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235631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily%20O%27Reilly | Emily O'Reilly | Emily O'Reilly is an author and former journalist and broadcaster who became Ireland's first female Ombudsman in 2003, succeeding Kevin Murphy. On 3 July 2013, she was voted European Ombudsman by the European Parliament. She was re-elected in 2014 and in 2019, in each case for a mandate of five more years. She was educated at University College Dublin, Trinity College Dublin, and Harvard University, where she was awarded a Nieman Fellowship in journalism.
Journalism
She began her career as a journalist in the 1970s. Since then, she has held senior positions with The Irish Press and the Sunday Tribune, as well as serving as a political columnist at The Sunday Times and as the Political Editor of The Sunday Business Post. In 1991 she made an extended appearance on the British television discussion programme After Dark, alongside among others Patrick Cosgrave, J. P. Donleavy, David Norris and Francis Stuart.
In 1998, she became the editor of Magill magazine. She resigned in September 1999 when the magazine's sister publication, In Dublin, was banned by the Censorship of Publications Appeal Board for advertising brothels and prostitution services. O'Reilly was also a broadcaster on Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ) and Today FM.
In the course of her journalistic career, she won two awards: Journalist of the Year and Woman Journalist of the Year.
Irish Ombudsman and Information Commissioner
On 1 June 2003, she received her Warrant of Appointment as Irish Ombudsman and Information Commissioner from the then President of Ireland, Mary McAleese, at Áras an Uachtaráin. She has said of her job title, "I will be an ombudswoman but will have no difficulty in being referred to as either".
From 2007 O'Reilly was also appointed Commissioner for Environmental Information under the Access to Information on the Environment Regulations (S.I. No. 133 of 2007).
She retired from these positions and was succeeded by Peter Tyndall in December 2013.
Transparency and accountability of Irish public bodies
In a speech delivered in Dublin on 20 June 2006 to the Institute of Public Administration, O'Reilly criticised "some service providers, both public and private" for retreating from dealing personally with the public through the use of call centres and the Internet. She mentioned the Irish Revenue Commissioners in this context, pointing out that a significant proportion of the clients of these bodies "do not have access to the web" and therefore the level of personal contact is inadequate as a consequence. She also believed that public access to information under the Freedom of Information Act had been "excessively curtailed", often in order to protect sectional interests, such as the performance of schools. She advised that the Act should be extended to include a number of public bodies previously exempted from the law, including the Garda Síochána, the Central Bank of Ireland and the National Asset Management Agency and that fees charged were a further inhibitor.
O'Reilly is the author of three books: Candidate: The Truth Behind the Presidential Campaign (1991), about President of Ireland Mary Robinson; Masterminds of the Right (1992) about political Catholicism in Ireland; and the controversial biography, Veronica Guerin (1998).
European Ombudsman
O'Reilly was appointed European Ombudsman by the European Parliament in 2013, and re-appointed in 2014 and 2019. Her current term expires in 2024.
Bibliography
Veronica Guerin, Vintage, 1998.
Candidate: The Truth Behind the Presidential Campaign, Attic Press, 1991.
Masterminds of the Right, Attic Press, 1992.
References
External links
Ombudsman Profile
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Alumni of University College Dublin
Irish magazine editors
Irish non-fiction writers
Irish women non-fiction writers
Irish women journalists
Magill people
Nieman Fellows
Ombudsmen in the European Union
Ombudsmen in the Republic of Ireland
RTÉ people
Sunday Tribune people
The Irish Press people
The Irish Times people
Business Post people
Today FM presenters
20th-century Irish people
21st-century Irish people
2003 in Ireland
Women magazine editors | [
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235633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Green%20%28British%20politician%29 | Matthew Green (British politician) | Matthew Roger Green (born 12 April 1970, Shropshire) is a former British politician. He was the Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament for Ludlow from 2001 to 2005, and his party's spokesman on the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.
Parliamentary career
He contested Wolverhampton South West in 1997 and was a councillor prior to his election to parliament.
Green was elected MP for Ludlow at the 2001 United Kingdom general election, with a majority of 1,630. He was the first Liberal to represent Ludlow since 1886. Green was appointed the party's spokesman on youth affairs in November 2001, and was spokesman on the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister between 2002 and 2003. He lost his seat to the Conservative, Philip Dunne, in the 2005 general election.
On 25 February 2006, he was selected as the Lib Dem candidate for Ludlow at the next general election but in May 2007 Green stood down as candidate owing to the rapid growth of his new business, Green Planning Solutions LLP. His brother Nathaniel Green was the Lib Dem candidate for Shrewsbury and Atcham at the 2019 general election.
Later life
His company, Green Planning Solutions LLP, acts as agents in high-profile public inquiries, which can take place after planning permission has been refused by local authorities or after an enforcement notice has been issued. Green has been dubbed the 'Gypsy King' for his advocacy for gypsies seeking the legitimisation of dwellings on green belt sites.
Green remained involved in politics after leaving Parliament, being mentioned by the Shropshire Star as a potential Liberal Democrat candidate in the 2021 North Shropshire by-election. Though ultimately not standing in the by-election, his contribution to the successful campaign was praised by fellow ex-Liberal Democrat MP Stephen Lloyd.
Personal life
Green was born in Shropshire, living in Ratlinghope and Bishop's Castle before moving to Much Wenlock by the time of his election. He met his wife, Sarah, while canvassing for the Liberal Democrats. Prior to entering parliament he worked as a PR and media advisor.
References
External links
Green Planning Solutions LLP
Guardian Politics Ask Aristotle - Matthew Green
They WorkForYou.com - Matthew Green
The Public Whip - Matthew Green voting record
BBC News - Matthew Green profile 10 February 2005
1970 births
Living people
Liberal Democrats (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 2001–2005
Politics of Shropshire
People from Shrewsbury
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for constituencies in Shropshire | [
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235634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier%20beetle | Bombardier beetle | Bombardier beetles are ground beetles (Carabidae) in the tribes Brachinini, Paussini, Ozaenini, or Metriini—more than 500 species altogether—which are most notable for the defense mechanism that gives them their name: when disturbed, they eject a hot noxious chemical spray from the tip of the abdomen with a popping sound.
The spray is produced from a reaction between two chemical compounds, hydroquinone and hydrogen peroxide, which are stored in two reservoirs in the beetle's abdomen. When the aqueous solution of hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide reaches the "vestibule" (Eisner's word), catalysts facilitate the decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide and the oxidation of the hydroquinone. Heat from the reaction brings the mixture to near the boiling point of water and produces gas that drives the ejection. The damage caused can be fatal to attacking insects. Some bombardier beetles can direct the spray in a wide range of directions.
The beetle's unusual defense mechanism is claimed by some creationists to be an example of what they call irreducible complexity, though this is refuted by evolutionary biologists.
Habitat
Bombardier beetles inhabit all the continents except Antarctica. They typically live in woodlands or grasslands in the temperate zones but can be found in other environments if there are moist places to lay their eggs.
Behavior
Most species of bombardier beetles are carnivorous, including the larva. The beetle typically hunts at night for other insects, but will often congregate with others of its species when not actively looking for food.
Anatomy
There are two large glands that open at the tip of the abdomen. Each gland is composed of a thick walled vestibule which contains a mixture of catalases and peroxidases produced by the secretory cells that line the vestibule. Both glands are also made up of a thin-walled and compressible reservoir which contains an aqueous solution of hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide.
Mechanism of defense
When the beetle feels threatened it opens a valve which allows the aqueous solution from the reservoir to reach the vestibule. The catalases lining the vestibule wall facilitate the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, as in the following theoretical reaction:
H2O2(aq) -> H2O(l) + 1/2O2(g)
The peroxidase enzymes facilitate the oxidation of the hydroquinones into quinones (benzene-1,4-diol into 1,4-benzoquinone and analogously for methylhydroquinone), as in the following theoretical reaction:
C6H4(OH)2(aq) -> C6H4O2(aq) + H2(g)
The known net reaction, which further accounts for the theoretical reaction of the H2(g) and 1/2O2(g) products of the previous reactions, is:
C6H4(OH)2(aq) + H2O2(aq) -> C6H4O2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
This reaction is very exothermic, and the released energy raises the temperature of the mixture to near 100 °C, vaporizing about a fifth of it. The resultant pressure buildup forces the entrance valves from the reactant storage chambers to close, thus protecting the beetle's internal organs. The boiling, foul-smelling liquid is expelled violently through an outlet valve, with a loud popping sound. The beetles' glands store enough hydroquinone and hydrogen peroxide to allow the beetle to release its chemical spray roughly 20 times. In some cases this is enough to kill a predator. The main component of the beetle spray is 1,4-benzoquinone, an irritant to the eyes and the respiratory system of vertebrates.
The flow of reactants into the reaction chamber and subsequent ejection occur in a series of about 70 pulses, at a rate of about 500 pulses per second. The whole sequence of events takes only a fraction of a second. These pulsations are caused by repeated microexplosions which are the results of the continuous pressure on the reservoir and the oscillatory opening and closing of the valve that controls access to the reaction chamber. This pulsed mechanism is beneficial for the beetles' survival because the system uses pressure instead of muscles to eject the spray at a constant velocity, saving the beetle energy. Also, the reintroduction of new reactants into the vestibule where enzymes are stored, reduces the temperature of the chamber, thereby protecting the peroxidases and catalases from thermal denaturation.
Typically the beetle turns its body so as to direct the jet towards whatever triggered the response. The gland openings of some African bombardier beetles can swivel through 270° and thrust between the insect's legs, discharging the fluid in a wide range of directions with considerable accuracy.
Evolution of the defense mechanism
The full evolutionary history of the beetle's unique defense mechanism is unknown, but biologists have shown that the system could have evolved from defenses found in other beetles in incremental steps by natural selection. Specifically, quinone chemicals are a precursor to sclerotin, a brownish substance produced by beetles and other insects to harden their exoskeleton. Some beetles additionally store excess foul-smelling quinones, including hydroquinone, in small sacs below their skin as a natural deterrent against predators—all carabid beetles have this sort of arrangement. Some beetles additionally mix hydrogen peroxide, a common by-product of the metabolism of cells, with the hydroquinone; some of the catalases that exist in most cells make the process more efficient. The chemical reaction produces heat and pressure, and some beetles exploit the latter to push out the chemicals onto the skin; this is the case in the beetle Metrius contractus, which produces a foamy discharge when attacked. In the bombardier beetle, the muscles that prevent leakage from the reservoir additionally developed a valve permitting more controlled discharge of the poison and an elongated abdomen to permit better control over the direction of discharge.
The unique combination of features of the bombardier beetle's defense mechanism—strongly exothermic reactions, boiling-hot fluids, and explosive release—has been claimed by creationists and proponents of intelligent design to be an example of irreducible complexity. Biologists such as the taxonomist Mark Isaak note however that step-by-step evolution of the mechanism could readily have occurred.
See also
Ant nest beetle
References
External links
Genus Brachinus — BugGuide.net
: 3 photos, 1 micrograph, 1 b/w illustration
Brachininae
Paussinae
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] |
235640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20Schools%20Act | Public Schools Act | Public Schools Act (with its variations) is a stock short title used in Manitoba, New South Wales and the United Kingdom for legislation relating to public schools.
List
Manitoba
The Public Schools Act, CCSM c P250
New South Wales
Public Schools Act of 1866
United Kingdom
The Public Schools Act 1873
The Public Schools Acts 1868 to 1873 is the collective title of the following Acts:
The Public Schools Act 1868 (31 & 32 Vict c 118)
The Public Schools Act 1869 (32 & 33 Vict c 58)
The Public Schools Act 1871 (34 & 35 Vict c 60)
The Public Schools (Shrewsbury and Harrow Schools Property) Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict c 41)
The Public Schools (Eton College Property) Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict c 62)
See also
List of short titles
References
Lists of legislation by short title | [
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235641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Bryant | Chris Bryant | Christopher John Bryant (born 11 January 1962) is a British politician and former Anglican priest who served as Deputy Leader of the House of Commons from 2008 to 2009 and Under-Secretary of State for Europe and Asia from 2009 to 2010. He later served in the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Culture Secretary and Shadow Leader of the House of Commons from 2015 to 2016. A member of the Labour Party, he has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Rhondda since 2001.
Born in Cardiff, Bryant was privately educated at Cheltenham College before studying English at Mansfield College, Oxford. After graduating with a further degree in theology, he worked as a Church of England priest as well as having roles at the BBC and Common Purpose. He was elected for Rhondda at the 2001 general election, with one of the largest majorities in the country.
Early life
Chris Bryant was born in Cardiff, Wales, to a Scottish mother and a Welsh father. Bryant grew up in Cardiff (where his father worked for five years), Spain for five years in the 1960s (leading to his speaking fluent Spanish), and Cheltenham, Gloucestershire. He was educated at Cheltenham College, an independent school for boys in Cheltenham, and at Mansfield College, Oxford, where he read English.
Although initially a member of the Conservative Party, and an elected office-holder in the Oxford University Conservative Association, he joined the Labour Party in 1986 after leaving Oxford.
Priesthood
After completing his first degree, Bryant began his training to be a priest in the Church of England at Ripon College Cuddesdon in Oxfordshire. There, he obtained a further degree in theology.
He was ordained deacon in 1986 and priest in 1987. He served as a curate at the Church of All Saints, High Wycombe from 1986 to 1989 and then as a Youth Chaplain in Peterborough, as well as travelling in Latin America.
In 1991 Bryant left the ordained ministry, after deciding that being gay and being a priest were incompatible. Statements made by Richard Harries, the then-Bishop of Oxford also influenced his decision.
Early political career
After leaving the priesthood in 1991, Bryant made a radical career move and began work as the election agent to the Holborn and St Pancras Constituency Labour Party, where he helped Frank Dobson hold his seat in the 1992 general election. From 1993 he was Local Government Officer for the Labour Party; he lived in Hackney and was elected to Hackney Borough Council in 1993, representing Leabridge ward and serving until 1998. He became Chairman of the Christian Socialist Movement. From 1994 to 1996 he was London manager of the charity Common Purpose.
In 1996, he became a full-time author, writing biographies of Stafford Cripps and Glenda Jackson. He was Labour candidate for Wycombe in the 1997 general election (where he lost by 2,370 votes), and Head of European Affairs for the BBC from 1998.
Parliamentary career
His selection for the very safe Labour seat of Rhondda in South Wales in 2000 surprised many people given Bryant's background – gay, a former Anglican vicar, and someone who had been a Conservative as a student. He says of his surprise selection, "I fell off the chair, and my opponents certainly did". Fifty-two people applied for the candidature and a local councillor was hot favourite to win. He retained the seat comfortably at the 2001 general election with a 16,047 majority, one of the largest in the country.
In 2003 Bryant voted for participation in the Iraq war. He is a member of the Labour Friends of Israel and Labour Friends of Palestine & the Middle East group.
From 2004 until 2007 Bryant was chairman of the Labour Movement for Europe, succeeded by Mary Creagh MP. Bryant is a signatory of the Henry Jackson Society principles.
On 5 September 2006, with Siôn Simon, he co-ordinated a prominent letter which was signed by 15 Labour backbenchers calling for Tony Blair's immediate resignation.
Bryant was the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs Charlie Falconer. In Gordon Brown's autumn 2008 reshuffle, Bryant was promoted from his role as Parliamentary Private Secretary to Harriet Harman to the ministerial position of Deputy Leader of the House of Commons otherwise known as Parliamentary Secretary to the House of Commons. This was followed by another move in the June 2009 reshuffle, when he moved to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office as the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. On 13 October 2009 he was also appointed Minister for Europe.
In May 2020, Bryant was elected as the Chair of the Parliamentary Standards Committee. After the attempt by Boris Johnson to overturn the Standards Committee's decision on Owen Paterson he has led the initiative to clean up the issue of MPs' second jobs.
Phone hacking scandal
On 11 March 2003, as part of an Enquiry into Privacy and Press Intrusion by the Commons Select Committee on Culture, Media and Sport, he asked Rebekah Wade (now Brooks) whether she had ever paid police officers for information. Seated beside Andy Coulson, the editor of the News of the World, she said 'yes'. Bryant had his phone hacked later that year by the News of the World, a fact which became known to the Metropolitan Police when they seized material from the private investigator Glenn Mulcaire. Bryant sought judicial review of the Metropolitan Police along with John Prescott and Brian Paddick, in an attempt to force them to contact all the victims of phone hacking by the News of the World. The Metropolitan Police accepted their liability and he won damages of £30,000 from News International in 2012.
Bryant called for and led the parliamentary debates on referring the phone hacking scandal to the Standards and Privileges Committee on 9 September 2010, and the Emergency Debate on whether there should be a judge led enquiry on 6 July 2011 which led to the setting up of the Leveson Inquiry.
Expenses claims scandal
Bryant claimed over £92,000 in expenses over the five years leading up to the 2009 scandal over MPs' expenses. During that time he flipped his second-home expenses twice. He claimed mortgage interest expenses that started at £7,800 per year before rising (after flipping) to £12,000 per year. He also claimed £6,400 in stamp duty and other fees on his most recent purchase, and £6,000 per year in service charges.
In opposition
In October 2010, Bryant stood as one of 49 candidates for election to the 19 places in the Shadow Cabinet in the internal Labour Party poll, receiving 77 votes, 29th position on the list.
In October 2010, Bryant described the coalition government's housing benefit reforms as poorer people "being socially engineered and sociologically cleansed out of London". The use of the term "cleansing" was criticised by members of the coalition, including deputy prime minister Nick Clegg, who called Bryant's comment "offensive to people who had witnessed ethnic cleansing in other parts of the world".
In 2011, in the House of Commons, he criticised Prince Andrew, Duke of York for a number of alleged indiscretions.
Bryant won the Stonewall Politician of the Year Award in 2011 for his work to support equality for lesbian, gay and bisexual people. He was given a score of 100% in favour of lesbian, gay and bisexual equality by Stonewall. On 5 February 2013 he voted in favour in the House of Commons Second Reading vote on same-sex marriage in Britain.
In December 2014, Bryant was moved from Shadow Minister for Welfare Reform to Shadow Minister for the Arts. In this position, he suggested in January 2015 that too many successful artists such as "James Blunt and their ilk" had been educated at private schools, and that he wanted to see more encouragement for the arts for people from a variety of backgrounds, even though Bryant himself attended a private school. Blunt said that Bryant was a "narrow-minded 'classist gimp' who was motivated by the 'politics of jealousy'"; Bryant responded by claiming that Blunt should not be "so blooming precious" and that he was not "knocking [his] success" but attempting to draw attention to the lack of diversity in the arts.
In September 2015, following Jeremy Corbyn's election as Labour Party leader, Bryant was appointed Shadow Leader of the House of Commons. He resigned from this position on 26 June 2016, along with other shadow ministers after the Brexit vote. He supported Owen Smith in the failed attempt to replace Jeremy Corbyn in the 2016 Labour Party leadership election.
In January 2017 Bryant, ex-chair of the all-party parliamentary group for Russia, claimed that the Russian government orchestrated a homophobic campaign to remove him from this position, saying that the Russian government has acquired kompromat on high-profile Conservative Party MPs including Boris Johnson, Liam Fox, Alan Duncan and David Davis.
On 12 January 2017, Bryant bemused his fellow MPs and Speaker of the House John Bercow, when he wished Bercow happy "kiss a ginger day", during business questions.
In November 2017 Bryant called for the arrest of the President of the United States, Donald Trump, if he travels to the United Kingdom, after the President shared a comment on the social media website Twitter from a member of the far-right group Britain First that related to radical Islamic events. Bryant stated: "The Prime Minister should make it absolutely clear that if Donald Trump comes to this country he'll be arrested for inciting religious hatred and therefore he'd be better off not coming at all."
On 10 September 2019, Bryant announced that he would stand in the election to be the next Speaker of the House of Commons following the announcement by John Bercow of his intention to resign on 31 October 2019. On 4 November he was the runner-up candidate in the parliamentary vote for Speaker, losing to Lindsay Hoyle by 213 to 325.
In December 2020, Bryant became engaged in a row with the Commons speaker, Lindsay Hoyle. The disturbance started with Bryant heckling the Prime Minister while standing near to a door. The Speaker informed Bryant that social distancing rules meant he needed to move and he then instructed Bryant to sit in one of the seats intended for use by MPs. Some of those present thought that Bryant then uttered an offensive expletive back to the Speaker although Bryant denied this. Bryant then exited the chamber of the Commons while the Speaker called for him. Some moments after the Speaker had denounced Bryant's "disgraceful behaviour", Bryant returned to the chamber to engage in what appeared to be a heated discussion with the speaker. Hoyle said: "Mr Bryant, I think we need to have this conversation later" and Bryant left the chamber.
In December 2021, Bryant told the BBC in an interview that he felt "less physically safe as a gay man than he did 30 years ago." While denying that Boris Johnson himself was homophobic, he accused those around him of being happy to "stir the pot." As evidence, he cited the government's stance on transgender people and their attitude towards conversion therapy.
Personal life
Bryant entered into a civil partnership with Jared Cranney on 27 March 2010. The ceremony was the first civil partnership ever held in the Houses of Parliament. They are now married. Bryant lives in Porth in the Rhondda.
He was ridiculed by the press in 2003 when he posted a picture of himself wearing only underpants on a gay dating site, Gaydar. Bryant later reflected upon the affair, saying, "It was a wound but it's a rather charming scar now. I had a period when I barely slept and it was horrible, but I'm very lucky in having a supportive set of friends – MP friends and others – and they looked after me." At the time, the media predicted that he would not survive, and there was much talk of his possible deselection. In 2013, he reflected on the incident, saying that the whole affair actually boosted his majority as an MP.
On 25 September 2006 The Guardian newspaper ran four spoof diary articles called "Chris Bryant's Manchester Diary". The newspaper later printed a clarification to confirm that these were parodies, and were not written by Bryant.
In March 2019, Bryant said that he had undergone surgery for skin cancer.
Publications
Entitled: A Critical History of the British Aristocracy by Chris Bryant, 2017, Doubleday
Parliament: The Biography: Reform (Vol. 2) by Chris Bryant, 2014, Doubleday,
Parliament: The Biography: Ancestral Voices (Vol. 1) by Chris Bryant, 2014, Doubleday,
Glenda Jackson: The Biography by Chris Bryant, 1999, HarperCollins,
Stafford Cripps: The First Modern Chancellor by Chris Bryant, 1997, Hodder & Stoughton Ltd,
Possible Dreams: Personal History of the British Christian Socialists by Chris Bryant, 1996, Hodder & Stoughton Religious,
The Glamour Boys: The Secret Story of the Rebels who Fought for Britain to Defeat Hitler by Chris Bryant, 2020, Bloomsbury Publishing,
References
External links
Chris Bryant MP official constituency website
Chris Bryant MP Welsh Labour Party profile
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1962 births
Living people
People educated at Cheltenham College
Alumni of Ripon College Cuddesdon
Alumni of Mansfield College, Oxford
20th-century Church of England clergy
20th-century Welsh Anglican priests
Anglican socialists
BBC executives
Councillors in the London Borough of Hackney
Gay politicians
Welsh Labour Party MPs
Labour Friends of Israel
Labour Friends of Palestine and the Middle East
LGBT Anglicans
LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
LGBT politicians from Wales
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
UK MPs 2017–2019
Welsh Christian socialists
Welsh people of Scottish descent
Conservative Party (UK) people
UK MPs 2019–present
LGBT politicians from England
Labour Party (UK) councillors
21st-century Welsh historians
Welsh biographers
21st-century LGBT people | [
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235642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal%20vein | Portal vein | The portal vein or hepatic portal vein (HPV) is a blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen to the liver. This blood contains nutrients and toxins extracted from digested contents. Approximately 75% of total liver blood flow is through the portal vein, with the remainder coming from the hepatic artery proper. The blood leaves the liver to the heart in the hepatic veins.
The portal vein is not a true vein, because it conducts blood to capillary beds in the liver and not directly to the heart. It is a major component of the hepatic portal system, one of only two portal venous systems in the body – with the hypophyseal portal system being the other.
The portal vein is usually formed by the confluence of the superior mesenteric, splenic veins, inferior mesenteric, left, right gastric veins and the pancreatic vein.
Conditions involving the portal vein cause considerable illness and death. An important example of such a condition is elevated blood pressure in the portal vein. This condition, called portal hypertension, is a major complication of cirrhosis. In abdominal obesity fats, inflammatory cytokines and other toxic substances are transported by the portal vein from visceral fat into the liver, leading to hepatic insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.
Structure
Measuring approximately 8 cm (3 inches) long in adults, the portal vein is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, originating behind the neck of the pancreas.
In most individuals, the portal vein is formed by the union of the superior mesenteric vein and the splenic vein. For this reason, the portal vein is occasionally called the splenic-mesenteric confluence. Occasionally, the portal vein also directly communicates with the inferior mesenteric vein, although this is highly variable. Other tributaries of the portal vein include the cystic and the left and right gastric veins. and also pararumbilical vein and prepyloric vein.
Immediately before reaching the liver, the portal vein divides into right and left. It ramifies further, forming smaller venous branches and ultimately portal venules. Each portal venule courses alongside a hepatic arteriole and the two vessels form the vascular components of the portal triad. These vessels ultimately empty into the hepatic sinusoids to supply blood to the liver.
Portacaval anastomoses
The portal venous system has several anastomoses with the systemic venous system. In cases of portal hypertension these anastomoses may become engorged, dilated, or varicosed and subsequently rupture.
Accessory hepatic portal veins
Accessory hepatic portal veins are those veins that drain directly into the liver without joining the hepatic portal vein. These include the paraumbilical veins as well as veins of the lesser omentum, falciform ligament, and those draining the gallbladder wall.
Function
The portal vein and hepatic arteries form the liver's dual blood supply. Approximately 75% of hepatic blood flow is derived from the portal vein, while the remainder is from the hepatic arteries.
Unlike most veins, the portal vein does not drain into the heart. Rather, it is part of a portal venous system that delivers venous blood into another capillary system, the hepatic sinusoids of the liver. In carrying venous blood from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver, the portal vein accomplishes two tasks: it supplies the liver with metabolic substrates and it ensures that substances ingested are first processed by the liver before reaching the systemic circulation. This accomplishes two things. First, possible toxins that may be ingested can be detoxified by the hepatocytes before they are released into the systemic circulation. Second, the liver is the first organ to absorb nutrients just taken in by the intestines. After draining into the liver sinusoids, blood from the liver is drained by the hepatic vein.
Clinical significance
Portal hypertension
Increased blood pressure in the portal vein, called portal hypertension, is a major complication of liver disease, most commonly cirrhosis. A dilated portal vein (diameter of greater than 13 or 15 mm) is a sign of portal hypertension, with a sensitivity estimated at 12.5% or 40%. On Doppler ultrasonography, the main portal vein (MPV) peak systolic velocity normally ranges between 20 cm/s and 40 cm/s. A slow velocity of <16 cm/s in addition to dilatation in the MPV are diagnostic of portal hypertension.
Clinical signs of portal hypertension include those of chronic liver disease: ascites, esophageal varices, spider nevi, caput medusae, and palmar erythema.
Pulsatility
Portal vein pulsatility can be measured by Doppler ultrasonography. An increased pulsatility may be caused by cirrhosis, as well as increased right atrial pressure (which in turn may be caused by right heart failure or tricuspid regurgitation). Portal vein pulsatility can be quantified by pulsatility indices (PI), where an index above a certain cutoff indicates pathology:
Infection
Pylephlebitis is infection of the portal vein, usually arising from an infectious intra-abdominal process such as diverticulitis.
Portal venous gas
Hepatic portal venous gas is a rare finding on radiological exams. Gas is shown to enter the portal venous system. It is most commonly caused by intestinal ischemia but has also been associated with colon cancer.
Additional images
References
External links
- "Stomach, Spleen and Liver: The Visceral Surface of the Liver"
Veins of the torso | [
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235646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20Schools%20Act%201868 | Public Schools Act 1868 | The Public Schools Act 1868 was enacted by the British Parliament to reform and regulate seven leading English boys' boarding schools, most of which had grown out of ancient charity schools for the education of a certain number of poor scholars, but were by then, as they are today, also educating many sons of the English upper and upper-middle classes on a fee-paying basis. The preamble describes "An Act to make further Provision for the good Government and Extension of certain Public Schools in England."
The concept of a public school therefore predates this Act.
The Act followed the report of the Clarendon Commission, a Royal Commission set up to inquire into nine leading schools, which sat from 1861 to 1864 and investigated conditions and abuses which had grown up over the centuries at these originally charity schools.
The bill was presented for its first reading in the Lords by Lord Clarendon on 13 March 1865 and for its second reading on 3 April 1865. The bill was in two parts, the first containing the general provisions of the bill and the second containing specific proposals for each school.
St Paul's School and Merchant Taylors' School were omitted, as they argued successfully that their constitutions made them legally "private" schools and that their constitutions could not be altered by public legislation; thus the act concerned itself with the other seven schools investigated by the Clarendon Commission:
Charterhouse School
Eton College
Harrow School
Rugby School
Shrewsbury School
Westminster School
Winchester College
The act regulated these seven schools in a number of ways, as recommended by the Clarendon Commission, with the aim of creating better conditions in them and preventing abuses, and authorized the establishment of a board of governors for each school, to supervise their administration. It also freed them of their obligations under their founding charters to educate "Foundation Scholars", i.e. scholarship boys paying nominal or no fees. The Act made it clear that parliament had authority to legislate for the schools. The act led to development of the schools away from the traditional exclusively classics-based curriculum taught by clergymen, to a somewhat broader scope of studies.
In 1887 the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal determined that the City of London School was a public school.
References
Bibliography
External links
Text of the Public Schools Act 1868, Education in England
United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1868
United Kingdom Education Acts
1868 in law
1868 in education
July 1868 events | [
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235647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keelhauling | Keelhauling | Keelhauling (Dutch kielhalen; "to drag along the keel") is a form of punishment and potential execution once meted out to sailors at sea. The sailor was tied to a line looped beneath the vessel, thrown overboard on one side of the ship, and dragged under the ship's keel, either from one side of the ship to the other, or the length of the ship (from bow to stern).
The common supposition is that keelhauling amounted to a sentence of either death by extreme torture, or minimally a physical trauma likely to permanently maim. The hull of the ship was usually covered in barnacles and other marine growth, and thus, keelhauling would typically result in serious lacerations, from which the victim could later suffer infection and scarring. If the victim was dragged slowly, his weight might lower him sufficiently to miss the barnacles, but this method would frequently result in his drowning. There was also a risk of head trauma from colliding against the hull or keel, especially if the ship was in motion.
History
There is limited evidence that keelhauling in this form was used by pirate ships, especially in the ancient world. The earliest known mention of keelhauling is from the Greeks in the Rhodian Maritime Code (Lex Rhodia), of c. 700 BCE, which outlines punishment for piracy. There is an image on a Greek vase, for example, from the same era.
Several 17th-century English writers such as Monson and Boteler recorded the use of keel-hauling on English naval ships. However, their references are vague and provide no date. There seems to be no record of it in English ships' logs of the era, and naval historian Nicholas Rodger has stated he knows of no firm evidence that it ever happened. In 1880 CE, Mr. Shaw Lefevre (MP), confronted in Parliament with a recent report from Italy of a keelhauling on HMS Alexandra, denied that such an incident had taken place.
It was an official, though rare, punishment in the Dutch navy, as shown in the painting The keel-hauling of the ship's surgeon of Admiral Jan van Nes. This shows a large crowd gathered to watch the event, as though it was a "show" punishment intended to frighten other potential offenders, as was flogging round the fleet. A contemporary description suggests it was not intended to be fatal:
Keel-Hauling, a punishment inflicted for various offences in the Dutch Navy. It is performed by plunging the delinquent repeatedly under the ship's bottom on one side, and hoisting him up on the other, after having passed under the keel. The blocks, or pullies, by which he is suspended, are fastened to the opposite extremities of the main-yard, and a weight of lead or iron is hung upon his legs to sink him to a competent depth. By this apparatus he is drawn close up to the yard-arm, and thence let fall suddenly into the sea, where, passing under the ship's bottom, he is hoisted up on the opposite side of the vessel. As this extraordinary sentence is executed with a serenity of temper peculiar to the Dutch, the culprit is allowed sufficient intervals to recover the sense of pain, of which indeed he is frequently deprived during the operation. In truth, a temporary insensibility to his sufferings ought by no means to be construed into a disrespect of his judges, when we consider that this punishment is supposed to have peculiar propriety in the depth of winter, whilst the flakes of ice are floating on the stream; and that it is continued till the culprit is almost suffocated for want of air, benumbed with the cold of water, or stunned with the blows his head received by striking the ship's bottom.
A footnote in one source suggests that it may have evolved from the medieval punishment of ducking.
The term still survives today, although usually in the sense of being severely rebuked.
In popular culture
In the 1962 movie depiction of the mutiny on the Bounty, Captain William Bligh keelhauls a seaman, resulting in his death, but the incident is fictional. Under Bligh's command, only two of the crew died, both of natural causes.
Keelhauling is portrayed in the third episode of the fourth season of Black Sails, when Woodes Rogers sentences Edward Teach to death.
In Ian Fleming's second James Bond novel, Live and Let Die, the chief villain Mr Big threatens to kill Bond in what he calls a "modern variation" of "keel-hauling", by dragging him across a coral reef.
The pirate metal band Alestorm released a song titled "Keelhauled" on their 2009 album Black Sails at Midnight.
In the 1991 film Flight of the Intruder, Commander Camparelli warns that any disobedient pilots may be keelhauled, adding that it would be “serious on an aircraft carrier,”.
In Part 4, Episode 5 of the Netflix series Disenchantment, the character Oona, a pirate captain, is shown keelhauling a member of her crew, who nevertheless expresses his love for her as he falls.
See also
Running the gauntlet
Birching
Caning
Cat o' nine tails
Hanging
Walking the plank
Operation Keelhaul
References
kielholen entry in: Johann Hinrich Röding: Allgemeines Wörterbuch der Marine in allen Europäischen Seesprachen nebst vollständigen Erklärungen. Nemnich, Hamburg & J.J. Gebauer, Halle, 1793–1798.
External links
An explanation of the terms "drawn and quartered" and "keelhauling" on The Straight Dope
Corporal punishments
Execution methods
Pirate customs and traditions | [
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235648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscience%20vote | Conscience vote | A conscience vote or free vote is a type of vote in a legislative body where legislators are allowed to vote according to their own personal conscience rather than according to an official line set down by their political party. In a parliamentary system, especially within the Westminster system, it can also be used to indicate crossbench members of a hung parliament where confidence and supply is provided to allow formation of a minority government but the right to vote on conscience is retained. Free votes are found in Canadian and some British legislative bodies; conscience votes are used in Australian and New Zealand legislative bodies.
Under the Westminster system, MPs who belong to a political party are usually required by that party to vote in accordance with the party line on significant legislation, on pain of censure or expulsion from the party. Sometimes a particular party member known as the party whip is responsible for maintaining this party discipline. However, in the case of a conscience vote, a party declines to dictate an official party line to follow and members may vote as they please. In countries where party discipline is less important and voting against one's party is more common, conscience votes are generally less important.
In most countries, conscience votes are quite rare and are often about issues which are very contentious, or a matter on which the members of any single party differ in their opinions; thus making it difficult for parties to formulate official policies. Usually, a conscience vote will be about religious, moral or ethical issues rather than about administrative or financial ones. Matters such as the prohibition of alcohol, abortion, homosexuality law reform and the legality of prostitution are often subject to conscience votes.
Sometimes a vote may be free for some parties but not for others. For instance, when the Conservative government of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper proposed a motion to re-open the debate on Canada's same-sex marriage laws, his Conservatives and the opposition Liberals declared it a free vote for their members, while the Bloc Québécois and the New Democrats both maintained party discipline to defeat the measure.
Practice in various countries
Australia
Conscience votes have been held in the Australian Parliament and in State Parliaments on issues of becoming a republic, abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality, sex discrimination, prostitution, and bioethical issues like assisted reproduction and stem cell research, besides other issues.
New Zealand
In the New Zealand Parliament, conscience votes differ from party votes in that MPs must physically enter a lobby to vote on a motion rather than a party's whip calling out the votes on behalf of its MPs. A personal vote can be requested after a contested voice vote by any MP, but whether a personal or party vote is held is at the discretion of the Speaker. Pieces of legislation which were treated as conscience issues in New Zealand include the Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986, Prostitution Reform Act 2003, Crimes (Substituted Section 59) Amendment Act 2007, Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013 and the present End of Life Choice Bill and Abortion Legislation Act 2020. The most common topic for conscience votes in New Zealand has been alcohol; a conscience vote relating to alcohol has happened every decade since the 1890s.
United Kingdom
In the British House of Commons there used to be a conscience vote every few years on the restoration of the death penalty, which had been abolished in 1964 (except for treason, for which it was abolished in 1998 in the Human Rights Act). It had always been rejected and this practice has now been abandoned. In Britain, laws concerning abortion have always been subject to a free vote.
The proposed bans on hunting with dogs proposed by Tony Blair's government were the subject of several free votes in Parliament from 2001. On each occasion the Commons voted for a ban and the House of Lords rejected it. In 2004 the Government, trying to placate the Lords and other opponents of a ban, proposed only restriction and licensing of hunting but anti-hunting MPs (mostly Labour backbenchers) forced through an amendment which would effect a total ban. Seconds after the vote on the amendment, the Government bowed to pressure and agreed to force the ban through the Lords under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. It passed in November 2004.
Other decisions which were taken by a free vote include abandoning the experiment with permanent summer time and bringing television cameras into Parliament.
United States
In the United States, parties exercise comparatively little control over the votes of individual legislators. However, the parties' whips offer varying amounts of incentives or disincentives to unite the party on major votes. As an extreme case, Democrat James Traficant was stripped of his seniority and committee assignments in 2001 when he voted for a Republican, Dennis Hastert, to be Speaker of the United States House of Representatives.
When a party's leadership declines to whip votes in a situation where they normally would, this is sometimes called a "conscience vote," "vote of conscience," or members "voting their consciences." For instance, an aide to Senate Minority Whip Dick Durbin said that "Decisions about war and peace are conscience votes and they aren’t whipped traditionally," regarding the potential disapproval of the Iran nuclear agreement. Similarly, when House Republican leadership decided not to whip votes against the second impeachment of Donald Trump, Liz Cheney—the third-highest-ranking Republican—referred to the matter as a "vote of conscience". At other times the terms are used to describe a vote based on personal morals rather than political considerations.
See also
Aisle (political term)
Crossing the floor
Keep the bastards honest
Party switching
Transformism, flexible centrist coalition government by unification of the extreme left and right
Westminster system
Whip (politics), in UK politics voting against the party line is known as "defying the whip"
Party discipline
References
Voting
Westminster system | [
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235650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eel%20life%20history | Eel life history | The eel is a long, thin bony fish of the order Anguilliformes. Because fishermen never caught anything they recognized as young eels, the life cycle of the eel was a mystery for a very long period of scientific history. Although more than 6500 publications mention eels, much of their life history remains an enigma.
The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) was historically the one most familiar to Western scientists, beginning with Aristotle, who wrote the earliest known inquiry into the natural history of eels. He speculated that they were born of "earth worms", which he believed were formed of mud, growing from the "guts of wet soil" rather than through sexual reproduction. Many centuries passed before scientists were able to demonstrate that such spontaneous generation does not occur in nature.
Other early scientists believed that the eelpout Zoarces viviparus was the "mother of eels" (the translation of the German name "Aalmutter").
Past studies of eels
In 1777, the Italian Carlo Mondini located an eel's ovaries and demonstrated that eels are a kind of fish. In 1876, as a young student in Austria, Sigmund Freud dissected hundreds of eels in search of the male sex organs. He had to concede failure in his first major published research paper, and turned to other issues in frustration.
Larval eels — transparent, leaflike two-inch (five-cm) creatures of the open ocean — were not generally recognized as such until 1893; instead, they were thought to be a separate species, Leptocephalus brevirostris (from the Greek leptocephalus meaning "thin- or flat-head"). In 1886, however, the French zoologist Yves Delage discovered the truth when he kept leptocephali alive in a laboratory tank in Roscoff until they matured into eels, and in 1896 Italian zoologist Giovanni Battista Grassi confirmed the finding when he observed the transformation of a Leptocephalus into a round glass eel in the Mediterranean Sea. (He also observed that salt water was necessary to support the maturation process.) Although the connection between larval eels and adult eels is now well understood, the name leptocephalus is still used for larval eel.
Search for the spawning grounds
European eel
The Danish professor Johannes Schmidt, beginning in 1904, led a series of expeditions into the Mediterranean Sea and the North Atlantic (the Dana expeditions) to investigate eels. The expeditions were largely financed by the Carlsberg Foundation. He noted that all the leptocephali he found were very similar, and hypothesized that they all must have descended from a common ancestor species. He also observed that the farther out to sea in the Atlantic Ocean he went, the smaller the leptocephali he caught were. In a 1922 expedition, he sailed as far as the Sargasso Sea, south of Bermuda, where he caught the smallest eel-larvae that had ever been seen.
Although Schmidt did not directly observe eel spawning, or even find ready-to-spawn adult eels, he was able to deduce the following about the life history of the eel, based on the size distribution of the leptocephali he collected:
The larvae of European eels travel with the Gulf Stream across the Atlantic Ocean, and grow to 75–90 mm within one to three years, before they reach the coasts of Europe. Eels in this so-called "recruitment" developmental stage are known as glass eels because of the transparency of their bodies. Glass eels typically refers to an intermediary stage in the eel's complex life history between the leptocephalus stage and the juvenile (elver) stage. Glass eels are defined as "all developmental stages from completion of leptocephalus metamorphosis until full pigmentation". The term typically refers to a transparent glass eel of the family Anguillidae.
One well-known place where glass eels are collected large-scale (for deli food and stocking) is Epney, on the Severn, in England. (Glass eels are a food item in Spain.) Once they recruit to coastal areas, they migrate up rivers and streams, overcoming various natural challenges — sometimes by piling up their bodies by the tens of thousands to climb over obstacles — and they reach even the smallest of creeks.
The eels can propel themselves over wet grass and dig through wet sand to reach upstream headwaters and ponds, thus colonizing the continent. In fresh water they develop pigmentation, turn into elvers (young eels), and feed on creatures such as small crustaceans, worms, and insects. For 10 to 14 years they mature, growing to a length of 60 to 80 cm. During this stage they are called yellow eels because of their golden pigmentation. Marine eels of the order Anguilliformes also have a leptocephalus stage, and likely pass through a stage similar to the anguillid glass eels, but they are rarely seen in the ocean.
In July, some mature individuals migrate back towards the sea, crossing wet grasslands at night to reach rivers that lead to the sea. Eel migration out of their freshwater growth habitats from various parts of Europe, or through the Baltic Sea in the Danish straits, have been the basis of traditional fisheries with characteristic trapnets.
How the adults make the open ocean journey back to their spawning grounds north of the Antilles, Haiti, and Puerto Rico remains unknown. By the time they leave the continent, their gut dissolves, making feeding impossible, so they have to rely on stored energy alone. The external features undergo other dramatic changes, as well: the eyes start to enlarge, the eye pigments change for optimal vision in dim blue clear ocean light, and the sides of their bodies turn silvery, to create a countershading pattern which makes them difficult to see by predators during their long open-ocean migration. These migrating eels are typically called "silver eels" or "big eyes".
