography%20articles | Index of cryptography articles | Articles related to cryptography include:
A
A5/1 •
A5/2 •
ABA digital signature guidelines •
ABC (stream cipher) •
Abraham Sinkov •
Acoustic cryptanalysis •
Adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack •
Adaptive chosen plaintext and chosen ciphertext attack •
Advantage (cryptography) •
ADFGVX cipher •
Adi Shamir •
Advanced Access Content System •
Advanced Encryption Standard •
Advanced Encryption Standard process •
Adversary •
AEAD block cipher modes of operation •
Affine cipher •
Agnes Meyer Driscoll •
AKA (security) •
Akelarre (cipher) •
Alan Turing •
Alastair Denniston •
Al Bhed language •
Alex Biryukov •
Alfred Menezes •
Algebraic Eraser •
Algorithmically random sequence •
Alice and Bob •
All-or-nothing transform •
Alphabetum Kaldeorum •
Alternating step generator •
American Cryptogram Association •
AN/CYZ-10 •
Anonymous publication •
Anonymous remailer •
Antoni Palluth •
Anubis (cipher) •
Argon2 •
ARIA (cipher) •
Arlington Hall •
Arne Beurling •
Arnold Cipher •
Array controller based encryption •
Arthur Scherbius •
Arvid Gerhard Damm •
Asiacrypt •
Atbash •
Attack model •
Auguste Kerckhoffs •
Authenticated encryption •
Authentication •
Authorization certificate •
Autokey cipher •
Avalanche effect
B
B-Dienst •
Babington Plot •
Baby-step giant-step •
Bacon's cipher •
Banburismus •
Bart Preneel •
BaseKing •
BassOmatic •
BATON •
BB84 •
Beale ciphers •
BEAR and LION ciphers •
Beaufort cipher •
Beaumanor Hall •
Bent function •
Berlekamp–Massey algorithm •
Bernstein v. United States •
BestCrypt •
Biclique attack •
BID/60 •
BID 770 •
Bifid cipher •
Bill Weisband •
Binary Goppa code •
Biometric word list •
Birthday attack •
Bit-flipping attack •
BitTorrent protocol encryption •
Biuro Szyfrów •
Black Chamber •
Blaise de Vigenère •
Bletchley Park •
Blind credential •
Blinding (cryptography) •
Blind signature •
Block cipher •
Block cipher mode of operation •
Block size (cryptography) •
Blowfish (cipher) •
Blum Blum Shub •
Blum–Goldwasser cryptosystem •
Bomba (cryptography) •
Bombe •
Book cipher •
Books on cryptography •
Boomerang attack •
Boris Hagelin •
Bouncy Castle (cryptography) •
Broadcast encryption •
Bruce Schneier •
Brute-force attack •
Brute Force: Cracking the Data Encryption Standard •
Burrows–Abadi–Needham logic •
Burt Kaliski
C
C2Net •
C-36 (cipher machine) •
C-52 (cipher machine) •
Caesar cipher •
Camellia (cipher) •
CAPICOM •
Capstone (cryptography) •
Cardan grille •
Card catalog (cryptology) •
Carlisle Adams •
CAST-128 •
CAST-256 •
Cayley–Purser algorithm •
CBC-MAC •
CCM mode •
CCMP •
CD-57 •
CDMF •
Cellular Message Encryption Algorithm •
Centiban •
Central Security Service •
Centre for Applied Cryptographic Research •
Central Bureau •
Certicom •
Certificate authority •
Certificate-based encryption •
Certificateless cryptography •
Certificate revocation list •
Certificate signing request •
Certification path validation algorithm •
Chaffing and winnowing •
Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol •
Challenge–response authentication •
Chosen-ciphertext attack •
Chosen-plaintext attack •
CIKS-1 •
Cipher disk •
Cipher runes •
Cipher security summary •
CipherSaber •
Ciphertext expansion •
Ciphertext indistinguishability •
Ciphertext-only attack •
Ciphertext stealing •
CIPHERUNICORN-A •
CIPHERUNICORN-E •
Classical cipher •
Claude Shannon •
Claw-free permutation •
Cleartext •
CLEFIA •
Clifford Cocks •
Clipper chip •
Clock (cryptography) •
Clock drift •
CMVP •
COCONUT98 •
Codebook •
Code (cryptography) •
Code talker •
Codress message •
Cold boot attack •
Collision attack •
Collision resistance •
Colossus computer •
Combined Cipher Machine •
Commitment scheme •
Common Scrambling Algorithm •
Communications security •
Communications Security Establishment •
Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems •
Comparison of disk encryption software •
Comparison of SSH clients •
Completeness (cryptography) •
Complexity trap •
Computational Diffie–Hellman assumption •
Computational hardness assumption •
Computer insecurity •
Computer and network surveillance •
COMSEC equipment •
Conch (SSH) •
Concrete security •
Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander •
Confidentiality •
Confusion and diffusion •
Content-scrambling system •
Controlled Cryptographic Item •
Corkscrew (program) •
Correlation immunity •
COSIC •
Covert channel •
Cover (telecommunications) •
Crab (cipher) •
Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem •
CRAM-MD5 •
CRHF •
Crib (cryptanalysis) •
CrossCrypt •
Crowds (anonymity network) •
Crypt (C) •
Cryptanalysis •
Cryptanalysis of the Enigma •
Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher •
Cryptanalytic computer •
Cryptex •
Cryptico •
Crypto AG •
Crypto-anarchism •
Crypto API (Linux) •
Microsoft CryptoAPI •
CryptoBuddy •
Cryptochannel •
CRYPTO (conference) •
Cryptogram •
Cryptographically Generated Address •
Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator •
Cryptographically strong •
Cryptographic Application Programming Interface •
Cryptographic hash function •
Cryptographic key types •
Cryptographic Message Syntax •
Cryptographic primitive •
Cryptographic protocol •
Cryptographic Service Provider •
Cryptographie indéchiffrable •
Cryptography •
Cryptography in Japan •
Cryptography newsgroups •
Cryptography standards •
Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government—Saving Privacy in the Digital Age •
Cryptologia •
Cryptology ePrint Archive •
Cryptology Research Society of India •
Cryptomathic •
Cryptome •
Cryptomeria cipher •
Cryptonomicon •
CrypTool •
Crypto phone •
Crypto-society •
Cryptosystem •
Cryptovirology •
CRYPTREC •
CS-Cipher •
Curve25519 • Curve448 • Custom hardware attack •
Cycles per byte •
Cyclometer •
Cypherpunk •
Cyrillic Projector
D
D'Agapeyeff cipher •
Daniel J. Bernstein •
Data Authentication Algorithm •
Data Encryption Standard •
Datagram Transport Layer Security •
David Chaum •
David Kahn •
David Naccache •
David Wagner •
David Wheeler (computer scientist) •
Davies attack •
Davies–Meyer hash •
DEAL •
Decipherment •
Decisional Diffie–Hellman assumption •
Decorrelation theory •
Decrypt •
DeCSS •
Defence Signals Directorate •
Degree of anonymity •
Delegated Path Discovery •
Delegated Path Validation •
Deniable encryption •
Derek Taunt •
Derived unique key per transaction •
DES Challenges •
DES supplementary material •
DES-X •
Deterministic encryption •
DFC (cipher) •
Dictionary attack •
Differential cryptanalysis •
Differential-linear attack •
Differential power analysis •
Diffie–Hellman key exchange •
Diffie–Hellman problem •
DigiCipher 2 •
Digital Fortress •
Digital rights management •
Digital signature •
Digital Signature Algorithm •
Digital signature forgery •
Digital timestamping •
Digital watermarking •
Dilly Knox •
Dining cryptographers problem •
Diplomatic bag •
Direct Anonymous Attestation •
Discrete logarithm •
Disk encryption •
Disk encryption hardware •
Disk encryption software •
Distance-bounding protocol •
Distinguishing attack •
Distributed.net •
DMA attack •
dm-crypt •
Dmitry Sklyarov •
DomainKeys •
Don Coppersmith •
Dorabella Cipher •
Double Ratchet Algorithm •
Doug Stinson •
Dragon (cipher) •
DRYAD •
Dual_EC_DRBG •
E
E0 (cipher) •
E2 (cipher) •
E4M •
EAP-AKA •
EAP-SIM •
EAX mode •
ECC patents •
ECHELON •
ECRYPT •
Edouard Fleissner von Wostrowitz •
Edward Hebern •
Edward Scheidt •
Edward Travis •
EFF DES cracker •
Efficient Probabilistic Public-Key Encryption Scheme •
EKMS •
Electronic Communications Act 2000 •
Electronic money •
Electronic signature •
Electronic voting •
ElGamal encryption •
ElGamal signature scheme •
Eli Biham •
Elizebeth Friedman •
Elliptic-curve cryptography •
Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman •
Elliptic Curve DSA • EdDSA • Elliptic curve only hash •
Elonka Dunin •
Encrypted function •
Encrypted key exchange •
Encrypting File System •
Encryption •
Encryption software •
Enigmail •
Enigma machine •
Enigma rotor details •
Entrust •
Ernst Fetterlein •
eSTREAM •
Étienne Bazeries •
Eurocrypt •
EuroCrypt •
Export of cryptography •
Extensible Authentication Protocol
F
Fast Software Encryption •
Fast syndrome-based hash •
FEA-M •
FEAL •
Feige–Fiat–Shamir identification scheme •
Feistel cipher •
Félix Delastelle •
Fialka •
Filesystem-level encryption •
FileVault •
Fill device •
Financial cryptography •
FIPS 140 •
FIPS 140-2 •
Firefly (key exchange protocol) •
FISH (cipher) •
Fish (cryptography) •
Floradora •
Fluhrer, Mantin and Shamir attack •
Format-preserving encryption •
Fortezza •
Fort George G. Meade •
Fortuna (PRNG) •
Four-square cipher •
Franciszek Pokorny •
Frank A. Stevenson •
Frank Rowlett •
Freenet •
FreeOTFE •
FreeS/WAN •
Frequency analysis •
Friedrich Kasiski •
Fritz-chip •
FROG •
FROSTBURG •
FTP over SSH •
Full disk encryption •
Full Domain Hash •
F. W. Winterbotham
G
Galois/Counter Mode •
Gardening (cryptanalysis) •
GCHQ Bude •
GCHQ CSO Morwenstow •
GDES •
Generic Security Services Application Program Interface •
George Blakley •
George Scovell •
GGH encryption scheme •
GGH signature scheme •
Gilbert Vernam •
GMR (cryptography) •
GNU Privacy Guard •
GnuTLS •
Goldwasser–Micali cryptosystem •
Gordon Welchman •
GOST (block cipher) •
GOST (hash function) •
Government Communications Headquarters •
Government Communications Security Bureau •
Grain (cipher) •
Grand Cru (cipher) •
Great Cipher •
Grill (cryptology) •
Grille (cryptography) •
Group-based cryptography •
Group signature •
Grover's algorithm •
Gustave Bertrand •
Gwido Langer
H
H.235 •
HAIFA construction •
HAIPE •
Hans Dobbertin •
Hans-Thilo Schmidt •
Hard-core predicate •
Hardware random number generator •
Hardware security module •
Harold Keen •
Harry Hinsley •
Harvest (computer) •
HAS-160 •
Hash-based cryptography •
Hashcash •
Hash chain •
Hash function security summary •
Hash list •
Hasty Pudding cipher •
HAVAL •
HC-256 •
HC-9 •
Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine) •
Hebern rotor machine •
Henri Braquenié •
Henryk Zygalski •
Herbert Yardley •
Hidden Field Equations •
Hideki Imai •
Hierocrypt •
High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection •
Higher-order differential cryptanalysis •
Hill cipher •
History of cryptography •
HMAC •
HMAC-based One-time Password algorithm (HOTP) •
Horst Feistel •
Howard Heys •
Https •
Hugo Hadwiger •
Hugo Koch •
Hushmail •
Hut 6 •
Hut 8 •
HX-63 •
Hybrid cryptosystem •
Hyperelliptic curve cryptography •
Hyper-encryption
I
Ian Goldberg •
IBM 4758 •
ICE (cipher) •
ID-based cryptography •
IDEA NXT •
Identification friend or foe •
IEEE 802.11i •
IEEE P1363 •
I. J. Good •
Illegal prime •
Impossible differential cryptanalysis •
Index of coincidence •
Indifferent chosen-ciphertext attack •
Indistinguishability obfuscation •
Indocrypt •
Information leakage •
Information Security Group •
Information-theoretic security •
Initialization vector •
Integer factorization •
Integral cryptanalysis •
Integrated Encryption Scheme •
Integrated Windows Authentication •
Interlock protocol •
Intermediate certificate authorities •
International Association for Cryptologic Research •
International Data Encryption Algorithm •
Internet Key Exchange •
Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol •
Interpolation attack •
Invisible ink •
IPsec •
Iraqi block cipher •
ISAAC (cipher) •
ISO 19092-2 •
ISO/IEC 9797 •
Ivan Damgård
J
Jacques Stern •
JADE (cypher machine) •
James Gillogly •
James H. Ellis •
James Massey •
Jan Graliński •
Jan Kowalewski •
Japanese naval codes •
Java Cryptography Architecture •
Jefferson disk •
Jennifer Seberry •
Jerzy Różycki •
Joan Daemen •
Johannes Trithemius •
John Herivel •
John Kelsey (cryptanalyst) •
John R. F. Jeffreys •
John Tiltman •
Jon Lech Johansen •
Josef Pieprzyk •
Joseph Desch •
Joseph Finnegan (cryptographer) •
Joseph Mauborgne •
Joseph Rochefort •
Journal of Cryptology •
Junger v. Daley
K
Kaisa Nyberg •
Kalyna (cipher) •
Kasiski examination •
KASUMI •
KCDSA •
KeePass •
Kerberos (protocol) •
Kerckhoffs's principle •
Kevin McCurley (cryptographer) •
Key-agreement protocol •
Key authentication •
Key clustering •
Key (cryptography) •
Key derivation function •
Key distribution center •
Key escrow •
Key exchange •
Keyfile •
Key generation •
Key generator •
Key management •
Key-recovery attack •
Key schedule •
Key server (cryptographic) •
Key signature (cryptography) •
Keysigning •
Key signing party •
Key size •
Key space (cryptography) •
Keystream •
Key stretching •
Key whitening •
KG-84 •
KHAZAD •
Khufu and Khafre •
Kiss (cryptanalysis) •
KL-43 •
KL-51 •
KL-7 •
Kleptography •
KN-Cipher •
Knapsack problem •
Known-key distinguishing attack •
Known-plaintext attack •
KnownSafe •
KOI-18 •
KOV-14 •
Kryha •
Kryptos •
KSD-64 •
Kupyna •
Kuznyechik •
KW-26 •
KW-37 •
KY-3 •
KY-57 •
KY-58 •
KY-68 •
KYK-13
L
Lacida •
Ladder-DES •
Lamport signature •
Lars Knudsen •
Lattice-based cryptography •
Laurance Safford •
Lawrie Brown •
LCS35 •
Leo Marks •
Leonard Adleman •
Leon Battista Alberti •
Leo Rosen •
Leslie Yoxall •
LEVIATHAN (cipher) •
LEX (cipher) •
Libelle (cipher) •
Linear cryptanalysis •
Linear-feedback shift register •
Link encryption •
List of ciphertexts •
List of cryptographers •
List of cryptographic file systems •
List of cryptographic key types •
List of cryptology conferences •
List of telecommunications encryption terms • List of people associated with Bletchley Park •
List of SFTP clients •
List of SFTP server software •
LOKI •
LOKI97 •
Lorenz cipher •
Louis W. Tordella •
Lsh •
Lucifer (cipher) •
Lyra2
M
M6 (cipher) •
M8 (cipher) •
M-209 •
M-325 •
M-94 •
MacGuffin (cipher) •
Madryga •
MAGENTA •
Magic (cryptography) •
Maksymilian Ciężki •
Malcolm J. Williamson •
Malleability (cryptography) •
Man-in-the-middle attack •
Marian Rejewski •
MARS (cryptography) •
Martin Hellman •
MaruTukku •
Massey–Omura cryptosystem •
Matt Blaze •
Matt Robshaw •
Max Newman •
McEliece cryptosystem •
mcrypt •
MD2 (cryptography) •
MD4 •
MD5 •
MD5CRK •
MDC-2 •
MDS matrix •
Mean shortest distance •
Meet-in-the-middle attack •
Mental poker •
Mercury (cipher machine) •
Mercy (cipher) •
Meredith Gardner •
Merkle signature scheme •
Merkle–Damgård construction •
Merkle–Hellman knapsack cryptosystem •
Merkle's Puzzles •
Merkle tree •
MESH (cipher) •
Message authentication •
Message authentication code •
Message forgery •
MI8 •
Michael Luby •
MICKEY •
Microdot •
Military Cryptanalysis (book) (William F. Friedman) •
Military Cryptanalytics •
Mimic function •
Mirror writing •
MISTY1 •
Mitsuru Matsui •
MMB (cipher) •
Mod n cryptanalysis •
MQV •
MS-CHAP •
MUGI •
MULTI-S01 •
MultiSwap •
Multivariate cryptography
N
National Communications Centre •
National Cryptologic Museum •
National Security Agency •
National Cipher Challenge •
Navajo I •
Neal Koblitz •
Needham–Schroeder protocol •
Negligible function •
NEMA (machine) •
NESSIE •
Network Security Services •
Neural cryptography •
New Data Seal •
NewDES •
N-Hash •
Nicolas Courtois •
Niederreiter cryptosystem •
Niels Ferguson •
Nigel de Grey •
Nihilist cipher •
Nikita Borisov •
Nimbus (cipher) •
NIST hash function competition •
Nonlinear-feedback shift register •
NOEKEON •
Non-malleable codes •
Noreen •
Nothing up my sleeve number •
NSA cryptography •
NSA encryption systems •
NSA in fiction •
NSAKEY •
NSA Suite A Cryptography •
NSA Suite B Cryptography •
NT LAN Manager •
NTLMSSP •
NTRUEncrypt •
NTRUSign •
Null cipher •
Numbers station •
NUSH •
NTRU
O
Oblivious transfer •
OCB mode •
Oded Goldreich •
Off-the-Record Messaging •
Okamoto–Uchiyama cryptosystem •
OMI cryptograph •
OMNI (SCIP) •
One-key MAC •
One-time pad •
One-time password •
One-way compression function •
One-way function •
Onion routing •
Online Certificate Status Protocol •
OP-20-G •
OpenPGP card •
OpenSSH •
OpenSSL •
Openswan •
OpenVPN •
Operation Ruthless •
Optimal asymmetric encryption padding •
Over the Air Rekeying (OTAR) •
OTFE •
Otway–Rees protocol
P
Padding (cryptography) •
Padding oracle attack •
Paillier cryptosystem •
Pairing-based cryptography •
Panama (cryptography) •
Partitioning cryptanalysis •
Passive attack •
Passphrase •
Password •
Password-authenticated key agreement •
Password cracking •
Password Hashing Competition •
Paul Kocher •
Paulo Pancatuccio •
Paulo S. L. M. Barreto •
Paul van Oorschot •
PBKDF2 •
PC Bruno •
Pepper (cryptography) •
Perfect forward secrecy •
Perforated sheets •
Permutation cipher •
Peter Gutmann (computer scientist) •
Peter Junger •
Peter Twinn •
PGP Corporation •
PGPDisk •
PGPfone •
Phelix •
Phil Zimmermann •
Photuris (protocol) •
Physical security •
Physical unclonable function •
Pig Latin •
Pigpen cipher •
Pike (cipher) •
Piling-up lemma •
Pinwheel (cryptography) •
Piotr Smoleński •
Pirate decryption •
PKC (conference) •
PKCS •
PKCS 11 •
PKCS 12 •
PKIX •
Plaintext •
Plaintext-aware encryption •
Playfair cipher •
Plugboard •
PMAC (cryptography) •
Poem code •
Pohlig–Hellman algorithm •
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol •
Pointcheval–Stern signature algorithm •
Poly1305 •
Polyalphabetic cipher •
Polybius square •
Portex •
Post-quantum cryptography •
Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization •
Power analysis •
Preimage attack •
Pre-shared key •
Pretty Good Privacy •
Printer steganography •
Privacy-enhanced Electronic Mail •
Private Communications Technology •
Private information retrieval •
Probabilistic encryption •
Product cipher •
Proof-of-work system •
Protected Extensible Authentication Protocol •
Provable security •
Provably secure cryptographic hash function •
Proxy re-encryption •
Pseudo-Hadamard transform •
Pseudonymity •
Pseudorandom function •
Pseudorandom number generator •
Pseudorandom permutation •
Public key certificate •
Public-key cryptography •
Public key fingerprint •
Public key infrastructure •
PURPLE •
PuTTY •
Py (cipher)
Q
Q (cipher) •
Qrpff •
QUAD (cipher) •
Quadratic sieve •
Quantum coin flipping •
Quantum cryptography •
Quantum digital signature •
Quantum fingerprinting •
Quantum key distribution
R
Rabbit (cipher) •
Rabin cryptosystem •
Rabin–Williams encryption •
RadioGatún •
Rail fence cipher •
Rainbow table •
Ralph Merkle •
Rambutan (cryptography) •
Random function •
Randomness tests •
Random number generator attack •
Random oracle •
RC2 •
RC4 •
RC5 •
RC6 •
Rebound attack •
Reciprocal cipher •
Red/black concept •
REDOC •
Red Pike (cipher) •
Reflector (cipher machine) •
Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 •
Reihenschieber •
Rekeying (cryptography) •
Related-key attack •
Replay attack •
Reservehandverfahren •
Residual block termination •
Rijndael key schedule •
Rijndael S-box •
Ring signature •
RIPEMD •
Rip van Winkle cipher •
Robert Morris (cryptographer) •
Robot certificate authority •
Rockex •
Rolf Noskwith •
Ron Rivest •
Room 40 •
Root certificate •
Ross J. Anderson •
Rossignols •
ROT13 •
Rotor machine •
RSA RSA •
RSA-100 •
RSA-1024 •
RSA-110 •
RSA-120 •
RSA-129 •
RSA-130 •
RSA-140 •
RSA-150 •
RSA-1536 •
RSA-155 •
RSA-160 •
RSA-170 •
RSA-180 •
RSA-190 •
RSA-200 •
RSA-2048 •
RSA-210 •
RSA-220 •
RSA-230 •
RSA-232 •
RSA-240 •
RSA-250 •
RSA-260 •
RSA-270 •
RSA-280 •
RSA-290 •
RSA-300 •
RSA-309 •
RSA-310 •
RSA-320 •
RSA-330 •
RSA-340 •
RSA-350 •
RSA-360 •
RSA-370 •
RSA-380 •
RSA-390 •
RSA-400 •
RSA-410 •
RSA-420 •
RSA-430 •
RSA-440 •
RSA-450 •
RSA-460 •
RSA-470 •
RSA-480 •
RSA-490 •
RSA-500 •
RSA-576 •
RSA-617 •
RSA-640 •
RSA-704 •
RSA-768 •
RSA-896 •
RSA-PSS •
RSA Factoring Challenge •
RSA problem •
RSA Secret-Key Challenge •
RSA Security •
Rubber-hose cryptanalysis •
Running key cipher •
Russian copulation
S
S-1 block cipher •
SAFER •
Salsa20 •
Salt (cryptography) •
SAM card •
Security Support Provider Interface •
SAML •
SAVILLE •
SC2000 •
Schnorr group •
Schnorr signature •
Schoof–Elkies–Atkin algorithm •
SCIP •
Scott Vanstone •
Scrambler •
Scramdisk •
Scream (cipher) •
Scrypt •
Scytale •
Seahorse (software) •
SEAL (cipher) •
Sean Murphy (cryptographer) •
SECG •
Secret broadcast •
Secret decoder ring •
Secrets and Lies (Schneier) •
Secret sharing •
Sectéra Secure Module •
Secure access module •
Secure channel •
Secure Communication based on Quantum Cryptography •
Secure copy •
Secure cryptoprocessor •
Secure Electronic Transaction •
Secure Hash Algorithms •
Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol •
Secure key issuing cryptography •
Secure multi-party computation •
Secure Neighbor Discovery •
Secure Real-time Transport Protocol •
Secure remote password protocol •
Secure Shell •
Secure telephone •
Secure Terminal Equipment •
Secure voice •
SecurID •
Security association •
Security engineering •
Security level •
Security parameter •
Security protocol notation •
Security through obscurity •
Security token •
SEED •
Selected Areas in Cryptography •
Self-certifying File System •
Self-shrinking generator •
Self-signed certificate •
Semantic security •
Serge Vaudenay •
Serpent (cipher) •
Session key •
SHACAL •
Shafi Goldwasser •
SHA-1 •
SHA-2 •
SHA-3 •
Shared secret •
SHARK •
Shaun Wylie •
Shor's algorithm •
Shrinking generator •
Shugborough inscription •
Side-channel attack •
Siemens and Halske T52 •
SIGABA •
SIGCUM •
SIGINT •
Signal Protocol •
Signal Intelligence Service •
Signcryption •
SIGSALY •
SILC (protocol) •
Silvio Micali •
Simple Authentication and Security Layer •
Simple public-key infrastructure •
Simple XOR cipher •
S/KEY •
Skein (hash function) •
Skipjack (cipher) •
Slide attack •
Slidex •
Small subgroup confinement attack •
S/MIME •
SM4 algorithm (formerly SMS4) •
Snake oil (cryptography) •
Snefru •
SNOW •
Snuffle •
SOBER-128 •
Solitaire (cipher) •
Solomon Kullback •
SOSEMANUK •
Special Collection Service •
Spectr-H64 •
SPEKE (cryptography) •
Sponge function •
SPNEGO •
Square (cipher) •
Ssh-agent • Ssh-keygen • SSH File Transfer Protocol •
SSLeay •
Stafford Tavares •
Standard model (cryptography) •
Station CAST •
Station HYPO •
Station-to-Station protocol •
Statistical cryptanalysis •
Stefan Lucks •
Steganalysis •
Steganography •
Straddling checkerboard •
Stream cipher •
Stream cipher attacks •
Strong cryptography •
Strong RSA assumption •
Stuart Milner-Barry •
STU-II •
STU-III •
Stunnel •
Substitution box •
Substitution cipher •
Substitution–permutation network •
Superencryption •
Supersingular isogeny key exchange •
Swedish National Defence Radio Establishment •
SWIFFT •
SXAL/MBAL •
Symmetric-key algorithm •
SYSKEY
T
Tabula recta •
Taher Elgamal •
Tamper resistance •
Tcpcrypt •
Television encryption •
TEMPEST •
Template:Cryptographic software •
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol •
Testery •
Thawte •
The Alphabet Cipher •
The Code Book •
The Codebreakers •
The Gold-Bug •
The Magic Words are Squeamish Ossifrage •
Theory of Cryptography Conference •
The world wonders •
Thomas Jakobsen •
Three-pass protocol •
Threshold shadow scheme •
TICOM •
Tiger (cryptography) •
Timeline of cryptography •
Time/memory/data tradeoff attack •
Time-based One-time Password algorithm (TOTP) •
Timing attack •
Tiny Encryption Algorithm •
Tom Berson •
Tommy Flowers •
Topics in cryptography •
Tor (anonymity network) •
Torus-based cryptography •
Traffic analysis •
Traffic-flow security •
Traitor tracing •
Transmission security •
Transport Layer Security •
Transposition cipher •
Trapdoor function •
Trench code •
Treyfer •
Trifid cipher •
Triple DES •
Trivium (cipher) •
TrueCrypt •
Truncated differential cryptanalysis •
Trusted third party •
Turing (cipher) •
TWINKLE •
TWIRL •
Twofish •
Two-square cipher •
Type 1 encryption •
Type 2 encryption •
Type 3 encryption •
Type 4 encryption •
Typex
U
UES (cipher) •
Ultra •
UMAC •
Unbalanced Oil and Vinegar •
Undeniable signature •
Unicity distance •
Universal composability •
Universal one-way hash function (UOWHF)
V
Venona project •
Verifiable secret sharing •
Verisign •
Very smooth hash •
VEST •
VIC cipher •
VideoCrypt •
Vigenère cipher •
Vincent Rijmen •
VINSON •
Virtual private network •
Visual cryptography •
Voynich manuscript
W
Wadsworth's cipher •
WAKE •
WLAN Authentication and Privacy Infrastructure •
Watermark (data file) •
Watermarking attack •
Weak key •
Web of trust •
Whirlpool (hash function) •
Whitfield Diffie •
Wide Mouth Frog protocol •
Wi-Fi Protected Access •
William F. Friedman •
William Montgomery (cryptographer) •
WinSCP •
Wired Equivalent Privacy •
Wireless Transport Layer Security •
Witness-indistinguishable proof •
Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems •
World War I cryptography •
World War II cryptography •
W. T. Tutte
X
X.509 •
XDH assumption •
Xiaoyun Wang •
XML Encryption •
XML Signature •
xmx •
XSL attack •
XTEA •
XTR •
Xuejia Lai •
XXTEA
10-00-00-00-00
Y
Yarrow algorithm •
Y-stations •
Yuliang Zheng
Z
Zeroisation •
Zero-knowledge password proof •
Zero-knowledge proof •
Zfone •
Zodiac (cipher) •
ZRTP •
Zimmermann–Sassaman key-signing protocol •
Zimmermann Telegram
See also
Outline of cryptography – an analytical list of articles and terms.
Books on cryptography – an annotated list of suggested readings.
List of cryptographers – an annotated list of cryptographers.
Important publications in cryptography – some cryptography papers in computer science.
WikiProject Cryptography – discussion and resources for editing cryptography articles.
Cryptography lists and comparisons
Cryptography
Cryptography | [
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235133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximus%20Planudes | Maximus Planudes | Maximus Planudes (, Máximos Planoúdēs; ) was a Byzantine Greek monk, scholar, anthologist, translator, mathematician, grammarian and theologian at Constantinople. Through his translations from Latin into Greek and from Greek into Latin, he brought the Greek East and the Latin West into closer contact with one another. He is now best known as a compiler of the Greek Anthology.
Biography
Maximus Planudes lived during the reigns of the Byzantine emperors Michael VIII and Andronikos II. He was born at Nicomedia in Bithynia in 1260, but the greater part of his life was spent in Constantinople, where as a monk he devoted himself to study and teaching. On entering the monastery he changed his original name Manuel to Maximus.
Planudes possessed a knowledge of Latin remarkable at a time when Rome and Italy were regarded with some hostility by the Greeks of the Byzantine Empire. To this accomplishment he probably owed his selection as one of the ambassadors sent by emperor Andronikos II in 1295–96 to remonstrate with the Venetians for their attack upon the Genoese settlement in Galata near Constantinople. A more important result was that Planudes, especially by his translations, paved the way for the revival of the study of Greek language and literature in western Europe.
He was the author of numerous works, including: a Greek grammar in the form of question and answer, like the Erotemata of Manuel Moschopulus, with an appendix on the so-called "Political verse"; a treatise on syntax; a biography of Aesop and a prose version of the fables; scholia on certain Greek authors; two hexameter poems, one a eulogy of Claudius Ptolemaeus— whose Geography was rediscovered by Planudes, who translated it into Latin— the other an account of the sudden change of an ox into a mouse; a treatise on the method of calculating in use amongst the Indians; and scholia to the first two books of the Arithmetic of Diophantus.
His numerous translations from the Latin included Cicero's Somnium Scipionis with the commentary of Macrobius; Ovid's Heroides and Metamorphoses; Boethius' De consolatione philosophiae; and Augustine's De trinitate. Traditionally, a translation of Julius Caesar's De Bello Gallico has been attributed to Planudes, but this is a much repeated mistake. These translations were not only useful to Greek speakers but were also widely used in western Europe as textbooks for the study of Greek.
It is, however, for his edition of the Greek Anthology that he is best known. This edition, the Anthology of Planudes or Planudean Anthology, is shorter than the Heidelberg text (the Palatine Anthology), and largely overlaps it, but contains 380 epigrams not present in it, normally published with the others, either as a sixteenth book or as an appendix.
J. W. Mackail in his book Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology, has this to add of him:
Among his works were translations into Greek of Augustine's City of God and Caesar's Gallic War. The restored Greek Empire of the Palaeologi was then fast dropping to pieces. The Genoese colony of Pera usurped the trade of Constantinople and acted as an independent state; and it brings us very near the modern world to remember that Planudes was the contemporary of Petrarch.
He is recorded as one of the first people to use the word "million".
Notes
References
Sources
Editions include: Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, ed. Harles, xi. 682; theological writings in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxlvii; correspondence, ed. M Treu (1890), with a valuable commentary
(Also Oxford Reference Online.)
(Also Oxford Reference Online.)
K. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897)
J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1906), vol. i
External links
Planudes from Charles Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1867), v. 3, pp. 384–390
Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology by J. W. Mackail (Project Gutenberg)
The Greek Anthology, books 1–6, translated by W. R. Paton, with facing Greek text (Loeb Classical Library, 1916)
1260s births
1330 deaths
13th-century Byzantine people
14th-century Byzantine people
14th-century Byzantine writers
Byzantine grammarians
Byzantine writers
Byzantine theologians
Latin–Greek translators
Greek–Latin translators
Greek Renaissance humanists
Greek Christian monks
13th-century Byzantine writers
14th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians
13th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians
13th-century translators
People from the Black Sea Region
Ambassadors
13th-century Greek people
14th-century Greek people
13th-century Greek scientists
13th-century Greek educators
14th-century Greek scientists
14th-century Greek educators
13th-century Greek mathematicians
14th-century Greek mathematicians
13th-century Greek astronomers
14th-century Greek astronomers | [
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235151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Boissonade%20de%20Fontarabie | Jean François Boissonade de Fontarabie | Jean François Boissonade de Fontarabie (12 August 17748 September 1857) was a French classical scholar.
Life
He was born in Paris. In 1792 he entered the public service during the administration of General Dumouriez. Driven out in 1795, he was restored by Lucien Bonaparte, during whose time of office he served as secretary to the prefecture of the Upper Marne. He then resigned public employment permanently, in order to devote his time to the study of Greek. In 1809 he was appointed deputy professor of Greek at the faculty of letters at Paris, and titular professor in 1813 on the death of Pierre Henri Larcher. In 1828 he succeeded Jean-Baptiste Gail in the chair of Greek at the Collège de France. He also held the offices of librarian of the Bibliothèque du Roi, and perpetual secretary of the Académie des Inscriptions.
Boissonade is the father of Gustave Emile Boissonade.
Works
Boissonade chiefly devoted his attention to later Greek literature:
Philostratus, Heroica (1806) and Epistolae (1842)
Marinus, Vita procli (1814)
Tiberius Rhetor, De Figuris (1815)
Nicetas Eugenianus, Drosilla et Charicles (1819)
Herodian, Partitiones (1819)
Aristaenetus, Epistolae (1822)
Eunapius, Vitae Sophistarum (1822)
Babrius, Fables (1844)
Tzetzes, Allegoriae Iliadis (1851)
a Collection of Greek Poets in 24 vols.
The Anecdota Graeca (1829–1833) and Anecdota Nova (1844) are important for Byzantine history and the Greek grammarians.
A selection of his papers was published by Ferdinand Colincamp, Critique littéraire sous le premier Empire (1863), vol. i of which contains a complete list of his works, and a "Notice Historique sur Monsieur B." by Joseph Naudet.
References
1774 births
1857 deaths
Collège de France faculty
French scholars
French hellenists
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery | [
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235157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marwell%20Zoo | Marwell Zoo | Marwell Zoo is a zoo situated in Colden Common near Winchester, in the English county of Hampshire. It is owned and run by the registered charity Marwell Wildlife. The zoo is home to 1,208 animals of 149 species. The charity undertakes a range of educational and conservation activities, with a particular focus on Africa in addition to work from its base.
History
The zoo was founded by Dr John Knowles, opening in 1972. He sold a Rolls-Royce of his to buy some zebras. It was one of the earliest zoos in Europe to place an emphasis on animal conservation. Within a few years of its establishment, it became an important breeding centre for several species, some (e.g. the Mongolian wild horse) already extinct in the wild, others (e.g. the snow leopard and Siberian tiger) close to extinction.
The park is situated in the estate of Marwell Hall, a Grade I listed building originally built around the year 1320 by Walter Woodlock and largely rebuilt in 1816 by William Long. In the 1500s, the Hall belonged to the Seymour family, and there is a local legend that Henry VIII married Jane Seymour there. Between September 1941 and March 1944, Cunliffe-Owen Aircraft used the area (part of the managing director's personal estate) as an airfield to support the manufacture of military aircraft at its nearby factory in Eastleigh. After the end of World War II, the area was returned to agricultural use until the establishment of the zoo.
In 1977, a giraffe called Victor tore a muscle in his leg, collapsed on his stomach, and was unable to get up. The press suggested that he had slipped while trying to mate and compared his situation to the splits. All attempts to get him on his feet failed, and his plight became a major international news story. Portsmouth Dockyard made a hoist to attempt to raise him onto his feet. He died of a heart attack very shortly afterward in the arms of his keeper Ruth. The publicity turned Marwell into a major tourist attraction, and interest was revived the following summer, when Victor's mate, Dribbles, gave birth to a female calf named Victoria.
In 1991 Dr John Knowles was appointed an OBE for services to conservation.
In 1999, the zoo lost all of its penguins (22 African and 5 macaroni) to avian malaria. There were other cases in the UK but Marwell was the only zoo to lose its entire colony, which had arrived only two and a half years before to stock the new Penguin World exhibit. After consulting with experts, the exhibit was restocked with Humboldt penguins, which whilst endangered in the wild, are present in greater numbers in captivity.
In 2003, after constructing a new enclosure for critically endangered Amur leopards, a female leopard (Jade) escaped and fell from a tree to her death after being shot with a tranquiliser dart only days before the official opening of the exhibit. Following a replacement after the death of Jade, in 2005 the first cub born to the new Amur leopard pair, Amirah, escaped into the male's enclosure and was killed by her father. On 18 November 2007, a female Amur leopard cub (named Kiska following a public vote) was born as a result of a European Conservation Breeding Programme.
Both the park and charity changed their name to "Marwell Wildlife" in April 2009, to promote awareness of conservation work beyond the park. The charity had previously been called the Marwell Preservation Trust, and the park had been Marwell Zoological Park.
Animal exhibits
The park includes a number of themed areas, including:
Roof of the World is themed along the Himalayan mountain range and exhibits snow leopards in a naturalistic environment.
Lemur Loop is a walkthrough exhibit home to three different species of lemur. It opened in 2017 and allows guests to get up close to the primates. Black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata), a crowned lemur (Eulemur coronatus) and ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) are joined in the exhibit by a green peafowl (Pavo cristatus).
Penguin Cove was refurbished in 2012 and is home to 14 Humboldt penguins
Aridlands is home to addax, dorcas gazelles and curly-tailed lizard.
Fur, Feathers & Scales, formerly Australian Brush Walk was redeveloped in 2015 and currently includes a walk-through aviary for African birds (including Hamerkop, Waldrapp Ibis, Village Weaver, Mount Omei Liocichla and Madagascar Teal), Cold Blooded Corner, a reptile house housing rare species' such as Gila monster and Madagascan tree boa, a partula snail unit, Egyptian tortoises and swift parrot aviaries. 2019 also saw the redevelopment of an enclosure for the red pandas.
Life Amongst the Trees is home to siamangs, Asian small-clawed otters, black-and-white ruffed lemurs, red ruffed lemurs, binutrong, golden-headed lion tamarin, silvery marmoset, golden lion tamarin, white-headed saki, Visayan warty pig and bokiboky. Nearby live anoa and pygmy hippopotamus.
Animals
The zoo's exhibits include (in addition to those mentioned above in the Animal Exhibits section):
219 mammals of 59 species; including tamarins, meerkats, servals, Amur tigers
181 birds of 37 species; including weaverbirdss, ibis and flamingoes
More than 50 reptiles of 17 species; tortoises.
More than 11 amphibians of 3 species; including poison dart frogs
More than 26 fish of 19 species.
More than 720 invertebrates of 14 species; including leaf cutter ants.
In particular, Marwell houses a large collection of ungulates, including:
Scimitar-horned oryx
Arabian oryx
Addax
Roan antelope
Lesser kudu
Nyala
Dorcas gazelle
Sitatunga
Eastern bongo
Lowland anoa
Grevy's zebra
Hartmann's mountain zebra
Przewalski's horse
Somali wild ass
Southern white rhino
Lowland tapir
Rothschild giraffe
Okapi
Red River Hog
Visayan Warty Pig
Pygmy hippopotamus
Conservation
The main, current Marwell Wildlife conservation programmes include Managing Biodiversity in Hampshire, assisting Grevy's zebra and its ecosystem in Kenya; supporting threatened species in Zimbabwe and managing the population of small, vulnerable populations; and reintroducing the scimitar-horned oryx to the Sahara.
The zoo has been involved in reintroducing wild horse, golden lion tamarin, roan antelope and scimitar oryx to the wild. The oryx was extinct in the wild, but more than 200 calves have been born and reared at the zoo since 1972 and many of these have been released back to the Sahara with animals from Whipsnade Zoo and Edinburgh Zoo.
The charity carries out a range of research and education activities and provides the office for the IUCN antelope specialist group.
Marwell Zoo has had notable success breeding various endangered animals including: black and white ruffed lemur (critically endangered), scimitar-horned oryx, Amur leopard (critically endangered) and snow leopard. In July 2015 a critically endangered Sulawesi-crested macaque baby was born.
October 2018 saw the birth of a Hartmann's Mountain Zebra at the zoo. First time mother, Dorotka, is genetically very important to the European population and the last successful breeding of the vulnerable species at the zoo was back in 1997.
Facilities
The family attraction additionally includes five children's playgrounds, various food kiosks, two indoor picnic lodges, and Bushtucker Bites, as well as picnic areas on Marwell Hall lawn and various other areas across the zoo. There is a hotel adjacent to the park.
The Marwell Wildlife Railway (MWR), is a gauge railway operating around the front half of the zoo site. It is commonly known as Marwell Zoo Railway, although its locomotive is lettered MWR to reflect the formal name. The line runs for a little less than a kilometre, and is served by two stations, Treetops Junction and Park End Halt. The line opened in 1987 and still operates using the original rolling stock. It operates daily during school holidays, and at weekends for the rest of the spring, summer, and autumn. It is usually closed during the winter months.
Rolling stock on the railway was supplied by Severn Lamb. The only locomotive is a steam-outline locomotive named Princess Anne. There are four passenger coaches, each capable of seating 16 adult passengers. The coaches are roofed, but open-sided. There is a 4-wheel open wagon for maintenance trains.
References
External links
Marwell Wildlife website
1972 establishments in England
Tourist attractions in Hampshire
Zoos in England
Buildings and structures in Hampshire
Zoos established in 1972
Grade I listed buildings in Hampshire | [
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235166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther%20Hart%20%28singer%29 | Esther Hart (singer) | Esther Hart (born Esther Katinka Hartkamp on 3 June 1970 in Epe, Gelderland) is a Dutch singer.
Career
Hart entered BBC TV's A Song for Europe contest in 2003 with the song "Wait for the Moment". She withdrew from that contest as participating for two countries would not have been acceptable for both BBC and NOS. She opted for participating in Nationaal Songfestival, the Dutch heat of the Eurovision Song Contest, and won. Her song, "One More Night", was placed 13th in the 2003 Eurovision Song Contest. She read the Dutch results at Eurovision 2004 and Eurovision 2008.
Activism
On 17 January 2008, Hart willingly went to jail and stayed overnight in an attempt to gain publicity and money for charity. During that time she gave a concert with the Dutch broadcaster NCRV (Dutch Christian Radio Association) and the Exodus Foundation, which provides assistance for former prisoners to adapt to normal life. In addition, a poetry contest was held by the prisoners with the theme of "dare to believe in change", with the winning poem to be read by Hart.
References
External links
1970 births
Living people
People from Epe, Netherlands
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for the Netherlands
Dutch pop singers
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003
English-language singers from the Netherlands
21st-century Dutch singers
21st-century Dutch women singers
Nationaal Songfestival contestants | [
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235169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20paternity%20testing | DNA paternity testing | DNA paternity testing is the use of DNA profiles to determine whether an individual is the biological parent of another individual. Paternity testing can be especially important when the rights and duties of the father are in issue and a child's paternity is in doubt. Tests can also determine the likelihood of someone being a biological grandparent. Though genetic testing is the most reliable standard, older methods also exist, including ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigen antigens. The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Paternity testing can now also be performed while the woman is still pregnant from a blood draw.
DNA testing is currently the most advanced and accurate technology to determine parentage. In a DNA paternity test, the result (called the 'probability of parentage) is 0% when the alleged parent is not biologically related to the child, and the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. However, while almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, rare individuals, known as "chimeras", have at least two different sets of genes, which can result in a false negative result if their reproductive tissue has a different genetic make-up from the tissue sampled for the test.
Paternity or maternity testing for child or adult
The DNA test is performed by collecting buccal (cheek) cells found on the inside of a person's cheek using a buccal or cheek swab. These swabs have wooden or plastic stick handles with a cotton on synthetic tip. The collector rubs the inside of a person's cheek to collect as many buccal cells as possible, which are then sent to a laboratory for testing. Samples from the alleged father or mother and the child would be needed.
Prenatal paternity testing for unborn child
Invasive prenatal paternity testing
It is possible to determine who the biological father of the fetus is while the woman is still pregnant through procedures called chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis. Chorionic villus sampling retrieves placental tissue in either a transcervical or transabdominal manner. Amniocentesis retrieves amniotic fluid by inserting a needle through the pregnant mother's abdominal wall. These procedures are highly accurate because they are taking a sample directly from the fetus; however, there is a small risk for the woman to miscarry and lose the pregnancy as a result. Both CVS and Amnio require the pregnant woman to visit a genetic specialist known as a maternal fetal medicine specialist who will perform the procedure.
Non-invasive prenatal paternity testing
Advances in genetic testing have led to the ability to identify the biological father while the woman is still pregnant. There is a small amount of fetal DNA (cffDNA) present in the mother's blood during pregnancy. This allows for accurate fetal DNA paternity testing during pregnancy from a blood draw with no risk of miscarriage. Studies have shown that cffDNA can first be observed as early as 7 weeks gestation, and the amount of cffDNA increases as the pregnancy progresses.
DNA profiling
The DNA of an individual is the same in every somatic (nonreproductive) cell. Sexual reproduction brings the DNA of both parents together to create a unique combination of genetic material in a new cell, so the genetic material of an individual is derived from the genetic material of each parent in equal amounts; this genetic material is known as the nuclear genome of the individual, because it is found in the nucleus.
Comparing the DNA sequence of one person to that of another can prove if one of them was derived from the other, but DNA paternity tests are not currently 100% accurate. Specific sequences are examined to see if they were copied verbatim from one individual's genome; if so, then the genetic material of one individual could have been derived from that of the other (i.e. one is the parent of the other). Besides nuclear DNA, mitochondria also have their own genetic material called mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondrial DNA comes only from the mother, without any shuffling.
Proving a relationship based on comparison of the mitochondrial genome is much easier than that based on the nuclear genome. However, testing the mitochondrial genome can prove only if two individuals are related by common descent through maternal lines only from a common ancestor and is, thus, of limited value (i.e., it could not be used to test for paternity).
In testing the paternity of a male child, comparison of the Y chromosome can be used, since it is passed directly from father to son.
In the US, the AABB has regulations for DNA paternity and family relationship testing, but AABB accreditation is not required. DNA test results are legally admissible if the collection and the processing follows a chain of custody. Similarly in Canada, the SCC has regulations on DNA paternity and relationship testing, but this accreditation, while recommended, is not required.
The Paternity Testing Commission of the International Society for Forensic Genetics has taken up the task of establishing the biostatistical recommendations in accordance with the ISO/IEC 17025 standards. Bio-statistical evaluations of paternity should be based on a likelihood ratio principle - yielding the Paternity Index, PI. The recommendations provide guidance on concepts of genetic hypotheses and calculation concerns needed to produce valid PIs, as well as on specific issues related to population genetics.
History
The first form of any kind of parental testing was blood typing, or matching blood types between the child and alleged parent, which became available in the 1920s, after scientists recognized that blood types, which had been discovered in the early 1900s, were genetically inherited. Under this form of testing, the blood types of the child and parents are compared, and it can be determined whether there is any possibility of a parental link. For example, two O blood type parents can produce a child only with an O blood type, and two parents with a B blood type can produce a child with either a B or an O blood type. This often led to inconclusive results, as 30% of the entire population can be excluded from being the possible parent under this form of testing. In the 1930s, serological testing, which tests certain proteins in the blood, became available, with a 40% exclusion rate.
In the 1960s, highly accurate genetic paternity testing became a possibility when HLA typing was developed, which compares the genetic fingerprints on white blood cells between the child and alleged parent. HLA tests could be done with 80% accuracy but could not distinguish between close relatives. Genetic parental testing technology advanced further with the isolation of the first restriction enzyme in 1970. Highly accurate DNA parental testing became available in the 1980s with the development of RFLP. In the 1990s, PCR became the standard method for DNA parental testing: a simpler, faster, and more accurate method of testing than RFLP, it has an exclusion rate of 99.99% or higher.
Legal evidence
The DNA parentage test that follows strict chain of custody can generate legally admissible results that are used for child support, inheritance, social welfare benefits, immigration, or adoption purposes. To satisfy the chain-of-custody legal requirements, all tested parties have to be properly identified and their specimens collected by a third-party professional who is not related to any of the tested parties and has no interest in the outcome of the test.
The quantum of evidence needed is clear and convincing evidence: that is, more evidence than an ordinary case in civil litigation, but less than beyond a reasonable doubt required to convict a defendant in a criminal case.
In recent years, immigration authorities in various countries, such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, France, and others, may accept DNA parentage test results from immigration petitioners and beneficiaries in a family-based immigration case when primary documents that prove biological relationship are missing or inadequate.
In the U.S., immigration applicants bear the responsibility of arranging and paying for DNA testing. The U.S. immigration authorities require that the DNA test, if pursued, be performed by one of the laboratories accredited by the AABB (formerly American Association of Blood Banks). Similarly, in Canada, the laboratory needs to be accredited by the Standards Council of Canada.
Although paternity tests are more common than maternity tests, there may be circumstances in which the biological mother of the child is unclear: examples include cases of an adopted child attempting to reunify with his or her biological mother, potential hospital mix-ups, and in vitro fertilization where the laboratory may have implanted an unrelated embryo inside the mother.
Other factors, such as new laws regarding reproductive technologies using donated eggs and sperm and surrogate mothers, can also mean that the female giving birth is not necessarily the legal mother of the child. For example, in Canada, the federal Human Assisted Reproduction Act provides for the use of hired surrogate mothers. The legal mother of the child may be the egg donor. Similar laws are in place in the United Kingdom and Australia.
In Brazil in 2019, two male identical twins were ordered to both pay maintenance for a child fathered by one of them, because the father could not be identified with DNA.
Legal issues
Australia
Peace-of-mind parentage tests are widely available on the internet. For a parentage test (paternity or maternity) to be admissible for legal purposes, such as for changing a birth certificate, Family Law Court proceedings, visa/citizenship applications or child support claims, the process must comply with the Family Law Regulations 1984 (Cth). Further, the laboratory processing the samples must be accredited by the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA).
Canada
Personal paternity-testing kits are available. The Standards Council of Canada regulates paternity testing in Canada whereby laboratories are ISO 17025-approved. In Canada, only a handful of labs have this approval, and it is recommended that testing is performed in these labs. Courts also have the power to order paternity tests during divorce cases.
China
In China, paternity testing is legally available to fathers who suspect their child is not theirs. Chinese law also requires a paternity test for any child born outside the one-child policy for the child to be eligible for a hukou, or family registration record. Family tie formed by adoption can also only be confirmed by a paternity test. A large number of Chinese citizens seek paternity testing each year, and this has given rise to many unlicensed illegal testing centers being set up.
France
DNA paternity testing is solely performed on decision of a judge in case of a judiciary procedure in order either to establish or contest paternity or to obtain or deny child support. Private DNA paternity testing is illegal, including through laboratories in other countries, and is punishable by up to a year in prison and a €15,000 fine. The French Council of State has described the law's purpose as upholding the "French regime of filiation" and preserving "the peace of families."
Germany
Under the Gene Diagnostics Act of 2009, secret paternity testing is illegal. Any paternity testing must be conducted by a licensed physician or by an expert with a university degree in science and special education in parentage testing, and the laboratory carrying out genetic testing must be accredited according to ISO/IEC 17025. Full informed consent of both parents is required, and prenatal paternity testing is prohibited, with the exception of sexual abuse and rape cases. Any genetic testing done without the other parent's consent is punishable with a €5,000 fine. Due to an amendment of the civil law section 1598a in 2005, any man who contests paternity no longer automatically severs legal rights and obligations to the child.
Israel
A paternity test with any legal standing must be ordered by a family court. Though parents have access to "peace of mind" parental tests through overseas laboratories, family courts are under no obligation to accept them as evidence. It is also illegal to take genetic material for a parental test from a minor over 16 years of age without the minor's consent. Family courts have the power to order paternity tests against the will of the father in divorce and child support cases, as well as in other cases such as determining heirs and settling the question involving the population registry. A man seeking to prove that he is not the father of the child registered as his is entitled to a paternity test, even if the mother and natural guardian object. Paternity tests are not ordered when it is believed it could lead to the murder of the mother, and until 2007, were not ordered when there was a chance that the child could have been conceived outside of marriage, making them a mamzer under Jewish law.
Philippines
DNA paternity testing for personal knowledge is legal, and home test kits are available by mail from representatives of AABB- and ISO 17025-certified laboratories. DNA Paternity Testing for official purposes, such as sustento (child support) and inheritance disputes, must follow the Rule on DNA Evidence A.M. No. 06-11-5-SC, which was promulgated by the Philippine Supreme Court on October 15, 2007. Tests are sometimes ordered by courts when proof of paternity is required.
Spain
In Spain, peace-of-mind paternity tests are a "big business," partly due to the French ban on paternity testing, with many genetic testing companies being based in Spain.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, there were no restrictions on paternity tests until the Human Tissue Act 2004 came into force in September 2006. Section 45 states that it is an offence to possess without appropriate consent any human bodily material with the intent of analysing its DNA. Legally declared fathers have access to paternity-testing services under the new regulations, provided the putative parental DNA being tested is their own. Tests are sometimes ordered by courts when proof of paternity is required. In the UK, the Ministry of Justice accredits bodies that can conduct this testing. The Department of Health produced a voluntary code of practice on genetic paternity testing in 2001. This document is currently under review, and responsibility for it has been transferred to the Human Tissue Authority.
In the 2018 case of Anderson V Spencer the Court of Appeal permitted for the very first time DNA samples taken from a Deceased person to be used for paternity testing.
United States
In the United States, paternity testing is fully legal, and fathers may test their children without the consent or knowledge of the mother. Paternity testing take-home kits are readily available for purchase, though their results are not admissible in court and are for personal knowledge only.
Only a court-ordered paternity test may be used as evidence in court proceedings. If parental testing is being submitted for legal purposes, including immigration, testing must be ordered through a lab that has AABB accreditation for relationship DNA testing.
The legal implications of a parentage result test vary by state and according to whether the putative parents are unmarried or married. If a parentage test does not meet forensic standards for the state in question, a court-ordered test may be required for the results of the test to be admissible for legal purposes. For unmarried parents, if a parent is currently receiving child support or custody, but DNA testing later proves that the man is not the father, support automatically stops. However, in many states, this testing must be performed during a narrow window of time, if a voluntary acknowledgement of parentage form has already been signed by the putative father; otherwise, the results of the test may be disregarded by law, and in many cases, a man may be required to pay child support, though the child is biologically unrelated. In a few states, if the mother is receiving the support, then that alleged father has the right to file a lawsuit to get back any money that he lost from paying support. As of 2011, in most states, unwed parents confronted with a voluntary acknowledgement of parentage form are informed of the possibility and right to request a DNA paternity test. If testing is refused by the mother, the father may not be required to sign the birth certificate or the voluntary acknowledgement of parentage form for the child. For wedded putative parents, the husband of the mother is presumed to be the father of the child. But, in most states, this presumption can be overturned by the application of a forensic paternity test; in many states, the time for overturning this presumption may be limited to the first few years of the child's life.
Reverse paternity testing
Reverse paternity determination is the ability to establish the biological father when the father of that person is not available. The test uses the STR alleles in the mother and her child, other children and brothers of the alleged father, and deduction of genetic constitution of the father by the basis of genetic laws, all to create a rough amalgamation. This can compare the father's DNA when a direct sample of the father's DNA is unavailable. An episode of Solved shows this test being used to know if a blood sample matches with the victim of a kidnapping.
See also
Paternity fraud
Mosaicism and chimerism, rare genetic conditions that can result in false negative results on DNA-based tests
Non-paternity event
Lauren Lake's Paternity Court, a television series that debuted in fall 2013
Genetic:
Heritability
List of Mendelian traits in humans
References
External links
UK paternity testing regulations per the Human Tissue Authority
Applied genetics
DNA
Family law
Fathers' rights
Forensic genetics
Genetics techniques
Parenting
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235175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace%20element | Trace element |
A trace element, also called minor element, is a chemical element whose concentration (or other measure of amount) is very low (a "trace amount"). They are classified into two groups: essential and non-essential. Essential trace elements are needed for many physiological and biochemical processes in both plants and animals. Not only do trace elements play a role in biological processes but they also serve as catalysts to engage in oxidation and reduction mechanisms.
The exact definition depends on the field of science:
In analytical chemistry, a trace element is one whose average concentration is less than 100 parts per million (ppm) measured in the atomic count or less than 100 micrograms per gram.
In biochemistry, an essential trace element is a dietary element that is needed in very minute quantities for the proper growth, development, and physiology of the organism. The dietary elements or essential trace elements are those that are required to perform vital metabolic activities in organisms. Examples of essential trace elements in animals include Fe (hemoglobin), Cu (respiratory pigments), Co (Vitamin B12), Mn and Zn (enzymes). Some examples within the human body are cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese and zinc. Although they are essential, they become toxic at high concentrations. Elements such as Ag, As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Sn have no known biological function, with toxic effects even at low concentration.
In geochemistry, a trace element is one whose concentration is less than 1000 ppm or 0.1% of a rock's composition. The term is used mainly in igneous petrology. Trace elements will be compatible with either a liquid or solid phase. If compatible with a mineral, it will be incorporated into a solid phase (e.g., nickel's compatibility with olivine). If it is incompatible with any existing mineral phase it will remain in the liquid magma phase. The measurement of this ratio is known as the partition coefficient. Trace elements can be substituted for network-forming ions in mineral structures. Trace elements that are not essential to a mineral's defined composition will not appear in the chemical formula of that mineral.
See also
Bowen's Kale
GEOTRACES
List of micronutrients
References
Analytical chemistry
Biochemistry
Geochemistry
Plant nutrition | [
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235181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Henri%20Larcher | Pierre Henri Larcher | Pierre Henri Larcher (12 October 1726 – 22 December 1812) was a French classical scholar and archaeologist.
Life
Born at Dijon, and originally intended for the law, he abandoned it for the classics. His (anonymous) translation of Chariton's Callirhoe (1763) marked him as an excellent Greek scholar. His attack upon Voltaire's Philosophie de l'historie (published under the name of l'Abbé Bazin) created considerable interest at the time. His archaeological and mythological Memoire sur Venus (1775), which has been ranked with similar works of Heyne and Winckelmann, gained him admission to the Academie des Inscriptions (1778).
After the imperial university was founded, he was appointed professor of Greek literature (1809) with Boissonade as his assistant.
Larcher's best work was his translation of Herodotus (1786, new ed. by L Humbert, 1880) on the preparation of which he had spent fifteen years. The translation itself, though correct, is dull, but the commentary (translated into English, London, 1829, new ed. 1844, by W. D. Cooley) dealing with historical, geographical and chronological questions, and enriched by a wealth of illustration from ancient and modern authors, is not without value.
Notes
References
; endnotes:
Jean François Boissonade, Notice sur la vie et les ecrits de P. L. (1813)
Friedrich August Wolf, Literarische Analecten, i. 205
Daniel Albert Wyttenbach, Philomathia, iii. (1817)
1726 births
1812 deaths
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
French archaeologists
French classical scholars
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
People from Dijon | [
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235195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral%20%28nutrient%29 | Mineral (nutrient) | In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals (nitrogen is considered a "mineral" for plants, as it often is included in fertilizers). These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body, and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder.
Nutrient minerals, being elements, cannot be synthesized biochemically by living organisms. Plants get minerals from soil. Most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids. The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the remaining elements in a human body are called "trace elements". The trace elements that have a specific biochemical function in the human body are sulfur, iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, and selenium.
Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds. Plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores and omnivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, to obtain limited minerals unavailable through other dietary sources.
Bacteria and fungi play an essential role in the weathering of primary elements that results in the release of nutrients for their own nutrition and for the nutrition of other species in the ecological food chain. One element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules (e.g., vitamin B12) by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells.
Essential chemical elements for humans
At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes.
Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body. Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about 1.5% of body weight. Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body weight. The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of the body. The remaining ~18 ultratrace minerals comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about one hundred grams in total for the average person. Total fractions in this paragraph are WP:CALC amounts based on summing percentages from the article on chemical composition of the human body
Different opinions exist about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other mammals), even based on the same data. For example, there is no scientific consensus on whether chromium is an essential trace element in humans. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient, but the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree.
Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low atomic weight, and are reasonably common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean:
Roles in biological processes
RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; AI= Adequate intake; UL = Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31-50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating
* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.
Blood concentrations of minerals
Minerals are present in a healthy human being's blood at certain mass and molar concentrations. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the chemical elements discussed in this article, from center-right to the right. Depending on the concentrations, some are in upper part of the picture, while others are in the lower part. The figure includes the relative values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple.
Dietary nutrition
Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).
The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components. Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.
Safety
The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safe upper limits (ULs) can be small. For example, for calcium the U.S. Food and Drug Administration set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1,200 mg/day and the UL at 2,000 mg/day. The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits, which are not always in accord with the U.S. Likewise, Japan, which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 μg versus 1100 for the U.S. and 600 for the EU. In the table above, magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg/day (women 350 mg/day) while the UL is lower than the recommended, at 350 mg. The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once, in the form of a dietary supplement, as this may cause diarrhea. Magnesium-rich foods do not cause this problem.
Elements considered possibly essential for humans but not confirmed
Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function. One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce. Ultratrace elements of some minerals such as silicon and boron are known to have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown, and others such as arsenic are suspected to have a role in health, but with weaker evidence.
Mineral ecology
Minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation. Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans, freshwater, groundwater, and glacier meltwater systems worldwide. Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms. Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton, which are then eaten by other marine life. In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems.
See also
Food composition
Mineral deficiency
Micronutrient
Human nutrition
References
Further reading
Humphry Bowen (1966) Trace Elements in Biochemistry. Academic Press.
Humphrey Bowen (1979) Environmental Chemistry of the Elements. Academic Press, .
External links
Metals in Nutrition
Concept of a nutritious food: toward a nutrient density score
Essential nutrients
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235201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste%20Gail | Jean-Baptiste Gail | Jean-Baptiste Gail (1755–1829) was a French Hellenist scholar, member of the Institut de France (French Institute).
Early years
Gail was born in Paris on July 4, 1755. In 1791 he was appointed deputy, and in 1792 titular professor at the Collège de France. During the French Revolution, he maintained his professional duties, taking no part in politics, although he managed to ingratiate himself with those in authority.
Career
In 1815 he was appointed by King Louis XVIII of France to the post of keeper of Greek manuscripts in the royal library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies. Gail believed there was an organized conspiracy to belittle his learning and professional success, and there was a feud between him and his literary opponents, the most distinguished of whom was PL Courier.
Achievements
Without being a great Greek scholar, Gail was a hard worker, devoted to his favourite studies, and effectively rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during the revolutionary period. The list of Gail's published works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of Xenophon. The most notable of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828). He also wrote a number of elementary educational works, based on the principles of the school of Port-Royal. His communications to the Académie des Inscriptions being coldly received and seldom accorded the honour of print, he inserted them in a vast compilation in 24 volumes, which he called Le Philologue, containing a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek grammar, geography, archaeology, and various authors.
A list of his works will be found in JM Quérard, La France littéraire (1829), including the contents of the volumes of Le Philologue.
Personal life and death
Gail married singer and composer Sophie Gail and was the father of classicist Jean François Gail. Jean-Baptiste died in Paris on February 5, 1829.
Notes
References
1755 births
1829 deaths
Collège de France faculty
French archaeologists | [
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235218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Pithou | Pierre Pithou | Pierre Pithou (1 November 1539 – 1 November 1596) was a French lawyer and scholar. He is also known as Petrus Pithoeus.
Life
He was born at Troyes. From childhood he loved literature, and his father Pierre encouraged this interest. Young Pithou was called to the Paris bar in 1560. On the outbreak of the second war of religion in 1567, Pithou, who was a Calvinist, withdrew to Sedan, France and afterwards to Basel, returning to France on the publication of the edict of pacification. Soon afterwards he accompanied the duc de Montmorency on his embassy to England, returning shortly before the massacre of St Bartholomew, in which he narrowly escaped with his life. Next year he followed the example of the future Henry IV of France by abjuring the Protestant faith.
Henry, shortly after his accession to the throne, recognized Pithou's talents and services by giving him various legal appointments. He co-operated in publishing the Satire Ménippée (1593), which did much to damage the cause of the Catholic League; the harangue of the Sieur d'Aubray is usually attributed to Pithou.
Pithou wrote many legal and historical books, besides preparing editions of several ancient writers. His earliest publication was Adversariorum subsectorum lib. II. (1565). In 1569, he became the first to publish Landolfus Sagax' Historia Romana, and under the name by which it became better known: Historia Miscella. Perhaps his edition of the Leges Visigothorum (1579) was his most valuable contribution to historical science; in the same line he edited the Capitula of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, and Charles the Bald in 1588; he assisted his brother François in preparing the Corpus juris canonici (1687).
Pierre's Libertés de l'église gallicane (1594) is reprinted in his Opera sacra juridica his orica miscellanea collecta (1609). In classical literature he was the first who made the world acquainted with the Fables of Phaedrus (1596).
He died at Nogent-sur-Seine. His valuable library, specially rich in manuscripts, was for the most part transferred to what is now the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.
Family
Three of Pierre Pithou's brothers acquired distinction as jurists: Nicolas, with his twin, Jean co-authored the treatise, Institution du mariage chrétien. François Pithou, the youngest, wrote Glossarium ad libros capitularium (1588) and Traité de l'excommunication et de l'interdit, etc. (1587).
Works
Charlemagne empereur d'Occident.
Généalogie des comtes héréditaires de Troyes et de Meaulx, ou de Champaigne et Brie, qui furent aussi Roys de Navarre.
Bref recueil des évêques de Troyes. (Signé : P. Pithoeus... [1572].).
Satire Ménippée, 1593.
Satyre Ménippée : de la vertu du Catholicon d'Espagne et de la tenue des estats de Paris, Éd. Charles Labitte, Œuvres & Valsery, Ressouvenances, 1841 ; 1997 .
Satyre Menippee de la Vertu du Catholicon d'Espagne et de la tenue des Estats de Paris, éd. critique de Martial Martin, Paris, H. Champion, 2007, « Textes de la Renaissance », n° 117, .
References
Attribution
External links
1539 births
1596 deaths
People from Troyes
French jurists
French historians
French legal writers
French male non-fiction writers
Converts to Roman Catholicism
16th-century French writers
16th-century male writers
16th-century jurists | [
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235220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penn%20Central%20Transportation%20Company | Penn Central Transportation Company | The Penn Central Transportation Company, commonly abbreviated to Penn Central, was an American class I railroad that operated from 1968 to 1976. Penn Central was a combination of three railroads: the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR), New York Central Railroad (NYC) and the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (NH). The NH was merged into Penn Central in 1969.
The legal entity that eventually became the Penn Central Transportation Company was the former Pennsylvania Railroad, which absorbed the New York Central as part of the original 1968 merger and, at the same time, began using the Penn Central name to reflect its merger with the New York Central. The company remained headquartered in Philadelphia after its merger with the New York Central. By 1970, the company had filed for what was, at that time, the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history.
History
Pre-merger
The Penn Central railroad system was created as a response to challenges faced by all three railroads in the late 1960s. The Northeast United States is the most densely-populated region of the U.S. While railroads elsewhere in North America drew a sizable percentage of revenues from the long-distance shipment of commodities such as coal, lumber, paper and iron ore, northeastern railroads traditionally depended on a more heterogeneous mix of services, including:
commuter rail/passenger rail service
Railway Express Agency freight service
Break-bulk freight service via boxcars
Consumer goods and perishables (produce and dairy products)
These labor-intensive, short-haul services were vulnerable to competition from automobiles, buses, and trucks, particularly where facilitated by government subsidized limited-access highways. In 1956, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. This law authorized construction of the Interstate Highway System, which provided a large boost to the trucking industry.
Another problem was the inability to respond to market conditions. At the time, U.S. railroads were regulated by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which did not allow railroads to easily change the rates they charged both shippers and passengers. Reducing costs was the only way to survive and become profitable, but the ICC restricted what cost-cutting could take place. A merger seemed to be a promising way out of a difficult situation. Merging would hopefully save money through the elimination of redundant and duplicate lines, reduction in workforce, rationalization of business units and consolidation of administration and management.
The Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) and New York Central Railroad (NYC) had been significant rivals for most of the 20th century. Both railroads had physical plant not being utilized to capacity (though the NYC was in better shape); both had a heavy passenger business; neither was earning much money after World War Two ended in 1945. Talks of a merger had been announced as early as 1957. The initial reaction in the industry was utter surprise. Every merger proposal for decades had tried to balance the two giant railroads against each other and create two, three, or four more-or-less equal systems in the east. Traditionally, the PRR had been allied with the Norfolk & Western (N&W) and Wabash railroads; the NYC with the Baltimore & Ohio (B&O), Reading (RDG) and Delaware, Lackawanna & Western (DL&W) railroads. Any remaining players were swept-up with the Erie Railroad and the Nickel Plate. In addition, tradition favored end-to-end mergers rather than those of parallel railroads.
Planning and justifying the merger took nearly a decade, during which time the eastern railroad scene changed dramatically, in large measure because of the impending merger of the NYC and PRR. The Erie merged with the DL&W to create the Erie Lackawanna Railway (EL) in 1960, the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway (C&O) acquired control of the B&O, and the N&W absorbed several railroads, including the Nickel Plate and the Wabash.
Merger begins
The merger (legally, an acquisition of the New York Central by the PRR) formally concluded on February 1, 1968. The Pennsylvania Railroad, the nominal survivor of the merger, changed its name to Pennsylvania New York Central Transportation Company, and soon began using "Penn Central" as a trade name. The former Pennsylvania Railroad shortened its name to Penn Central Company on May 8, 1968.
The ICC approved the merger on the following conditions:
The new company had to take over the freight and passenger operations of the bankrupt New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (NH). That occurred on December 31, 1968.
PC had to absorb the New York, Susquehanna & Western Railway (NYS&W). PC and NYS&W could not agree on a price, so eventually NYS&W became part of the Delaware Otsego System.
PC had to make the Lehigh Valley Railroad (LV) available for merger by either N&W or C&O or, if neither of those railroads wanted it, merge it into PC. LV struggled along on its own and entered bankruptcy only three days after PC did.
The merger was not a success. An implementation plan was drawn up, but not carried out. Attempts to integrate operations, personnel and equipment were unsuccessful, due to clashing corporate cultures, incompatible computer systems and union contracts. Little thought had been given to unifying the two railroads, which had dramatically-different styles of operation. In the decade prior to the merger, the NYC had trimmed its physical plant and assembled a young, eager management group under the leadership of Alfred E. Perlman. The PRR, headed by Stuart T. Saunders, had been a more conservative and traditional operation. Many of NYC's management people (known as the "green team") saw that the PRR (the "red team") was dominant in PC management and soon left for other positions. Those who departed had often said that the different corporate philosophies (PRR branded itself as a transportation company, while the NYC considered itself a railroad company) could never have merged successfully. The network was so poorly-integrated that trains were lost on a regular basis; PC classification clerks struggled to properly dispatch cars across PC's entangled routing system.
In addition to the problems of unification, the industrial states of the Northeast and Midwest were fast becoming the Rust Belt. As industries shut down and relocated, railroads found themselves with excess capacity. The PRR was particularly burdened with excess trackage; in many cases, it had four to six tracks where one or two would do. Even though this track was no longer needed, it was still on the tax rolls. West of the Allegheny Mountains, the NYC and PRR duplicated each other at almost every major point; east of the Alleghenies, the two hardly touched. Railroad historian George Drury commented that the merger resembled "a late-in-life marriage to which each partner brings a house, a summer cottage, two cars, and several complete sets of china and glassware — plus car payments and mortgages on the houses."
Subpar track conditions deteriorated further, particularly in the Midwest: a result of inheriting decrepit facilities. Trains regularly operated at greatly-reduced speeds, resulting in delayed shipments, excessive overtime accrued, and soaring operating costs. Derailments and wrecks were regular occurrences, particularly in the Midwest. In 1969, most of Maine's potato production rotted in the PC's Selkirk Yard, hurting the Bangor & Aroostook Railroad, whose shippers vowed never to ship by rail again. At one point, Penn Central was losing $1 million per day.
Penn Central tried to diversify the troubled firm into real estate and other non-railroad ventures, but in a slow economy these businesses performed little better than the railroad assets. In addition, these new subsidiaries diverted management attention away from the problems in the core business. Management also insisted on paying dividends to shareholders, to create the illusion of success. The company had to borrow additional funds to maintain operations. Interest on loans had become an unbearable financial burden.
Bankruptcy
PRR and NYC came into the merger in the black, but PC's first year of operation yielded a deficit of $2.8 million ($ today). In 1969 the deficit was nearly $83 million ($ today). PC's net income for 1970 was a deficit of $325.8 million ($ today). By then the railroad had entered bankruptcy proceedings: specifically, on June 21, 1970. The nation's sixth-largest corporation had become its largest bankruptcy (the Enron Corporation's 2001 bankruptcy eclipsed this in large measure). Although the PC was put into bankruptcy, its parent Penn Central Company was able to survive.
The devastating effects of Hurricane Agnes in 1972 further hampered PC operations, destroying many important branches and main lines.
PC unsuccessfully attempted to sell-off the air rights to Grand Central Terminal, and allow developers to build skyscrapers above the terminal, in order to fund continued operations. The resulting lawsuit, Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City, was decided in 1978, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that PC could not sell Grand Central's air rights because the terminal was a New York City designated landmark.
The reorganization court ruled in May, 1974 that PC was not reorganizable on the basis of income. A U.S. government corporation, the United States Railway Association, was formed under the provisions of the Regional Rail Reorganization Act of 1973 to develop a plan to save PC. The outcome was that Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail), owned by the U.S. government, took over the railroad properties and operations of PC (and six other railroads: EL, LV, RDG, Lehigh & Hudson River Railway, Central Railroad of New Jersey and Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines) on April 1, 1976. It was a major step toward nationalization of the railroads in the U.S. They had been nationalized briefly during World War I, but the U.S. had held out against a world-wide trend toward nationalization of railroads until the creation of Amtrak, which nationalized the country's passenger trains on May 1, 1971. Amtrak initially operated a skeleton passenger service on PC trackage as well as on other U.S. railroads.
PC participated in two passenger service experiments in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT). Both were aimed at upgrading passenger service in the Northeast Corridor. Between New York City and Washington, D.C., PC inherited the Metroliner experiment that the PRR and U.S. DOT had begun: fast electric trains that were intended for a maximum speed of . The inauguration of service was delayed several times, and, when it did begin, it was not shown in The Official Guide of the Railways. The Metroliner was not an absolute success, but it reversed a long decline in ridership on the New York-Washington run. On the Boston-New York run, PC operated a United Aircraft TurboTrain in an effort to beat the 3 hour 55 minute running-time of the NH's expresses of the early 1950s. Information about TurboTrain schedules was even more difficult for the public to obtain than Metroliner timetables. The combination of untested equipment, track that had been allowed to deteriorate and the general incongruity of space-age technology and traditional railroad thinking made the services the butt of considerable satire. Most of the Metroliner cars were stored out of service for a time (Amtrak converted them into cab control cars for Harrisburg-New York City Keystone Service in 2007) and the TurboTrains were scrapped altogether. PC's intercity passenger service was taken over by Amtrak on May 1, 1971. The commuter service, which was already subsidized by local authorities, passed first to Conrail and then to other operating authorities (SEPTA, New Jersey Transit, Metro-North Railroad, etc.)
Facing continued loss of market share to the trucking industry, the railroad industry and its unions asked the federal government for deregulation. The 1980 Staggers Act, which deregulated the railroad industry, proved to be a key factor in bringing Conrail and the old PC assets back to life. During the 1980s, the deregulated Conrail had the muscle to implement the route reorganization and productivity improvements that the PC had unsuccessfully tried to implement between 1968-1970. Hundred of miles of former PRR and NYC trackage were abandoned to adjacent landowners or rail trail use. The stock of the subsequently-profitable Conrail was refloated on Wall Street in 1987, and the company operated as an independent, private-sector railroad from 1987 to 1999.
Legacy
The Penn Central bankruptcy was a cataclysmic event, both to the railroad industry and the nation's business community. The PC and its problems have been the subject of more words than almost anything else in the railroad industry: everything from diatribes on the passenger business to analyses of the reason for its collapse. Of the failed merger, Saunders commented: "Because of the many years it took to consummate the merger, the morale of both railroads was badly disrupted and they were faced with unmanageable problems which were insurmountable. In addition to overcoming obstacles, the principal problem was too much governmental regulation and a passenger deficit which amounted to more than $100 million a year."
As the mega-railroad's brief existence has rarely been looked upon favorably by railroad historians and former employees, almost nothing specifically aimed at the railroad enthusiast has been published about the Penn Central. The preservation group Penn Central Railroad Historical Society was formed in July 2000 to preserve the history of the often-scorned company.
Corporate history
The Pennsylvania Railroad absorbed the New York Central Railroad on February 1, 1968, and at the same time changed its name to Pennsylvania New York Central Transportation Company to reflect this. The trade name of "Penn Central" was adopted, and, on May 8, the former Pennsylvania Railroad was officially renamed the Penn Central Company.
The first Penn Central Transportation Company (PCTC) was incorporated on April 1, 1969, and its stock was assigned to a new holding company called Penn Central Holding Company. On October 1, 1969, the Penn Central Company, the former Pennsylvania Railroad, absorbed the first PCTC and was renamed the second Penn Central Transportation Company the next day; the Penn Central Holding Company became the second Penn Central Company. Thus, the company that was formerly the Pennsylvania Railroad became the first Penn Central Company and then became the second PCTC.
The old Pennsylvania Company, a holding company chartered in 1870, reincorporated in 1958 and long a subsidiary of the PRR, remained a separate corporate entity throughout the period following the merger.
The former Pennsylvania Railroad, now the second PCTC, gave up its railroad assets to Conrail in 1976 and absorbed its legal owner, the second Penn Central Company, in 1978, and at the same time changed its name to The Penn Central Corporation. In the 1970s and 1980s, the company now called The Penn Central Corporation was a small conglomerate that largely consisted of the diversified sub-firms it had before the crash.
Among the properties the company owned when Conrail was created were the Buckeye Pipeline and a 24 percent stake in Madison Square Garden (which stands above Penn Station) and its prime tenants, the New York Knicks basketball team and New York Rangers hockey team, along with Six Flags Theme Parks. Though the company retained ownership of some rights-of-way and station properties connected with the railroads, it continued to liquidate these and eventually concentrated on one of its subsidiaries in the insurance business.
The former Pennsylvania Railroad changed its name to American Premier Underwriters in March, 1994. It became part of Carl Lindner’s Cincinnati financial empire American Financial Group.
Grand Central Terminal
Up until late 2006, American Financial Group still owned Grand Central Terminal, though all railroad operations were managed by the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) through a lease entered-into in 1994. The current lease with the MTA was negotiated to last through February 28, 2274.
On December 6, 2006, the U.S. Surface Transportation Board approved the sale of several of American Financial Group's remaining railroad assets to Midtown TDR Ventures LLC for approximately US$ 80 million. The New York Post on July 6, 2007, reported that Midtown TDR was controlled by Penson and Venture. The Post noted that the MTA would pay $2.24 million in rent in 2007 and has an option to buy the station and tracks in 2017. However, Argent could also opt to extend the date another 15 years to 2032.
The assets included the of rail used by the Metro-North Railroad Harlem and Hudson lines, and Grand Central Terminal in New York City. The most valuable asset cited by Midtown TDR were the unused "air rights" for additional development above Grand Central's underground boarding platforms and switch yard. The platforms and yards extend for several blocks north of the terminal building under numerous streets and existing buildings leasing air rights, including the famous MetLife Building and Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. The cash value of the Terminal building itself is limited. In spite of the fact the Terminal was originally designed to accommodate a skyscraper above it, as the building is listed for purposes of historic preservation it cannot, under current law, be torn down for redevelopment.
In November 2018, the MTA proposed purchasing the Hudson and Harlem Lines as well as the Grand Central Terminal for up to $35.065 million, plus a discount rate of 6.25%. The purchase would include all inventory, operations, improvements, and maintenance associated with each asset, except for the air rights over Grand Central. The MTA's finance committee approved the proposed purchase on November 13, 2018, and the purchase was approved by the full board two days later. Under the terms of the deal, the MTA purchased Grand Central Terminal, as well as the Hudson Line from Grand Central to a point north (railroad west) of Poughkeepsie, and the Harlem Line from Grand Central to Dover Plains.
Heritage unit
As part of Norfolk Southern Railway's 30th anniversary, the railroad painted 20 new locomotives utilizing former liveries of predecessor railroads. Unit number 1073, a SD70ACe, is painted in a Penn Central Heritage scheme.
See also
Alfred E. Perlman - PC President
Stuart T. Saunders - PC Chairman & CEO
History of rail transport in the United States
Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City (1978 Supreme Court case)
References
Further reading
External links
Railway companies established in 1968
Railway companies disestablished in 1976
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Defunct Connecticut railroads
Defunct Delaware railroads
Defunct Washington, D.C., railroads
Defunct Illinois railroads
Defunct Indiana railroads
Defunct Kentucky railroads
Defunct Maryland railroads
Defunct Massachusetts railroads
Defunct Michigan railroads
Defunct New Jersey railroads
Defunct New York (state) railroads
Defunct Ohio railroads
Defunct Ontario railways
Defunct Pennsylvania railroads
Defunct Quebec railways
Defunct Rhode Island railroads
Defunct Virginia railroads
Defunct West Virginia railroads
Railroads in the Chicago metropolitan area
Railroads transferred to Conrail
Predecessors of Conrail
Defunct Missouri railroads
Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania
Conrail
Companies based in Philadelphia
1968 establishments in the United States
Companies that have filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy | [
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235221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call%20to%20the%20bar | Call to the bar | The call to the bar is a legal term of art in most common law jurisdictions where persons must be qualified to be allowed to argue in court on behalf of another party and are then said to have been "called to the bar" or to have received "call to the bar." "The bar" is now used as a collective noun for barristers, but literally referred to the wooden barrier in old courtrooms, which separated the often crowded public area at the rear from the space near the judges reserved for those having business with the Court. Barristers would sit or stand immediately behind it, facing the judge, and could use it as a table for their briefs.
Like many other common law terms, the term originated in England in the Middle Ages, and the call to the bar refers to the summons issued to one found fit to speak at the "bar" of the royal courts. In time, English judges allowed only legally qualified men to address them on the law and later delegated the qualification and admission of barristers to the four Inns of Court. Once an Inn calls one of its members to its bar, they are thereafter a barrister. They may not, however, practise as a barrister until they have completed (or been exempted from) an apprenticeship called pupillage. After completing pupillage, they are considered to be a practising barrister with a right of audience before all courts.
England and Wales and some other jurisdictions distinguish two types of lawyers, who are regulated by different bodies, with separate training, examinations, regulation and traditions:
Barristers primarily practise in court and generally specialise in advocacy in a particular field of law; they have a right of audience in all courts of England and Wales.
Solicitors do not necessarily undertake court work, but have a right of audience in the lower courts (magistrates' courts and county courts). They are admitted or enrolled as a solicitor, to conduct litigation and practise in law outside court, e.g., providing legal advice to lay clients and acting on their behalf in legal matters.
A solicitor must qualify as a solicitor-advocate in order to acquire the same "higher rights" of audience as a barrister. In other jurisdictions, the terminology and the degree of overlap between the roles of solicitor and barrister varies greatly; in most, the distinction has disappeared entirely.
Particular jurisdictions
Common law jurisdictions include Australia, England and Wales, New Zealand, Canada, Hong Kong, India, Nigeria, the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland and most jurisdictions in the Commonwealth of Nations and the United States (the See also section below contains links to articles on the laws of these jurisdictions).
Australia
In Australia, the status of the legal profession differs from state to state:
Queensland and New South Wales formally split the legal profession between solicitors and barristers;
South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory have "fused" the professions of barrister and solicitor, but each state maintains an independent bar for lawyers who solely practice as barristers; and
Tasmania and the Northern Territory have fused professions, with a very small number of legal practitioners operating as an independent bar.
Most Australian barristers will have previously worked as solicitors prior to becoming barristers.
Candidates wishing to become barristers may have to pass an examination and undergo further specialised training before those candidates are "called to the bar" or "sign the roll of counsel". Both the examination and the further training are administered by the state's bar association:
in Queensland, candidates must pass "three 1.5 hour examinations, focusing on legal ethics, practice and procedure, and evidence", and then successfully complete the Bar Practice Course;
in New South Wales, candidates must pass the NSW Bar Examination, and then successfully complete the Bar Practice Course; and
in Victoria, candidates must pass the Victorian Bar Entrance Exam, and then successfully complete the Victorian Bar Readers' Course.
Upon completing the relevant training course, new barristers ("readers") are required to spend a period of months "reading" in the chambers of an experienced barrister, called the reader's "tutor" (in New South Wales) or "mentor" (in Victoria) (historically, this experienced barrister was called the new barrister's "pupil master"). This "reading" period serves as a kind of practical apprenticeship for the new barrister, who works in the same chambers as their tutor/mentor and is able to learn by observing their tutor/mentor, as well as actively seeking their guidance.