German fisheries biologist Friedrich Wilhelm Tesch, an eel expert and author, conducted many expeditions with high-tech instrumentation to follow eel migration, first down the Baltic, then along the coasts of Norway and England, but finally the transmitter signals were lost at the continental shelf when the batteries ran out. According to Schmidt, a travel speed in the ocean of 15 km per day can be assumed, so a silver eel would need around 140 to 150 days to reach the Sargasso Sea from Scotland and about 165 to 175 days when leaving from the English Channel.
Tesch — like Schmidt — kept trying to persuade sponsors to provide more funding for expeditions. His proposal was to release 50 silver eels from Danish waters, with transmitters that would detach from the eels each second day, float up toward the surface, and broadcast their position, depth, and temperature to satellite receivers. He also suggested that countries on the western side of the Atlantic could perform a similar release experiment at the same time. However, even today, only preliminary experiments along these lines have ever been performed. Migration was mapped in 2016.
Knowledge of what happens to individual silver eels after they leave the continental shelf is based solely on the study of three eels found in the stomachs of deepsea fishes and whales — caught off the coasts of Ireland and the Azores — and on laboratory research into the physiology of eels.
American eel
Another Atlantic eel species is known: the American eel, Anguilla rostrata. First it was believed European and American eels were the same species due to their similar appearance and behavior, but they differ in chromosome count and various molecular genetic markers, and in the number of vertebrae, A. anguilla counting 110 to 119 and A. rostrata 103 to 110.
The spawning grounds for the two species are in an overlapping area of the southern Sargasso Sea, with A. rostrata apparently being more westward than A. anguilla, and with some spawning by the American eel possibly even occurring off the Yucatán Peninsula off the Gulf of Mexico, but this has not been confirmed. After spawning in the Sargasso Sea and moving to the west, the leptocephali of the American eel exit the Gulf Stream earlier than the European eel and begin migrating into the estuaries along the east coast of North America between February and late April at an age around one year and a length around 60 mm.
Japanese eel
The spawning area of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica, has also been found. Their breeding site is to the west of the Suruga seamount (14–17°N, 142–143°E), near the Mariana Islands. and their leptocephali are then transported to the west to East Asia by the North Equatorial Current.
In June and August 2008, Japanese scientists discovered and caught matured adult eels of A. japonica and A. marmorata in the West Mariana Ridge.
Southern African eels
Southern Africa's four species of freshwater eels (A. mossambica, A. bicolor bicolor, A. bengalensis labiata, and A. marmorata) have an interesting migratory pattern: It takes them on a long journey from their spawning grounds in the Indian Ocean north of Madagascar to high up in some of the Southern African river systems and then back again to the ocean off Madagascar.
New Zealand longfin eels
New Zealand longfin eels breed only once at the end of their lives, making a journey of thousands of kilometres from New Zealand to their spawning grounds near Tonga. Their eggs (of which each female eel produces between 1 and 20 million) are fertilized in an unknown manner, but probably in deep tropical water. The mature eels then die, their eggs floating to the surface to hatch into very flat leaf-like larvae (called leptocephalus) that then drift along large oceanic currents back to New Zealand. This drifting is thought to take up to 15 months. There have been no recorded captures of either the eggs or larvae of longfin eels.
Decline of the glass eels
No one yet knows the reasons, but beginning in the mid-1980s, glass eel arrival in the spring dropped drastically — in Germany to 10% and in France to 14% of their previous levels — from even conservative estimates. Data from Maine and other North American coasts showed similar declines, although not as drastic.
In 1997, European demand for eels could not be met for the first time ever, and dealers from Asia bought all they could. The traditional European stocking programs could not compete any longer: each week, the price for a kilogram of glass eel went up another US$30. Even before the 1997 generation hit the coasts of Europe, dealers from China alone placed advance orders for more than 250,000 kg, some bidding more than $1,100 per kg. Asian elvers have sold in Hong Kong for as much as $5,000 to $6,000 a kilogram at times when $1,000 would buy the same amount of American glass eels at their catching sites. Such a kilogram, consisting of 5000 glass eels, may bring at least $60,000 and as much as $150,000 after they leave an Asian fish farm. In New Jersey, over 2000 licenses for glass eel catch were issued and reports of 38 kg per night and fisherman have been made, although the average catch is closer to 1 kg.
The demand for adult eels has continued to grow, . Germany imported more than $50 million worth of eels in 2002. In Europe, 25 million kg are consumed each year, but in Japan alone, more than 100 million kg were consumed in 1996. As the European eels become less available, worldwide interest in American eels has increased dramatically.
New high-tech eel aquaculture plants are appearing in Asia, with detrimental effects on the native Japanese eel, A. japonica. Traditional eel aquaculture operations rely on wild-caught elvers, but experimental hormone treatments in Japan have led to artificially spawned eels. Eggs from these treated eels have a diameter of about 1 mm, and each female can produce up to 10 million eggs. However, these treated eels may not solve the eel crisis. Scientists are struggling to get eels to sexual maturity without environmental cues. Additionally, leptocephali (larva) require a diet of marine snow which is difficult to recreate in aquaculture.
Threats to eels
Strong concerns exist that the European eel population might be devastated by a new threat: Anguillicola crassus, a foreign parasitic nematode. This parasite from East Asia (the original host is A. japonica) appeared in European eel populations in the early 1980s. Since 1995, it also appeared in the United States (Texas and South Carolina), most likely due to uncontrolled aquaculture eel shipments. In Europe, eel populations are already from 30% to 100% infected with the nematode. Recently, this parasite was shown to inhibit the function of the swimbladder as a hydrostatic organ. As open ocean voyagers, eels need the carrying capacity of the swimbladder (which makes up 3–6% of the eel's body weight) to cross the ocean on stored energy alone.
Because the eels are catadromous (living in fresh water but spawning in the sea), dams and other river obstructions can block their ability to reach inland feeding grounds. Since the 1970s, an increasing number of eel ladders have been constructed in North America and Europe to help the fish bypass obstructions.
In New Jersey, an ongoing project monitors the glass eel migration with an online in situ microscope. As soon as more funding becomes available, it will be possible to log into the system via a Longterm Ecological Observatory (LEO) site.
See also
Eel ladder
Fish migration
References
Sources and further reading
Banks, R.C., R.W. McDiarmid, A.L. Gardner, & W.C. Starnes (2003). Checklist of Vertebrates of the United States, the U.S. Territories, and Canada.
Bussing, W.A. (1998). Peces de las aguas continentales de Costa Rica [Freshwater fishes of Costa Rica]. 2nd ed. San José Costa Rica: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
Butsch, R.S. (1939). A list of Barbadian fishes. J. B.M.H.S. 7(1): pp. 17-31.
Böhlke, J.E. & C.C.G. Chaplin (1993). Fishes of the Bahamas and adjacent tropical waters. 2nd edition. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Claro, R. (1994). Characterísticas generales de la ictiofauna. pp. 55-70. [In] R. Claro [ed.] Ecología de los peces marinos de Cuba. Instituto de Oceanología Academia de Ciencias de Cuba and Centro de Investigaciones de Quintana Roo.
Claro, Rodolfo, & Lynne R. Parenti (2001). Chapter 2: The Marine Ichthyofauna of Cuba. [In] Claro, Rodolfo, Kenyon C. Lindeman, & L.R. Parenti, [eds.] Ecology of the Marine Fishes of Cuba. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. pp. 21-57. .
Erdman, D.S. (1984). Exotic fishes in Puerto Rico. pp. 162-176. [In] W.R. Courtney, Jr. & J.R. Stauffer, Jr. [eds.] Distribution, biology and management of exotic fishes. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, USA.
Eschmeyer, William N., [ed.] (1998). Catalog of Fishes. Special Publication of the Center for Biodiversity Research and Information, no. 1, vol 1-3. California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco, California, USA. 2905. .
Fish, M.P. & W.H. Mowbray (1970). Sounds of Western North Atlantic fishes. A reference file of biological underwater sounds. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, MD.
Food and Agriculture Organization (1992). FAO yearbook 1990. Fishery statistics. Catches and landings. FAO Fish. Ser. (38). FAO Stat. Ser. 70:(105)
Food and Agriculture Organization (1997). Aquaculture production statistics 1986–1995. FAO Fish. Circ. 815, Rev. 9.
Greenfield, D.W & J.E Thomerson (1997). Fishes of the continental waters of Belize. University Press of Florida, Florida.
International Game Fish Association (1991). World record game fishes. International Game Fish Association, Florida, USA.
Jessop, B.M. (1987). Migrating American eels in Nova Scotia. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 116: pp. 161-170.
Kenny, J.S. (1995). Views from the Bridge: A memoir on the freshwater fishes of Trinidad. Julian S. Kenny, Maracas, St. Joseph, Trinidad, & Tobago.
Lim, P., Meunier, F.J., Keith, P. & Noël, P.Y. (2002). Atlas des poissons et des crustacés d'eau douce de la Martinique. Patrimoines Naturels, 51: Paris: MNHN.
Murdy, Edward O., Ray S. Birdsong, & John A. Musick 1997. Fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. .
Nelson, Joseph S., Edwin J. Crossman, Héctor Espinosa-Pérez, Lloyd T. Findley, Carter R. Gilbert, Robert N. Lea, & James D. Williams, [eds.] (2004). Common and scientific names of fishes from the United States, Canada, and Mexico, Sixth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 29. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland, USA. .
Nielsen, J.G. and E. Bertelsen (1992). Fisk i grønlandske farvande. Atuakkiorfik, Nuuk. 65 s.
Nigrelli, R.F. (1959). Longevity of fishes in captivity, with special reference to those kept in the New York Aquarium. pp. 212-230. [In] G.E.W. Wolstehnolmen & M. O'Connor [eds.] Ciba Foundation Colloquium on Ageing: the life span of animals. Vol. 5., Churchill, London.
Ogden, J.C., J.A. Yntema, & I. Clavijo (1975). An annotated list of the fishes of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Spec. Publ. No. 3.
Page, L.M. & B.M. Burr (1991). A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
Piper, R. (2007). Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.
Robins, C.R. & G.C. Ray (1986). A field guide to Atlantic coast fishes of North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA
Robins, Richard C., Reeve M. Bailey, Carl E. Bond, James R. Brooker, Ernest A. Lachner, et al. (1980). A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada, Fourth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 12. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, MD.
Robins, Richard C., Reeve M. Bailey, Carl E. Bond, James R. Brooker, Ernest A. Lachner, et al. 1980. A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada, Fourth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 12. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, MD.
Smith, C.L. (1997). National Audubon Society field guide to tropical marine fishes of the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, NY.
Tesch, F.-W. (2003) The eel. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
Wallace, Karen (1993) Think of an Eel, Walker Books, UK. [A picture book for children that describes the life cycle of the eel.]
Wenner, C.A. (1978). Anguillidae. [In] W. Fischer [ed.] FAO species identification sheets for fishery purposes. West Atlantic (Fishing Area 31). volume 1. FAO, Rome, IT.
External links
The Maine Eel and Elver Fishery Maine Department of Marine Resources
Fishbase entry for Anguilla anguilla
Fishbase entry for Anguilla rostrata
ICES report about eel stock collapse
U.K Glass Eels — a large commercial firm's website, with history and fact pages
Projekt eelBASE
Eels
Commercial fish
Ichthyology
de:Europäischer Aal#Lebenszyklus und Fortpflanzung | [
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235651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Keelhaul | Operation Keelhaul | Operation Keelhaul was a forced repatriation of Russian civilians (non-Soviet citizens) and Soviet citizens to the Soviet Union. While forced repatriation focused on Soviet Armed Forces POWs of Germany and Russian Liberation Army members, it included all Russians under Allied control. Refoulement, the forced repatriation of people in danger of persecution, is a human rights violation and breach of international law. Thus, Operation Keelhaul has been called a war crime, especially in regards to the many civilians forced into Soviet work camps, many of whom had never been Soviet citizens, having fled Russia before the end of the Russian Civil War.
The operation was carried out in Northern Italy and Germany by British and American forces between 14 August 1946 and 9 May 1947. Anti-communist Yugoslavs and Hungarians, including members of the fascist Ustaše regime that ran the Jasenovac concentration camp, were also forcibly repatriated to their respective governments.
Three volumes of records, entitled "Forcible Repatriation of Displaced Soviet Citizens-Operation Keelhaul," were classified Top Secret by the U.S. Army on September 18, 1948, and bear the secret file number 383.7-14.1.
Yalta Conference
One of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the western Allies would return all Soviet citizens who found themselves in their zones to the Soviet Union. This immediately affected the liberated Soviet prisoners of war, but also extended to all Soviet citizens, irrespective of their wishes. In exchange, the Soviet government agreed to hand over several thousand western Allied prisoners of war whom they had liberated from German prisoner of war camps.
Treatment of prisoners and refugees
The refugee columns fleeing the Soviet-occupied parts of Europe included anti-communists, civilians, and Nazi collaborators from eastern European countries. They added to the mass of 'displaced persons' from the Soviet Union already in Western Europe, the vast majority of whom were Soviet prisoners of war and forced laborers (Ost-Arbeiter).
Soviet subjects who had volunteered for the German Army Ostlegionen and/or Waffen SS units were forcibly repatriated. These included Russian Cossacks of the XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps with their relatives, who were transported from the Western occupation zones of Allied-occupied Austria to the Soviet occupation zones of Austria and Allied-occupied Germany. Among those handed over were White émigré-Russians who had never been Soviet citizens, but who had fought for Nazi Germany against the Soviets during the war, including General Andrei Shkuro and the Ataman of the Don Cossack host Pyotr Krasnov. This was done despite the official statement of the British Foreign Office policy after the Yalta Conference, that only Soviet citizens who had been such after 1 September 1939, were to be compelled to return to the Soviet Union or handed over to Soviet officials in other locations (see the Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II).
The actual "Operation Keelhaul" was the last forced repatriation and involved the selection and subsequent transfer of approximately one thousand "Russians" from the camps of Bagnoli, Aversa, Pisa, and Riccione. Applying the "McNarney-Clark Directive", subjects who had served in the German Army were selected for shipment, starting on 14 August 1946. The transfer was codenamed "East Wind" and took place at St. Valentin in Austria on 8 and 9 May 1947. This operation marked the end of forced repatriations to the Soviet Union after World War II, and ran parallel to Operation Fling that helped Soviet defectors to escape from the Soviet Union.
On the other side of the exchange, the Soviet leadership found out that despite the demands set forth by Stalin, British intelligence was retaining a number of anti-Communist prisoners under orders from Churchill, with the intention of reviving "anti-Soviet operations". The 14th Waffen Grenadier Division, which was recruited from Ukrainians in Galicia were not repatriated, ostensibly because Galicia had belonged to Poland prior to September 1939, but in reality because MI6 wished to use the prisoners in future operations. The officer in charge of screening the 14th Division for war criminals, Fitzroy Maclean, admitted in an interview in 1989 that it was "fairly clear that there was every probability that there were war criminals amongst them", but argued that in the context of the Cold War, such men were needed to fight against the Soviet Union. On 23 March 1947, the United Kingdom granted asylum to the entire 14th Division, whose men were subsequently settled in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. The Soviet government protested against this decision, stating that most of the men in the division had previously served in German police units in Galicia and were deeply involved in perpetrating war crimes, but using a brief written by Pavlo Shandruk, an officer in the division as its basis, the Foreign Office issued a statement denying the 14th division had been involved in war crimes.
Critics
British historian and monarchist Nikolai Tolstoy described the scene of Americans returning to the internment camp after delivering a shipment of people to the Soviet authorities: "The Americans returned to Plattling visibly shamefaced. Before their departure from the rendezvous in the forest, many had seen rows of bodies already hanging from the branches of nearby trees." Notably, his accounts have been widely disputed by historians, who pointed out his reliance on three partial eyewitness accounts 40 years afterwards.
Nigel Nicolson, a former British Army captain, was Tolstoy's chief witness in the libel action brought by Lord Aldington. In 1995, he wrote:
Fifty years ago I was a captain in the British Army, and with others I supervised the Jugoslav (Yugoslav) 'repatriation', as it was euphemistically called. We were told not to use force, and forbidden to inform them of their true destination. When they asked us where they were going, we replied that we were transferring them to another British camp in Italy, and they mounted the trains without suspicion. As soon as the sliding doors of the cattle-trucks were padlocked, our soldiers withdrew and Tito's partisans emerged from the station building where they had been hiding, and took over command of the train.
The prisoners and refugees could see them through cracks in the boarding, and began hammering on the insides of the wagons, shouting abuse at us for having betrayed them, lied to them, and sentenced at least the men among them to a grotesque death. There is now no doubt about their hideous fate, and to those of us on the spot there was little doubt then. Shortly after the first trainloads had been despatched, we heard the stories of the few survivors who escaped back to Austria, and thousands of manacled skeletons have since been disinterred in Slovenian pits.
Ghinghis Guirey, an American on one of the repatriation screening teams, reported:
The most unpleasant aspect of this unpleasant business was the fear these people displayed. Involuntarily one began to look over one's shoulder. I heard so many threats to commit suicide from people who feared repatriation that it became almost commonplace. And they were not fooling.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn called this operation "the last secret of World War II." He contributed to a legal defense fund set up to help Tolstoy, who was charged with libel in a 1989 case brought by Lord Aldington over war crimes allegations made by Tolstoy related to this operation. Tolstoy lost the case in the British courts; he avoided paying damages by declaring bankruptcy.
See also
Swedish extradition of Baltic soldiers
Western betrayal
Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II
Yugoslav Partisan pursuit of Nazi collaborators
Collaboration during World War II
Russian Liberation Army
Soviet repressions against former prisoners of war
XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps
References
Books
Further reading
Tolstoy, Nikolai. Victims of Yalta, originally published in London, 1977. Revised edition 1979.
Epstein, Julius. Operation Keelhaul, Devin-Adair, 1973.
External links
Return to the scene of the crime Rutland Herald Online
Aftermath of World War II in the Soviet Union and Russia
Post–World War II forced migrations
Soviet Union–United Kingdom relations
Soviet Union–United States relations
Aftermath of World War II in the United Kingdom
Aftermath of World War II in the United States
People extradited to the Soviet Union | [
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235657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate%20governance | Corporate governance | Corporate governance is the collection of mechanisms, processes and relations used by various parties to control and to operate a corporation. Governance structures and principles identify the distribution of rights and responsibilities among different participants in the corporation (such as the board of directors, managers, shareholders, creditors, auditors, regulators, and other stakeholders) and include the rules and procedures for making decisions in corporate affairs. Corporate governance is necessary because of the possibility of conflicts of interests between stakeholders, primarily between shareholders and upper management or among shareholders.
Corporate governance includes the processes through which corporations' objectives are set and pursued in the context of the social, regulatory and market environment. These include monitoring the actions, policies, practices, and decisions of corporations, their agents, and affected stakeholders. Corporate governance practices can be seen as attempts to align the interests of stakeholders.
Interest in the corporate governance practices of modern corporations, particularly in relation to accountability, increased following the high-profile collapses of a number of large corporations in 2001–2002, many of which involved accounting fraud; and then again after the financial crisis in 2008.
Corporate scandals of various forms have maintained public and political interest in the regulation of corporate governance. In the U.S. these have included scandals surrounding Enron and MCI Inc. (formerly WorldCom). Their demise led to the enactment of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in 2002, a U.S. federal law intended to improve corporate governance in the United States. Comparable failures in Australia (HIH, One.Tel) are associated with the eventual passage of the CLERP 9 reforms there (2004), that similarly aimed to improve corporate governance.
Similar corporate failures in other countries stimulated increased regulatory interest (e.g., Parmalat in Italy).
Background
The need for corporate governance follows the need to mitigate conflicts of interests between stakeholders in corporations. These conflicts of interests appear as a consequence of diverging wants between both shareholders and upper management (principal–agent problems) and among shareholders (principal–principal problems), although also other stakeholder relations are affected and coordinated through corporate governance.
Principal–agent conflict
In large firms where there is a separation of ownership and management, the principal–agent problem can arise between upper-management (the "agent") and the shareholder(s) (the "principal(s)"). The shareholders and upper management may have different interests. The shareholders typically desire returns on their investments through profits and dividends, while upper management may also be influenced by other motives, such as management remuneration or wealth interests, working conditions and perquisites, or relationships with other parties within (e.g., management-worker relations) or outside the corporation, to the extent that these are not necessary for profits. Those pertaining to self-interest are usually emphasized in relation to principal-agent problems. The effectiveness of corporate governance practices from a shareholder perspective might be judged by how well those practices align and coordinate the interests of the upper management with those of the shareholders. However, corporations sometimes undertake initiatives, such as climate activism and voluntary emission reduction, that seems to contradict the idea that rational self-interest drives shareholders' governance goals.
An example of a possible conflict between shareholders and upper management materializes through stock repurchases (treasury stock). Executives may have incentive to divert cash surpluses to buying treasury stock to support or increase the share price. However, that reduces the financial resources available to maintain or enhance profitable operations. As a result, executives can sacrifice long-term profits for short-term personal gain. Shareholders may have different perspectives in this regard, depending on their own time preferences, but it can also be viewed as a conflicting with broader corporate interests (including preferences of other stakeholders and the long-term health of the corporation).
Principal–principal conflict (the multiple principal problem)
The principal–agent problem can be intensified when upper management acts on behalf of multiple shareholders—which is often the case in large firms (see Multiple principal problem). Specifically, when upper management acts on behalf of multiple shareholders, the multiple shareholders face a collective action problem in corporate governance, as individual shareholders may lobby upper management or otherwise have incentives to act in their individual interests rather than in the collective interest of all shareholders. As a result, there may be free-riding in steering and monitoring of upper management, or conversely, high costs may arise from duplicate steering and monitoring of upper management. Conflict may break out between principals, and this all leads to increased autonomy for upper management.
Ways of mitigating or preventing these conflicts of interests include the processes, customs, policies, laws, and institutions which affect the way a company is controlled—and this is the challenge of corporate governance. To solve the problem of governing upper management under multiple shareholders, corporate governance scholars have figured out that the straightforward solution of appointing one or more shareholders for governance is likely to lead to problems because of the information asymmetry it creates. Shareholders' meetings are necessary to arrange governance under multiple shareholders, and it has been proposed that this is the solution to the problem of multiple principals due to median voter theorem: shareholders' meetings lead power to be devolved to an actor that approximately holds the median interest of all shareholders, thus causing governance to best represent the aggregated interest of all shareholders.
Other themes
An important theme of governance is the nature and extent of corporate accountability. A related discussion at the macro level focuses on the effect of a corporate governance system on economic efficiency, with a strong emphasis on shareholders' welfare. This has resulted in a literature focused on economic analysis.
Other definitions
Corporate governance is variously given narrower definitions in particular contexts.
Corporate governance has also been more narrowly defined as "a system of law and sound approaches by which corporations are directed and controlled focusing on the internal and external corporate structures with the intention of monitoring the actions of management and directors and thereby, mitigating agency risks which may stem from the misdeeds of corporate officers".
Corporate governance has also been defined as "the act of externally directing, controlling and evaluating a corporation" and related to the definition of Governance as "The act of externally directing, controlling and evaluating an entity, process or resource". In this sense, governance and corporate governance are different from management because governance must be EXTERNAL to the object being governed. Governing agents do not have personal control over, and are not part of the object that they govern. For example, it is not possible for a CIO to govern the IT function. They are personally accountable for the strategy and management of the function. As such, they "manage" the IT function; they do not "govern" it. At the same time, there may be a number of policies, authorized by the board, that the CIO follows. When the CIO is following these policies, they are performing "governance" activities because the primary intention of the policy is to serve a governance purpose. The board is ultimately "governing" the IT function because they stand outside of the function and are only able to externally direct, control and evaluate the IT function by virtue of established policies, procedures and indicators. Without these policies, procedures and indicators, the board has no way of governing, let alone affecting the IT function in any way.
One source defines corporate governance as "the set of conditions that shapes the ex post bargaining over the quasi-rents generated by a firm". The firm itself is modelled as a governance structure acting through the mechanisms of contract. Here corporate governance may include its relation to corporate finance.<ref>Tirole, Jean (1999).The Theory of Corporate Finance", Princeton. Description and scrollable preview.</ref>
Principles
Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in three documents released since 1990: The Cadbury Report (UK, 1992), the Principles of Corporate Governance (OECD, 1999, 2004 and 2015), and the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (US, 2002). The Cadbury and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports present general principles around which businesses are expected to operate to assure proper governance. The Sarbanes–Oxley Act, informally referred to as Sarbox or Sox, is an attempt by the federal government in the United States to legislate several of the principles recommended in the Cadbury and OECD reports.
Rights and equitable treatment of shareholders:Cadbury, Adrian, Report of the Committee on the Financial service Aspects of Corporate Governance, Gee, London, December, 1992, Sections 3.4 Organizations should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to exercise those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by openly and effectively communicating information and by encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.
Interests of other stakeholders: Organizations should recognize that they have legal, contractual, social, and market driven obligations to non-shareholder stakeholders, including employees, investors, creditors, suppliers, local communities, customers, and policy makers.
Role and responsibilities of the board:Cadbury, Adrian, Report of the Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance, Gee, London, December, 1992, Section 3.4 The board needs sufficient relevant skills and understanding to review and challenge management performance. It also needs adequate size and appropriate levels of independence and commitment.
Integrity and ethical behavior:Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, US Congress, Title I, 101(c)(1), Title VIII, and Title IX, 406 Integrity should be a fundamental requirement in choosing corporate officers and board members. Organizations should develop a code of conduct for their directors and executives that promotes ethical and responsible decision making.
Disclosure and transparency:Cadbury, Adrian, Report of the Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance, Gee, London, December, 1992, Section 3.2 Organizations should clarify and make publicly known the roles and responsibilities of board and management to provide stakeholders with a level of accountability. They should also implement procedures to independently verify and safeguard the integrity of the company's financial reporting. Disclosure of material matters concerning the organization should be timely and balanced to ensure that all investors have access to clear, factual information.
Models
Different models of corporate governance differ according to the variety of capitalism in which they are embedded. The Anglo-American "model" tends to emphasize the interests of shareholders. The coordinated or multistakeholder model associated with Continental Europe and Japan also recognizes the interests of workers, managers, suppliers, customers, and the community. A related distinction is between market-oriented and network-oriented models of corporate governance.
Continental Europe (Two-tier board system)
Some continental European countries, including Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands, require a two-tiered board of directors as a means of improving corporate governance. In the two-tiered board, the executive board, made up of company executives, generally runs day-to-day operations while the supervisory board, made up entirely of non-executive directors who represent shareholders and employees, hires and fires the members of the executive board, determines their compensation, and reviews major business decisions.
Germany, in particular, is known for its practice of co-determination, founded on the German Codetermination Act of 1976, in which workers are granted seats on the board as stakeholders, separate from the seats accruing to shareholder equity.
United States, United Kingdom
The so-called "Anglo-American model" of corporate governance emphasizes the interests of shareholders. It relies on a single-tiered board of directors that is normally dominated by non-executive directors elected by shareholders. Because of this, it is also known as "the unitary system".Mallin, Christine A., "Corporate Governance Developments in the UK" in Mallin, Christine A (ed), Handbook on International Corporate Governance: Country Analyses, Second Edition, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2011, Within this system, many boards include some executives from the company (who are ex officio members of the board). Non-executive directors are expected to outnumber executive directors and hold key posts, including audit and compensation committees. In the United Kingdom, the CEO generally does not also serve as Chairman of the Board, whereas in the US having the dual role has been the norm, despite major misgivings regarding the effect on corporate governance. The number of US firms combining both roles is declining, however.
In the United States, corporations are directly governed by state laws, while the exchange (offering and trading) of securities in corporations (including shares) is governed by federal legislation. Many US states have adopted the Model Business Corporation Act, but the dominant state law for publicly traded corporations is Delaware General Corporation Law, which continues to be the place of incorporation for the majority of publicly traded corporations. Individual rules for corporations are based upon the corporate charter and, less authoritatively, the corporate bylaws.
Shareholders cannot initiate changes in the corporate charter although they can initiate changes to the corporate bylaws.
It is sometimes colloquially stated that in the US and the UK "the shareholders own the company". This is, however, a misconception as argued by Eccles & Youmans (2015) and Kay (2015).
Founder centrism
Recent scholarship from the University of Oxford outlines a new theory of corporate governance, founder centrism, which is premised upon a narrowing in the separation between ownership and control. Through the lens of concentrated equity ownership theory, a new theory of the firm, the traditional checklist of best practices are inapplicable, as evidenced by the significant outperformance of technology companies with dual-class share structures and integrated CEO/Chairman positions:
An article published by the Australian Institute of Company Directors called "Do Boards Need to become more Entrepreneurial?" also considered the need for founder centrism behaviour at board level to appropriately manage disruption.
Regulations
Corporations are created as legal persons by the laws and regulations of a particular jurisdiction. These may vary in many respects between countries, but a corporation's legal person status is fundamental to all jurisdictions and is conferred by statute. This allows the entity to hold property in its own right without reference to any particular real person. It also results in the perpetual existence that characterizes the modern corporation. The statutory granting of corporate existence may arise from general purpose legislation (which is the general case) or from a statute to create a specific corporation, which was the only method prior to the 19th century.
In addition to the statutory laws of the relevant jurisdiction, corporations are subject to common law in some countries, and various laws and regulations affecting business practices. In most jurisdictions, corporations also have a constitution that provides individual rules that govern the corporation and authorize or constrain its decision-makers. This constitution is identified by a variety of terms; in English-speaking jurisdictions, it is usually known as the Corporate Charter or the Memorandum and Articles of Association. The capacity of shareholders to modify the constitution of their corporation can vary substantially.
The U.S. passed the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) in 1977, with subsequent modifications. This law made it illegal to bribe government officials and required corporations to maintain adequate accounting controls. It is enforced by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Substantial civil and criminal penalties have been levied on corporations and executives convicted of bribery.
The UK passed the Bribery Act in 2010. This law made it illegal to bribe either government or private citizens or make facilitating payments (i.e., payment to a government official to perform their routine duties more quickly). It also required corporations to establish controls to prevent bribery.
Sarbanes–Oxley Act
The Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 was enacted in the wake of a series of high-profile corporate scandals. It established a series of requirements that affect corporate governance in the U.S. and influenced similar laws in many other countries. The law required, along with many other elements, that:
The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) be established to regulate the auditing profession, which had been self-regulated prior to the law. Auditors are responsible for reviewing the financial statements of corporations and issuing an opinion as to their reliability.
The chief executive officer (CEO) and chief financial officer (CFO) attest to the financial statements. Prior to the law, CEOs had claimed in court they hadn't reviewed the information as part of their defense.
Board audit committees have members that are independent and disclose whether or not at least one is a financial expert, or reasons why no such expert is on the audit committee.
External audit firms cannot provide certain types of consulting services and must rotate their lead partner every 5 years. Further, an audit firm cannot audit a company if those in specified senior management roles worked for the auditor in the past year. Prior to the law, there was the real or perceived conflict of interest between providing an independent opinion on the accuracy and reliability of financial statements when the same firm was also providing lucrative consulting services.
Codes and guidelines
Corporate governance principles and codes have been developed in different countries and issued from stock exchanges, corporations, institutional investors, or associations (institutes) of directors and managers with the support of governments and international organizations. As a rule, compliance with these governance recommendations is not mandated by law, although the codes linked to stock exchange listing requirements may have a coercive effect.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development principles
One of the most influential guidelines on corporate governance are the G20/OECD Principles of Corporate Governance, first published as the OECD Principles in 1999, revised in 2004 and revised again and endorsed by the G20 in 2015. The Principles are often referenced by countries developing local codes or guidelines. Building on the work of the OECD, other international organizations, private sector associations and more than 20 national corporate governance codes formed the United Nations Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (ISAR) to produce their Guidance on Good Practices in Corporate Governance Disclosure. This internationally agreed benchmark consists of more than fifty distinct disclosure items across five broad categories:
Auditing
Board and management structure and process
Corporate responsibility and compliance in organization
Financial transparency and information disclosure
Ownership structure and exercise of control rights
The OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of State-Owned Enterprises are complementary to the G20/OECD Principles of Corporate Governance, providing guidance tailored to the corporate governance challenges unique to state-owned enterprises.
Stock exchange listing standards
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) and other stock exchanges are required to meet certain governance standards. For example, the NYSE Listed Company Manual requires, among many other elements:
Independent directors: "Listed companies must have a majority of independent directors ... Effective boards of directors exercise independent judgment in carrying out their responsibilities. Requiring a majority of independent directors will increase the quality of board oversight and lessen the possibility of damaging conflicts of interest." (Section 303A.01) An independent director is not part of management and has no "material financial relationship" with the company.
Board meetings that exclude management: "To empower non-management directors to serve as a more effective check on management, the non-management directors of each listed company must meet at regularly scheduled executive sessions without management." (Section 303A.03)
Boards organize their members into committees with specific responsibilities per defined charters. "Listed companies must have a nominating/corporate governance committee composed entirely of independent directors." This committee is responsible for nominating new members for the board of directors. Compensation and Audit Committees are also specified, with the latter subject to a variety of listing standards as well as outside regulations.
Other guidelines
The investor-led organisation International Corporate Governance Network (ICGN) was set up by individuals centered around the ten largest pension funds in the world 1995. The aim is to promote global corporate governance standards. The network is led by investors that manage 18 trillion dollars, and members are located in fifty different countries. ICGN has developed a suite of global guidelines ranging from shareholder rights to business ethics.
The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) has done work on corporate governance, particularly on accounting and reporting. In 2009, the International Finance Corporation and the UN Global Compact released a report, "Corporate Governance: the Foundation for Corporate Citizenship and Sustainable Business", linking the environmental, social and governance responsibilities of a company to its financial performance and long-term sustainability.
Most codes are largely voluntary. An issue raised in the U.S. since the 2005 Disney decision is the degree to which companies manage their governance responsibilities; in other words, do they merely try to supersede the legal threshold, or should they create governance guidelines that ascend to the level of best practice. For example, the guidelines issued by associations of directors, corporate managers and individual companies tend to be wholly voluntary, but such documents may have a wider effect by prompting other companies to adopt similar practices.
In 2021, the first ever international standard, ISO 37000, was published as guidance for good governance. The guidance places emphasis on purpose which is at the heart of all organizations, i.e. a meaningful reason to exist. Values inform both the purpose and the way the purpose is achieved.
History
Early history
The modern practice of corporate governance has its roots in the 17th-century Dutch Republic. The first recorded corporate governance dispute in history took place in 1609 between the shareholders/investors (most notably Isaac Le Maire) and directors of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the world's first formally listed public company. It is important to note that from about the early 1600s to about the mid-18th century, the Dutch Republic's economic, business and financial systems were the most advanced and sophisticated ever seen in history.
United States
Robert E. Wright argued in Corporation Nation (2014) that the governance of early U.S. corporations, of which over 20,000 existed by the Civil War of 1861–1865, was superior to that of corporations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries because early corporations governed themselves like "republics", replete with numerous "checks and balances" against fraud and against usurpation of power by managers or by large shareholders. (The term "robber baron" became particularly associated with US corporate figures in the Gilded Age—the late 19th century.)
In the immediate aftermath of the Wall Street Crash of 1929 legal scholars such as Adolf Augustus Berle, Edwin Dodd, and Gardiner C. Means pondered on the changing role of the modern corporation in society. From the Chicago school of economics, Ronald Coase introduced the notion of transaction costs into the understanding of why firms are founded and how they continue to behave.
US economic expansion through the emergence of multinational corporations after World War II (1939–1945) saw the establishment of the managerial class. Several Harvard Business School management professors studied and wrote about the new class: Myles Mace (entrepreneurship), Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. (business history), Jay Lorsch (organizational behavior) and Elizabeth MacIver (organizational behavior). According to Lorsch and MacIver "many large corporations have dominant control over business affairs without sufficient accountability or monitoring by their board of directors".
In the 1980s, Eugene Fama and Michael Jensen established the principal–agent problem as a way of understanding corporate governance: the firm is seen as a series of contracts.
In the period from 1977 to 1997, corporate directors' duties in the U.S. expanded beyond their traditional legal responsibility of duty of loyalty to the corporation and to its shareholders.
In the first half of the 1990s, the issue of corporate governance in the U.S. received considerable press attention due to a spate of CEO dismissals (for example, at IBM, Kodak, and Honeywell) by their boards. The California Public Employees' Retirement System (CalPERS) led a wave of institutional shareholder activism (something only very rarely seen before), as a way of ensuring that corporate value would not be destroyed by the now traditionally cozy relationships between the CEO and the board of directors (for example, by the unrestrained issuance of stock options, not infrequently back-dated).
In the early 2000s, the massive bankruptcies (and criminal malfeasance) of Enron and Worldcom, as well as lesser corporate scandals (such as those involving Adelphia Communications, AOL, Arthur Andersen, Global Crossing, and Tyco) led to increased political interest in corporate governance. This was reflected in the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002. Other triggers for continued interest in the corporate governance of organizations included the financial crisis of 2008/9 and the level of CEO pay.
Some corporations have tried to burnish their ethical image by creating whistle-blower protections, such as anonymity. In the case of Citi, they call this the Ethics Hotline. Though it is unclear whether firms such as Citi take offences reported to these hotlines seriously or not.
East Asia
In 1997 the East Asian Financial Crisis severely affected the economies of Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, and the Philippines through the exit of foreign capital after property assets collapsed. The lack of corporate governance mechanisms in these countries highlighted the weaknesses of the institutions in their economies.
Saudi Arabia
In November 2006 the Capital Market Authority (Saudi Arabia) (CMA) issued a corporate governance code in the Arabic language. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has made considerable progress with respect to the implementation of viable and culturally appropriate governance mechanisms (Al-Hussain & Johnson, 2009).
Al-Hussain, A. and Johnson, R. (2009) found a strong relationship between the efficiency of corporate governance structure and Saudi bank performance when using return on assets as a performance measure with one exception—that government and local ownership groups were not significant. However, using rate of return as a performance measure revealed a weak positive relationship between the efficiency of corporate governance structure and bank performance.
List of countries by corporate governance
This is a list of countries by average overall rating in corporate governance:
Stakeholders
Key parties involved in corporate governance include stakeholders such as the board of directors, management and shareholders. External stakeholders such as creditors, auditors, customers, suppliers, government agencies, and the community at large also exert influence. The agency view of the corporation posits that the shareholder forgoes decision rights (control) and entrusts the manager to act in the shareholders' best (joint) interests. Partly as a result of this separation between the two investors and managers, corporate governance mechanisms include a system of controls intended to help align managers' incentives with those of shareholders. Agency concerns (risk) are necessarily lower for a controlling shareholder.
In private for-profit corporations, shareholders elect the board of directors to represent their interests. In the case of nonprofits, stakeholders may have some role in recommending or selecting board members, but typically the board itself decides who will serve on the board as a 'self-perpetuating' board. The degree of leadership that the board has over the organization varies; in practice at large organizations, the executive management, principally the CEO, drives major initiatives with the oversight and approval of the board.
Responsibilities of the board of directors
Former Chairman of the Board of General Motors John G. Smale wrote in 1995: "The board is responsible for the successful perpetuation of the corporation. That responsibility cannot be relegated to management." A board of directors is expected to play a key role in corporate governance. The board has responsibility for: CEO selection and succession; providing feedback to management on the organization's strategy; compensating senior executives; monitoring financial health, performance and risk; and ensuring accountability of the organization to its investors and authorities. Boards typically have several committees (e.g., Compensation, Nominating and Audit) to perform their work.
The OECD Principles of Corporate Governance (2004) describe the responsibilities of the board; some of these are summarized below:
Board members should be informed and act ethically and in good faith, with due diligence and care, in the best interest of the company and its shareholders.
Review and guide corporate strategy, objective setting, major plans of action, risk policy, capital plans, and annual budgets.
Oversee major acquisitions and divestitures.
Select, compensate, monitor and replace key executives and oversee succession planning.
Align key executive and board remuneration (pay) with the longer-term interest of the company and its shareholders.
Ensure a formal and transparent board member nomination and election process.
Ensure the integrity of the corporation's accounting and financial reporting systems, including their independent audit.
Ensure appropriate systems of internal control are established.
Oversee the process of disclosure and communications.
Where committees of the board are established, their mandate, composition and working procedures should be well-defined and disclosed.
Stakeholder interests
All parties to corporate governance have an interest, whether direct or indirect, in the financial performance of the corporation. Directors, workers and management receive salaries, benefits and reputation, while investors expect to receive financial returns. For lenders, it is specified interest payments, while returns to equity investors arise from dividend distributions or capital gains on their stock. Customers are concerned with the certainty of the provision of goods and services of an appropriate quality; suppliers are concerned with compensation for their goods or services, and possible continued trading relationships. These parties provide value to the corporation in the form of financial, physical, human and other forms of capital. Many parties may also be concerned with corporate social performance.
A key factor in a party's decision to participate in or engage with a corporation is their confidence that the corporation will deliver the party's expected outcomes. When categories of parties (stakeholders) do not have sufficient confidence that a corporation is being controlled and directed in a manner consistent with their desired outcomes, they are less likely to engage with the corporation. When this becomes an endemic system feature, the loss of confidence and participation in markets may affect many other stakeholders, and increases the likelihood of political action. There is substantial interest in how external systems and institutions, including markets, influence corporate governance.
"Absentee landlords" vs. capital stewards
In 2016 the director of the World Pensions Council (WPC) said that "institutional asset owners now seem more eager to take to task [the] negligent CEOs" of the companies whose shares they own.
This development is part of a broader trend towards more fully exercised asset ownership—notably from the part of the boards of directors ('trustees') of large UK, Dutch, Scandinavian and Canadian pension investors:
This could eventually put more pressure on the CEOs of publicly listed companies, as "more than ever before, many [North American,] UK and European Union pension trustees speak enthusiastically about flexing their fiduciary muscles for the UN's Sustainable Development Goals", and other ESG-centric investment practices.
United Kingdom
In Britain, "The widespread social disenchantment that followed the [2008–2012] great recession had an impact" on all stakeholders, including pension fund board members and investment managers.
Many of the UK's largest pension funds are thus already active stewards of their assets, engaging with corporate boards and speaking up when they think it is necessary.
Control and ownership structures
Control and ownership structure refers to the types and composition of shareholders in a corporation. In some countries such as most of Continental Europe, ownership is not necessarily equivalent to control due to the existence of e.g. dual-class shares, ownership pyramids, voting coalitions, proxy votes and clauses in the articles of association that confer additional voting rights to long-term shareholders. Ownership is typically defined as the ownership of cash flow rights whereas control refers to ownership of control or voting rights. Researchers often "measure" control and ownership structures by using some observable measures of control and ownership concentration or the extent of inside control and ownership. Some features or types of control and ownership structure involving corporate groups include pyramids, cross-shareholdings, rings, and webs. German "concerns" (Konzern) are legally recognized corporate groups with complex structures. Japanese keiretsu (系列) and South Korean chaebol (which tend to be family-controlled) are corporate groups which consist of complex interlocking business relationships and shareholdings. Cross-shareholding is an essential feature of keiretsu and chaebol groups. Corporate engagement with shareholders and other stakeholders can differ substantially across different control and ownership structures.