Canada
In common law, Canadian provinces, despite the unified legal profession (lawyers are qualified as both barristers and solicitors), the certificate issued by the provincial Law Society to the newly qualified lawyer generally indicates his or her having been called to the Bar and admitted as a solicitor.
In the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, there are two certificates, one issued by the respective provincial Law Society for call to the bar and the other by the Superior Court (Ontario) or Court of Queen's Bench (Manitoba) for admission as a solicitor.
In Ontario, being called to the bar requires students to article (apprentice) with a law firm for ten months, but due to a shortage of articling positions available each year and an influx of articling candidates, a pilot alternative program available through the University of Ottawa and Ryerson University was established. The Law Practice Program requires the articling students to spend four months in a virtual law office and to spend another four months in a work placement.
Alberta is the only common law jurisdiction with individual, rather than group, calls. The student's supervisor, referred to as his or her principal, makes an oral application to the Provincial Court of Alberta or Court of Queen's Bench to have the student called to the bar. Gowns are worn and the ceremony is public, with the presiding judge (or judges) welcoming the new member with a speech written specifically for that call.
In Quebec, a civil law notary is very similar to a solicitor.
England and Wales
In England and Wales, a call ceremony takes place at the barrister's Inn of Court (or at Temple Church for members of the Inner Temple), before or during the pupillage year. A barrister is called to the utter ("outer") bar or "appointed to the degree of the utter bar". Those appointed as Queen's Counsel are entitled to plead from "within the bar" in court.
Ireland
In Ireland, the legal profession is split between solicitors and barristers. Candidates wishing to qualify as barristers must complete a series of examinations at the Honorable Society of King's Inns. Successful candidates are called to the Bar by the Chief Justice in the Supreme Court. Upon being called to the Bar, a barrister becomes a member of the Outer Bar, or "Junior Counsel". Some barristers may subsequently be called to the Inner Bar in a similar ceremony, gaining the title "Senior Counsel".
New Zealand
As in Canada, the legal profession is fused. A lawyer in New Zealand is admitted as either a "barrister sole" or a "barrister and solicitor of the High Court of New Zealand". Once admitted, New Zealand's "barrister and solicitors" are able to practise in either mode provided they hold a practising certificate, while barristers sole are entitled only to practice as a barrister. Admission is overseen by the New Zealand Law Society.
Nigeria
As in New Zealand, there is no formal distinction between barristers and solicitors. A lawyer in Nigeria is admitted as a "Barrister and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Nigeria." Once admitted, Nigerian lawyers may argue in any federal trial or appellate court as well as any of the courts in Nigeria's thirty six states and the Federal Capital Territory. Lawyers are regulated by the Nigerian Bar Association.
Northern Ireland
Prior to the partition of Ireland, barristers in what is now Northern Ireland were called to the Bar in the same manner as those in the rest of Ireland. The procedure remains much the same today, save that candidates wishing to qualify as barristers must complete a series of examinations at the Institute of Professional Legal Studies at Queen's University Belfast (under the supervision of the Honourable Society of the Inn of Court of Northern Ireland), barristers are called to the Bar by the Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland and members of the Inner Bar are known as Queen's Counsel.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, a lawyer must be admitted and enrolled as an attorney-at-law of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka. This is referred to as the call to the bar.
United States
Generally, a lawyer is said to have been "admitted to the Bar" and become an "attorney at law"; some states still use the older term "attorney and counselor (also spelled 'counsellor') at law", upon taking his or her oath of office. Historically, the institution of attorney was similar to that of the solicitor, whereas the office of the counselor was almost identical to that of the barrister, but today this distinction has disappeared. The phrase "called to the bar" is still sometimes used informally by U.S. attorneys to refer to their qualification as a lawyer.
See also
Admission to the bar
Bar (law)
Bar association
Bar council
Election to the Faculty of Advocates, Scotland
Law of Australia
Law of Canada
Law of England and Wales
Law of Hong Kong
Law of India
Law of New Zealand
Law of Northern Ireland
Law of the Republic of Ireland
Politics of Nigeria
References
Judiciaries
Common law
English law
Professional certification in law | [
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235222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission%20to%20the%20bar%20in%20the%20United%20States | Admission to the bar in the United States | Admission to the bar in the United States is the granting of permission by a particular court system to a lawyer to practice law in the jurisdiction and before those courts. Each U.S. state and similar jurisdiction (e.g. territories under federal control) has its own court system and sets its own rules for bar admission, which can lead to different admission standards among states. In most cases, a person is "admitted" or "called" to the bar of the highest court in the jurisdiction and is thereby authorized to practice law in the jurisdiction. Federal courts, although often overlapping in admission standards with states, set their own requirements for practice in each of those courts.
In the typical process, lawyers seeking admission are required to earn a Juris Doctor degree from a law school approved by the jurisdiction, pass an exam administered by the regulating authority of that jurisdiction, pass a professional responsibility examination, and undergo a character and fitness evaluation. However, there are exceptions to each of these requirements.
A lawyer who is admitted in one state is not automatically allowed to practice in any other. Some states have reciprocal agreements that allow attorneys from other states to practice without sitting for another full bar exam; such arrangements differ significantly among states and among federal courts.
Terminology
The use of the term "bar" to mean "the whole body of lawyers, the legal profession" comes ultimately from English custom. In the early 16th century, a railing divided the hall in the Inns of Court, with students occupying the body of the hall and readers or Benchers on the other side. Students who officially became lawyers were "called to the bar", crossing the symbolic physical barrier and thus "admitted to the bar". Later, this was popularly assumed to mean the wooden railing marking off the area around the judge's seat in a courtroom, where prisoners stood for arraignment and where a barrister stood to plead. In modern courtrooms, a railing may still be in place to enclose the space which is occupied by legal counsel as well as the criminal defendants and civil litigants who have business pending before the court.
History
The first bar exam in what is now the United States was instituted by Delaware Colony in 1763, as an oral examination before a judge. Many other American colonies soon followed suit. In the early United States, most states' requirements for admission to the bar included a period of study under a lawyer or judge (a practice called "reading the law") and a brief examination. Examinations were generally oral, and applicants were sometimes exempted from the examination if they had clerked in a law office for a certain number of years. During the 19th century, admission requirements became lower in many states. Most states continued to require both a period of apprenticeship and some form of examination, but these periods became shorter and examinations were generally brief and casual.
After 1870, law schools began to emerge across the United States as an alternative to apprenticeship. This rise was accompanied by the practice of diploma privilege, wherein graduates of law schools would receive automatic admission to the bar. Diploma privilege reached its peak between 1879 and 1921. In most states, diploma privilege only applied to those who had graduated law school in the state where they practiced. Examinations continued to exist during this period as requirements for those ineligible for diploma privilege, and were often administered by committees of attorneys. Between 1890 and 1920, most states replaced oral examinations with written bar examinations. Written examinations became commonplace as lawyers began to practice in states other than those where they were trained.
In 1921, the American Bar Association formally expressed a preference for required written bar examinations in place of diploma privilege for law school graduates. In subsequent decades, the prevalence of diploma privilege declined deeply. By 1948, only 13 law schools in 9 states retained diploma privilege. By 1980, only Mississippi, Montana, South Dakota, West Virginia, and Wisconsin honored diploma privilege. As of 2020, only Wisconsin allows J.D. graduates of accredited law schools to seek admission to the state bar without passing a bar examination.
Admission requirements
Today, each state or U.S. jurisdiction has its own rules which are the ultimate authority concerning admission to its bar. Generally, admission to a bar requires that the candidate do the following:
Earn a Juris Doctor degree or read law
Pass a professional responsibility examination or equivalent requirement
Pass a bar examination (except in cases where diploma privilege is allowed)
Undergo a character and fitness certification
Formally apply for admission to a jurisdiction's authority responsible for licensing lawyers and pay required fees
Educational requirement
Most jurisdictions require that candidates earn a Juris Doctor degree from an approved law school, usually meaning a school accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA). Exceptions include Alabama, California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, West Virginia, and Tennessee, which allow individuals to take the bar exam upon graduation from law schools approved by state bodies but not accredited by the ABA. The state of New York makes special provision for persons educated to degree-level in common law from overseas, with most LLB degree holders being qualified to take the bar exam and, upon passing, be admitted to the bar. In California, certain law schools "registered" with the Committee of Bar Examiners of the State Bar of California (CBE) are authorized to grant Juris Doctor degrees although they are not accredited by the ABA or CBE. Students at these schools must take and pass the First-Year Law Students' Examination (commonly referred to as the "Baby Bar") administered by the CBE, and may continue their studies to obtain their J.D. degree upon passage of this exam.
A few jurisdictions (California, Maine, New York, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia) allow applicants to study under a judge or practicing attorney for an extended period of time rather than attending law school. This method is known as "reading law" or "reading the law". New York allows applicants who are reading the law, but only if they have at least one year of law school study. Maine allows students with two years of law school to serve an apprenticeship in lieu of completing their third year. New Hampshire's only law school has an alternative licensing program that allows students who have completed certain curricula and a separate exam to bypass the regular bar examination. Until the late 19th century, reading the law was common and law schools were rare. For example, Abraham Lincoln did not attend law school, and did not even read with anyone else, stating in his autobiography that he "studied with nobody".
The American legal system is unusual in that it has no formal apprenticeship or clinical training requirements prior to admission to the bar, with a few exceptions. Delaware requires that candidates for admission to the bar serve five months in a clerkship with a lawyer in the state. Vermont had a similar requirement but eliminated it in 2016. Washington requires, since 2005, that applicants must complete a minimum of four hours of approved pre-admission education. Some law schools have tried to rectify this lack of experience by requiring supervised "Public Service Requirements" of all graduates. States that encourage law students to undergo clinical training or perform public service in the form of pro bono representation may allow students to appear and practice in limited court settings under the supervision of an admitted attorney.
Professional responsibility requirement
In all jurisdictions except Puerto Rico and Wisconsin, candidates must pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), which covers the professional responsibility rules governing lawyers. This test is not administered separately from bar examinations, and most candidates usually sit for the MPRE while still in law school, right after studying professional responsibility (a required course in all ABA-accredited law schools). Some states require that a candidate pass the MPRE before being allowed to sit for the bar exam. Connecticut and New Jersey waive the MPRE for candidates who have received a grade of C or better in a law school professional ethics class.
Bar examination requirement
In all jurisdictions except Wisconsin, candidates are required to pass a bar examination, usually administered by the state bar association or under the authority of the supreme court of the particular state. Wisconsin is the only state that does not require the bar examination; graduates of ABA-accredited law schools in the state may be admitted to the state bar through diploma privilege.
State bar examinations are usually administered by the state bar association or under the authority of the supreme court of the particular state. In 2011, the National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE) created the Uniform Bar Examination (UBE), which has since been adopted by 37 jurisdictions (out of a possible 56). The UBE consists of three parts: the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE), a standardized test consisting of 200 multiple-choice questions; the Multistate Essay Examination (MEE), a uniform though not standardized test that examines a candidate's ability to analyze legal issues and communicate them effectively in writing; and the Multistate Performance Test (MPT), a "closed-universe" test in which each candidate is required to perform a standard lawyering task, such as a memo or brief.
Non-UBE jurisdictions usually also include a combination of multiple-choice questions, essay questions, and performance tests. Many jurisdictions use some NCBE-created components. For example, all jurisdictions except Louisiana and Puerto Rico use the MBE. Many states also use state-specific content is usually included in the examination, such as essays in Washington, Minnesota and Massachusetts. Some states, such as Florida, include both essays and multiple-choice questions in their state-specific sections; Virginia uses full essays and short-answer questions in its state-specific section.
Character and fitness requirement
Most states also require an applicant to demonstrate good moral character. Character Committees look to an applicant's history to determine whether the person will be fit to practice law in the future. This history may include prior criminal arrests or convictions, academic honor code violations, prior bankruptcies or evidence of financial irresponsibility, addictions or psychiatric disorders, sexual misconduct, prior civil lawsuits or driving history. In recent years, such investigations have increasingly focused on the extent of an applicant's financial debt, as increased student loans have prompted concern for whether a new lawyer will honor legal or financial obligations. For example, in early 2009, a person who had passed the New York bar and had over $400,000 in unpaid student loans was denied admission by the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division due to excessive indebtedness, despite being recommended for admission by the state's character and fitness committee. He moved to void the denial, but the court upheld its original decision in November 2009, by which time his debt had accumulated to nearly $500,000. More recently, the Court of Appeals of Maryland rejected the application of a candidate who displayed a pattern of financial irresponsibility, applied for a car loan with false information, and failed to disclose a recent bankruptcy.
When applying to take a state's bar examination, applicants are required to complete extensive questionnaires seeking the disclosure of significant personal, financial and professional information. For example, in Virginia, each applicant must complete a 24-page questionnaire and may appear before a committee for an interview if the committee initially rejects their application. The same is true in the State of Maryland, and in many other jurisdictions, where the state's supreme court has the ultimate authority to determine whether an applicant will be admitted to the bar. In completing the bar application, and at all stages of this process, honesty is paramount. An applicant who fails to disclose material facts, no matter how embarrassing or problematic, will greatly jeopardize the applicant's chance of practicing law.
Formal admission
Once all prerequisites have been satisfied, an attorney must formally apply for admission. The mechanics of this final stage vary widely. For example, in California, the admittee simply takes an oath before any state judge or notary public, who then co-signs the admission form. Upon receiving the signed form, the State Bar of California adds the new admittee to a list of applicants recommended for admission to the bar which is automatically ratified by the Supreme Court of California at its next regular weekly conference; then everyone on the list is added to the official roll of attorneys. The State Bar also holds large-scale formal admission ceremonies in conjunction with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit and the federal district courts, usually in the same convention centers where new admittees took the bar examination, but these are optional. In other jurisdictions, such as the District of Columbia, new admittees must attend a special session of court in person to take the oath of admission in open court; they cannot take the oath before any available judge or notary public.
A successful applicant is permitted to practice law after being sworn in as an officer of the Court; in most states, that means they may begin filing pleadings and appearing as counsel of record in any trial or appellate court in the state. Upon admission, a new lawyer is issued a certificate of admission, usually from the state's highest court, and a membership card attesting to admission.
Two states are exceptions to the general rule of admission by the state's highest court. In New York, admission is granted by one of the state's four intermediate appellate courts corresponding generally to the Department of residence of the applicant; once admitted, however, the applicant can practice in any (non-federal) court in the state. In Georgia, each new attorney is admitted to practice by the Superior Court of any county, typically the county in which he or she resides or desires to practice. The new attorney, although licensed to practice in any local trial court in the state, must separately seek admission to the Georgia Court of Appeals as well as the Georgia Supreme Court.
In most states, lawyers are also issued a unique bar identification number. In states like California where unauthorized practice of law is a major problem, the state bar number must appear on all documents submitted by a lawyer.
Tactical considerations regarding admission in multiple states
Most attorneys seek and obtain admission only to the bar of one state, and then rely upon pro hac vice admissions for the occasional out-of-state matter. However, many new attorneys do seek admission in multiple states, either by taking multiple bar exams or applying for reciprocity. This is common for those living and working in metro areas which sprawl into multiple states, such as Washington, D.C. and New York City. Attorneys based in predominantly rural states or rural areas near state borders frequently seek admission in multiple states in order to enlarge their client base.
Note that in states that allow reciprocity, admission on motion may have conditions that do not apply to those admitted by examination. For example, attorneys admitted on motion in Virginia are required to show evidence of the intent to practice full-time in Virginia and are prohibited from maintaining an office in any other jurisdiction. Also, their licenses automatically expire when they no longer maintain an office in Virginia.
Types of state bar associations
Admission to a state's bar is not necessarily the same as membership in that state's bar association. There are two kinds of state bar associations:
Mandatory (integrated) bar
Thirty-two states and the District of Columbia require membership in the state's bar association to practice law there. This arrangement is called having a mandatory, unified, or integrated bar.
For example, the State Bar of Texas is an agency of the judiciary and is under the administrative control of the Texas Supreme Court, and is composed of those persons licensed to practice law in Texas; each such person is required by law to join the State Bar by registering with the clerk of the Texas Supreme Court.
Voluntary and private bar associations
A voluntary bar association is a private organization of lawyers. Each may have social, educational, and lobbying functions, but does not regulate the practice of law or admit lawyers to practice or discipline lawyers. An example of this is the New York State Bar Association.
There is a statewide voluntary bar association in each of the eighteen states that have no mandatory or integrated bar association. There are also many voluntary bar associations organized by geographic area (e.g., Chicago Bar Association), interest group or practice area (e.g., Federal Communications Bar Association), or ethnic or identity community (e.g., Hispanic National Bar Association).
The American Bar Association (ABA) is a nationwide voluntary bar association with the largest membership in the United States. The National Bar Association was formed in 1925 to focus on the interests of African-American lawyers after they were denied membership by the ABA.
Federal courts
Admission to a state bar does not automatically entitle an individual to practice in federal courts, such as the United States district courts or United States court of appeals. In general, an attorney is admitted to the bar of these federal courts upon payment of a fee and taking an oath of admission. An attorney must apply to each district separately. For instance, a Texas attorney who practices in federal courts throughout the state would have to be admitted separately to the Northern District of Texas, the Eastern District, the Southern District, and the Western District. To handle a federal appeal, the attorney would also be required to be admitted separately to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals for general appeals and to the Federal Circuit for appeals that fall within that court's jurisdiction. As the bankruptcy courts are divisions of the district courts, admission to a particular district court usually includes automatic admission to the corresponding bankruptcy court. The bankruptcy courts require that attorneys attend training sessions on electronic filing before they may file motions.
Some federal district courts have extra admission requirements. For instance, the Southern District of Texas requires attorneys seeking admission to attend a class on that District's practice and procedures. For some time, the Southern District of Florida administered an entrance exam, but that requirement was eliminated by Court order in February 2012. The District of Rhode Island requires candidates to attend classes and to pass an examination.
An attorney wishing to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States must apply to do so, must be admitted to the bar of the highest court of a state for three years, must be sponsored by two attorneys already admitted to the Supreme Court bar, must pay a fee and must take either a spoken or written oath.
Various specialized courts with subject-matter jurisdiction, including the United States Tax Court, have separate admission requirements. The Tax Court is unusual in that a non-attorney may be admitted to practice. However, the non-attorney must take and pass an examination administered by the Court to be admitted, while attorneys are not required to take the exam. Most members of the Tax Court bar are attorneys.
Admission to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit is open to any attorney admitted to practice and in good standing with the U.S. Supreme Court, any of the other federal courts of appeal, any federal district court, the highest court of any state, the Court of International Trade, the Court of Federal Claims, the Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, or the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. An oath and fee are required.
Some federal courts also have voluntary bar associations associated with them. For example, the Bar Association of the Fifth Federal Circuit, the Bar Association of the Third Federal Circuit, or the Association of the Bar of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit all serve attorneys admitted to practice before specific federal courts of appeals.
District Court Reciprocity
56 districts (around 60% of all district courts) require an attorney to be admitted to practice in the state where the district court sits. The other 39 districts (around 40% of all district courts) extend admission to certain lawyers admitted in other states, although conditions vary from court to court. Only 13 districts extend admission to attorneys admitted to any U.S. state bar. This requirement is not necessarily consistent within a state. For example, in Ohio, the Southern District generally requires membership in the Ohio state bar for full admission, while full admission to the Northern District is open to all attorneys in good standing with any U.S. jurisdiction. In the Northern District of Ohio, admitted attorneys need not maintain an office in the district, or associate with a local attorney, unless ordered to do so by the court. The District of Vermont requires membership in the Vermont State Bar or membership in the Bar of a federal district court in the First and Second Circuits. The District of Connecticut, within the Second Circuit, will admit any member of the Connecticut bar or of the bar of any United States District Court.
Patent practice
Persons wishing to "prosecute" patent applications (i.e., represent clients in the process of obtaining a patent) must first pass the USPTO registration examination, frequently referred to as the "patent bar." Detailed information about applying for the registration examination is available in the USPTO's General Requirements Bulletin. Although only registered patent attorneys or patent agents can prosecute patent applications in the USPTO, passing the patent bar is not necessary to advise clients on patent infringement, to litigate patent issues in court, or to prosecute trademark applications.
A J.D. degree is not required to sit for the patent bar. Lawyers who pass the patent bar exam may refer to themselves as a patent attorney (rules of legal ethics prohibit lawyers from using the title "patent attorney" unless they are admitted to practice before the USPTO). While patent lawyers have a relevant four-year degree and many have graduate technical degrees, patent litigation attorneys do not have to be patent attorneys, although some are. On the other hand, non-lawyers who pass the patent bar are referred to as "patent agents." Patent agents may not hold themselves out as licensed attorneys.
Applicants must have U.S. citizenship, permanent residency (a Green Card), or a valid work visa for a patent-related job. An applicant on a work visa, upon passing the exam, is only given "limited recognition" to perform work for the employer listed on the work visa. Only U.S. citizens can maintain their registration in the patent bar while they are working outside the United States. Additionally, the USPTO requires that applicants to the patent bar have earned a bachelor's degree. Applicants are categorized as having earned an accredited "bachelor's degree in a recognized technical subject" (category A), having earned a "bachelor's degree in another subject" with sufficient credits to qualify for the exam (category B), or having "practical engineering or scientific experience" (category C).
Applicants in "category A" must have an engineering or "hard science" degree in a field listed in the General Requirements Bulletin. Note that the degree field as shown on the diploma must be exactly as it appears on the list; for example, "aerospace engineering" does not qualify under category A, while "aeronautical engineering" does. A computer science degree is accepted under "category A" as long as it is received from an Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)-accredited or CSAB-accredited program.
Applicants in "category B" must have earned a bachelor's degree, and must have sufficient credits in science and engineering courses to meet the USPTO's requirements; the number of credits depends on the specific discipline. The coursework must include a minimum of eight credit-hours of acceptable classes in either chemistry or physics. Each course being relied upon by the applicant for credit is evaluated by the USPTO's Office of Enrollment and Discipline for suitability; see the General Requirements Bulletin for the details. Engineering and Computer Science majors whose degree programs do not meet "category A" requirements (typically due to the named field of the degree or, especially in computer science, lack of program accreditation) can apply under "category B."
Applicants in "category C" may present evidence of passing the Fundamentals of Engineering exam as proof of technical education. They must also have a bachelor's degree. Although the admission requirements allow applicants to substitute proof of technical experience for technical education, this is rarely done in practice.
Military law
Service as a member of a military service's Judge Advocate General's Corps requires graduation from an ABA-accredited law school, a license to practice law in any state or territory of the United States, and training at the specialized law school of one of the three military services (The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School for the Army, the Naval Justice School for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, and the Air Force Judge Advocate General School for the Air Force).
In a court-martial, the accused is always provided JAG Corps defense counsel at no expense to the accused, but is also entitled to retain private civilian counsel at his or her own expense. Civilian counsel must either be a member of both a federal bar and a state bar, or must be otherwise authorized to practice law by a recognized licensing authority and certified by the military judge as having sufficient familiarity with criminal law as applicable in courts-martial.
Notes
References
External links
Comprehensive Guide to Bar Admission Requirements 2019, published by the National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE)
A Guide to the Maryland Bar Admissions Process, published by BarAdmit.com
United States law
Law schools in the United States
Legal profession exams
Professional certification in law
Practice of law | [
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235223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Neckam | Alexander Neckam | Alexander Neckam (8 September 115731 March 1219) was an English magnetician, poet, theologian, and writer. He was an abbot of Cirencester Abbey from 1213 until his death.
Early life
Born on 8 September 1157 in St Albans, Alexander shared his birthday with King Richard I. For this reason, his mother, Hodierna of St Albans, was hired by the royal household under Henry II to serve as a wet nurse for the future monarch. As a result, Alexander was raised as Richard's foster-brother in their early years.
Works
Speculum speculationum
The Speculum speculationum (edited by Rodney M. Thomson, 1988) is Neckam's major surviving contribution to the science of theology. It is unfinished in its current form, but covers a fairly standard range of theological topics derived from Peter Lombard's Sentences and Augustine. Neckam is not regarded as an especially innovative or profound theologian, although he is notable for his early interest in the ideas of St. Anselm of Canterbury. His outlook in the Speculum, a work written very late in his life, probably in 1215, and perhaps drawing heavily on his teaching notes from the past decades, combines an interest in the Platonic writings of earlier 12th-century thinkers such as Thierry of Chartres and William of Conches, with an early appreciation of the newly translated writings of Aristotle and Avicenna. Neckam was a firm admirer of Aristotle as an authority in natural science as well as in the logical arts, one of the first Latin thinkers since antiquity to credit this aspect of the Stagirite's output.
In the Speculum speculationum Alexander identifies one of his key purposes as combating the Cathar heresy, particularly its belief in dualism. He spends a large part of Book 1 on this, and thereafter passes on to focus on his other key purpose, the application of dialectic logic to the study of theology.
De utensilibus and De naturis rerum
Besides theology, Neckam was interested in the study of grammar and natural history, but his name is chiefly associated with nautical science. In his De utensilibus and De naturis rerum (both written at about 1190), Neckam has preserved to us the earliest European notices of the magnetized needle as a guide to seamen and the earliest European description of the compass. Outside China, these seem to be the earliest records. It was probably in Paris that Neckam heard how a ship, among its other stores, must have a magnetised needle, mounted on a pivot, which would rotate until it pointed north and thus guide sailors in murky weather or on starless nights. Neckam does not seem to think of this as a startling novelty: he merely records what had apparently become the regular practice of many seamen of the Catholic world.
However, De naturis rerum itself was written as a preface to Neckam's commentary on the book of Ecclesiastes, itself a part of a wider programme of biblical commentary encompassing the Song of Solomon and the Psalms, representing the three branches of wisdom literature. It was not intended as an independent and free-standing encyclopedic work in its own right, and indeed it is mostly filled with fanciful moralising allegories rather than a detailed natural philosophy.
See Thomas Wright's edition of Neckam's De naturis rerum and De laudibus divinae sapientiae in the Rolls Series (1863), and of the De utensilibus in his Volume of Vocabularies.
Out of all Neckam's writings on natural history, the De naturis rerum, a sort of manual of the scientific knowledge of the 12th century, is by far the most important: the magnet passage referred to above is in Book 2, Chapter 98 (De vi attractiva), p. 183 of Wright's edition. The corresponding section in the De utensilibus is on p. 114 of the Volume of Vocabularies.
Other works
Nickum also displays a keen interest in contemporary medical science. In particular he draws many ideas from the philosophical writings of the Salernitan medical master Urso of Calabria, particularly De commixtionibus elementorum on humoral theory.
Neckam also wrote Corrogationes Promethei, a scriptural commentary prefaced by a treatise on grammatical criticism; a translation of Aesop into Latin elegiacs (six fables from this version, as given in a Paris manuscript, are printed in Robert's Fables inedites); commentaries, on portions of Aristotle and Ovid's Metamorphoses, which remain unprinted, and on Martianus Capella, which has recently received an edition, and on other works.
His version of Aesop's fables in elegiac verse, called Novus Aesopus, is a collection of 42 fables taken from the prose Romulus. He also composed a shorter Novus Avianus, taken from Avianus. A supplementary poem to De laudibus divinae sapientiae, called simply the Suppletio defectuum, covers further material on animals and the natural world, as well as cosmology, free will, astrology and the human soul. An edition of this and several of Neckam's minor poems, edited by P. Hochgurtel, was published as a part of the Brepols Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Medievalis series in 2008.
It has been speculated (Spargo, Virgil the Necromancer, 1934) that Neckam might also have been unwittingly responsible for starting the late medieval legends about Virgil's alleged magical powers. In commenting on Virgil, Neckam used the phrase "Vergilius fecit culex" to describe the writing of one of Virgil's earlier poems, Culex ("The Gnat"). This may have been misinterpreted by later readers as "Virgil made a gnat" and formed the basis for the legend of Virgil's magic fly which killed all other flies it came across and thus preserved civic hygiene.
Selected publications
Further reading
C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. pp. 508–509.
Roger Bacon's reference to Neckam as a grammatical writer (in multis vera et utitia scripsit: sed ... inter auctores non potest numerari) may be found in Ebenezer Cobham Brewer's (Rolls Series) edition of Bacon's Opera inedita, p. 457.
R. W. Hunt, Margaret Gibson, The Schools and the Cloister: The Life and Writings of Alexander Nequam (1157–1217) (1984)
Thomas Wright, Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period, pp. 449–459 (1846) (some points in this are modified in the 1863 edition of De naturis rerum)
Andrew Dunning, 'Alexander Neckam's manuscripts and the Augustinian canons of Oxford and Cirencester' (unpublished PhD., Toronto, 2016), URI http://hdl.handle.net/1807/72968
See also
Alexander le Pargiter, also called Alexander of St Albans, a contemporary abbot and writer.
History of geomagnetism
Notes
References
External links
ARLIMA biography and bibliography
Catholic Encyclopedia entry for Alexander of Neckham (newadvent.org)
Augustinian canons
1157 births
1217 deaths
12th-century English writers
12th-century Latin writers
13th-century English writers
13th-century Latin writers
English Christian theologians
Medieval Latin poets
Magneticians
People from St Albans
People educated at St Albans School, Hertfordshire | [
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235224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20scandal | Sex scandal | Public scandals involving allegations or information about possibly-immoral sexual activities are often associated with the sexual affairs of film stars, politicians, famous athletes, or others in the public eye. Sex scandals receive attention if a prominent figure is involved, if there is a perception of hypocrisy, if a public figure's sexuality is non-normative, or if it involves non-consensual acts. A scandal may be based on reality, the product of false allegations, or a mixture of both. Whether the scandal is based in fact or not, it may lead to the celebrity disappearing from the public eye or to the resignation of prominent political figures.
Sex scandals involving politicians often become political scandals, particularly when there is an attempt at a cover-up or suspicions of illegality. Attempts at coverups include payoffs, threats, or, in extreme cases, murder.
While some commentators see sex scandals as irrelevant to politics, particularly where "professional performance [does] not seem to be impaired", Gene Healy of the Cato Institute views them as not just "great fun", but a reminder "that we should think twice before we cede more power to these fools." An increase in the prevalence of morally questionable expressions of sexuality is sometimes referred to as a sexidemic.
Sex scandals, in relation to political and public figures, often lead to questions of one's own ethics and moral code. A politician who is caught in a sex scandal is more likely to resign than a public figure in the face of a sex scandal.
History
Scandals have been a part of history in major declarations, false truces, when political or celebrity figures need to pay someone off to protect their legacy and more. Scandals can involve bribery, immoral action, shame, slander, misdoing, etc. The Hamilton–Reynolds affair, which involved Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, who had a one-year affair with Maria Reynolds during George Washington's presidency, is considered one of the first sex scandals in American political history. Political sex scandals in the U.S. have included the first sex scandal of Alexander Hamilton to three major national political figures, Newt Gingrich, John Edwards, and Arnold Schwarzenegger. Men and women have to face scrutiny of their career or life in the field of politics by the media looking for scandals.
Infidelity
Sex scandals involve sexual affairs which usually, but not always, involve infidelity. Infidelity has many definitions, either based on experience or research done on people who have been involved in the act of disloyalty and trust. To some, infidelity "is a complex phenomenon with multiple reasons driving people to cheat on their partners". A 2018 New York Times article cited an American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy national survey, stating "that 15 percent of married women and 25 percent of married men have had extramarital affairs".
Gender stereotypes in scandals
Sex scandals tend to include a bias when it comes to men and women who are caught and then need evidence to explain their situation. A 2015 study concluded that gender stereotypes were "refer(ed) to the meanings that individuals and societies ascribe to males and females". According to Juliet Williams at the University of California, Los Angeles the 1998 Clinton–Lewinsky scandal in the United States made the US Congress, media, and citizens look at male candidates and politicians in a different light by "normalizing public discussion of sex acts." John Edwards, David Petraeus, Anthony Weiner, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Herman Cain, are other examples of men involved in sex scandals that have caused the public not to give men the benefit of the doubt. This has caused the debate between politics and sex scandals to be seen in a different light. It has allowed gender-shifting and the role of gender to become more unbiased in the selection of candidates during their evaluation and allowing more power for women fighting against stereotypes due to scandals, and men being seen as more skeptical.
A year after the 2017 Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse cases was first reported, leading to the viral spread of the #MeToo movement, New York Times published a list of 201 names of prominent men in the United States who had lost their jobs following public allegations of sexual harassment.
Social attitudes have traditionally been less forgiving when minors are involved. In France, for example, the scandal surrounding Swiss art dealer Yves Bouvier and former call girl Zahia Dehar – for whom Bouvier allegedly acted as a pimp in the late 2000s, paying her to appear at dinners for entertainment when she was 17 years old – has caused outrage and opened a debate about powerful men in society abusing their power. The fall from grace and imprisonment of Anthony Weiner, following his sexting of explicit pictures to a 15-year-old girl, is another notable example of the pre-#MeToo era.
See also
Casting couch
Celebrity sex tape
Deviancy amplification spiral
List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
:Category:Sex scandals
Weinstein effect
References
External links
Beaucoup B.S. - Christopher Hitchens
Human sexuality
Scandal | [
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235225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie%20star | Movie star | A movie star (also known as a film star or cinema star) is an actor or actress who is famous for their starring, or leading, roles in movies. The term is used for performers who are marketable stars and whose names are used to promote movies, for example in trailers and posters. The most prominent movie stars are known in the industry as bankable stars.
United States
Hollywood's early years
In the early days of silent movies, the names of the actors and actresses appearing in them were not publicized or credited because producers feared this would result in demands for higher salaries. However, audience curiosity soon undermined this policy. By 1909, actresses such as Florence Lawrence and Mary Pickford were already widely recognized, although the public remained unaware of their names. Lawrence was referred to as the “Biograph Girl” because she worked for D. W. Griffith's Biograph Studios, while Pickford was "Little Mary." In 1910, Lawrence switched to the Independent Moving Pictures Company, began appearing under her own name, and was hailed as "America's foremost moving picture star" in IMP literature. Pickford began appearing under her own name in 1911.
The Independent Moving Pictures Company promoted their "picture personalities", including Florence Lawrence and King Baggot, by giving them billing, credits and a marquee. Promotion in advertising led to the release of stories about these personalities to newspapers and fan magazines as part of a strategy to build brand loyalty for their company's actors and films. By the 1920s, Hollywood film company promoters had developed a "massive industrial enterprise" that "...peddled a new intangible—fame." Early Hollywood studios tightly controlled who was a movie star, as only they had the ability to place stars' names above the title; according to film historian Jeanine Basinger, this was done "only for economic reasons".
Hollywood "image makers" and promotional agents planted rumors, selectively released real or fictitious biographical information to the press, and used other gimmicks to create glamorous personas for actors. Publicists thus "created" the "enduring images" and public perceptions of screen legends such as Judy Garland, Rock Hudson, Marilyn Monroe, and Grace Kelly. The development of this "star system" made fame "something that could be fabricated purposely, by the masters of the new 'machinery of glory'." However, regardless of how "...strenuously the star and their media handlers and press agents may ... try to 'monitor' and 'shape' it, the media and the public always play a substantial part in the image-making process." According to Madow, "fame is a 'relational' phenomenon, something that is conferred by others. A person can, within the limits of his natural talents, make himself strong or swift or learned. But he cannot, in this same sense, make himself famous, any more than he can make himself loved."
Madow goes on to point out "fame is often conferred or withheld, just as love is, for reasons and on grounds other than 'merit'." According to Sofia Johansson the "canonical texts on stardom" include articles by Boorstin (1971), Alberoni (1972) and Dyer (1979) that examined the "representations of stars and on aspects of the Hollywood star system". Johansson writes that "more recent analyses within media and cultural studies (e.g. Gamson 1994; Marshall 1997; Giles 2000; Turner, Marshall and Bonner 2000; Rojek 2001; Turner 2004) have instead dealt with the idea of a pervasive, contemporary, 'celebrity culture'." In the analysis of the celebrity culture, "fame and its constituencies are conceived of as a broader social process, connected to widespread economic, political, technological and cultural developments."
In the 1980s and 1990s, entertainment companies began using stars for a range of publicity tactics including press releases, movie junkets, and community activities. These promotional efforts are targeted and designed using market research, to increase the predictability of success of their media ventures. In some cases, publicity agents may create “provocative advertisements” or make an outrageous public statement to trigger public controversy and thereby generate "free" news coverage. Movie studios employed performers under long-term contracts. They developed a star system as a means of promoting and selling their movies. "Star vehicles" were filmed to display the particular talents and appeal of the most popular movie stars of the studio.
Egypt
Egypt's most famous movie stars included Youssef Wahbi, Leila Mourad, Ismail Yassine, Faten Hamama, Salah Zulfikar, Shadia, Soad Hosny, Nadia Lutfi, Ahmed Zaki, Nour El Sherif, and many more considered Egyptian Cinema movie stars of the 20th century.
Asia
Movie stars enjoy considerable prominence in Asia. In Asian film industries, many movies often run on the weight of the star's crowd pulling power more than any other intrinsic aspect of film making.
China
A number of Chinese film actors have become some of the most popular movie stars in Eastern Asia, and several are also well known in the Western world. They include Jackie Chan, Jet Li, Chow Yun-fat, Stephen Chow, Sammo Hung, Gong Li, Ziyi Zhang, Maggie Cheung, and the late Bruce Lee.
India
The Indian film industry, of which one is commonly known as Bollywood, has its own set of rules in this aspect. There are often superstars in this region who command premium pay commensurate with their box office appeal.
Some mainstream Indian movie stars, like the Khans of Bollywood (Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan, Salman Khan,), Madhubala, Raj Kapoor, Nargis, Mithun Chakraborty, Amitabh Bachchan and Aishwarya Rai gained international fame across Asia and Eastern Europe. For example, Bollywood films were popular in the Soviet Union, more so than Hollywood films and occasionally even domestic Soviet films. Indian actors like Raj Kapoor, Nargis and Mithun Chakroborty were household names in the Soviet Union, with films such as Awaara (1951) and Disco Dancer (1982) drawing more than 60 million viewers in the country. The Hindi film actors Raj Kapoor and Aamir Khan also became very popular in China, with films such as Awaara, 3 Idiots (2009), and Dangal (2016), one of the top 20 highest-grossing films in China.
Southeast-Asian archipelago
20th Century
The film industry of the Malay Archipelago (also known as Nusantara) consists primarily of film industries which made the cinema of Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore. Over the past century, these four cinemas have collaborated on a number of projects. A number of actors from this region have become some of the most sought-after movie stars in southeast Asia, commonly in Malay-speaking countries. Many of these movie star have acted in all four countries
In the Philippines their most recognizable thespian consisted of Nora Aunor, Joseph Estrada, Jose Padilla, Fernando Poe Sr., Fernando Poe Jr., Roy Marten, Rudy Fernandez, Dolphy, Palito, Ramon Zamora, among many more. Philippines first international celebrity and sole in the movie star category was Ernesto dela Cruz under the pseudonym Weng Weng, who in 1981 with his hit film the action comedy For Your Height Only, became the world's first and shortest leading man standing at 2 foot 9 while even with a short lived career the international success of the film hasn't been topped locally.
Indonesia's movie stars consist of Rima Melati, Deddy Mizwar, Christine Hakim, Rano Karno, and many more.
Malaysia's most renown film celebrities are P. Ramlee, Yusof Haslam, Jins Shamsuddin, Michelle Yeoh, Eman Manan, Alex Komang, etc.
Singapore's most famous included Fauziah Ahmad Daud, Nordin Ahmad, Saadiah, and others are also considered Singaporeans movie stars of the 20th century.
21st Century
Other, more recent movie stars include Romalis Syafril, Erra Fazira, Rosyam Nor, Shaheizy Sam and Maya Karin, from Malaysia; Nicholas Saputra, Vino G. Bastian, Dian Sastrowardoyo, Tora Sudiro, and Iko Uwais, from Indonesia; Claudine Baretto, Piolo Pascual, John Lloyd Cruz, Jericho Rosales, Aga Muhlach, Kristine Hermosa, Dingdong Dantes, and Bea Alonzo, from the Philippines; and a few from Singapore, such as Aaron Aziz and Adi Putra.
See also
Celebrity
Character actor
Charisma
Glamour
Leading lady
Leading man
List of actors
Matinée idol
Sex symbol
Superstar
Typecasting
Voice actor
References
Acting
Celebrity
Film and video terminology | [
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235226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Wright%20%28antiquarian%29 | Thomas Wright (antiquarian) | Thomas Wright (23 April 181023 December 1877) was an English antiquarian and writer.
Life
Wright was born near Ludlow at Tenbury Wells, Worcestershire descended from a Quaker family formerly living at Bradford. He was educated at Ludlow Grammar School and at Trinity College, Cambridge, whence he graduated in 1834.
While at Cambridge he contributed to the Gentleman's Magazine and other periodicals, and in 1835 he came to London to devote himself to a literary career.
His first separate work was Early English Poetry in Black Letter, with Prefaces and Notes (1836, 4 vols. 12mo), which was followed during the next forty years by an extensive series of publications, many of lasting value. He helped to found the British Archaeological Association and the Percy, Camden and Shakespeare Societies. In 1842 he was elected corresponding member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres of Paris, and was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries as well as member of many other learned British and foreign bodies.
In 1859 he superintended the excavations of the Roman town of Viroconium Cornoviorum (Wroxeter), near Shrewsbury, and issued a report.
A portrait of him is in the Drawing Room Portrait Gallery for 1 October 1859.
He was a noted scholar, but will be chiefly remembered as an industrious antiquary and the editor of many relics of the Middle Ages. English priest and historical writer, Thomas Edward Bridgett observed, "It is only when he has to speak of the Catholic church that he is bitter and unfair."
He died in his 67th year at Chelsea, Surrey, and was buried in Brompton Cemetery.
Selected works
Queen Elizabeth and her Times, a Series of Original Letters (1838, 2 vols.)
Reliquiae antiquae (1839–1843, again 1845, 2 vols.), edited with Mr JO Halliwell-Phillipps
W. Mapes's Latin Poems (1841, 4to, Camden Society)
Political Ballads and Carols, published by the Percy Society (1841)
Popular Treatises on Science (1841)
History of Ludlow (1841, etc.; again 1852)
Collection of Latin Stories (1842, Percy Society)
The Vision and Creed of Piers Ploughman (1842, 2 vols.; 2nd ed., 1855)
Biographia literaria, vol. i. Anglo-Saxon Period (1842), vol. ii. Anglo-Norman Period (1846)
The Chester Plays (1843–1847, 2 vols., Shakespeare Society)
St Patrick's Purgatory (1844)
Anecdota literaria (1844)
Archaeological Album (1845,410)
Essays connected with England in the Middle Ages (1846, 2 vols.)
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (1847–1851, Percy Society), a new text with notes, reprinted in 1 vol. (1853 and 1867)
Early Travels in Palestine (1848, Bohn's Antiq. Lib.)
England under the House of Hanover (1848, 2 vols., several editions, reproduced in 1868 as Caricature History of the Georges)
Mapes, De nugis curialium (1850, 4to, Camden Society)
Geoffrey Gaimar's Metrical Chronicle (1850, Caxton Society)
Narratives of Sorcery and Magic (1851, 2 vols.)
The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon (1852; 4th ed., 1885)
Wanderings of an Antiquary; Chiefly upon the Traces of the Romans in Britain (1854)
History of Fulke Fitz Warine (1855);
de Garlandia, De triumphis ecclesiae (1856, 4to, Roxburghe Club)
Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English (1857)
A Volume of Vocabularies (1857; 2nd ed., by RP Wülcker, 1884, 2 vols.)
Les Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles (Paris, 1858, 2 vols.)
Malory's History of King Arthur (1858, 2 vols., revised 1865)
Political Poems and Songs from Edward III to Richard III (1859–1861, 2 vols; "Rolls" series)
Songs and Ballads of the Reign of Philip and Mary (1860, 4to, Roxburghe Club)
Essays on Archaeological Subjects (1861, 2 vols.)
The History of Domestic Manners and Sentiments in England in the Middle Ages (1862, 410, reproduced in 1871 as The Homes of other Days)
The Roll of Arms of the Princes, Barons, and Knights who Attended King Edward I to the Siege of Caerlaverock, in 1300 (1864, 4to)
Autobiography of Thomas Wright (1736–1797), his grandfather (1864)
History of Caricature (1865, 4to)
On the Worship of the Generative Powers during the Middle Ages of Western Europe (1865) (Attributed) Appended to the 1865 reprint of Sir Richard Payne Knight's An account of the remains of the worship of Priapus. Scanned facsimile available on Internet Archive
Womankind in Western Europe (1869, 4to)
Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets of 12th Century (1872, 2 vols., Rolls Series).
Notes
References
External links
English antiquarians
English non-fiction writers
Fellows of the Ethnological Society of London
People from Ludlow
1810 births
1877 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
19th-century antiquarians
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
English male non-fiction writers
19th-century English male writers | [
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235227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudenstadt%20%28district%29 | Freudenstadt (district) | Freudenstadt is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Rastatt, Calw, Tübingen, Zollernalbkreis, Rottweil and the Ortenaukreis.
History
The district was created in 1938 as the successor of the Oberamt Freudenstadt which dated back to 1806. In 1973 it was merged with the majority of the neighboring district of Horb, and some small parts of the districts of Wolfach and Hechingen.
Geography
The district is located in the middle part of the Black Forest mountains. The river Neckar flows through the southeast of the district.
Coat of arms
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German, English, French)
Karlsruhe (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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235229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hughie%20Green | Hughie Green | Hugh Hughes Green (2 February 1920 – 3 May 1997) was an English radio and television presenter, game show host and actor.
Early life
Green was born in Marylebone, London, to a Scottish father, Hugh Aitchison Green, a former British Army officer from Glasgow who made his fortune supplying tinned fish to the Allied forces in the First World War, and an English mother, Violet Elenore (née Price), from Surrey, the daughter of an Irish gardener. The family had a home in Meopham, Kent, where the children lived with their mother, who took frequent lovers, while their father did business from the Savoy Hotel, and often stayed there. Green attended Arnold House School, a boys' prep school, in the St John's Wood district of Westminster, Greater London.
Career
Child performer
After the family business went bankrupt, Green's father encouraged his stage-obsessed son into performance, and by the age of 14 Hughie Green had his own BBC radio show and created and toured with his own all-children cast concert party called "Hughie Green and his Gang". After an extensive tour of Canada, in 1935 Green appeared in his first film, Midshipman Easy, then went to Hollywood where he appeared in the film Tom Brown's School Days and at the Cocoanut Grove with his cabaret act.
Second World War
Having already fathered his first illegitimate child with Vera Hands, a Birmingham usherette, at the age of 17 and having been caught in North America on the declaration of war, during the Second World War Green served as a pilot in the Royal Canadian Air Force, ferrying aircraft across the Atlantic with RAF Ferry Command. In 1942, he married Montreal society beauty Claire Wilson, and went on to work in the aircraft industry as a ferry transport pilot and stunt pilot. From 1947, when he returned to London, he was involved in business activities that included selling aircraft.
Radio presenter
In 1949, Green devised a talent show called Opportunity Knocks, which was commissioned by BBC Radio. The show lasted for only one series, and Green was apparently told it was "too American" for the British audience. After the show was cancelled, Green sued the BBC, Carroll Levis, and six friends and family of Levis, alleging a conspiracy to keep his Opportunity Knocks show off the air to preserve Levis's rival show, "Discoveries". The case came to trial at the High Court in May 1955, with Green represented by Viscount Hailsham. The trial lasted for twenty days, but on 27 May, after a retirement of only 20 minutes, the jury returned a verdict for the defendants. As a result of the costs in the case, Green's creditors filed a petition for his bankruptcy, and a receiving order was made on 8 May 1956. He was not discharged from bankruptcy until 18 June 1958.
Mainstream popularity
Green became a household name in 1955, with the ITV quiz show Double Your Money, which had actually originated some years earlier on Radio Luxembourg. Green brought his future co-host Monica Rose to the screen. Rose, a chirpy 15-year-old Cockney junior accounts clerk, had won £8 answering questions on famous women and was invited back by Green to be a hostess.
On 8 November 1966, Hughie Green presented the show from The House of Friendship in Moscow. Along with Monica Rose, he also had Natasha Vasylyeva as assistant. Because the Communist Party would not allow money as a prize, the top prize was a television set.
Green's most successful show format was his self-developed long-running talent show, Opportunity Knocks. It started as a UK-wide touring show produced for the radio, and one of Green's early finds was singer Frankie Vaughan, who came second as part of a duet. When the show transferred to television on the ITV network, first in 1956 and then again from 1964, it began the show business careers of Les Dawson, Lena Zavaroni, Pam Ayres, and Mary Hopkin, among others. Green, who possessed a pilot's licence, would fly the panel of judges between audition venues all over Britain, in his small Cessna aircraft.
His game show The Sky's the Limit was generally considered a failure and was dropped by most ITV regional companies after the first run, although it lasted until 1974 in the Yorkshire and Granada regions, eventually being cancelled due to low ratings, combined with a falling-out between Green and producer Jess Yates.
Right up until its final shows, Opportunity Knocks was a ratings hit that attracted up to 18 million viewers weekly. But Green, known for his right-wing politics, had decided he was bigger than the show format he had devised and began politicising an apolitical family-friendly format. It has been suggested that Green believed that Harold Wilson and his Labour government were communists and that Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, should replace Wilson as leader of the country and, to that end, he used Opportunity Knocks as an end-of-year soapbox, telling the country at the end of 1974 to 'wake up!' Two years later, in December 1976, Green recited a monologue about the state of the United Kingdom, followed by a choir singing "Stand Up and Be Counted", with the words coming up in subtitles: "Stand up and be counted, where the managers manage and the workers don't go on strike". It was released as a single in 1977, and partly seen as an open support of Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher; he was disciplined by Thames Television, but continued to make political comments. After numerous viewer complaints, Thames axed the show in March 1978, despite its attracting high ratings, something Green mentioned in a bitter rant against Thames in his last show. Family-friendly Opportunity Knocks was replaced by youth-orientated comedy The Kenny Everett Video Show which attracted 14 million viewers.
After his rather slow-paced and "end of the pier" entertainment-style shows were replaced with more active audience participation formats, Green tried presenting variants on the Opportunity Knocks theme in Ireland, Australia and one show in the USSR.
Style
Green was often mocked for his permanent door-to-door salesman's smile and Canadian accent. His catchphrase "I mean that most sincerely" was also mocked, to such an extent that it is sometimes mistakenly believed to have been invented by the impressionist Mike Yarwood, who was known for his impersonation of Green. Green told Phillip Schofield in a TV interview in 1992 that he came up with the catchphrase himself.
During Double Your Money Green kept up an occasional but good-natured feud with "rival" quiz show host Michael Miles, who compered Take Your Pick, Miles even appearing on one occasion with a huge bouquet of flowers for a guest, to Green's mock indignation.
Personal life
Green met Montreal socialite Claire Wilson on a cruise liner in the mid-1930s when both were still teenagers. They married in 1942 and settled in Montreal, before moving to London in 1947. The couple had two children, son Christopher Green and daughter Linda Plentl (née Green). The family lived in a fifth-floor flat in Baker Street, London, although with Green's numerous affairs and self-obsession, including taking luxury holidays and spending Christmas often on his own, his children defined it as "highly dysfunctional." The Greens separated in 1961 and filed for divorce in March 1975 after Green started an affair with Gwen Claremont, the sister of an earlier lover, Pat. Later that year, Claire married Upstairs, Downstairs actor David Langton. After separation from his wife, Green's drinking became more compulsive, while his affairs continued even during the height of his fame presenting Opportunity Knocks. Journalist Noel Botham approached Green to expose him, but Green countered with a lawsuit threat. Eventually the two became good friends.
Botham then became key in two stories in Green's life. Green grew frustrated by Yorkshire Television's failure to remove programme producer Jess Yates when he requested this to be done and so leaked to Botham the stories of Yates' affair with the young actress Anita Kay, whose story, published in the News of the World, destroyed Yates' career. In May 1997, shortly after Green's death, Botham wrote the exposé story, also in the News of the World, of Green being the biological father of Jess Yates' daughter, TV presenter Paula Yates, something she read when the tabloids printed the story, and which was later confirmed with a DNA test result in December 1997. Through his daughter Linda, Green had four granddaughters, Delia, Christina, Stephanie and Marina. Through his daughter Paula, Green had four other granddaughters whom he never knew: Fifi, Peaches and Pixie Geldof, fathered by Bob Geldof, and Heavenly Hiraani Tiger Lily Hutchence, fathered by Michael Hutchence. Heavenly Hiraani Tiger Lily Hutchence was legally adopted by Bob Geldof in 2007. Green also chose to never contact his son Barry Hands and his grandchildren Robert and Karen Hands.
Death
In 1983 Green sued the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation, claiming its 1975–78 version of Opportunity Knocks infringed his copyright. He lost and in 1989 the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council rejected his appeal, leaving him a £250,000 legal bill.
Green lived out his life away from the media in solitude, confined to his Baker Street flat and lacking the riches he enjoyed during his fame.
In July 1993, after a lifetime of smoking a pipe, heavy drinking and latterly taking recreational barbiturates, Green was diagnosed with oesophageal cancer, and therefore admitted to the Royal Marsden Hospital, Chelsea, London. By 1997, the cancer had spread to his lungs. Green died in hospital on Saturday 3 May 1997.
Green's son Christopher postponed his wedding and flew from Canada to be at his dying father's bedside.
His memorial at Golders Green Crematorium, reads: "You were the star that made opportunity knock. You will never be forgotten".
Retrospective media coverage
In light of the death in 2000 of his daughter Paula Yates, his son Christopher Green, now a Canadian resident, wrote the biographical perspective Hughie and Paula: The Tangled Lives of Hughie Green and Paula Yates.
On 2 April 2008 a TV film about Green's life was broadcast on BBC Four. In the film, entitled Hughie Green, Most Sincerely, Trevor Eve was cast in the lead role. In The Sunday Telegraph of 3 February 2008, his daughter Linda Plentl said the new BBC drama about her father would reopen intolerable wounds. She told of her struggle with his legacy and her three meetings with half-sister Paula Yates.
Partial filmography
References
Hughie and Paula: The Tangled Lives of Hughie Green and Paula Yates, by Christopher Green
John Holmstrom, The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995, Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 96–97.
Notes
External links
1920 births
1997 deaths
People educated at Arnold House School
English television presenters
English game show hosts
English people of Irish descent
English people of Scottish descent
People from Meopham
People from Marylebone
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Deaths from cancer in England
Golders Green Crematorium
Canadian World War II pilots
Royal Canadian Air Force officers
British expatriate male actors in the United States
Royal Canadian Air Force personnel of World War II | [
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235230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20scandal | Political scandal | In politics, a political scandal is an action or event regarded as morally or legally wrong and causing general public outrage. Politicians, government officials, party officials and lobbyists can be accused of various illegal, corrupt, unethical or sexual practices. Scandalized politicians are more likely to retire or get lower vote shares.
Journalism
Scandal sells, and broadsides, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines and the electronic media have covered it in depth. The Muckraker movement in American journalism was a component of the Progressive Era in the U.S. in the early 20th century. Journalists have built their careers on exposure of corruption and political scandal, often acting on behalf of the opposition party.
There are numerous contextual factors that make a scandal noteworthy, such as the importance of the people, the depth of conspiracy and the coverup strategies used.
The political ideology of media owners plays a role—they prefer to target the opposition but will reluctantly cover their own side. Journalists have to frame the story in terms of the audience's values and expectations to maximize the impact.
Lists by country
Albania – Political scandals of Albania
Australia – List of Australian political controversies
Belgium – Belgian political scandals
Canada – List of Canadian political scandals
Chile – Chilean political scandals
Colombia – Colombian parapolitics scandal
France – French political scandals
Germany – German political scandals
Iceland – Icelandic political scandals
India – Indian political scandals
Ireland – Irish political scandals
Italy – Italian political scandals
Japan – Black Mist Scandal (Japanese politics)
Lithuania – Generic article on corruption in Lithuania
New Zealand – List of political scandals in New Zealand
Malaysia – List of scandals in Malaysia
Philippines – List of political scandals in the Philippines
Poland - List of political scandals in Poland
Slovakia – List of Slovak political scandals
Slovenia – 1975 Zaliv Scandal
South Korea – Political scandals in South Korea
United Kingdom – List of political scandals in the United Kingdom
United States – List of federal political scandals in the United States
Ukraine – List of political scandals in Ukraine
See also
Deviancy amplification spiral
Mass media
Moral panic
Sensationalism
Sex scandal
References
Further reading
Canel, Maria Jose and Karen Sanders. Morality Tales: Political Scandals and Journalism in Britain and Spain in the 1990s (2005)
Dagnes, Alison and Mark Sachleben. "Scandal! An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Consequences, Outcomes, and Significance of Political Scandals" (Bloomsbury 2013)
Dziuda, Wioletta; Howell, William G. 2020. "Political Scandal: A Theory." American Journal of Political Science.
Fisher, Trevor. Scandal: Sexual Politics of Late Victorian Britain (1995)
Giroux, Gary. Business Scandals, Corruption, and Reform: An Encyclopedia (2013)
Grossman, Mark. Political Corruption in America: An Encyclopedia of Scandals, Power, and Greed (2008)
Heidenheimer, Arnold and M. Johnston. Political corruption: Concepts and contexts (2002)
King, Anthony. Sex, Money and Power: Political Scandals in Great Britain and the United States (1984)
Kohn, George C. The New Encyclopedia of American Scandal (2000)
MacMullen, Ramsay. Corruption and the Decline of Rome (1990)
Scott, James C. Comparative political corruption (1972)
Temple, Kathryn. Scandal Nation: Law and Authorship in Britain, 1750–1832 (2002)
External links | [
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235231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Raggy%20Dolls | The Raggy Dolls | The Raggy Dolls is a 1986-1994 British cartoon series which originally aired on ITV. The series is set in Mr Grimes' Toy Factory, where imperfect dolls are thrown into a reject bin. While unobserved by human eyes, the dolls come to life and climb out of the reject bin to have adventures. The series was designed to encourage children to think positively about physical disabilities. 112 episodes were produced.
History
The series was produced for Yorkshire Television from 3 April 1986 to 20 December 1994. It was created by Melvyn Jacobson, with scripts, narration and music by Neil Innes. Yorkshire Television produced the first two series of The Raggy Dolls before awarding the commission to Orchid Productions Limited in 1987.
This was the first programme Yorkshire Television commissioned from an independent production company. Orchid Productions went on to produce over 100 more episodes of the series. The initial animator for Yorkshire TV was Roy Evans. After the move to Orchid Productions Mark Mason took over the role, animating and storyboarding 26 episodes, and storyboarding and directing other animators on a further 26 episodes before moving onto work on other children's shows.
He was replaced by Peter Hale from the 7th series onwards. The series was sold abroad to a number of other countries.
Characters
The Raggy Dolls
Sad Sack – A sample of a design that was deemed too expensive to mass-produce; his appearance is somewhat different from that of the others. He is the oldest of the seven Raggy Dolls in the Reject Bin. As his name suggests, he is very gloomy and cynical, but he still values his friendship with the other dolls.
Dotty - As the oldest next to the lethargic Sad Sack, she sees herself as the leader of the group and is often very bossy. She is so named because she accidentally had paint spilt on her hair and clothing. Dotty's main catchphrase is: "Good thinking!"
Hi-Fi – He converses with stammer due to him being dropped during testing. It was also stated in episode "The Trouble with Claude" that he was wired incorrectly, hence the stammer. He always wears headphones, which allow him to tune into radio and communication signals from seemingly any source.
Lucy – Her limbs are inadequately attached with nylon thread. She is shy and easily frightened, but always kind-hearted and loyal to her friends. She can be brave on occasion, as first seen in the episode "Ghosts". She speaks with a Derbyshire accent.
Back-To-Front – He is a handyman doll with a backward-facing head (as a result of the manufacturer putting his head on the wrong-way round) and a love of machines. Always calm in a crisis, Back-To-Front's catchphrase is "No problem!".
Claude – A French doll, who, unlike his companions, is actually perfect in every way. He fell out of a box of dolls being shipped to France and was left behind, being put in the bin out of a lack of other places. He speaks with a French accent, and sometimes alternates between speaking English and French. He also has a notable talent for cooking.
Princess – She should have been a beautiful princess doll, but the machine accidentally cut her hair and left her dress in rags. In the manner of a typical aristocrat, her voice is characterised by H-adding. As the opening titles indicate, Princess is the youngest of the original seven Raggy Dolls.
Ragamuffin – A wandering traveller doll who had lost his owner and decided to spend his life taking in new sights and experiences. Introduced in the fifth series.
Friends
Pumpernickle – A Scarecrow who is a friend to the Raggy Dolls.
Edward – Mr Grimes's lost teddy bear who becomes a good friend to the Raggy Dolls.
Mr Marmalade – Mr Grimes's pet cat who has a playful trait.
Hercules – An old farmhorse.
Rupert the Roo – An Australian toy kangaroo who had been mailed from Australia until he had become a new friend to the Raggy Dolls.
Natasha – A Russian Doll bought by Mrs Grimes.
Humans
Mr Oswald "Ozzie" Grimes – The owner of the toy factory.
Cynthia – Appeared later in the series to be Mr Grimes's love interest, and later wife.
Florrie Fosdyke – The kind but forgetful canteen manager of the factory.
Farmer Brown – The farmer of One Pin Farm.
Ethel Grimes – Mr Grimes's sister.
Oz and Boz – Ethel's badly-behaved sons (and Mr Grimes's nephews), known as the Terrible Twins.
Episodes
Series overview
Transmission guide
Series 1a: 6 editions from 3 April 1986 – 8 May 1986
Series 1b: 7 editions from 20 November 1986 – 26 February 1987
Series 2a: 6 editions 13 November 1987 – 8 January 1988
Series 2b: 7 editions from 19 August 1988 – 28 September 1988
Series 3a: 6 editions from 16 November 1988 – 21 December 1988
Series 3b: 7 editions from 19 July 1989 – 30 August 1989
Series 4a: 3 editions from 6 September 1989 – 20 September 1989
Series 4b: 10 editions from 28 June 1990 – 30 August 1990
Series 5: 13 editions from 6 September 1990 – 29 November 1990
Series 6: 13 editions from 6 September 1991 – 29 November 1991
Series 7: 13 editions from 8 September 1992 – 1 December 1992
Series 8: 10 editions from 28 September 1993 – 30 November 1993
Series 9: 10 editions from 11 October 1994 – 20 December 1994
Later broadcasts
After the series ended, The Raggy Dolls later aired on digital television on the defunct children's network Carlton Kids and then on free for air satellite television on Tiny Pop.
The series was broadcast to many countries worldwide, with the exception of the United States.
Merchandise
Three videos (with 5 programmes each) were released during the late 80s by Castle Communications Plc, each featuring a selection of episodes from the first two series narrated by Neil Innes. They were later re-released in Australia during the early 90s by Castle Communications Australasia.
The Raggy Dolls (CAV 1008) – The Big Top, After the Storm, The Dark Wood, The Genius, The Winter Swan
The Raggy Dolls 2 (CAV 1014) – The Flying Machine, The Pigeon Race, The Fun Fair, Too Many Cooks, The Terrible Twins.
The Raggy Dolls 3 (CVI 1022) – Spring Toys, A Trip to the Sea, A Royal Tour, Onion Soup, Moving House
In the Spring of 1993, 4 Front Video released one cassette under 'Pocket Money Video' range (Cat No. 0867323) with six episodes- The Flying Machine, The Pigeon Race, The Fun Fair, Spring Toys, A Trip to the Sea, A Royal Tour
The complete first series of The Raggy Dolls was released on DVD on 21 June 2010 through Revelation Films; the complete second series was available from 18 October 2010; the complete third series was available from 7 February 2011; the complete fourth series was released on 6 June 2011, but the complete fifth series was never released.
Books
A series of at least 10 books were published in 1990 by both Boxtree Limited (in association with Yorkshire Television Limited) and ABC Enterprises (for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation). The books were written or adapted by Neil Innes and illustrated by Steve Smallman. Titles include:
The Big Top
The Flying Machine
The Hot Air Balloon
In Days of Old
Moving House
The Pigeon Race
The Royal Tour
The Stolen Parrot
The Tree House
A Trip to the Sea
We Are Not Amused
The War Of The Wizards
References
External links
Toonhound page on the series
80sNostalgia – The Raggy Dolls
1980s British children's television series
1990s British children's television series
1986 British television series debuts
1994 British television series endings
1980s British animated television series
1990s British animated television series
British children's animated adventure television series
British children's animated comedy television series
British children's animated drama television series
British children's animated fantasy television series
English-language television shows
ITV children's television shows
Television series by ITV Studios
Television series by Yorkshire Television | [
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235232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20August%20Crusius | Christian August Crusius | Christian August Crusius (10 January 1715 – 18 October 1775) was a German philosopher and Protestant theologian.
Biography
Crusius was born in Leuna in the Electorate of Saxony. He was educated at the University of Leipzig, and became professor of theology there in 1750, and principal in 1773.
Crusius first came to notice as an opponent of the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz and Christian Wolff from the standpoint of religious orthodoxy. He attacked it mainly on the grounds of the moral evils that must flow from any system of determinism, and attempted to vindicate the freedom of the will. The most important works of this period of his life are Anweisung, vernünftig zu leben [Guide to Rational Living] (1744), Entwurf der nothwendigen Vernunftwahrheiten wiefern sie den zufälligen entgegengesetzt werden [Outline of the Necessary Truths of Reason, in so far as they are Opposed to Contingent Truths] (1745), Weg zur Gewissheit und Zuverlässigkeit der menschlichen Erkenntniss [Path to Certainty and Reliability in Human Knowledge] (1747), and Anleitung, über natürliche Begebenheiten ordentlich und vorsichtig nachzudenken [Instruction on How to Reflect Correctly and Cautiously on Natural Events] (1749). Crusius' philosophical books had a great but short-lived popularity. His criticism of Wolff influenced Immanuel Kant at the time when his system was forming; and his ethical, as well as epistemological, doctrines are cited in his habilitation thesis and the Critique of Practical Reason. Kant "was deeply influenced by Crusius" and owned Anweisung, Entwurf, and Anleitung.
Crusius's later life was devoted to theology. He led the party in the university which became known as the "Crusianer" as opposed to the "Ernestianer," the followers of JA Ernesti. The two professors adopted opposite methods of exegesis. Ernesti wished to subject the Scripture in the same way as other ancient books; Crusius held firmly to orthodox ecclesiastical tradition.
He died in Leipzig.
Philosophical work
Crusius's chief theological works are Hypomnemata ad theologiam propheticam (1764–78), and Kurzer Entwurf den Moraltheologie (Short Outline of Moral Theology; 1772–73); his most important philosophical work is Entwurf der notwendingen Venunftwahrheiten reprinted Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1963. He opposed innovation in such matters as the accepted authorship of canonical writings, verbal inspiration, and the treatment of persons and events in the Old Testament as types of the New. His views have influenced later evangelical students of the Old Testament, such as EW Hengstenberg and Franz Delitzsch.
There is a full notice of Crusius in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopädie. See also JE Erdmann's History of Philosophy; Anton Marquardt, Kant und Crusius; and article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (1898).
Notes
References
Crusius, Christian August.Die philosophische Hauptwerke, edited by Giorgio Tonelli, Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1964 (four volumes).
Tonelli, Giorgio. "Crusius, Christian August" in Paul Edwards, The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, New York: Macmillan, 1967, vol. 2, pp. 268–271.
External links
The Birth of Ontology. A selection of Ontologists from 1560 to 1770
Entwurf der nothwendigen Vernunftwahrheiten 3rd edition (1766)
1715 births
1775 deaths
People from Leuna
People from the Electorate of Saxony
18th-century German Protestant theologians
German philosophers
Leipzig University alumni
Leipzig University faculty
German male non-fiction writers
18th-century German male writers | [
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235233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Thetis | HMS Thetis | Twelve ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Thetis, named after the sea-nymph in Greek mythology:
was a 22-gun storeship launched in 1717. Her fate is unknown.
was a 44-gun fifth rate launched in 1747. She became a hospital ship in 1757 and was sold in 1767.
was a 32-gun fifth rate launched in 1773 and wrecked entering the Careenage at St. Lucia Bay in 1781.
was a 38-gun fifth rate launched in 1782 and sold in 1814.
was an 8-gun schooner purchased in 1796 and listed until 1800.
HMS Thetis was a 24-gun sixth rate that the Royal Navy captured from the Dutch at Demerara in 1796 and later scuttled there. She was a Dutch 7th Charter frigate built at Amsterdam and launched in 1785. Her dimensions, in Dutch feet of 11 Rotterdam inches, were: 125' 7/11" x 34' x 13' 2/11".
was a 10-gun gun-brig launched in 1810 and on the lists until at least 1836.
was a 46-gun fifth rate launched in 1817 and wrecked off Arraial do Cabo (near Cape Frio) in 1830.
was a 36-gun fifth rate launched in 1846 and transferred to Prussia in 1855 in exchange for two gunboats.
was a wooden screw corvette launched in 1871 and sold in 1887.
was an second-class protected cruiser launched in 1890. She was used as a minelayer from 1907 and was sunk in 1918 as a blockship at Zeebrugge.
was a T-class submarine launched in 1938. She sank during trials but was salvaged and recommissioned as HMS Thunderbolt. The Italian corvette Cicogna sank Thunderbolt in 1943.
See also
Thetis Island
Thetis Lake
Citations and references
Citations
References
van Maanen, Ron, Preliminary list of Dutch naval vessel built or required in the period 1700-1799. Unpublished manuscript.
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235234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Georgia | History of the Jews in Georgia | Georgian Jews () are a community of Jews who migrated to Georgia during the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century BCE. It is one of the oldest communities in that land.
Prior to Georgia's annexation by the Russian Empire in 1801, the 2,600-year history of the Georgian Jews was marked by an almost total absence of antisemitism and a visible assimilation in the Georgian language and culture. The Georgian Jews were considered ethnically and culturally distinct from neighboring Mountain Jews. They were also traditionally a highly separate group from the Ashkenazi Jews in Georgia, who arrived following the Russian annexation of Georgia.
As a result of a major emigration wave in the 1990s, the vast majority of Georgian Jews now live in Israel, with the world's largest community living in the city of Ashdod.
History
The Georgian Jews traditionally lived separately, not only from the surrounding Georgian people, but also from the Ashkenazi Jews in Tbilisi, who had different practices and language.
The community, which numbered about 80,000 as recently as the 1970s, has largely emigrated to Israel, the United States, the Russian Federation and Belgium (in Antwerp). , only about 13,000 Georgian Jews remained in Georgia. According to the 2002 First General National Census of Georgia, there are 3,541 Jewish believers in the country. For example, the Lezgishvili branch of Georgian Jews have families in Israel, Moscow, Baku, Düsseldorf, and Cleveland, Ohio (US). Several hundred Georgian Jewish families live in the New York tri-state area, particularly in New York City and Long Island.
Origins
Georgian-speaking Jewry is one of the oldest surviving Jewish communities in the world. The Georgian Jews have an approximately 2,600-year history in Colchis. The origin of Georgian Jews, also known as Gurjim or kartveli ebraelebi, is debated. The most popular view is that the first Jews made their way to southern Georgia after Nebuchadnezzar's conquest of Jerusalem in 586 BCE and exile in Babylon. This claim is supported by the medieval Georgian historical account by Leonti Mroveli, who writes:
Mroveli added that a further settlement of the Jews in Georgia was during the Roman period of Emperor Vespasian. He wrote that Jews lived in Georgia long before 1st century CE. According to Mroveli:
The ancient Georgian historic chronicle, The Conversion of Kartli, is the oldest and only Georgian source concerning the history of the Jewish community in Georgia. The chronicle describes a version similar to that offered centuries later by Leonti Mroveli, but the period of Jewish migration into Georgia is ascribed to Alexander the Great:
Georgian sources also refer to the arrival of the first Jews in Western Georgia from the Byzantine Empire during the 6th century CE. Approximately 3,000 of the Jews fled to Eastern Georgia, which by that time was controlled by the Persians, to escape severe persecution by the Byzantines. The existence of the Jews in these regions during this period is supported by the archaeological evidence, which shows that Jews lived in Mtskheta, the ancient capital of the Eastern Georgian state of Iberia-Kartli.
According to the Georgian hagiography, Jewish communities existed in Georgia in the 1st century. A Georgian Jew called Elias was said to be in Jerusalem during the Crucifixion and brought Jesus' robe back with him to Georgia. He had acquired it from a Roman soldier at Golgotha.
The Jews spoke Georgian, and later Jewish traders developed a dialect called Kivruli, or Judaeo-Georgian, which included a number of Hebrew words.
In the second half of the 7th century, the Muslim Empire conquered extensive Georgian territory, which became a province of the Arab caliphate. Arab emirs ruled in the Georgian capital Tbilisi and surrounding territory for nearly 500 years, until 1122.
Genetic studies carried out on Georgian Jews as part of a wider survey showed close genetic links with other Jews, and in particular with Iraqi and Persian Jews. This seemed to prove the historical accounts of Jewish migration from Persia into Georgia.
Middle Ages
There is not much documentation about Georgian Jews under the Arab domination. In the late 9th century, Abu-Imran Musa al-Za'farani (later known as Abu-Imran al-Tiflisi) founded a Jewish Karai sect called the Tiflis Sect ("Tiflisites"), which lasted for more than 300 years. The sect deviated from Rabbinic halakhah in its marriage and kashrut customs. This sect did not represent the great majority of Georgian Jews, who adhered to traditional Rabbinic Judaism while maintaining strong religious ties with Baghdad and other Jews of Iraq. The nature of Georgian Jew's observance to rabbinic law was also noted by Benjamin of Tudela and Abraham ben David (also known as the RABAD or RAVAD).
The Mongols swept through Georgia in 1236, prompting many of the Jews of Eastern and Southern Georgia to move to the western region, which remained independent. There they formed small communities along the Black Sea, and eventually their poverty forced them into serfdom. For 500 years, beginning in the end of the 14th century, the Jews of Georgia belonged to the kamani, or serf class, under the Georgian elite.
Their situation worsened in the 15th and 16th centuries due to constant military conflicts and invasions by Timur, Ottoman Empire, and Muslim Persia. By the end of the 15th century, Georgia had fragmented into three separate kingdoms and five feudal territories. Jewish serfs were sold from master to master as a family or individuals as debt payments or gifts. The Jewish communities were torn apart and Jewish communal life was nearly impossible to maintain. Isolation and lack of a religious and spiritual center led to a decline of Jewish knowledge.
An endless string of wars and rebellions characterized the late 18th and early 19th centuries as a result of Russian interference to the region, leaving the region decimated. Jewish property was often confiscated and Jews were forced to seek the protection of the local feudal lords. Instead of finding security, many Jews became enslaved by these lords. The serfs, including Jewish ones, were divided into three categories according to Georgian law: the King's serfs, Feudal serfs, and the Church's serfs.
During this period, large migrations of Jews took place, either voluntary or forced. In the 15th and 16th centuries, a large number of Jews left for [missing word; maybe Persia?], and many Jews in that region are still of Georgian descent. In the 17th and 18th centuries, tens of thousands of Jewish and non-Jewish Georgians were forcibly relocated to Persia by the Islamic Persian invaders.
Georgian annexation into the Russian Empire
In 1801, the Russian Empire annexed Eastern Georgia. The King's serfs became the Treasury's serfs, and were obliged to pay taxes to the Tsar. In 1835 there were 1,363 Jews with 113 Karaites living in the town of Kutais (Kutaisi) and its surroundings, 1,040 in Gori, 623 in Akhaltsikhe, and 61 in Tiflis (Tbilisi). The total Jewish population of Georgia and the region beyond the Caucasus was 12,234.
In 1863–71, the Russian authorities abolished serfdom, and Jewish former serfs moved to towns and villages where free Jews were already settled. Finally the Jews of Georgia began to develop Jewish communities. Each group moved together to the same towns and established their own respective synagogues. They were usually made up of a number of extended family groups spanning three or four generations. Each community had a gabbai who served as a rabbi, shohet, mohel, and Cheder, and oversaw religious and communal affairs. These small communities developed into the Jewish quarter of their particular towns.
In the beginning of the 19th century, certain Ashkenazi Russian Jews moved to Georgia. The Ashkenazi Jews and the Georgian Jews began establishing contact with each other, but relations were strained. Georgian Jews viewed the Ashkenazim as godless and secular, while the Ashkenazim looked down on the Georgian Jews.
Zionism was a uniting cause for the two groups. Ashkenazim joined Zionist organizations and began to spread their ideas to the Georgian Jewish communities. In 1897, the first Zionist organization was established in Tbilisi. On 20 August 1901, the First Congress of Caucasus Zionists was held in Tbilisi. Rabbi David Baazov led Georgian Zionism during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1903, Baazov attended the Sixth Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. In 1918, the All-Jewish Congress in Tbilisi took place and included representatives from every Georgian and Russian Jewish community in the country.
Beginning in 1863, groups of Jews began making aliyah, mostly for religious reasons. By 1916, 439 Georgian Jews lived in Ottoman Palestine, mostly in Jerusalem near the Damascus Gate. Most Jews who made aliyah were poor and worked as freight-handlers in Jerusalem. Other more prominent Georgian Jews served as financiers and carpet merchants. Prominent Georgian Jewish families in the holy land before 1948 were the Dabra (Davarashvili) and Kokia (Kakiashvili) families.
Anti-Semitism under the Tsarist government
The tradition of the relationship between Jews and other Georgians has no signs of anti-Semitism, excluding the Tsarist government. For many centuries, the Church in Georgia did not incite against the Jews, and the Georgian Jews were visibly assimilated in the country's rural life and culture.
In the second half of the 19th century, there were some outbreaks of anti-Semitic acts, perhaps stemming from the influence of the Russian Orthodox Church. Anti-Semitism was supplemented by the end of serfdom and the urbanization of the Jewish population. As Jews became traders instead of field hands, Georgian workers began to see them as competitors and economic threats. Anti-Semitism had been active in Russia for centuries and, under the annexation, began to influence non-Jews in Georgia.
Six blood libels have been recorded as having taken place in Georgia. The first blood libel was in Surami in 1850. A little boy from Gori disappeared while on a visit with his parents. The child was found dead after four days, and the Jews were blamed for his death. The guberniya doctor examined the dead child and concluded that he was drowned. The people blamed the Jews and started riots against the Jews. Only the intervention of the head of the Viceroyalty avoided more problems.
The worst and most infamous case was in the village of Sachkhere in 1878, when nine Jews were accused of partaking in the ritual killing of a Christian child to use the blood to make matzah for Passover. The highly publicized trial occurred in Kutaisi, and was called the Kutaisi Trial. The accused were found not guilty, but the blood libels continued.
Revolution and independence
After the October 1917 Russian Revolution threw out the Tsar's government and replaced it with the Bolsheviks, Georgians clamored for independence from their occupiers. On 26 May 1918, the Georgian Republic declared its independence. With independence came freedom of speech, press, and organization, which improved the economic situation of the Jews of Georgia. This newfound freedom did not last long. The Red Army invaded Georgia in February 1921, prompting a mass exodus from the region. Approximately 1,500–2,000 Jews left Georgia: 1,000–1,200 settled in the Land of Israel, the remainder fled mainly to Istanbul, where a Georgian Jewish community had been in existence since the 1880s.
Initially, the Soviets allowed the Jews to maintain their religious customs, but after a Georgian rebellion in 1924, the Bolshevik government terminated all Zionist activity, imposed economic restrictions, and generally discriminated against the Jewish community. As a result, many Jewish businesses were bankrupted and 200 families applied for exit visas. Only 18 were allowed to emigrate.
In the mid-1920s, the Soviets focused on industrializing and secularizing the Jews of Georgia. Mass numbers of Jews were forced to work in factories or to join craft cooperatives and collective farm projects. In 1927–1928, OZET, the organization for settling Jewish workers on farms, established a number of Jewish collective farms. These small homogeneous communities became isolated Jewish communities where Jewish learning was continued. Recognizing this, the Communists disbanded the communities in the 1930s, scattering the Jews among various farms and destroying Jewish communal life.
Meanwhile, blood libels continued in full force, with occurrences in Sachkhere in 1921, Tbilisi in 1923, and Akhaltsikhe in 1926.
Due to Soviet persecution and the declining economic situation, Zionist leaders focused on increasing aliyah efforts. The Soviets firmly opposed Jewish emigration and, during the 1930s, cracked down on Zionist organizations, arresting or murdering many members. In 1937–38, the authorities stifled participation in Jewish religious services or cultural activities. In September 1937, nine hakhams, two of whom were Ashkenazi, were arrested in Tskhinvali (Staliniri at the time), and sent to prison without trial and murdered.
The only surviving Jewish institution was the History and Ethnography Museum, but it too was soon closed down. Its director, Aharon Krikheli was arrested in 1948, and the museum closed in the early 1950s, thus signifying the annihilation of Jewish culture in Georgia, which the Soviets had built up during the prewar years.
Contemporary Georgia
During World War II, thousands of Georgian Jews served in the Red Army. After the war, the authorities arrested Jews and closed or destroyed synagogues, and anti-Semitic acts of violence erupted. But despite their attempts, the Soviets could not completely annihilate the practice of Judaism and, even in the late 1960s and 1970s, most Georgian Jews managed to observe their traditions. Georgian Jews were able to preserve their identity better than Jews in European parts of the Soviet Union, and assimilated and intermarried less. Throughout Soviet rule, Jews remained society's scapegoat. They made up the majority of Georgians convicted for economic crimes, and were punished more severely than the rest of the population. Blood libels continued with incidents in Tskhaltubo in 1963, Zestafoni in 1964, and Kutaisi in 1965.
After the Six-Day War, huge numbers of Soviet Jews began protesting for the right to immigrate to Israel, and many applied for exit visas. Georgian Jews made up a large percentage of this number. They were among the first to begin protesting, and were among the most militant of campaigners. In August 1969, eighteen families wrote to the Human Rights Commission of the United Nations demanding permission to make aliyah. This was the first public insistence by Soviet Jews for immigration to Israel. The Israeli government and the Jewish world campaigned heavily on behalf of the plight of the Soviet Jewry. In July 1971, a group of Georgian Jews went on a hunger strike outside a Moscow post office. The determination of Soviet Jewish activists and international pressure led the Soviets to lessen their harsh anti-Jewish policies. During the 1970s, the Soviets permitted limited Jewish emigration to Israel, and about 30,000 Georgian Jews made aliyah, with thousands of others leaving for other countries. Approximately 17% of the Soviet Jewish population emigrated at this time. In 1979, the Jewish population in Georgia was 28,300 and, by 1989, it had decreased to 24,800.
While most Soviet Jewish emigration was individual, Georgian-Jewish emigration was communal. Due to Georgian-Jewish traditions of strong, extended families and the strict, patriarchal nature of Georgian families, Georgians immigrated as whole communities, with emigration of individuals causing a chain reaction leading to more emigration, and brought their community structures with them. For example, nearly the entire population of at least two Georgian towns made aliyah. At the time the emigration started, Israel had a policy of scattering the population around the country, and was experiencing a housing shortage, with the result that Georgians were assigned housing in different parts of the country. The Georgians began demanding that they be concentrated together, and the crisis reached a fever pitch when several families threatened to return to Georgia, and new immigrants, forewarned by predecessors, began demanding to be placed in specific areas upon arrival. Although Prime Minister Golda Meir criticized the Georgians' desire to "isolate themselves into ghettos", the Israeli Immigrant Absorption Ministry eventually bowed to their demands, and began to create concentrations of around 200 families in twelve areas of the country.
In Israel, Georgian immigrants successfully integrated into society, but faced certain problems. Georgian immigrants were usually able to find jobs with ease, and often worked in light industry jobs, such as dock workers, porters, and construction workers, but faced certain issues. One major issue was religion; the Georgian Jews were often devout and had fiercely clung to their traditions in the Soviet Union, and were stunned to discover that Israeli Jews were mostly secular. As a result, Georgian immigrants demanded their own separate synagogues to continue their unique religious traditions, which the government agreed to, and enrolled their children in religious schools rather than regular schools.
Independence and Georgia today
After the fall of the Soviet Union, Georgia declared her independence in 1991. Since independence, the country faced continuous military conflict, leaving the region in political and economic turmoil.
The situation of the Jewish community of Georgia improved dramatically due to the end of the Soviet occupation. In 1994, President Shevardnadze issued a decree to protect Jewish religious, cultural and historic monuments. In addition, the Jews of Georgia have successfully maintained their Jewish identity and traditions despite the oppression they faced under the Soviets. Intermarriage has always been low and levels of Jewish knowledge are significantly higher than those of other CIS republics.
In 1990, the Rachamim Society was established, which supplies financial and medical support to the Jews of Tbilisi and maintains Jewish cemeteries and synagogues. It functions as an umbrella organization for Ashkenazi Jews. The Association of Georgian Jews (Derekh Yehudi) focuses on regaining Jewish property confiscated during the Soviet era. The Jewish community still faces acts of violence and obstacles in the return of property rights to a 19th-century Ashkenazi synagogue stolen by the Soviets. The Chief Rabbi of Georgia from Chabad Lubavitsch is Rabbi Avraham Michaelshvili, who has been there since the early 1990s hosting the Georgian community and many guests with fervor and devotion. There was a further Chief Rabbi Ariel Levin. Rabbi Ariel Levine Returned to Israel. He was taken over by the Vaad l’Hatzolas Nidchei Yisroel affiliated Rabbi Avimelech Rosenblath. There is no umbrella organization for all Jews in Georgia, but more than 30 Jewish institutions are in existence, in addition to one Jewish day school and four supplementary schools. Three Jewish newspapers are published - Menora, Shalom, and 26 Century, and there is also a Jewish radio and television station.
The Jewish population of Georgia has steadily decreased over the years due to aliyah in response to the political and economic issues since independence. Overall, since 1989, 21,134 Jews have moved to Israel. Once numbering as many as 100,000, today the Georgian Jewish population is approximately 13,000. Tbilisi has the largest Jewish population at 11,000 out of 1.5 million. Jewish communities are located in Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Batumi, Oni, Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki, Surami, Kareli, and Stalin's hometown of Gori, and synagogues are located in most of these cities. The provinces of Abkhazia and South Ossetia are virtually devoid of Jews due to the military conflicts in these areas. Many Abkhazian Jews emigrated to Israel from Abkhazia during the war in the 1990s there, while the few who stayed are mostly elderly. A synagogue is still active in Sukhumi. There is one Jew left in South Ossetia (see articles History of the Jews in Abkhazia and History of the Jews in South Ossetia).