Family control
Family interests dominate ownership and control structures of some corporations, and it has been suggested that the oversight of family-controlled corporations are superior to corporations "controlled" by institutional investors (or with such diverse share ownership that they are controlled by management). A 2003 Business Week study said: "Forget the celebrity CEO. Look beyond Six Sigma and the latest technology fad. One of the biggest strategic advantages a company can have, it turns out, is blood lines." A 2007 study by Credit Suisse found that European companies in which "the founding family or manager retains a stake of more than 10 per cent of the company’s capital enjoyed a superior performance over their respective sectoral peers", reported Financial Times. Since 1996, this superior performance amounted to 8% per year.
Diffuse shareholders
The significance of institutional investors varies substantially across countries. In developed Anglo-American countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, U.K., U.S.), institutional investors dominate the market for stocks in larger corporations. While the majority of the shares in the Japanese market are held by financial companies and industrial corporations, these are not institutional investors if their holdings are largely with-on group.
The largest funds of invested money or the largest investment management firm for corporations are designed to maximize the benefits of diversified investment by investing in a very large number of different corporations with sufficient liquidity. The idea is this strategy will largely eliminate individual firm financial or other risk. A consequence of this approach is that these investors have relatively little interest in the governance of a particular corporation. It is often assumed that, if institutional investors pressing for changes decide they will likely be costly because of "golden handshakes" or the effort required, they will simply sell out their investment.
Proxy access
Particularly in the United States, proxy access allows shareholders to nominate candidates which appear on the proxy statement, as opposed to restricting that power to the nominating committee. The SEC had attempted a proxy access rule for decades, and the United States Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act specifically allowed the SEC to rule on this issue, however, the rule was struck down in court. Beginning in 2015, proxy access rules began to spread driven by initiatives from major institutional investors, and as of 2018, 71% of S&P 500 companies had a proxy access rule.
Mechanisms and controls
Corporate governance mechanisms and controls are designed to reduce the inefficiencies that arise from moral hazard and adverse selection. There are both internal monitoring systems and external monitoring systems. Internal monitoring can be done, for example, by one (or a few) large shareholder(s) in the case of privately held companies or a firm belonging to a business group. Furthermore, the various board mechanisms provide for internal monitoring. External monitoring of managers' behavior occurs when an independent third party (e.g. the external auditor) attests the accuracy of information provided by management to investors. Stock analysts and debt holders may also conduct such external monitoring. An ideal monitoring and control system should regulate both motivation and ability, while providing incentive alignment toward corporate goals and objectives. Care should be taken that incentives are not so strong that some individuals are tempted to cross lines of ethical behavior, for example by manipulating revenue and profit figures to drive the share price of the company up.
Internal corporate governance controls
Internal corporate governance controls monitor activities and then take corrective actions to accomplish organisational goals. Examples include:
Monitoring by the board of directors: The board of directors, with its legal authority to hire, fire and compensate top management, safeguards invested capital. Regular board meetings allow potential problems to be identified, discussed and avoided. Whilst non-executive directors are thought to be more independent, they may not always result in more effective corporate governance and may not increase performance. Different board structures are optimal for different firms. Moreover, the ability of the board to monitor the firm's executives is a function of its access to information. Executive directors possess superior knowledge of the decision-making process and therefore evaluate top management on the basis of the quality of its decisions that lead to financial performance outcomes, ex ante. It could be argued, therefore, that executive directors look beyond the financial criteria.
Internal control procedures and internal auditors: Internal control procedures are policies implemented by an entity's board of directors, audit committee, management, and other personnel to provide reasonable assurance of the entity achieving its objectives related to reliable financial reporting, operating efficiency, and compliance with laws and regulations. Internal auditors are personnel within an organization who test the design and implementation of the entity's internal control procedures and the reliability of its financial reporting.
Balance of power: The simplest balance of power is very common; require that the President be a different person from the Treasurer. This application of separation of power is further developed in companies where separate divisions check and balance each other's actions. One group may propose company-wide administrative changes, another group review and can veto the changes, and a third group check that the interests of people (customers, shareholders, employees) outside the three groups are being met.
Remuneration: Performance-based remuneration is designed to relate some proportion of salary to individual performance. It may be in the form of cash or non-cash payments such as shares and share options, superannuation or other benefits. Such incentive schemes, however, are reactive in the sense that they provide no mechanism for preventing mistakes or opportunistic behavior, and can elicit myopic behavior.
Monitoring by large shareholders and/or monitoring by banks and other large creditors: Given their large investment in the firm, these stakeholders have the incentives, combined with the right degree of control and power, to monitor the management.
In publicly traded U.S. corporations, boards of directors are largely chosen by the President/CEO, and the President/CEO often takes the Chair of the Board position for him/herself (which makes it much more difficult for the institutional owners to "fire" him/her). The practice of the CEO also being the Chair of the Board is fairly common in large American corporations.
While this practice is common in the U.S., it is relatively rare elsewhere. In the U.K., successive codes of best practice have recommended against duality.
External corporate governance controls
External corporate governance controls the external stakeholders' exercise over the organization. Examples include:
competition
debt covenants
demand for and assessment of performance information (especially financial statements)
government regulations
managerial labour market
media pressure
takeovers
proxy firms
mergers and acquisitions
Financial reporting and the independent auditor
The board of directors has primary responsibility for the corporation's internal and external financial reporting functions. The chief executive officer and chief financial officer are crucial participants, and boards usually have a high degree of reliance on them for the integrity and supply of accounting information. They oversee the internal accounting systems, and are dependent on the corporation's accountants and internal auditors.
Current accounting rules under International Accounting Standards and U.S. GAAP allow managers some choice in determining the methods of measurement and criteria for recognition of various financial reporting elements. The potential exercise of this choice to improve apparent performance increases the information risk for users. Financial reporting fraud, including non-disclosure and deliberate falsification of values also contributes to users' information risk. To reduce this risk and to enhance the perceived integrity of financial reports, corporation financial reports must be audited by an independent external auditor who issues a report that accompanies the financial statements.
One area of concern is whether the auditing firm acts as both the independent auditor and management consultant to the firm they are auditing. This may result in a conflict of interest which places the integrity of financial reports in doubt due to client pressure to appease management. The power of the corporate client to initiate and terminate management consulting services and, more fundamentally, to select and dismiss accounting firms contradicts the concept of an independent auditor. Changes enacted in the United States in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act (following numerous corporate scandals, culminating with the Enron scandal) prohibit accounting firms from providing both auditing and management consulting services. Similar provisions are in place under clause 49 of Standard Listing Agreement in India.
Systemic problems
Demand for information: In order to influence the directors, the shareholders must combine with others to form a voting group which can pose a real threat of carrying resolutions or appointing directors at a general meeting.
Monitoring costs: A barrier to shareholders using good information is the cost of processing it, especially to a small shareholder. The traditional answer to this problem is the efficient-market hypothesis (in finance, the efficient market hypothesis (EMH) asserts that financial markets are efficient), which suggests that the small shareholder will free ride on the judgments of larger professional investors.
Supply of accounting information: Financial accounts form a crucial link in enabling providers of finance to monitor directors. Imperfections in the financial reporting process will cause imperfections in the effectiveness of corporate governance. This should, ideally, be corrected by the working of the external auditing process.
Issues
Executive pay
Increasing attention and regulation (as under the Swiss referendum "against corporate rip-offs" of 2013) has been brought to executive pay levels since the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Research on the relationship between firm performance and executive compensation does not identify consistent and significant relationships between executives' remuneration and firm performance. Not all firms experience the same levels of agency conflict, and external and internal monitoring devices may be more effective for some than for others. Some researchers have found that the largest CEO performance incentives came from ownership of the firm's shares, while other researchers found that the relationship between share ownership and firm performance was dependent on the level of ownership. The results suggest that increases in ownership above 20% cause management to become more entrenched, and less interested in the welfare of their shareholders.
Some argue that firm performance is positively associated with share option plans and that these plans direct managers' energies and extend their decision horizons toward the long-term, rather than the short-term, performance of the company. However, that point of view came under substantial criticism circa in the wake of various security scandals including mutual fund timing episodes and, in particular, the backdating of option grants as documented by University of Iowa academic Erik Lie and reported by James Blander and Charles Forelle of the Wall Street Journal.As Companies Probe Backdating, More Top Officials Take a Fall |Charles Forelle and James Bandler| October 12, 2006| wsj.com
Even before the negative influence on public opinion caused by the 2006 backdating scandal, use of options faced various criticisms. A particularly forceful and long running argument concerned the interaction of executive options with corporate stock repurchase programs. Numerous authorities (including U.S. Federal Reserve Board economist Weisbenner) determined options may be employed in concert with stock buybacks in a manner contrary to shareholder interests. These authors argued that, in part, corporate stock buybacks for U.S. Standard & Poor's 500 companies surged to a $500 billion annual rate in late 2006 because of the effect of options.
A combination of accounting changes and governance issues led options to become a less popular means of remuneration as 2006 progressed, and various alternative implementations of buybacks surfaced to challenge the dominance of "open market" cash buybacks as the preferred means of implementing a share repurchase plan.
Separation of Chief Executive Officer and Chairman of the Board roles
Shareholders elect a board of directors, who in turn hire a chief executive officer (CEO) to lead management. The primary responsibility of the board relates to the selection and retention of the CEO. However, in many U.S. corporations the CEO and Chairman of the Board roles are held by the same person. This creates an inherent conflict of interest between management and the board.
Critics of combined roles argue the two roles that should be separated to avoid the conflict of interest and more easily enable a poorly performing CEO to be replaced. Warren Buffett wrote in 2014: "In my service on the boards of nineteen public companies, however, I've seen how hard it is to replace a mediocre CEO if that person is also Chairman. (The deed usually gets done, but almost always very late.)"
Advocates argue that empirical studies do not indicate that separation of the roles improves stock market performance and that it should be up to shareholders to determine what corporate governance model is appropriate for the firm.
In 2004, 73.4% of U.S. companies had combined roles; this fell to 57.2% by May 2012. Many U.S. companies with combined roles have appointed a "Lead Director" to improve independence of the board from management. German and UK companies have generally split the roles in nearly 100% of listed companies. Empirical evidence does not indicate one model is superior to the other in terms of performance. However, one study indicated that poorly performing firms tend to remove separate CEOs more frequently than when the CEO/Chair roles are combined.
See also
Agency cost
Basel II
Co-determination
Worker representation on corporate boards of directors
Corporate Law Economic Reform Program Act 2004
Corporate social entrepreneurship
Corporate transparency
Creative accounting
Earnings management
Environmental, social and corporate governance
Fund governance
Golden parachute
International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions
King Report on Corporate Governance
Legal origins theory
Market socialism
Private benefits of control
Risk management
Social ownership
Sociocracy
Stakeholder theory
References
Further reading
Bowen, William, 1998 and 2004, The Board Book: An Insider's Guide for Directors and Trustees, New York and London, W.W. Norton & Company,
Brickley, James A., William S. Klug and Jerold L. Zimmerman, Managerial Economics & Organizational Architecture, ISBN
Cadbury, Sir Adrian, "The Code of Best Practice", Report of the Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance, Gee and Co Ltd, 1992. Available online from
Cadbury, Sir Adrian, "Corporate Governance: Brussels", Instituut voor Bestuurders, Brussels, 1996.
Clarke, Thomas (ed.) (2004) Theories of Corporate Governance: The Philosophical Foundations of Corporate Governance, London and New York: Routledge,
Clarke, Thomas (ed.) (2004) Critical Perspectives on Business and Management (5 Volume Series on Corporate Governance – Genesis, Anglo-American, European, Asian and Contemporary Corporate Governance) London and New York: Routledge,
Clarke, Thomas (2007) International Corporate Governance London and New York: Routledge,
Clarke, Thomas & Chanlat, Jean-Francois (eds.) (2009) European Corporate Governance London and New York: Routledge,
Clarke, Thomas & dela Rama, Marie (eds.) (2006) Corporate Governance and Globalization (3 Volume Series) London and Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,
Clarke, Thomas & dela Rama, Marie (eds.) (2008) Fundamentals of Corporate Governance (4 Volume Series) London and Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,
Colley, J., Doyle, J., Logan, G., Stettinius, W., What is Corporate Governance? (McGraw-Hill, December 2004) ISBN
Crawford, C. J. (2007). Compliance & conviction: the evolution of enlightened corporate governance. Santa Clara, Calif: XCEO.
Dignam, Alan and Lowry, John (2020) Company Law, Oxford University Press
Douma, Sytse and Hein Schreuder (2013), Economic Approaches to Organizations, 5th edition. London: Pearson
Easterbrook, Frank H. and Daniel R. Fischel, The Economic Structure of Corporate Law, ISBN
Easterbrook, Frank H. and Daniel R. Fischel, International Journal of Governance, ISBN
Eccles, R.G. & T. Youmans (2015), Materiality in Corporate Governance: The Statement of Significant Audiences and Materiality, Boston: Harvard Business School, working paper 16-023, http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/materiality-in-corporate-governance-the-statement-of-significant-audiences-and-materiality
Garrett, Allison, "Themes and Variations: The Convergence of Corporate Governance Practices in Major World Markets", 32 Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y. Goergen, Marc, International Corporate Governance, (Prentice Hall 2012)
Kay, John (2015), 'Shareholders think they own the company — they are wrong', The Financial Times, 10 November 2015
Low, Albert, 2008. "Conflict and Creativity at Work: Human Roots of Corporate Life, Sussex Academic Press.
Monks, Robert A.G. and Minow, Nell, Corporate Governance (Blackwell 2004) ISBN
Monks, Robert A.G. and Minow, Nell, Power and Accountability (HarperBusiness 1991), full text available online
Moebert, Jochen and Tydecks, Patrick (2007). Power and Ownership Structures among German Companies. A Network Analysis of Financial Linkages
Murray, Alan Revolt in the Boardroom (HarperBusiness 2007) () Remainder
OECD (1999, 2004, 2015) Principles of Corporate Governance Paris: OECD
Ulrich Seibert (1999), Control and Transparency in Business (KonTraG) Corporate Governance Reform in Germany. European Business Law Review 70
Skau, H.O (1992), A Study in Corporate Governance: Strategic and Tactic Regulation (200 p)
Sun, William (2009), How to Govern Corporations So They Serve the Public Good: A Theory of Corporate Governance Emergence, New York: Edwin Mellen, .
Touffut, Jean-Philippe (ed.) (2009), Does Company Ownership Matter?, Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar. Contributors: Jean-Louis Beffa, Margaret Blair, Wendy Carlin, Christophe Clerc, Simon Deakin, Jean-Paul Fitoussi, Donatella Gatti, Gregory Jackson, Xavier Ragot, Antoine Rebérioux, Lorenzo Sacconi and Robert M. Solow.
Tricker, Bob and The Economist Newspaper Ltd (2003, 2009), Essentials for Board Directors: An A–Z Guide, Second Edition, New York, Bloomberg Press, .
Shahwan, Y., & Mohammad, N. R. (2016). Descriptive Evidence of Corporate Governance & OECD Principles for Compliance with Jordanian Companies. Journal Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai Negotia''.
External links
OECD Corporate Governance Portal
WorldBank/IFC Corporate Governance Portal
World Bank Corporate Governance Reports
Corporate law
Management
Information governance
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235662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goulash | Goulash | Goulash (), is a soup or stew of meat and vegetables seasoned with paprika and other spices. Originating in Hungary, goulash is a common meal predominantly eaten in Central Europe but also in other parts of Europe. It is one of the national dishes of Hungary and a symbol of the country.
Its origin traces back to the 9th century to stews eaten by Hungarian shepherds. At that time, the cooked and flavored meat was dried with the help of the sun and packed into bags produced from sheep's stomachs, needing only water to make it into a meal. Earlier versions of goulash did not include paprika, as it was not introduced to the Old World until the 16th century.
Etymology
The name originates from the Hungarian . The word means 'herd of cattle' in Hungarian, and means 'herdsman' or 'cowboy'.
The word originally meant only 'herdsman', but over time the dish became ('goulash meat') – that is to say, a meat dish which was prepared by herdsmen. In medieval times, the Hungarian herdsman of Central Europe made use of every possible part of the animal, as was common practice. As meat was scarce, nearly all of the animal was often used to make the soup.
Today, refers both to the herdsmen, and to the soup. From the Middle Ages until well into the 19th century, the Puszta was the home of massive herds of cattle. They were driven, in their tens of thousands, to Europe's biggest cattle markets in Moravia, Vienna, Nuremberg and Venice. The herdsmen made sure that there were always some cattle that had to be slaughtered along the way, the flesh of which provided them with .
In Hungary
In Hungarian cuisine, traditional (literally 'goulash soup'), , , and were thick stews made by cattle herders and stockmen.
These dishes can be made as soups rather than stews. Garlic, caraway seed, and wine are optional. Excepting , the Hungarian stews do not rely on a flour or roux for thickening.
Tomato is a modern addition, totally unknown in the original recipe and in the whole Central European food culture until the first half of the 20th century.
Goulash can be prepared from beef, veal, pork, or lamb. Typical cuts include the shank, shin, or shoulder; as a result, goulash derives its thickness from tough, well-exercised muscles rich in collagen, which is converted to gelatin during the cooking process. Meat is cut into chunks, seasoned with salt, and then browned with sliced onion in a pot with oil or lard. Paprika is added, along with water or stock, and the goulash is left to simmer. After cooking a while, garlic, whole or ground caraway seed, or soup vegetables like carrot, parsley root, peppers (green or bell pepper) and celery may be added. Other herbs and spices could also be added, especially cayenne, bay leaf and thyme. Diced potatoes may be added, since they provide starch as they cook, which makes the goulash thicker and smoother. However, red peppers and potatoes are post-16th century additions, unknown in the original recipe. A small amount of white wine or wine vinegar may also be added near the end of cooking to round the taste. Goulash may be served with small egg noodles called . The name comes from pinching small, fingernail-sized bits out of the dough ( being Hungarian for 'pinch') before adding them to the boiling soup.
The Hungarian cook Karoly Gundel maintains that in a goulash recipe, meat should not be mixed with any grains or with potatoes.
Hungarian varieties
Hungarian goulash variations include:
Székely Gulyás. Omit the potatoes and add sauerkraut and sour cream.
Gulyás Hungarian Plain Style. Omit the homemade soup pasta (csipetke) and add vegetables.
Mock Gulyás. Substitute beef bones for the meat and add vegetables. Also called Hamisgulyás, (Fake Goulash)
Bean Gulyás. Omit the potatoes and the caraway seeds. Use kidney beans instead.
Csángó Gulyás. Add sauerkraut instead of pasta and potatoes.
Betyár Gulyás. Use smoked beef or smoked pork for meat.
Likócsi Pork Gulyás. Use pork and thin vermicelli in the goulash instead of potato and soup pasta. Flavored with lemon juice.
Mutton Gulyás or Birkagulyás. Made with mutton. Add red wine for flavor.
A thicker and richer goulash, similar to a stew, originally made with three kinds of meat, is called Székely gulyás, named after the Hungarian writer, journalist and archivist József Székely (1825–1895).
Paprikás krumpli
"Paprikás krumpli" is a traditional paprika-based potato stew with diced potatoes, onion, ground paprika, and some bacon or sliced spicy sausage, like the smoked Debrecener, in lieu of beef.
In German-speaking countries this inexpensive peasant stew is made with sausage and known as Kartoffelgulasch ("potato goulash"). Bell pepper is sometimes added.
Outside Hungary
Thick stews similar to pörkölt and the original cattlemen stew are popular throughout almost all the former Austrian-Hungarian Empire, from Northeast Italy to the Carpathians. Like pörkölt, these stews are generally served with boiled or mashed potato, polenta, dumplings (e.g. nokedli, or galuska), spätzle or, alternatively, as a stand-alone dish with bread. Romani people have their own version of goulash.
Albania
Goulash (Albanian: gullash) is considered a traditional dish among some Northern Albanians.
Austria
In Vienna, the former center of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a special kind of goulash had been developed. The Wiener Saftgulasch or the Fiakergulasch (Fiacre being a horse-drawn cab) on the menu in traditional restaurants is a rich pörkölt-like stew; more onions but no tomatoes or other vegetables are used, and it usually comes just with dark bread. A variation of the Wiener Saftgulasch is the Fiakergulasch, which is served with fried egg, fried sausage, and dumplings named Semmelknödel.
Croatia
Goulash () is also very popular in most parts of Croatia, especially north (Hrvatsko Zagorje) and Lika. In Gorski Kotar and Lika, venison or wild boar frequently replace beef (lovački gulaš). There is also a kind of goulash with porcini mushrooms (gulaš od vrganja). Bacon is an important ingredient.
Gulaš is often served with fuži, njoki, polenta or pasta. It is augmented with vegetables. Green and red bell peppers and carrots are most commonly used. Sometimes one or more other kinds of meat are added, e.g., pork loin, bacon, or mutton.
Czech Republic and Slovakia
In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, goulash (Czech and Slovak: guláš) is usually made with beef, although pork varieties exist, and served with boiled or steamed bread dumplings (goulash with beef in Czech hovězí guláš s knedlíkem, in Slovak hovädzí guláš s knedľou), in Slovakia more typically with bread. In pubs it is often garnished with slices of fresh onion, and is typically accompanied by beer. Beer can be also added to the stew in the process of cooking. Seasonal varieties of goulash include venison or wild boar goulashes. Another popular variant of guláš is segedínský guláš (Székelygulyás), with sauerkraut.
In Czech and Slovak slang, the word guláš means "mishmash", typically used as mít v tom guláš: to be disoriented or to lack understanding of something.
Ethiopia
Fish goulash (; asa gulaš) is a popular dish in Ethiopia, particularly during the numerous fasting seasons as required by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. It is usually prepared with a spicy sauce having a tomato and onion base and served with injera or rice.
Germany
German Gulasch is either a beef (Rindergulasch), pork (Schweinegulasch), venison (Hirschgulasch), or wild boar (Wildschweingulasch) stew that may include red wine and is usually served with potatoes (in the north), white rice or spirelli noodles (mostly in canteens), and dumplings (in the south). Gulaschsuppe (goulash soup) is the same concept served as a soup, usually with pieces of white bread.
Italy
Goulash in Italy is eaten in the region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and the autonomous region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, regions that had been part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Here it is eaten as a regular Sunday dish. It can also, although less typically so, be found in the nearby Veneto. An interesting regional recipe comes from the Pustertal (Val Pusteria, Puster Valley) in South Tyrol. It is made of beef and red wine, and seasoned with rosemary, red paprika, bay leaf, marjoram and lemon zest, served with crusty white bread or polenta. The lemon gives its signature flavor. Goulash is also quite popular in the city of Ancona, which is culturally quite near to eastern Europe.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, goulash is usually prepared with beef. It is typically consumed as a stew, and is thus closer to pörkölt.
Poland
In Poland, goulash () is eaten in most parts of the country. A variant dish exists that is similar to Hungarian pörkölt. It came to being around the 9th century. It is usually served with mashed potatoes or various forms of noodles and dumplings, such as pyzy.
Serbia
In Serbia, goulash () is eaten in most parts of the country, especially in Vojvodina, where it was probably introduced by the province's Hungarian population. It is actually a pörkölt-like stew, usually made with beef, veal or pork, but also with game meat like venison and boar. Compulsory ingredients are meat and onions, usually in 50-50% ratio, paprika, and lard or oil, other ingredients being optional: garlic, parsley, chili pepper, black pepper, cinnamon, bell peppers, carrots, tomatoes, red wine, mushrooms, bacon. Sometimes, goulash is sweetened by adding tomato paste, sugar or dark chocolate at the very end. In Serbia, goulash is most often served with macaroni or potato mash.
Slovenia
In Slovene partizanski golaž, "partisan goulash", favored by Slovenian partisans during the Second World War, is still regularly served at mass public events. "Partisan golaž" utilizes onion in equal proportion to meat; two or more types of meat are usually used in preparing this dish. The most widespread form of golaž in home cooking is a thick beef stew that is most commonly served with mashed potatoes. As elsewhere in the wider region, Szeged goulash, usually referred to as segedin, is also a popular dish for home preparation.
United States and Canada
North American goulash, mentioned in cookbooks since at least 1914, exists in a number of variant recipes. Originally a dish of seasoned beef, core ingredients of American goulash now usually include elbow macaroni, cubed steak, ground beef or "hamburger", and tomatoes in some form, whether canned whole, as tomato sauce, tomato soup, and/or tomato paste.
See also
Beef stew
Abgoosht
Beef bourguignon
List of beef dishes
List of pork dishes
List of soups
List of stews
List of Hungarian dishes
National symbols of Hungary
Romani cuisine
References
Bibliography
Gundel's Hungarian Cookbook, Karoly Gundel, Budapest, CORVINA. .
External links
Austrian cuisine
Beef dishes
Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisine
Croatian stews
Czech cuisine
Dutch cuisine
German cuisine
Hungarian soups
Hungarian words and phrases
Italian stews
Lithuanian cuisine
Montenegrin cuisine
National dishes
Polish stews
Pork dishes
Macedonian cuisine
Romanian cuisine
Russian cuisine
Serbian cuisine
Soviet cuisine
Slovenian cuisine
Slovak soups
Hungarian stews
Ukrainian cuisine
Albanian cuisine
Wild game dishes
Romani cuisine
American stews | [
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235668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20football%20clubs%20in%20Scotland | List of football clubs in Scotland | This is a list of football clubs in Scotland.
Clubs in membership of the Scottish Professional Football League
Scottish Premiership
Aberdeen
Celtic
Dundee
Dundee United
Heart of Midlothian
Hibernian
Livingston
Motherwell
Rangers
Ross County
St Johnstone
St Mirren
Scottish Championship
Arbroath
Ayr United
Dunfermline Athletic
Greenock Morton
Hamilton Academical
Inverness Caledonian Thistle
Kilmarnock
Partick Thistle
Queen of the South
Raith Rovers
Scottish League One
Alloa Athletic
Airdrieonians
Clyde
Cove Rangers
Dumbarton
East Fife
Falkirk
Montrose
Peterhead
Queen's Park
Scottish League Two
Albion Rovers
Annan Athletic
Cowdenbeath
Edinburgh City
Elgin City
Forfar Athletic
Kelty Hearts
Stenhousemuir
Stirling Albion
Stranraer
Clubs in membership of the Highland League
Brechin City
Brora Rangers
Buckie Thistle
Clachnacuddin
Deveronvale
Formartine United
Forres Mechanics
Fort William
Fraserburgh
Huntly
Inverurie Loco Works
Keith
Lossiemouth
Nairn County
Rothes
Strathspey Thistle
Turriff United
Wick Academy
Clubs in membership of the Lowland League
Berwick Rangers (located in England)
Bo'ness United
Bonnyrigg Rose Athletic
Broomhill
Caledonian Braves
Celtic B
Civil Service Strollers
Cumbernauld Colts
Dalbeattie Star
East Kilbride
East Stirlingshire
Edinburgh University
Gala Fairydean Rovers
Gretna 2008
Rangers B
The Spartans
University of Stirling
Vale of Leithen
Clubs in membership of the East of Scotland League
Premier Division
First Division
Conference A
Conference B
Tier 8
Clubs in membership of the South of Scotland League
Abbey Vale
Annan Athletic reserves
Creetown
Heston Rovers
Lochar Thistle
Lochmaben
Mid-Annandale
Newton Stewart
Nithsdale Wanderers
St Cuthbert Wanderers
Stranraer reserves
Threave Rovers
Upper Annandale
Wigtown & Bladnoch
Clubs in membership of the West of Scotland League
Premier Division
Tier 7
Conference A
Conference B
Conference C
Clubs in membership of the North Caledonian League
Alness United
Bonar Bridge
Bunillidh Thistle
Golspie Sutherland
Halkirk United
Invergordon
Inverness Athletic
Loch Ness
Nairn County 'A'
Orkney
St Duthus
Thurso
Clubs in membership of the Scottish Junior Football Association
East Region
Midlands League
North Region
Superleague
First Division
Banchory St. Ternan
Buckie Rovers
Burghead Thistle
Deveronside
Forres Thistle
Fraserburgh United
Longside
Stoneywood Parkvale
Sunnybank
Second Division
Aberdeen University
Buchanhaven Hearts
Cruden Bay
Glentanar
Islavale
New Elgin
Newmachar United
Rothie Rovers
Spey Valley
Whitehills
Miscellaneous clubs at amateur level
Colville Park (Central Scottish Amateur Football League)
Drumchapel Amateur (Caledonian Amateur Football League)
Dukla Pumpherston (charity and exhibition matches)
East Kilbride YM (Caledonian Amateur Football League)
Eyemouth United (Border Amateur Football League)
Glasgow Harp (Caledonian Amateur Football League)
Harestanes (Central Scottish Amateur Football League)
Links United (Caledonian Amateur Football League)
Oban Saints (Scottish Amateur Football League)
Rothesay Brandane (Caledonian Amateur Football League)
Steins Thistle (Central Scottish Amateur Football League)
Tain Thistle (Ross-shire Welfare Football League)
Defunct clubs
Former Scottish Football League members
Selected other senior clubs (including North Caledonian League)
Selected other junior clubs
University clubs
Most universities in Scotland have football sides, as do some colleges, some compete in the BUSA Football League.
Aberdeen University
Edinburgh University
Glasgow University
Heriot-Watt University
St Andrews University
University of Stirling
References
External links
All-time Scottish Football Club Directory 1829-2009, Brian McColl, via Scottish Football Historical Archive (archived version, 2015) | [
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235671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Arnold | Henry Arnold | Henry Arnold may refer to:
(1879–1945), French sculptor
Henry H. Arnold (1886–1950), American general officer
Henry J. Arnold (born 1866), mayor of Denver, Colorado
See also
Harry Arnold (1920–1971), Swedish jazz musician
Henry H. Arnhold (1921–2018), American banker | [
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235677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal%20window | Modal window | In user interface design for computer applications, a modal window is a graphical control element subordinate to an application's main window.
A modal window creates a mode that disables the main window but keeps it visible, with the modal window as a child window in front of it. Users must interact with the modal window before they can return to the parent application. This avoids interrupting the workflow on the main window. Modal windows are sometimes called heavy windows or modal dialogs because they often display a dialog box.
User interfaces typically use modal windows to command user awareness and to display emergency states, though interaction designers argue they are ineffective for that use. Modal windows are prone to mode errors.
On the Web, they often show images in detail, such as those implemented by Lightbox library, or are used for hover ads.
The opposite of modal is modeless. Modeless windows don't block the main window, so the user can switch their focus between them, treating them as palette windows.
Relevance and usage
Use cases
Frequent uses of modal windows include:
Drawing attention to vital pieces of information. This use has been criticized as ineffective because users are bombarded with too many dialog boxes, and habituate to simply clicking "Close", "Cancel", or "OK" without reading or understanding the message.
Blocking the application flow until information required to continue is entered, as for example a password in a login process. Another example are file dialogs to open and save files in an application.
Collecting application configuration options in a centralized dialog. In such cases, typically the changes are applied upon closing the dialog, and access to the application is disabled while the edits are being made.
Warning that the effects of the current action are not reversible. This is a frequent interaction pattern for modal dialogs, but some usability experts criticize it as ineffective for its intended use (protection against errors in destructive actions) due to habituation. They recommend making the action reversible (providing an "undo" option) instead.
Modal sheets in Mac OS X
Many features that would typically be represented by modal windows are implemented as modal transient panels called "Sheets" on Mac OS X. Transient windows behave similarly to modal windowsthey are always on top of the parent window and are not shown in the window list, but they do not disable the use of other windows in the application. Sheets slide out of the window's title bar, and usually must be dismissed before the user can continue to work in the window, but the rest of the application stays usable. Thus they create a mode inside the window that contains them, but are modeless with respect to the rest of the application.
Control of interaction flow
Modal windows are common in GUI toolkits for guiding user workflow. Alan Cooper contends that the importance of requiring the user to attend to important issues justifies restricting the user's freedom and that the alternative would increase user frustration.
Unexpected interruptions
Unexpected alert dialogs are particular culprits of mode errors with potentially severe consequences. Usability practitioners prescribe that dangerous actions should be undoable wherever possible; an alert box that appears unexpectedly or is dismissed by habituation doesn't protect from the dangerous action. A modeless infobar is increasingly seen as preferable to a dialog box because it does not interrupt the user's activities, but rather allows the user to read extra information in their own time.
One proposed approach is to design every input element as a self-contained, task-oriented interaction, guided by its own specific requirements rather than by the global state of the entire application. For example, required elements might be preceded with an asterisk, elements with invalid data might acquire a red border, and so on. With this approach, users actually benefit from seeing many input elements at once — they can enter data in a way that makes sense to them, instead of having all the other unrelated elements blocked until a predefined data-entry sequence is completed.
Problems
A modal window blocks all other workflows in the top-level program until the modal window is closed, as opposed to modeless dialogs that allow users to operate with other windows. Modal windows are intended to grab the user's full attention. Users may not recognize that a modal window requires their attention, leading to confusion about the main window being non-responsive, or causing loss of the user's data input intended for the main window (see Mode error). In severe cases, the modal window appears behind another window controlled by the same program, potentially rendering the entire program unresponsive until the modal window can be located manually.
However, many interface designers have recently taken steps to make modal windows more obvious and user friendly by darkening the background behind the window or allowing any mouse click outside of the modal window to force the window to close – a design called a Lightbox – thus alleviating those problems. Jakob Nielsen states as an advantage of modal dialogs that it improves user awareness: "When something does need fixing, it's better to make sure that the user knows about it." For this goal, the Lightbox design provides strong visual contrast of the dialog over the rest of the visuals. The Lightbox technique is now a common tool in website design.
Modal windows are commonly implemented in ways that block the possibility to move, minimize, iconify, or push that window back, and they grab input focus, which often prevents use of a system's cut, copy, and paste facilities. This can interfere with the use of their parent applications by blocking access to other windows and data within the same application, particularly in cases where the modal window is requiring the user to input information only available in one of the windows it's covering.
For users using virtual work areas larger than their actual screens, modal windows can cause further undesirable behavior, including creating the modal on a portion of the virtual screen not currently on the display, or abruptly switching the display from what the user was working on to an entirely different section.
Modal windows tend to create an abrupt diversion of text input, especially typed input intended for other programs, into themselves. Further, modals usually interpret actuation of the enter key (or in rare cases the presence of a newline in pasted input) as a cue to accept the input and process it—or, in rare cases, may intercept a mouse click intended for a different application that has suddenly been covered. Such interception, called focus stealing (or stealing focus) can compromise privacy and security practices, as well as capture inappropriate, out-of-context input that can cause undefined, arbitrary results in the program that generated the modal window.
Depending on the specifics of implementation, modal windows can violate the principle of least surprise.
Recommendations
Modal dialogs are part of a task flow, and recommendations are given to place them where the focus is in that flow. For example, the window could be placed near the graphical control element that triggers its activation.
Using a semi-transparent dark background can obscure information in the main window, so it is best used only when that information would be distracting. A semi-transparent background can be made less intrusive by having the whole background area function as a close button: this is standard on most mobile operating systems, avoids making the user feel trapped, and makes modal windows feel less like malicious pop-ups.
Design should follow common practices in the platform the program is running on. Microsoft Windows uses standard controls for modal window dialogs, with affirmative action buttons at the lower right of the panel. Mac OS X uses modal sheets with affirmative action buttons being the right-most command.
See also
Application posture
Popover (GUI)
References
Graphical user interface elements | [
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235679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav%20Metzger | Gustav Metzger | Gustav Metzger (10 April 1926, Nuremberg – 1 March 2017, London) was a German artist and political activist who developed the concept of Auto-Destructive Art and the Art Strike.
Together with John Sharkey, he initiated the Destruction in Art Symposium in 1966.
Metzger was recognised for his protests in the political and artistic realms.
Early life and education
Metzger was born to Polish Jewish parents in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1926 and came to Britain in 1939 as a refugee under the auspices of the Refugee Children Movement. He lost his Polish citizenship and was stateless since the late 1940s. He received a grant from the UK Jewish community to study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp between 1948 and 1949. It is with an experience of twentieth century society's destructive capabilities that led Metzger to a concentrated 'formulation of what destruction is and what it might be in relation to art.'
Career
His experience of twentieth century society's destructive capabilities led Metzger to a concentrated 'formulation of what destruction is and what it might be in relation to art.' He was known as a leading exponent of the Auto-Destructive Art and the Art Strike movements. He was also active in the Committee of 100 - a 'named' member
In 1959, Metzger published the first auto-destructive manifesto Auto-Destructive Art. This was given as a lecture to the Architectural Association School of Architecture (AA) in 1964, which was taken over by students as an artistic 'Happening'. The Architectural Association published, in 2015, a facsimile edition of Metzger's lecture transcript. In 1962 he participated in the Festival of Misfits organised by members of the Fluxus group, at Gallery One, London. Guitarist Pete Townshend from The Who studied with Metzger, and during the 1960s, Metzger's work was projected on screens at The Who concerts. Metzger also worked with Cream, providing them with light shows in the 1960s.
In 2005, he selected EASTinternational which he proclaimed to be "The art exhibition without the art."
Throughout the 60 years that Metzger produced politically engaged works, he incorporated materials ranging from trash to old newspapers, liquid crystals to industrial materials, and even acid."
From 29 September to 8 November 2009, the Serpentine Gallery featured the most extensive exhibition in the UK of his work. Exhibits included the installation Flailing Trees, 15 upturned willow trees embedded in a block of concrete, symbolising a world turned upside down by global warming. He felt that artists are especially threatened, because so many rely on nature as a big inspiration. Metzger stated that "artists have a special part to play in opposing extinction, if only on a theoretical, intellectual basis."
Metzger lived and worked in East London.
Works
Public Demonstration of Auto-Destructive Art
This was originally made in 1960 and remade as Recreation of First Public Demonstration of Auto-Destructive Art in 2004.
Demonstration at the South Bank, London, 1961
Acid action painting
Construction with glass
Liquid Crystal Environment
Liquid Crystal Environment was originally made in 1965 and remade in 2005.
Historic Photographs
This ongoing series of work consists of enlarged press photographs of catastrophic events of the 20th century presented to the viewer using confrontational and experiential methods.
Recreation of First Public Demonstration of Auto-Destructive Art
This was a recreation of the original demonstration made in 1960.
An integral piece of the installation at the Tate Britain, a bag containing rubbish, was erroneously disposed by a cleaner on 30 June 2004. Metzger declared the piece ruined and created a new bag as a replacement.
Flailing Trees
Originally conceived for Manchester Peace Garden and commissioned by Manchester International Festival in 2009, this work consists of uprooted trees inverted into a concrete block in a powerful environmental memorandum of man's destructive capabilities and violation of Nature.
Influences
The painter David Bomberg, the leading light of the Borough Group, taught Metzger and was influential in his development.
Death
Metzger died at the age of 90 at his home in London on 1 March 2017. He is buried on the east side of Highgate Cemetery.
Legacy
When Metzger was lecturing at Ealing Art College, one of his students was rock musician Pete Townshend, who later cited Metzger's concepts as an influence for his famous guitar-smashing during performances of The Who. He has also influenced the self-eating computer virus works by the digital artist Joseph Nechvatal.
Further reading
Metzger, Gustav, Writings (1953–2016), edited by Mathieu Copeland, JRP Editions, 2019, .
Metzger, Gustav Act or Perish! – A Retrospective. Nero, 2016, .
Metzger, Gustav Auto-Destructive Art: Metzger at AA, Architectural Association, 2015, .
Metzger, Gustav, Auto-creative Art, edited by Mathieu Copeland, 2013,
Voids A Retrospective, Edited by Mathieu Copeland with John Armleder, Laurent Le Bon, Gustav Metzger, Mai-Thu Perret, Clive Phillpot, Philippe Pirotte. JRP Editions, 2009,
Stiles, Kristine, Synopsis of the Destruction in Art Symposium (DIAS) and Its Theoretical Significance. The Act 1 (Spring 1987), pp. 22–31.
Stiles, Kristine, Thresholds of Control: Destruction Art and Terminal Culture. Out of Control. Edited by Gottfried Hattinger and Karl Gerbel, Linz, Austria: Ars Electronica & Landesverlag, 1991, pp. 29–50.
Stiles, Kristine, Survival Ethos and Destruction Art. Discourse: Journal for Theoretical Studies in Media and Culture 14:2 (Spring 1992), pp. 74–102; reprinted in Kristine Stiles, Concerning Consequences: Studies in Art, Destruction, and Trauma. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016.
Stiles, Kristine, Uncorrupted Joy: International Art Actions. In Out of Actions: Between Performance and The Object 1949-1979. Edited by Russell Ferguson and Paul Schimmel, pp. 226–328.
Stiles, Kristine, The Story of the Destruction in Art Symposium and the ‘DIAS Affect’. Gustav Metzger. Geschichte Geschichte (History History). Edited by Sabina Breitwieser, 41-65. Vienna and Ostfildern-Ruit: Generali Foundation and Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2005, pp. 41–65.
Stiles, Kristine, Metzger’s Fierce, Poignant, and Prescient Manifestos. Rett Kopi Documents the Future. Edited by Rett Kopi. (Oslo, Norway: Rett Kopi), pp. 157–166.
Stiles, Kristine, Introduction to the Destruction in Art Symposium: DIAS and Discussion with Ivor Davies. Link 52 (September 1987), pp. 4–10.
Anna-Verena Nosthoff, "Art After Auschwitz: Responding to an Infinite Demand: Gustav Metzger’s Works as Responses to Theodor W. Adorno’s “New Categorical Imperative”." Cultural Politics 10 (3): 300–319. (Duke University Press)
See also
Anti-art
Destruction in Art Symposium
References
External links
Radical Art, Gustav Metzger
UCSB Department of English Course Materials: Gustav Metzger
1926 births
2017 deaths
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Artists from Nuremberg
Fluxus
Stateless people
Postmodern artists
British conceptual artists
Contemporary painters
Kindertransport refugees
Polish expatriates in Germany
20th-century Polish Jews
Borough Group
Jewish activists
British anti–nuclear weapons activists
British contemporary artists
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom | [
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235680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny%20Calendar | Jenny Calendar | Jenny Calendar is a fictional character in the fantasy television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003). Played by Robia LaMorte, Jenny is the computer teacher at Sunnydale High School. Unbeknownst to Buffy or anyone else, Jenny Calendar has been sent to Sunnydale to keep an eye on Angel.
In the first two seasons of the series, Jenny Calendar is Rupert Giles' primary romantic interest. She serves to counter his technophobia and is a rare adult female role model for the young women in Buffy's circle. During the second season her true identity is revealed: she is Janna of the Kalderash, a member of the Romani group that cursed Angel. In response to an elder's visions that Angel is suffering less due to his growing romance with Buffy, Jenny is instructed to impede their relationship. As a result of events during the second season storylines, Angel loses his soul and reverts to Angelus, his evil alter ego, eventually making Jenny his victim. Among the main cast, she is the series' first recurring character to die, and the manner of her death is noted for its disturbing effect on audiences.
Creation and casting
Buffy the Vampire Slayer was first created by Joss Whedon as a feature film in 1992. Unhappy with the film, Whedon later revived for television the concept of an adolescent girl who is given superhuman powers by mystical forces to defeat evil. The film only touches on the adult world surrounding Buffy Summers, while the series explores it in greater depth.
Originally trained as a dancer who toured and appeared in music videos with Prince, Robia LaMorte won the part of Jenny Calendar. LaMorte had appeared in contemporary television series such as Beverly Hills, 90210, but remarked specifically that she knew at once the material given to her to read in the audition for Buffy was different: "Sometimes you get scripts, and you just know. The words just fit in your mouth a different way when you know you're supposed to speak them. And I kind of knew I was going to get it." Anthony Head, who plays Giles on the series, had already been cast and was scheduled to read with LaMorte so the casting department could gauge their chemistry—which Head acknowledged, later saying, "She's gorgeous, like a David Bailey picture." LaMorte spent a few minutes before the audition speaking and joking with Head, assuming he was a producer. When it came time for them to enter the audition room together, she handed him the chewing gum from her mouth only to learn that he was the actor cast to play opposite her.
Progression
Season 1
Jenny Calendar's first appearance is in the episode "I Robot, You Jane", which deals with the risks of online romance. Willow Rosenberg (Alyson Hannigan), one of Buffy's friends, is spending time online with someone she knows as Malcolm, who turns out to be a demon named Moloch the Corrupter. The series regularly employs monsters and elements of dark fantasy to represent real-life problems. As a Watcher, Giles is extremely knowledgeable about the creatures that Buffy must face. He has a large collection of books detailing the demon realms, upon which he relies as the main tool of research and problem-solving. Jenny challenges his traditional approach and helps him to solve the problem of how to find and kill the demon when Giles reveals himself to be a technophobe; she both frustrates and flirts with him in the process. Jenny's character was not intended to be recurring, but the chemistry exhibited between LaMorte and Head encouraged the writers to make her a regular member of the cast.
Jenny's role as a recurring character was cemented in "Prophecy Girl", where she acknowledges that she is aware of the many evil forces in Sunnydale and indicates she is willing to join the Scoobies in their fight against them. Jenny frequently helps through her access to, and knowledge of, technology; she and the related role of Willow represent the marriage of science and magic on the series. Jenny refers to herself as a techno-pagan, not a witch. She says she does not have the necessary power to be a witch, but is adept at researching demons and other occult topics to assist Giles and Buffy. Jenny introduces viewers to the series' expression of magic. In contrast to the more clichéd portrayals of magic in the media as an evil force akin to Satan-worshiping tinged with sexploitation, magic in Buffy instead represents a more earth-bound force that can be harnessed for a physical price. Jenny tells Giles that email and bone-casting are equally valid forms of receiving information. The combination of technology and magic represent the joining of masculine and feminine fields, which Jenny Calendar embodies.
Furthermore, many of Jenny's qualities demonstrate a closer kinship with the adolescent characters than the adult ones. In the first season, the female adolescents—Buffy, Willow, and Cordelia (Charisma Carpenter)—establish their identities in contrast to older women, usually parents or teachers. Jenny's youthful style and her rejection of a staid way of life indicate that she is a role model for the young female characters. They do not see her as an adversarial adult.
Season 2
The conflicts in the second season broaden to explore the difficulties faced by Buffy as she becomes torn between love and duty—a theme which is also reflected in Jenny's storyline. Jenny and Giles begin dating in the episode "Some Assembly Required", and his attempts to ask her out force him into facing issues far more frightening than the monsters and demons with which he is familiar, and bring her into direct conflict with her secret reason for being in Sunnydale. Their romance is at the center of "The Dark Age", where it is revealed that Giles' past includes a youthful exploration into dark magic, when he was known to his friends as "Ripper". The result of this experimentation 20 years ago calls a demon named "Eyghon" to Sunnydale; the demon temporarily possesses Jenny, prompting her to halt their relationship. At the end of the episode, she tells Giles she needs some time away from him. Although the make-up requirement for LaMorte's appearance as Eyghon nearly gave her an anxiety attack, she considered this the most fun episode she filmed. She was called upon to throw Giles across the room and slam his head onto a table.
Jenny and Giles tentatively reignite their relationship in "Ted". According to Lorna Jowett, Jenny Calendar—and later, Olivia (Phina Oruche)—serves to assure viewers that Giles, despite being a bookish man who spends most of his time with adolescents, is heterosexual and has no sexual interest in the teenage characters. His relationship with Jenny also allows them to emphasize the generation gap between themselves and adults: they consider the idea of him as a sexual being "gross".
Author Tracy Little asserts that in addition to the theme of love vs. duty, "you are not who I thought you were" applies to the second season, and notably, centers around Jenny Calendar. In "Surprise" it is revealed that Jenny is an emissary from the tribe that cursed Angel. Her true name is Janna (pronounced Yannah), and she has been sent to ensure he continues to suffer for his past brutality. Janna's Uncle Enyos (Vincent Schiavelli) comes to remind her of her duty to her people and he expresses his disappointment that, as a woman from a group of people wary of technology and intermarriage with outsiders, she has become a computer teacher in a relationship with a non-Gypsy. Angel's ongoing torment allows the curse to continue working and must be maintained. An "Elder Woman," however, has had visions that Angel's pain is lessening and that this cannot be allowed to happen—Jenny must separate him from Buffy, as she is the cause of his relief. Enyos does not tell her a significant element of the curse: should Angel ever experience even one moment of true happiness, his soul will again disappear, making him "Angelus", the evil vampire he was. This factor comes into play when Buffy and Angel have sex in "Innocence" as in the intimacy of that experience he feels happiness deep enough to trigger the loss of his soul. Angelus becomes the second season's Big Bad and begins to terrorize Buffy and her inner circle by stalking and threatening them. Buffy subsequently figures out that Jenny is involved in Angel's transformation and confronts her. This revelation causes a deep rift between Jenny and the rest of the Scoobies and effectively halts her romance with Giles. Buffy demands that she curse Angel again, but Jenny does not know how to do this. Angelus' first act is to kill Enyos, thus revealing that Angel already knew Jenny's true identity and motives prior to losing his soul at some point. For most of the rest of the second season Jenny remains estranged from Buffy's circle; only Willow, who Jenny asks to teach her computer class for her, regularly interacts with her.
Death
By the episode "Passion" it has become clear that Angelus is targeting Buffy's friends and family and has, in Giles' words, "regained his sense of whimsy", demonstrated by petty cruelties that keep the group unsettled and frightened. In their first real conversation since estrangement, Giles warns Jenny to beware of the increasing danger to them all; during this conversation she admits to Giles that she has fallen in love with him and they agree to meet later. Despite the improbability of success and without telling Giles or Buffy, Jenny attempts to restore Angel's soul by using her computer to translate the ancient curse. Upon learning what she is doing, Angelus destroys the computer, taunts Jenny, then laughs as he chases her through the school, finally killing her by snapping her neck. He then takes Jenny's body to Giles' apartment and sets up music, champagne, and roses, as if she is awaiting him in his bedroom for a romantic encounter; Giles then finds her dead body arranged on his bed. To derive the maximum pleasure from what he has done, Angelus waits outside Buffy's house to watch their shock and distress as Buffy and Willow receive the call that Jenny has been murdered.
Steve Vineberg, a film and theater professor, asserts in a 2000 article in The New York Times that the character's death marked "the most terrifying and upsetting phase of the show". Similarly, author Kathleen Tracy states that "Passion" is, among the first two seasons' episodes, the most "viscerally disturbing" not only for Jenny's death and its brutality, but because the series killed off a regularly recurring and sympathetic character, something which was unprecedented in television history. Joss Whedon recognized this when he stated in an interview that killing Jenny, and the manner of her dispatching, was precisely devised to make several points. It was integral that the show make clear to the audience that "not everything is safe, that not every one is safe...to show that death is final and death is scary", and to signal that any character, at any time, could die. Jenny's death was also used to make clear that Angel, in his incarnation as Angelus, is truly evil and now Buffy's mortal enemy whom she must kill. After much discussion, Whedon and the writers decided that Angel should not bite Jenny, but instead break her neck as a show of his contempt for her: "I'm not even going to feed" is the attitude Whedon wanted to communicate, as well as Angel's evident pleasure in the act. Whedon also felt that it was important that Angel do so wearing his vampire face as they planned to bring the re-ensouled Angel back later, and it would be "too disturbing" to the audience to accept Buffy ever kissing him again had the murder been committed while in his normal visage. Whedon stated that the writing team wanted the prospect of bringing Angel back after the murder of Jenny Calendar to be very difficult and so fraught with consequences that even the characters would not be sure they wanted him to return.
Influence
Following her death, Jenny Calendar's character continues to have an influence on the series. Among the female Scoobies, it is Willow who most looks up to Jenny. Willow is skilled with computers and her mother is emotionally distant from her; Willow expresses several times that her parents are mostly uninterested in her. As Jenny offers both mentoring and validation for Willow, she becomes a substitute mother for her. Jenny furthermore argues that traditionally, knowledge has been kept from people as a result of systemized patriarchy, and she champions computers and the Internet because she believes they will create a new society. Author J. P. Williams asserts that Jenny Calendar's feminist viewpoints resonate with Willow, as Willow receives similar commentary about patriarchy in the media on the rare occasions her mother speaks to her. Jenny is limited, however, by the very patriarchy she fights. Her first lessons from her people are about vengeance, and she is fully committed to her duty to watch Angel. Although she treats Giles as an equal and demands the same from him, her deference to her uncle stifles her. Enyos' withholding information from Jenny is echoed in Giles' frequent ignorance of facts the Watcher's Council deliberately withholds from him. Because Jenny is not told the full details of the curse, she is unable to warn Buffy and Angel, thus her ignorance essentially kills her. Williams writes, "Whether Buffy will eventually provide an alternative model of womanhood is perhaps the series' most intriguing cliffhanger."
In an analysis of the treatment of Romani people in literature and media, Nikolina Dobreva asserts that the show deserves to be criticized for associating Gypsies with curses and primitivism, for stereotyping Gypsies as "irrevocably foreign" in clothing and speech, and for perpetuating the persistent air of mystery surrounding them. Dobreva, however, praises the character of Jenny Calendar, writing in 2009: "Jenny’s character, despite the reversion to a few stereotypes, is arguably one of the most multi-faceted and positive representations of a female Gypsy in the past 20 years. In sharp contrast to all other Gypsy portrayals, she is technologically savvy, and, instead of resorting to incantations or obscure rituals, is able to create a computer algorithm that would make possible the restoration of Angel’s soul."
In the episode "Becoming", Willow finds the spell that Jenny translated and casts it herself, successfully restoring Angel's soul and leading to her own foray into magic. Willow attempts to learn more about magic in the fourth season by joining her college Wicca group, only to be met by women who are ineffectual, whom she labels "wanna-blessed-bes". She takes magic very seriously, becoming competent enough in the fifth season to achieve what Buffy cannot. By the seventh season, Willow's magical gifts are so powerful that she is the strongest person in Buffy's circle. Additionally, Jenny's comfort in expressing sexuality is a model for all the young women. Her "sexual (or sensual) aggression" is noted by Buffy studies writers. Williams asserts that Jenny's influence on Willow is evident when, in the fourth season, Willow falls in love with another woman, Tara Maclay (Amber Benson), expressing little self-doubt when she realizes she has.
Jenny appears twice more in the series, first in "Becoming", as part of an illusion the vampire Drusilla (Juliet Landau) creates to beguile Giles into telling Angelus, who is torturing him, what he needs to know. She again appears in the third-season episode "Amends" as the guise of the First Evil, who assumes the faces of many people Angel has killed, tormenting him and insisting he kill Buffy.
Television appearances
Jenny Calendar appears in 14 Buffy episodes:
Season 1 (1997): "I, Robot... You, Jane", "Prophecy Girl"
Season 2 (1997–98): "When She Was Bad", "Some Assembly Required", "School Hard", "Lie to Me", "The Dark Age", "Ted", "Surprise", "Innocence", "Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered", "Passion" (killed), "Becoming (Part 2)" (vision)
Season 3 (1998): "Amends" (as the First Evil)
Citations
Bibliography
Dobreva, Nikolina (2009). The Case of the Traveling Dancer: Romani Representation from the 19th Century European Literature to Hollywood Film and Beyond, University of Massachusetts (Ph.D. dissertation)
Golden, Christopher; Holder, Nancy (1998). Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Watcher's Guide, Volume 1, Pocket Books.
Holder, Nancy; Mariotte, Jeff; Hart, Maryelizabeth (2000). Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Watcher's Guide, Volume 2, Pocket Books.
Jowett, Lorna (2005). Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan, Wesleyan University Press.
Kaveney, Roz (ed.) (2004). Reading the Vampire Slayer: The New, Updated, Unofficial Guide to Buffy and Angel, Tauris Parke Paperbacks.
South, James (ed.) (2003). Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Philosophy: Fear and Trembling in Sunnydale, Open Court Books.
Stafford, Nikki (2007). Bite Me! The Unofficial Guide to Buffy the Vampire Slayer, ECW Press.
Tracy, Kathleen (1998). The Girl's Got Bite: The Unofficial Guide to Buffy's World, Renaissance Books.
Wilcox, Rhonda (2005). Why Buffy Matters: The Art of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, I. B. Tauris.
Wilcox, Rhonda and Lavery, David (eds.) (2002). Fighting the Forces: What's at Stake in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters
Buffyverse characters who use magic
Female characters in television
Television characters introduced in 1997
Fictional Romani people
Fictional schoolteachers
Fictional technopaths
Fictional murdered people
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235683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinkytown | Dinkytown | Dinkytown is a commercial district within the Marcy-Holmes neighborhood in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Centered at 14th Avenue Southeast and 4th Street Southeast, the district contains several city blocks occupied by various small businesses, restaurants, bars, and apartment buildings that house mostly University of Minnesota students. Dinkytown is along the North side of the University of Minnesota Twin Cities East Bank campus.
Notable landmarks
Notable landmarks include the Dinkydome (a former theological seminary converted to a food court which sometime later was converted into loft space), the Loring Pasta Bar (formerly Gray's Campus Drug and also the building where Bob Dylan lived in Minneapolis), and Al's Breakfast (arguably the city's smallest restaurant). It's also the location of the 2nd store opened by Richard M. Schulze called "Sound of Music" which later became Best Buy, which is now closed.
Notable establishments
Several notable establishments include Vescio's Italian restaurant (now closed), which opened in the 1950s, Annie's Parlour, and The Book House. The former Marshall-University High School on the corner of 14th Avenue and 5th street was closed in 1982 due to changing city population demographics, and was purchased and converted into the University Technology Enterprise Center (UTEC) for startups. The building was razed in 2013, and today the location is home to The Marshall, an apartment building for University students. The Chateau co-op built their brutalist-style 22-story apartment in 1973 at 13th Avenue Southeast and 5th Street Southeast. Due to apartment building construction, popular dinkytown establishments like Dinkytown Wine & Spirits and McDonalds recently closed. Target, Five Guys, and the Kollege Klub Bar are notable establishments today.
History
The name Dinkytown is of uncertain origin, although it was in definite use by 1948, when the Dinkytown Business Association formed.
Stories regarding the origin of the name include
The streetcars, called Dinkys, that used to provide transit throughout the area.
Similarly, the locomotive tenders at the nearby railyard were called Dinkys due to their compact size.
The theatre in Dinkytown had only four rows of seats, and for years was known as "The Dinky Theater." Shortly thereafter, it was just "The Dinky."
DINKYs ("Double Income, No Kids Yet")
It's a small town-like area; everything is within walking distance.
The Loring Pasta Bar, previously Gray's Drug on 14th Ave. SE and 4th St. SE has the name of an early owner carved in cement over the doorway: "Grodnik," meaning a small (or dinky) town. The name of the early owner was Louis Grodnik. He owned a haberdashery at that location and built the building. His brother, Hela Grodnik, always claimed that he was the one who named the area when he said that "This is getting to be a real 'Dinky Town." Hela then went on to work for another brother, Jacob Grodnik, at Grodnik Jewelry at 7th and Hennepin in Minneapolis. Louis also owned a haberdashery at 4th and Hennepin known as "Grodnik and Fassbinder".
Then-Gopher football player Frank "Dinky" Rog, whose large group of friends spent much time down here in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
Another conjecture which has been made is that "Grod" means "town" as in Stalingrad and that "nik" is the diminutive form. Hence small or dinky town.
References
External links
Official Website of the Dinkytown Business Alliance Current resources for the Dinkytown community (formerly the Dinkytown Business Association).
Marcy-Holmes Neighborhood Association Dinkytown is a commercial district, and one of the 5 character areas, of the Marcy-Holmes neighborhood.
Lileks.com -- University of Minnesota pages—contains information and reminiscence about Dinkytown, by Star Tribune columnist James Lileks
The Dinkytown Project
Dinkytown Hub Contains information about Dinkytown including a complete list of all businesses.
Further reading
Designation Study for Dinkytown Historic District
Neighborhoods in Minneapolis
Student quarters
University of Minnesota
Academic enclaves | [
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235688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily%20Mirror | Daily Mirror | The Daily Mirror is a British national daily tabloid-sized newspaper that is considered to be engaged in tabloid-style journalism. Founded in 1903, it is owned by parent company Reach plc. From 1985 to 1987, and from 1997 to 2002, the title on its masthead was simply The Mirror. It had an average daily print circulation of 716,923 in December 2016, dropping to 587,803 the following year. Its Sunday sister paper is the Sunday Mirror. Unlike other major British tabloids such as The Sun and the Daily Mail, the Mirror has no separate Scottish edition; this function is performed by the Daily Record and the Sunday Mail, which incorporate certain stories from the Mirror that are of Scottish significance.
Originally pitched to the middle-class reader, it was converted into a working-class newspaper after 1934, in order to reach a larger audience. The Mirror has had a number of owners. It was founded by Alfred Harmsworth, who sold it to his brother Harold Harmsworth (from 1914 Lord Rothermere) in 1913. In 1963 a restructuring of the media interests of the Harmsworth family led to the Mirror becoming a part of International Publishing Corporation. During the mid-1960s, daily sales exceeded 5 million copies, a feat never repeated by it or any other daily (non-Sunday) British newspaper since. The Mirror was owned by Robert Maxwell between 1984 and 1991. The paper went through a protracted period of crisis after his death before merging with the regional newspaper group Trinity in 1999 to form Trinity Mirror.
History
1903–1995
The Daily Mirror was launched on 2 November 1903 by Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord Northcliffe) as a newspaper for women, run by women. About the name, he said: "I intend it to be really a mirror of feminine life as well on its grave as on its lighter sides ... to be entertaining without being frivolous, and serious without being dull." It cost one penny (equivalent to p in ).
It was not an immediate success and in 1904 Harmsworth decided to turn it into a pictorial newspaper with a broader focus. Harmsworth appointed Hamilton Fyfe as editor and all of the paper's female journalists were fired. The masthead was changed to The Daily Illustrated Mirror, which ran from 26 January to 27 April 1904 (issues 72 to 150), when it reverted to The Daily Mirror. The first issue of the relaunched paper did not have advertisements on the front page as previously, but instead news text and engraved pictures (of a traitor and an actress), with the promise of photographs inside. Two days later, the price was dropped to one halfpenny and to the masthead was added: "A paper for men and women". This combination was more successful: by issue 92, the guaranteed circulation was 120,000 copies and by issue 269, it had grown to 200,000: by then the name had reverted and the front page was mainly photographs. Circulation grew to 466,000 making it the second-largest morning newspaper.
Alfred Harmsworth sold the newspaper to his brother Harold Harmsworth (from 1914 Lord Rothermere) in 1913. In 1917, the price was increased to one penny. Circulation continued to grow: in 1919, some issues sold more than a million copies a day, making it the largest daily picture paper. In 1924 the newspaper sponsored the 1924 Women's Olympiad held at Stamford Bridge in London.
Lord Rothermere was a friend of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, and directed the Mirrors editorial stance towards them in the early 1930s. On Monday, 22 January 1934 the Daily Mirror ran the headline "Give the Blackshirts a helping hand" urging readers to join Sir Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists, and giving the address to which to send membership applications. By the mid-1930s, the Mirror was struggling – it and the Mail were the main casualties of the early 1930s circulation war that saw the Daily Herald and the Daily Express establish circulations of more than two million, and Rothermere decided to sell his shares in it.
In 1935 Rothermere sold the paper to H. G. Bartholomew and Hugh Cudlipp. With Cecil King (Rothermere's nephew) in charge of the paper's finances and Guy Bartholomew as editor, during the late 1930s the Mirror was transformed from a conservative, middle class newspaper into a left-wing paper for the working class. Partly on the advice of the American advertising agency J. Walter Thompson, the Mirror became the first British paper to adopt the appearance of the New York tabloids. The headlines became bigger, the stories shorter and the illustrations more abundant. By 1939, the publication was selling 1.4 million copies a day. In 1937, Hugh McClelland introduced his wild Western comic strip Beelzebub Jones in the Daily Mirror. After taking over as cartoon chief at the Mirror in 1945, he dropped Beelzebub Jones and moved on to a variety of new strips.
During the Second World War the Mirror positioned itself as the paper of the ordinary soldier and civilian, and was critical of the political leadership and the established parties. At one stage, the paper was threatened with closure following the publication of a Philip Zec cartoon (captioned by William Connor), which was misinterpreted by Winston Churchill and Herbert Morrison. In the 1945 general election the paper strongly supported the Labour Party in its eventual landslide victory. In doing so, the paper supported Herbert Morrison, who co-ordinated Labour's campaign, and recruited his former antagonist Philip Zec to reproduce, on the front page, a popular VE Day cartoon on the morning of the election, suggesting that Labour were the only party who could maintain peace in post-war Britain. By the late 1940s, it was selling 4.5 million copies a day, outstripping the Express; for some 30 years afterwards, it dominated the British daily newspaper market, selling more than 5 million copies a day at its peak in the mid-1960s.
The Mirror was an influential model for German tabloid Bild, which was founded in 1952 and became Europe's biggest-selling newspaper.
In 1955, the Mirror and its stablemate the Sunday Pictorial (later to become the Sunday Mirror) began printing a northern edition in Manchester. In 1957 it introduced the Andy Capp cartoon, created by Reg Smythe from Hartlepool, in the northern editions.
The Mirror mass working-class readership had made it the United Kingdom's best-selling daily tabloid newspaper. In 1960, it acquired the Daily Herald (the popular daily of the labour movement) when it bought Odhams, in one of a series of takeovers which created the International Publishing Corporation (IPC). The Mirror management did not want the Herald competing with the Mirror for readers, and in 1964, relaunched it as a mid-market paper, now named The Sun. When it failed to win readers, The Sun was sold to Rupert Murdoch – who immediately relaunched it as a more populist and sensationalist tabloid and a direct competitor to the Mirror.
In an attempt to cater to a different kind of reader, the Mirror launched the "Mirrorscope" pull-out section on 30 January 1968. The Press Gazette commented: "The Daily Mirror launched its revolutionary four-page supplement "Mirrorscope". The ambitious brief for the supplement, which ran on Wednesdays and Fridays, was to deal with international affairs, politics, industry, science, the arts and business". The British Journalism Review said in 2002 that "Mirrorscope" was "a game attempt to provide serious analysis in the rough and tumble of the tabloids". It failed to attract significant numbers of new readers, and the pull-out section was abandoned, its final issue appearing on 27 August 1974.
In 1978, The Sun overtook the Mirror in circulation, and in 1984 the Mirror was sold to Robert Maxwell. After Maxwell's death in 1991, David Montgomery became Mirror Group's CEO, and a period of cost-cutting and production changes ensued. The Mirror went through a protracted period of crisis before merging with the regional newspaper group Trinity to form Trinity Mirror in 1999. Printing of the Daily and Sunday Mirror moved to Trinity Mirror's facilities in Watford and Oldham.
1995–2004
Under the editorship of Piers Morgan (from October 1995 to May 2004) the paper saw a number of controversies. Morgan was widely criticised and forced to apologise for the headline "ACHTUNG! SURRENDER For you Fritz, ze Euro 96 Championship is over" a day before England met Germany in a semi-final of the Euro 96 football championships.
In 2000, Morgan was the subject of an investigation after Suzy Jagger wrote a story in The Daily Telegraph revealing that he had bought £20,000 worth of shares in the computer company Viglen soon before the Mirror 's 'City Slickers' column tipped Viglen as a good buy. Morgan was found by the Press Complaints Commission to have breached the Code of Conduct on financial journalism, but kept his job. The 'City Slickers' columnists, Anil Bhoyrul and James Hipwell, were both found to have committed further breaches of the Code, and were sacked before the inquiry. In 2004, further enquiry by the Department of Trade and Industry cleared Morgan from any charges. On 7 December 2005 Bhoyrul and Hipwell were convicted of conspiracy to breach the Financial Services Act. During the trial it emerged that Morgan had bought £67,000 worth of Viglen shares, emptying his bank account and investing under his wife's name too.
In 2002, the Mirror attempted to move mid-market, claiming to eschew the more trivial stories of show-business and gossip. The paper changed its masthead logo from red to black (and occasionally blue), in an attempt to dissociate itself from the term "red top", a term for a sensationalist mass-market tabloid. (On 6 April 2005, the red top came back.) Under then-editor Piers Morgan, the newspaper's editorial stance opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and ran many front pages critical of the war. It also gave financial support to the 15 February 2003 anti-war protest, paying for a large screen and providing thousands of placards. Morgan re-hired John Pilger, who had been sacked during Robert Maxwell's ownership of the Mirror titles. Despite such changes, Morgan was unable to halt the paper's decline in circulation, a decline shared by its direct tabloid rivals The Sun and the Daily Star.
Morgan was fired from the Mirror on 14 May 2004 after authorising the newspaper's publication of photographs allegedly showing Iraqi prisoners being abused by British Army soldiers from the Queen's Lancashire Regiment. Within days the photographs were shown to be fakes. Under the headline "SORRY.. WE WERE HOAXED", the Mirror responded that it had fallen victim to a "calculated and malicious hoax" and apologised for the publication of the photographs.
2004–present
The Mirror front page on 4 November 2004, after the re-election of George W. Bush as U.S. President, read "How can 59,054,087 people be so DUMB?". It provided a list of states and their alleged average IQ, showing the Bush states all below average intelligence (except for Virginia), and all John Kerry states at or above average intelligence. The source for this table was The Economist, although it was a hoax. Richard Wallace became editor in 2004.
On 30 May 2012, Trinity Mirror announced the merger of the Daily Mirror and Sunday Mirror into a single seven-day-a-week title. Richard Wallace and Tina Weaver, the respective editors of the Daily Mirror and Sunday Mirror, were simultaneously dismissed and Lloyd Embley, editor of The People, appointed as editor of the combined title with immediate effect. In 2018, Reach plc acquired the Northern & Shell titles, including the Daily Express, which led to a number of editor moves across the stable. Lloyd Embley was then promoted to editor-in-chief across the entire group, and Alison Phillips (previously deputy editor-in-chief for the Trinity Mirror titles) was appointed editor of the Daily Mirror.
Political allegiance
The Mirror has consistently supported the Labour Party since the 1945 general election. On 3 May 1979, the day of the general election, the Daily Mirror urged its readers to vote for the governing Labour Party led by James Callaghan. As widely predicted by the opinion polls, Labour lost this election and Conservative Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister. The Mirrors continued support of the Labour government was in spite of its falling popularity over the previous few months which had been the result of the Winter of Discontent, where the country was crippled by numerous public sector strikes.
By the time of the 1983 general election, Labour support was at a postwar low, partly due to the strong challenge by the recently formed SDP–Liberal Alliance. Despite this, the Daily Mirror remained loyal to Labour and urged its readers to vote for the party, now led by Michael Foot, condemning the Thatcher-led Tory government for its "waste of our nation" and the rise in unemployment that Thatcher's Conservative government had seen in its first term in power largely due to monetarist economic policies to reduce inflation, although the government's previously low popularity had dramatically improved since the success of the Falklands conflict a year earlier. However, the Conservatives were re-elected and Labour suffered its worst postwar general election result, only narrowly bettering the SDP–Liberal Alliance in terms of votes whilst winning considerably more seats.
At the 1987 general election, the Daily Mirror remained loyal to Labour, now led by Neil Kinnock, and urged its readers with the slogan "You know he's right, chuck her out." By this stage, unemployment was falling and inflation had remained low for several years. As a result, the Tories were re-elected for a third successive term, although Labour did cut the Tory majority slightly. For the 1992 general election, the Daily Mirror continued to support Labour, still led by Neil Kinnock. By this stage, Thatcher had stepped down and the Tory government was now led by John Major. The election was won by the Conservatives, although Labour managed to significantly cut the Tory majority to 21 seats compared to the triple-digit figure of the previous two elections, which led to a difficult term for Major. The outcome of this election had been far less predictable than any of the previous three elections, as opinion polls over the previous three years had shown both parties in the lead, although any Labour lead in the polls had been relatively narrow since the Conservative government's change of leader from Thatcher to Major in November 1990, in spite of the onset of the early 1990s recession which had pushed unemployment up again after several years of decline. Labour's credibility was helped by plans including extra National Health Service (NHS) funding and moving away from firm commitments on re-nationalisation to reverse the Conservative policy of privatisation, but its decision to be up-front about tax increases was seen as a key factor in its failure to win.
By the time of the 1997 general election, support for the Labour Party, now led by Tony Blair, in the opinion polls had exceeded that of support for the Conservative government led by John Major since late 1992, whose reduced popularity largely blamed on the failings of Black Wednesday in September of that year and it had failed to recover popularity in spite of a strong economic recovery and fall in unemployment. A reinvented New Labour had further improved its credibility under Blair by promising traditional Labour essentials including more funding for healthcare and education, but also promising not to increase income tax and ending its commitment to the nationalisation of leading industries. The Daily Mirror urged its readers that their country needed Tony Blair, and to vote Labour.
The 1997 election produced a Labour landslide that ended the party's 18-year exile from power, followed by two further election wins in 2001 and 2005. On 4 May 2010, the newspaper printed a picture of Conservative leader David Cameron with a giant red cross through his face. The headline read "How to stop him" in reference to the 2010 general election two days later, confirming the Daily Mirrors Labour allegiance. The election ended in Britain's first hung parliament since 1974, but Cameron still became prime minister within days as the Conservatives formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats. The Daily Mirror was the only leading national newspaper to remain loyal to Labour and Gordon Brown at a time when opinion polls showed the party on course for their worst election result since 1983.
The newspaper was critical of the Liberal Democrats for forming the coalition which enabled the Conservatives to form a new government in 2010, and branded leader Nick Clegg as Pinickio (alluding to the lying fictional character Pinocchio) for going back on numerous pre-election pledges. It has frequently referred to the party as the "Fib Dems" or "Lib Dumbs". The Daily Mirror endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up for the 2016 United States presidential election. Also in 2016, the newspaper asked for Jeremy Corbyn's resignation "for the good of the party and of the country." Despite this critical position, the Daily Mirror endorsed the Labour Party in the 2017 general election. For the 2019 general election, the newspaper again endorsed Labour "to protect NHS, end poverty and for a kinder Britain."
Famous features
Cartoon strips "Pip, Squeak and Wilfred" (1919–56), "Jane" (1932–59), "Garth" (1943–97, reprints 2011), "Just Jake" (1938–52), "Andy Capp" (1957–), and "The Perishers" (1955–2006 and later reprints).
"The Old Codgers", a fictional pair who commented on the letters page from 1935 to 1990.
Chalky White, who would wander around various British seaside resorts waiting to be recognised by Mirror readers (an obscured photo of him having been published in that day's paper). Anyone who recognised him would have to repeat some phrase along the lines of "To my delight, it's Chalky White" to win £5. The name continues to be used on the cartoons page, as Andy Capp's best friend.
"Shock issues" intended to highlight a particular news story.
The columnist Cassandra (1935–67).
"Dear Marje", a problem page by agony aunt Marjorie Proops.
Investigative reporting by Paul Foot and John Pilger (including the latter's exposé of the atrocities of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia).
"The Shopping Basket". Starting in the mid-1970s, the paper monitored the cost of a £5 basket of shopping to see how it increased in price over the years.
Blue issue
On 2 April 1996, the Daily Mirror was printed entirely on blue paper. This was done as a marketing exercise with Pepsi-Cola, who on the same day had decided to relaunch its cans with a blue design instead of the traditional red and white logo.
Libel, contempt of court, errors and criticism
In the 1959 Liberace v Daily Mirror case, Liberace sued the Mirror for libel. William Connor had written a pseudonymous column hinting that the American entertainer was a homosexual; homosexual acts were illegal in Britain at the time. The jury found in Liberace's favour and he received £8,000 in damage (estimated at around £500,000 in 2009). After Liberace's death, the paper editorially asked, "Can we have our money back, please?"
In 1991, shortly after the death of Queen's lead singer Freddie Mercury, the Daily Mirror ran a homophobic column by Joe Haines which contained extensive insults towards Mercury, HIV/AIDS victims, and homosexuals. The article prompted an open letter in condemnation from folk singer Lal Waterson, later recorded as a song by her sister Norma.
In December 1992, Scottish politician George Galloway won libel damages from the Daily Mirror and its Scottish sister the Daily Record, who had falsely accused him of making malicious allegations about their foreign editor Nicholas Davies. Galloway had used parliamentary privilege to call for an independent investigation into allegations about Davies made in the book The Samson Option.
In May 2004, the Daily Mirror published what it claimed were photos of British soldiers abusing Iraqi prisoners at an unspecified location in Iraq. The decision to publish the photos, subsequently shown to be hoaxes, led to Piers Morgan's sacking as editor of the paper on 14 May 2004. The Daily Mirror then stated that it was the subject of a "calculated and malicious hoax". The newspaper issued a statement apologising for the printing of the pictures. The paper's deputy editor, Des Kelly, took over as acting editor during the crisis. The tabloid's rival, The Sun, offered a £50,000 reward for the arrest and conviction of those accused of faking the Mirror photographs.
In June 2004, American model Caprice Bourret won a libel case against the Daily Mirror for an article in April that year which falsely claimed that her acting career had failed.
In November 2007, the Daily Mirror paid damages to Sir Andrew Green after having likened him and his group MigrationWatch UK to the Ku Klux Klan and Nazi Party in September of that year. The newspaper admitted that such allegations were "untrue".
In February 2008 both the Daily and the Sunday Mirror implied that TV presenter Kate Garraway was having an affair. She sued for libel, receiving an apology and compensation payment in April 2008.
On 18 September 2008, David Anderson, a British sports journalist writing for the Mirror, repeated a claim deriving from vandalism on Wikipedia's entry for Cypriot football team AC Omonia, which asserted that their fans were called "The Zany Ones" and liked to wear hats made from discarded shoes. The claim was part of Anderson's match preview ahead of AC Omonia's game with Manchester City, which appeared in the web and print versions of the Mirror, with the nickname also quoted in subsequent editions on 19 September.
In November 2009, the Mirror paid "substantial libel damages" to Portuguese footballer Cristiano Ronaldo after it admitted that a story about him becoming highly intoxicated in a Hollywood nightclub was untrue.
On 12 May 2011, the High Court of England and Wales granted the Attorney General permission to bring a case for contempt against The Sun and the Daily Mirror for the way they had reported on the arrest of a person of interest in the Murder of Joanna Yeates. On 29 July, the Court ruled that both newspapers had been in contempt of court, fining the Daily Mirror £50,000 and The Sun £18,000.
In October 2013, a defamation case brought by the Irish airline Ryanair against the Daily Mirror was settled out of court. The Mirror had repeated allegations about the airline's safety from a Channel 4 documentary which were not reflected by its most recent evaluation by the Irish Aviation Authority.
On 19 July 2011 the Mirror published an article labelling comedian Frankie Boyle a racist. He later sued for defamation and libel, winning £54,650 in damages and a further £4,250 for a claim about his departure from Mock the Week. The Mirror had argued he was "forced to quit" but this was found to be libellous by the court.
On 20 March 2017 the Mirror painted the traditional Russian pancake celebration Maslenitsa as a Hooligan training ground. One of the centuries-old tradition in this Russian festival is "wall-to-wall" ('stenka na stenku', Ru) which is sparring between men dressed in traditional folk clothes. This tradition was wrongly represented by the Mirror in the pictures and text, labelled as violent acts and living in fear without giving context or any information about this Russian traditional festival at all. The Mirror article was titled "Russia's Ultra yobs infiltrated amid warnings England fans could be KILLED at World Cup.", and received negative receptions from Russian media, also being described as fake news. Representatives of the Daily Mirror acknowledged that the original material of the publication about Russian Hooligans was incorrectly illustrated with images of the traditional festival. In the updated version of the article the newspaper continued to insist that the photographed people were hooligans in the pictures, but gave no evidence of their participation in the festival.
Significant staff members
Editors
1903 to 1904: Mary Howarth
1904 to 1907: Hamilton Fyfe
1907 to 1915: Alexander Kenealy
1915 to 1916: Ed Flynn
1916 to 1929: Alexander Campbell
1929 to 1931: Cameron Hogg
1931 to 1934: Leigh Brownlee
1934 to 1948: Cecil Thomas
1948 to 1953: Silvester Bolam
1953 to 1961: Jack Nener
1961 to 1971: Lee Howard
1971 to 1974: Tony Miles
1974 to 1975: Michael Christiansen
1975 to 1985: Mike Molloy
1985 to 1990: Richard Stott
1990 to 1991: Roy Greenslade
1991 to 1992: Richard Stott
1992 to 1994: David Banks
1994 to 1995: Colin Myler
1995 to 2004: Piers Morgan
2004 to 2012: Richard Wallace
2012 to 2018: Peter Willis
2018 to date: Alison Phillips
Source: Tabloid Nation
Notable columnists
Notable former and current columnists of the Daily Mirror include:
The 3AM Girls (gossip columnists)
Anne Robinson (columnist and deputy editor)
William Connor (opinion under the pseudonym Cassandra (1935–1967))
Caradoc Evans (1917–1923)
Richard Hammond (motoring and Saturday columnist)
Oliver Holt (sports columnist)
Kevin Maguire (UK politics)
Penman & Greenwood (investigators)
Fiona Phillips (Saturday columnist)
Brian Reade (Thursday columnist; also does a sports column on Saturdays)
Keith Waterhouse (largely humorous (1970–1986, previously a reporter.)
Chris Hughes (security and defence)
Geoffrey Goodman (1969–1986)
Awards
The Daily Mirror won "Newspaper of the Year" in 2002 at the British Press Awards. It won "Scoop of the Year" in 2003 ("3am", 'Sven and Ulrika'), 2004 (Ryan Parry, 'Intruder at the Palace'), 2006 and 2007 (both Stephen Moyes). The Mirror won "Team of the Year" in 2001 ('Railtrack'), 2002 ('War on the World: World against Terrorism'), 2003 ('Soham'), and 2006 ('London bombings'); and "Front Page of the Year" in 2007. The Mirror also won the "Cudlipp Award" in 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2010.
See also
The Wharf, sister newspaper for the Isle of Dogs.
Daily Mirror Silver Cup
Notes
References
External links
1903 establishments in the United Kingdom
Daily newspapers published in the United Kingdom
National newspapers published in the United Kingdom
Newspapers published in London
Publications established in 1903
Reach plc
Social democratic media | [
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235693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers%27%20Dreadnought | Workers' Dreadnought | Workers' Dreadnought was a newspaper published by variously named political parties led by Sylvia Pankhurst.
The paper was started by Pankhurst at the suggestion of Zelie Emerson, after Pankhurst had been expelled from the Women's Social and Political Union by her mother and sister. The paper was published on behalf of the newly formed East London Federation of Suffragettes.
Provisionally titled Workers' Mate, the newspaper first appeared on 8 March 1914 (14 March according to one source 21 March according to another), the day of suffragette rally at which Pankhurst was due to speak, in Trafalgar Square, as The Woman's Dreadnought, with a circulation of 30,000,, subsequently (on number 10, of May 1914) stated as 20,000.
When the editor was imprisoned, Norah Smyth alternated as acting editor with Jack O'Sullivan. For many years, Smyth had used her photography skills to provide pictures for the newspaper of East End life, particularly of women and children living in poverty.
In July 1917 the name was changed to Workers' Dreadnought, which initially had a circulation of 10,000. Its slogan changed to "Socialism, Internationalism, Votes for All", and then in July 1918 to "For International Socialism", reflecting increasing opposition to Parliamentarism in the party.
On 19 June 1920 Workers' Dreadnought was adopted as the official weekly organ of the Communist Party (British Section of the Third International). Pankhurst continued publishing the newspaper until June 1924.
References
External links
Workers' Dreadnought text archive - on libcom.org library
Publications established in 1914
Publications disestablished in 1924
Political newspapers published in the United Kingdom
Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom
Left communism
Defunct newspapers published in the United Kingdom
1914 establishments in the United Kingdom
1924 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
London newspapers
Socialist newspapers published in the United Kingdom | [
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235696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softmodem | Softmodem | A software modem, commonly referred to as a softmodem, is a modem with minimal hardware that uses software running on the host computer, and the computer's resources (especially the central processing unit, random access memory, and sometimes audio processing), in place of the hardware in a conventional modem.
Softmodems are also sometimes called winmodems due to limited support for platforms other than Windows. By analogy, a linmodem is a softmodem that can run on Linux.
Softmodems are sometimes used as an example of a hard real-time system. The audio signals to be transmitted must be computed on a tight interval (on the order of every 5 or 10 milliseconds); they cannot be computed in advance, and they cannot be late or the receiving modem will lose synchronization.
History
The first generations of hardware modems (including acoustic couplers) and their protocols used relatively simple modulation techniques such as FSK or ASK at low speeds. Under these conditions, modems could be built with the analog discrete component technology used during the late 70s and early 80s.
As more sophisticated transmission schemes were devised, the circuits grew in complexity substantially. New modulation required mixing analog and digital components, and eventually incorporating multiple integrated circuits (ICs) such as logical gates, PLLs and microcontrollers. Later techniques used in modern V.34, V.90 and V.92 protocols (such as a 1664-point QAM constellation) are so complex that implementing them with discrete components or general purpose ICs became impractical.
Furthermore, improved compression and error correction schemes were introduced in the newest protocols, requiring extra processing power in the modem itself. This made the construction of a mainly analog/discrete component modem impossible. Finally, compatibility with older protocols using completely different modulation schemes would have required a modem made with discrete electronics to contain multiple complete implementations.
Initially the solution was to use LSI ASICs which shrank the various implementations into a small number of components, but since standards continued to change, there was a desire to create modems that could be upgraded.
In 1993, Digicom marketed the Connection 96 Plus, a modem based around a DSP which was programmed by an application on startup. Because the program was replaceable, the modem could be upgraded as standards improved. Digicom branded this technology SoftModem, perhaps originating the term.
Likewise, the term "Winmodem" may have originated with USRobotics' Sportster Winmodem, a similarly upgradable DSP-based design.
In 1996, two types of modem began to reach the market: host-based modems, which offloaded some work onto the host CPU, and software-only modems which transferred all work onto the host system's CPU. In 1997, the AC'97 standard for computer audio would introduce channels for modem use, making software modem technology common in PCs.