In January 2001, in a first step toward establishing relations, the Georgian Orthodox Church and the Jewish community of Georgia signed a cooperation agreement of mutual respect and support. Relations between Georgia and Israel are warm, however. The Israeli embassy is located in Tbilisi and also serves Armenia; the Georgian embassy is in Tel Aviv. Israel has supplied humanitarian aid to Georgia a number of times, including drought assistance and aid for earthquake victims.
The Jewish Agency for Israel (JAFI) and American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) both have permanent representatives in Georgia. JDC and Hesed Eliyahu distribute food and medical aid to the Jewish elderly, who make up more than 50% of the Georgian Jewish community.
As a result of the 2008 South Ossetia War, some 200 Georgian Jews immigrated to Israel with assistance from the Jewish Agency. During that war, the Jewish Quarter of Tskhinvali was destroyed during the Battle of Tskhinvali.
Demographics
According to the 1897 Russian Empire Census, there were 12,194 people whose native language was "Jewish" in the two provinces that largely covered today's Georgia: Tiflis Governorate (5,188) and Kutais Governorate (7,006). There were 3,419 Jews in Kutaisi city (10.5% of the population), 2,935 in Tiflis, 1,064 in Batumi.
Georgia's population almost doubled between 1926 and 1970, then began declining, with dramatic declines in the 1970s and 1990s, when many Georgian Jews left and moved to other countries, especially to Israel.
Language
The traditional language of the Georgian Jews is Judaeo-Georgian, a variant of Georgian, characterized by a large number of Hebrew loanwords, and written using either the Georgian alphabet or Hebrew alphabet. Besides speaking Judaeo-Georgian, the Georgian Jews speak the languages of the peoples surrounding them. In Georgia, these include Georgian and Russian; in Belgium, Dutch; in the United States and Canada English; and in Israel, Hebrew.
Aliyah and Diaspora Outside of Georgia
Many Georgian Jews now live in Israel. In the United States, the principal Georgian Jewish synagogue is the Congregation of Georgian Jews in the Forest Hills section of Queens, New York City. In Belgium, most Georgian Jews are member of the Antwerp Jewish community.
The main Georgian synagogue in Belgium is on Isabellalei in Antwerpen, and is led by rabbi Avishalom Kalazan of Yemenite origin. Most of the community is engaged in jewelry trade, with the new generation going into more diverse directions. A second Georgian Jewish synagogue became active around year 2012 under leadership of rabbi Yitzhak Pichkhadze.
One notable Georgian Jew in USA is Tamir Sapir, born Temur Sepiashvili, an immigrant taxi driver turned businessman from New York. Another notable Georgian Jew is Dr. Yuri Busi (born Yuri Busiashvili), who was known for being the physician for the actress Lucille Ball. Dr. Busi developed a successful career as a Cardiologist serving mostly the emigrant Soviet community in Los Angeles.
In Israel, most Georgian Jews settled near the coast in cities such as Lod, Bat Yam, Ashdod, and Holon. There are Georgian Jews in Jerusalem as well, with several prominent synagogues. This trend of concentrated communities of Georgian Jews in Israel has changed and the population is much more integrated now, is more homogeneously dispersed in the country, and is now successfully integrated in every sphere of the society.
See also
Georgia–Israel relations
References
Resource
Caucasus article in the Jewish Encyclopedia
External links
World Congress of Georgian Jews
Way of life and customs by Rachel Arbel and Lili Magal from World Congress of Georgian Jews
WATCH: Forget Atlanta - this is the Georgia on my mind, Haaretz
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235235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20most%20expensive%20paintings | List of most expensive paintings | This is a list of the highest known prices paid for paintings. The current record price is approximately US$450.3 million paid for Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi in November 2017.
Background
The most famous paintings, especially old master works done before 1803, are generally owned or held at museums, for viewing by patrons. Since the museums rarely sell them, they are considered priceless. Guinness World Records lists Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa as having the highest ever insurance value for a painting. On permanent display at the Louvre in Paris, the Mona Lisa was assessed at US$100 million on December 14, 1962. Taking inflation into account, the 1962 value would be around US$ million in .
The earliest sale on the list below (Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh) is from March 1987; with a price of £24.75 million (£ million in currency). This sale tripled the previous record, and introduced a new era in top art sales. Before this, the highest absolute price paid for a painting was £8.1 million (£ million in currency) paid by the J. Paul Getty Museum for Andrea Mantegna's Adoration of the Magi at Christie's in London on April 18, 1985. In constant dollars, the highest price paid before 1987 was by the National Gallery of Art when in February 1967 they acquired Leonardo da Vinci's Ginevra de' Benci for around $5 million ($ million in dollars) from the Princely Family of Liechtenstein. The sale of Van Gogh's Sunflowers was the first time a "modern" (in this case 1888) painting became the record holder, as opposed to the old master paintings which previously had dominated the market. In contrast, there are currently only nine pre-1875 paintings among the listed top 89, and none created between 1635 and 1874.
An exceptional case is graffiti artist David Choe, who accepted payment in shares for painting graffiti art in the headquarters of a fledgling Facebook. His shares were of limited value when he was given them, but by the time of Facebook's IPO they were valued at around $200 million.
The list is incomplete with respect to sales between private parties, as these are not always reported and, even if they are, details like the purchase price may remain secret. For example, on June 25, 2019, the American hedge fund manager J. Tomilson Hill bought a recently rediscovered Judith and Holofernes (1607) attributed to Caravaggio, two days before it would have been auctioned in Toulouse. Though the Louvre Museum had turned down the opportunity to purchase it for €100 million, the painting was estimated to sell for $110 to $170 million. The actual purchase price was not disclosed, because of a confidentiality agreement attached to the private sale.
Vincent van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, and Andy Warhol are the best-represented artists in the list. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, Van Gogh is known to have sold only one painting in his lifetime, The Red Vineyard, for 400 francs (approximately $2,000 in 2018 dollars) in 1890, to the impressionist painter and heiress Anna Boch. Prices realised for just his nine paintings listed below, when adjusted for inflation to 2017, add up to over US$900 million.
Georgia O'Keeffe holds the record for the highest price paid for a painting by a woman. On November 20, 2014 at Sotheby's, the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art bought her 1932 painting Jimson Weed/White Flower No. 1 for US$44.4 million (equivalent to US$ million in ).
Among the listed top 89, only six are paintings by non-Western artists. Five are traditional Chinese paintings by Qi Baishi, Wu Bin, Wang Meng and Xu Yang. In particular, Qi Baishi's Twelve Landscape Screens was sold for $140.8 million in 2017. While the only non-Western modern artwork listed is that of the Chinese-French painter Zao Wouki's oil painting Juin-Octobre 1985 was sold for $65 million in 2018. Not listed here in this list is Chinese painter Wang Shaofei's The High Sun, which was appraised for $74 million in 2017.
List of highest prices paid
This list is ordered by consumer price index inflation-adjusted value (in bold) in millions of United States dollars in . Where necessary, the price is first converted to dollars using the exchange rate at the time the painting was sold. The inflation adjustment may change as recent inflation rates are often revised. A list in another currency may be in a slightly different order due to exchange-rate fluctuations. Paintings are listed only once, i.e. for the highest price sold.
Interactive graph
See also
Market for artworks
List of most expensive artworks by living artists
Destination painting
List of most expensive sculptures
List of most expensive photographs
List of most expensive non-fungible tokens
List of most expensive books and manuscripts
The Price of Everything, 2018 documentary
Notes
References
External links
The Most Expensive Paintings ever sold list by theartwolf
Most Famous Paintings In Art History
Top 10 Most Expensive Paintings In The World
Paintings
Lists of visual art topics
$
Auction-related lists
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235236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avianus | Avianus | Avianus (or possibly Avienus; c. AD 400) a Latin writer of fables, identified as a pagan.
The 42 fables which bear his name are dedicated to a certain Theodosius, whose learning is spoken of in most flattering terms. He may possibly be Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, the author of Saturnalia; some think he may be the emperor of that name. Nearly all the fables are to be found in Babrius, who was probably Avianus's source of inspiration, but as Babrius wrote in Greek, and Avianus speaks of having made an elegiac version from a rough Latin copy, probably a prose paraphrase, he was not indebted to the original. The language and metre are on the whole correct, in spite of deviations from classical usage, chiefly in the management of the pentameter. The fables soon became popular as a school-book. Promythia and epimythia (introductions and morals), paraphrases, and imitations were frequent, such as the Novus Avianus of Alexander Neckam (12th century).
Fables
De nutrice et infanti
De testudine et aquila - noticed under The Tortoise and the Birds
De cancris - noticed under The Snake and the Crab
De vento et sole - The North Wind and the Sun
De asino pelle leonis induto - The Ass in the Lion's Skin
De rana et vulpe - The Frog and the Fox
De cane qui noluit latrare - The Mischievous Dog
De camelo
De duobus sociis et ursa - The Bear and the Travelers
De calvo
De ollis - The Two Pots
De thesauro
De hirco et tauro
De simia
De grue et pavone
De quercu et harundine - The Oak and the Reed
De venatore et tigride
De quattuor iuvencis et leone - The Bulls and the Lion
De abiete ac dumis - The Fir and the Bramble
De piscatore et pisce - The fisherman and the little fish
De luscinia
De cupido et invido
De Baccho - noticed under The Statue of Hermes
De venatore et leone
De fure et parvo
De leone et capella
De cornice et urna - The Crow and the Pitcher
De rustico et iuvenco
De viatore et fauno - The Satyr and the Traveller
De apro et coco
De mure et tauro
- God helps those who help themselves
De ansere ova aurea pariente - The Goose That Laid the Golden Eggs
De cicada et formica - The Ant and the Grasshopper
De simiae gemellis
De vitulo et bove
De leone et cane
De pisce et focis
De milite veterano - noticed under The Trumpeter Taken Captive
De pardo et vulpe
De olla cruda
De lupo et haedo
Editions
Hendrik Cannegieter (1731)
Lachmann (1845)
Wilhelm Fröhner (1862)
Emil Baehrens in Poetae Latini Minores (1879–1883)
Robinson Ellis, The Fables of Avianus (1887)
The Fables of Avianus, translated by David R. Slavitt, Johns Hopkins University Press 1993
See also
Aviana gens
References
Latin Wikisource
Further reading
Lucian Müller De Phaedri et Aviani fabulis libellis (1875)
Otto Unrein, De Aviani Aetate (1885), Jena dissertation
Leopold Hervieux, Les Fabulistes latins (1894)
The Fables of Avian translated into Englyshe ... by William Caxton at Westmynstre (1483).
5th-century Latin writers
5th-century Roman poets
Fabulists | [
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235238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson%20Ellis | Robinson Ellis | Robinson Ellis, FBA (5 September 1834 – 9 October 1913) was an English classical scholar.
Ellis was born at Barming, near Maidstone, and was educated at Elizabeth College, Guernsey, Rugby School, and Balliol College, Oxford. He took a First in Classical Moderations in 1854 and a First in Literae Humaniores ('Greats') in 1856. In 1858 he became fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, and in 1870 professor of Latin at University College, London. In 1876 he returned to Oxford, where from 1883 to 1893 he held the university readership in Latin. In 1893 he succeeded Henry Nettleship as Corpus Professor of Latin.
His chief work was on Catullus, whom he began to study in 1859. In the course of his research he used an important early manuscript of Catullus, named the Codex Oxoniensis (many sources credit him with a discovery here, but that exact codex is already mentioned in an edition of Catullus made by Friedrich Wilhelm Doering in 1822). However, Ellis did not recognise the importance of that codex, and failed to consult it for his Commentary on Catullus (1876), thereby attracting criticism (Emil Baehrens first recognised the importance of the Oxoniensis and published his conclusions two years earlier, in 1874). In 1889 Ellis produced a second, enlarged edition, which resulted its author's recognition as an authority on Catullus. Professor Ellis quoted largely from the early Italian commentators, maintaining that the land where the Renaissance originated had done more for scholarship than is commonly recognized. He supplemented his critical work by a translation (1871, dedicated to Alfred Tennyson), The Poems and Fragments of Catullus in the Metres of the Original.
Another author to whom Professor Ellis devoted many years' study was Manilius, the astrological poet. In 1891 he published Noctes Manilianae, a series of dissertations on the Astronomica, with emendations. He also treated Avianus, Velleius Paterculus and the Christian poet Orientius, whose poem Commonitorium he edited for the Vienna Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum. He edited the Ibis of Ovid, the Aetna of the younger Lucilius, and contributed to the Anecdota Oxoniensia various unedited Bodleian and other manuscripts. In 1907 he published Appendix Vergiliana (an edition of the minor poems); in 1908 The Annalist Licinianus.
References
External links
Grave of Robinson Ellis in St Sepulchre's Cemetery, Oxford, with biography
English classical scholars
Corpus Christi Professors of Latin
Fellows of Trinity College, Oxford
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
People educated at Elizabeth College, Guernsey
People educated at Rugby School
Academics of University College London
1834 births
1913 deaths
People from Barming
Fellows of the British Academy | [
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235244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granius%20Licinianus | Granius Licinianus | Granius Licinianus (active in the 2nd century AD) was a Roman author of historical and encyclopedic works that survive only in fragments. He most likely lived at the time of Hadrian.
History
Granius compiled a "novel" narrative epitome of Roman history, drawing mainly on Livy and Sallust, that ran to at least 36 books, "keen on anecdotes and curious details." That he had his own views on historiography should not be doubted: in his opinion, Sallust ought not to be read as an historian at all, but as an orator. Granius covered the history of Rome from the early times at least to the death of Julius Caesar; the assumption of this as an end-point of his history has sometimes caused him to be identified with Granius Flaccus and his life to be dated to the 1st century BC. Though riddled with lacunae, Granius's Book 35 presents one of the most informative accounts of the siege of Rome during the civil war of 87 BC, and his history regularly provides illuminative details that complement more complete histories. Some fragments of the books relating to the years 163-78 BC are preserved in a manuscript which was discovered in 1853 and survives as a double palimpsest, that is, a 5th-century copy was overwritten in the 6th century with a Latin grammatical treatise and again in the 11th century with a Syriac translation of John Chrysostom's sermons. (Add. 17212)
Granius also wrote Cenae Suae ("My Dinner Parties"), an encyclopedic work that displayed his antiquarian interests in the manner of Aulus Gellius and his Attic Nights.
Editions
K.A. Pertz (1857), editio princeps; downloadable.
Seven Bonn students (1858)
M. Flemisch, Granius Licinianus. Eine text-, sprach- und quellenkritische Untersuchung (1899/1900, 1902, 1904)
See also JN Madvig, Kleine philologische Schriften (1875)
N. Criniti (Leipzig, 1981). For introduction, critical commentary (in Italian), and full bibliography, see also Criniti's "Granio Liciniano," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.34.1 (1993), pp. 120–, limited preview online.
Commentary
Italian translation and commentary by B. Scardigli, with A. R. Berardi (Florence, 1983).
References
External links
Translation of Granius Licinianus's History at Attalus.org
About the manuscript at Tertullian.org
2nd-century historians
2nd-century Romans
Latin historians
Silver Age Latin writers
Ancient Roman antiquarians
Licinianus | [
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235245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet%2C%20Hampshire | Fleet, Hampshire | Fleet is a town and civil parish in the Hart District of Hampshire, England, centred 38.2 miles (61.5 km) WSW of London and 13 miles (21 km) east of Basingstoke. It is the major town of the Hart District, and has large technology business areas, fast rail links to London, and is well connected to the M3. The Fleet built-up area has a total population of 42,835, and includes the contiguous parishes of Church Crookham, Crookham Village, Dogmersfield, and Elvetham Heath. The town has a prominent golf club, an annual half marathon, an athletics club, and four football clubs. The nearby service station on the motorway is named after the town.
Hart, of which Fleet is the main town, was voted the best place to live in the UK by the Halifax Quality of Life study in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and again in 2017, above areas such as Elmbridge in Surrey and Wokingham in Berkshire. This is due to the highly affluent majority of the population, better weather and health conditions, high levels of access to leisure space, and the town's surrounding countryside which includes woodlands and the Basingstoke Canal.
Local landmarks include Fleet Pond, the largest freshwater lake in Hampshire, and a High Street with many Victorian and Edwardian buildings. Fleet holds a weekly Saturday market in Gurkha Square.
History
The site of Fleet was originally heathland in the northern part of the Crondall Hundred. The name Fleet was probably derived from the Norman French word La Flete meaning a stream or shallow water - a reference to the Fleet Pond from which fish had been taken for the monks in Winchester in Medieval times.
Early Days (to 1904)
This north-east corner of Hampshire had shallow and sandy, slightly acidic soil, much of it boggy or covered in gorse and bracken (see Bagshot Formation). It held little use for agriculture compared to the long-grazed chalk lands and belts of alluvial areas of the rest of the county. The Fleet area has yielded few archaeological finds.
Isaac Taylor's Map of Hampshire (1759) shows three small habitations in the area that was later to become Fleet.
In 1792, the Basingstoke Canal opened. The canal passed through the town site, but apart from a few inns to serve the passing trade, it had little effect on the locality. Apart from the Farnham to Reading road, the site remained largely undeveloped until the construction of the London and South Western Railway, which opened in 1840. In that year, a church - Christ Church, which was to become the heart of the new ecclesiastical parish of Ewshot and Crookham, was built midway between the villages of Crookham and Ewshot. This parish included the area that was to become the town of Fleet. The railway company promoted Fleet Pond for a destination for day excursions, and many people came down from London to skate on the Pond during the Winter. This attracted a number of gentry, particularly retired army officers, who moved to the area bounded by Fleet Road, Elvetham Road and Reading Road North, and laid the foundations of what was to become known locally as "The Blue Triangle".
By 1860, Charles Lefroy, a local squire, commissioned All Saints' Church – in the Blue Triangle area, in memory of his wife who had died in 1857. The architect was William Burges. The ecclesiastical parish of Ewshot and Crookam was split into two in 1862, with the northern section based on All Saints' church becoming the new parish of Fleet. On 22 June 2015, the roof of All Saints' church was destroyed by fire following an arson attack.
The development of Fleet accelerated when the land to the south east of the Blue Triangle was sold for development in 1882. Development on this land was laid out in a grid pattern.
As part of the Urban District Council (1904 - 1974)
Under the Local Government Act 1894, many of the duties that had previously been shouldered by the ecclesiastical parishes were transferred to new civil parishes, and Crookham, Fleet and Crondall each gained an elected parish council. In 1904, Fleet became an urban district, just ten years after becoming an independent parish. In 1925, and again in 1932, it expanded by taking parts of Elvetham, as a result of the Local Government Act 1929, which saw smaller urban districts merge with their surrounding rural districts, with the result that new districts emerged covering rural as well as urban parishes. As a consequence, the Fleet Urban District in 1932 expanded south of the canal and took 45% of the Crookham acreage and 61% of the population, with the rump of the parish of Crookham being returned to Crondall parish. In addition, a small area of Minley with Hawley, that consequently became the modern development of Ancells Farm, was also transferred to the expanded Fleet Urban District.
As part of the Hart District Council (1974 onwards)
Fleet expanded over the decades, with new residential areas being built at Ancells Farm, Zebon Copse (Church Crookham, Crookham Village and Dogmersfield are included in the built-up area, as per the Government Statistical Service) and Elvetham Heath. Completed in 2008, Elvetham Heath was one of the UK's largest new housing developments at the time, and added some 3,500 inhabitants to Fleet's population, bringing its total population up to around 35,000. This represented a 20% population increase in less than a decade.
Earlier in the 1990s, two developments in Fleet involved a double opening on 10 May 1991; the Hart Shopping Centre, which was opened officially by the Duchess Of York, and the old Hart Leisure Centre on Hitches Lane. The old Hart Leisure Centre was replaced by a new one on the other side of the road in 2019.
Fleet had been a dormitory town for commuters to London. It now has several business parks, mainly occupied by Information Technology companies.
Geography
Areas and suburbs of Fleet town are Pondtail, Ancells Park and Elvetham Heath. The villages of Crookham Village and Church Crookham are contiguous with the town. Immediately surrounding towns and villages include Winchfield, Dogmersfield, Crondall, Ewshot, and Hartley Wintney.
The Fleet Pond nature reserve is a beauty spot on the northern edge of the town. Fleet Pond is the largest freshwater lake in Hampshire. Being very shallow, Fleet Pond is actively managed and needs regular dredging to avoid it silting up. In times past, the lake has frozen over, permitting skating.
Fleet is on junction 4A of the M3 motorway. Fleet services on the M3 lies at the edge of the town. Fleet's main road, Fleet Road, runs through the town centre from south-west to north-east. Fleet railway station is on the Waterloo to Southampton main line; the train service is run by South Western Railway. Journey time to Waterloo is about 50 minutes, and express trains do the journey in under 40 minutes. Nearby airports are Blackbushe and Farnborough. The Basingstoke Canal, built at the end of the eighteenth century, connected Fleet to Basingstoke and, in the other direction, London via the Wey navigation. By the early twentieth century, the canal had fallen into disrepair, but the section between the Wey Navigation and the Greywell Tunnel has since been restored by volunteers and is maintained as a leisure facility.
Climate
Being located in South East England, Fleet has a temperate climate which is generally drier and warmer than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is approximately and shows a seasonal and a diurnal variation. January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between and . July is the warmest month in the area with average daily maxima around . Rainfall averages at .
Politics and administration
Fleet is administered by Hart District Council and Hampshire County Council. The parliamentary constituency is North East Hampshire. In April 2010, some of the responsibilities of Hart District Council were devolved to three new parish councils: Fleet Town Council, Elvetham Heath Parish Council and Church Crookham Parish Council.
Wards
Fleet and Church Crookham (which is a suburban village of the town) is divided into the following wards:
Fleet Central: Small part of the "Blue Triangle" the late Victorian/Edwardian town centre, and a small part south of the canal that was historically part of Crookham prior to 1976.
Fleet East: Pondtail, Ancells Farm and the former Pyestock site (Hartland Village).
Fleet West: Large part of the "Blue Triangle", Elvetham Heath and Edenbrook.
Crookham East: Church Crookham estates, Velmead and the Sandy Lane Triangle.
Crookham West and Ewshot: Gally Hill, Zebon, Tweseldown, Queen Elizabeth Barracks, Crookham and Ewshot villages.
Demography
Men in the Fleet North ward had the second highest life expectancy at birth, 89.7 years, of any ward in England and Wales in 2016.
Education
The town has a number of schools including:
Crookham CE Infants
Fleet Infants
Heatherside Infants
Heatherside Juniors
All Saints
Tavistock Infant School
Elvetham Heath Primary School
Church Crookham Juniors
Tweseldown Infants
Velmead Junior School
Calthorpe Park School
Court Moor School
St Nicholas' School (independent, girls-only)
Transport
Rail
Fleet is served by Fleet railway station, on the South West Main Line. The station in the 2010s underwent great improvements, funded mostly by Hampshire County Council, giving the station more car parking and disabled access.
Bus
Local bus services include services operated by Stagecoach, with routes circulating the town and providing access to surrounding towns such as Farnborough and Aldershot, and a Reading Buses service connecting the Fleet to the market town of Reading, Berkshire.
Sport and leisure
Fleet is the home of the North Hants Golf Club. For over one hundred years, it has been a top-ranked course in Hampshire and nationally. Justin Rose was a junior member of the club, and there is now a meeting room named after him.
Fleet has four Non-League football teams: Fleet Town F.C., who play at Calthorpe Park, Fleet Spurs F.C., who play at Kennels Lane, Fleet Albion, who play at Dippenhall St., Crondall, and FC Fleet, who play at Zebon Copse.
Fleet has a half marathon, commonly used in preparation for the London Marathon, and an athletics club, Fleet & Crookham AC.
Media
The local press are the Fleet News & Mail, a broadsheet available in local shops, and the Surrey-Hants Star Courier, a free tabloid delivered to the door. The local BBC TV news is BBC South Today. Fleet is covered on BBC Radio by BBC Surrey, which covers North-East Hampshire additionally.
Culture
The town has numerous events organised by the local carnival committee, the largest of those being Fleet Carnival in the summer, and the switching on of the Christmas lights as December approaches (known as Fleet Festivities), usually held the last Wednesday in November and taking place along the local high-street, which is pedestrianised for the evening's events. The committee also arrange food festivals, attracting stands run by local restaurants and talks and demonstrations held in large marquees.
Other yearly events in Fleet include a Half Marathon, Fleet 10K, a beer festival organised by the local Lions Club, a Fireworks night, and the Elvetham Heath Car Show.
Gurkha Square, named after the Gurkhas who were based in Fleet for many years, houses the Fleet war memorial. A market takes place every Saturday in Gurkha Square. Major buildings on Gurkha Square are Fleet Library, and the Harlington Centre.
Fleet services
Fleet Services is a motorway service station on the M3 and is owned by Welcome Break. It was the only service station on the M3 until Winchester services was built in 2001.
Notable people
The actress Juliet Aubrey was born in Fleet in 1969.
The musician Tim Battersby was born in Fleet in 1949.
The actress Raquel Cassidy was born in Fleet in 1968.
The musician and author Alan Clayson grew up in Fleet.
Murder victim Marion Crofts lived in Fleet.
The magazine editor, journalist and broadcaster Mark Ellen grew up in Fleet.
The professional tennis player John Feaver was born in Fleet in 1952.
The comedian, musician and actor Rob Hoey is from Fleet
The professional footballer Keith Hooker was born in Fleet in 1950.
Alison Robins (1920-2017), worked at Bletchley Park "Y-Service", born in Fleet
Patrick Hannan drummer in The Sundays was born in Fleet
The golfer Justin Rose was a member of the North Hants Golf Club in Fleet.
The art critic and man of letters, John Russell, was born in Fleet in 1919.
The film producer Rob Weston, who produced movies such as Madness in the Method, Elsa & Fred (2014 film) and Dark Places (2015 film) grew up in Fleet.
The platform diver Gemma McArthur, competitor for Team Scotland in the 2018 Commonwealth Games, is from Fleet.
The racing driver Jac Constable, who won the AM class of the Ginetta GT4 Supercup in 2018 grew up and lives in Fleet.
The racing driver Dan Welch, who competed in the British Touring Car Championship between 2011 and 2018 lives in Fleet.
See also
Basingstoke Canal
References
External links
Fleet Town Council
Towns in Hampshire
Civil parishes in Hampshire
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235247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass%20rubbing | Brass rubbing | Brass rubbing was originally a largely British enthusiasm for reproducing onto paper monumental brasses – commemorative brass plaques found in churches, usually originally on the floor, from between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. The concept of recording textures of things is more generally called making a rubbing. What distinguishes rubbings from frottage is that rubbings are meant to reproduce the form of something being transferred, whereas frottage is usually only intended to use a general texture.
Brass rubbings are created by laying a sheet of paper on top of a brass (then called "latten" - a zinc-copper alloy produced via the obsolete calamine brass process) and rubbing the paper with graphite, wax, or chalk, a process similar to rubbing a pencil over a piece of paper placed on top of a coin. In the past rubbings were most commonly made using the equivalent of what nowadays is called "butcher's paper" [a roll of whitish paper] laid down over the brass and rubbed with "heelball", a waxy glob of black crayon once used to shine shoes. Now most brass rubbers purchase special paper rolls of heavy duty black velvety material, and the crayons are gold, silver or bronze (other colours are available).
Brass plaques are slowly but surely worn away by the rubbing process and in many cases creating rubbings is banned. Brass rubbing centres with replicas of original brass plaques have become a prime source for brass rubbings in the UK. Replicas are often not the same scale as the original.
See also
Bronze and brass ornamental work
References
Monumental Brasses as Art and History ed. Jerome Bertram, published by Alan Sutton.
External links
Monumental Brass Society
History.uk.com's guide to brass rubbing
Beaven Brass Rubbings Collection
Artistic techniques | [
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235248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmissible%20spongiform%20encephalopathy | Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy | Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are a group of progressive and fatal conditions that are associated with prions and affect the brain and nervous system of many animals, including humans, cattle, and sheep. According to the most widespread hypothesis, they are transmitted by prions, though some other data suggest an involvement of a Spiroplasma infection. Mental and physical abilities deteriorate and many tiny holes appear in the cortex causing it to appear like a sponge when brain tissue obtained at autopsy is examined under a microscope. The disorders cause impairment of brain function, including memory changes, personality changes and problems with movement that worsen chronically.
TSEs of humans include Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, kuru, as well as the recently discovered variably protease-sensitive prionopathy and familial spongiform encephalopathy. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease itself has four main forms, the sporadic (sCJD), the hereditary/familial (fCJD), the iatrogenic (iCJD) and the variant form (vCJD). These conditions form a spectrum of diseases with overlapping signs and symptoms.
TSEs in non-human mammals include scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle – popularly known as "mad cow disease" – and chronic wasting disease (CWD) in deer and elk. The variant form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans is caused by exposure to bovine spongiform encephalopathy prions.
Unlike other kinds of infectious disease, which are spread by agents with a DNA or RNA genome (such as virus or bacteria), the infectious agent in TSEs is believed to be a prion, thus being composed solely of protein material. Misshapen prion proteins carry the disease between individuals and cause deterioration of the brain. TSEs are unique diseases in that their aetiology may be genetic, sporadic, or infectious via ingestion of infected foodstuffs and via iatrogenic means (e.g., blood transfusion). Most TSEs are sporadic and occur in an animal with no prion protein mutation. Inherited TSE occurs in animals carrying a rare mutant prion allele, which expresses prion proteins that contort by themselves into the disease-causing conformation. Transmission occurs when healthy animals consume tainted tissues from others with the disease. In the 1980s and 1990s, bovine spongiform encephalopathy spread in cattle in an epidemic fashion. This occurred because cattle were fed the processed remains of other cattle, a practice now banned in many countries. In turn, consumption (by humans) of bovine-derived foodstuff which contained prion-contaminated tissues resulted in an outbreak of the variant form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in the 1990s and 2000s.
Prions cannot be transmitted through the air, through touching, or most other forms of casual contact. However, they may be transmitted through contact with infected tissue, body fluids, or contaminated medical instruments. Normal sterilization procedures such as boiling or irradiating materials fail to render prions non-infective. However, treatment with strong, almost undiluted bleach and/or sodium hydroxide, or heating to a minimum of 134ºC, does destroy prions.
Classification
Features
The degenerative tissue damage caused by human prion diseases (CJD, GSS, and kuru) is characterised by four features: spongiform change, neuronal loss, astrocytosis, and amyloid plaque formation. These features are shared with prion diseases in animals, and the recognition of these similarities prompted the first attempts to transmit a human prion disease (kuru) to a primate in 1966, followed by CJD in 1968 and GSS in 1981. These neuropathological features have formed the basis of the histological diagnosis of human prion diseases for many years, although it was recognized that these changes are enormously variable both from case to case and within the central nervous system in individual cases.
The clinical signs in humans vary, but commonly include personality changes, psychiatric problems such as depression, lack of coordination, and/or an unsteady gait (ataxia). Patients also may experience involuntary jerking movements called myoclonus, unusual sensations, insomnia, confusion, or memory problems. In the later stages of the disease, patients have severe mental impairment (dementia) and lose the ability to move or speak.
Early neuropathological reports on human prion diseases suffered from a confusion of nomenclature, in which the significance of the diagnostic feature of spongiform change was occasionally overlooked. The subsequent demonstration that human prion diseases were transmissible reinforced the importance of spongiform change as a diagnostic feature, reflected in the use of the term "spongiform encephalopathy" for this group of disorders.
Prions appear to be most infectious when in direct contact with affected tissues. For example, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease has been transmitted to patients taking injections of growth hormone harvested from human pituitary glands, from cadaver dura allografts and from instruments used for brain surgery (Brown, 2000) (prions can survive the "autoclave" sterilization process used for most surgical instruments). It is also believed that dietary consumption of affected animals can cause prions to accumulate slowly, especially when cannibalism or similar practices allow the proteins to accumulate over more than one generation. An example is kuru, which reached epidemic proportions in the mid-20th century in the Fore people of Papua New Guinea, who used to consume their dead as a funerary ritual. Laws in developed countries now ban the use of rendered ruminant proteins in ruminant feed as a precaution against the spread of prion infection in cattle and other ruminants.
There exists evidence that prion diseases may be transmissible by the airborne route.
Note that not all encephalopathies are caused by prions, as in the cases of PML (caused by the JC virus), CADASIL (caused by abnormal NOTCH3 protein activity), and Krabbe disease (caused by a deficiency of the enzyme galactosylceramidase). Progressive Spongiform Leukoencephalopathy (PSL)—which is a spongiform encephalopathy—is also probably not caused by a prion, although the adulterant that causes it among heroin smokers has not yet been identified. This, combined with the highly variable nature of prion disease pathology, is why a prion disease cannot be diagnosed based solely on a patient's symptoms.
Cause
Genetics
Mutations in the PRNP gene cause prion disease. Familial forms of prion disease are caused by inherited mutations in the PRNP gene. Only a small percentage of all cases of prion disease run in families, however. Most cases of prion disease are sporadic, which means they occur in people without any known risk factors or gene mutations. In rare circumstances, prion diseases also can be transmitted by exposure to prion-contaminated tissues or other biological materials obtained from individuals with prion disease.
The PRNP gene provides the instructions to make a protein called the prion protein (PrP). Under normal circumstances, this protein may be involved in transporting copper into cells. It may also be involved in protecting brain cells and helping them communicate. 24 Point-Mutations in this gene cause cells to produce an abnormal form of the prion protein, known as PrPSc. This abnormal protein builds up in the brain and destroys nerve cells, resulting in the signs and symptoms of prion disease.
Familial forms of prion disease are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. In most cases, an affected person inherits the altered gene from one affected parent.
In some people, familial forms of prion disease are caused by a new mutation in the PRNP gene. Although such people most likely do not have an affected parent, they can pass the genetic change to their children.
Protein-only hypothesis
Protein could be the infectious agent, inducing its own replication by causing conformational change of normal cellular PrPC into PrPSc. Evidence for this hypothesis:
Infectivity titre correlates with PrPSc levels. However, this is disputed.
PrPSc is an isomer of PrPC
Denaturing PrP removes infectivity
PrP-null mice cannot be infected
PrPC depletion in the neural system of mice with established neuroinvasive prion infection reverses early spongeosis and behavioural deficits, halts further disease progression and increases life-span
Multi-component hypothesis
While not containing a nucleic acid genome, prions may be composed of more than just a protein. Purified PrPC appears unable to convert to the infectious PrPSc form, unless other components are added, such as RNA and lipids. These other components, termed cofactors, may form part of the infectious prion, or they may serve as catalysts for the replication of a protein-only prion.
Spiroplasma hypothesis
There is some disputed evidence for the role of bacteria of the Spiroplasma genus in the etiology of TSEs, primarily due to the work of Frank Bastian. The fact that PrPSc cannot be detected in about 10% of cases of CWD, while Bastian claims to have successfully cultured Spiroplasma spp. from the brains of 100% of deer with CWD and sheep with scrapie, which were able to spread the disease to other ruminants in the absence of PrPSc, has led him and others to suspect that Spiroplasma infection may be the genuine cause of TSEs. Under this hypothesis PrPSc would merely be an imperfect marker of infection (with both sensitivity and NPV <1) either induced by Spiroplasma directly or by a defence mechanism of the host.
Other researchers have found no evidence for the Spiroplasma hypothesis of TSE causation.
Bastian however attributes the inability to find Spiroplasma in 100% of cases to genetic variability.
Bastian also stated that the authors of the hamster study used different primers for their PCR than he did, which could result in a false negative.
Viral hypothesis
This hypothesis postulates that an as of yet undiscovered infectious viral agent is the cause of the disease. Evidence for this hypothesis is as follows:
Incubation time is comparable to a lentivirus
Strain variation of different isolates of PrPSc
An increasing titre of PrPSc as the disease progresses suggests a replicating agent.
Diagnosis
There continues to be a very practical problem with diagnosis of prion diseases, including BSE and CJD. They have an incubation period of months to decades during which there are no symptoms, even though the pathway of converting the normal brain PrP protein into the toxic, disease-related PrPSc form has started. At present, there is virtually no way to detect PrPSc reliably except by examining the brain using neuropathological and immunohistochemical methods after death. Accumulation of the abnormally folded PrPSc form of the PrP protein is a characteristic of the disease, but it is present at very low levels in easily accessible body fluids like blood or urine. Researchers have tried to develop methods to measure PrPSc, but there are still no fully accepted methods for use in materials such as blood.
In 2010, a team from New York described detection of PrPSc even when initially present at only one part in a hundred billion (10−11) in brain tissue. The method combines amplification with a novel technology called Surround Optical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA) and some specific antibodies against PrPSc. After amplifying and then concentrating any PrPSc, the samples are labelled with a fluorescent dye using an antibody for specificity and then finally loaded into a micro-capillary tube. This tube is placed in a specially constructed apparatus so that it is totally surrounded by optical fibres to capture all light emitted once the dye is excited using a laser. The technique allowed detection of PrPSc after many fewer cycles of conversion than others have achieved, substantially reducing the possibility of artefacts, as well as speeding up the assay. The researchers also tested their method on blood samples from apparently healthy sheep that went on to develop scrapie. The animals’ brains were analysed once any symptoms became apparent. The researchers could therefore compare results from brain tissue and blood taken once the animals exhibited symptoms of the diseases, with blood obtained earlier in the animals’ lives, and from uninfected animals. The results showed very clearly that PrPSc could be detected in the blood of animals long before the symptoms appeared.
Epidemiology
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) are very rare but can reach epidemic proportions. It is very hard to map the spread of the disease due to the difficulty of identifying individual strains of the prions. This means that, if animals at one farm begin to show the disease after an outbreak on a nearby farm, it is very difficult to determine whether it is the same strain affecting both herds—suggesting transmission—or if the second outbreak came from a completely different source.
Classic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was discovered in 1920. It occurs sporadically over the world but is very rare. It affects about one person per million each year. Typically, the cause is unknown for these cases. It has been found to be passed on genetically in some cases. 250 patients contracted the disease through iatrogenic transmission (from use of contaminated surgical equipment). This was before equipment sterilization was required in 1976, and there have been no other iatrogenic cases since then. In order to prevent the spread of infection, the World Health Organization created a guide to tell health care workers what to do when CJD appears and how to dispose of contaminated equipment. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have been keeping surveillance on CJD cases, particularly by looking at death certificate information.
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease found in North America in deer and elk. The first case was identified as a fatal wasting syndrome in the 1960s. It was then recognized as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in 1978. Surveillance studies showed the endemic of CWD in free-ranging deer and elk spread in northeastern Colorado, southeastern Wyoming and western Nebraska. It was also discovered that CWD may have been present in a proportion of free-ranging animals decades before the initial recognition. In the United States, the discovery of CWD raised concerns about the transmission of this prion disease to humans. Many apparent cases of CJD were suspected transmission of CWD, however the evidence was lacking and not convincing.
In the 1980s and 1990s, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or "mad cow disease") spread in cattle at an epidemic rate. The total estimated number of cattle infected was approximately 750,000 between 1980 and 1996. This occurred because the cattle were fed processed remains of other cattle. Then human consumption of these infected cattle caused an outbreak of the human form CJD. There was a dramatic decline in BSE when feeding bans were put in place. On May 20, 2003, the first case of BSE was confirmed in North America. The source could not be clearly identified, but researchers suspect it came from imported BSE-infected cow meat. In the United States, the USDA created safeguards to minimize the risk of BSE exposure to humans.
Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) was discovered in 1996 in England. There is strong evidence to suggest that vCJD was caused by the same prion as bovine spongiform encephalopathy. A total of 231 cases of vCJD have been reported since it was first discovered. These cases have been found in a total of 12 countries with 178 in the United Kingdom, 27 in France, five in Spain, four in Ireland, four in the United States, three in the Netherlands, three in Italy, two in Portugal, two in Canada, and one each in Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Taiwan.
History
In the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates described a disease like TSE in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in man. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus records cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the 4th and 5th centuries AD. In 1755, an outbreak of scrapie was discussed in the British House of Commons and may have been present in Britain for some time before that. Although there were unsupported claims in 1759 that the disease was contagious, in general it was thought to be due to inbreeding and countermeasures appeared to be successful. Early-20th-century experiments failed to show transmission of scrapie between animals, until extraordinary measures were taken such as the intra-ocular injection of infected nervous tissue. No direct link between scrapie and disease in man was suspected then or has been found since. TSE was first described in man by Alfons Maria Jakob in the 1921. Daniel Carleton Gajdusek's discovery that Kuru was transmitted by cannibalism accompanied by the finding of scrapie-like lesions in the brains of Kuru victims strongly suggested an infectious basis to TSE. A paradigm shift to a non-nucleic infectious entity was required when the results were validated with an explanation of how a prion protein might transmit spongiform encephalopathy. Not until 1988 was the neuropathology of spongiform encephalopathy properly described in cows. The alarming amplification of BSE in the British cattle herd heightened fear of transmission to humans and reinforced the belief in the infectious nature of TSE. This was confirmed with the identification of a Kuru-like disease, called new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, in humans exposed to BSE. Although the infectious disease model of TSE has been questioned in favour of a prion transplantation model that explains why cannibalism favours transmission, the search for a viral agent is being continued in some laboratories.
References
This entry incorporates public domain text originally from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health and the U.S. National Library of Medicine
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235252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20de%20Sorbon | Robert de Sorbon | Robert de Sorbon (; 9 October 1201 – 15 August 1274) was a French theologian, the chaplain of Louis IX of France, and founder of the Sorbonne college in Paris.
Biography
Born into a poor family in Sorbon, in what is now the Ardennes département, Robert de Sorbon entered the Church and was educated in Reims and Paris. He was noted for his piety and attracted the patronage of the Comte d'Artois and King Louis IX of France, later known as Saint Louis. He became the canon of Cambrai around 1251 before being appointed canon of Paris and the king's confessor in 1258.
Sorbon began to teach around 1253 and in 1257 established the Maison de Sorbonne, a college in Paris originally intended to teach theology to twenty poor students. It was sponsored by King Louis and received the endorsement of Pope Alexander IV in 1259. He was assisted by Peter of Limoges. It subsequently grew into a major centre of learning and became the core of what would become the University of Paris. Sorbon served as chancellor of the university, taught and preached there from 1258 until his death.
He died in Paris in 1274.
The library at the University of Reims, which opened in 2006, is named after Robert de Sorbon.
References
Further reading
Robert de Sorbonne. "Statutes for a College", in The Portable Medieval Reader editedy by James Bruce Ross and Mary Martin McLaughlin.
1201 births
1274 deaths
13th-century French Catholic theologians
University of Paris people | [
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235255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrench | Wrench | A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical advantage in applying torque to turn objects—usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts—or keep them from turning.
In the UK, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand spanner is the standard term. The most common shapes are called open-ended spanner and ring spanner. The term wrench is generally used for tools that turn non-fastening devices (e.g. tap wrench and pipe wrench), or may be used for a monkey wrench—an adjustable pipe wrench.
In North American English, wrench is the standard term. The most common shapes are called open-end wrench and box-end wrench. In American English, spanner refers to a specialized wrench with a series of pins or tabs around the circumference. (These pins or tabs fit into the holes or notches cut into the object to be turned.) In American commerce, such a wrench may be called a spanner wrench to distinguish it from the British sense of spanner.
Higher quality wrenches are typically made from chromium-vanadium alloy tool steels and are often drop-forged. They are frequently chrome-plated to resist corrosion and for ease of cleaning.