Since then, some softmodems have been created as standalone software projects utilizing standard sound card interfaces, such as an experimental open-source 96 kbit/s leased-line softmodem called AuDSL from 1999, and the Minimodem project which implements several FSK modem standards.
Types
Softmodems can be separated into two classes: controllerless modems and pure software modems.
Controllerless modems utilize a DSP on the modem itself to perform modulation, demodulation and other tasks. Some, known as "host-based" modems, may still use some amount of the host's CPU power for some tasks.
Pure software modems perform all modem tasks on the host PC's CPU, while the hardware provides only analog-digital conversion and connection to the telephone network.
Advantages and disadvantages
The original stated purpose of the DSP-based softmodem was to provide for upgradeability, a concern in an era when modem standards were changing rapidly. Both DSP and pure software modems offer this feature.
A downside of either type of softmodem is that drivers must be provided, and the terms "softmodem" and "winmodem" have gained negative connotations, particularly within the open-source community, due to drivers for Linux often being omitted or provided only as unmaintainable binaries.
While DSP-based softmodems usually only require host attention during startup, pure software modems consume some CPU cycles on the host, which can conceivably slow down application software on older computers. This was a major issue in the 1990s, when CPUs were not nearly as powerful as today's typical hardware.
DSL softmodems
Although "softmodem" typically applies to PSTN modems, there are some software-based DSL modems or even routers, which work on the same principles but at higher bandwidth and more complex encoding schemes. One of the first software based DSL modem chipsets was Motorola's SoftDSL chipset.
The term WinDSL has been coined to describe this kind of technology. DSL softmodems generally require the same interfaces as PSTN softmodems, such as USB or PCI.
See also
Baseband processor
Geoport
Software-defined radio (SDR)
Winprinter
References
External links
A review of the differences between software-based modems and hardware-based modems
Modems and their chipsets lists
Modems | [
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235700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Furguson | Arthur Furguson | Arthur Furguson (1883–1938) was (or may have been) a Scottish con artist who allegedly became known for "selling" English national monuments and other government property to visiting American tourists during the 1920s.
It is claimed that in the 1920s, Furguson sold monuments such as Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square (for the sum of £6,000), Big Ben (£1,000 for a down payment), and Buckingham Palace (£2,000 for a down payment) to American tourists. Furguson immigrated to the US in 1925. He sold the White House to a rancher on the installment plan for yearly payments of $100,000, and tried to sell the Statue of Liberty to a visiting Australian, who went to the police. Furguson was imprisoned and was released in 1930. He continued to defraud people in Los Angeles until his death in 1938.
However, according to author Dane Love, who profiled Furguson in his book The Man Who Sold Nelson's Column, the existence of Furguson himself may be a hoax. Love attempted to trace contemporary records which would confirm the story, but found "[t]here was nothing about his arrest, his trial or his time in jail in New York. There's not even any trace of his grave in Los Angeles, where he supposedly died in 1938." The earliest known reference to Furguson dates from as recently as the 1960s.
See also
Victor Lustig
George C. Parker
References
Further reading
Ayto, John and Ian Crofton. Brewer's Britain & Ireland. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006.
Love, Dane. The Man Who Sold Nelson's Column and Other Scottish Frauds, Birlinn Ltd, 2007.
1883 births
1938 deaths
American confidence tricksters
Impostors
Scottish fraudsters
20th-century Scottish businesspeople | [
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235719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia%20Pankhurst | Sylvia Pankhurst | Estelle Sylvia Pankhurst (5 May 1882 – 27 September 1960) was an English campaigner for the suffrage and suffragette movement, a socialist and later a prominent left communist and activist in the cause of anti-fascism and the international auxiliary language movement. She spent much of her later life campaigning on behalf of Ethiopia, where she eventually settled.
Early life
Estelle Sylvia Pankhurst (she later dropped her first forename) was born at Drayton Terrace, Old Trafford, Manchester, a daughter of Richard Pankhurst and Emmeline Pankhurst, who both later became founding members of the Independent Labour Party and were much concerned with women's rights. Pankhurst and her sisters, Christabel and Adela, attended Manchester High School for Girls, and all three became suffragists. Growing up in Manchester, Pankhurst and her siblings were exposed to various types of fine art. At a very young age, Pankhurst was interested in the arts, which led her to attend the Royal College of Art to pursue a career in this profession. Between 1904 and 1906 while attending the school she witnessed the lack of gender equality in the art profession.
In 1912, Pankhurst along with her friends, organized the East London Confederation of Suffragettes, which later became a branch of WSPU.
Sylvia Pankhurst trained as an artist at the Manchester School of Art, and, in 1900, won a scholarship to the Royal College of Art in South Kensington, London.
Suffragism
In 1906, Sylvia Pankhurst started to work full-time for the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) with her sister Christabel and their mother. She devised the WSPU logo and various leaflets, banners, and posters as well as the decoration of its meeting halls.
In 1907 she toured industrial towns in England and Scotland, painting portraits of working-class women in their working environments. She spent time in Leicester where she was welcomed by Alice Hawkins who she knew through the Independent Labour Party. They were soon joined by Mary Gawthorpe and they established a WSPU presence in Leicester.
In contrast to Emmeline and Christabel, Pankhurst retained an affiliation with the labour movement and concentrated her activity on local campaigning. She and Amy Bull founded the East London Federation of the WSPU. Pankhurst also contributed articles to the WSPU's newspaper, Votes for Women and, in 1911, she published a propagandist history of the WSPU's campaign, The Suffragette: The History of the Women's Militant Suffrage Movement.
On 1 November 1913 Pankhurst spoke at the Albert Hall in support of the Dublin workers who had recently gone on strike in order to promote a more humane society. After this incident, Pankhurst's relationship with her family became very strained because of Pankhurst's involvement with the Labour Party. Pankhurst's family believed that her aligning with the Labour Party went against WSPU identification of being independent. For this reason her sister Christabel removed Pankhurst from their union because of a belief that she was tarnishing their name.
Like many suffragists she spent time in prison, being arrested 15 times while campaigning for the rights of women. Pankhurst was aged 24 when she went to prison for the first time. During the period between February 1913 and July 1914 Pankhurst was arrested eight times, each time being repeatedly force-fed. She gave several accounts of her experience of force feeding and time in prison. One such account was written for McClure's Magazine, a popular American periodical, in 1913. Pankhurst was given a Hunger Strike Medal 'for Valour' by the WSPU.
By 1914, Pankhurst had many disagreements with the route the WSPU was taking, that is, campaigning by direct action without threat to life. It had become independent of any political party, but she wanted it to become an explicitly socialist organisation tackling wider issues than women's suffrage, and aligned with the Independent Labour Party. She had a close personal relationship with the Labour politician Keir Hardie. On 1 November 1913, Pankhurst showed her support in the Dublin Lockout and spoke at a meeting in London. The members of the WSPU, particularly her sister Christabel, did not agree with her actions, and consequently expelled her from the union. Her expulsion led to her founding of the East London Federation of Suffragettes in 1914 which over the years evolved politically and changed its name accordingly, first to the Women's Suffrage Federation and then to the Workers' Socialist Federation. She founded the newspaper of the WSF, Women's Dreadnought, and employed Mary Phillips to write for it, this subsequently became the Workers' Dreadnought. The federation campaigned against the First World War, and some of its members hid conscientious objectors from the police.
Interlinguistics
Less well-known is her involvement in the movement for an international auxiliary language. In 1927, Pankhurst published a booklet, called Delphos. The Future of International Language, where she expressed the growing need for an international auxiliary language and her support for Interlingua in the early 20th century. Pankhurst’s support for Interlingua can be seen as an example of the scientific humanism that dominated the beginnings of interlinguistics. This language activism is also related to her socialist and pacifist stand.
First World War
During the First World War Sylvia Pankhurst was horrified to see her mother, Emmeline, and her sister Christabel become enthusiastic supporters of the war drive and campaign in favour of military conscription. She was opposed to the war, and was publicly attacked in the newly renamed WSPU newspaper Britannia. Her organisation attempted to defend the interests of women in the poorer parts of London. It set up "cost-price" restaurants to feed the hungry without the taint of charity. It also established a toy factory to give work to women who were unemployed due to the war. She and her comrades also worked to defend the right of soldiers' wives to decent allowances while their husbands were away, both practically, by setting up legal advice centres, and politically, by running campaigns to oblige the government to take into account the poverty of soldiers' wives.
In 1915, Pankhurst gave her enthusiastic support to the International Women's Peace Congress, held at The Hague. This support lost her some of her allies at home and contrasted sharply with the stance of both her mother Emmeline and sister Christabel. Following the Russian Revolution of February 1917 and Alexander Kerensky's rise to power, Christabel journeyed to Russia to advocate against its withdrawal from the war; Emmeline supported military recruitment, spoke against conscientious objectors and women opposing the war.
Communism
The WSF (workers socialist federation) continued to move towards left-wing politics and hosted the inaugural meeting of the Communist Party (BSTI). Workers' Dreadnought published Sylvia Pankhurst's "A Constitution for British Soviets" to coincide with this meeting. In this article she highlighted the potential role of what she called Household Soviets – "In order that mothers and those who are organisers of the family life of the community may be adequately represented, and may take their due part in the management of society, a system of household Soviets shall be built up."
The CP(BSTI) was opposed to parliamentarism, in contrast to the views of the newly founded British Socialist Party which formed the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) in August 1920. The CP(BSTI) soon dissolved itself into the larger, official Communist Party, but this unity was short-lived. When the leadership of the CPGB proposed that Pankhurst hand over the Workers Dreadnought to the party she revolted. As a result, she was expelled from the CPGB and moved to found the short-lived Communist Workers Party.
By this time she was an adherent of left or council communism. She attended meetings of the Communist International in Russia and Amsterdam, and those of the Italian Socialist Party. She disagreed with Lenin on his advice to work with the British Labour Party and was supportive of "left communists" such as Anton Pannekoek.
Family
Pankhurst objected to entering into a marriage contract and taking a husband's name. Near the end of the First World War she began living with Italian anarchist Silvio Corio and moved to Woodford Green, where she lived for over 30 years — a blue plaque and Pankhurst Green opposite Woodford tube station commemorate her ties to the area. In 1927, at the age of 45, she gave birth to a son, Richard. As she refused to marry the child's father, her mother broke ties with her and did not speak to her again. She went to the grave having refused to reveal the name of Richard's father, indicating only that he was 53 and "an old dear friend whom I have loved for years."
Supporter of Ethiopia
In the early 1930s Pankhurst drifted away from Communist politics but remained involved in movements connected with anti-fascism and anti-colonialism. In 1932 she was instrumental in the establishment of the Socialist Workers' National Health Council. She responded to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia by publishing The New Times and Ethiopia News from 1936, and became a supporter of Haile Selassie. She raised funds for Ethiopia's first teaching hospital, and wrote extensively on Ethiopian art and culture, carrying out research that was published in her book Ethiopia: A Cultural History (London: Lalibela House, 1955).
From 1936 MI5 monitored Pankhurst's correspondence. In 1940 she wrote to Viscount Swinton, then chairing a committee investigating Fifth Columnists, and enclosed lists of active Fascists still at large and of anti-Fascists who had been interned. A copy of this letter on MI5's file carries a note in Swinton's hand reading: "I should think a most doubtful source of information."
After the post-war liberation of Ethiopia she became a strong supporter of union between Ethiopia and the former Italian Somaliland, and MI5 continued to follow her activities. In 1948 MI5 considered strategies for "muzzling the tiresome Miss Sylvia Pankhurst". Pankhurst became a friend and adviser to the Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie, and in 1956 she moved to Addis Ababa with her son Richard at Haile Selassie's invitation. She then founded a monthly journal, Ethiopia Observer, in which she reported on many aspects of Ethiopian life and development.
Influence
Pankhurst's writing was a significant influence on British documentary filmmaker Jill Craigie and her interest in the suffrage movement.
Death and posthumous recognition
Pankhurst died in Addis Ababa in 1960, aged 78, and received a full state funeral at which Haile Selassie named her "an honorary Ethiopian". She is the only foreigner buried in front of Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa, in a section reserved for patriots of the Italian war.
Her name and picture (and those of 58 other women's suffrage supporters) are on the plinth of the statue of Millicent Fawcett in Parliament Square, London, unveiled in 2018 while a musical about her life entitled Sylvia premiered at the Old Vic in September the same year.
Art
From an early age Pankhurst had an ambition to become a "painter and draughtsman in the service of the great movements for social betterment". She trained at Manchester School of Art (1900–02) and then the Royal College of Art in London (1904–06). As part of her work campaigning for the WSPU, for which she created designs for a range of banners, jewellery and graphic logos. Her motif of the 'angel of freedom', a trumpeting emblem had wider appeal across the campaign for women's suffrage, appearing on banners, political pamphlets, cups and saucers.
An exhibition of her artistic works took place at Tate Modern in 2013–14. Information about the exhibition, together with photographs of the artwork itself, is part of the Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive.
Pankhurst found it difficult to reconcile her artistic vocation with her political activities, eventually deciding that they were incompatible. She said: "Mothers came to me with their wasted little ones. I saw starvation look at me from patient eyes. I knew that I should never return to my art". By 1912, she had all but abandoned her artistic career in order to concentrate on her political activism.
Writings (selection)
The Suffragette: The History of the Women's Militant Suffrage Movement, London: Gay & Hancock (1911)
The Home Front (1932; reissued 1987 by The Cresset Library)
Soviet Russia as I saw it, Workers' Dreadnought (16 April 1921)
The Suffragette Movement: An Intimate Account of Persons and Ideals (1931; reissued 1984 by Chatto & Windus)
A Sylvia Pankhurst Reader, ed. by Kathryn Dodd, Manchester University Press (1993)
Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils (includes Pankhurst's "Communism and its Tactics"), St. Petersburg, Florida: Red and Black Publishers (2007)
Delphos or the Future of International Language (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. (1920s)
Education of the Masses, The Dreadnought Publishers, (1918)
E. Sylvia Pankhurst - Portrait of a Radical, London: Yale University Press (1987)
Secondary literature
Richard Pankhurst, Sylvia Pankhurst: Artist and Crusader, An Intimate Portrait (Virago Ltd, 1979),
Richard Pankhurst, Sylvia Pankhurst: Counsel for Ethiopia (Hollywood, CA: Tsehai, 2003) London: Global Publishing
Ian Bullock and Richard Pankhurst (eds) Sylvia Pankhurst. From Artist to Anti-Fascist (Macmillan, 1992)
Shirley Harrison, Sylvia Pankhurst, A Crusading Life 1882–1960 (Aurum Press, 2003)
Sylvia Pankhurst, The Rebellious Suffragette (Golden Guides Press Ltd, 2012)
Shirley Harrison, Sylvia Pankhurst, Citizen of the World (Hornbeam Publishing Ltd, 2009),
Barbara Castle, Sylvia and Christabel Pankhurst (Penguin Books, 1987),
Martin Pugh, The Pankhursts: The History of One Radical Family (Penguin Books, 2002)
Patricia W. Romero, E. Sylvia Pankhurst. Portrait of a Radical (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987)
Barbara Winslow, Sylvia Pankhurst: Sexual Politics and Political Activism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996);
Katherine Connolly, Sylvia Pankhurst. Suffragette, Socialist and Scourge of Empire (Pluto Press, 2013);
Katy Norris, Sylvia Pankhurst (Eiderdown Books, 2019);
Rachel Holmes, Sylvia Pankhurst. Natural Born Rebel (Francis Boutle Publishers, 2020);
See also
Anti-Air War Memorial
History of feminism
List of suffragists and suffragettes
Pankhurst Centre in Manchester
Sylvia Pankhurst (artwork)
Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom
Patricia Lynch
References
External links
Sylviapankhurst.com, a comprehensive information resource about Sylvia Pankhurst from Hornbeam Publishing Limited, sponsored by the UK Heritage Lottery Fund
Sylvia Pankhurst biography, spartacus-educational.com; accessed 4 April 2014
Sylvia Pankhurst Archive, libcom.org; accessed 4 April 2014
Estelle Sylvia Pankhurst papers archived at the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam
Application for naturalisation of Mrs Margarethe Morgenstern and her husband Erwin, including written plea from Pankhurst
, two articles by Pankhurst and Anton Pannekoek, first published in the Workers Dreadnought in 1922; first published as a pamphlet in 1974 by Workers Voice, a Liverpudlian Communist group.
Three pamphlets detailing the work of Sylvia Pankhurst as an anti-Bolshevik Communist, "Anti-Parliamentarism and Communism in Britain, 1917–1921" by R.F. Jones, Anti-Parliamentary Communism: The Movement for Workers Councils in Britain, Class War on the Home Front
Sylvia Pankhurst: Everything is Possible – A documentary that chronicles the life and political campaigns of Sylvia Pankhurst and includes an exclusive interview with her son Richard Pankhurst and his wife Rita. The accompanying website includes images of a large number of security files held on Pankhurst, from the collection at the National Archives.
Profile, nrs.harvard.edu; accessed 4 April 2014
Profile, radcliffe.harvard.edu (Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University)
"I Was Forcibly Fed" by Sylvia Pankhurst, McClure's (August 1913)
1882 births
1960 deaths
People from Old Trafford
Anti-Stalinist left
British feminists
English women in politics
English communists
English pacifists
English anti-fascists
Ethiopia–United Kingdom relations
Feminism and history
Left communists
Pacifist feminists
Alumni of Manchester Metropolitan University
Women of the Victorian era
People educated at Manchester High School for Girls
Feminist artists
Sylvia
Members of the Workers' Socialist Federation
British emigrants to Ethiopia
British anti–World War I activists
English socialist feminists
Women's Social and Political Union
Hunger Strike Medal recipients
British Marxists
British political party founders | [
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235721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegance | Elegance | Elegance is beauty that shows unusual effectiveness and simplicity.
Elegance is frequently used as a standard of tastefulness, particularly in visual design, decorative arts, literature, science, and the aesthetics of mathematics.
Elegant things often exhibit refined grace and suggest maturity, and in the case of mathematics, a deep mastery of the subject matter.
General concept
Essential components of the concept include simplicity and consistency of design, focusing on the essential features of an object. In art of any kind one might also require dignified grace, or restrained beauty of style.
Visual stimuli are frequently considered elegant, if a small number of colors and stimuli are used, emphasizing the remainder.
In philosophy of science
In the philosophy of science, there are two concepts referring to two aspects of simplicity: elegance (syntactic simplicity), which means the number and complexity of hypotheses, and parsimony (ontological simplicity), which is the number and complexity of things postulated.
In mathematics
In mathematical problem solving, the solution to a problem (such as a proof of a mathematical theorem) exhibits mathematical elegance if it is surprisingly simple and insightful yet effective and constructive. Such solutions might involve a minimal amount of assumptions and computations, while outlining an approach that is highly generalizable. Similarly, a computer program or algorithm is elegant if it uses a small amount of code to great effect.
In engineering
In engineering, a solution may be considered elegant if it uses a non-obvious method to produce a solution which is highly effective and simple. An elegant solution may solve multiple problems at once, especially problems that are not thought to be inter-related.
Elegance can arguably be measured for engineering problems as the ratio of problem complexity to that of solution complexity. Thus a simple (low complexity) solution to a problem of high complexity is seen as elegant. This measure does not advise of process to produce elegant solutions, and is merely a way of comparing between multiple solutions for elegance assessment.
In chemistry
In chemistry, chemists might look for elegance in theory, method, technique and procedure. For example, elegance might comprise creative parsimony and versatility in the utilization of resources, in the manipulation of materials, and in the effectiveness in syntheses and analysis.
In pharmacy
In pharmacy, elegance in formulation is important for quality as well as for effectiveness in dosage form design, a major component of pharmaceutics.
References
Further reading
Concepts in aesthetics | [
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235723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping%20mall | Shopping mall | A shopping mall (or simply mall) is a North American term for a large indoor shopping center, usually anchored by department stores. The term "mall" originally meant a pedestrian promenade with shops along it (that is, the term was used to refer to the walkway itself which was merely bordered by such shops), but in the late 1960s, it began to be used as a generic term for the large enclosed shopping centers that were becoming commonplace at the time. In the U.K., such complexes are considered shopping centres (Commonwealth English: shopping centre), though "shopping center" covers many more sizes and types of centers than the North American "mall". Other countries may follow U.S. usage (India, U.A.E., etc.) and others (Australia, etc.) follow U.K. usage.
Many malls have declined considerably (especially in the United States and Canada), and some have closed and become so-called "dead malls". Successful exceptions have added entertainment and experiential features, added big-box stores as anchors, or converted to other specialized shopping center formats such as power centers, lifestyle centers, factory outlet centers, and festival marketplaces.
Types of shopping malls
The International Council of Shopping Centers classifies two types of shopping centers as malls: regional malls and superregional malls.
Regional mall
A regional mall is as per the International Council of Shopping Centers, in the United States, a shopping mall with to gross leasable area with at least two anchor stores.
Super-regional mall
A super-regional mall is, per the International Council of Shopping Centers, in the US, a shopping mall with over of gross leasable area, three or more anchors, mass merchant, more variety, fashion apparel, and serves as the dominant shopping venue for the region () in which it is located.
Not malls
Not classified as malls are smaller formats such as strip malls and neighborhood shopping centers, and specialized format such as power centers, festival marketplaces, and outlet centers.
On the other hand, in some countries, many shopping centres less than half or a quarter of the size of the U.S. minimum to be considered a mall, , have "mall" in their names – see List of shopping centres in Namibia or List of shopping centres in Zambia for examples.
The world's largest malls with over of gross leasable area are in China, Thailand, and the Philippines – more than half again as large as previous contenders such as the Dubai Mall.
List of types of shopping centers (including malls)
The International Council of Shopping Centers classifies Asia-Pacific, European, U.S., and Canadian shopping centers into the following types:
<small>Abbreviations: SC=shopping center/centre, GLA = Gross Leasable Area, NLA = Net Leasable Area, AP=Asia-Pacific, EU=Europe, Can=Canada, US=United States of America*does not apply to Europe</small>
History
Forerunners to the American mall
Shopping centers in general, may have their origins in public markets and, in the Middle East, covered bazaars. In 1798 the first covered shopping passage was built in Paris, the Passage du Caire . The Arcade in Providence, Rhode Island claims to be the first shopping arcade in the United States in 1828.
In the mid-20th century, with the rise of the suburb and automobile culture in the United States, a new style of shopping center was created away from downtowns. Early shopping centers designed for the automobile include Market Square, Lake Forest, Illinois (1916), and Country Club Plaza, Kansas City, Missouri (1924).
The suburban shopping center concept evolved further in the United States after World War II (see table above) with larger open-air shopping centers anchored by major department stores, such as the Broadway-Crenshaw Center in Los Angeles built in 1947, anchored by a five-story Broadway and a May Company California.
Downtown pedestrian malls and use of term mall
In the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the term "shopping mall" was first used, but in the original sense of the word "mall", that is, a pedestrian promenade (in U.K. usage a "shopping precinct"). Early downtown pedestrianized malls included the Kalamazoo Mall (the first, in 1959), "Shoppers' See-Way" in Toledo, Lincoln Road Mall in Miami Beach, Santa Monica Mall (1965). Although Bergen Mall (opened 1957) led other suburban shopping centers in using "mall" in their names, these types of properties were still referred to as "shopping centers" until the late 1960s, when the term "shopping mall" started to be used generically for large suburban shopping centers.
Enclosed malls in the U.S.
The enclosed shopping center, which would eventually be known as the shopping mall, did not appear until the mid-1950s. One of the earliest examples was the Valley Fair Shopping Center in Appleton, Wisconsin, which opened in March 1955. Valley Fair featured a number of modern features including central heating and cooling, a large outdoor parking area, semi-detached anchor stores, and restaurants. Later that year the world's first fully enclosed shopping mall was opened in Luleå, in northern Sweden (architect: Ralph Erskine) and was named Shopping; the region now claims the highest shopping center density in Europe.
The idea of a regionally-sized, fully enclosed shopping complex was pioneered in 1956 by the Austrian-born architect and American immigrant Victor Gruen. This new generation of regional-size shopping centers began with the Gruen-designed Southdale Center, which opened in the Twin Cities suburb of Edina, Minnesota, United States in October 1956. For pioneering the soon-to-be enormously popular mall concept in this form, Gruen has been called the "most influential architect of the twentieth century" by Malcolm Gladwell.
The first retail complex to be promoted as a "mall" was Paramus, New Jersey's Bergen Mall. The center, which opened with an open-air format in 1957, was enclosed in 1973. Aside from Southdale Center, significant early enclosed shopping malls were Harundale Mall (1958) in Glen Burnie, Maryland, Big Town Mall (1959) in Mesquite, Texas, Chris-Town Mall (1961) in Phoenix, Arizona, and Randhurst Center (1962) in Mount Prospect, Illinois.
Other early malls moved retailing away from the dense, commercial downtowns into the largely residential suburbs. This formula (enclosed space with stores attached, away from downtown, and accessible only by automobile) became a popular way to build retail across the world. Gruen himself came to abhor this effect of his new design; he decried the creation of enormous "land wasting seas of parking" and the spread of suburban sprawl.
In the United States, developers such as A. Alfred Taubman of Taubman Centers extended the concept further in 1980, with terrazzo tiles at the Mall at Short Hills in New Jersey, indoor fountains, and two levels allowing a shopper to make a circuit of all the stores. Taubman believed carpeting increased friction, slowing down customers, so it was removed. Fading daylight through glass panels was supplemented by gradually increased electric lighting, making it seem like the afternoon was lasting longer, which encouraged shoppers to linger.
Decline of shopping malls
In the United States, in the mid-1990s, malls were still being constructed at a rate of 140 a year. But in 2001, a PricewaterhouseCoopers study found that underperforming and vacant malls, known as "greyfield" and "dead mall" estates, were an emerging problem. In 2007, a year before the Great Recession, no new malls were built in America, for the first time in 50 years. City Creek Center Mall in Salt Lake City, which opened in March 2012, was the first to be built since the recession.
In recent years, the number of dead malls increased significantly in the early 21st century because the economic health of malls across the United States has been in decline, as identified by high vacancy rates. From 2006 to 2010, the percentage of malls that are considered to be "dying" by real estate experts (have a vacancy rate of at least 40%), unhealthy (20–40%), or in trouble (10–20%) all increased greatly, and these high vacancy rates only partially decreased from 2010 to 2014. In 2014, nearly 3% of all malls in the United States were considered to be "dying" (40% or higher vacancy rates) and nearly one-fifth of all malls had vacancy rates considered "troubling" (10% or higher). Some real estate experts say the "fundamental problem" is a glut of malls in many parts of the country creating a market that is "extremely over-retailed".
Online shopping has also emerged as a competition to shopping malls. In the United States, online shopping has accounted for an increasing share of total retail sales. In 2013, roughly 200 out of 1,300 malls across the United States were going out of business. To combat this trend, developers have converted malls into other uses including attractions such as parks, movie theaters, gyms, and even fishing lakes. In the United States, the 600,000 square foot Highland Mall will be a campus for Austin Community College. In France, the So Ouest mall outside of Paris was designed to resemble elegant, Louis XV-style apartments and includes of green space. The Australian mall company Westfield launched an online mall (and later a mobile app) with 150 stores, 3,000 brands and over 1 million products.
The COVID-19 pandemic also significantly impacted the retail industry. Government regulations temporarily closed malls, increased entrance controls, and imposed strict public sanitation requirements.
Mall design
thumb|The 31 story tall ISQUARE vertical mall.
Vertical malls
High land prices in populous cities have led to the concept of the "vertical mall", in which space allocated to retail is configured over a number of stories accessible by elevators and/or escalators (usually both) linking the different levels of the mall. The challenge of this type of mall is to overcome the natural tendency of shoppers to move horizontally and encourage shoppers to move upwards and downwards. The concept of a vertical mall was originally conceived in the late 1960s by the Mafco Company, former shopping center development division of Marshall Field & Co. The Water Tower Place skyscraper in Chicago, Illinois was built in 1975 by Urban Retail Properties. It contains a hotel, luxury condominiums, and office space and sits atop a block-long base containing an eight-level atrium-style retail mall that fronts on the Magnificent Mile.
Vertical malls are common in densely populated conurbations in East and Southeast Asia. Hong Kong in particular has numerous examples such as Times Square, Apm, Langham Place, ISQUARE and The One.
A vertical mall may also be built where the geography prevents building outward or there are other restrictions on construction, such as historical buildings or significant archeology. The Darwin Shopping Centre and associated malls in Shrewsbury, UK, are built on the side of a steep hill, around the former town walls; consequently the shopping center is split over seven floors vertically – two locations horizontally – connected by elevators, escalators and bridge walkways. Some establishments incorporate such designs into their layout, such as Shrewsbury's former McDonald's, split into four stories with multiple mezzanines which featured medieval castle vaults – complete with arrowslits – in the basement dining rooms.
Components
Food court
A common feature of shopping malls is a food court: this typically consists of a number of fast food vendors of various types, surrounding a shared seating area.
Department stores
When the shopping mall format was developed by Victor Gruen in the mid-1950s, signing larger department stores was necessary for the financial stability of the projects, and to draw retail traffic that would result in visits to the smaller stores in the mall as well. These larger stores are termed anchor store or draw tenant. In physical configuration, anchor stores are normally located as far from each other as possible to maximize the amount of traffic from one anchor to another.
Regional differences
"Mall" versus "shopping center/centre"Shopping mall is a term used predominantly in North America and some other countries that follow U.S. usage (India, U.A.E., etc.) and others (Australia, etc.) follow U.K. usage.
In North America, Persian Gulf countries, and India, the term shopping mall is usually applied to enclosed retail structures (and is generally abbreviated to simply mall), while shopping center/centre usually refers to open-air retail complexes; both types of facilities usually have large parking lots, face major traffic arterials, and have few pedestrian connections to surrounding neighbourhoods. Outside of North America, "shopping precinct" and "shopping arcade" are also used.
In Canada, "shopping centre" is often used officially (as in Square One Shopping Centre), but conversationally, "mall" is mostly used.
Europe
There are a reported 222 malls in Europe. In 2014, these malls had combined sales of US$12.47 billion. This represented a 10% bump in revenues from the prior year.
U.K. and Ireland
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, both open-air and enclosed centers are commonly referred to as shopping centres. Mall primarily refers to either a shopping mall – a place where a collection of shops all adjoin a pedestrian area – or an exclusively pedestrianized street that allows shoppers to walk without interference from vehicle traffic.
The majority of British enclosed shopping centres, the equivalent of a U.S. mall, are located in city centres, usually found in old and historic shopping districts and surrounded by subsidiary open air shopping streets. Large examples include West Quay in Southampton; Manchester Arndale; Bullring Birmingham; Liverpool One; Trinity Leeds; Buchanan Galleries in Glasgow; and Eldon Square in Newcastle upon Tyne. In addition to the inner city shopping centres, large UK conurbations will also have large out-of-town "regional malls" such as the Metrocentre in Gateshead; Meadowhall Centre, Sheffield serving South Yorkshire; the Trafford Centre in Greater Manchester; White Rose Centre in Leeds; the Merry Hill Centre near Dudley; and Bluewater in Kent. These centres were built in the 1980s and 1990s, but planning regulations prohibit the construction of any more. Out-of-town shopping developments in the UK are now focused on retail parks, which consist of groups of warehouse style shops with individual entrances from outdoors. Planning policy prioritizes the development of existing town centres, although with patchy success. Westfield Stratford City, in Stratford (London), is the largest shopping centre in Europe with over 330 shops, 50 restaurants and an 11 screen cinema and Westfield London is the largest inner-city shopping center in Europe. Bullring, Birmingham is the busiest shopping centre in the UK welcoming over 36.5 million shoppers in its opening year.
Russia
In Russia, on the other hand, a large number of new malls had been built near major cities, notably the MEGA malls such as Mega Belaya Dacha mall near Moscow. In large part they were financed by international investors and were popular with shoppers from the emerging middle class.
Management and legal issues
Shopping property management firms
A shopping property management firm is a company that specializes in owning and managing shopping malls. Most shopping property management firms own at least 20 malls. Some firms use a similar naming scheme for most of their malls; for example, Mills Corporation puts "Mills" in most of its mall names and SM Prime Holdings of the Philippines puts "SM" in all of its malls, as well as anchor stores such as The SM Store, SM Appliance Center, SM Hypermarket, SM Cinema, and SM Supermarket. In the UK, The Mall Fund changes the name of any center it buys to "The Mall (location)", using its pink-M logo; when it sells a mall the center reverts to its own name and branding, such as the Ashley Centre in Epsom. Similarly, following its rebranding from Capital Shopping Centres, intu Properties renamed many of its centres to "intu (name/location)" (such as intu Lakeside); again, malls removed from the network revert to their own brand (see for instance The Glades in Bromley).
Legal issues
One controversial aspect of malls has been their effective displacement of traditional main streets or high streets. Some consumers prefer malls, with their parking garages, controlled environments, and private security guards, over CBDs or downtowns, which frequently have limited parking, poor maintenance, outdoor weather, and limited police coverage.
In response, a few jurisdictions, notably California, have expanded the right of freedom of speech to ensure that speakers will be able to reach consumers who prefer to shop, eat, and socialize within the boundaries of privately owned malls. The Supreme Court decision Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins was issued on 9 June 1980 which affirmed the decision of the California Supreme Court in a case that arose out of a free speech dispute between the Pruneyard Shopping Center in Campbell, California, and several local high school students.
World's largest malls by gross leasable area
This is an incomplete list of the world's largest shopping malls based on their gross leasable area (GLA), with a GLA of at least .
Combination retail and wholesale shopping malls
Some wholesale market complexes also function as shopping malls in that they contain retail space which operate as stores in normal malls do but also act as producer vendor outlets that can take large orders for export.
Gallery
See also
Arcade
Bazaar
Lists of shopping malls
Mall kiosk
Pedestrian zone
Retail#Types of retail outlets
References
Further reading
Hardwick, M. Jeffrey. Mall Maker: Victor Gruen, Architect of an American Dream (2004) excerpt and text search
Howard, Vicki. From Main Street to Mall: The Rise and Fall of the American Department Store (2015)
Ngo-Viet, Nam-Son. Google Docs 2002. The Integration of the Suburban Shopping Center with its Surroundings: Redmond Town Center (PhD Dissertation) University of Washington.
Scharoun, Lisa. America at the Mall: The Cultural Role of a Retail Utopia'' (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2012)
External links
International Council of Shopping Centers (ICSC)
American Institute of Architects Retail and Entertainment Committee Knowledge Community
Planned commercial developments
Retail buildings
Urban studies and planning terminology
Shopping malls
Economy-related lists of superlatives
1980s fads and trends
1990s fads and trends
Architecture records
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235757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor | Sensor | A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing of a physical phenomenon.
In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor. Sensors are always used with other electronics.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement, for example into MARG sensors.
Analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Their applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. There is a wide range of other sensors that measure chemical and physical properties of materials, including optical sensors for refractive index measurement, vibrational sensors for fluid viscosity measurement, and electro-chemical sensors for monitoring pH of fluids.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much its output changes when the input quantity it measures changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, its sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.
Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly faster measurement time and higher sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches. Due to the increasing demand for rapid, affordable and reliable information in today's world, disposable sensors—low-cost and easy‐to‐use devices for short‐term monitoring or single‐shot measurements—have recently gained growing importance. Using this class of sensors, critical analytical information can be obtained by anyone, anywhere and at any time, without the need for recalibration and worrying about contamination.
Classification of measurement errors
A good sensor obeys the following rules:
it is sensitive to the measured property
it is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application, and
it does not influence the measured property.
Most sensors have a linear transfer function. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the units [V/K]. The sensitivity is the slope of the transfer function. Converting the sensor's electrical output (for example V) to the measured units (for example K) requires dividing the electrical output by the slope (or multiplying by its reciprocal). In addition, an offset is frequently added or subtracted. For example, −40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to −40 C input.
For an analog sensor signal to be processed, or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to a digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter.
Sensor deviations
Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal transfer function, several types of deviations can occur which limit sensor accuracy:
Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error. This is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function.
If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has an offset error or bias. This is an error in the y-intercept of a linear transfer function.
Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's transfer function from a straight line transfer function. Usually, this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.
Deviation caused by rapid changes of the measured property over time is a dynamic error. Often, this behavior is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and phase shift as a function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as drift. Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical changes in the sensor.
Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
A hysteresis error causes the output value to vary depending on the previous input values. If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a specific input value was reached by increasing vs. decreasing the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.
If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured property. This error is also called quantization error.
If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause a dynamic error, or if the input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency near a multiple of the sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.
All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor.
Resolution
The sensor resolution or measurement resolution is the smallest change that can be detected in the quantity that it is being measured. The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the numerical resolution of the digital output. The resolution is related to the precision with which the measurement is made, but they are not the same thing. A sensor's accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution.
For example, the distance resolution is the minimum distance that can be accurately measured by any distance measuring devices. In a time-of-flight camera, the distance resolution is usually equal to the standard deviation (total noise) of the signal expressed in unit of length.
The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.
Chemical sensor
A chemical sensor is a self-contained analytical device that can provide information about the chemical composition of its environment, that is, a liquid or a gas phase. The information is provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the concentration of a certain chemical species (termed as analyte). Two main steps are involved in the functioning of a chemical sensor, namely, recognition and transduction. In the recognition step, analyte molecules interact selectively with receptor molecules or sites included in the structure of the recognition element of the sensor. Consequently, a characteristic physical parameter varies and this variation is reported by means of an integrated transducer that generates the output signal.
A chemical sensor based on recognition material of biological nature is a biosensor. However, as synthetic biomimetic materials are going to substitute to some extent recognition biomaterials, a sharp distinction between a biosensor and a standard chemical sensor is superfluous. Typical biomimetic materials used in sensor development are molecularly imprinted polymers and aptamers.
Biosensor
In biomedicine and biotechnology, sensors which detect analytes thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or biomimetic polymers, are called biosensors.
Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (carbon chemistry), for biological analytes is referred to as sensor or nanosensor. This terminology applies for both in-vitro and in vivo applications.
The encapsulation of the biological component in biosensors, presents a slightly different problem that ordinary sensors; this can either be done by means of a semipermeable barrier, such as a dialysis membrane or a hydrogel, or a 3D polymer matrix, which either physically constrains the sensing macromolecule or chemically constrains the macromolecule by bounding it to the scaffold.
Neuromorphic sensors
Neuromorphic sensors are sensors that physically mimic structures and functions of biological neural entities. One example of this is the event camera.
MOS sensors
Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology originates from the MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960. MOSFET sensors (MOS sensors) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters.
Biochemical sensors
A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed, for measuring physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters. The earliest MOSFET sensors include the open-gate field-effect transistor (OGFET) introduced by Johannessen in 1970, the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970, the adsorption FET (ADFET) patented by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a hydrogen-sensitive MOSFET demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975. The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance, and where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution and reference electrode. The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization, biomarker detection from blood, antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology.
By the mid-1980s, numerous other MOSFET sensors had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), surface accessible FET (SAFET), charge flow transistor (CFT), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), biosensor FET (BioFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By the early 2000s, BioFET types such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.
Image sensors
MOS technology is the basis for modern image sensors, including the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), used in digital imaging and digital cameras. Willard Boyle and George E. Smith developed the CCD in 1969. While researching the MOS process, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting.
The MOS active-pixel sensor (APS) was developed by Tsutomu Nakamura at Olympus in 1985. The CMOS active-pixel sensor was later developed by Eric Fossum and his team in the early 1990s.
MOS image sensors are widely used in optical mouse technology. The first optical mouse, invented by Richard F. Lyon at Xerox in 1980, used a 5µm NMOS sensor chip. Since the first commercial optical mouse, the IntelliMouse introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors.
Monitoring sensors
MOS monitoring sensors are used for house monitoring, office and agriculture monitoring, traffic monitoring (including car speed, traffic jams, and traffic accidents), weather monitoring (such as for rain, wind, lightning and storms), defense monitoring, and monitoring temperature, humidity, air pollution, fire, health, security and lighting. MOS gas detector sensors are used to detect carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and other gas substances. Other MOS sensors include intelligent sensors and wireless sensor network (WSN) technology.
See also
References
Further reading
M. Kretschmar and S. Welsby (2005), Capacitive and Inductive Displacement Sensors, in Sensor Technology Handbook, J. Wilson editor, Newnes: Burlington, MA.
C. A. Grimes, E. C. Dickey, and M. V. Pishko (2006), Encyclopedia of Sensors (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers.
Blaauw, F.J., Schenk, H.M., Jeronimus, B.F., van der Krieke, L., de Jonge, P., Aiello, M., Emerencia, A.C. (2016). Let’s get Physiqual – An intuitive and generic method to combine sensor technology with ecological momentary assessments. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, vol. 63, page 141-149.
http://www.cbm-sweden.se/images/Seminarie/Class_Descriptions_IDA_MEMS.pdf (see https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105724/http://www.cbm-sweden.se/images/Seminarie/Class_Descriptions_IDA_MEMS.pdf)
Measuring instruments
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] |
235767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warrant%20of%20Appointment | Warrant of Appointment | A Warrant of Appointment is the official document presented by the President of Ireland to persons upon appointment to certain high offices of State, signed by the President and bearing the Official Seal of the President. Warrants are presented, among others, to judges, the Attorney General, the Comptroller and Auditor General and the Ombudsman.
See also
List of Ireland-related topics
Royal warrant of appointment
Office of the President of Ireland | [
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235795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton%20Downey | Morton Downey | Sean Morton Downey (November 14, 1901 – October 25, 1985), also known as Morton Downey Sr., was an American singer and entertainer popular in the United States in the first half of the 20th century, enjoying his greatest success in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Downey was nicknamed "The Irish Nightingale".
Early years
Sean Morton Downey was born in Wallingford, Connecticut, the fourth of six children of James A. and Bessie (Cox) Downey, a well-known family in both Wallingford and Waterbury, Connecticut. The grandson of Irish immigrants, he was known by his middle name because so many of his near relatives were named John. His father was the chief of the Wallingford Fire Department until a near fatal automobile accident necessitated his retirement. Downey began his singing career as a member of the choir of Most Holy Trinity Church in Wallingford.
Music
Downey's signature sound was a very creamy and very high-timbred Irish tenor, which an uninformed listener can easily mistake for a female voice. The popularity of such highly artificial and "heady" male pop vocals peaked in the late 1920s and early 1930s. By the mid-1930s, the style was out of fashion, and Downey reduced some of his broader mannerisms and made a transition to a somewhat more "chesty" vocal timbre.
For a time in the 1920s, Downey sang with Paul Whiteman's Orchestra. He first recorded in 1923 for Edison Records under the pseudonym Morton James; the following year he recorded for Victor with the S.S. Leviathan Orchestra. In 1925, he began four years of recording for Brunswick Records. In 1926, he had a hit in the show Palm Beach Nights.
Downey toured London, Paris, Berlin, New York City and Hollywood. He also began appearing in movies, including Syncopation (1929), the first film released by RKO Radio Pictures.
Downey was also a songwriter whose most successful numbers include "All I Need Is Someone Like You", "California Skies", "In the Valley of the Roses", "Now You're in My Arms", "Sweeten Up Your Smile", "That's How I Spell Ireland", "There's Nothing New", and "Wabash Moon". He joined ASCAP in 1949.
The famous tenor vocalist Bill Kenny idolized Downey, and it is believed that he was Kenny's biggest influence. The similarities in style can be heard in Kenny's earliest recordings with The Ink Spots.
Radio
In 1930, Downey began making national radio broadcasts after opening his own nightclub (The Delmonico) in New York. He was voted America's "Radio Singer of the Year" in 1932. At the time, Downey was featured nightly on the Camel Quarter Hour radio broadcast. On February 5, 1945, his transcribed program Songs by Morton Downey moved from the NBC Blue Network to the Mutual Broadcasting System. The move came after Blue Network officials adopted a policy "against the use of transcriptions for network originated programs, except where technical difficulties void live broadcasts." As a result of the shift, the number of stations carrying the program more than doubled.
Recordings
In the 1930s, he recorded for ARC, Hit of the Week, and Decca Records, and in the 1940s, he made records for Columbia Records.
Television
Starting in 1949, Morton Downey began appearing on television. From 1950 to 1951, he co-hosted Star of the Family.
Personal life
Morton Downey was the father of television personality Morton Downey Jr. by his first wife, actress Barbara Bennett (1906–1958), the sister of actresses Constance and Joan Bennett, and with whom he ultimately had five children, four sons, and a daughter: Michael, "Sean" (John Morton Downey Jr.), Lorelle, Anthony, and Kevin. Her early promise as a dancer and actress gave way to her turbulent marriage with Downey. The couple married in 1929 and divorced in 1941. She married actor Addison Randall shortly afterward.
Downey's second wife was Peggy Boyce Schulze (1922–1964), the former wife of Prince Alexander zu Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst and the granddaughter of Colorado mining industrialist William Boyce Thompson. Downey owned a house at Squaw Island, Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, next to Joseph P. Kennedy's house. John and Jacqueline Kennedy rented Downey's house in the summer of 1963.
Downey's third wife was Ann Trainer, the widow of Howell Van Gerbig and the former wife of John Kevin Barry; they married in 1970.
Downey died following a stroke in 1985 in Palm Beach, Florida, aged 83, and was buried in the local Catholic cemetery in his hometown of Wallingford, Connecticut.
References
External links
1901 births
1985 deaths
American male pop singers
People from Palm Beach, Florida
People from Wallingford, Connecticut
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male singers | [
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235807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules%20Dupuit | Jules Dupuit | Arsène Jules Étienne Juvenel Dupuit (18 May 1804 – 5 September 1866) was an Italian-born French civil engineer and economist.
He was born in Fossano, Italy then under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte. At the age of ten he emigrated to France with his family where he studied in Versailles — winning a Physics prize at graduation. He then studied in the École Polytechnique as a civil engineer. He gradually took on more responsibility in various regional posts. He received a Légion d'honneur in 1843 for his work on the French road system, and shortly after moved to Paris. He also studied flood management in 1848 and supervised the construction of the Paris sewer system. He died in Paris.
Engineering questions led to his interest in economics, a subject in which he was self-taught. His 1844 article was concerned with deciding the optimum toll for a bridge. It was here that he introduced his curve of diminishing marginal utility. As the quantity of a good consumed rises, the marginal utility of the good declines for the user. So the lower the toll (lower marginal utility), the more people who would use the bridge (higher consumption). Conversely as the quantity rises (people allowed on the bridge), the willingness of a person to pay for that good (the price) declines.
Thus, the concept of diminishing marginal utility should translate itself into a downward-sloping demand function. In this way he identified the demand curve as the marginal utility curve. This was the first time an economist had put forward a theory of demand derived from marginal utility. Although not the first time that the demand curve had been drawn, it was the first time that it had been proved rather than asserted. Dupuit, however, did not include a supply curve in his theory.
Dupuit went on to define "relative utility" as the area under the demand/marginal utility curve above the price and used it as a measure of the welfare effects of different prices – concluding that public welfare is maximized when the price (or bridge toll) is zero. This was later known as Marshall's "consumer surplus".
Dupuit's reputation as an economist does not rest on his advocacy of laissez-faire economics (he wrote "Commercial Freedom" in 1861) but on frequent contributions to periodicals. Wanting to evaluate the net economic benefit of public services, Dupuit analysed capacities for economic development, and attempted to construct a framework for utility theory and measuring the prosperity derived with public works. He also wrote on monopoly and price discrimination.
Dupuit also considered the groundwater flow equation, which governs the flow of groundwater. He assumed that the equation could be simplified for analytical solutions by assuming that groundwater is hydrostatic and flows horizontally. This assumption is regularly used today, and is known by hydrogeologists as the Dupuit assumption.
See also
Robert Ekelund
References
Hager, W.H. (2004): Jules Dupuit—Eminent Hydraulic Engineer. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Volume 130, Issue 9, pp. 843–848.
Dupuit, Arsène Jules Étienne Juvénal (1844): De la mesure de l’utilité des travaux publics, Annales des ponts et chaussées, Second series, 8.
Translated by R.H. Barback as On the measurement of the utility of public works, International Economic Papers, 1952, 2, 83–110
reprinted in: Kenneth J. Arrow and Tibor Scitovsky, eds., Readings in welfare economics (Richard D. Irwin, Homewood, IL, 1969), 255–283.
Robert Ekelund and Robert F. Hébert: Secret Origins of Modern Microeconomics: Dupuit and the Engineers University of Chicago Press, 1999.
External links
Biography of Jules Dupuit
French chief executives
École Polytechnique alumni
École des Ponts ParisTech alumni
Corps des ponts
1804 births
1866 deaths
French civil engineers
French economists
French hydrologists
19th-century French businesspeople | [
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235810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term%20Ecosystem%20Observatory | Long-term Ecosystem Observatory | The Long-term Ecological Observatory (LEO) is a project off the coast of New Jersey, United States, which monitors the processes in the ocean with online IT systems, spearheaded by the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers University. Already installed are sensors for temperature, salinity, transmission, light, light attenuation, fluorescence, pressure and velocity.
With improvements in Internet infrastructure it will be possible to observe and evaluate plankton (like copepods) or juvenile fish (like Atlantic herring) online with a quantitative in situ microscope, known as the ecoSCOPE, in order to get more insight into some of the enigmatic life histories of ocean organisms, like predator–prey interaction between herring and copepods, the Eel story, or oxygen depletion.
References
Schofield O, Bergmann T, Bissett P, Grassle JF, Haidvogel DB, Kohut J, Moline M and Glenn SM (2002) "The Long-Term Ecosystem Observatory: An Integrated Coastal Observatory", IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 27 (2): 146–154.
Wilkin JL, HG Arango, DB Haidvogel CS Lichtenwalner, SM Glenn and KS Hedström (2005) "A regional ocean modeling system for the long-term ecosystem observatory" Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, C06S91.
The Long-Term Ecosystem Observatory – A Key Piece of an Integrated Observing Network Puzzle Underseas Research Program, NOAA. Updated: November 2, 2005. Retrieved October 8, 2012.
External links
Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University
LEO15 university website
Marine biological stations
Observatories
Research projects | [
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235811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSS%20Texas%20%281865%29 | CSS Texas (1865) | CSS Texas was the third and last (or according to some sources) casemate ironclad built for the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War. Not begun until 1864 and intended to become part of the James River Squadron, she saw no action before being captured by Union forces while still fitting out. CSS Texas was reputed to have been one of the very best constructed Confederate ironclads, second only to .
History
Designed by John L. Porter, the Confederacy's chief naval designer, CSS Texas belonged to an 1863/64 class of three ironclads, with (also referred to as the CSS Tennessee II) and , all three slated to be sister ships. Of the three, only Tennessee was completed and commissioned, proving her mettle in the Battle of Mobile Bay. Columbia was launched but incapacitated while being completed, never seeing operational duty in the Civil War, despite later being captured, repaired, and appraised by the Union Navy.
The keel for CSS Texas was laid down at Rocketts Naval Yard, just outside Richmond, Virginia. She was launched in mid-January 1865, almost at exactly the same time as her unfinished sister ironclad Columbia was crippled beyond salvation. At the time of Robert E. Lee's evacuation of Richmond on 3 April 1865, she was left unfinished but still intact at the Richmond Navy Yard. She was one of only two vessels (the other being the small iron-hulled gunboat ) which escaped destruction by retreating Confederate forces, because attempts to set her ablaze proved unsuccessful. Captured when Richmond fell the following day, both ironclad and gunboat were appropriated "for use in the Navy", as per Union Admiral David D. Porter (not related to the Texas designer). In his official report of April 12, 1865, Porter mentioned that he was informed that the engines and parts of her armor were not yet installed, residing undamaged but completed in the warehouses of the Richmond naval yard. He subsequently ordered all of it transported to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, along with the ironclad. This task was begun on 3 May 1864 and completed the following day. Texas was towed downstream by three tugboats, accompanied by Union monitor , commanded by Lieutenant Commander R. Chandler, who was in charge of the overall operation.
As the war was winding down, and unlike her captured sister ship Tennessee. Texas was not commissioned into the Union Navy. She saw no active service, except for a trial run on 22 June 1865 with her engines apparently installed, the one and only time Texas was known to have sailed under her own power. She was eventually laid up at the Norfolk yard until 15 October 1867, when she was sold at auction for scrapping to J. N. Leonard & Co. of New Haven, Connecticut, having originally cost $218,068 to construct.
Design
The casemate of Texas was roughly octagonal, rather than being a sloped, rectangular, armored box, as on earlier Confederate ironclads and including her class sisters; during construction, it was shortened and reshaped due to critical war materials shortages, accounting for the substantially reduced number of crew needed, when compared to her class sister CSS Tennessee II. The casemate fitted snugly around her eight gun ports, six of which were to be used with two pivot cannons, each one firing from three forward and three aft gun port positions.
Details of her armament are sketchy, but her sister Tennessee II, carried four Brooke rifles, two Brooke rifles, and a bolted-on spar torpedo fitted to her bow. Tennessee IIs armor was three layers of iron plate, and instead of being bolted to her deck, the pilot house formed a seamless extension of her sloped side-armor. Tennessee IIs top speed was about , according to some sources, and her crew numbered about 133 sailors. However, it is unclear how closely Texas would have resembled her sister had she been completed, if at all, considering the shortages Texas had to contend with during construction.
Other sources gave Texas a (projected) top speed of about . These note that both Tennessee II and Texas differed from each other in their final details due to a lack of available materials, notably the iron plate for her armor; her cannons and engines were also different. During construction, design improvements were also incorporated into Texas from lessons learned in combat with the Union Navy.
Particulars on her dimensions and propulsion, recorded by her Union captors, were later included as a statistical summary in the "Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion". It was stated that she measured 217 feet in length, 48.6 feet abeam, and was designed to draw 13 feet of water and 13.6 feet when fully loaded. She was a twin-engined vessel, each driving a separate propeller, powered by two 22'(L)×8.4'(W)×9.1'(H) boilers, heated by a 7'(L)×3.6'(W) furnace, with a grate surface area of 96.8 sq. ft. Recorded is also an appraisal of an inspecting Union officer, who deemed Texas as "(...) one of the best and most valuable hulls built by the Rebels". It was only in this summary that the June 22 trial run was mentioned.
Popular culture
CSS Texas is featured prominently in the feature film Sahara (2005), based on the best-selling novel of the same name by Clive Cussler. In both, a team of treasure hunters search for what was considered by the late 20th century a mythical Civil War-era Confederate ironclad transporting an equally mythical cargo of gold bullion (one more take on the myth of lost "Confederate gold"). In the film's fictionalized version of historical events (and unlike its historical counterpart), CSS Texas, close to completion and under the command of Captain Mason Tombs, made it out of Richmond just before the fall of the city. The ironclad battles through the Union blockade of the James River before disappearing into history. It is carrying what remains of the Confederate treasury's gold bullion, the riches the salvagers are pursuing. The ironclad and its contents (including the mortal remains of its crew that later succumbed to a tropical disease) are discovered a century later. Everything is buried in an old, forgotten, dried up tributary of the Niger River, deep in western Africa (on the highly implausible assumption that an early river ironclad, without masts and long-range sails, could somehow traverse the often violent Atlantic all the way to Africa without a renewable fuel source for its hungry steam boilers and engines). The adventurers manage to reactivate the ironclad's heavy ordinance to fight-off an African warlord and his troops. They succeed in killing him, even though the ironclad's iron plating is heavily bullet-riddled and no match for modern armor-piercing ordnance. Texas and its historic contents are remanded into the custody of the Smithsonian Institution, but not before the adventurers have successfully removed the Confederate bullion to another African location, under the watchful, guarding eyes of others...
In Cussler's novel, CSS Texas is powered by riverboat steam engines that enable her to make a highly unlikely 14 knots. She is armed with four heavy cannon, two Blakely 100-pounders and two 9-inch 68-pounders.
Two recreations of Texas were constructed for the film: a scale shooting model and full-sized exterior and interior sets. Their outer appearances did not correspond with what is known about the historical ironclad; instead, Texas is represented on screen as an amalgam of the original (of the Battle of Hampton Roads fame) and Porter's original casemate ironclad (co-)design, which he based on his two 150 ft. and 180 ft. standard designs. The Columbia-class was a variant of the latter and CSS Tennessee. Both were built with larger and differently-shaped casemates.
References
Sources
External links
Ships of the Confederate States: CSS Texas (1865) – Webpage from the Naval Historical Center
The Evolution of the Ironclad CSS Texas – Webpage from Civil War Talk
Ironclad warships of the Confederate States Navy
Texas in the American Civil War
Ships built in Norfolk, Virginia
1865 ships
Captured ships | [
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235812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogowski%20coil | Rogowski coil | A Rogowski coil, named after Walter Rogowski, is an electrical device for measuring alternating current (AC) or high-speed current pulses. It sometimes consists of a helical coil of wire with the lead from one end returning through the centre of the coil to the other end so that both terminals are at the same end of the coil. This approach is sometimes referred to as a counter-wound Rogowski. Other approaches use a full toroid geometry that has the advantage of a central excitation not exciting standing waves in the coil. The whole assembly is then wrapped around the straight conductor whose current is to be measured. There is no metal (iron) core. The winding density, the diameter of the coil and the rigidity of the winding are critical for preserving immunity to external fields and low sensitivity to the positioning of the measured conductor.
Since the voltage that is induced in the coil is proportional to the rate of change (derivative) of current in the straight conductor, the output of the Rogowski coil is usually connected to an electrical (or electronic) integrator circuit to provide an output signal that is proportional to the current. Single-chip signal processors with built-in analog to digital converters are often used for this purpose. It can also be made "self integrating" (e.g., no external circuit) by placing a low inductance resistor in parallel with the output. This approach also makes the sensing circuit more noise immune.
Advantages
This type of coil has advantages over other types of current transformers.
It is not a closed loop, because the second terminal is passed back through the center of the toroid core (commonly a plastic or rubber tube) and connected along the first terminal. This allows the coil to be open-ended and flexible, allowing it to be wrapped around a live conductor without disturbing it. However, positioning of the measured conductor is important in that case: It has been shown that, with flexible sensors, the effect of the position on the accuracy ranges from 1 to 3%. Another technique uses two rigid winding halves with a precise locking mechanism.
Due to its low inductance, it can respond to fast-changing currents, down to several nanoseconds.
Because it has no iron core to saturate, it is highly linear even when subjected to large currents, such as those used in electric power transmission, welding, or pulsed power applications. This linearity also enables a high-current Rogowski coil to be calibrated using much smaller reference currents.
No danger of opening the secondary winding.
Lower construction costs.
Temperature compensation is simple.
For larger currents conventional current transformers require an increase of the number of secondary turns, in order to keep the output current constant. Therefore, a Rogowski coil for large current is smaller than an equivalent rating current transformer.
Disadvantages
This type of coil also has some disadvantages over other types of current transformers.
The output of the coil must be passed through an integrator circuit to obtain the current waveform. The integrator circuit requires power, typically 3 to 24Vdc, and many commercial sensors obtain this from batteries.
Traditional split-core current transformers do not require integrator circuits. The integrator is lossy, so the Rogowski coil does not have a response down to DC; neither does a conventional current transformer (see Néel effect coils for DC). However, they can measure very slow changing currents with frequency components down to 1 Hz and less.
Applications
Rogowski coils are used for current monitoring in precision welding systems, arc melting furnaces, or electromagnetic launchers. They are also used in short-circuit testing of electric generators and as sensors in protection systems of electrical plants. Another field of usage is the measurement of harmonic current content, due to their high linearity.
Formulae
The voltage produced by a Rogowski coil is
where
is the area of one of the small loops,
is the number of turns,
is the length of the winding (the circumference of the ring),
is the rate of change of the current threading the loop,
V·s/(A·m) is the magnetic constant,
is the major radius of the toroid,
is its minor radius.
This formula assumes the turns are evenly spaced and that these turns are small relative to the radius of the coil itself.
The output of the Rogowski coil is proportional to the derivative of the wire current. The output is often integrated so the output is proportional to the wire's current:
In practice, an instrument will use a lossy integrator with a time constant much less than the lowest frequency of interest. The lossy integrator will reduce the effects of offset voltages and set the constant of integration to zero.
At high frequencies, the Rogowski coil's inductance will decrease its output.
The inductance of a toroid is
Similar devices
A device similar to the Rogowski coil was described by Arthur Prince Chattock of Bristol University in 1887. Chattock used it to measure magnetic fields rather than currents. The definitive description was given by Walter Rogowski and W. Steinhaus in 1912.
More recently, low-cost current sensors based on the principle of a Rogowski coil have been developed. These sensors share the principles of a Rogowski coil, measuring the rate of change of current using a transformer with no magnetic core. The difference from the traditional Rogowski coil is that the sensor can be manufactured using a planar coil rather than a toroidal coil. In order to reject the influence of conductors outside the sensor's measurement region, these planar Rogowski current sensors use a concentric coil geometry instead of a toroidal geometry to limit the response to external fields. The main advantage of the planar Rogowski current sensor is that the coil winding precision that is a requirement for accuracy can be achieved using low-cost printed circuit board manufacturing.
See also
Balisor, a device that gets energy from the electric field, instead of the magnetic field
Current
Current transformer
Index of electronics articles
Pulsed power
Toroidal inductors and transformers
Current sensing
References
External links
Rogowski Coils , Using Rogowski Coils for Transient Current Measurements , Rocoil Ltd Operating Principle
Rogowski Coil Designs, PAC World, Autumn 2007, protection relaying applications
Miniature Wideband Current Probe sensor using this principle
PEM UK Rogowski current transducer theory
An Overview of Rogowski Coil Current Sensing Technology
Electromagnetic coils
Electrical test equipment | [
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235825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivea%20%28singer%29 | Nivea (singer) | Nivea B. Hamilton (also known as Nivea H. Nash) (born March 24, 1982), better known by the mononym Nivea, is an American singer whose recordings reached the Billboard charts during the early 2000s. Nivea is known most for her Grammy-nominated hit "Don't Mess with My Man" as well as "Laundromat" and "Okay" featuring YoungbloodZ & Lil' Jon. She has released three studio albums: Nivea (2001), Complicated (2005), Animalistic (2006), and an independently released extended play Nivea: Undercover (2011). On September 26, 2019, she released her album Mirrors, including the single "Circles".
In 2022, the song Virginia was commercialised as single and received excellent reviews.
Early life
Hamilton was born in Savannah, Georgia, the youngest of three sisters. She sang in a church choir and admired the music of Mariah Carey. Nivea admitted to being shy in a BET "Finding Nivea" interview. She said, "I never wanted anyone to hear me sing... my parents would turn down the radio [and I would automatically stop]."
Career
2000–2003: Nivea
In 2000, Nivea appeared on Mystikal's hit single "Danger (Been So Long)" which garnered her some buzz. Following the success of it, she had signed with Jive Records and released her debut solo single "Don't Mess with the Radio " in 2001 which garnered moderate success, peaking at No. 90 on the Hot 100 and No. 85 on R&B. Her label then decided to focus on her internationally, releasing her self-titled debut album in Australia and Japan first. On September 25, 2001, the album was released in United States peaking at No. 80 on the Billboard 200 and No. 85 on R&B. "Run Away (I Wanna Be with You)" (featuring Pusha T) was released as the album's next single in Japan in December 2001.
In August 2002, she released her second U.S. single, "Don't Mess with My Man" featuring Brian and Brandon Casey (of R&B group Jagged Edge). The single was a big hit, peaking at No. 8 on the Hot 100 at No. 25 on R&B, fueling album sales of her debut. The following year, "Don't Mess with My Man" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
The album's third U.S. single "Laundromat" featured singer R. Kelly and starred comedian Nick Cannon playing her love interest in the music video. The single became another hit for the singer, peaking at No. 20 on R&B and No. 58 on the Hot 100.
2004–2008: Complicated and Animalistic
Following the success of her first album, she began work on her second studio album, releasing a buzz single "You Wanna Touch Me" featuring rapper Rasheeda and Akon which peaked at No. 86 on R&B. After meeting Terius "The-Dream" Nash, they began dating and he soon handled the primary production on her forthcoming album.
In 2005, she released the project's lead single "Okay" which featured YoungbloodZ and Lil' Jon. The single became a hit, peaking at No. 14 on R&B and No. 40 on Billboard's Hot 100. In May, she released her second album Complicated which peaked at No. 9 on the R&B chart and No. 37 on the Billboard 200. A second single, "Parking Lot" was released shortly before she got pregnant with her first child. Jive Records subsequently dropped promotion for the project, although she appeared on Soul Train the following year and performed "Complicated" which was originally planned to be the third single. After her departure from the label, she gave birth to her twins in April. That same year, she begun work on her next studio album and signed a new contract with Formula Records.
Primarily produced by her then-husband, The-Dream, her third album Animalistic was released on November 15, 2006 exclusively in Japan, led by the single "Watch It" which garnered some airplay. Plans for a U.S. release in 2007 were eventually shelved. However, she premiered new material on her Myspace profile such as "I Might" "Look Back" and "Zodiac" although they were never released officially. She later took a hiatus from the music industry to focus on raising her children following her divorce.
2009–2014: Undercover and "Loud Blunt"
In 2010, she released a buzz single titled "Love Hurts" which featured rapper Lil' Wayne as her love interest in the music video. Also that year, she appeared on a few mixtapes including Sir Will ("It Only Hurts Forever") and Rasheeda ("Surprise" "Say Something Remix").
She later announced that she would release an acoustic EP titled Nivea: Undercover and premiered the set's first single, a cover of the Sade song "Love Is Stronger Than Pride" in early 2011. In September 2011, the EP was released independently. She also collaborated with George Reefah on the single "Bump", which received a music video.
In 2012, she announced work on her fourth studio album, tentatively titled "Purple Heart" which was set for a May release. The following year, she renamed the album to Nivea Revealed and announced a new single "Loud Blunt" which was released in November 2013 on digital services.
2015–present: Mirrors, The Randy Watson Collection, collaborations and Virginia
In October 2015, Nivea revealed that she will be releasing two albums simultaneously through her own record label. One of the projects will be titled The Randy Watson Collection, which would be an acoustic LP, with her father behind the production. According to the singer, Randy Watson will explore a love story between herself and two men, and is influenced by neo soul and pop. The second project will be titled Mirrors and will be an R&B album with urban undertones.
In early 2018, she announced she was working with Wash House Entertainment. She collaborated with Snypa on the song "This Way", which was released in January. In April, she announced and premiered her new single "Circles" in Atlanta. In September, she was featured on the song "Dope New Gospel" on Lil Wayne's album Tha Carter V. On September 29, 2018, she released the single "Circles".
On September 16, 2019, she was featured on the song "Oh Oh" from the rapper SugaCane. On September 26, 2019, she released her album Mirrors, including the single "Circles". In mid October she confirmed that she will be joining fellow R&B legend and singer Paula DeAnda for their long awaited collaboration, both Singers have confirmed this on separate interviews in 2020 that they have stayed in contact and plan to have the single set for 2021.
In 2021, Nivea appeared on the reality show BET Presents: The Encore alongside former girl group members Shamari Devoe (of Blaque), 702 sisters Irish & LeMisha Grinstead, Cherish twins Fallon & Felisha King, Pamela Long (of Total), Aubrey O'Day (of Danity Kane), and Kiely Williams (of 3LW & The Cheetah Girls).
On January 7th, 2022, Nivea released a new single, "Virginia", her first new release in 2 years. Ken Hamm of Soulbounce.com reviewed "Virginia" stating, "Nivea’s plight shows us that maybe love just isn’t enough. Over sultry keys and guitar licks, Nivea sings about a man who makes her feel warm when the world feels so cold. However, this love thang is a situationship, not a relationship; she’s wifey, but not the wife" while amethystmusicnewsmagazine.com wrote "R&B veteran/singer/songwriter Nivea is back with a new single entitled, 'Virginia.' On the track, the singer displays the beautiful vocals that she’s known for singing."
Personal life
In February 2002, Nivea started dating rapper Lil Wayne. On December 11, 2002, they became engaged. In her July 2003 interview with Sister to Sister magazine, Nivea spoke about her engagement and how Wayne proposed. "Wayne said, 'I got your Christmas present with me and you're gonna love it. It's gonna make you smile. He got down on his knee and he was like, 'I know I'm young, but I've been through enough relationships to know and understand the meaning of what love is.' He was just perfect. He told me that he wanted to spend the rest of his life with me and he loved me. It was snot and tears at the same time." She also spoke on her wishes to have a son with the rapper. "I want a little boy very much right now. Wayne's daughter is just wonderful. She's a beautiful little girl." Nivea credited Wayne as being her first love. She said that if they didn't get married, that she would die a single woman. In August 2003, Lil Wayne called off his engagement to Nivea.
Nivea married R&B singer and producer Terius "The-Dream" Nash in December 2004. Their daughter Navy Talia Nash was born on May 10, 2005, and their twin sons London Nash and Christian Nash in April 2006. The couple divorced in 2007. Nash stated in an interview, "I decided to end it because I didn't want to take this person [Nivea] and treat them a certain way based on what I was changing into, based on being bitter." However, Nivea says The-Dream wanted the divorce, not she. "I'm lying, it's not. We're supposed to say that, but it's not true. It wasn't no mutual agreement, he wanted to do it, I didn't, but it's done. I'm dealing with it."
After her divorce in 2007, Nivea reconciled with her ex-fiancé, rapper Lil Wayne. Nivea stayed with Lil Wayne after he had a son with his ex-girlfriend Sarah Vivan in 2008. On June 9, 2009 it was rumored that Nivea and Lil Wayne were engaged and expecting a child together. At the same time Lil Wayne was also expecting a child with actress Lauren London. On October 14, 2009, Lil Wayne confirmed that he and Nivea were expecting a son. Nivea gave birth to their son, Neal Carter on November 30, 2009. In June 2010, Nivea and Lil Wayne broke off their engagement for the second time.
Discography
Nivea (2001)
Complicated (2005)
Animalistic (2006)
Mirrors (2019)
Filmography
The Parkers (Season 4, episode 22) (2003)
References
External links
1982 births
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women singers
African-American crunk musicians
20th-century African-American women singers
American contemporary R&B singers
American hip hop singers
Jive Records artists
Living people
Musicians from Atlanta
Musicians from Savannah, Georgia
Zomba Group of Companies artists
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
21st-century African-American women singers | [
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235827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20Sebastian%20Welhaven | Johan Sebastian Welhaven | Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven (22 December 1807 – 21 October 1873) was a Norwegian author, poet, critic, and art theorist. He has been considered "one of the greatest figures in Norwegian literature."
Background
Johan Welhaven was born in Bergen, Norway in 1807. His grandfather, Johan Andrew Welhaven (1748–1811) was a teacher and later assistant to the pastor at St Mary's Church (Mariakirken), which served the city's German community. The author's father, Johan Ernst Welhaven (1775–1828), was a pastor at St. George's Hospital, (St. Jørgens spedalskehospital), while his mother, Else Margaret Cammermeyer, was the daughter of Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer, resident chaplain of Holy Cross Church (Korskirken).
Johan Welhaven was the member of an accomplished family which included his sister socialite Maren Sars, the wife of theologian and biologist Michael Sars (1805–1869), and mother of historian, Ernst Sars (1835–1917), marine biologist Georg Ossian Sars (1837–1927) and mezzosoprano singer Eva Nansen (1858–1907). Johan Welhaven was himself the father of Norwegian architect Hjalmar Welhaven.
Welhaven attended Bergen Cathedral School from 1817–25. In 1828 he began to study theology under the supervision of his father, but that same year his father died, and thus, Welhaven continued his studies at the university in the capital, where he came to live the rest of his life. After his final exams at the University of Christiania in 1827, he devoted himself to literature.
In 1836 he had visited France and Germany; and in 1858 he went to Italy to study archaeology. In 1840, he was appointed lecturer in philosophy at the Royal Frederik's University in Christiania and delivered a series of lectures on literary subjects.
When in 1843 he obtained an academic job, controversy aroused because he had not even completed his theological degree, and had not published any work of philosophical nature. Wergeland also searched for the position and completed a theological degree and used the illustrations of Creation, Man and the Messiah to show his deep historical and philosophical knowledge. He became professor in 1846.
Afterwards, he spent 26 years lecturing in philosophy at the University from 1840 to 1866. His influence was extended by his appointment as director of the Society of Arts.
He died in Christiania in 1873.
Career
Welhaven made his name as a representative of conservatism in Norwegian literature in the 19th century. As shown by an attack on Henrik Wergeland's poetry, he opposed the theories of the extreme nationalists. He desired to see Norwegian culture brought into line with that of other European countries, and he himself followed the romantic tradition, being influenced by J.L. Heiberg.
He is known for his feud with Henrik Wergeland and for the poem Republikanerne ("The Republicans"). Welhaven was also romantically involved with Wergeland's younger sister Camilla Collett.
He gave an exposition of his aesthetic creed in the 1834 sonnet cycle Norges Dæmring ("The Dawn of Norway"). He published a volume of Digte ("Poems") in 1839; and in 1845 Nyere Digte ("Newer Poems"). Other poems followed in 1847 Den Salige (The Blessed One), 1848, 1851 and 1859. He was well known for dealing with nature and folklore, such as in «Asgaardsreien» from Nyere Digte, the basis for Peter Nicolai Arbo's painting The Wild Hunt of Odin. He later also became known for poems about religion, like «En Sangers Bøn» (The Prayer of a Singer). In it, he showed his spiritual side, expressing empathy for his fellows human being and pious Christian hope with biblical allusions.
In the 1840s, Welhaven was a figure of the Norwegian national romanticism movement. Welhaven helped in beginning the career of Hans Gude—a romanticist painter—as it was Welhaven who first recommended that Gude should attend the Academy of Art in Düsseldorf.
Selected works
Til Henrik Wergeland! (1830)
Henrik Wergelands Digtekunst og Polemik ved Aktstykker oplyste, (1832)
Norges Dæmring. Et polemisk Digt, (1834)
Digte, (1839)
Nyere Digte, (1845)
Halvhundrede Digte, (1848)
Reisebilleder og Digte, (1851)
En Sjel i Vildmarken, (1856)
En Digtsamling, (1860)
Ewald og de norske Digtere, (1863)
Samlede Skrifter, (1867–68)
Samlede Digterværker, Jubilæumsutgave I-VI (1907, reissued in 1921)
Samlede Digterverker I-III, (1945)
Metaphysik i 100 Paragrafer (lecture manuscript published with comments by A. Aarnes and E.A. Wyller, 1965)
Samlede verker 1–5 (with introduction and commentary by Ingard Hauge, 1990–1992)
References
Sources
Hauge, Ingard Demringens tolker, en essaysamling om Johan Sebastian Welhaven (with Asbjørn Aarnes og Paul Grøtvedt. 1990)
Vassdal, Tore Bastian, Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven som bergenser og vestlending (2006)
Seip, Anne-Lise Demringstid, Johan Sebastian Welhaven og nasjonen (Aschehoug, 2007)
External links
Johan Sebastian Welhaven liv og skrifter by Arne Løchen.
Digitized books by Welhaven in the National Library of Norway
1807 births
1873 deaths
19th-century Norwegian people
People educated at the Bergen Cathedral School
University of Oslo alumni
19th-century Norwegian writers
19th-century Norwegian male writers | [
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] |
235828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ambient%20music%20artists | List of ambient music artists | This is a list of ambient music artists. This includes artists who have either been very important to the genre or have had a considerable amount of exposure (such as those who have been on a major label). This list does not include little-known local artists. Artists are listed by the first letter in their name (not including the words "a", "an", or "the"), and individuals are listed by last name.
0–9
2002
2814
3rd Force
A
Philip Aaberg
William Ackerman
Adiemus
Rudy Adrian
Air
Airiel
The Album Leaf
Giulio Aldinucci
The Aloof
Ambeon
Amethystium
The American Dollar
Aphex Twin
Archive
Diane Arkenstone
Craig Armstrong
Ólafur Arnalds
Ash Ra Tempel
Atom Heart
Augustine Leudar
Australis
Autechre
Marvin Ayres
Sara Ayers
B
William Basinski
Bad Sector
Wally Badarou
Julianna Barwick
Bass Communion
Peter Baumann
David Bowie (On Low and "Heroes")
Biosphere
Bliss
Boards of Canada
Bohren & der Club of Gore
Richard Bone
Booka Shade
Bonobo
Bowery Electric
Thom Brennan
Michael Brook
Brunette Models
Buckethead (trance-ambient)
Harold Budd
Peter Buffett
Burial
Burzum (not exclusively ambient)
Ray Buttigieg
Blue Foundation
C
C418
Carbon Based Lifeforms
The Caretaker
Wendy Carlos
Clifford Carter (member of James Taylor's band)
centrozoon
Craig Chaquico
Suzanne Ciani
Clouddead (Illbient)
Cluster
Cocteau Twins
Coil
B.J. Cole (pedal steel guitarist)
Colleen
Conjure One, headed by Rhys Fulber
Controlled Bleeding
Holger Czukay
Christ.
D
Malcolm Dalglish
David Darling
Darshan Ambient
David Jolley
Dead Can Dance
Dead Texan, The
deadmau5
Death Ambient
Death Cube K
Deathprod
Deep Forest
Deerhunter
De Facto
Delerium
Constance Demby
Stuart Dempster
Taylor Deupree
Deuter
Deutsch Nepal
DJ Spooky
Kurt Doles
Dntel
Suzanne Doucet
dreamSTATE
Kyle Bobby Dunn
E
Earth
Earthstar
Danielle Egnew
Ludovico Einaudi
Eluvium
Emerald Web
Emeralds
Justin Emerle
Enigma
Brian Eno
Roger Eno
Enya
Karlheinz Essl
Dean Evenson
Explosions In The Sky
F
Don Falcone
Falling Up
Falling You
Fantomas
Ryan Farish
Florian-Ayala Fauna
Christian Fennesz
The Field
The Fireman
Jim Fox
Christopher Franke
Freescha
Robert Fripp
Eloy Fritsch
Edgar Froese
Ben Frost
Frou Frou
Future Sound of London / Amorphous Androgynous
G
Peter Gabriel
Roopam Garg
Gas
Gaudi
Philip Glass
Global Communication
Global Goon
God Is An Astronaut
Godspeed You! Black Emperor
Goldfrapp
Manuel Gottsching
Nicholas Gunn
Guru Guru
Guy Gerber
H
Rob Haigh
Halo Manash
Peter Michael Hamel
Hammock
Harmonia
Jon Hassell
Chihei Hatakeyama
Imogen Heap
Tom Heasley
Tim Hecker
Michael Hedges
David Helpling
Higher Intelligence Agency
Susumu Hirasawa
Ezekiel Honig
Hwyl Nofio
I
Iasos
I.E.M.
In-Existence (Maarten van der Vleuten)
Inon Zur
Tetsu Inoue
Rafael Anton Irisarri
Irresistible Force
Mark Isham
J
Jacaszek
Jean Michel Jarre
Job Karma
Jonn Serrie
Jónsi & Alex
Mat Jarvis
Karl Jenkins
Jeff Johnson
Jóhann Jóhannsson
Michael Jones
Bradley Joseph
Journeyman
K
Karunesh
Kátai Tamás
Peter Kater
Kevin Keller
Kevin Kern
King Never
Paddy Kingsland
Kitaro
The KLF
Thomas Köner
Kraftwerk
Andrei Krylov
L
Labradford
Daniel Lanois
David Lanz
Laraaji
Bill Laswell
Thomas Leer
Ottmar Liebert
Lights Out Asia
Lightwave
Loscil
Lotus Plaza
Lull
Lusine
Lustmord
Ray Lynch
M
M83
Maeror Tri
Main
Mana ERG
Mannheim Steamroller
Marconi Union
Catya Maré
Keiko Matsui
Max and Harvey
Paul McCandless
Loreena McKennitt
Billy McLaughlin
Riad Michael
Michna
Robert Miles
Robyn Miller
Mirror System
Moby
Moodswings
The Moon Lay Hidden Beneath a Cloud
Morgenstern
Rob Mounsey
Murcof
Robert ÆOLUS Myers
Mythos
N
R. Carlos Nakai (Native American flutist)
Pete Namlook
Andy Narell
The Necks
Neptune Towers
Loren Nerell
Neu!
New Order (not exclusively ambient)
Nightnoise
Nine Inch Nails (not exclusively ambient)
No-Man
Alva Noto (Carsten Nicolai)
Michael Nyman
O
Vidna Obmana
Obsil
Ochre
Odd Nosdam
Patrick O'Hearn
Mike Oldfield
Coyote Oldman
Omar Rodriguez Lopez
Ombient
Omni Trio
On! Air! Library!
The Orb
William Orbit (Strange Cargo series)
Orbital
O Yuki Conjugate
Ott
P
Craig Padilla
Panda Bear
Jeff Pearce
Pendulum
Phish (The Siket Disc in particular)
Pink Floyd
Pivot
Plastikman
Popol Vuh
Poppy
Porcupine Tree
Puff Dragon
Port Blue
R
Rabbit in the Moon
Radiohead (Kid A)
Radio Massacre International
Raison D'être
Raphael
Red
Robert Rich
Robin Guthrie
Max Richter
Terry Riley
Francis Rimbert
Steve Roach
Kim Robertson
Hans-Joachim Roedelius
Rothko
Rurutia
Röyksopp
S
Saafi Brothers
Ryuichi Sakamoto
Karl Sanders
Bruno Sanfilippo
Devin Sarno
Erik Satie
Janek Schaefer
Conrad Schnitzler
Klaus Schulze
Scorn
Shadowfax
Jonah Sharp
Rhian Sheehan
Shpongle
Shulman
Michael Shrieve
The Sight Below
Sigur Rós
Single Cell Orchestra
Slow Meadow
Kaitlyn Aurelia Smith
Software
Spiral Realms
Gary Stadler
Stars of the Lid
Stars Over Foy
Michael Stearns
Solar Fields
Sunn O)))
T
Henrik Takkenberg
Hirokazu Tanaka
Tangerine Dream
Benson Taylor
Team Sleep
Irv Teibel
Telefon Tel Aviv
Mark Templeton
Terre Thaemlitz
Robert Scott Thompson
TimeShard
Amon Tobin
Devin Townsend
Troum
Tuu
Thom Brennan
Thomas Newman
Tycho
theta
Trepaneringsritualen
U
Ulrich Schnauss
The Ultraviolet Catastrophe
Ulver
Underworld
V
Vangelis
Velvet Cacoon
Luke Vibert (as Wagon Christ)
Voice of Eye
W
Kit Watkins
Wavestar (with John Dyson)
Carl Weingarten
White Noise
Steven Wilson
Windy & Carl
Paul Winter
Paul Winter Consort
Jah Wobble
Erik Wøllo
Woob
Y
Yanni
Yellow Magic Orchestra
Susumu Yokota
Young American Primitive
Z
Zero 7
Zoviet France
References
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235840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norte%C3%B1os | Norteños | Norteños (Spanish: meaning Northerners; Norteñas for females) are the various, affiliated gangs that pay tribute to Nuestra Familia while in California state and federal correctional facilities. Norteños may refer to Northern California as . Their biggest rivals are the Sureños from Southern California. The statewide north–south dividing line between Norteños and Sureños has roughly been accepted as Bakersfield, California. The gang's membership consists primarily of Mexican Americans.
History
In 1968, Mexican American inmates of the California state prison system separated into two rival groups, Norteños (northerners) and Sureños (southerners), according to the locations of their hometowns. Norteños, affiliated with Nuestra Familia, were prison enemies of the Southern Latinos, who are composed of members and affiliates of La Eme, better known as the Mexican Mafia. While La Eme had initially been created to protect Mexicans in prison, there was a perceived level of abuse by members of La Eme towards the imprisoned Latinos from rural farming areas of Northern California. The spark that led to the ongoing war between Norteños and members of the Mexican Mafia involved a situation in which a La Eme allegedly stole a pair of shoes from a Northerner. This event put into motion the longest-running gang war in the state of California and the founding of Nuestra Familia.
Culture
Norteños use the number 14 which represents the fourteenth letter of the English alphabet, the letter N, in order to pay allegiance to Nuestra Familia. It is sometimes written in Roman numerals as XIV, or a hybrid of Roman and Arabic numerals, X4. Norteños use the color red to signify affiliation. Some Norteños will tattoo themselves with four dots. A Norteño derogatorily refers to a Sureño as a "scrap" (Hispanicized scrapa) or "Sur rat" (south rat). Norteños also use images of the Mexican American labor movement, such as the sombrero, machete, and the logo of the United Farm Workers which is a stylized black Aztec eagle ("Huelga bird").
Criminal activity
Norteños have trafficked drugs across the Mexican border. Their receiving members include other Norteños, and in few cases Mexican narcs.
On January 9, 2005, in Ceres, California in Stanislaus County, Officer Sam Ryno was the first to respond to a call of a man with a gun in front of George's Liquors. Andres Raya, a U.S. Marine on leave after serving in Iraq, was armed with an SKS rifle and opened fire on officers, hitting Officer Ryno and killing Sergeant Stevenson. Raya was shot dead some time later after he opened fire on SWAT team members.
Law enforcement officials claimed Raya had been involved in gangs for years prior to him signing up for military service. Modesto authorities discovered information during the investigation into the shooting that shows Raya was a Norteño gang member who was not involved in combat during his tour of duty in Iraq. A cooperative effort between local law enforcement, federal and military agencies revealed a large amount of information about Raya in a short amount of time.
In August 2013, a shooting done by a documented Norteno killed 3 people and wounded four others at Taco Choice, a Mexican restaurant and bar in Salinas, California. The gunman, a 21-year-old Giovanni Pacheco, was sentenced to life without parole.
Operation Black Widow
Federal law enforcement agencies, long unable to infiltrate the group, began to step up their investigations in the late 1990s. In 2000 and 2001, 22 members were indicted on Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) charges including several who were allegedly serving as high-ranking gang leaders while confined in Pelican Bay State Prison in northern California. Thirteen of the defendants pleaded guilty; the other cases are still ongoing. Two of the defendants face the death penalty for ordering murders related to the drug trafficking. The largest of the federal investigations was Operation Black Widow. In the aftermath of Operation Black Widow, the five highest ranking leaders of the Norteños were transferred to a federal supermax prison in Florence, Colorado.