Hinged tools, such as pliers or tongs, are not generally considered wrenches in English, but exceptions are the plumber wrench (pipe wrench in British English) and Mole wrench (sometimes Mole grips in British English).
The word can also be used in slang to describe an unexpected obstacle, for example, "He threw a spanner in the works" (in U.S. English, "monkey wrench").
Etymology
'Wrench' is derived from Middle English wrench, from Old English wrenċ, from Proto-Germanic *wrankiz ("a turning, twisting"). First used in 1790.
'Spanner' came into use in the 1630s, referring to the tool for winding the spring of a wheel-lock firearm. From German Spanner (n.), from spannen (v.) ("to join, fasten, extend, connect"), from Proto-Germanic *spannan, from PIE root *(s)pen- ("to draw, stretch, spin").
History
Wrenches and applications using wrenches or devices that needed wrenches, such as pipe clamps and suits of armor, have been noted by historians as far back as the 15th century. Adjustable coach wrenches for the odd-sized nuts of wagon wheels were manufactured in England and exported to North America in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The mid 19th century began to see patented wrenches that used a screw for narrowing and widening the jaws, including patented monkey wrenches.
Most box end wrenches are sold as 12-point because 12-point wrenches fit over both 12-point and 6-point bolts. 12-point wrenches also offer a higher number of engagement points over 6-point. However, 12-point wrenches have been known to round off 6-point bolts as they provide less contact space.
Types
Other types of keys
These types of keys are not emically classified as wrenches by English speakers, but they are etically similar in function to wrenches.
Size designations
Size is usually designated by dimensions such as across-flats distance (inscribed-hexagon size). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it had been common to define the nominal size of the wrench according to the nominal size of the screw thread that it was meant to be used with. Modern practice uses a size designation based on across-flats distance, whether measured in metric or in inch units.
See also
List of screw drives
References
External links
Spanner for Nuremberg hunting wheel-lock pistol c1610 with matching powder flask and built-in key (half-way down page)
Spanner Jaw Sizes Additional background information and spanner jaw size table.
Conversion chart Whitworth/BSF/AF and metric spanner and thread sizes
ER Type Hook Wrenches
Metalworking hand tools
Woodworking hand tools
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235256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskolc | Miskolc | Miskolc ( , , ; Czech and ; ; ; ) is a city in northeastern Hungary, known for its heavy industry. With a population of 161,265 (1 Jan 2014) Miskolc is the fourth largest city in Hungary (behind Budapest, Debrecen, and Szeged). It is also the county capital of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén and the regional centre of Northern Hungary.
Etymology
The name derives from Miško, Slavic form of Michael. Miškovec → Miskolc with the same development as Lipovec → Lipólc, Lipóc. The name is associated with the Miskolc clan (also Miskóc or Myscouch, Slovak Miškovec, plural Miškovci) named after the settlement or vice versa. Earliest mentions are que nunc vocatur Miscoucy (around 1200), de Myschouch (1225), Ponyt de genere Myscouch (1230), in Miscovcy (1245).
Geography
The city lies at the meeting point of different geographical regions – east from the Bükk mountains, in the valley of the river Sajó and the streams Hejő and Szinva. According to the 2001 Census the city has a total area of . The ground level slopes gradually; the difference between the highest and lowest area is about .
The lowest areas are the banks of the river Sajó, with an altitude of . The area belongs to the Great Plain region and is made up of sedimentary rocks. Between the Avas hill and Diósgyőr lies the hilly area of the Lower Bükk () consisting of sandstone, marl, clay, layers of coal, from the tertiary period, and volcanic rocks from the Miocene.
The Central Bükk, a gently sloping mountainous area with an altitude between , is situated between Diósgyőr and Lillafüred; the area is made up of limestone, slate, dolomite and other rocks from the Triassic period. The surface was formed mostly by karstic erosions.
The highest area, the high Higher Bükk bore Bükk Highlands begin at Lillafüred. This mostly consists of sea sediments (limestone, slate, dolomite) from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, and volcanic rocks like diabase and porphyry. Several caves can be found in the area. The city is also known for lowest measured temperature ever in Hungary with .
Climate
Summers are fresh but sometimes warm and humid in Miskolc. Daytime temperatures of or higher are commonplace. Snow and ice are dominant during the winter season. Miskolc receives about 120 centimetres of snowfall annually. Days below freezing and nights below both occur in the winter.
History
The area has been inhabited since ancient times – archaeological findings date back to the Paleolithic, proving human presence for over 70,000 years . Its first known dwellers were the Cotini, one of the Celt tribes. The area has been occupied by Hungarians since the "Conquest" in the late 9th century. It was first mentioned by this name around 1210 AD. The Miskóc clan lost their power when King Charles I centralized his power by curbing the power of the oligarchs.
Miskolc was elevated to the rank of oppidum (market town) in 1365 by King Louis I. He also had the castle of the nearby town Diósgyőr (now a district of Miskolc) transformed into a Gothic fortress. The city developed in a dynamic way, but during the Ottoman occupation of most of Hungary the development of Miskolc was brought to a standstill. The Turks took Miskolc in 1544 and the city prospered further until 1687. It was also ruled by Ottomans after Battle of Mezőkeresztes in 1596 as part of Eyalet of Egir until 1687. It was during these years that Miskolc became an important centre of wine-growing. By the end of the 17th century the population of the city was as large as that of Kassa/Košice, and 13 guilds had been founded.
During the war of independence against Habsburg rule in the early 18th century, Prince Francis II Rákóczi, the leader of the Hungarians put his headquarters in Miskolc. The imperial forces sacked and burnt the city in 1707. Four years later half of the population fell victim of a cholera epidemic. Miskolc recovered quickly, and another age of prosperity began again. In 1724, Miskolc was chosen to be the city where the county hall of Borsod county would be built. Many other significant buildings were built in the 18th and 19th centuries, including the city hall, schools such as Lévay József Református Gimnázium és Diákotthon, churches, the synagogue, and the theatre. The theatre is commonly regarded as the first stone-built theatre of Hungary, although the first one was actually built in Kolozsvár (then a part of Hungary, now Cluj-Napoca, Romania). According to the first nationally held census (1786) the city had a population of 14,719, and 2,414 houses.
These years brought prosperity, but the cholera epidemic of 1873 and the flood of 1878 took many lives. Several buildings were destroyed by the flood, but bigger and grander buildings were built in their places. World War I did not affect the city directly, but many people died, either from warfare or from the cholera epidemic. It was occupied by Czechoslovak troops between 1918 and 1919 after the First World War.
After the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost Kassa (today Košice, Slovakia) and Miskolc became the sole regional center of northern Hungary. This was one of the reasons for the enormous growth of the city during the 1930s and 1940s.
Early in World War II Hungary became an ally of Nazi Germany. Unhappy with the Hungarian government, German troops occupied Hungary on March 19, 1944 and put the anti-semitic Arrow Cross Party in charge of the government. Jews in Miskolc and elsewhere were ordered to wear yellow stars on their clothing. Under the supervision of Nazi SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann, "deportations" from Miskolc began on June 11 or 12th, 1944. Over 14,000 Jewish adults and children were sent by cattle car to Auschwitz, where most were gassed on arrival. After the war Jews who survived the holocaust returned to Miskolc hoping to reclaim their land and possessions. Over 130 were rounded up by members of the local Arrow Cross Party and summarily murdered. The Jewish cemetery on a hill overlooking Miskolc has a memorial for them. It includes the 10 commandments, carved in stone, all written in Hebrew except Thou shall not kill, which is written in Hungarian.
The preparation for World War II established Miskolc as the national centre of heavy industry, a position the city maintained until the 1990s. Although Miskolc suffered a lot during the last year of the war, it recovered quickly, and by absorbing the surrounding villages, it became the second-largest city of Hungary with more than 200,000 inhabitants.
On July 30 and August 1, 1946, the Miskolc pogrom led to death of one accused Jewish black marketeer, the wounding of another, and subsequently the death of a Jewish policeman. Economic hardship and anti-Semitism motivated the riots.
In 1949, the University of Miskolc was founded (as a successor of the Academy of Mining, formerly in Selmecbánya, which is now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia).
During its long history Miskolc survived fires, floods, plagues and foreign invasions, but maintained its position as the centre of northeastern Hungary. The 1990s brought a crisis in the iron industry with a decline in the population.
Miskolc is now trying to become known as a cultural – instead of merely an industrial – city. Among the various cultural events, one of the most important festivities is the International Opera Festival, held in every summer.
Tourist destinations in Miskolc include Tapolca, Lillafüred and Felsőhámor. Tapolca has a park with a boating pond and the unique Cave Bath. Lillafüred and Felsőhámor are pretty villages in a valley surrounded by mountains and forests; their sights include the Hotel Palace on the shore of the Lake Hámori, the Szinva waterfall (the highest waterfall of the country), the Anna Cave and the István Cave.
Historical population
The population (around 1910) is multidenominational and multiethnical, and the differences in the level of education mirrors the stratification of society, following these facts. http://mek.oszk.hu/16900/16992
Economy
Miskolc is generally thought of as an industrial city, and the largest boost to its economy was indeed provided by the industrialization during the Socialist era; in fact industry (including metallurgy) has a long history in the city.
Miskolc was already an important market town in the Middle Ages, mostly due to its proximity to the main trade routes of the region. In regards of the economy, real development started only after the Ottoman occupation. In the 18th century, the town already had a lumber mill, a paper manufacture, a brewery, a gunpowder factory and fifteen mills on the Szinva stream. The glass works manufactures and iron furnaces appeared in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The first iron furnace, built by Henrik Fazola around 1770, did not survive, but the second one, built in 1813, can still be visited. Several new settlements were formed in the Bükk mountains to provide dwellings for the workers of glass works manufactures and furnaces. Many of them – including Alsóhámor, Felsőhámor, Ómassa and Bükkszentlászló – are now parts of Miskolc.
Development quickened from the second half of the 19th century, partly because of the political situation (after the Ausgleich) and partly because of the newly constructed railway line. A large furnace (second largest in the country) was built in Diósgyőr, and several other factories were built. The mining industry became more and more important, too. Within forty years the population doubled. The industrialization led to the forming of Greater Miskolc with the unification of Miskolc and Diósgyőr (1945) and several nearby towns and villages (between 1950 and 1981). The unification was only the first step in Miskolc being developed into an industrial centre. Development reached its highest point in the 1980s, when the metal factory had more than 18,000 workers and production was over one million tons per year. The population hit all-time record (over 200,000 inhabitants), ⅔ of the working people worked in heavy industry.
The economic recession after the end of the Socialist era hit the industrial cities of Northern Hungary the hardest. The unemployment rate rose until it became one of the highest in the country, the population of Miskolc dramatically decreased (not only because of unemployment though, but also due to suburbanization which became prevalent nationwide). The economic situation of the city went through a change, smaller enterprises appeared in place of the large state-owned companies.
By the early 2000s the decade of changes was over, and the city went through the recession successfully. International companies and supermarkets appeared in the area. The local government is trying to strengthen the city's role in culture and tourism. By the end of 2004, the highway M3 had reached the city.
Sports
The most popular sport in Miskolc is football. The leading club of the city is Diósgyőri VTK (short name: DVTK). They have won the Hungarian Cup several times and represented Hungary many times in Europe. The capacity of the stadium, DVTK Stadion, is 26,000 (15,000 of which are in use), but it is now in poor condition due to decay, except for the new grandstand. The new board plans to build a new 15,000-seater stadium with under-soil heating and fully covered stands.
The other team, Miskolci VSC, plays in the county division. Miskolc has got other former first division representatives, namely Miskolci Attila (seven seasons at the highest level), and Perecesi TK (one).
Football teams
Diósgyőri VTK
Miskolci VSC
Miskolci AK
Perecesi TK
Miskolc's most successful women's basketball team, DKSK Miskolc MISI, has won the National Cup twice.
The DVTK Jegesmedvék ice hockey team plays in the Slovak-based Tipsport Liga. The team's home rink, Miskolc Ice Hall, is in the People's Garden downtown. It has 1 304 seats, a total capacity of 2 200, and opened in 2006.
The women's volleyball team of MVSC also plays at the highest Hungarian level.
Speedway Miskolc joined the Polish Second League in 2005 and achieved serious results. They won the 2007 European Speedway Club Champions' Cup with World champion Jason Crump.
City parts of Miskolc
Avas
The Avas is a hill () in the heart of Miskolc. On the hilltop stands the Avas lookout tower, the symbol of the city. On the northern part of the hill, close to downtown Erzsébet Square, is the Gothic Protestant Church of Avas, one of the two oldest buildings of Miskolc (the other is the Castle of Diósgyőr.) The limestone caves of Avas are used as wine cellars; the narrow, winding streets give a Mediterranean atmosphere to this part of Avas Hill. The southern part of Avas, also called Avas-South, is where the largest housing estate of the city stands, with 10-story Socialist-style concrete buildings providing homes for about one-third of the city's population.
Belváros (City centre)
Miskolc's city centre is not as rich in monuments as that of other cities; only the Main Street (Széchenyi St.), Városház tér (City Hall Square) and Erzsébet tér (Elizabeth Square) have preserved the 19th-century style of the town. There are not only historical buildings but also modern shopping malls and offices in the city centre.
Diósgyőr
The other town forming today's Greater Miskolc is mostly famous for its medieval castle. Miskolc's football team also got its name from Diósgyőr, since their stadium stands there. Historical Diósgyőr is connected to Historical Miskolc by a district called Új(diós)győr (Újgyőr); its main square is an important traffic hub. Also in Új(diós)győr (Diósgyőr-Vasgyár) stands the steel factory that made Miskolc the most important heavy industrial city of Hungary (and earned it the nickname "Steel City"). Diósgyőri Gimnázium also stands in this district.
Egyetemváros (University Town)
The University of Miskolc is among the newer ones. It was founded in the 1950s, so its buildings are not old, historical ones. University Town is one of the newer parts of the city and can be found between Miskolc and the holiday resort Miskolctapolca. The university, the campus, and the sport facilities are surrounded by a large park.
Hejőcsaba and Görömböly
Two former villages that were annexed to the city in 1945 and 1950. Görömböly still looks like a small town of its own.
Lillafüred
Another holiday resort, Miskolc-Lillafüred, is a village surrounded by the Bükk mountains. Its most notable building is the Palace Hotel (Palotaszálló).
Martin-Kertváros
Martin-Kertváros (in Slovak: Martinská osada) is a suburban area.
Miskolctapolca
One of the most well-known holiday resorts in the country, Tapolca (officially Miskolctapolca or Miskolc-Tapolca to avoid confusion with the Transdanubian town of the same name) is the home of the unique Cave Bath, a natural cave with thermal water. Tapolca is quite far from the city centre and counts as one of the posh areas of Miskolc. It is a popular tourist attraction.
Alsóhámor, Bükkszentlászló, Felsőhámor, Ómassa, Szirma
These former villages were annexed to the city in 1950 (Bükkszentlászló in 1981) and are still separated villages, connected to the city only by its public transport system.
Main sights
Downtown
Main street and City Hall Square with the atmosphere of Hungarian towns of the 19th century
Gothic Protestant Church of the Avas Hill
Greek Orthodox Church with the largest iconostasis in Central Europe
House of Arts with two art cinemas
Kós House (designed by Károly Kós in Art Nouveau and folk style, 1931)
Mindszent Church
Minorite Church and Heroes' Square
Miskolc-Avas TV Tower
National Theatre of Miskolc
Csodamalom Puppet Theatre
Ottó Herman Museum
Palace of Music
Wooden Church
Diósgyőr
Castle of Diósgyőr (built in the 13th century, had its prime during the reign of Louis the Great; medieval castle plays are held in every August)
Lutheran church of Diósgyőr
Protestant church of Diósgyőr (Baroque, built on the ruins of a mediaeval monastery)
Lillafüred
Anna Cave, István Cave, Szeleta Cave
Hotel Palace
Lake Hámori
Trout Farm
Waterfalls (the highest one in Hungary)
There is a narrow-gauge railway that connects Lillafüred to Miskolc known as the Lillafüredi Állami Erdei Vasút (Lillafüred Forest State Railway). It winds through scenic forests, and takes between a half hour and 45 minutes for the train to go between the two major stops. The Miskolc stop is located in Diósgyőr.
Miskolctapolca
Cave Bath of Miskolctapolca
Near to the city
Bánkút ski resort
Bükk Mountains
Miskolc Zoo
Ruins of the monastery at Szentlélek
Castell Earl Andrassy Tiszadob
Festivals
Diósgyőr Castle Plays (every May and August)
International Soldiers and Military Bands Festival (every two years in August)
Jelly festival (February)
Miskolc Opera Festival (every summer)
Miskolc International Film Festival (every September)
Public transport
Public transport in Miskolc is provided by the company MVK Zrt., owned by the local government. There are 36 bus lines and 2 tram lines. The first tram entered service on July 10, 1897 (making Miskolc the third city in Hungary to have a tram line), the first scheduled bus line started on June 8, 1903 (first in the country as well.) Today the public transport of Miskolc is one of the best ones in Hungary. There are several taxi companies too.
The Lillafüred Forest Train connects Diósgyőr to Lillafüred. It is mainly a tourist attraction.
The city has two railway stations (Tiszai and Gömöri) and a small unpaved airport, which is not open to the public, used mainly as a sports facility and has no role in public transport since 1963.
Politics
The current mayor of Miskolc is Pál Veres (Independent).
The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 28 members (1 Mayor, 19 Individual constituencies MEPs and 8 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:
List of mayors
List of City Mayors from 1990:
Notable individuals
Including people born in Miskolc as well as in Diósgyőr and other city parts that were independent towns at the time of their birth.
Bela Borsody Bevilaqua (1885–1962) Cultural historian
Péter Biros (born 1976) water polo player
Gizella Bodnár, "Airplane Gizi" (1926-2019) thief
Alan A. Brown (1928–2010) economist
Gábor Dayka (1769–1796) poet
Ferenc Demjén (born 1941) singer
Sándor Ferenczi (1873–1933) psychoanalyst
Dezső Földes (1880–1950) 2x Olympic champion saber fencer
Endre Granat (born 1937) violinist
Alexander Grossmann (1909–2003) Swiss writer, journalist
Károly Grósz (1930–1996) politician, president
Dezső Gyarmati (1927–2013) water polo player
Szabolcs Huszti (born 1983) football player
István Jónyer (born 1950) table tennis player
Julius Leopold Klein (1810–1876) German writer
Róza Laborfalvi (1817–1886) actress
Regina Margareten (1863–1959) businesswoman
Dénes Pál (born 1991), singer
László Palóczy (1783–1861) politician
Emeric Pressburger (1902–1988) Academy Award–winning movie director/writer/producer
Ladislau Raffinsky (1905–1981), Romanian football player
Ede Reményi (1828–1898) violinist
Attila Repka (born 1968) wrestler, Olympic champion
Sándor Rónai (1892–1965) politician, president
Anna Rudolf (born 1987) chess player, international master, evangelist and reporter, a.k.a. Miss Strategy
Andrei Șaguna (1809–1873) Romanian political leader, orthodox Metropolitan bishop of Transylvania
Vera Schmidt (born 1982), singer-songwriter
Júlia Sebestyén (born 1981) figure skater, Europe champion
Lőrinc Szabó (1900–1957) poet
Vilmos Vanczák (born 1983) football player
Sándor Puhl (1955–2021) football referee
Szabolcs Huszti (born 1983) footballer
Lived in Miskolc
Ferenc Bessenyei (Hódmezővásárhely, 1919 – Lajosmizse, 2004) actor
Béni Egressy (Sajókazinc, 1814 – Budapest, 1851) composer
Ottó Herman (Breznóbánya, 1835 – Miskolc, 1914) ornithologist, archaeologist, ethnographer
Pavol Országh Hviezdoslav (Felsőkubin, 1849 – Alsókubin, 1921) Slovak poet
Margit Kaffka (Nagykároly, 1880 – Budapest, 1918) writer
Teréz Karacs (Budapest, 1808 – Békés, 1892) pioneer in women's education
Béla Kondor (Pestlőrinc, 1931 – Budapest, 1972) graphic artist
Leo Lánczy (Pest, 1852 – Budapest, 1921) deputy
Ferenc Pulszky (Eperjes, 1814 – Budapest, 1897) politician, archaeologist, writer
Bertalan Szemere (Vatta, 1818 – Budapest, 1869) politician
Gallery
Twin towns – sister cities
Miskolc is twinned with:
Asan, South Korea
Aschaffenburg, Germany
Burgas, Bulgaria
Cleveland, United States
Katowice, Poland
Kayseri, Turkey
Košice, Slovakia
Ostrava, Czech Republic
Tampere, Finland
Yantai, China
See also
Outline of Hungary
Avasi Grammar School
References and notes
Notes
External links
Official sites of the city and city parts
in Hungarian, English and German
Official website of Miskolc tourism
Official website of Miskolc tourist card
Webcams and image galleries
Webcam view of downtown area (interactive cam)
City Hall Square webcam
Webcam view of Hotel Palace, Lillafüred
Aerial photography: Miskolc
Education and culture
Official site of the Castle of Diósgyőr
Opera Festival
University of Miskolc
Other
Miskolc Online
Getting Medieval (an article in the Budapest Sun)
Trams in Miskolc
Miskolc at funiq.hu
Miskolc
Cities with county rights of Hungary
Populated places in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County
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235257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhodka | Nakhodka | Nakhodka () is a port city in Primorsky Krai, Russia, located on the Trudny Peninsula jutting into the Nakhodka Bay of the Sea of Japan, about east of Vladivostok, the administrative center of the krai. Population:
History
The Nakhodka Bay, around which the city is organized, was first known to the Russians on the corvette Amerika, which sought shelter in the bay during a storm in 1859. In honor of this occasion, the ice-free and relatively calm bay was named Nakhodka, which in Russian means "discovery" or "lucky find".
An imperial settlement existed here from 1868 to 1872 but was abandoned following the death of its administrator, Harold Furuhjelm. In the fall of 1870, Otto Wilhelm Lindholm established a whaling station across the bay from the settlement. In the spring of 1871 he fitted out his schooner Hannah Rice and sailed to Posyet, where he caught six gray whales.
Until the 20th century, the area around the bay remained uninhabited, with the first settlement a small fishing village founded in 1907. When the Soviet government decided to build a harbor in the area in the 1930s, a number of small settlements were founded, which were merged as a work settlement in the 1940s. On May 18, 1950, the settlement, by then with a population of about 28,000 residents, was granted town status.
Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with three rural localities, incorporated as Nakhodka City Under Krai Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Nakhodka City Under Krai Jurisdiction is incorporated as Nakhodkinsky Urban Okrug.
Climate
Nakhodka has one of the mildest climates in Primorsky Krai and in the whole of the Asian part of Russia thanks to its southerly location and oceanic influences from the Sea of Japan. Average temperature in January is ; in August (the warmest month), it is . It is classified as a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) due to the vast seasonal differences and is a very cold climate for a coastal location below 43 degrees latitude. The maritime influence is manifested in low diurnal temperature variation and a vast summer seasonal lag. Due to the influence of the interior, there is a sharp drop in temperatures between October and November. Half of the year has mean temperatures above , in spite of the warmest month being only moderately warm and the coldest month having quite severe cold, with a very low seasonal lag in winter.
Economy and infrastructure
The city's economy, based mostly around the port and port-related activity such as fish processing and canning, has suffered since 1991 as Vladivostok was opened to foreign activity again. Local industry also took a hit during the 1998 Russian financial crisis. However, Nakhodka has been declared a free economic zone, and the governments in both Moscow (federal) and Vladivostok (regional) have seemed interested in opening the city further to foreign investment.
Nakhodka is also an important transport junction where goods from Japan are transferred from ships onto the Russian railway system, including the Trans-Siberian Railway portion of the Eurasian Land Bridge.
Vostochny Port, the largest stevedoring company in the country, is headquartered in the city.
Sports
FC Okean Nakhodka was the only professional sport club in the city. It spent the 1992 and 1993 seasons in the Russian Premier League, although the club later folded and was refounded in the amateur leagues. It is also the home town of association football player Viktor Fayzulin.
Twin towns and sister cities
Nakhodka has the following sister city relationships:
First Soviet Union-Japan sister city
References
Notes
Sources
Port cities and towns in Russia
Seaside resorts in Russia
Ports and harbours of the Russian Pacific Coast
Populated coastal places in Russia | [
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235258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw%20cap | Screw cap | A screw cap or closure is a common type of closure for bottles, jars, and tubes.
Usage
A screw closure is a mechanical device which is screwed on and off of a "finish" on a container. Either continuous threads or lugs are used. It must be engineered to be cost-effective, to provide an effective seal (and barrier), to be compatible with the contents, to be easily opened by the consumer, often to be reclosable, and to comply with product, package, and environmental laws and regulations. Some closures need to be tamper resistant and have child-resistant packaging features. A tamper-evident band is a common tamper warning for screw caps of bottles, for example.
Wine industry
Screw caps' use as an alternative to cork for sealing wine bottles is gaining increasing support. A screw cap is a metal cap that screws onto threads on the neck of a bottle, generally with a metal skirt down the neck to resemble the traditional wine capsule ("foil"). A layer of plastic (often PVDC), cork, rubber, or other soft material is used as wad to make a seal with the mouth of the bottle.
Sake industry
Sake bottles are almost universally closed with screw caps (some are packed in barrels, or novelty bottles).
See also
Bottle cap
Child-resistant packaging
Closure & Container Manufacturers Association
Closure (container)
Flip-top
Packaging
Permeation
Screw cap (wine)
GPI container finish standards which includes screw caps for glass containers.
Sources
Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002,
Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009,
Prlewe, J. Wine from Grape to Glass. NY: Abbeville Press, 1999.
Wayne J. Mortensen and Brian K. Marks, The Failure of a Wine Closure Innovation: A Strategic Marketing Analysis,
ASTM D3474 Standard Practice for Calibration and Use of Torque Meters Used in Packaging Applications
External links
New Zealand Screw Cap Initiative
Wine packaging and storage
Packaging | [
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235259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linge | Linge | The Linge is a river in the Betuwe that is 99.8 km long, which makes it one of the longest rivers that flow entirely within the Netherlands.
It starts near the village Doornenburg near the German border. A legend tells us that if there will be no more pigs grazing at the castle of Doornenburg, the river will dry out. The Linge flows to Zoelen, a small village north of Tiel and from there on meanders through the Betuwe, to end in the Boven Merwede near Gorinchem. Until Geldermalsen the river is little more than a small, canalised stream. From Geldermalsen on however, it begins to look like a real river complete with dikes and small floodplains. The Linge provides idyllic spots at old towns like Asperen and Leerdam as both have the city walls still in shape at the side of the river.
The river was once a branch of the river Waal, being cut off at Tiel in 1307 or thereabouts (some traces of this can still be seen). The river is navigable for small vessels and is a popular destination for boaters. The banks of the river are important breeding grounds for waterfowl.
This river used to be an important trade route in old days. This role has nowadays been taken by the Rhine and Waal rivers.
Railroad bridges (with nearest train station on the left and right bank):
between Elst and Arnhem
between Opheusden and Kesteren
between Kesteren and Tiel
between Geldermalsen and Culemborg/Beesd
The river crosses seven motorways:
Four times the A15 (Rotterdam-Nijmegen)
Once the A2 (Utrecht-Eindhoven)
Once the A50 (Arnhem-Eindhoven)
Once the A325 (Arnhem-Nijmegen)
The riverbanks in the Betuwe are lined with apple orchards, which make it popular with tourists, particularly in spring; the fruit trees are in blossom. In April, a walking tour is organised in support of the Red Cross, the so-called 'Rode Kruis Bloesemtocht'.
External links
www.lingelandschap.nl
Rivers of Gelderland
Rivers of South Holland
Rivers of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta
Rivers of the Netherlands | [
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235261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Taranaki%20War | First Taranaki War | The First Taranaki War (also known as the North Taranaki War) was an armed conflict over land ownership and sovereignty that took place between Māori and the New Zealand government in the Taranaki district of New Zealand's North Island from March 1860 to March 1861.
The war was sparked by a dispute between the government and Māori landowners over the sale of a property at Waitara, but spread throughout the region. It was fought by more than 3,500 imperial troops brought in from Australia, as well as volunteer soldiers and militia, against Māori forces that fluctuated between a few hundred and about 1,500. Total losses among the imperial, volunteer and militia troops are estimated to have been 238, while Māori casualties totalled about 200, although the proportion of Māori casualties was higher.
The war ended in a ceasefire, with neither side explicitly accepting the peace terms of the other. Although there were claims by the British that they had won the war, there were widely held views at the time they had suffered an unfavourable and humiliating result. Historians have also been divided on the result. Historian James Belich has claimed that the Māori succeeded in thwarting the British bid to impose sovereignty over them, and had therefore been victorious. But he said the Māori victory was a hollow one, leading to the invasion of the Waikato.
In its 1996 report to the Government on Taranaki land claims, the Waitangi Tribunal observed that the war was begun by the Government, which had been the aggressor and unlawful in its actions in launching an attack by its armed forces. An opinion sought by the tribunal from a senior constitutional lawyer stated that the Governor, Thomas Gore Browne, and certain officers were liable for criminal and civil charges for their actions. The term "First Taranaki War" is opposed by some historians, who refer only to the Taranaki Wars, rejecting suggestions that post-1861 conflict was a second war. The 1927 Royal Commission on Confiscated Land also referred to the hostilities between 1864 and 1866 as a continuation of the initial Taranaki war.
Background
The catalyst for the war was the disputed sale of 600 acres (2.4 km2) of land known as the Pekapeka block, or Teira's block, at Waitara. The block's location perfectly suited European settlers' wish for a township and port to serve the north of the Taranaki district and its sale was viewed as a likely precedent for other sales that would open up for settlement all land between New Plymouth and the Waitara River. Pokikake Te Teira, a minor chief of the Te Atiawa iwi, first offered the land to the New Zealand government in 1857, immediately attracting the vehement opposition of the paramount chief of the tribe, Wiremu Kīngi, who declared a veto on the plan. Teira's sale was, however, supported by Ihaia Kirikumara and his brother Tamati, who wrote letters to newspapers claiming that European occupation would allow returned slaves to live in security and lessen the chance that Waikato war parties would return.
Governor Browne felt obliged to resist the veto; he insisted Māori had the right to sell if they wished, and was also keen to demonstrate support for a friendly chief over an individual who was resisting the authority of the Crown and the expansion of European law. Browne accepted the purchase with full knowledge of the circumstances and tried to occupy the land, anticipating it would lead to armed conflict. A year earlier Browne had written to the Colonial Office in England, advising: "I have, however, little fear that William King (Kingi) will venture to resort to violence to maintain his assumed right, but I have made every preparation to enforce obedience should he presume to do so."
Although the pressure for the sale of the block resulted from the colonists' hunger for land in Taranaki, the greater issue fuelling the conflict was the Government's desire to impose British administration, law and civilisation on the Māori as a demonstration of the substantive sovereignty the British believed they had gained in the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi. The hastily written Māori translation, however, had given Māori chiefs an opposing view that the English had gained only nominal sovereignty, or "governorship" of the country as a whole while Māori retained "chieftainship" over their lands, villages and treasures.
By 1860, it was tacitly recognised that British law prevailed in the settlements and Māori custom elsewhere, though the British, who by then outnumbered Māori, were finding this fact increasingly irksome. One commentator observed, with reference to Waitara: "We seem to be fast approaching a settlement of that point, whether Her Fair Majesty or His Dark Majesty shall reign in New Zealand." The British were convinced that their system represented the best that civilization had to offer and saw it as both their duty and their right to impose it on other peoples.
However, in the 20 years since the signing of the Treaty, the Māori had made significant political advances. They had moved from being a collection of independent tribes to an effective confederation known as the Māori King Movement, which was centred on the Waikato region, but which had influence over large areas of the North Island. One of the uniting principles of the King Movement was their opposition to the sale of Māori land and the concomitant spread of British sovereignty.
The settlement of New Plymouth—at the time "a line of wooden houses straggling untidily along the waterfront and intersected by bush-filled gullies which provided perfect cover for an attacking party"—was deemed vulnerable to assault by hostile Māori because of tensions over land sales and a detachment of British troops had been placed in the settlement in 1855. The killing of Katatore, an opponent of land selling at Waitara, in January 1858—which in turn sparked more feuding among local Māori and threats of a revenge massacre at Waitara by Kingi—prompted the formation of the Taranaki Militia in 1858 and Taranaki Volunteer Rifle Company in 1859.
Battle at Te Kohia
Teira was paid a £100 deposit for the land in December 1859. When Māori obstructed surveyors as they began work on the block, Browne responded by declaring martial law throughout Taranaki on 22 February 1860. Two days later a deed for the sale of the disputed Pekapeka block was executed, with 20 Māori signatories of Te Teira's family accepted as representing all owners of the land.
On 4 March, Browne ordered Colonel Charles Emilius Gold, commanding the 65th Regiment, the Taranaki Militia and the Taranaki Rifle Volunteers, to occupy the disputed block of land at Waitara in preparation for a survey. Four hundred men landed at Waitara the next day to fortify a position and the survey of the land began on 13 March without resistance.
On the night of 15 March, however, Kingi and about 80 men built an L-shaped pā, or defensive strong point, at Te Kohia, at the south-west extremity of the block, commanding the road access. The next day, they uprooted the surveyors' boundary markers and when ordered the following day, 17 March, to surrender, they refused. Gold's troops opened fire and the Taranaki wars had begun.
Gold's troops, by then numbering almost 500, poured in heavy fire all day from as near as 50 metres, firing 200 rounds from two 24-pound howitzers as well as small arms fire. Despite the firepower, the Māori suffered no casualties and abandoned the pā that night. Though it was small—about 650 square yards—the pā had been situated so that it was difficult to surround completely and had also been built with covered trenches and 10 anti-artillery bunkers, roofed with timber and earth, that protected its garrison.
The British objective at Waitara had been a rapid and decisive victory that would destroy the main enemy warrior force, checking and crippling Māori independence and asserting British sovereignty. That mission failed and the Te Kohia clash ended as little more than a minor skirmish with a result that disappointed English settlers.
Yet for Māori, too, the engagement had strong symbolic importance. Outnumbered and outgunned, Kingi needed to draw allies from several places, but by Māori tikanga, or protocol, support would not be offered to an aggressor. Te Kohia pa, hastily built and just as quickly abandoned, appeared to have been built for one purpose: to provide plain evidence of the Governor's "wrong". The aggressor having been identified, others were then free to launch reprisals under utu laws.
Within days, Māori war parties began plundering the farms south of New Plymouth, killing six settlers who had not taken refuge in the town. Fearing an attack on New Plymouth was imminent, the British withdrew from Waitara and concentrated around the town.
Battle of Waireka
The military action at Waitara brought the result Kingi had been hoping for and within 10 days of the Te Kohia battle, about 500 warriors from the Taranaki, Ngati Ruanui and Nga Rauru iwi converged on the New Plymouth area to provide support. The warriors built an entrenched and stockaded pā named Kaipopo on one of the hills at Waireka, about 8 km southwest of New Plymouth and 4 km from the Omata stockade that lay on the road to the town. The area was scattered with some houses built by European settlers, and on 27 March, five settlers, including two boys, were either shot or tomahawked in the Omata district.
Tensions in New Plymouth quickly climbed and settlers with large families were ordered, under martial law, to evacuate to the safety of the town. Among those who remained in the Omata area were the Rev. Henry Brown, the Rev. Thomas Gilbert and several others who were either French or Portuguese. All felt safe: both ministers were treated by Māori as tapu or untouchable, while the others were confident the Māori grievance was with only the British.
About 1 pm on 28 March, a British force of about 335 men—28 Navy, 88 from the British 65th Regiment, 103 members of the newly formed Taranaki Rifle Volunteers and 56 from a local militia—set off in two columns to ostensibly rescue those who had remained behind. It would be the first occasion on which a British Volunteer corps engaged an enemy on the battlefield.
Captain Charles Brown, in command of the settlers, was ordered to march down the coast until he reached the rear of the Māori positions at Waireka. The Regulars, under Lieut-Colonel G.F. Murray, marched down the main road to Omata, intending to dislodge a war party reported to be at Whalers Gate, north of Omata. Once the road was clear, it was intended they would be joined by the Volunteers and militia, who would rescue the settlers, before marching back to New Plymouth. Because of the heightened state of fear in New Plymouth, however, Murray had been ordered to return his troops to the town before nightfall. The Volunteers were armed with muzzle-loading Enfield rifles and the militia had old smooth-bore muskets from the 1840s, with each man issued with just 30 rounds of ammunition.
Murray met no resistance at Whalers Gate, but as he approached Waireka he heard the sound of rapid firing towards the coast. He entrenched his men and opened fire on the Kaipopo pā with a rocket tube. The gunfire Murray heard was being exchanged between about 200 Māori warriors—who, armed mostly with double-barrel shotguns and some rifles, were firing from the cover of bush and flax in the river gully—and the militia and Volunteers, who had retreated to the safety of the farmhouse of settler John Jury. Most of the battle took place on the flat farm land below the pa.
About 5.30 pm, Murray sounded the bugle for a retreat, withdrawing his Regulars for the march back to New Plymouth so they could arrive before dark. His withdrawal left the settler force, which had already suffered two killed and eight wounded, isolated at the farmhouse with little ammunition and late in the night, carrying their casualties, they scrambled across paddocks to the Omata stockade, arriving about 12.30 am, before returning to New Plymouth.
Late in the afternoon, meanwhile, Captain Peter Cracroft, commander of HMS Niger, had landed 60 bluejackets at New Plymouth and marched via Omata to Waireka, encountering Murray as he prepared to retreat. Cracroft's troops fired 24-pound rockets into the pā from a distance of about 700 metres and stormed it at dusk, tearing down three Māori ensigns. The first man into the pā was leading seaman William Odgers, who was awarded a Victoria Cross for bravery–the first awarded in the New Zealand wars. Cracroft's men then returned to New Plymouth, without making contact with the settler force, who were still at the Jury farmhouse. The storming of the pā was the second stage of the battle. Most or all or the Maori casualties—between 17 and 40—occurred during the first stage of fighting around the gully and Jury homestead, according to Cowan.
Cracroft was lauded as a hero for his mission, with claims of the number of Māori killed by his troops ranging from 70 to 150. Total European losses were 14 killed and wounded. Historian James Belich has claimed the pā was more of a camp and all but empty and the total Māori casualties amounted to no more than one. He described the "legend" of Waireka as a classic example of the construction of a paper victory, with invented claims of "enormous" losses and a great British victory.
The settlers, apparently overlooked in the fracas, watched the action from their house and the next day made their own way to New Plymouth, where Gilbert said: "It was no wish of ours that an armed expedition should be set on foot on our behalf. We were perfectly safe."
Murray was widely condemned for his actions in withdrawing his troops and a court of inquiry was convened into his conduct.
Battle of Puketakauere
On 20 April 1860 Browne ordered a suspension of hostilities against Taranaki Māori, fearing the intervention of the King Movement and a possible attack on Auckland. He knew he lacked the resources to defend Auckland if troops were engaged in Taranaki. Both Kingi and the Government made repeated diplomatic approaches to King Pōtatau Te Wherowhero seeking his allegiance, but by early May Pōtatau seemed to have decided to offer at least token support to Taranaki Māori, sending a Kingite war party to the district under the control of war chief Epiha Tokohihi. Kingi seized the opportunity to spark a confrontation with the imperial government to demonstrate the viability of resistance and draw stronger Kingite support.
Early in June, Atiawa war chief Hapurona began building a stockaded pā, Onukukaitara, adjacent to an ancient, and apparently unpopulated and unfortified, pā known as Puketakauere. The two pā were sited on a pair of low hills 800m southeast of Te Kohia and 1.6 km south of the garrison known as Camp Waitara (site of the modern town of Waitara), which had been established to protect the surveying of Waitara. The pā posed a military threat to the Waitara garrison and was seen as extreme provocation.
On 23 June, a British reconnaissance party approached the pā, in what may have been an attempt to bait the Māori, and was fired on. Colonel Gold immediately authorised an attack. Before dawn on 27 June, the British commander at Waitara, Major Thomas Nelson, marched out with 350 experienced troops and two 24-pound howitzers to storm the pā, which was defended by about 200 Atiawa.
The troops intended to encircle the two hills, cutting off a path of retreat for the Māori, before destroying Onukukaitara, above the flax-covered stockade of which flew a flag. The troops split into three divisions for the march. Nelson led the main body of almost 180 men and the two howitzers on an approach from the north, intending to bombard the stockade from the south-west. A second division of 125 men, led by Captain William Messenger, was given the more difficult task of approaching the area in darkness through a swampy gully and high fern and scrub to the east, taking possession of the apparently deserted Puketakauere, blocking the path of any possible reinforcements and supporting Nelson's efforts against the main target. His approach was made more challenging by the heavy mid-winter rain that had deepened the swamp. The remaining division, about 60 men under Captain Bowdler, was to take up a position on a mound between the pā and Camp Waitara, blocking an escape to the north.
About 7 am, Nelson's howitzers began pounding their target, but created only a small breach in the fort. His men then approached the pā across open ground, but came under heavy fire from Māori concealed just metres away in deep trenches in a small natural gully. The attack was described by some survivors as "hotter than anything in the great Indian battles or in the attack on the Redan in the Crimea".
As they came under fire, Messenger's division found itself the target of other Māori who ambushed them from outlying trenches on the fern-covered slopes. Messenger's division became disordered and was split into groups. Many troops were tomahawked in the swamp or drowned as they fled to the flooded Waitara River. Most of the wounded were abandoned and many of those were hacked to death. A group of survivors with Messenger managed to join Nelson, who sounded the retreat, while others remained hiding in the swamp and fern and returned to camp later.
Puketakauere was both the most important and most disastrous battle of the First Taranaki War for the British, who suffered losses of 32 killed and 34 wounded, almost one in five of the force engaged. It was also one of the three most clear-cut defeats suffered by imperial troops in New Zealand. Despite claims at the time that the British killed between 130 and 150 of the enemy, Māori casualties were estimated to be just five, including two Maniapoto chiefs.
Colonel Gold came under heavy criticism for the defeat. He was accused of cowardice and stupidity and an attempt was made to persuade the senior militia officer to arrest him. He was subsequently replaced by Major-General Thomas Pratt.
The real reason for the Māori victory, however, was a combination of tactics and engineering techniques. Hapurona had enticed the British to fight at a place of his own choosing and then used the twin ploys of deception and concealment. He created a false target for the British artillery with the fortification of Onukukaitara which, despite its flag and flax-covered stockade, was essentially an empty pā. Māori defences were instead concentrated on the old, apparently unfortified pā, where deep trenches concealed the well-armed warriors until the British were almost at point-blank range. When the British were split into two groups at the two hills, Hapurona was also able to switch warriors from each focus of action, forcing the British to fight two battles while the Māori fought just one.
In the wake of the demoralising loss, the central portion of New Plymouth was entrenched and most women and children were evacuated to Nelson, out of fear the town would be attacked. The garrison was reinforced with almost 250 soldiers from the 40th Regiment, sent from Auckland, as well as additional artillery.