See also
Mexican Mafia
Nuestra Familia
Sureños
References
External links
"Nuestra Familia" (Our Family)
Organizations established in 1968
1968 establishments in California
Hispanic-American gangs
Latino street gangs
Gangs in California
Gangs in San Francisco
Salinas, California
Mexican-American culture in California | [
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235841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Dunderberg | USS Dunderberg | Dunderberg, which is a Swedish word meaning "thunder(ing) mountain", was an ocean-going casemate ironclad of 14 guns built for the Union Navy. She resembled an enlarged, two-masted version of the Confederate casemate ironclad . She was originally designed to have both gun turrets and a casemate but the turrets were deleted while the ship was still being built. Construction began in 1862, but progress was slow and she was not launched until after the end of the American Civil War in 1865.
The ship was not accepted by the Union Navy so her builder began seeking buyers elsewhere; Otto von Bismarck expressed some interest, and the thought of Prussia armed with such a vessel prompted France to purchase her and commission her in 1867 with the name Rochambeau. She was initially placed in reserve, but was mobilized in 1870 to participate in the Franco-Prussian War. The ship saw no action and was decommissioned after the end of the war. Rochambeau was stricken from the Navy List in 1872 and scrapped in 1874.
Design, description and construction
On 11 April 1862, William H. Webb, arguably the premier wooden shipbuilder in the country, sent a model of a large wooden-hulled, casemate ironclad with a displacement of about to the US Navy Department. Webb signed a contract on 3 July with the Navy's Bureau of Yards and Docks for a ship that had an overall length of , a beam of at least and a draft of no more than . His ship was required to make in still water and she was to be armed with four Dahlgren guns in two gun turrets, each protected by of armor, and eight 11-inch Dahlgren guns in a casemate. The ship was to be completed in 15 months at a cost of $1,250,000.
Now named Dunderberg by Webb, the contract was amended on 27 August to specify her armor scheme. Above the main deck, her armor was to be thick. From the main deck to a depth of below the waterline, the armor was to be thick, tapering to at its lower edge. The ship's main and casemate deck armor was thick except at the rear of the ship. The main deck, from the rear of the casemate to the stern, was to consist of 4.5-inch armor plates that tapered to 2.5 inches in thickness. Dunderberg was to be given a complete double bottom and her engine and boiler rooms were to be completely enclosed by watertight bulkheads. She was also to be provided with two masts and the appropriate rigging.
The ship was powered by two back-acting steam engines driving one four-bladed propeller feet in diameter, using steam generated by six tubular boilers at a working pressure of . The engines, designed to produce , and boilers were both subcontracted by Webb to the Etna Iron Works of New York City. The engines were originally intended to have a bore of and a stroke of , but Webb increased the bore to to insure that Dunderberg reached her contract speed. During the ship's first sea trial on 22 February 1867, she reached a speed of about ; during a demonstration for her French buyers on 12 June, Dunderberg reached . She had two auxiliary boilers to provide steam for the steam engines that powered her pumps, ventilation fans and rotated the gun turrets. These engines, with their bore and stroke of , were larger than the main engines of the s. All of the boilers exhausted through a retractable funnel. The ship normally carried of coal, but could hold a maximum of . She had a light brigantine rig that had a sail area of .
Her keel was laid down before 3 October 1862 at Webb's shipyard in New York City, even though Webb was forced to use unseasoned oak for Dunderberg because the supply of seasoned timber had been exhausted earlier in the war. Unseasoned wood was far more prone to rot and significantly shortened the ship's life. Her hull was very strongly built with the space between her frames filled with timber and diagonal iron straps tied her frames together. The sides of the casemate at the level of the main deck were approximately thick. Before beginning construction, Webb redesigned the hull, increasing its length to between perpendiculars and its overall length to . Her beam decreased from to and she displaced, at her nominal draft of forward and aft, . These changes made her the longest wooden ship ever built. Dunderbergs hull was protected from biofouling by two external layers of zinc and copper. The ship was fitted with two rudders, the primary one in the usual location aft of the propeller, but she also had an auxiliary rudder placed in the deadwood above and ahead of the propeller.
Many other changes were made to Dunderberg while she was under construction and significantly contributed to her delays in completion. The most important of these was the eventual elimination of her turrets which began in October 1863 when Webb wrote to Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy, saying that he concurred with the General Superintendent of Ironclads, Rear Admiral Francis Gregory's suggestion that the "turrets be dispensed with and the casemate lengthened to accommodate an additional number of guns" Welles did not approve the change until September 1864 when he authorized an armament of four 15-inch and twelve 11-inch guns in the casemate. This was extended by to an approximate overall length of so that it now covered the aft magazine and shell room. It was provided with a total of 22 gun ports, six on each broadside, two on each corner and one each facing the bow and stern. The design of the gun ports was another issue that took years to resolve. They were originally sized for the 11-inch Dahlgren gun with a height of , but this was inadequate to allow the guns to fully elevate as experience with proved. The mounting of the much larger 15-inch Dahlgren gun in the casemate further complicated the design of the gun ports, especially since the design for their carriages was not even finished until May 1866. The design of the gunport itself was revised in the second half of 1865 to reduce the chance of projectiles entering them; the new design was roughly hourglass shaped and narrower in the middle of the casemate than on either the inside or the outside of the gun port. All of these changes to the gun ports delayed the completion of the casemate's woodwork as well as the cutting and installation of the casemate armor. The angle of the casemate was also changed from the original very shallow 35° from the horizontal to an angle of 60° after Rear Admiral Joseph Smith, Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks, noted that it would be very difficult to work the guns at such an angle. The deletion of the turrets also required a redesign of the conning tower as Webb had intended to mount it on top of the fore turret. A copy of that used by the monitors was installed between the funnel and the foremast during August 1866.
Dunderberg was built with a plough-shaped , ram bow of which the forward were sheathed in cast iron. Her full armament was not installed before she was sold, but gunnery trials were conducted in February 1867 with two 15-inch and four 11-inch guns. With a gun port height of , the 15-inch guns could elevate +8.5° and depress to −5°; equivalent figures for the 11-inch guns were +5° and −7°. The 15-inch guns could traverse 30° forward of the beam and 28° aft and the 11-inch Dahlgrens could bear 28° to both sides. The only significant problem encountered during the trials was that the gun deck was made of soft pine and did not withstand the force of recoil well.
Other problems that delayed the ship's completion were shortages of material, labor and money. Prices for pig iron and bar iron nearly tripled while boiler plate and copper roughly doubled. Wages of even inexperienced workers increased between 50 and 100 percent. The New York City draft riots in July 1863 and several machinist's strikes further slowed progress on Dunderberg. Webb failed to account for these problems when negotiating the ship's contract and he repeatedly tried to charge the Navy for alterations as well as use cheaper materials to reduce his costs. He also attempted to have his contract amended by act of Congress, but he was unsuccessful. The Navy agreed to pay for some of the changes made and it also reduced the reserve amount held back in case the
ship did not meet her specifications in 1865.
By about 1864, both sides regarded the ship as a white elephant; Welles wrote in his diary that he would rather have the money than the ship and Webb was spending more money than he could anticipate from the contract. Nonetheless, he continued work on the Dunderberg as he had very little other work for his shipyard and, most importantly, in the hope of getting his contract amended to allow him to make a profit. On 22 July 1865, he launched the ship, now with her hull complete and about half of her armor installed, with much fanfare. The New York Times estimated a crowd of 20,000 watched the launching. The following year, the government rejected offers by Peru and Chile to purchase the ship, both then at war with Spain, lest the sale prejudice its lawsuit against Great Britain for selling warships to the Confederacy. Webb did manage to get a private bill passed by Congress in March 1867 that allowed him title to the ship once he repaid all monies advanced to him.
French service
After Prussia expressed an interest in the ship, the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, bought her in April for 2.5 million dollars over the objections of his own navy, which preferred a home-built ship. The exact date of purchase is unknown, but Welles noted in his diary on 7 May that Webb had told him of the sale. On 27 June, Webb refunded the money that had been paid to him and also purchased those items furnished by the government. A little over a week later, he attempted to sail to France, but had to return to port the following day due to engine problems. These were not resolved until 19 July when he, and his entire family, set sail. Dunderberg arrived at Cherbourg on 3 August and the French Navy took possession three days later.
The ship was commissioned and renamed Rochambeau, in honor of the Comte de Rochambeau, a general during the American Revolution, on 7 August. After briefly running machinery trials two days later, Rochambeau began an overhaul in the naval dockyard at Cherbourg to fix problems that had become apparent during her delivery voyage and to modify her in accordance with French practices. These changes included the addition of a pilothouse on top of the conning tower, the replacement of the main rudder and the length of her stern was reduced somewhat. Her armament was removed and replaced by four Canon de 270 Modèle 1864/66 and 10 Canon de 240 Modèle 1864/66 guns, both of which were breech-loading. The 15-caliber guns fired a shell while the 17-caliber guns fired one that weighed . The 270 mm guns were mounted in the corners of the casemate and could pivot between a broadside gun port and one on the corner. Eight of the 240 mm guns were mounted on the broadside and the remaining two were positioned in the bow and stern gun ports. The remaining four gunports, those on the corners closest to the broadside, were plated over.
The French carefully measured the ship during her 1868 overhaul. At the waterline Rochambeau was long and had a beam of . She had a mean draft of , a depth of hold of , and displaced . They rated her engines at only , but they produced a maximum of and gave an speed just over 15 knots during her machinery trials in June 1868 after the completion of her overhaul. At normal load she carried of coal and at deep load. In service the ship proved to burn a lot of coal, full bunkers and stored on deck provided her a range of only at a speed of . They reduced her sail area to .
They measured the ship's armor thickness throughout. The casemate was completely protected by plates. The hull armor extended to a depth of below the waterline and its upper strake was thick while the lower was thick. Her decks were covered by plates and the sides of the conning tower were thick. In service, Rochambeau proved to be very wet and threw up a lot of spray in a head sea. She had a very quick roll which caused problems when trying to work the guns in heavy weather as even moderate seas could prevent their use altogether since the gun ports were only about above the waterline. Under sail alone in a good breeze, the ship could not maintain her course, could not be steered and would turn until wind and wave were on her beam.
Rochambeau completed her refit on 18 May 1868 and was briefly under the command of Captain (Capitaine de vaisseau) Jules-François-Émile Krantz (a future Minister of Marine) before being decommissioned on 1 August and placed in reserve. She was refitted from August to December and had her forward hull armor plates replaced by a one-piece cast iron ram. Still in reserve in 1869, Rochambeau was modified with an additional 240 mm pivot gun mounted over the forward end of the casemate and the pine planking underneath the guns in the casemate was replaced by oak.
The ship was recommissioned with a crew of 600 men in mid-July 1870, just before the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War. She departed Cherbourg on 25 August to join the fleet in Danish waters and reached Copenhagen on 31 August. The fleet fruitlessly cruised the Baltic Sea for several weeks before they were ordered home on 16 September. Rochambeaus shallow draft meant that she and the armored corvette were ordered to search the mouth of the Jade Estuary on 26 September for Prussian ships, but they found nothing.
Upon her return, Rochambeau was decommissioned again and her crew was ordered to help defend Paris. The ship was stricken from the Navy List (Liste de la Flotte) on 15 April 1872 and was scrapped sometime in 1874.
Notes
Footnotes
References
External links
Ships built in New York City
Ships built by William H. Webb
1865 ships
Ironclad warships of the French Navy | [
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235842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginuwine | Ginuwine | Elgin Baylor Lumpkin (born October 15, 1970), better known by his stage name Ginuwine, is an American R&B singer, songwriter, dancer, and actor. He began his career as a member of Swing Mob in the early 1990s. Signing to Epic Records as a solo artist in the mid-1990s, Ginuwine has released a number of multi-platinum and platinum-selling albums and singles, becoming one of R&B's top artists during the late 1990s and early 2000s. He had significant commercial success with his first four albums: Ginuwine...The Bachelor (2× Platinum), 100% Ginuwine (2× Platinum), The Life (Platinum), and The Senior (Gold). According to Billboard, Ginuwine has sold roughly 10 million albums in the US. Ginuwine received the Urban Music Icon Award at 2021 Black Music Honors.
Early life
Elgin Baylor Lumpkin was born on October 15, 1970 in Washington, D.C. He is named after NBA legend Elgin Baylor, a fellow D.C. native. In 1989, he graduated from Forestville High School (now known as Forestville Military Academy) in Forestville, Maryland, and later graduated from Prince George's Community College in Largo, Maryland, with a paralegal associate's degree.
Career
Music
Ginuwine began his career as a member of Swing Mob, a Rochester, New York-based record label and music compound founded by Donald "DeVante Swing" DeGrate, a member of popular 90's R&B group Jodeci. There, he met rapper Melissa "Missy" Elliott, singer-songwriter Stephen "Static Major" Garrett and producer Timothy "Timbaland" Mosley, who became his main collaborators through the 1990s. After Swing Mob folded, they continued working together on different projects, one of which was Ginuwine's 1996 debut album, titled Ginuwine...The Bachelor. The first single, "Pony" showcased his smooth vocals and Timbaland's innovative production style,and also Static Major's writing skills,the two became a hit-making duo. "Pony" peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. It is still relevant today with the smooth upbeat tempos. It was used in the video game Grand Theft Auto IV in 2008. In 2012, "Pony" was featured in a striptease dance performed by Channing Tatum in the film Magic Mike. Mike Patton and Rahzel together perform a cover of "Pony" during their concerts. Ginuwine covered Prince's "When Doves Cry" single from the movie soundtrack Purple Rain.
His second album, 100% Ginuwine, was released in 1999 and featured the hit singles "Same Ol' G, "So Anxious" and "None of Ur Friends Business". After 100% Ginuwine, Ginuwine and Timbaland grew apart. Producers such as R. Kelly has crafted hits for him since then. In 2001, Ginuwine had a number-four hit on the Billboard Hot 100 with the single "Differences", which also peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.
Within a year, Ginuwine lost both of his parents. He later wrote and recorded a song that is featured on his third album The Life entitled "Two Reasons I Cry". In 2002, he was a featured artist on P. Diddy's number-one hit "I Need a Girl (Part II)". Later that year, Ginuwine started his own label, Bag Entertainment. The label would feature artists such as Jose Cenquentez (who appeared on The Senior) and Knight.
Ginuwine's fifth album, Back II Da Basics, was released on November 15, 2005. The album debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200, selling close to 100,000 copies. Ginuwine stated on BET's Top 100 countdown that the album went Gold with sales of 500,000 copies.
In May 2007, an album entitled I Apologize was released in stores. Although attributed to Ginuwine, the release was an unauthorized album and included only three Ginuwine songs – apparently from stolen masters – and ten songs by other artists. Ginuwine spoke against the unofficial release on both his MySpace page and through YouTube. In 2007, Ginuwine collaborated with Canadian hip-hop artist Belly in the latter's debut solo song "Pressure", which was featured in Belly's debut album the Revolution, released in June 2007.
Ginuwine's sixth album entitled A Man's Thoughts, was released on June 23, 2009. The album was produced by The Underdogs, B Cox, Timbaland, The Runners, Johnta Austin, Oak and Polow Da Don. The album includes guests appearances from Brandy, Missy Elliott, Bun B and Timbaland. Ginuwine formed a group with Tank and Tyrese named TGT. Their first single was a remix of Tank's "Please Don't Go". They were supposed to tour but plans fell apart due to conflicting schedules.
Ginuwine announced on his Myspace Blog on August 21, 2008, that due to label and legal issues, they will not be able to release an official TGT album. Ginuwine is the founder and CEO of LoveSong Incorporated, after completing his contract with 550 Music/Epic. Ginuwine announced on his Myspace blog on August 21, 2008, that he signed a major label deal with Notifi Records/Warner Brothers.
Ginuwine introduced producer MELROG and rapper Young Knight a.k.a. Knightron on the Back 2 Da Basics album. Currently Knightron is working on his own album under Ginuwine's label BAG ENT. Ginuwine's seventh studio album, Elgin, was released on Valentine's Day in 2011.
Ginuwine is currently working on his eighth studio album Same Ol' G...the Bachelor and confirmed that Timbaland and Missy Elliott executive produced the project.
TGT
In 2007, Ginuwine teamed up with Tyrese, and Tank and formed an R&B group among themselves called TGT and have signed to Atlantic Records in 2012. Their Grammy-nominated debut album Three Kings was released in 2013. The first single of the album "Sex Never Felt Better" was released on iTunes on February 14, 2013, for Valentine's Day.
Film
Ginuwine was originally cast in the 2004 film You Got Served. Ultimately R&B artist Marques Houston was cast in his place. The writer of the movie kept Ginuwine's real name "Elgin" as the name for one of the lead characters. He also was cast as R&B singer "Romeo" in the film Juwanna Mann. He also appeared in three episodes of Moesha as Khalib, called "All This and Turkey, Too", "You Say He's Just A Friend", and "On the Rebound"
Ginuwine appeared on Half & Half as R.J. Jackson in the episode "The Big Don't Go Chasing Waterfalls Episode" that aired in 2004.
In February 2011, Ginuwine co-starred in the Gospel Music Channel's debut of John Ruffin's stage play The Ideal Husband, which also stars Darrin Dewitt Henson, Jackée Harry, Clifton Powell, Shirley Murdock, Shanti Lowry and Erica Hubbard.
Endorsements
Ginuwine is a spokesman for the beverage Adult Chocolate Milk, a 40-proof vodka-based version of chocolate milk.
Television
Ginuwine appeared in the CBS show Martial Law starring Sammo Hung and Arsenio Hall. In the episode "How Sammo Got His Groove Back" airing November 21, 1998, Ginuwine plays Hall's nephew, Zeke Meadows, a singer who is a target for murder by a ruthless CD bootlegger.
Ginuwine appeared on the UPN television sitcom Half & Half where he played R.J. Jackson, the friend of Spencer's (Chico Benymon) which aired in November 2004.
In the NBC series Parks and Recreation, character Donna Meagle is Ginuwine's cousin. He appeared on the show as himself twice: the season six finale "Moving Up," (performing at the Unity Concert) and the seventh-season episode "Donna & Joe."
On January 5, 2018, Ginuwine entered the UK reality show Celebrity Big Brother 21. He was evicted on January 23, 2018, and came in 11th place.
Personal life
Ginuwine lost both his parents; his father died by suicide, and his mother to cancer less than a year later. Ginuwine struggled with grief and depression; he also thought of taking his own life. He received counseling from his pastor, which turned him to a more positive path. He recorded the song "Two Reasons I Cry" about the death of his parents on his 2001 album The Life.
Ginuwine was married to the rapper Tonya M. Johnston better known by her stage name, Solé. Ginuwine met Solé in June 1999 and they began dating in October 1999. They were married on September 8, 2003, in the Cayman Islands. They lived in Maryland. They have two daughters together: Story (born March 29, 2001) and Dream Sarae Lumpkin (born November 1, 2002). He has a son Elgin, Jr (born January 30, 1991) from a previous relationship, as well as four other children by three different women. In February 2009, Ginuwine announced he has nine children: Ramonda, Tiffany, Elgin, Ginel, Tahjair, Story and Dream, plus two step-children, Dejan and Cypress.
In November 2014 he announced he and Solé had separated. Their divorce was finalized July 22, 2015.
Discography
Studio albums
Ginuwine...the Bachelor (1996)
100% Ginuwine (1999)
The Life (2001)
The Senior (2003)
Back II Da Basics (2005)
A Man's Thoughts (2009)
Elgin (2011)
Collaborative albums
Three Kings (2013)
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Grammy Awards
2014, Best R&B Album: "Three Kings" (Nominated)
BET Awards
2003: Best Male R&B Artist, Nominated
American Music Awards
2003: Favorite Male R&B Artist, Nominated
2002: Favorite Male R&B Artist, Nominated
2000: Favorite Male R&B Artist, Nominated
Soul Train Music Awards
2000: Best R&B/Soul Male Single ("So Anxious"), Nominated
2000: Best R&B/Soul Male Album (100% Ginuwine), Winner
References
External links
1970 births
550 Music artists
African-American male singer-songwriters
American hip hop singers
20th-century African-American male singers
American soul singers
Asylum Records artists
Epic Records artists
Living people
Swing Mob artists
American contemporary R&B singers
21st-century African-American male singers
TGT (group) members
Singer-songwriters from Washington, D.C. | [
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235843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netrunner | Netrunner | Netrunner is an out-of-print collectible card game (CCG) designed by Richard Garfield, the creator of Magic: The Gathering. It was published by Wizards of the Coast and introduced in April 1996. The game took place in the setting for the Cyberpunk 2020 role-playing game (RPG), but it also drew from the broader cyberpunk genre.
In 2012, Fantasy Flight Games released Android: Netrunner, a new card game based on Netrunner, under license from Wizards of the Coast. The new game uses Fantasy Flight Games' Living Card Game release format (as used in their Warhammer: Invasion, A Game of Thrones, Call of Cthulhu, and Lord of the Rings games), and shares the cyberpunk setting of their Android board game.
Gameplay
Netrunner depicts cyberspace combat between a global mega-corporation (the Corp) and a hacker (the Runner). The Corp aims to complete its secret agendas before the Runner can hack in and steal data. It isn't easy, though, as the Corp has strong defensive data forts protected by malevolent computer programs known as ICE (short for Intrusion Countermeasures Electronics). Runners must use special programs of their own, called icebreakers, to break through and steal the hidden plans. All this is paid for in the game by bits (representing currency), which are earned and spent during the course of play.
An interesting feature of Netrunner is its asymmetry: each side has different abilities and uses completely different cards distinguished by alternate card backs. This contrasts with most other CCGs, which usually depict a "battle between peers" where each opponent draws upon the same card pool. While a player does not have to play both sides except in tournament play, many players believe that a firm understanding of both leads to better overall player ability.
The Cyberpunk 2020 supplement Rache Bartmoss' Brainware Blowout featured rules on using Netrunner cards instead of the RPG's existing system to simulate netrunning during game sessions. It also gave conversions to the RPG of some of the cards in the base set (the rest having been mentioned in one book or another).
Expansion sets
Netrunner base set (aka Limited, v1.0) - 374 cards - Release Date: April 26, 1996
Proteus (v2.1) - 154 cards - Release Date: September 1996
Silent Impact - Never released, development halted by WotC. However, a series of six cards labelled 'v2.0' were issued as promotional cards for a planned, but never released, Netrunner 2.0 core set. Even though originally appearing in Netrunner 1.0, these six cards have been revised for 2.0 and feature new artwork as well as revised game text. The six cards in question are Forged Activation Orders, misc.for-sale, The Shell Traders, Pacifica Regional AI, Bizarre Encryption Scheme, and New Galveston City Grid. These cards are extremely rare.
Classic (v2.2) - 52 cards from the Silent Impact set. Release Date: November 1999
Several fan-made expansions have been created for Netrunner, and released online. Many of them have been sanctioned for tournament play.
Webrunner
Netrunner launched with a proto-alternate reality game called Webrunner: The Hidden Agenda, which cast players as hackers against the evil Futukora corporation. Players broke through seven puzzle-themed "gates" to get the secret data ("agenda"). The popular game was the first online game tied into a product release, making the front page of the New York Times technology section.
A sequel, Webrunner II: The Forbidden Code, followed on release of the Proteus expansion. In this, players were cast as security chiefs beset by hackers.
Online gameplay
The Android: Netrunner community plays on Jinteki.net, a free and open source web platform with rule implementation.
Netrunner was playable online through CCG Workshop in the past, but it was shut down by Wizards of the Coast. It is now possible to play Netrunner online using Magic Workstation on Runners' Net, a site which also holds IRC chats and forums to discuss the game. Players may also use other CCG engines such as LackeyCCG or Gccg, which allows players to build and share plugins for different card games and play the games online.
This game can now be played on the OCTGN online game system.
Product ownership
Zvi Mowshowitz, a well-known Magic: The Gathering Pro Tour player, attempted to purchase the license for Netrunner from Wizards of the Coast after the company stopped producing the game. Negotiations, however, fell apart without any revival of the game or transfer of ownership.
In 2012, Fantasy Flight Games announced that they were releasing a modified version of Netrunner, under license from Wizards of the Coast, called Android: Netrunner.
In 2018, Fantasy Flight Games announced that their partnership with Wizards of the Coast to license development of the game was concluding. Starting October 22, 2018, Fantasy Flight will no longer sell Netrunner products.
In August and September 2021, Wizards of the Coast renewed trademarks for both physical and digital Netrunner goods and content.
Reception
Andy Butcher reviewed Netrunner for Arcane magazine, rating it a 9 out of 10 overall. Butcher comments that "Netrunner is almost without fault. It's certainly the best new card game in the last year, and arguably the best since Magic started it all. Richard Garfield has done it again."
Netrunner was lauded by critics, such as InQuest magazine, for its balanced game play and impressive artwork. In 1999 Pyramid magazine named Netrunner as one of "The Millennium's Most Underrated Games". According to editor Scott Haring, "among the connoisseurs of the card game design art, Netrunner is considered to be one of the best-designed games ever."
References
External links
Top Runners' Conference - The Official Netrunner Player Organization
The Netrunner Weekly - Online magazine
The Short Circuit
Runners' Net - Play NetRunner online with MWS and discuss about the game.
Fantasy Flight Games (Android: Netrunner The Card Game) - Android: Netrunner Official Website
Further reading
Card games introduced in 1996
Collectible card games
Cyberpunk games
Virtual reality in fiction
Richard Garfield games
Wizards of the Coast games | [
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235844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siilinj%C3%A4rvi | Siilinjärvi | Siilinjärvi () is a municipality of Finland. It is located in Northern Savonia, north of the city of Kuopio, which largely surrounds Siilinjärvi. Another neighbour municipality with Kuopio is Lapinlahti. The name, in Finnish, apparently translates literally as "Hedgehog's Lake", although its etymology actually stems from a Sámi word meaning winter dwelling. Lakes are essential part of the geography of Siilinjärvi. There are 123 lakes, and the biggest of them are Kallavesi and Juurusvesi–Akonvesi. Water area is 106.85 km2, which is 21% of the whole area of Siilinjärvi.
The median age is relatively low; 23% of the population are under 15 years old. Siilinjärvi has eleven elementary schools and two secondary schools (one is located in Suininlahti and one downtown).
The Kuopio Airport is located in the village of Rissala in Siilinjärvi along the Highway 9. The airport is also the home of the Karelian Air Command and the 31st Squadron of the Finnish Air Force.
Siilinjärvi is the birthplace of politician and former prime minister of Finland and European Commissioner Jyrki Katainen.
Economy
The main sources of income are services and industry. One of the most important employers in Siilinjärvi is Siilinjärvi apatite mine owned by Yara International. The other largest companies in Siilinjärvi are Yara International's factory and apatite mine, Lujabetoni Oy, Hydroline Oy, Recreational Pool Fontanella and Spa Hotel Kunnonpaikka. 5% of jobs are in primary production, 29% in industry and construction and 66% in services. Unemployment figures are the lowest in North Savonia, averaging 9,4% in 2016, while at the same time the average unemployment rate in North Savonia was 13,4% and in the whole country 13,2%.
Siilinjärvi's income tax rate in 2017 was 21,25.
Services
Energy production and water supply
The use of district heating has increased in recent years. Most of the district heat is produced from the Yara plant's process waste heat and from Savon Voima's Tiprusniemi bioheat plant. At the Tiprusniemi bioheat center, heat is produced with domestic wood fuel. In addition, Sulkavantie has a LPG back-up and peak heating center.
In Siilinjärvi, groundwater is used as raw water, which is obtained from three groundwater intakes, two of which are located in the church village and one in the Toivala-Vuorela area. In addition to the municipal water supply plant, there are 15 water cooperatives in the municipality's sparsely populated areas.
Fire and rescue services
There are two fire stations in the Siilinjärvi municipality, the North Savonia Rescue Department station and the Yara TPK station. Siilinjärvi's main fire station is located in Simonsalo at Sulkavantie 6, a few minutes' drive from the center of Siilinjärvi. The station has a 24-hour on-call service. Station 15 houses an inspection car PS 020, a fire truck PS 151, a fire truck PS 1512, a tank truck PS 153, a crew transport, an off-road and boat tractor PS 157, and a snowmobile and boat. Yara TPK has a fire truck PS 191 and a boat. In addition, it has been proposed to build a third fire station in Siilinjärvi near the Vuorela residential area.
Culture
A local newspaper called Uutis-Jousi is published in Siilinjärvi. Siilinjärvi also has its own library.
Food
In the 1980s, each of Savonia's then municipalities voted for its own title dishes. The traditional food of Siilinjärvi was a cockscomb, a potato gruel and a red berry kissel with whipped cream.
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Siilinjärvi is twinned with:
Sunne, Sweden
Elverum, Norway
Haslev, Denmark
Hajdúböszörmény, Hungary
Kamennogorsk, Russia
Amberg, Germany
Notable people
Katri-Helena Eskelinen (1925–2014), Finnish politician
Jessica Grabowsky (born 1980), Finnish actress
Ilkka Herola (born 1995), Finnish skier
Jyrki Katainen (born 1971), Finnish politician
Antti Koivumäki (1976–2002), Finnish poet and musician
MC Raaka Pee (born 1980), Finnish musician
Topi Piipponen (born 1997), Finnish professional ice hockey player
Kimmo Savolainen (born 1974), Finnish ski jumper
See also
Finnish national road 5 (E63)
Lake Kallavesi
Kuopio Airport
Siilinjärvi Football Club
References
External links
Municipality of Siilinjärvi – Official website
Kasurila ski resort
Tarina Golf
Populated places established in 1925 | [
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] |
235848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nullification | Nullification | Nullification may refer to:
Nullification (U.S. Constitution), a legal theory that a state has the right to nullify any federal law deemed unconstitutional with respect to the United States Constitution
Nullification Crisis, the 1832 confrontation between the U.S. government and South Carolina over the latter's attempt to nullify a federal law
Ordinance of Nullification, declared the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void within the state borders of South Carolina
Jury nullification, a legal term for a jury's ability to deliver a verdict knowingly in contradiction to written law
Nullification, a form of body modification involving the voluntary removal of body parts
See also
Annihilation (disambiguation)
Cancel (disambiguation) | [
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235852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita%20Guerra | Rita Guerra | Rita Maria de Azevedo Mafra Guerra, commonly known as Rita Guerra (born 22 October 1967) is a Portuguese singer-songwriter. She represented Portugal in the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 where she sang "Deixa-me sonhar" and finished 22nd. In 2020 she won the Portuguese version of Masked Singer as the crow.
Biography
Guerra was born and raised in Lisbon, Portugal. She has long competed in the Portuguese national pre-selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. She first participated in 1992, making it to the national finals with the song "Meu amor inventado em mim," reaching second place. She sang in the Eurovision Song Contest 2003, in Riga, Latvia, where she finished 22nd with 13 points. Guerra's brother died of cancer the day previous to the contest, which she found out immediately after her performance. Guerra married the lyricist and composer of the song, Paulo Martins. He was also responsible for the production of her latest album called Rita, released on 20 June 2005.
Since 1989, Guerro is a regular feature on the shows of Casino do Estoril. She was on the casino's stage for the first time with Adamo, a well known Belgian singer. "Pormenores sem a mínima importância" was her debut album, featuring Rui Veloso, a famous rock singer and composer, and the group Taxi. "Independence Day" was her second album, a CD released in 1995 sang only in English. Approaching ethnic music in the album "Da Gama", Rita Guerra got the help of maestro Pedro Osório and Paulo de Carvalho, Portuguese representative at ESC 1974. In 2000, Rita and Beto, one of the backing singers in Riga, released an album called "Desencontros".
Rita has also regularly worked in the Portuguese soundtrack of animated films such as "Hercules", "The Lion King", "Prince of Egypt", "The Little Mermaid" and others.
On 24 February 2020, she won the first ever "A Máscara", the Portuguese version of Masked Singer, as the crow.
Discography
References
External links
1967 births
Living people
21st-century Portuguese women singers
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Portugal
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003
Singers from Lisbon
20th-century Portuguese women singers | [
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235857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycetozoa | Mycetozoa | Mycetozoa is a polyphyletic grouping of slime molds. It was originally thought to be a monophyletic clade, but recently it was discovered that protostelia are a polyphyletic group within Conosa.
Classification
It can be divided into dictyostelid, myxogastrid, and protostelid groups.
The mycetozoan groups all fit into the unikont supergroup Amoebozoa, whereas most other slime molds fit into various bikont groups (fonticulids are opisthokonts).
Utility in research
The dictyostelids are used as examples of cell communication and differentiation, and may provide insights into how multicellular organisms develop.
Physarum polycephalum are useful for studying cytoplasmic streaming. They have also been used to study the biochemical events that surround mitosis, since all of the nuclei in a medium-sized plasmodium divide in synchrony. It has been observed that they can find their way through mazes by spreading out and choosing the shortest path, an interesting example of information processing without a nervous system. Myxomycete plasmodia have also been used to study the genetics of asexual cell fusion. The giant size of the plasmodial cells allows for easy evaluation of complete or partial cell fusion.
In 2006, researchers at the University of Southampton and the University of Kobe reported that they had built a six-legged robot whose movement was remotely controlled by a Physarum slime mold. The mold directed the robot into a dark corner most similar to its natural habitat.
Slime molds are sometimes studied in advanced mathematics courses. Slime mold aggregation is a natural process that can be approximated with partial differential equations.
Meiosis
Members of the Mycetozoa group are able to undergo sexual reproduction either by heterothallic or homothallic mating. An analysis of meiosis-related genes in the Dictyostelium discoideum genome revealed that 36 of the 44 genes tested were present in the genome. One gene, Spo11, was absent in the Mycetozoa, raising questions about the assumed universal role of Spo11 as an initiator of meiosis.
References
External links
Slime Molds
Slime Mold Solves Maze Puzzle from abc.net.au
Hunting Slime Molds from Smithsonian Magazine
dictyBase is an online informatics resource for Dictyostelium, a cellular slime mould.
nomen.eumycetozoa.com is an online nomenclatural information system of slime moulds (Myxomycetes, Dictyostelids and Protostelids) of the world.
Photo gallery
Introduction to the "Slime Molds"
Slime Mold Photos Life cycle of Reticularia lycoperdon at MushooMania.com.
Video footage of common slime moulds.
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235860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxomycota | Myxomycota | Myxomycota and Myxomycetes are terms used to refer to some fungus-like amoebozoa:
Infraphylum Mycetozoa (which encompasses Myxogastria among other classes)
Class Myxogastria alone
See also
Wikispecies:Fungi (classifications) | [
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235861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competence | Competence | Competence may refer to:
Competence (geology), the resistance of a rock against deformation or plastic flow.
Competence (human resources), a standardized requirement for an individual to properly perform a specific job
Competence (law), the mental capacity of an individual to participate in legal proceedings
Competency evaluation (law)
Jurisdiction, the authority of a legal body to deal with and make pronouncements on legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility
Subsidiarity (European Union)#EU competences describes the nature and extent of legislative authority in the European Union
Natural competence (biology), the ability of a cell to take up DNA
Communicative competence, the ability to speak and understand language
Linguistic competence, the ability to speak and understand language
See also
Competence-based management
Core competency
Four stages of competence
Incompetence (disambiguation)
Skill
Legislative Competence Order (Wales) | [
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235869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Daily%20Show | The Daily Show | The Daily Show is an American late-night talk and satirical news television program. It airs each Monday through Thursday on Comedy Central. The Daily Show draws its comedy and satire from recent news stories, political figures, media organizations, and often uses self-referential humor as well.
The half-hour-long show premiered on July 22, 1996, and was first hosted by Craig Kilborn until December 17, 1998. Jon Stewart then took over as the host from January 11, 1999, until August 6, 2015, making the show more strongly focused on political satire and news satire, in contrast with the pop culture focus during Kilborn's tenure. Stewart was succeeded by Trevor Noah, whose tenure premiered on September 28, 2015. Under the different hosts, the show has been formally known as The Daily Show with Craig Kilborn from 1996 to 1998, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart from 1999 until 2015, and The Daily Show with Trevor Noah since 2015. The Daily Show is the longest-running program on Comedy Central (counting all three tenures), and has won 24 Primetime Emmy Awards.
The program is popular among young audiences. The Pew Research Center suggested in 2010 that 74% of regular viewers were between 18 and 49, and that 10% of the audience watched the show for its news headlines, 2% for in-depth reporting, and 43% for entertainment; compared with respectively 64%, 10% and 4% who said the same of CNN.
Critics chastised Stewart for not conducting sufficiently hard-hitting interviews with his political guests, some of whom he may have lampooned in previous segments. Stewart and other Daily Show writers responded to such criticism by saying that they do not have any journalistic responsibility and that as comedians their only duty is to provide entertainment. Stewart's appearance on the CNN show Crossfire picked up this debate, where he chastised the CNN production and hosts for not conducting informative and current interviews on a news network.
Format
Opening segment
Each episode begins with announcer Drew Birns announcing the date and the introduction, "From Comedy Central's World News Headquarters in New York, this is The Daily Show with Trevor Noah. Previously, the introduction was "This is The Daily Show, the most important television program, ever." The host then opens the show with a monologue drawing from current news stories and issues. Previously, the show had divided its news commentary into sections known as "Headlines", "Other News", and "This Just In"; these titles were dropped from regular use on October 28, 2002, and were last used on March 6, 2003. Some episodes will begin with a 1–3 minute intro on a small story (or small set of stories) before fully transitioning into the main story of the night.
Correspondent segments
The monologue segment is often followed by a segment featuring an exchange with a correspondent, either at the anchor desk with the host or reporting from a false location in front of a greenscreen showing stock footage. They typically present absurd or humorously exaggerated takes on current events against the host's straight man. Some correspondent segments involve the show's members travelling to different locations to file comedic reports on current news stories and conduct interviews with people related to the featured issue.
Correspondents are typically introduced as the show's "senior" specialist in the story's subject, and can range from relatively general (such as Senior Political Analyst) to absurdly specific (such as Senior Religious Registry Correspondent). The cast of correspondents is quite diverse, and many often sarcastically portray extreme stereotypes of themselves to poke fun at a news story, such as "Senior Latino Correspondent", "Senior Youth Correspondent" or "Senior Black Correspondent".
While correspondents stated to be reporting abroad are usually performing in-studio in front of a greenscreen background, on rare occasions, cast members have recorded pieces on location. For instance, during the week of August 20, 2007, the show aired a series of segments called "Operation Silent Thunder: The Daily Show in Iraq" in which correspondent Rob Riggle reported from Iraq. In August 2008, Riggle traveled to China for a series of segments titled "Rob Riggle: Chasing the Dragon", which focused on the 2008 Beijing Olympics.
Jason Jones traveled to Iran in early June 2009 to report on the Iranian elections, and John Oliver traveled to South Africa for the series of segments "Into Africa" to report on the 2010 FIFA World Cup. In March 2012, Oliver traveled to Gabon, on the west African coast, to report on the Gabonese government's decision to donate $2 million to UNESCO after the United States cut its funding for UNESCO earlier that year. On July 19, 2016, Roy Wood Jr. reported live from the Republican National Convention and talked about Donald Trump's African-American support.
Topics have varied widely; during the early years of the show, they tended toward character-driven human interest stories such as Bigfoot enthusiasts. Since Stewart began hosting in 1999, the focus of the show has become more political and the field pieces have come to more closely reflect current issues and debates. Under Kilborn and the early years of Stewart, most interviewees were either unaware or not entirely aware of the comedic nature of The Daily Show. However, as the show began to gain popularity—particularly following its coverage of the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections—most of the subjects now interviewed are aware of the comedic element.
Recurring segments
Some segments have recurred periodically throughout different tenures, such as "Back in Black" (segments hosted by comedian Lewis Black) & "Your Moment of Zen". Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, a common segment of the show has been dubbed "Mess O' Potamia", focusing on the United States' policies in the Middle East, especially Iraq. Elections in the United States were a prominent focus in the show's "Indecision" coverage throughout Stewart & Noah's time as host (the title "InDecision" is a parody of NBC News' "Decision" segment). Since 2000, under Stewart's tenure, the show went on the road to record week-long specials from the cities hosting the Democratic and Republican National Convention. For the 2006 U.S. midterm elections, a week of episodes was recorded in the contested state of Ohio. The "Indecision" & "Democalypse" coverage of the 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016 elections all culminated in live Election Night specials.
With Noah as host, one new recurring segment has been "What the Actual Fact", with correspondent Desi Lydic examining statements made by political figures during speeches or events. Under Noah, the continuation of "Democalypse" and "Indecision" also took place with live shows after the Republican National Convention and Democratic National Convention. For the first time, under Noah, the show also went live after all three U.S. presidential debates in 2016.
Interviews
In the show's third act, the host conducts an interview with a celebrity guest. Guests come from a wide range of cultural sources, and include actors, musicians, authors, athletes, pundits, policy experts and political figures. During Stewart's tenure, the show's guests tended away from celebrities and more towards non-fiction authors and political pundits, as well as many prominent elected officials. In the show's earlier years it struggled to book high-profile politicians. (In 1999, for an Indecision 2000 segment, Steve Carell struggled to talk his way off Republican candidate John McCain's press overflow bus and onto the Straight Talk Express).
However its rise in popularity, particularly following the show's coverage of the 2000 and 2004 elections, made Stewart according to a Rolling Stone (2006) article, "the hot destination for anyone who wants to sell books or seem hip, from presidential candidates to military dictators". Newsweek labeled it "the coolest pit stop on television".
Prominent political guests have included U.S. President Barack Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, former Presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton, former British Prime Ministers Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf, former Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Bolivian President Evo Morales, Jordanian King Abdullah II, Estonian Prime Minister Taavi Roivas, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and former Mexican President Vicente Fox.
The show has played host to former and current members of the Administration and Cabinet as well as members of Congress. Numerous presidential candidates have appeared on the show during their campaigns, including John McCain, John Kerry, Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton.
Closing segment
In a closing segment, there is a brief segue to the closing credits in the form of the host introducing "Your Moment of Zen", a humorous piece of video footage without commentary that has been part of the show's wrap-up since the series began in 1996. The segment often relates to a story covered earlier in the episode, but occasionally is merely a humorous or ridiculous clip. Occasionally, the segment is used as a tribute to someone who has died.
Sometimes, before the "Your Moment of Zen", this segment is used for quick promotions. The host might promote the show that follows right after their broadcast, such as promoting the show @midnight. This time has also been used to promote films, books or stand-up specials that are affiliated with the host.
In October 2005, following The Colbert Report premiere, a new feature (sometimes referred to as the toss) was added to the closing segment in which Stewart would have a short exchange with "our good friend, Stephen Colbert at The Colbert Report", which aired immediately after. The two would have a scripted comedic exchange via split-screen from their respective sets. In 2007, the "toss" was cut back to twice per week, and by 2009 was once a week before gradually being phased out. It was used on the 2014 mid-term election night and again just before the final episode of The Colbert Report on December 18, 2014, and returned upon the premiere of The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore. Stewart then regularly tossed to Wilmore at the end of his Monday night episodes. Under Noah, the "toss" has been used for The Opposition with Jordan Klepper and Lights Out with David Spade.