In July Browne convened a month-long conference of chiefs at Kohimarama, Auckland, ostensibly to discuss the Treaty of Waitangi, but with an aim to halt the conflict at Waitara. Browne opened the conference by explaining that the treaty guaranteed racial equality, but he also warned that violating allegiance to the Crown would negate the rights of British citizenship under the treaty. Among the resolutions adopted was one in which chiefs "are pledged to do nothing inconsistent with their declared recognition of the Queen's sovereignty, and the union of the two races," and that they would halt all actions that would tend to breach that covenant. Author Ranginui Walker noted: "The Maori were too trusting. There was no reciprocal promise extracted from the Governor to abide by the Treaty." Another resolution proposed by Maori "kingmaker" Wiremu Tamihana, which "deprecates in the strongest manner the murders of unarmed Europeans committed by the Natives now fighting at Taranaki", was also passed.
Further clashes
From August to October 1860, there were numerous skirmishes close to New Plymouth, including one on 20 August involving an estimated 200 Māori, just 800 metres from the barracks on Marsland Hill. Many settlers' farms were burned and the village of Henui, 1.6 km from town, was also destroyed. Several farmers and settlers, including children, were killed by hostile Māori as they ventured beyond the town's entrenchments, including John Hurford (tomahawked at Mahoetahi on 3 August), Joseph Sarten (shot and tomahawked, Henui, 4 December), Captain William Cutfield King (shot, Woodleigh estate, 8 February 1861) and Edward Messenger (shot, Brooklands, 3 March). There were frequent skirmishes around Omata and Waireka, where extensive trenches and rifle pits were dug on the Waireka hills to threaten a British redoubt on the site of the Kaipopo pā.
With British forces in Taranaki boosted to about 2,000 by July, the British intensified efforts to crush resistance. Governor Browne was particularly worried that a general uprising would occur while the bulk of troops in the country were concentrated in Taranaki and he appealed to Britain and Australia for more reinforcements. Major Nelson, meanwhile, destroyed several Te Atiawa villages including Manukorihi, Tikorangi and Ratapihipihi, Pratt launched a major attack with 1,400 men near Waitara on 9 September, burning and looting four entrenched villages, and in October, he marched with a force of more than 1,000 to the Kaihihi River at Ōkato to conduct an operation with sapping and heavy artillery to destroy several more pā. On 6 November, a party of between 50 and 150 Ngati Haua Kingites were routed in a surprise attack by 1,000 troops at Mahoetahi.
There were some humiliating setbacks for the British, however, with 1,500 troops retreating from a small Māori force at Huirangi on 11 September and a force of 500 suffering casualties in an ambush while destroying a pā on 29 September.
Kingite warriors continued to travel between Taranaki and Waikato, providing a peak force of about 800 in January 1861, with weapons and ammunition being bought on the black market in Auckland, Waiuku and Kawhia, while in Taranaki posts at Omata, the Bell Block, Waireka and Tataraimaka were garrisoned – with each of those often surrounded by a cordon of pā.
Pratt's sapping campaign
In December 1860, Major-General Pratt began operations against a major Māori defensive line called Te Arei ("The barrier") on the west side of the Waitara River, barring the way to the historic hill pā of Pukerangiora. The principal defences were Kairau and Huirangi, skilfully engineered lines of rifle-pits, trenches and covered walkways. Backed with heavy artillery and a force of 900 men, Pratt advanced from Waitara on 29 December towards the Matarikoriko pā, between Puketakauere and the Waitara River, before building a redoubt on the old Kairau pā under heavy day-long fire from bush-covered rifle pits 150m away. Both sides exchanged heavy fire the next day, with British troops expending 70,000 rounds of rifle ammunition and 120 rounds of shot and shell and suffering three deaths and 20 wounded. The pā was captured on 31 December after being abandoned, and a stockade and blockhouses built on the site for a garrison of 60.
A second redoubt, No.2, was built in 11 hours on 14 January 500m past the Kairau redoubt and garrisoned by 120 men with artillery. Four days later, Pratt and a force of 1,000 moved out another 400m to build Redoubt No.3, which was garrisoned with 300 men and made the headquarters of the 40th Regiment.
At 3.30 am on 23 January 1861, No.3 Redoubt was stormed by a force of 140 warriors of Ngati Haua, Ngati Maniapoto, Waikato and Te Atiawa, led by Rewi Maniopoto, Epiha Tokohihi and Hapurona. Fierce fighting at close quarters, involving rifles, bayonets, shotgun, hand grenades and tomahawks, took place over the newly built parapet and in the boundary trench and lasted until daylight when British reinforcements arrived from Redoubt No.1. British losses in the fight were five killed and 11 wounded. Māori losses were estimated at 50.
From 22 January, the day before the attack on No.3 Redoubt, Pratt began employing the Royal Engineers to systematically apply the technique of sapping to advance towards Te Arei. Excavating through night and day under frequent fire, Pratt's sap extended 768 yards and crossed the rifle pits of the Huirangi pā, prompting Māori to abandon the pā and fall back on Pukerangiora. Despite widespread criticism for his slowness and caution, Pratt pressed on towards Te Arei, creating the most extensive field-engineering works ever undertaken by British troops in New Zealand. Five more redoubts were built as the saps continued to the edge of the cliff above the Waitara River, but ceased after the intervention of Kingite chief Wiremu Tamihana, who helped negotiate a truce. A ceasefire was formally effected on 18 March 1861, ending the first phase of the Taranaki War. For his actions on 18 March, Colour-Sergeant John Lucas was awarded the Victoria Cross.
By early 1861, settler opinion was evenly divided on Browne's stance against Māori and the fairness of the Waitara purchase and many believed the British had little hope of wearing the enemy down with further military campaigns. Even Pratt expressed doubts the war could be won. The district had also suffered great economic hardship, with immigration all but coming to a stop and the destruction of three-quarters of farmhouses at Omata, Bell Block, Tataraimaka, and settlements nearer the town.
Casualties
239 British soldiers were killed or wounded during the war, and 120 people had died due to disease in New Plymouth, due to the cramped conditions. Māori casualties were often exaggerated by colonial authorities, however at least 99 Māori died or were injured during the campaign, with most losses coming from Waikato Tainui (predominantly Ngāti Maniapoto, Ngāti Hauā and Ngāti Mahuta). Ngāti Ruanui chief Te Rei Hanataua of the Tangahoe hapū, who was killed during the Battle of Waireka.
Historical site preservation
In June 2016 the New Plymouth District Council announced it had paid $715,000 to a private seller for Te Kohia Pa near Waitara. The council said it would work with Te Atiawa governance entity Te Kotahitanga o Te Atiawa on a development plan for the site that could include memorials, heritage and cultural tourism and educational developments. Mayor Andrew Judd said the site was regarded as an extension of the Puke Ariki museum. The pa's exact location on the Devon Road site will be determined by archaeological investigations once a house on the land has been relocated.
See also
Beauchamp Seymour, Commander of the Naval Brigade
Donald McLean, Land Purchase Commissioner
History of New Plymouth
Invasion of the Waikato
New Zealand wars
Second Taranaki War
Thomas Simson Pratt, British General
Waitara, New Zealand
Footnotes
References
Further reading
Alexander, David, et al. (eds.). Waitara Campaign Historic Trail. Wellington: Department of Lands and Survey.
Day, Kelvin (ed.)(2010). Contested ground : the Taranaki Wars, 1860–1881 = Te whenua i tohea. Wellington: Huia
Belich, James (1996) Making peoples. Penguin Press.
Gilbert, Thomas (1861). New Zealand Settlers and Soldiers; or, The War in Taranaki: Being Incidents in the Life of a Settler. London: A. W. Bennett. (ENZB). Gilbert was a Baptist minister who migrated to Taranaki with his family in 1851. They farmed at Omata and were caught up in the events of the war and witnessed the fighting at Waireka. They later fled to Nelson. Gilbert’s book covers the early period of the war with an appendix incorporating newspaper accounts.
Maxwell, Peter (2000). Frontier, the battle for the North Island of New Zealand. Celebrity Books.
Prickett, Nigel (2002). Landscapes of Conflict. Random House.
Simpson, Tony (1979). Te Riri Pakeha. Hodder and Stoughton.
Sinclair, Keith (ed.) (1996). The Oxford illustrated history of New Zealand (2nd ed.) Wellington: Oxford University Press.
Stowers, Richard (1996). Forest rangers. Richard Stowers.
Vaggioli, Dom Felici (2000). History of New Zealand and its inhabitants, Trans. J. Crockett. Dunedin: University of Otago Press. Original Italian publication, 1896.
"The people of many peaks: The Māori biographies". (1990). From The dictionary of New Zealand biographies, Vol. 1, 1769–1869. Bridget Williams Books and Department of Internal Affairs, New Zealand.
Carey, Robert "The Second Maori War"1863
External links
Taranaki wars
New Zealand Wars
Conflicts in 1860
Conflicts in 1861
1860 in New Zealand
1861 in New Zealand | [
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235262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontline%20%28American%20TV%20program%29 | Frontline (American TV program) | Frontline (stylized as FRONTLINE) is an investigative documentary program distributed by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the United States. Episodes are produced at WGBH in Boston, Massachusetts. The series has covered a variety of domestic and international issues, including terrorism, elections, environmental disasters, and other sociopolitical issues. Since its debut in 1983, Frontline has aired in the U.S. for 39 seasons, and has won critical acclaim and awards in broadcast journalism. It has produced over 750 documentaries from both in-house and independent filmmakers, 200 of which are available online.
Format
The program debuted in 1983, with NBC anchorwoman Jessica Savitch as the show's first host, but Savitch died later after the first-season finale. PBS NewsHours Judy Woodruff took over as host in 1984, and hosted the program for five years, combining her job with a sub-anchor place on The MacNeil-Lehrer NewsHour when Jim Lehrer was away. In 1990, episodes of Frontline began airing without a host, and the narrator was left to introduce each episode.
Most Frontline reports are an hour in length, but some are extended to 90 minutes, 2 hours, or beyond. Frontline also produces and transmits such occasional specials as From Jesus to Christ, The Farmer's Wife, and Country Boys.
Since 1995, Frontline has been producing deep-content, companion web sites for all of its documentaries. The program publishes extended interview transcripts, in-depth chronologies, original essays, sidebar stories, related links and readings, and source documents including photographs and background research. Frontline has made many of its documentaries available via streaming Internet video, from its website.
Will Lyman is the distinctive voice who has narrated most of the installments of the program since its inception in 1983. However, certain reports have been narrated by David Ogden Stiers and Peter Berkrot.
"The Choice"
Since 1988, Frontline has also aired "The Choice": a special edition aired during the lead-up to the presidential election every four years, focusing on the Democratic and Republican candidates contending for the office of President of the United States. An installment aired on October 14, 2008, using a dual-biography format for Barack Obama and John McCain. The 2008 documentary, produced by Michael Kirk, generated favorable reviews from The New York Times, which stated that the program helped viewers "gain perspective" about the "idea-oriented campaign", and Los Angeles Times, which labeled it "refreshingly clear" and "informative".
A subsequent episode aired on October 9, 2012, and featured the same dual biography tracing the lives and careers of incumbent President Barack Obama and his challenger, Mitt Romney. The following episode aired on September 27, 2016, and featured the biography of Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump. "The Choice 2020" is the most recent installment and aired on September 22, 2020, featuring Joe Biden and Donald Trump.
Production
The show is produced by the WGBH Educational Foundation, the parent company of WGBH-TV in Boston, which is solely responsible for its content. WGBH is the creator of the Documentary Consortium, with another four PBS stations, including WNET in New York and KCTS in Seattle.
In 2015, the creator and founding executive producer of Frontline, David Fanning, retired after more than 32 years as executive producer of the program, and Raney Aronson-Rath succeeded him in senior grade. Fanning, however, remains editor-at-large of Frontline as a founding member.
On September 14, 2017, the program launched its first-ever podcast called The Frontline Dispatch. The podcast is a production of PBS and WGBH in Boston alongside PRX.
Frontline/World
Frontline/World is a spin-off program from Frontline, first transmitted on May 23, 2002, which was transmitted four to eight times a year on Frontline until it was canceled in 2010. It focused on issues from around the globe, and used a "magazine" format, where each hour-long episode typically had three stories that ran about 15 to 20 minutes in length. Its tagline was: Stories from a small planet.
Initially a co-production of WGBH, Boston and KQED, San Francisco, Frontline/World was later based in part at the University of California Berkeley's Graduate School of Journalism, where the program's producers recruited a new generation of reporters and producers to the Frontline program.
Frontline/World also streamed stories on its website, which won two Webby awards in 2008 for its original program of online videos called "Rough Cuts". In 2005, the Overseas Press Club of America gave the program its Edward R. Murrow Award for the best TV coverage of international events, citing producers David Fanning, Stephen Talbot, Sharon Tiller and Ken Dornstein. The program broke new ground in 2007 by winning two Emmys; one of these was for a broadcast story, "Saddam's Road to Hell", and the other was for an online video, "Libya: Out of the Shadow".
Critical reception
Frontline has received generally positive reviews from television critics and parents of young children. David Zurawik of the Baltimore Sun wrote that the episode "Inside the Meltdown", was "one of the finest hours of non-fiction TV that I have seen". Vern Gay of Newsday wrote that "The Card Game" episode, "bores down to the hard, cold truth" and is "journalism at its best." Sean Gregory of Time wrote about the episode, "League of Denial", that it was "a first-rate piece of reporting". David Zurawik of the Baltimore Sun wrote about the episode "The Rise of ISIS", that it was "superb and daring work". Alasdair Wilkins of The A.V. Club wrote, "hardest-hitting show on television". Margaret Sullivan, the media columnist of The Washington Post wrote of the episode, "The Choice 2016", "utterly-fair and completely riveting". Vern Gay of Newsday wrote that the show is "authoritative and comprehensive". David Zurawik of the Baltimore Sun wrote that the episode "Trump's Showdown", "is as good as long-form, non-fiction television gets". Chris Barton of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Frontline has a "well-earned reputation for unflinching, in-depth examinations of social issues and current events".
Awards and results
Other Frontline reports focus on political, social, and criminal justice issues. Ofra Bikel, who has been a producer for Frontline since the first season, has produced a significant number of films on the criminal justice system in the United States. The films have focused on issues ranging from post-conviction DNA testing, the use of drug snitches and mandatory minimum sentencing laws, the plea system, and the use of eyewitness testimony. As a result of the films, 13 people have been released from prison.
After the September 11 attacks, the White House requested a copy of "Hunting Bin Laden". In 1999, Frontline had produced this in-depth report about Osama bin Laden and the terrorist network that would come to be known as Al-Qaeda in the wake of the 1998 United States embassy bombings. Following the September 11 attacks, Frontline produced a series of films about Al-Qaeda and the War on Terrorism. In 2002, the program was awarded the DuPont-Columbia gold baton for the seven films.
In 2003, Frontline and The New York Times joined forces on "A Dangerous Business", an investigation led by reporter Lowell Bergman into the cast iron pipe making industry and worker safety. OSHA officials credit the documentary and newspaper report with stimulating federal policy change on workplace safety. In 2004, the joint investigation was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service.
Producer Michael Kirk's Frontline documentaries have won multiple awards. These films include "League of Denial: The NFL's Concussion Crisis" (Peabody Award, 2013), "Cheney's Law" (Peabody Award, 2007), "The Lost Year in Iraq" (Emmy Award, 2006), "The Torture Question" (Emmy Award, 2005), "The Kevorkian File" (Emmy Award), and "Waco: The Inside Story" (Peabody Award).
Director Martin Smith has produced dozens of films for Frontline, and won both Emmy and Writers Guild of America awards. His 2000 film Drug Wars was the winner of the Outstanding Background/Analysis of a Single Current Story Emmy and the George Foster Peabody Award. Additionally, Separated: Children at the Border, for which he was writer and correspondent, also won a 2018 Peabody Award.
Other notable producers of multiple Frontline documentaries have included Sherry Jones, Marian Marzynski, Miri Navasky, Karen O'Connor, June Cross, Neil Docherty, Stephen Talbot, Raney Aronson, Rachel Dretzin, James Jacoby and Rick Young.
As of July 2016, Frontline has won a total of 75 Emmy Awards and 18 Peabody Awards. In 2020, Frontline was also awarded an Institutional Peabody Award.
Episodes
See also
Timothy Grucza, an award-winning cinematographer for Frontline
Guy Lawson, a contributor to Frontline
List of programs broadcast by PBS
Wide Angle
References
External links
Frontline/World
Full chronological list on PBS/Frontline site
1983 American television series debuts
1980s American documentary television series
1980s American television news shows
1990s American documentary television series
1990s American television news shows
2000s American documentary television series
2000s American television news shows
2010s American documentary television series
2010s American television news shows
2020s American documentary television series
2020s American television news shows
English-language television shows
PBS original programming
Peabody Award-winning television programs
Television series by WGBH | [
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235263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eel%20Pie%20Island | Eel Pie Island | Eel Pie Island is an island in the River Thames at Twickenham in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. It is on the maintained minimum head of water above the only lock on the Tideway and is accessible by boat or from the left (generally north) bank by footbridge. The island had a club that was a major venue for jazz and blues in the 1960s.
Name and former names
The name may have come from eel pies which were served by the inn on the island in the 19th century. Its earlier names chronologically were the Parish Ait and Twickenham Ait, the latter co-existing until at least the 1880s. Before the 19th century it was for many centuries three parts – the core of each safely above high water, if not narrowly separate which a map of 1607 figures them as.
History
Early history
Some mesolithic red deer antler bone hand-made implements have been retrieved from the island's shore.
Eel Pie House
An inn was on the Ait by 1743 and in the 19th century it was a popular stopping point for steamer excursions. When a new inn was built in 1830 to replace it, the former venue was alternatively called a "dingy wooden cottage" or an "unassuming but popular little barn".
Samuel Lewis's national gazetteer of 1848 devotes a large minority of the text covering Twickenham to the island; saying it is:
Extent and access
The ait is recorded in at least two distinct parts in detailed maps until the end of the 19th century; the west part was built up in height and measured . Its named features were a large Boat House, the Island Hotel, a bowling green in the west and the Thames Electric & Steam Launch Works. The east end is marked with marsh plantation and liable to flood; it was in the same maps measured at . Together the parts form the same isle as today.
A bridge was proposed to Middlesex County Council or the Metropolitan Borough of Twickenham in 1889. A set of rope pulleys operated in the early 20th century for assisting transporting light goods. It was not until 1957 that the first bridge to the ait was built.
Eel Pie Island Hotel
The island was the site of the Eel Pie Island Hotel, originally a genteel 19th-century three-storey building that later hosted ballroom dancing during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1956, trumpeter Brian Rutland, who ran a local band called The Grove Jazz Band, started jazz sessions at the newly reopened hotel. Some time afterwards, Arthur Chisnall took over the running of the club and continued to promote various jazz bands and then, in the 1960s, rock and R&B groups.
Famous names who performed at the dance hall between 1957 and 1967 include:
Long John Baldry's Hoochie Coochie Men (including Rod Stewart)
Acker Bilk
Ken Colyer
Cyril Davies Rhythm & Blues All Stars
The Downliners Sect
John Mayall's Bluesbreakers (featuring Eric Clapton)
George Melly
The Rolling Stones
Screaming Lord Sutch
The Tridents (featuring Jeff Beck)
The Who
The Yardbirds
Pink Floyd
In 1967, the hotel was forced to close because the owner could not meet the £200,000 cost of repairs demanded by police. In 1969, the club briefly reopened as Colonel Barefoot's Rock Garden, with bands such as Black Sabbath, The Edgar Broughton Band, Stray, Genesis, and Hawkwind (then known as Hawkwind Zoo) performing there.
Caldwell Smythe (entrepreneur, vocalist, ex-Riot Squad and, briefly, The Honeycombs) said: "I approached the owner, Mr Snapper, who lived in Kingston and we agreed a rental deal. I called it Colonel Barefoot's Rock Garden and plastered west London with quad crown posters." Smythe booked bands such as Edgar Broughton, Free, Deep Purple, King Crimson, Genesis, Wishbone Ash and Mott The Hoople. Smythe said: "There were two stages: the headliner was on the big stage and the support on the small stage with the light show projectionist above it. We had a bar doing tea, soft drinks, hot dogs and hamburgers. We then did Colonel Barefoot's Killer Punch (cider, cooking brandy and cinnamon) and we gave it away along with beer in half pint plastic disposable cups. I had rows with the fire department as the emergency exits were chained shut to stop people bunking in. Eventually, after a raid by the Fire Chief, I closed down and walked. I was living in Chiswick at this time."
In 1969, the hotel was occupied by a small group of local anarchists including illustrator Clifford Harper. By 1970 the Eel Pie Island Commune had become the UK's largest hippie commune.
The building had by now fallen into disrepair and was placed under a demolition order. However, in 1971 the Eel Pie Island Hotel burned down in a mysterious fire.
The centre of the island was devastated by fire in 1996, and a year later, the only footbridge to the island was damaged by a utilities contractor. A new footbridge opened in August 1998.
Description and uses
The island has about 50 homes, 120 inhabitants and two or three boatyards, as well as some other small businesses and artists' studios. It has nature reserves at both ends, protected from public access. All plots and walkways are privately owned. The public can access a foreshortened central path, blocked by fences and front gardens from any river views.
Artists
For brief periods each year, usually in June and December, 26 studios in and around a working boatyard, collectively known as Eel Pie Island Art Studios, open to the public, enabling them to enjoy and buy the artists' works.
Water sports
The island is home to Twickenham Rowing Club, one of the oldest rowing clubs on the Thames, and Richmond Yacht Club.
In media, the arts and literature
Books
David Frome, The Eel Pie Murders (1933; repub. 1960), in the "Mr Pinkerton" series, features amateur sleuth Evan Pinkerton, a Welsh widower, and his friend, Chief Inspector J. Humphrey Bull of Scotland Yard.
Ben Aaronovitch, Rivers of London (2011), novel
Ayize Jama-Everett, The Liminal War (2015), second novel in the "Liminal World" trilogy, multiple scenes
Ian Marchant. A Hero for High Times (2018)
Ransom Riggs, "The Pigeons of Saint Paul's", in Tales of the Peculiar (2016), short stories
Television
Absolutely Fabulous: (1990s) Funny Fashion: Edina's mother inquires whether she has gone to Eel Pie Island again.
How To Start Your Own Country (2005) presenter Danny Wallace claims to be "Leader" of the island after invading it via the footbridge. After a few hours, the Metropolitan Police Service forced him to give the island back peacefully to Queen Elizabeth II.
Eel Pie Island Hotel, a 30-minute slot shown frequently on the TV channel Together
Radio
Sherlock Holmes, 6 June 1948: The Complicated Poisoning at Eel Pie Island. Sherlock Holmes and Watson arrive on Eel Pie Island for a glass of rum and find a poisoning murder.
Associated places
The Eel Pie Studios, also known as the Oceanic Studios, occupies The Boathouse, Twickenham on the mainland nearby. When owned by Pete Townshend it was adapted and used for international top 100-charting pop and rock recordings. Townshend's publishing company, Eel Pie Publishing, is also named after the ait.
The Eel Pie pub-restaurant in Church Street, Twickenham is named after the former hotel on the island.
The consumer electronics accessory company Tech21 had its headquarters on the island until July 2020.
Image gallery
Despite its small size, Eel Pie Island has a wide variety of building styles.
Notable residents and former residents
Original Doctor Who'' actor William Hartnell lived in a house on the island during the 1960s
Indie band Mystery Jets
Inventor Trevor Baylis
Comedy actor Nigel Planer
See also
Eel pie
Eel Pie Island Museum
Islands in the River Thames
References
Further reading
External links
The Twickenham Museum – Eel Pie Island
Eel Pie Island Museum
Eel Pie Island – collection of hippie memoirs & pics from the 1960s
Mystery Jets official website
Official website of LBC 97.3 presenter Steve Allen
YouTube video of an open day on the island
The Eel Pie Club
History piece on NPR
Eel Pie Island TV
Site dedicated to the musical legacy of Eel Pie Island
Areas of London
Geography of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames
History of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames
Islands of London
Islands of the River Thames
Music in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames
Squats in the United Kingdom
Twickenham | [
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235279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinque%20Ports | Cinque Ports | The Confederation of Cinque Ports () is a historic group of coastal towns in Kent, Sussex and Essex. The name is Old French, meaning "five harbours".
It was originally formed for military and trade purposes, but is now entirely ceremonial. The ports lie on the western shore of the English Channel, where the crossing to the European continent is narrowest. They were:
Hastings
New Romney
Hythe
Dover
Sandwich
Rye, originally a subsidiary of New Romney, was raised to full status as one of the Cinque Ports after New Romney was damaged by the severe 1287 storm; its harbour silted up, and the River Rother shifted course closer to Rye. As a result, New Romney rapidly lost importance in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
Other towns of the Cinque Ports
Other towns also contribute to the confederation, including two ancient towns, and seven limbs.
Ancient towns
The five ports are supported by the two so-called ancient towns of Rye and Winchelsea, whose councils traditionally maintained defence contingents for the realm of England.
Limbs
Apart from the five ports and the two ancient towns, there are seven other members of the Confederation, which are considered to be limbs of the other towns. These are:
Lydd (Limb of New Romney)
Folkestone (Limb of Dover)
Faversham (Limb of Dover)
Margate (Limb of Dover)
Deal (Limb of Sandwich)
Ramsgate (Limb of Sandwich)
Tenterden (Limb of Rye)
Connected towns
There are in addition some 23 towns, villages and offices that have varying degrees of connection to the ancient Liberties of the Cinque Ports. They are expressly mentioned in the Magna Carta of 1297 (clause 9).
The coastal confederation during its mediaeval period consisted of a confederation of 42 towns and villages in all. These include:
Limbs of Hastings – Grange (now part of Gillingham, Kent), Bekesbourne, Bulverhythe, Northeye (former village in Sussex), Eastbourne, Hydney (now Hampden Park, part of Eastbourne), Pebsham (small village between Bulverhythe and Bexhill-on-Sea [then as Bexhill]), Pevensey and Seaford (in Sussex)
Limbs of Sandwich – Reculver, Sarre, Fordwich, Walmer, Stonar (near Richborough), and Brightlingsea (in Essex). Brightlingsea, is the only town north of the Thames Estuary in the confederation.
Limbs of Dover – Birchington, St. Johns (part of Margate), St. Peters, Ringwould, Woodchurch and Kingsdown
Limbs of Hythe – West Hythe
Walmer, Ramsgate
History of the Ports
Formation, duties and privileges
The origins of the Cinque Ports can be traced back to Anglo-Saxon times, when certain south-east ports were granted the local profits of justice in return for providing ships. By 1135, the term Cinque Ports had come into use; and in 1155 a Royal Charter established the ports to maintain ships ready for the Crown in case of need. The chief obligation laid upon the ports, as a corporate duty, was to provide 57 ships for 15 days' service to the king annually, each port fulfilling a proportion of the whole duty. In return the towns received the following privileges:
That is to say, a degree of self-government, legal jurisdiction, and financial advantage. The associated ports, known as "limbs", were awarded the same privileges.
It is sometimes said that the rationale behind the granting of these privileges, and their maintenance and extension over several centuries, was the need for the Crown to have a guaranteed supply of men and ships in time of war (as in the Welsh campaign of 1282); and that the Cinque Ports therefore played an important role in the development of the Royal Navy. However, N. A. M. Rodger questions whether the arrangement was ever intended to raise any genuinely effective naval provision, and shows that the Cinque Ports did not contribute to English strength at sea significantly more than other English ports of similar size. He argues rather that the original package of privileges may have been granted in the 11th century by Edward the Confessor out of a need to purchase the loyalty of a group of potentially troublesome ports that were of strategic importance to the control of cross-Channel traffic.
The five head ports and two ancient towns were entitled to send two Members to Parliament. A Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports was appointed, an office frequently (and eventually permanently) combined with that of Constable of Dover Castle. The joint office survives to the present day, but is now a purely honorary title, with an official residence at Walmer Castle. The towns also had their own system of courts. In medieval documents, Hastings sometimes appears to be given pre-eminence among the ports (for example, the charters granted to Rye and Winchelsea by Henry II in 1155 refer to "The Barons of Hastings and the Cinque Ports"), but this usage may simply have arisen from geographical convenience, with the ports being conventionally listed in order from west to east.
The leeway given to the Cinque Ports, and the turning of a blind eye to misbehaviour, led to smuggling, though common everywhere at this time, becoming more or less one of the dominant industries.
Barons
All Freemen of the ports, termed "portsmen", were deemed in the age of feudalism to be barons, and thus members of the baronage entitled to attend the king's parliament – a privilege granted in 1322 in recognition of their earlier support of the Despensers, father and son. Termed "Barons of the Cinque Ports", they reflected an early concept that military service at sea constituted land tenure making them quasi feudal barons. The early-14th-century treatise Modus Tenendi Parliamentum stated the Barons of the Cinque Ports to hold a place of precedence below the lay magnates (Lords Temporal) but above the representatives of the shires and boroughs (Knights of the Shire and burgesses). During the deposition of Edward II, the chronicles made a specific point of noting the presence of the Barons in the embassy of deposition – "praecipue de portubus ... barones des Portez" ('especially the [Cinque] Ports ... the barones of the Ports'). Writs of summons to parliament were sent to the warden following which representative barons of the Cinque Ports were selected to attend parliament. Thus the warden's duty in this respect was similar to that of the sheriff who received the writs for distribution to the barons in the shires. The existence of common (i.e. communal) seals of the barons of the individual ports (see illustration) suggests they formed a corporation as the seal was designed to be affixed to charters and legal documents which would bind them as a single body. This no doubt related to their privileges as monopolies. The warden and barons often experienced clashes of jurisdiction.
In the 21st century the title "Baron of the Cinque Ports" is now reserved for Freemen elected by the Mayor, Jurats and Common Council of the Ports to attend a coronation and is solely honorary in nature. "Since time immemorial", the barons had held the right to hold a canopy above the monarch during the procession on foot between Westminster Hall and Westminster Abbey. This procession was discontinued after the Coronation of George IV in 1821, but for the Coronation of Edward VII in 1902 the barons were found a new role. They were to process inside the abbey as far as the choir and there receive the banners of the monarch's realms, a function which they have repeated at every coronation since.
Changes in composition
As time went by and some ports declined or silted up, others were added. Rye and Winchelsea were attached to Hastings as "Ancient Towns" in the 12th century, and later became members in their own right. The following "corporate limbs" were added in the 15th century: Lydd, Faversham, Folkestone, Deal, Tenterden, Margate and Ramsgate. Other places associated with the Cinque Ports and sometimes described as "non-corporate limbs" included Bekesbourne, Birchington, Brightlingsea, Fordwich, Pevensey, Reculver, Seaford, Stonor and Walmer. At one time there were 23 limbs.
Decline
The continuing decline of the confederation of the Cinque Ports may be ascribed to a variety of different circumstances. While they survived the raids from the Danes and the French, the numerous destructive impact of plagues, and the politics of the 13th-century Plantagenets and the subsequent War of the Roses, natural causes such as the silting of harbours and the withdrawal of the sea did much to undermine them. The rise of Southampton, and the need for larger ships than could be crewed by the 21-man service of the ports, also contributed to the decline.
Although by the 14th century the confederation faced wider challenges from a greater consolidation of national identity in the monarchy and Parliament, the legacy of the Saxon authority remained. Even after the 15th century, the Ancient Towns continued to serve with the supply of transport ships.
During the 15th century, New Romney, once a port of great importance at the mouth of the river Rother (until it became completely blocked by the shifting of sands during the South England flood of February 1287), was considered the central port in the confederation, and the place of assembly for the Cinque Port Courts, the oldest such authority being vested in the "Kynges high courte of Shepway", which was being held from at least 1150. It was here that from 1433 the White (1433–1571) and Black (1572–1955) Books of the Cinque Port Courts were kept.
Much of Hastings was washed away by the sea in the 13th century. During a naval campaign of 1339, and again in 1377, the town was raided and burnt by the French, and went into a decline during which it ceased to be a major port. It had no natural sheltered harbour. Attempts were made to build a stone harbour during the reign of Elizabeth I, but the foundations were destroyed by the sea in storms.
New Romney is now about a mile and a half from the seafront. It was originally a harbour town at the mouth of the River Rother. The Rother estuary was always difficult to navigate, with many shallow channels and sandbanks. In the latter part of the thirteenth century a series of severe storms weakened the coastal defences of Romney Marsh, and the South England flood of February 1287 almost destroyed the town. The harbour and town were filled with sand, silt, mud and debris, and the River Rother changed course, now running out into the sea near Rye, Sussex. New Romney ceased to be a port.
Hythe is still on the coast. However, although it is beside a broad bay, its natural harbour has been removed by centuries of silting.
Dover is still a major port.
Sandwich is now from the sea and no longer a port.
Ongoing changes in the coastline along the south east coast, from the Thames estuary to Hastings and the Isle of Wight inevitably reduced the significance of a number of the Cinque port towns as port authorities. However, ship building and repair, fishing, piloting, off shore rescue and sometimes even "wrecking" continued to play a large part in the activities of the local community.
By the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the Cinque Ports had effectively ceased to be of any real significance, and were absorbed into the general administration of the Realm. Queen Elizabeth I sanctioned the first national lottery that was held in 1569 in an effort to raise funds for the crumbling Cinque Ports. With the advance in shipbuilding techniques came a growth in towns such as Bristol and Liverpool and the wider development of ports such as London, Gravesend, Southampton, Chichester, Plymouth and the royal dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth, Greenwich, Woolwich and Deptford. A further reason for the decline of many older ports may be ascribed to the development of the railway network across Britain, and the increased quantity of overseas trade it could distribute from the new major ports developing from the 18th century.
Local government reforms and Acts of Parliament passed during the 19th and 20th centuries (notably the Reform Act 1832) have eroded the administrative and judicial powers of the Confederation of the Cinque Ports, when New Romney and Winchelsea were disenfranchised from Parliament, with representation provided through their counties alone, while Hythe and Rye's representation was halved.
In 1985, HMS Illustrious established an affiliation with the Cinque Ports. In 2005, the affiliation was changed to HMS Kent.
Heraldry
The distinctive heraldic emblem of the Cinque Ports is the front half of a lion joined to the back of a ship, seen in the coats of arms of several towns, and also in the heraldic banner (flag) of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. This was originally created by heraldic dimidiation.
Cinque Ports Acts 1811 to 1872
The Cinque Ports Acts 1811 to 1872 is the collective title of the following Acts:
The Cinque Ports Act 1811 (51 Geo 3 c 36)
The Cinque Ports Act 1821 (1 & 2 Geo 4 c 76)
The Cinque Ports Act 1828 (9 Geo 4 c 37)
The Pilotage Law Amendment Act 1853 (16 & 17 Vict c 129)
The Cinque Ports Act 1855 (18 & 19 Vict c 48)
The Cinque Ports Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict c 1)
The Cinque Ports Act 1869 (32 & 33 Vict c 53)
The Merchant Shipping Act 1872 (35 & 36 Vict c 73 s 10)
See also
Pentapolis
Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports
Channel Ports
Hanseatic League, the confederation of coastal and other merchant cities in Central Europe
References
Bibliography
External links
Cinque Ports' official site
Website for Romney Marsh and New Romney
Website for the Cinque Port Liberty of Brightlingsea Essex
As Parliamentary Constituencies
Geography of Kent
Thanet
Dover District
Transport in Swale
Medieval Kent
Geography of Sussex | [
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235281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano%20Sonata%20No.%2012%20%28Mozart%29 | Piano Sonata No. 12 (Mozart) | The Piano Sonata No. 12 in F major, K. 332 (300k) by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was published in 1784 along with the Piano Sonata No. 10 in C major, K. 330, and Piano Sonata No. 11, K. 331. Mozart wrote these sonatas either while visiting Munich in 1781, or during his first two years in Vienna. Some believe, however that Mozart wrote this and the other sonatas during a summer 1783 visit to Salzburg made for the purpose of introducing his wife, Constanze to his father, Leopold. All three sonatas were published in Vienna in 1784 as Mozart's Op. 6.
Movements
The sonata consists of three movements and takes approximately 18 minutes to perform (25 minutes with repeats).
I. Allegro
The first movement is in a classical sonata form, with repeats for the exposition, the development and recapitulation. There are two basic characteristics exemplified in the first movement: the song-like themes and the combination of styles. Mozart uses diverse styles including galant homophony, learned counterpoint, and even the intense Sturm und Drang style.
The first theme of the exposition begins with a right hand melody over a left hand Alberti bass figure. Next, there is a short melody with the left hand echoing it, while the right hand plays a two-part phrase that includes a Mordent. Immediately following thereafter is parallel motion in both hands in very similar rhythm. A sudden change follows, with the F major key changing into the relative minor key, D minor at measure 23. The second theme (m. 41) begins in the dominant key of C major, is in galant style, and is immediately restated in varied form (m. 49). The remainder of the exposition includes many forte piano dynamics, hemiolas, parallel thirds in the right hand, trills in the right hand, and left hand octaves and broken chords. The exposition ends at measure 93 in C major.
The development section begins at measure 94 with a new melody, focusing on the transitional passage between the second and closing themes in the exposition. As in the exposition, the development includes strikingly similar musical characteristics such as the contrasting forte piano dynamics, hemiolas, left hand octaves, and parallel thirds in the right hand.
The first movement concludes with the recapitulation starting at measure 133, where the first thematic area returns unchanged, the transition modulates to distant harmonies yet closes on the tonic, and the remainder of the exposition returns, transposed into the tonic.
In the 1923 novel Antic Hay by Aldous Huxley, this sonata is the one Gumbril thinks of every time he imagines Emily's body; from his description of the key sequence, he is thinking specifically of the first movement.
II. Adagio
The second movement is in B-flat major in an elaborately ornamented sonatina form. At the beginning, there is a melody accompanied by an Alberti bass figure in the left hand. The next phrase is the same, except the key immediately changes to the parallel minor, B-flat minor. A lyrical passage with a minor descending scale ends with the dominant key. The music then turns happy and joyful, until the end, when the phrases end with a dominant seventh chord of B-flat major, which resolves into the first degree.
In the 1994 film Immortal Beloved, Giulietta Guicciardi is heard playing this piece during a piano lesson with Ludwig van Beethoven.
III. Allegro assai
The last movement is a rollicking virtuoso movement in time signature in the key of F major. It starts with a forte chord and is followed by a passage of fast 16th notes in the right hand. This is directly followed by parallel sixths between the left hand and right hand lower voice, creating a harmony contrasting to the opening single 16th notes passage. There is a change of character in measure 16 where the music is marked dolce and the right hand has a simple melody embellished with ornamentation and back-and-forth contrasting legato to staccato articulations. Measure 22 displays yet another character change, where both hands are playing in unison (one octave apart) forte and staccato while moving in an ascending sixth sequential pattern. The music briefly modulates to D minor through octaves and broken chord patterns. This is then followed by C major (measures 41–49), and then C minor (measures 50–64), before coming back to C major at measure 65 and staying in the dominant key through the end of the exposition. Throughout the entire exposition, Mozart uses the model sequence technique, passages of broken chords, parallel motion, scales, and contrasting dynamics and articulations.
The development section begins at measure 91, restating the theme from the exposition, but in C minor. The first half of the development uses the model sequence technique, repeating a 4-measure idea of continuous 16th notes constructed of a descending scale, followed by parallel sixths between the left and right hand lower voice, followed by a broken dominant seventh chord. This section goes through modulations from C minor, to D major, G major, C major again, F major, and then finally to B major beginning at measure 112. The second half of the development section (starting at measure 112) presents a new melodic theme, followed by several broken chords before finally arriving at a dominant chord at measure 139. It is implied that the music is 'standing on the dominant' from measure 139 until the recapitulation returns at measure 148, ending on a perfect authentic cadence.
The recapitulation presents the first theme unaltered until measure 169. The remaining recapitulation presents the same thematic ideas as the exposition, just in slightly altered versions. It concludes with a pianissimo cadence, strikingly different in comparison to the opening of the movement.
References
External links
(Alte Mozart-Ausgabe version)
Performance by from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format
, Friedrich Gulda, 1990
Piano Sonata 12
1783 compositions
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235284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appoggiatura | Appoggiatura | An appoggiatura ( , ; or ; ) is a musical ornament that consists of an added non-chord note in a melody that is resolved to the regular note of the chord. By putting the non-chord tone on a strong beat, (typically the first or third beats of the measure, in 4/4 time) this accents the appoggiatura note, which also delays the appearance of the principal, expected chord note. The added non-chord note, or auxiliary note, is typically one degree higher or lower than the principal note, and may be chromatically altered. An appoggiatura may be added to a melody in a vocal song or in an instrumental work.
The term comes from the Italian verb , "to lean upon". The appoggiatura is often used to express emotional "yearning". It is also called a long appoggiatura to distinguish it from the short appoggiatura, the acciaccatura. An ascending appoggiatura was previously known as a forefall, while a descending appoggiatura was known as a backfall.
Notation
The appoggiatura is often written as a grace note prefixed to a principal note and printed in small character, usually without the oblique stroke:
This may be executed as follows:
The same notation can be used for other interpretations of the grace note; therefore determining that an appoggiatura is intended depends on performance practice.
An appoggiatura may also be notated precisely as it should be performed, with full-size notes, to reduce ambiguity.
Unaccented appoggiatura
So-called unaccented appoggiaturas are also quite common in many periods of music, even though they are disapproved of by some early theorists (for example, by C. P. E. Bach, in his ). While not being identical with the acciaccatura, these are almost always quite short, and take their time from the allocation for the note that precedes them. They are more likely to be seen as full-size notes in the score, rather than in small character – at least in modern editions.
Double appoggiatura
The double appoggiatura (Ital. Appoggiatura doppia; Ger. Doppelvorschlag; Fr. Port de voix double) is an ornament composed of two short notes preceding a principal note, one placed above and the other below it. They are usually written as small sixteenth notes.
The first of the two may be at any distance from the principal note, but the second is only one degree removed from it. They have no fixed duration, but are generally slower when applied to a long note (Ex. 1) than when the principal note is short (Ex. 2); moreover, the double appoggiatura, in which the first note lies at a distance from the principal note, should always be somewhat slower than that in which both notes are close to it (Ex. 3). In all cases, the time required for both notes is subtracted from the value of the principal note.
The double appoggiatura is sometimes, though rarely, met with in an inverted form (Ex. 4), and C. P. E. Bach mentions another exceptional kind, in which the first of the two small notes is dotted, and receives the whole accent, while the principal note becomes as short as the second of the two small notes (Ex. 5)
The dotted double appoggiatura, written as above, is of very rare occurrence; but it is frequently found in the works of Mozart, Beethoven, etc., written in notes of ordinary size, for example, in the third measure of Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata:
Appoggiaturas approached by step
Although appoggiaturas are often approached by leap and resolved by step, there are examples of approached and resolution both taking place by step.
One such example is present in Schubert's "Wiegenlied" D. 867:
Notes
Ornamentation | [
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235287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric%20oxide | Nitric oxide | Nitric oxide (nitrogen oxide or nitrogen monoxide) is a colorless gas with the formula . It is one of the principal oxides of nitrogen. Nitric oxide is a free radical: it has an unpaired electron, which is sometimes denoted by a dot in its chemical formula (•N=O or •NO). Nitric oxide is also a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, a class of molecules whose study spawned early modern theories of chemical bonding.
An important intermediate in industrial chemistry, nitric oxide forms in combustion systems and can be generated by lightning in thunderstorms. In mammals, including humans, nitric oxide is a signaling molecule in many physiological and pathological processes. It was proclaimed the "Molecule of the Year" in 1992. The 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for discovering nitric oxide's role as a cardiovascular signalling molecule.
Nitric oxide should not be confused with nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a brown gas and major air pollutant, nor with nitrous oxide (N2O), an anesthetic.
Reactions
With di- and triatomic molecules
Upon condensing to a liquid, nitric oxide dimerizes to dinitrogen dioxide, but the association is weak and reversible. The N–N distance in crystalline NO is 218 pm, nearly twice the N–O distance.
Since the heat of formation of •NO is endothermic, NO can be decomposed to the elements. Catalytic converters in cars exploit this reaction:
2 NO → O2 + N2
When exposed to oxygen, nitric oxide converts into nitrogen dioxide:
2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
This reaction is thought to occur via the intermediates ONOO• and the red compound ONOONO.
In water, nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to form nitrous acid (HNO2). The reaction is thought to proceed via the following stoichiometry:
4 NO + O2 + 2 H2O → 4 HNO2
Nitric oxide reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to form the nitrosyl halides, such as nitrosyl chloride:
2 NO + Cl2 → 2 NOCl
With NO2, also a radical, NO combines to form the intensely blue dinitrogen trioxide:
NO + NO2 ON−NO2
Organic chemistry
The addition of a nitric oxide moiety to another molecule is often referred to as nitrosylation. The Traube reaction is the addition of a two equivalents of nitric oxide onto an enolate, giving a diazeniumdiolate (also called a nitrosohydroxylamine). The product can undergo a subsequent retro-aldol reaction, giving an overall process similar to the haloform reaction. For example, nitric oxide reacts with acetone and an alkoxide to form a diazeniumdiolate on each α position, with subsequent loss of methyl acetate as a by-product:
This reaction, which was discovered around 1898, remains of interest in nitric oxide prodrug research. Nitric oxide can also react directly with sodium methoxide, ultimately forming sodium formate and nitrous oxide by way of an N-methoxydiazeniumdiolate.
Coordination complexes
Nitric oxide reacts with transition metals to give complexes called metal nitrosyls. The most common bonding mode of nitric oxide is the terminal linear type (M−NO). Alternatively, nitric oxide can serve as a one-electron pseudohalide. In such complexes, the M−N−O group is characterized by an angle between 120° and 140°. The NO group can also bridge between metal centers through the nitrogen atom in a variety of geometries.
Production and preparation
In commercial settings, nitric oxide is produced by the oxidation of ammonia at 750–900 °C (normally at 850 °C) with platinum as catalyst in the Ostwald process:
4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O
The uncatalyzed endothermic reaction of oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2), which is effected at high temperature (>2000 °C) by lightning has not been developed into a practical commercial synthesis (see Birkeland–Eyde process):
N2 + O2 → 2 NO
Laboratory methods
In the laboratory, nitric oxide is conveniently generated by reduction of dilute nitric acid with copper:
8 HNO3 + 3 Cu → 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 4 H2O + 2 NO
An alternative route involves the reduction of nitrous acid in the form of sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite:
2 NaNO2 + 2 NaI + 2 H2SO4 → I2 + 2 Na2SO4 + 2 H2O + 2 NO
2 NaNO2 + 2 FeSO4 + 3 H2SO4 → Fe2(SO4)3 + 2 NaHSO4 + 2 H2O + 2 NO
3 KNO2 + KNO3 + Cr2O3 → 2 K2CrO4 + 4 NO
The iron(II) sulfate route is simple and has been used in undergraduate laboratory experiments. So-called NONOate compounds are also used for nitric oxide generation.
Detection and assay
Nitric oxide concentration can be determined using a chemiluminescent reaction involving ozone. A sample containing nitric oxide is mixed with a large quantity of ozone. The nitric oxide reacts with the ozone to produce oxygen and nitrogen dioxide, accompanied with emission of light (chemiluminescence):
NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 + hν
which can be measured with a photodetector. The amount of light produced is proportional to the amount of nitric oxide in the sample.
Other methods of testing include electroanalysis (amperometric approach), where ·NO reacts with an electrode to induce a current or voltage change. The detection of NO radicals in biological tissues is particularly difficult due to the short lifetime and concentration of these radicals in tissues. One of the few practical methods is spin trapping of nitric oxide with iron-dithiocarbamate complexes and subsequent detection of the mono-nitrosyl-iron complex with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR).
A group of fluorescent dye indicators that are also available in acetylated form for intracellular measurements exist. The most common compound is 4,5-diaminofluorescein (DAF-2).
Environmental effects
Acid rain deposition
Nitric oxide reacts with the hydroperoxy radical () to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which then can react with a hydroxyl radical (•OH) to produce nitric acid (HNO3):
•NO + → •NO2 + •OH
•NO2 + •OH → HNO3
Nitric acid, along with sulfuric acid, contributes to acid rain deposition.
Ozone depletion
•NO participates in ozone layer depletion. Nitric oxide reacts with stratospheric ozone to form O2 and nitrogen dioxide:
•NO + O3 → NO2 + O2
This reaction is also utilized to measure concentrations of •NO in control volumes.
Precursor to NO2
As seen in the acid deposition section, nitric oxide can transform into nitrogen dioxide (this can happen with the hydroperoxy radical, , or diatomic oxygen, O2). Symptoms of short-term nitrogen dioxide exposure include nausea, dyspnea and headache. Long-term effects could include impaired immune and respiratory function.
Biological functions
NO is a gaseous signaling molecule. It is a key vertebrate biological messenger, playing a role in a variety of biological processes. It is a bioproduct in almost all types of organisms, including bacteria, plants, fungi, and animal cells.
Nitric oxide, an endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), is biosynthesized endogenously from L-arginine, oxygen, and NADPH by various nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes. Reduction of inorganic nitrate may also make nitric oxide. One of the main enzymatic targets of nitric oxide is guanylyl cyclase. The binding of nitric oxide to the heme region of the enzyme leads to activation, in the presence of iron. Nitric oxide is highly reactive (having a lifetime of a few seconds), yet diffuses freely across membranes. These attributes make nitric oxide ideal for a transient paracrine (between adjacent cells) and autocrine (within a single cell) signaling molecule. Once nitric oxide is converted to nitrates and nitrites by oxygen and water, cell signaling is deactivated.
The endothelium (inner lining) of blood vessels uses nitric oxide to signal the surrounding smooth muscle to relax, resulting in vasodilation and increasing blood flow. Sildenafil (Viagra) is a drug that uses the nitric oxide pathway. Sildenafil does not produce nitric oxide, but enhances the signals that are downstream of the nitric oxide pathway by protecting cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from degradation by cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) in the corpus cavernosum, allowing for the signal to be enhanced, and thus vasodilation. Another endogenous gaseous transmitter, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) works with NO to induce vasodilation and angiogenesis in a cooperative manner.
Nasal breathing produces nitric oxide within the body, while oral breathing does not.
Occupational safety and health
In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for nitric oxide exposure in the workplace as 25 ppm (30 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 25 ppm (30 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 100 ppm, nitric oxide is immediately dangerous to life and health.
Explosion hazard
Liquid nitrogen oxide is very sensitive to detonation even in the absence of fuel, and can be initiated as readily as nitroglycerin. Detonation of the endothermic liquid oxide close to its b.p. (-152°C) generated a 100 kbar pulse and fragmented the test equipment. It is the simplest molecule that is capable of detonation in all three phases. The liquid oxide is sensitive and may explode during distillation, and this has been the cause of industrial accidents. Gaseous nitric oxide detonates at about 2300 m/s, but as a solid it can reach a detonation velocity of 6100 m/s.
References
Further reading
Butler A. and Nicholson R.; "Life, death and NO." Cambridge 2003. .
van Faassen, E. E.; Vanin, A. F. (eds); "Radicals for life: The various forms of Nitric Oxide." Elsevier, Amsterdam 2007. .
Ignarro, L. J. (ed.); "Nitric oxide:biology and pathobiology." Academic Press, San Diego 2000. .
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 1311
Microscale Gas Chemistry: Experiments with Nitrogen Oxides
Your Brain Boots Up Like a Computer – new insights about the biological role of nitric oxide.
Assessing The Potential of Nitric Oxide in the Diabetic Foot
New Discoveries About Nitric Oxide Can Provide Drugs For Schizophrenia
Nitric Oxide at the Chemical Database
Free radicals
Gaseous signaling molecules
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Nitrogen oxides
Neurotransmitters
Nitrogen cycle
NMDA receptor antagonists
Orphan drugs
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235288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courage%20Under%20Fire | Courage Under Fire | Courage Under Fire is a 1996 American war film directed by Edward Zwick, and starring Denzel Washington and Meg Ryan. It is the second collaboration between Washington and director Zwick. The film was released in the United States on July 12, 1996, to positive reviews and grossed $100 million worldwide.
Plot
While serving in the Gulf War, Lieutenant Colonel Serling (Denzel Washington) accidentally destroys one of his own tanks during a confusing night-time battle, killing his friend, Captain Boylar (Tim Ransom). The U.S. Army covers up the details and transfers Serling to a desk job.
Later, Serling is assigned to determine if Captain Karen Emma Walden (Meg Ryan) should be the first woman to receive (posthumously) the Medal of Honor. She was the commander of a Medevac Huey helicopter that was sent to rescue the crew of a shot-down Black Hawk helicopter. When Walden encountered a T-54 enemy tank, her crew destroyed it by dropping a fuel bladder onto the tank and igniting it with a flare gun. However, her own helicopter was shot down soon after. The two crews were unable to join forces, and when the survivors were rescued the next day, Walden was reported dead.
Serling notices inconsistencies among the testimonies of Walden's crew. Specialist Andrew Ilario (Matt Damon), the medic, praises Walden strongly. However, Staff Sergeant John Monfriez (Lou Diamond Phillips) claims that Walden was a coward and that he led the crew in combat and improvised the fuel bladder weapon. Sergeant Altameyer (Seth Gilliam), who is dying in a hospital, complains about a fire. Warrant Officer One Rady (Tim Guinee), the co-pilot, was injured early on and unconscious throughout. Furthermore, the crew of the Black Hawk claim that they heard firing from an M16, but Ilario and Monfriez claim it was out of ammo.
Serling is under pressure from the White House and his commander, Brigadier General Hershberg (Michael Moriarty), to wrap things up quickly. To prevent another cover-up, Serling leaks the story to a newspaper reporter, Tony Gartner (Scott Glenn). When Serling grills Monfriez during a car ride, Monfriez forces him to get out of the vehicle at gunpoint, then commits suicide by driving into an oncoming train.
Serling tracks Ilario down, and Ilario finally tells him the truth. Monfriez wanted to flee, which would mean abandoning Rady. When Walden refused, he pulled a gun on her. Walden then shot an enemy who appeared behind Monfriez, but Monfriez thought Walden was firing at him and shot her in the stomach, before backing off. The next morning, the enemy attacked again as a rescue party approached. Walden covered her men's retreat, firing an M16. However, Monfriez told the rescuers that Walden was dead, so they left without her. Napalm was then dropped on the entire area. Altameyer tried to expose Monfriez's lie at the time, but was too injured to speak, and Ilario was too scared of the court-martial Walden had threatened them with and remained silent.
Serling presents his final report to Hershberg. Walden's young daughter receives the Medal of Honor at a White House ceremony. Later, Serling tells the truth to the Boylars about the manner of their son's death and says he cannot ask for forgiveness. The Boylars tell Serling he must release his burden at some point and grant him their forgiveness.
In the last moments, Serling has a flashback of when he was standing by Boylar's destroyed tank and a medevac Huey was lifting off with his friend's body. Serling suddenly realizes Walden was the Huey pilot.
Cast
Denzel Washington as Lieutenant Colonel Nathaniel Serling
Meg Ryan as Captain Karen Emma Walden
Lou Diamond Phillips as Staff Sergeant John Monfriez
Matt Damon as Specialist Andrew Ilario
Bronson Pinchot as Bruno, a White House aide
Seth Gilliam as Sergeant Steven Altameyer
Regina Taylor as Meredith Serling
Michael Moriarty as Brigadier General Hershberg
Željko Ivanek as Captain Ben Banacek
Scott Glenn as Tony Gartner, a Washington Post reporter and Vietnam veteran
Tim Guinee as Warrant Officer One A. Rady
Tim Ransom as Captain Boylar
Sean Astin as Sergeant Patella
Ned Vaughn as First Lieutenant Chelli
Sean Patrick Thomas as Sergeant Thompson
Manny Pérez as Jenkins
Ken Jenkins as Joel Walden
Kathleen Widdoes as Geraldine Walden
Christina Stojanovich as Anne Marie Walden
Tom Schanley as Questioner
Korey Coleman as Cereal Commander
David McSwain as Sergeant Egan
Production
The U.S. Department of Defense withdrew its cooperation for the film so the tanks Serling commanded early in the film were British Centurions shipped from Australia with sheet metal added to make them resemble M1A1 Abrams. These visually modified tanks were subsequently used to simulate the Abrams in several other motion pictures.
ROTC Cadets from Texas A&M University were used as extras in the background in some of the training camp scenes.
The film draws reference to Walden and her crew assisting the crew of a downed Black Hawk helicopter. However, the scene shows the wrecked fuselage of a Huey. This is due to the Department of Defense withdrawing its cooperation. There were no privately owned Black Hawk fuselages available to acquire for the film. The parts of the script making reference to the Black Hawk had already been shot, so rather than change the whole film to adapt it to a Huey, the producers left it as Black Hawk and used a wrecked fuselage of a Huey for the desert shots in the hope not many viewers would notice the discrepancy.
The Iraqi battle scenes were filmed at the Indian Cliffs Ranch just outside El Paso, Texas. Many of the props were left there and became a tourist attraction. The White House Rose Garden set was destroyed twice: once by a tornado, and once by a sandstorm.
In order to lose 40 pounds (18 kilograms) for the later scenes, Matt Damon went on a strict regimen of food deprivation and physical training. On Inside the Actors Studio, Damon said that the regimen consisted of six and a half miles of running in the morning and again at night, a diet of chicken breast, egg whites, and one plain baked potato per day, and a large amount of coffee and cigarettes. His health was affected to the extent that he had to have medical supervision for several months afterwards. His efforts, however, did not go unnoticed; director Francis Ford Coppola was so impressed by Damon's dedication to method acting that he offered him the leading role in The Rainmaker (1997). Steven Spielberg was also impressed by his performance, but thought he was too skinny and discounted him from casting considerations for Saving Private Ryan until he met Damon during the filming of Good Will Hunting, by which time he was back at his normal weight.
Reception
Box office
U.S. domestic gross: US$ 59,031,057
International: $41,829,761
Worldwide gross: $100,860,818
The film opened #3 at the box office behind Independence Day and Phenomenon
Critical response
The film received mostly positive reviews. As of January 14, 2013, the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 85% of critics gave the film a positive review based upon a sample of 53 reviews with an average rating of 7.3/10. The critical consensus states that the film is "an emotional and intriguing tale of a military officer who must review the merits of a fallen officer while confronting his own war demons. Effectively depicts the terrors of war as well as its heartbreaking aftermath." At the website Metacritic, which uses a weighted average rating system, the film earned a generally favorable rating of 77/100 based on 19 mainstream critic reviews.
The movie was commended by several critics. James Berardinelli of the website ReelViews wrote that the film was, "As profound and intelligent as it is moving, and that makes this memorable motion picture one of 1996's best." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times spoke positively of the film saying that while the ending "lays on the emotion a little heavily" the movie had been up until that point "a fascinating emotional and logistical puzzle—almost a courtroom movie, with the desert as the courtroom."
Denzel Washington's acting was specifically lauded, as Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote, "In Washington's haunted eyes, in the stunning cinematography of Roger Deakins (Fargo) that plunges into the mad flare of combat, in the plot that deftly turns a whodunit into a meditation on character and in Zwick's persistent questioning of authority, Courage Under Fire honors its subject and its audience." Additionally Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that "Denzel Washington is riveting."
Accolades
Denzel Washington was nominated for Best Actor at the 1996 Chicago Film Critics Association Awards, but lost to Billy Bob Thornton in Sling Blade.
Historical accuracy
The Medal of Honor had previously been awarded to a woman, Mary Edwards Walker, an American Civil War physician, but not for valor in combat. Walker's award was revoked in 1917, then restored in 1977.
References
External links
Boxoffice information
1996 films
1990s action films
1990s war films
1990s action drama films
American films
American political drama films
American war films
1990s English-language films
Films about armoured warfare
Films directed by Edward Zwick
Films produced by John Davis
Films scored by James Horner
Films set in Iraq
Films set in the United States
Films shot in Connecticut
Films shot in El Paso, Texas
Gulf War fiction
Gulf War films
20th Century Fox films
Davis Entertainment films
Films about the United States Army
1990s political drama films
1996 drama films | [
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235299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan%27s%20Benefit | Orphan's Benefit | Orphans' Benefit is an animated short film produced by Walt Disney Productions in black-and-white. It was first released in 1934 and was later remade in Technicolor in 1941. The cartoon features Mickey Mouse and his friends putting on a Vaudeville-style benefit show for a group of unruly orphans. It contains a number of firsts for Disney, including the first time in which Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck appear together, and it was the 68th Mickey Mouse short film to be released, and the sixth of that year. The short releases a new character-Donald Duck. It was also the cartoon which had the first story to be written that featured Donald Duck, though it was the second Donald Duck short to be produced and released, after The Wise Little Hen.
Orphans' Benefit features original music composed by Frank Churchill. The voice cast includes Walt Disney as Mickey, Clarence Nash as Donald, and Florence Gill as Clara Cluck. The original cartoon was directed by Burt Gillett and distributed by United Artists while the remake was directed by Riley Thomson and distributed by RKO Radio Pictures.
Plot
The mice orphans arrive at a theater for a free show entitled "Mickey's Big Show: Orphan's Benefit." As they file into the building and they are given free lollipops, ice cream, and balloons.
Donald Duck begins the show by reciting "Mary Had a Little Lamb", and then reciting "Little Boy Blue." But when he says "come blow your horn," an orphan loudly blows his nose. He recites it a second time, but this time the orphans blow their noses. Donald loses his temper over his performance being interrupted in this manner and challenges them to fight, but is pulled backstage by an off-screen stagehand.
The next act is Goofy, Horace Horsecollar, and Clarabelle Cow performing an acrobatic dance. Horace dances with Clarabelle and Goofy attempts to catch her but gets his head stuck. Goofy then throws Clarabelle back to Horace. Horace spins Clarabelle around and throws her in Goofy's direction. Goofy catches her dress, pulling it off as she flies past, and Clarabelle closes out the act by hitting Goofy on the head. Donald decides to exact his revenge by reciting "Little Boy Blue" again and blows his own horn before the orphans can respond. An orphan blows ice cream at him to interrupt Donald and the orphans punch Donald into a daze with their boxing gloves. Then, Donald is once again pulled backstage, after performing his infamous temper, all because of provocation.
For the next act, Clara Cluck performs "Chi mi frena in tal momento" from Act II of Gaetano Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor, accompanied by Mickey on piano. When she is unable to reach a high B-Flat note, an orphan fires a slingshot to help finish the song.
During the final act, Donald returns to the stage and quickly recites one line – "Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn" – and waits for the orphans to interrupt him. Yet as they seem well-behaved this time, Donald continues the recitation. But when he says "Where is that boy who looks after the sheep?" the orphans answer in unison "Under the haystack fast asleep, you dope!" causing Donald to lose his temper again. The orphans tie bricks, a plant, a fire extinguisher and eggs onto their balloons, float them over his head, and fire their slingshots. After being laughed by the orphans, Donald ends the show and finally accepts a horrid defeat.
Firsts
Orphans' Benefit was the first appearance of Donald Duck in a Mickey Mouse series film, marking the characters' first joint appearance. Donald had previously appeared only in a Silly Symphonies film.
Although Orphans' Benefit was Donald's second appearance, the film was the first to significantly develop his character. Many of Donald's personality traits first seen in Orphans' Benefit would become permanently associated with him, such as his love of showmanship, his fierce determination, belligerence, and most famously his easily provoked temper. The film also introduced some of Donald's physical antics, such as his signature temper tantrum of hopping on one foot while holding out one fist and swinging the other. This was the creation of animator Dick Lundy who termed this Donald's "fighting pose."
Orphans' Benefit also represented a new direction for Disney cartoons, according to Disney historian Marcia Blitz: "It can be seen that the framework of Orphan's Benefit was traditionally slapstick. Audiences laughed at Donald's physical mishaps much as they laughed at Chaplin's or Keaton's. But in this instance there was the added dimension of Donald's abrasive personality. Surely nothing like it had ever been seen in a cartoon". Animator Ward Kimball who worked on the film called it a "turning point" for the studio, citing its extensive use of character animation which was used to physically convey personality.
The later Disney film Mickey's Amateurs (1937) was directly inspired by Orphans' Benefit. Both films feature stage shows with various acts interspersed with Donald attempting to recite a nursery rhyme.
The film was also the debut of Clara Cluck who would go on to appear in six other cartoon shorts.
Reception
The response of audiences to the film, particularly Donald's character, led to the duck being featured more in future cartoons. Ward Kimball said "the reaction [to Orphans' Benefit] that came pouring into the studio from the country was tremendous[.] The kids in the theater loved or hated or booed Donald Duck."
Voice cast
Mickey Mouse: Walt Disney
Donald Duck: Clarence Nash
Clara Cluck: Florence Gill
Goofy: Pinto Colvig
Remake
In the summer of 1939, in anticipation of Mickey Mouse's 12th anniversary the following year, Walt Disney commissioned a two-reel short film tentatively called Mickey's Revival Party. The plan was for this film to show the characters attending a theater where they would watch scenes from several old, mostly black and white Mickey Mouse films (among them Orphans' Benefit). The story artists envisioned the characters humorously interacting with themselves on the movie screen. This required the old animation footage to be redrawn completely rather than added in its original state.
It was during this process that Walt Disney decided to completely reproduce several of these old shorts in color. It was also an opportunity to update the character models in Technicolour, since many characters had changed in appearance since the early 1930s, such as Donald's duckbill changing shape.
Orphans' Benefit was the first of these films to be remade. The result was an almost exact shot-for-shot version of the original, with added color and redrawn characters and backgrounds. The film was directed by Riley Thomson and used almost the entire original soundtrack, the only change being the final line, from "Aw nuts!" to "Aw phooey!" which had become a catchphrase for Donald by that time. Orphans' Benefit was released to theaters on August 12, 1941 by RKO Radio Pictures.
The next film scheduled for reproduction was Mickey's Man Friday (1935), but it was never completed. The original concept for Mickey's Revival Party was shelved and Orphans' Benefit became the only Disney film to be recreated scene for scene. It is unknown what led to the cancellation, although animation historian David Gerstein speculated that Disney's World War II propaganda (such as Der Fuehrer's Face, Education for Death, and Victory Through Air Power) or the Disney animators' strike of 1941 may have played a role, or that Walt Disney simply preferred to work on all-new films rather than "extensively revisit the past."
Historical notes
Donald's recitation of "Mary Had a Little Lamb" was inspired by Clarence Nash's own recitation of the poem on the radio, a performance he had intended to sound like a nervous baby goat. It was largely because of this performance that Nash was hired by Disney to voice the duck.
Donald impersonates the comedian Jimmy Durante when he says "Am I mortified! Am I mortified!" His bill even changes shape to make fun of Durante's famous nose. The joke was not as noticeable in the remake because Donald's bill keeps its shape.
In 1989, an animation cel from the original Orphans' Benefit, depicting Donald being punched by an orphan, sold for $286,000 (then £174,390) at a Christie's auction in New York. Guinness World Records confirmed this was the most money ever paid for a black and white animation cel.
Adaptations
In 1968, Disneyland Records released an abridged audio-only version of Orphans' Benefit on the album Mickey Mouse and his Friends as the track "Mickey's Big Show." The album was re-released in 2010 as a digital download on Amazon MP3 and the iTunes Store.
In October 1973, the story was adapted into a 13-page comic book story in the Italian publication "Cartonatoni Disney" #14. The story was called Recita di Beneficenza, or Benefit Recital. The same year an English version was published in the American comic book "Walt Disney Magic Moments" #1, called The Orphans' Benefit.
Releases
Original
1934 – Original theatrical release
1954 – Disneyland, episode #1.4: "The Donald Duck Story" (TV)
Remake
1941 – Original theatrical release
c. 1983 – Good Morning, Mickey!, episode #18 (TV)
1997 – The Ink and Paint Club, episode #1.10: "Mickey, Donald & Goofy: Friends to the End" (TV)<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1233951/movieconnections Movie connections for Mickey, Donald & Goofy: Friends to the End"] on the Internet Movie Database</ref>
Home media
The original was released on December 2, 2002 on Walt Disney Treasures: Mickey Mouse in Black and White.
The remake was released on May 18, 2004 on Walt Disney Treasures: Mickey Mouse in Living Color, Volume Two: 1939-Today''.
Additional releases of the remake include:
1987 – "Cartoon Classics: Here's Mickey!" (VHS)
2006 – "Extreme Music Fun" (DVD)
See also
Mickey Mouse (film series)
References
External links
(Original)
(Remake)
(Original)
(Remake)
Orphan's Benefit (remake) at The Encyclopedia of Animated Disney Shorts
1934 films
1941 films
1934 animated films
1941 animated films
American black-and-white films
American films
Animated films about orphans
1930s Disney animated short films
1940s Disney animated short films
Disney film remakes
Donald Duck short films
Films about entertainers
Films about theatre
Films directed by Burt Gillett
Films directed by Riley Thomson
Films produced by Walt Disney
Films scored by Frank Churchill
Mickey Mouse short films
Short film remakes | [
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235300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin%20Zander | Robin Zander | Robin Wayne Zander (born January 23, 1953) is an American singer, songwriter and rhythm guitarist. He is best known as the lead singer and rhythm guitarist for the rock band Cheap Trick, but is also a solo artist. Zander was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2016 as a member of Cheap Trick.
Early life
Zander was born in Beloit, Wisconsin, and grew up in nearby Loves Park, Illinois. He learned to play the guitar by age 12. Zander graduated from Harlem High School in Machesney Park, Illinois. After playing in high school bands in the 1960s, he joined Brian Beebe to form the folk duo Zander & Kent in the early 1970s.
Music career
Cheap Trick
In 1974, Zander accepted an invitation to join Cheap Trick. Along with Zander, the band consisted of guitarist Rick Nielsen, bassist Tom Petersson, and drummer Bun E. Carlos. Cheap Trick's 1979 album, Cheap Trick at Budokan, catapulted the band to stardom. The band reached the Top 10 in the U.S. charts in 1979 with "I Want You to Want Me" and topped the charts in 1988 with "The Flame". As of 2018, Cheap Trick had been a band for over 40 years. Cheap Trick has performed more than 5,000 shows and has sold more than 20 million albums. Zander was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Cheap Trick in 2016.
Other work
Zander released the solo album Robin Zander in 1993. A second solo album, Countryside Blvd, was released online in April 2011 but was withdrawn from online music outlets within hours of being available.
On September 30, 2016, Los Angeles rock band Steel Panther released a cover version of Cheap Trick song "She's Tight" (from Cheap Trick's 1982 album One On One), which features Zander in the music video.
Influence
Known for his "pin-up good looks", Zander's singing has been described as "jaw-dropping" and "supremely virtuosic". In a 2014 piece titled "Unsung Heroes: The 10 Most Underrated Classic Rock Singers", Dan Tucker of VH1.com described Zander as having "range, style and attitude." Zander is a tenor.
Zander's vocal style has influenced many other rock singers, from 1980s hard rockers (such as Joe Elliott of Def Leppard, Vince Neil of Mötley Crüe, Axl Rose of Guns N' Roses, Bret Michaels of Poison, and Sebastian Bach of Skid Row) to 1990s punk revivalists (such as Billie Joe Armstrong of Green Day) to alternative icons (such as Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins, Eddie Vedder of Pearl Jam, Kurt Cobain of Nirvana, and Scott Weiland of Stone Temple Pilots).
The May 2009 issue of Classic Rock magazine published a list of the 50 Greatest Singers in Rock. Zander was voted #23 on the list by readers, Classic Rock critics and a number of singers.
Personal life
Zander and his first wife, Karen, had two children: A son named Ian Zander and a daughter named Holland Zander. Ian and Holland Zander are musicians.
As of 2018, Zander lives in Safety Harbor, Florida with his wife, former Playboy Playmate Pamela Stein. Zander and Stein have a son, Robin Taylor Zander, and a daughter, Robin-Sailor Zander; both are singer-songwriters. When Cheap Trick bassist Tom Petersson was sidelined from touring in 2021 due to surgery, Robin Taylor Zander filled in for him on tour.
Solo discography
Albums
Robin Zander (1993)
Countryside Blvd (2011)
Singles
"In This Country" (1987), from the soundtrack to Over the Top.
"You Send the Rain Away" (1987) duet with Rebbie Jackson, #50 Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.
"Surrender to Me" with Ann Wilson (1988), from the soundtrack to Tequila Sunrise, #6 Billboard's Hot 100 Chart, #42 Billboard's Mainstream Rock.
"I've Always Got You" (1993), #13 Billboard's Mainstream Rock, from the album Robin Zander.
References
External links
1953 births
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American singers
American people of German descent
American male guitarists
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
Cheap Trick members
Living people
Singers from Wisconsin
People from Loves Park, Illinois
People from Beloit, Wisconsin
People from Pinellas County, Florida
Rhythm guitarists
Singers from Florida
Power pop musicians
Guitarists from Florida
Guitarists from Wisconsin
20th-century American guitarists | [
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235301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bun%20E.%20Carlos | Bun E. Carlos | Brad M. Carlson, better known by the stage name Bun E. Carlos, is the original drummer for American rock band Cheap Trick. He recorded and performed with the band from 1973 to 2010. Carlos was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2016 as a member of Cheap Trick.
Early life
Carlos was born in Rockford, Illinois, on June 12. The year of his birth is reportedly 1950, 1951, or 1953. His parents were Edwin and Violet ( Nelles) Carlson. Carlson was the third of six children. He has two older siblings (Kurt and Jan) and three younger ones (Mark, Gini, and Edwin). Carlson's elder brother, Kurt, was a major in the United States Army Reserve when, on June 14, 1985, TWA Flight 847 was hijacked by terrorists belonging to Hezbollah. He was brutally beaten, nearly to death and was held for 17 days aboard the aircraft in Beirut, Lebanon.
Carlson attended Lincoln Junior High School and graduated from Guilford High School, where fellow students included Nielsen and Tom Petersson. Carlson's friendship with Rick Nielsen began in 1963. Carlson and Nielsen met after Carlson's sister, Jan, came home from school one day and said Nielsen was throwing rocks at her. Carlson played football in the fall of 1966 in his sophomore year. He quit the team because he preferred to play music (and be paid for it) than sit on the bench for an entire game.
Carlson came from a family with extensive musical interests. Carlson family oral history says that Carlson's great-grandfather was a drummer in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Carlson's father played the accordion, his mother played keyboards and several other instruments, and his brother Kurt was a drummer in the Guilford High School band,
Carlson did not start paying attention to music until about 1962 or 1963, when songs like The Twist, Return to Sender, and Sugar Shack became chart toppers. He initially taught himself to play piano, but when The Beatles' first single, "I Want to Hold Your Hand", received radio airplay in the United States, Carlson became a fan and decided to switch to drums. His mother gave him a Sonor drum kit for his 14th birthday. He began taking formal lessons, but was frustrated by having to constantly change the sticking instructions because he was left-handed. Carlson gave up formal lessons and instead taught himself to play the drums by playing along with songs on the radio or jukebox. He was particularly impressed by the drumming of Ginger Baker, co-founder of the British rock band Cream.
Early musical career
From 1966 to 1968, Carlson played in a band called The Pagans with several other high school friends. The band released a single: the A-side was a cover of The Beatles' 1966 hit "Good Day Sunshine", and B-side a cover of Them "I Can Only Give You Everything." The single received local radio airplay on WCFL in Chicago and WROK in Rockford and the band sold about 1,500 copies at local record stores, making The Pagans hometown celebrities. The Pagans broke up, and Carlson played in another local band, Probe and the Lost Souls (which later changed its name to Albatross), in 1969.
Carlson enrolled at Rock Valley Junior College in 1969 to obtain an exemption to the draft. He and Robin Zander, the future lead singer of Cheap Trick, were members of the same band for a brief period at this time. Carlson also briefly toured in backup bands for Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, and The Shirelles.
Meanwhile, Rick Nielsen and Tom Petersson formed a band in 1969 and called it Fuse. Carlson dropped out of college and in 1971 moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with Nielsen and Petersson. Fuse changed its name to Sick Man of Europe. In 1970, Carlson became the band's drummer, and had changed his stage name to Bun E. Carlos. Carlson toured Germany with the band, with Nielsen taking on the bassist's duties.
Cheap Trick
Formation
In about May 1973, the members of Sick Man of Europe relocated to Rockford and the band broke up. In June 1973, Carlos and Nielsen formed a new band to take over the gigs which Sick Man of Europe had booked. Randy "Xeno" Hogan was hired as lead vocalist and Rick Szeluga as bassist. The band continued to use the name Sick Man of Europe, but nightclub owners did not like the name. For about a month, the band used the name The Reapers. In early August 1973, the group adopted the name Cheap Trick. Tom Petersson, then living in Europe, returned to the United States and joined Cheap Trick in November 1973.
Cheap Trick was being booked regularly at clubs in the Midwest for $100 a night ($ in dollars) and was getting some repeat bookings. In late 1973 or early 1974, Carlos cut his hair short and began sporting a "bandit" mustache. He visited a thrift store and purchased several comfortable suits and about 20 white cotton dress shirts. The new wardrobe was inexpensive, looked good, and was comfortable.
Interpersonal problems began to affect the band, as Hogan and Petersson did not get along. In the summer of 1974, Hogan left Cheap Trick to join The Litter, a Minneapolis-based band. A few days later, Carlos and Nielsen asked Zander to sing for Cheap Trick. Zander was able to get out of the last year of his contract and joined Cheap Trick in October 1974.
In 1973 or 1974, Carlos gained a major insight into his drumming. He told interviewer Robin Tolleson in 1986 that, like most young drummers, he was mostly interested in making his drumming stand out ("Where can I get the most licks in, and how cool can I sound"). While listening to a tape of a Cheap Trick concert, he realized he was rushing the beat and interfering in the performance of the other band members. Afterward, he began taping every Cheap Trick show to study his own drumming much more objectively, focusing on keeping time and supporting his bandmates. The band also played several gigs alongside Mahavishnu Orchestra about this time. Carlson says he learned a great deal about ambidextrous drumming from drummer Billy Cobham.
Mainstream success
In 1976, Carlos tripped over equipment on stage and broke his arm. The band auditioned several drummers to temporarily replace Carlos until his arm healed. None proved capable of keeping up with Cheap Trick's frenetic, high-energy style. The band finally turned to Hank Ransome, drummer with the defunct psychedelic rock/progressive rock Elizabeth. Carlos played alongside Ransome for several shows in case Ransome tired during a performance. Cheap Trick signed a five-year contract with Epic on August 1, 1976. Cheap Trick played a last concert at the Second Chance club in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in October 1976, then headed for New York City to record an album.
The band began work on its debut album at the Record Plant recording studio in New York City in November 1976. The record, entitled Cheap Trick (1977), failed to chart. The album's liner notes and Epic's promotional advertising made the tongue-in-cheek claims that "Bunezuela E. Carlos" was from Venezuela, his parents helped build the Panama Canal, and that he abandoned his family to come play rock music in America.
The band's second album, In Color, was released later in 1977. When Cheap Trick toured in Japan for the first time in April 1978, they were received with a frenzy reminiscent of Beatlemania. During the tour, Cheap Trick recorded two concerts at the Nippon Budokan. Ten tracks taken from both shows were compiled and released as a live album entitled Cheap Trick at Budokan, which was intended to be exclusive to Japan.
Demand for Cheap Trick at Budokan became so great that Epic Records finally released the album in the U.S. in February 1979. Cheap Trick at Budokan launched the band into international stardom, and the album went triple platinum in the United States. The first single from the album was the live version of "I Want You to Want Me", which had originally been released on In Color. It reached No. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100, and became Cheap Trick's best-selling single to date.
Following a decline in popularity in the early-to-mid-1980s, Cheap Trick released Lap of Luxury in 1988. "The Flame", a ballad, was issued as the first single from the album and became the band's first-ever No. 1 hit. The second single, a cover of Elvis Presley's "Don't Be Cruel", peaked at no. 4. Lap of Luxury went platinum and became recognized as the band's comeback album.
Busted was released in 1990. The album's first single, "Can't Stop Falling Into Love", reached on the Billboard Hot 100.
Carlos suffered from back problems for several years. He had surgery in 2004, which he said fixed the problem.
In 2007, officials of Rockford, Illinois, honored Cheap Trick by reproducing the Rockford album cover art on that year's city vehicle sticker. On June 19, 2007, the Illinois Senate passed Senate Resolution 255, which designated April 1 of every year as Cheap Trick Day in the State of Illinois.
2013 lawsuit
According to Carlos, he and Zander had a falling-out shortly before the band made its appearance on the television program Austin City Limits. The dispute centered on the number of appearances the band would make at the Paris Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. On March 19, 2010, Cheap Trick issued a statement that Carlos had stopped recording and touring with Cheap Trick but that he left the band and he was replaced by Rick Nielsen's son, Daxx, was named the band's touring drummer.
In 2012, the band stopped contacting Carlos about business decisions and stopped making payments. He filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois seeking at least $600,000 ($ in dollars) in back income and damages as well as restoration of his decision-making input and voting rights.
In April 2014, Nielsen, Petersson, and Zander filed a motion to dismiss Carlos's case; the motion was denied. On February 26, 2015, Zander announced that the lawsuit had been settled. "Bun E.'s a member of the band but he's not touring. We've had our differences but we're all settled up now and hopefully we can forget about that era. These decisions that Cheap Trick makes, Bun E. is part of." Carlos told Andy Greene of Rolling Stone that the settlement resolved issues with monetary payments, business participation, and voting rights. The lawsuit ended his personal relationship with Nielsen, Petersson, and Zander, however. He told Green, "[A]ny friendship we had went away when I had to file a federal lawsuit. ... Going after these guys wasn't pleasant. The friendship sort of frittered away there."
Post-lawsuit years
Since the band's beginning, Carlos maintained the set lists for every Cheap Trick concert. He also made or assisted in making recordings of all the band's concerts, and remained the band's archivist and setlister after the lawsuit. Between 2000 and 2002, Carlos released four volumes of Bun E.'s Basement Bootlegs. These live recordings of concerts, sound checks, covers, and acoustic and semi-acoustic versions of Cheap Trick songs were released via the band's web site. There were just 1,000 pressings of each release, issued in "bootleg" packing (e.g., simple white cardboard sleeve, little information about each song).
Carlos appeared with Cheap Trick on April 4, 2016, when the band was inducted into The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Nielsen was reportedly excited to play alongside his original bandmate, saying, "they are inducting the people who made the records way back when and that's good. He deserves it." The Hall of Fame live setlist included: "I Want You To Want Me", "Dream Police", and "Surrender". In his induction speech, Carlos thanked his family, his bandmates, CBS Records, his drum techs, his managers, and producers Tom Werman and Sir George Martin.
Tinted Windows, Candy Golde, and solo work
Carlos is a long-time member of the group First Airborne Rock 'n' Roll Division. The group includes members of The Doobie Brothers, Kansas, Little River Band, Pablo Cruise, and Toto. First Airborne performs at USO-sponsored concerts at U.S. armed forces bases overseas.
In 2009, Carlos, together with Hanson singer Taylor Hanson, current Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha, and Fountains of Wayne bassist Adam Schlesinger, formed a new band, Tinted Windows. This new project ran alongside each of the artists' main bands. Tinted Windows played its first publicized gig at SXSW in Austin, Texas, on March 20, 2009, and appeared on late-night network TV shows. Their album was released on April 21, 2009.
On June 24, 2016, Carlos issued his first-ever solo album, Greetings From Bunezuela! featuring performances by Hanson, Alex Dezen and Dave Pirner.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Bun E. Carlos on DrummerWorld.com
[ Bun E. Carlos on AllMusic.com]
Joe Wallace, a writer/editor for Gearwire.com interviews Bun E.
Candy Golde website
Living people
American rock drummers
Musicians from Rockford, Illinois
Cheap Trick members
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
Tinted Windows (band) members
1950 births | [
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235304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walk-in | Walk-in | A walk-in is a New Age concept of a person whose original soul has departed their body and has been replaced with a new, different, soul. Ruth Montgomery popularized the concept in her 1979 book Strangers Among Us.
Beliefs
Believers maintain that it is possible for the original soul of a human to leave a person's body and for another soul to "walk in". In Montgomery's work, souls are said to "walk in" during a period of intense personal problems on the part of the departing soul, or during or because of an accident or trauma. Some other walk-ins describe their entry as occurring based on prior agreement and when the previous soul was complete. The walk-in being/individual retains the memories of the original personality, but does not have emotions associated with the memories. As they integrate they bring their own mental, emotional, spiritual consciousness and evolve the life to resonate with their purpose and intentions. Incarnating into a fully grown body allows the walk-in soul to engage in embodiment without having to go through the two decades of maturation that humans need to reach adulthood. A walk-in soul also does not experience the conditioning of childhood and has a different relationship to life because they were not born.
In popular culture
The 1941 film Here Comes Mr. Jordan and the 1978 remake Heaven Can Wait portrays one soul replacing a recently deceased man's soul and reviving to inhabit his body.
The Hawkgirl comics, the K-PAX series of books and film, and the Twilight Zone episode "The Last Rites of Jeff Myrtlebank" have all featured situations similar or identical to walk-in experiences, although the term "walk-in" is not used.
In the Death of Superman story cycle, a handful of new superheroes appeared, among them John Henry Irons, who called himself the "Man of Steel". He never claimed to be the real Superman, but Lois Lane speculated that if Superman were really dead, perhaps his soul had moved into Irons' body as a walk-in, and she used that word.
The X-Files episode "Red Museum" discusses walk-ins, described by Mulder as enlightened spirits who have taken possession of the bodies of people who have lost hope and who want to leave their life. The concept is returned to in the episodes "Sein Und Zeit" and "Closure".
In the TV series Ghost Whisperer, the season 4 episode "Threshold" used the term "step-in" when the soul of one of the series' main characters, who had died in the previous episode, enters the body of a man who dies in an unrelated accident.
Stephen King speaks of "walk-ins" several times in books 6 and 7 of The Dark Tower novels, but King's walk-ins are usually physical travellers, or - when they possess another's body - are more guests, sharing the body with the original mind as strangers. John Callum mentions them in The Dark Tower VI: Song of Susannah. The term is also used in the CODA section of this book. In The Talisman, cowritten by King, the concept of "Twinners" is presented in a similar manner: Twinners are separate but fundamentally similar individuals that live parallel existences on Earth and in the world of the Territories. If either or both of the pair gain awareness of their Twinner, they can learn to occupy the other's body in their respective worlds in style of a walk-in.
The main character Myne in "Ascendance of a Bookworm" is a walk-in. Originally a light novel, the story was released in anime format October 2019.
See also
Reincarnation
Mind uploading
Spirit possession
Star people (New Age belief)
Avatar
Tulpa
References
New Age
Reincarnation | [
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