Studio
The host sits at his desk on the elevated island stage in the style of a traditional news show. The show initially used New York PBS station WNET's facilities until late 1998, when it moved a few blocks to NEP Studio 54. The Colbert Report would claim NEP Studio 54 in 2005. On July 11, 2005, the show premiered in its new studio, NEP Studio 52, at 733 11th Avenue, a few blocks west of its former location.
The set of the new studio was given a sleeker, more formal look, including a backdrop of three large projection screens. The traditional guests' couch, which had been a part of the set since the show's premiere, was done away with in favor of simple upright chairs. The change was initially not well-received, spawning a backlash among some fans and prompting a "Bring Back the Couch" campaign. The campaign was mentioned on subsequent shows by Stewart and supported by Daily Show contributor Bob Wiltfong. The couch was eventually featured in a sweepstakes in which the winner received the couch, round-trip tickets to New York, tickets to the show, and a small sum of money.
On April 9, 2007, the show debuted a new set. The projection screens were revamped (with one large screen behind Stewart, while the smaller one behind the interview subject remained the same), a large, global map directly behind Stewart, a more open studio floor, and a J-shaped desk supported at one end by a globe. The intro was also updated; the graphics, display names, dates, and logos were all changed.
On September 28, 2015, the show debuted a new set alongside the debut of Trevor Noah's tenure. According to Larry Hartman, Noah took a lot of inspiration from Stewart's set. A second on-stage 'jumbo-tron' was added and the colours of the set were made lighter. The graphics, intro, theme music, lower thirds, logo, etc. were also all revamped. On July 19, 2016, the set and graphics were given another change to reflect Democalypse 2016 and denote The Daily Shows RNC and DNC coverage (which was taped in the conventions' respective cities). The new temporary sets had a Washington theme, and was meant to show that Washington is "a little broke" and needs "repair". Though the studio was reverted to its former self after the election week in 2016, the changes to the graphics were kept.
Since March 2020, due to the pandemic, the studio closed and the show had been filmed from Noah's apartment on West 50th Street, during which time Comedy Central chose not to return to Hell's Kitchen after a quarter-century and instead set up shop within parent company ViacomCBS' Times Square studios.
Production
The show's writers begin each day with a morning meeting where they review material that researchers have gathered from major newspapers, the Associated Press, cable news television channels and websites, and discuss headline material for the lead news segment. Throughout the morning they work on writing deadline pieces inspired by recent news, as well as longer-term projects. By lunchtime, Noah — who describes his role as that of the captain of a team — has begun to review headline jokes. The script is submitted by 3 pm, and at 4:15 there is a rehearsal. An hour is left for rewrites before a 6 pm taping in front of a live studio audience.
The Daily Show typically tapes four new episodes a week, Monday through Thursday, forty-two weeks a year. The show is broadcast at 11 PM Eastern/10 PM Central, a time when local television stations show their news reports and about half an hour before most other late-night comedy programs begin to go on the air. The program is rerun several times the next day, including a 7:30 PM Eastern/6:30 PM Central prime time broadcast.
History
Craig Kilborn's tenure (1996–1998)
The Daily Show was created by Lizz Winstead and Madeleine Smithberg and premiered on Comedy Central on July 22, 1996, having been marketed as a replacement for Politically Incorrect (a successful Comedy Central program that had moved to ABC earlier that year). Madeleine Smithberg was co-creator of The Daily Show as well as the former executive producer. A graduate of Binghamton University, she was an executive producer of Steve Harvey's Big Time and a talent coordinator for Late Night with David Letterman.
Aiming to parody conventional newscasts, it featured a comedic monologue of the day's headlines from anchor Craig Kilborn (a well-known co-anchor of ESPN's SportsCenter), as well as mockumentary style on-location reports, in-studio segments and debates from regular correspondents Winstead, Brian Unger, Beth Littleford, and A. Whitney Brown.
Common segments
Common segments included "This Day in Hasselhoff History" and "Last Weekend's Top-Grossing Films, Converted into Lira", in parody of entertainment news shows and their tendency to lead out to commercials with trivia such as celebrity birthdays. Another commercial lead-out featured Winstead's parents, on her answering machine, reading that day's "Final Jeopardy!" question and answer. In each show, Kilborn would conduct celebrity interviews, ending with a segment called "Five Questions" in which the guest was made to answer a series of questions that were typically a combination of obscure fact and subjective opinion. These are highlighted in a 1998 book titled The Daily Show: Five Questions, which contains transcripts of Kilborn's best interviews. Each episode concluded with a segment called "Your Moment of Zen" that showed random video clips of humorous and sometimes morbid interest such as visitors at a Chinese zoo feeding baby chickens to the alligators. Originally the show was recorded without a studio audience, featuring only the laughter of its own off-camera staff members. A studio audience was incorporated into the show for its second season, and has remained since.
Differences between Kilborn's version and Stewart's version
The show was much less politically focused than it later became under Jon Stewart, having what Stephen Colbert described as a local news feel and involving more character-driven humor as opposed to news-driven humor. Winstead recalls that when the show was first launched there was constant debate regarding what the show's focus should be. While she wanted a more news-driven focus, the network was concerned that this would not appeal to viewers and pushed for "a little more of a hybrid of entertainment and politics". The show was slammed by some reviewers as being too mean-spirited, particularly towards the interview subjects of field pieces; a criticism acknowledged by some of the show's cast. Describing his time as a correspondent under Kilborn, Colbert says, "You wanted to take your soul off, put it on a wire hanger, and leave it in the closet before you got on the plane to do one of these pieces." One reviewer from The New York Times criticized the show for being too cruel and for lacking a central editorial vision or ideology, describing it as "bereft of an ideological or artistic center... precocious but empty."
Craig Kilborn's departure
There were reports of backstage friction between Kilborn and some of the female staff, particularly the show's co-creator Lizz Winstead. Winstead had not been involved in the hiring of Kilborn, and disagreed with him over what direction the show should take. "I spent eight months developing and staffing a show and seeking a tone with producers and writers. Somebody else put him in place. There were bound to be problems. I viewed the show as content-driven; he viewed it as host-driven", she said. In a 1997 Esquire magazine interview, Kilborn made a sexually explicit joke about Winstead. Comedy Central responded by suspending Kilborn without pay for one week, and Winstead quit soon after.
In 1998, Kilborn left The Daily Show to replace Tom Snyder on CBS's The Late Late Show (Now Hosted by James Corden). He claimed the "Five Questions" interview segment as intellectual property, disallowing any future Daily Show hosts from using it in their interviews. Correspondents Brian Unger and A. Whitney Brown left the show shortly before him, but the majority of the show's crew and writing staff stayed on. Kilborn's last show as host aired on December 17, 1998, ending a 386-episode tenure. Reruns were shown until Jon Stewart's debut four weeks later. Kilborn made a short appearance on Jon Stewart's final edition of the Daily Show saying "I knew you were going to run this thing into the ground."
Jon Stewart's tenure (1999–2015)
Shift in content
Comedian Jon Stewart took over as host of the show, which was retitled The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, on January 11, 1999. Stewart had previously hosted Short Attention Span Theater on Comedy Central, two shows on MTV (You Wrote It, You Watch It and The Jon Stewart Show), as well as a syndicated late-night talk show, and had been cast in films and television. In taking over hosting from Kilborn, Stewart initially retained much of the same staff and on-air talent, allowing many pieces to transition without much trouble, while other features like "God Stuff", with John Bloom presenting an assortment of actual clips from various televangelists, and "Backfire", an in-studio debate between Brian Unger and A. Whitney Brown, evolved into the similar pieces of "This Week in God" and Stephen Colbert and Steve Carell's "Even Stevphen". After the change, a number of new features were developed. The ending segment "Your Moment of Zen", previously consisting of a random selection of humorous videos, was diversified to sometimes include recaps or extended versions of news clips shown earlier in the show. The show's theme music, "Dog on Fire" by Bob Mould, was re-recorded by They Might Be Giants shortly after Stewart joined the show.
Stewart served not only as host but also as a writer and executive producer of the series. He recalls that he initially struggled with the Kilborn holdover writers to gain control of the show and put his own imprint on the show's voice, a struggle that led to the departure of a number of the holdover writers. Instrumental in shaping the voice of the show under Stewart was former editor of The Onion Ben Karlin who, along with fellow Onion contributor David Javerbaum, joined the staff in 1999 as head writer and was later promoted to executive producer. Their experience in writing for the satirical newspaper, which uses fake stories to mock real print journalism and current events, would influence the comedic direction of the show; Stewart recalls the hiring of Karlin as the point at which things "[started] to take shape". Describing his approach to the show, Karlin said, "The main thing, for me, is seeing hypocrisy. People who know better saying things that you know they don't believe."
Under Stewart and Karlin The Daily Show developed a markedly different style, bringing a sharper political focus to the humor than the show previously exhibited. Then-correspondent Stephen Colbert recalls that Stewart specifically asked him to have a political viewpoint, and to allow his passion for issues to carry through into his comedy. Colbert says that whereas under Kilborn the focus was on "human interest-y" pieces, with Stewart as host the show's content became more "issues and news driven", particularly after the beginning of the 2000 election campaign with which the show dealt in its "Indecision 2000" coverage. Stewart himself describes the show's coverage of the 2000 election recount as the point at which the show found its editorial voice. "That's when I think we tapped into the emotional angle of the news for us and found our editorial footing," he says. Following the September 11th attacks, The Daily Show went off the air for nine days. Upon its return, Stewart opened the show with a somber monologue, that, according to Jeremy Gillick and Nonna Gorilovskaya, addressed both the absurdity and importance of his role as a comedian. Commented Stewart:
Gillick and Gorilovskaya point to the September 11 attacks and the beginning of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq as the point at which Jon Stewart emerged as a trusted national figure. Robert Thompson, the director of the Bleier Center for Television and Popular Culture at Syracuse University, recalled of this period, "When all the news guys were walking on eggshells, Jon was hammering those questions about WMDs."
Broadening the role of the correspondent
During Stewart's tenure, the role of the correspondent broadened to encompass not only field segments but also frequent in-studio exchanges. Under Kilborn, Colbert says that his work as a correspondent initially involved "character driven [field] pieces—like, you know, guys who believe in Bigfoot." However, as the focus of the show has become more news-driven, correspondents have increasingly been used in studio pieces, either as experts discussing issues at the anchor desk or as field journalists reporting from false locations in front of a green screen. Colbert says that this change has allowed correspondents to be more involved with the show, as it has permitted them to work more closely with the host and writers.
Popularity and critical respect
The show's 2000 and 2004 election coverage, combined with a new satirical edge, helped to catapult Stewart and The Daily Show to new levels of popularity and critical respect. Since Stewart became host, the show has won 23 Primetime Emmy Awards and three Peabody Awards, and its ratings steadily increased. In 2003, the show was averaging nearly a million viewers, an increase of nearly threefold since the show's inception as Comedy Central became available in more households. By September 2008, the show averaged nearly two million viewers per night. Senator Barack Obama's interview on October 29, 2008, pulled in 3.6 million viewers.
In the political spectrum
The move towards greater involvement in political issues and the increasing popularity of the show in certain key demographics have led to examinations of where the views of the show fit in the political spectrum. Adam Clymer, among many others, has argued that The Daily Show is more critical of Republicans than Democrats. Stewart, who voted Democratic in the 2004 presidential election, acknowledged that the show has a more liberal point of view, but that it is not "a liberal organization" with a political agenda and its duty first and foremost is to be funny. He acknowledges that the show is not necessarily an "equal opportunity offender", explaining that Republicans tended to provide more comedic fodder because "I think we consider those with power and influence targets and those without it, not." In an interview in 2005, when asked how he responded to critics claiming that The Daily Show is overly liberal, Stephen Colbert, also a self-proclaimed Democrat, said in an interview during the Bush Administration, when the Republicans held a majority in the House and Senate: "We are liberal, but Jon's very respectful of the Republican guests, and, listen, if liberals were in power it would be easier to attack them, but Republicans have the executive, legislative and judicial branches, so making fun of Democrats is like kicking a child, so it's just not worth it."
Stewart is critical of Democratic politicians for being weak, timid, or ineffective. He said in an interview with Larry King, prior to the 2006 elections, "I honestly don't feel that [the Democrats] make an impact. They have forty-nine percent of the vote and three percent of the power. At a certain point you go, 'Guys, pick up your game.'" He has targeted them for failing to effectively stand on some issues, such as the war in Iraq, describing them as "incompetent" and "unable... to locate their asses, even when presented with two hands and a special ass map."
Karlin, then the show's executive producer, said in a 2004 interview that while there is a collective sensibility among the staff which, "when filtered through Jon and the correspondents, feels uniform," the principal goal of the show is comedy. "If you have a legitimately funny joke in support of the notion that gay people are an affront to God, we'll put that motherfucker on!"
On September 15, 2003, Senator John Edwards became the first candidate to announce that they were running for president on the show, causing Jon Stewart to jokingly inform him that their show was "fake" and he might have to reannounce elsewhere. On November 17, 2009, Vice President Joe Biden appeared on the show, making him the first sitting vice president to do so. On October 27, 2010, President Barack Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to be interviewed on the show, wherein Obama commented he "loved" the show. Obama took issue with Stewart's suggestion that his health care program was "timid."
After the United States Senate failed to pass and the media failed to cover the James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act, which would provide health monitoring and financial aid to sick first responders of the September 11 attacks, Stewart dedicated the entire December 16, 2010, broadcast to the issue. During the next week, a revived version of the bill gained new life, with the potential of being passed before the winter recess.Bolton, Alexander. "New York's Dem senators see breakthrough on 9/11 healthcare bill", The Hill, December 19, 2010 Stewart was praised by both politicians and affected first responders for the bill's passage. According to Syracuse University professor of television, radio and film Robert J. Thompson, "Without him, it's unlikely it would've passed. I don't think Brian Williams, Katie Couric or Diane Sawyer would've been allowed to do this."
Writers' strike
Due to the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, the show went on hiatus on November 5, 2007. Although the strike continued until February 2008, the show returned to air on January 7, 2008, without its staff of writers. In solidarity with the writers, the show was referred to as A Daily Show with Jon Stewart rather than The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, until the end of the strike. As a member of the Writers Guild of America, Stewart was barred from writing any material for the show himself which he or his writers would ordinarily write. As a result, Stewart and the correspondents largely ad-libbed the show around planned topics.
In an effort to fill time while keeping to the strike-related restrictions, the show aired or re-aired some previously recorded segments, and Stewart engaged in a briefly recurring mock feud with fellow late-night hosts Stephen Colbert and Conan O'Brien. The strike officially ended on February 12, 2008, with the show's writers returning to work the following day, at which point the title of The Daily Show was restored.
Stewart's absence in 2013
Starting in June 2013, Jon Stewart took a twelve-week break to direct Rosewater, a drama about a journalist jailed by Iran for four months. Show writer John Oliver replaced Stewart at the anchor desk for two months, to be followed by one month of reruns. Oliver received positive reviews for his hosting, leading to his departure from the show in December 2013 for his own show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, which debuted April 27, 2014, on HBO.
Jon Stewart's departure
On February 10, 2015, Stewart announced that he would be leaving the show later in the year. Comedy Central indicated in a statement that The Daily Show would continue without Stewart, saying it would "endure for years to come".
On June 25, 2015, Comedy Central announced that to lead up to Stewart's final episode, it would hold "Your Month of Zen"—an online marathon streaming every episode of Stewart's tenure from June 26 to August 6, 2015.
On August 5, 2015, Stewart's longtime friend of 30 years comedian Louis C.K. was selected to be the last guest before the final Daily Show episode with Stewart helming the show. C.K. joked that he was there "representing comedy to say good job".
On August 6, 2015, Stewart's final episode aired as an hour-long special in three segments. The first featured a reunion of a majority of the correspondents and contributors from throughout the show's history as well as a pre-recorded "anti-tribute" (mocking Stewart) from various frequent guests and "friends" of the show. This included Bill O'Reilly, Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Lindsey Graham, Chris Christie, John Kerry, and Chuck Schumer.
The second segment featured a pre-recorded tour of the Daily Show production facility and studio introducing all of the show's staff and crew. The final segment featured a short farewell speech from Stewart followed by the final "Moment of Zen" (being 'his own' moment of zen): a performance of "Land of Hope and Dreams" and "Born to Run" by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band.
Trevor Noah's tenure (2015–present)
On March 30, 2015, it was announced that Trevor Noah would replace Stewart as host of The Daily Show. Shortly after his announcement, it was revealed that Amy Schumer, Louis C.K., Amy Poehler, and Chris Rock were all considered for the job. His first show was on September 28, 2015, with comedian Kevin Hart as his first guest. Noah's premiere episode was simulcast by Viacom on Comedy Central, the Nick at Nite block on Nickelodeon, Spike, MTV, MTV2, mtvU, VH1, VH1 Classic, BET, Centric, CMT, TV Land and Logo TV.
On September 14, 2017, it was announced that Comedy Central had extended Trevor Noah's contract as host of The Daily Show for five years, through 2022.
Ratings declined by about 37 percent at the start of Noah's tenure, and have gradually increased since then, only to once again fall down to the lowest ratings in 15 years in 2020.
Differences between Stewart's version and Noah's version
In addition to changes in the tone of the show, Noah has also implemented stylistic changes to the show, with an updated set, new graphics and his monologue sometimes taking place while standing in front of a screen as opposed to sitting at the desk. Noah also increased the usage of more millennial-based references, impersonations and characterizations for his comedy on the show, due to his younger demographic and his ability to speak in multiple accents and eight languages.
The debut of The Daily Show with Trevor Noah brought along three new correspondents: Roy Wood Jr., Desi Lydic and Ronny Chieng.
Additional correspondents were added in 2017. Michael Kosta became the Senior Constitutional Correspondent and Senior American Correspondent on July 11, 2017. Dulcé Sloan became the Senior Fashion Correspondent on September 7, 2017.
In January 2016, The Daily Show with Trevor Noah started to use a modified version of the show's previous theme, remixed by Timbaland and King Logan.
Noah also avoided talking too much about Fox News, as Stewart was previously known for. "The Daily Show was based on an emerging 24 hour news cycle, that’s everything it was, that’s what inspired The Daily Show. Now you look at news and it’s changed. It’s no longer predicated around 24 hour news. There are so many different choices. Half of it is online now. Now you’ve got the Gawkers, the Buzzfeeds. The way people are drawing their news is soundbites and headlines and click-bait links has changed everything. The biggest challenge is going to be an exciting one I'm sure is how are we going to bring all of that together looking at it from a bigger lens as opposed to just going after one source—which was historically Fox News," Noah said at a press conference before the show's debut.
Stewart visits The Daily Show with Trevor Noah; Jordan Klepper guest hosts
On December 8, 2015, former host Jon Stewart returned to The Daily Show for the first time in an extended-length show to return attention to extending the James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act, otherwise referred to as 9/11 First Responders Bill, which Stewart explained had been blocked by Paul Ryan and Mitch McConnell for political reasons. On October 20, 2016, Noah was unable to host a scheduled taping of The Daily Show due to illness, so correspondent Jordan Klepper guest hosted.
On November 16, 2017, Stewart once again returned to The Daily Show, in part as a parody of the robocalls of fake Washington Post reporter "Bernie Bernstein" and to promote Night of Too Many Stars on HBO.
The Daily Social Distancing Show, expansion, move to Times Square
In March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the show suspended production. On March 18, 2020, Comedy Central began to release webisodes of The Daily Show produced remotely from Noah's home, entitled The Daily Social Distancing Show. This format moved to television beginning March 23. Following the cancellation of Lights Out with David Spade, The Daily Show expanded into a 45-minute format beginning April 27, 2020. In July 2020, Comedy Central head Chris McCarthy told Vulture that there were plans to possibly extend the show to an hour-long format by the end of the year.
In May 2020, The Daily Show won the 2020 Webby Award for Humor in the category Social.
The at-home format continued until June 2021, when the show went on an extended hiatus for the summer. The Daily Show returned on September 13, 2021, with the show re-located to studios at ViacomCBS's headquarters at One Astor Plaza in Times Square. Comedy Central stated that the show planned to preserve the "intimacy and creative elements" of the home-based episodes. Upon the return, the program was filmed with no studio audience for the first time since the first year of the Craig Kilborn era; in November 2021 the program began off-air trials of a reinstated studio audience.
Correspondents, contributors and staff
The show's correspondents have two principal roles: experts with satirical senior titles that Noah interviews about certain issues, or hosts of field reporting segments which often involve humorous commentary and interviews relating to a current issue. The current team of correspondents collectively known as "The World's Fakest News Team" (formerly known as "The Best F#@king News Team Ever") includes Ronny Chieng, Michael Kosta, Desi Lydic, Dulcé Sloan, Roy Wood Jr. and Jaboukie Young-White. Contributors appear on a less frequent basis, often with their own unique recurring segment or topic. Current contributors are Lewis Black, Neal Brennan, and Gina Yashere. Ben Karlin says that the on-air talent contribute in many ways to the material they perform, playing an integral role in the creation of their field pieces as well as being involved with their scripted studio segments, either taking part early on in the writing process or adding improvised material during the rehearsal.
The show has featured a number of well-known comedians throughout its run and is notable for boosting the careers of several of these. Scott Dikkers, editor-in-chief of The Onion, describes it as a key launching pad for comedic talent, saying that "I don't know if there's a better show you could put on your resume right now." Steve Carell, who was a correspondent between 1999 and 2005 before moving on to a movie career and starring television role in The Office, credits Stewart and The Daily Show with his success. In 2005, the show's longest-serving correspondent, Stephen Colbert, became the host of the spin-off The Colbert Report, earning critical and popular acclaim. Colbert would host the program until he was chosen to replace David Letterman as host of CBS's Late Show in 2015. Ed Helms, a former correspondent from 2002 to 2006, also starred on NBC's The Office and was a main character in the 2009 hit The Hangover.
After filling in as host during Stewart's two-month absence in the summer of 2013, John Oliver went on to host his own show on HBO, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver. In 2016, former correspondent Samantha Bee launched her own late-night talk show Full Frontal with Samantha Bee. Bee's husband Jason Jones, also a former correspondent, serves as executive producer for the show. Hasan Minhaj, the last correspondent hired during Stewart's tenure as host, left the show in 2018 to host Patriot Act with Hasan Minhaj on Netflix.
In June 2010, actress-comedian Olivia Munn began a tryout period on the show as a correspondent. Her credentials were questioned by Irin Carmon of the website Jezebel, who suggested that Munn was better known as a sex symbol than as a comedian. Carmon's column was denounced by Munn and the Daily Show female writers, producers, and correspondents, 32 of whom posted a rebuttal on the show's website in which they asserted that the description of the Daily Show office given by the Jezebel piece was not accurate.Hepola, Sarah. "Olivia Munn: 'I'm easy to hate. I get it'" Salon.com; July 7, 2010 Munn appeared as a Daily Show correspondent in a total of 16 episodes, from June 2010 to September 2011.
Wyatt Cenac had a tumultuous tenure on the show, revealing in a July 2015 interview on WTF with Marc Maron, that his departure stemmed in part from a heated argument he had with Jon Stewart in June 2011 over a bit about Republican presidential candidate Herman Cain. However, Cenac did return for Stewart's final episode to bid him farewell and the two exchanged an intentionally awkward conversation.
Guest hosts
Samantha Bee and Jason Jones, 1 episode (October 7, 2014)
Steve Carell, 7 episodes (February 21, 2001, Mar. 27–29, 2001, Apr 2 & 4, 2001, and May 1, 2001)
Stephen Colbert, 11 episodes (January 24, 2001, Feb 20 & 22, 2001, Mar. 26–27, 2001, Apr 3 & 5, 2001, May 2–3, 2001, March 6, 2003, and July 6, 2004)
Rob Corddry, 1 episode (February 9, 2006)
Vance DeGeneres, 2 episodes (Feb. 26–27, 2001)
Jordan Klepper, 1 episode (October 20, 2016)
John Oliver, 33 episodes (June 10, 2013, to August 15, 2013, and November 13, 2014)
Mo Rocca, 1 episode (February 27, 2001)
Nancy Walls, 2 episodes (February 21, 2001, and March 29, 2001)
Reception
Ratings
Television ratings from 2008 show that the program generally drew 1.45 to 1.6 million viewers nightly, a high figure for cable television. By the end of 2013 The Daily Show's ratings hit 2.5 million viewers nightly. In demographic terms, the viewership is skewed to a relatively young and well-educated audience compared to traditional news shows. A 2004 Nielsen Media Research study commissioned by Comedy Central put the median age at 35. During the 2004 U.S. presidential election, the show received more male viewers in the 18- to 34-year-old age demographic than Nightline, Meet the Press, Hannity & Colmes and all of the evening news broadcasts.
For this reason, commentators such as Howard Dean and Ted Koppel posited that Stewart served as a real source of news for young people, regardless of his intentions. In 2016, a The New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that The Daily Show was "most popular in cities and other more liberal-leaning areas along the coasts. Peak popularity is in San Francisco; it's least popular in Alabama".
As a news source
The show's writers reject the idea that The Daily Show has become a source of news for young people. Stewart argues that Americans are living in an "age of information osmosis" in which it is close to impossible to gain one's news from any single source, and says that his show succeeds comedically because the viewers already have some knowledge about current events. "Our show would not be valuable to people who didn't understand the news because it wouldn't make sense," he argues. "We make assumptions about your level of knowledge that... if we were your only source of news, you would just watch our show and think, 'I don't know what's happening.'"
A 2006 study published by Indiana University tried to compare the substantive amount of information of The Daily Show against prime time network news broadcasts, and concluded that when it comes to substance, there is little difference between The Daily Show and other news outlets. The study contended that, since both programs are more focused on the nature of "infotainment" and ratings than on the dissemination of information, both are broadly equal in terms of the amount of substantial news coverage they offer.
As the lines between comedy show and news show have blurred, Jon Stewart has come under pressure in some circles to engage in more serious journalism. Tucker Carlson and Daily Show co-creator Lizz Winstead have chastised Stewart for criticizing politicians and newspeople in his solo segments and then, in interviews with the same people, rarely taking them to task face-to-face. In 2004, Winstead expressed a desire for Stewart to ask harder satirical questions, saying, "When you are interviewing a Richard Perle or a Kissinger, if you give them a pass, then you become what you are satirizing. You have a war criminal sitting on your couch—to just let him be a war criminal sitting on your couch means you are having to respect some kind of boundary." She has argued that The Daily Show success and access to the youth vote should allow Stewart to press political guests harder without fearing that they will not return to the show. In 2010, Winstead had changed her views, commenting that since 2004, Stewart did some of the hardest-hitting interviews on TV. Stewart said in 2003 that he does not think of himself as a social or media critic and rejects the idea that he has any journalistic role as an interviewer.
During Stewart's appearance on CNN's Crossfire, Stewart criticized that show and said that it was "hurting America" by sensationalizing debates and enabling political spin. When co-host Carlson argued that Stewart himself had not asked John Kerry substantial questions when Kerry appeared on The Daily Show, Stewart countered that it was not his job to give hard-hitting interviews and that a "fake news" comedy program should not be held to the same standards as real journalism. "You're on CNN!" Stewart said, "The show that leads into me is puppets making crank phone calls! What is wrong with you?" Media critic Dan Kennedy says that Stewart came off as disingenuous in this exchange because "you can't interview Bill Clinton, Richard Clarke, Bill O'Reilly, Bob Dole, etc., etc., and still say you're just a comedian."
A 2004 study into the effect of The Daily Show on viewers' attitudes found that participants had a more negative opinion of both President Bush and then Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry. Participants also expressed more cynical views of the electoral system and news media. Political scientists Jody Baumgartner and Jonathan Morris, who conducted the study, state that it is not clear how such cynicism would affect the political behavior of the show's viewers. While disillusionment and negative perceptions of the presidential candidates could discourage watchers from voting, Baumgartner and Morris say it is also possible that discontent could prompt greater involvement and that by following the show, viewers may potentially become more engaged and informed voters, with a broader political knowledge.
Rachel Larris, who has also conducted an academic study of The Daily Show, disputes the findings of Baumgartner and Morris. Larris argues that the study measured cynicism in overly broad terms, and that it would be extremely hard to find a causal link between viewing The Daily Show and thinking or acting in a particular way. Bloggers such as Marty Kaplan of The Huffington Post argue that so long as Stewart's comedy is grounded in truth, responsibility for increased cynicism belongs to the political and media figures themselves, not the comedian who satirizes them.
Stewart himself says that he does not perceive his show as cynical. "It's so interesting to me that people talk about late-night comedy being cynical," he says. "What's more cynical than forming an ideological news network like Fox and calling it 'fair and balanced'? What we do, I almost think, is adorable in its idealism." Stewart has said that he does not take any joy in the failings of American government, despite the comedic fodder they provide. "We're not the guys at the craps table betting against the line," he said on Larry King Live. "If government suddenly became inspiring... we would be the happiest people in the world to turn our attention to idiots like, you know, media people, no offense."
In July 2009, Time magazine held an online poll entitled "Now that Walter Cronkite has passed on, who is America's most trusted newscaster?" Jon Stewart won with 44% of the vote, 15 points ahead of Brian Williams in second place with 29%. Stewart downplayed the results on the show stating "It was an Internet poll and I was the 'None of the above' option".
In December 2013, TV Guide ranked Jon Stewart's run on the show at #53 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
Effectiveness
In late 2004, the National Annenberg Election Survey at the University of Pennsylvania ran a study of American television viewers and found that fans of The Daily Show had a more accurate idea of the facts behind the 2004 presidential election than most others, including those who primarily got their news through the national network evening newscasts and through reading newspapers. However, in a 2004 campaign survey conducted by the Pew Research Center those who cited comedy shows such as The Daily Show as a source for news were among the least informed on campaign events and key aspects of the candidates' backgrounds while those who cited the Internet, National Public Radio, and news magazines were the most informed. Even when age and education were taken into account, the people who learned about the campaigns through the Internet were still found to be the most informed, while those who learned from comedy shows were the least informed.
In a survey released by the Pew Research Center in April 2007, viewers who watch both Tucker Carlson Tonight and The Daily Show tend to be more knowledgeable about news than audiences of other news sources. Approximately 54% of Tucker Carlson Tonight and The Daily Show viewers scored in the high knowledge range, followed by Jim Lehrer's program at 53% and Bill O'Reilly's program at 51%, significantly higher than the 34% of network morning show viewers. The survey shows that changing news formats have not made much difference on how much the public knows about national and international affairs, but adds that there is no clear connection between news formats and what audiences know. The Project for Excellence in Journalism released a content analysis report suggesting that The Daily Show comes close to providing the complete daily news.
Episodes
Awards and nominations
Under host Jon Stewart, The Daily Show rose to critical acclaim. It has received two Peabody Awards for its coverage of the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections. Between 2001 and 2015, it has been awarded 24 Primetime Emmy Awards in the categories of Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series (winner for 10 consecutive years from 2003 to 2012) and Outstanding Writing for a Variety, Music, or Comedy Program, and a further seven nominations. The show has also been honored by GLAAD, the Television Critics Association, and the Satellite Awards. America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction, the 2004 bestseller written by Stewart and the writing staff of The Daily Show, was recognized by Publishers Weekly as its "Book of the Year", and its abridged audiobook edition received the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.
In September 2010, Time magazine selected the series as one of "The 100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME". In 2015, the show received its third Peabody Award for the show's "lasting impact on political satire, television comedy and even politics itself." At the 69th Emmy Awards in 2017 The Daily Show with Trevor Noah added yet another emmy award to the show's many Emmy's.
Global editions The Daily Show airs on various networks worldwide; in addition, an edited version of the show called The Daily Show: Global Edition is produced each week specifically for overseas audiences. It has been airing outside of the U.S. on CNN International and other overseas networks since September 2002. This edition runs for a half-hour and contains a selection of segments, including one guest interview from the preceding week's shows, usually from the Monday or Tuesday episode. Noah provides an exclusive introductory monologue in front of an audience, usually about the week's prevalent international news story, and closing comments without an audience present. When aired on CNN International, the broadcast is prefaced by a written disclaimer: "The show you are about to watch is a news parody. Its stories are not fact checked. Its reporters are not journalists. And its opinions are not fully thought through."
Since February 27, 2017, The Daily Show with Trevor Noah has been regularly simulcast on Black Entertainment Television.
Between 2001 and 2006, Westwood One broadcast small, ninety-second portions of the show to various radio stations across America.
In Canada, The Daily Show is aired on The Comedy Network (a cable channel similar to Comedy Central), in simulcast with the Comedy Central airing, as well as on the CTV broadcast network at 12:05 a.m. local time, following late local newscasts.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the digital television channel More4 used to broadcast episodes of The Daily Show Tuesday through Friday evenings with the Global Edition, which is uncensored, airs on Mondays; regular episodes air the evening following their U.S. airing. More4 was the first international broadcaster to syndicate entire Daily Show episodes, though they made edits to the program due to content, language, length or commercial references. The program was also available to watch via the internet video on demand service 4oD. However, the 'toss' to The Colbert Report was usually included even though it was aired on FX, another channel. In addition, the placement of commercial breaks followed the UK format, with one break midway through the show rather than several short breaks at various points. When The Daily Show was on hiatus, either re-runs or alternative content were aired. Since January 2011, only the Global Edition is broadcast.
In July 2012 Comedy Central announced that The Daily Show would be shown on Comedy Central Extra in the same format as previously on More4, with episodes shown 24 hours after airing in the U.S. The show aired on the channel from July 2012 to April 2015.
The Global Edition of the week of July 20, 2011, was not aired in the UK as it included a segment mocking Rupert Murdoch's appearance before the House of Commons Culture, Media and Sport Committee in relation to the News International phone hacking scandal. Parliamentary rules ban parliamentary proceedings from being broadcast in a satirical context. Stewart dedicated a segment of the show on August 2, 2011, to lampooning the censorship of the episode in Britain. In May that year, The Daily Show mocked the ban on using footage of the Royal Wedding in a satirical context with an animated video that showed Paddington Bear, Gollum and Adolf Hitler as guests at the wedding, and depicted its attendants engaging in various forms of violent and sexual behavior. Stewart later discussed the ban with guest Keira Knightley.The Daily Show used to be aired in India on Comedy Central India.The Daily Show aired on Australian Pay TV channel, The Comedy Channel, weeknights at 6:30pm. Free-to-air digital channel ABC2 began broadcasting the show without commercial breaks in March 2010, but discontinued in January 2011 when The Comedy Channel obtained exclusive rights; episodes were also available on the network's online service ABC iView shortly after airing. The Comedy Channel (as well as ABC2 during 2010) used to air the show together with The Colbert Report, and both air the Global Edition on Mondays and the regular edition Tuesday through Friday. The Global Edition was previously shown weekend late nights on SBS before moving to Network TEN. The show now airs on 10 Shake (owned by Comedy Central parent ViacomCBS).
In North Africa and the Middle East, the Daily Show was broadcast on Showtime Arabia starting in 2008 and ending in 2015. When the show transitioned under Noah, OSN decided to wait a bit before airing the new show. Now, the Global Edition of Noah's show is broadcast on OSN's Comedy Central HD channel. Episodes are often edited if they contain topics deemed inappropriate for the region.
Episodes of the U.S. version are also available online the next day at Comedy Central's official Daily Show website, although this service is not available in all countries. However, clips for UK and Ireland viewers became available on the UK Comedy Central website in December 2011.
The Daily Show: Nederlandse Editie
An official Dutch version of the show called (The Daily Show: Dutch Edition) premiered on the Dutch Comedy Central on January 31, 2011. The program is similar to the original, except with Dutch news and a Dutch view on international news. The show is hosted by comedian Jan-Jaap van der Wal, who was a team captain on Dit was het nieuws, the Dutch edition of Have I Got News For You. The first episode featured a guest appearance by Jon Stewart (recorded at the New York studio), who gave his official blessing for the show. This is also the first and still only franchise of The Daily Show. The 'Dutch Edition' didn't make it past the test run of 12 episodes due to lack of viewers.
Spin-offs
The Colbert Report
A spin-off, The Colbert Report, was announced in early May 2005. The show starred former correspondent Stephen Colbert, and served as Comedy Central's answer to the programs of media pundits such as Bill O'Reilly. Colbert, Stewart, and Ben Karlin developed the idea for the show based on a series of faux television commercials that had been created for an earlier Daily Show segment. They pitched the concept to Comedy Central chief Doug Herzog, who agreed to run the show for eight weeks without first creating a pilot. The Colbert Report premiered on October 17, 2005, and aired following The Daily Show for nine years. Initial ratings satisfied Comedy Central and less than three weeks after its debut the show was renewed for a year. The Colbert Report was produced by Jon Stewart's production company, Busboy Productions.
In 2014 it was announced that Colbert would leave Comedy Central to host The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on CBS in 2015, following the retirement of David Letterman. The final episode of The Colbert Report aired on December 18, 2014.
The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore
On May 9, 2014, it was announced that Larry Wilmore had been selected to host a show on Comedy Central to serve as a replacement for The Colbert Report. On January 19, 2015, Wilmore began hosting The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore, a late-night panel talk show. It was produced by Busboy Productions. On August 15, 2016, Comedy Central announced that Wilmore's show had been cancelled. The show ended on August 18, 2016, with a total of 259 episodes.
The Opposition with Jordan Klepper
On April 4, 2017, Comedy Central announced a brand-new spinoff to occupy the 11:30 p.m. time slot which had not had an original show since the canceling of The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore. The Daily Shows senior correspondent Jordan Klepper was enlisted as host, with Klepper, Stuart Miller, and Trevor Noah serving as executive producers. The show intends to "satirize the hyperbolic, conspiracy-laden noise machine that is the alternative-media landscape on both the right and left."
The show aired from September 25, 2017, to June 28, 2018. Comedy Central announced that Klepper would be hosting a new primetime weekly talk show, Klepper, which debuted in 2019.
Books
The Daily Show's Five Questions from Comedy Central, published in 1998, is a book written by Craig Kilborn and other writers of The Daily Show that contains new material from the "Five Questions" segment.
America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction, published in 2004, is a book written by Jon Stewart and other writers of The Daily Show that parodies and satirizes American politics and worldview.
Earth (The Book): A Visitor's Guide to the Human Race, published in 2010, is a book written by Jon Stewart and other writers of The Daily Show and is similar in style to America (The Book), but focuses on planet and human culture instead of the history of America.
The Daily Show (The Book): An Oral History as Told by Jon Stewart, the Correspondents, Staff and Guests, published in 2016, is a book written by Chris Smith, a contributing editor at New York Magazine, and other members of the Daily Show family. The book chronicles the 16 years of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart.
The Donald J. Trump Presidential Twitter Library, published in 2018, is a book written by Trevor Noah and other writers of The Daily Show that parodies and satirizes President Donald Trump's usage of his Twitter account.
Unofficial spin-offs
The Daily Show’s satirical format has inspired international versions unaffiliated with Comedy Central.
In Algeria,The Daily Show broadcast of Comedy Central Algeria Presented by Abdelkarim Derraji,The Algerian Comedian on Social Media It premiered in June 2021.
In Iran, the Persian-language satire program Parazit (meaning "static") was directly inspired by The Daily Show with the hosts even making a guest appearance on the January 20, 2011, episode of The Daily Show. Parazit was later succeeded by OnTen debuting on May 11, 2012.
In Germany, the heute-show has aired on ZDF since 2009. The name is derived from the main ZDF news program heute (which means "today").
In Egypt, the show Al Bernameg was modeled after The Daily Show as well. Host Bassem Youssef even imitated Jon Stewart's mannerisms, such as using his mug as a comedic prop. Youssef has appeared as a guest on The Daily Show multiple times.
In India, On Air With AIB was modeled after The Daily Show, SNL, and Last Week Tonight.
In Iraq, Albasheer Show is a reduced version (with no celebrity interviews) and is hosted by the Iraqi journalist/comedian Ahmad Al-Basheer; commenting and criticizing local political issues.
In Israel, the Daily Show was one of the main inspirations for Eretz Nehederet, a popular Israeli satire.
In Portugal, during the 2009 legislative election campaign, Portuguese comedy group Gato Fedorento hosted Gato Fedorento Esmiúça os Sufrágios, a satirical news show modeled after The Daily Show’s election coverage segments, which attracted immediate public attention after securing the key political candidates as guests.
In Croatia, Montirani proces, a short-lived satirical program, heavily inspired by The Daily Show, ran for only six episodes in 2016, before being controversially cancelled by the newly appointed conservative administration of the Croatian Radiotelevision.
In Armenia: ArmComedy is an Armenian comedy show first aired in March 2012. It is aired thrice a week on ArmNews TV channel. Started as a satirical news website it later evolved into a web series on CivilNet Internet TV channel. After two years creators of the show were invited to expand to network television. " ArmComedy became the "first satiric news show in Armenia dripped in political humor and wit, reporting the real news with a different perspective.". Every episode of ArmComedy is written and hosted by Armenian comedians Narek Margaryan and Sergey Sargsyan. It has been dubbed in press as "Armenia's version of The Daily Show".
In Ukraine, ChistoNEWS is a Ukrainian comedy show first aired in March 2012.
In the United Kingdom, The Mash Report is a British version of the format, hosted by Nish Kumar.
See also
The Daily Show: Indecision 2000
The Daily Show: Indecision 2004
The Daily Show: Indecision 2006
Comedy Central's Indecision 2008
Jon Stewart–Jim Cramer conflict
Inside Washington
List of The Daily Show episodes
List of The Daily Show writers
Real Time with Bill Maher
Washington Week
Who Made Huckabee?
References
Further reading
Baym, Geoffrey. "The Daily Show and the reinvention of political journalism". Paper presented at the annual Pre-APSA Conference on Political Communication, Chicago, September 1, 2004.
Goodnow, Trischa. (ed.). The Daily Show and Rhetoric: Arguments, Issues, and Strategies. (Lexington Books, 2011) .
Holt, Jason. (ed.). The Daily Show and Philosophy: Moments of Zen in the Art of Fake News. (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007) .
Jones, Jeffrey P. Entertaining Politics: New Political Television and Civic Culture. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005.
Rocca, Mo. "Report from Philly: What's Wrong with Rabble Rousing? A Correspondent for 'The Daily Show with Jon Stewart' Tried His Best to Ruffle Feathers at the Convention. A Web Exclusive by Mo Rocca". Newsweek. August 14, 2000.
Smith, Chris. The Daily Show (The Book): An Oral History as Told by Jon Stewart, the Correspondents, Staff and Guests. New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2016, .
External links
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235872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20Vallhund | Swedish Vallhund | The Swedish Vallhund, also known as the Västgötaspets and Swedish cow dog, is a breed of dog native to Sweden. The breed's name, Vallhund, when translated into English, means herding dog, as the Swedish Vallhund was originally bred as a drover and herder of cows over 1,000 years ago. In 1942, the dog came close to extinction, but careful breeding and publicity by Swedish national Bjorn von Rosen and K. G. Zettersten managed to revive the breed in popularity and save it from its likely end. In 1943, the Swedish Kennel Club recognized the Swedish Vallhund as a breed, and officially categorized the Swedish Vallhund as "the Västgötaspets" for Västergötland, the province in which their revival took place. Since then, the breed has been recognized by, and bred in, over ten countries and has gained some popularity.
Physical features
The average height of the Swedish Vallhund, measured at the withers, is approximately 33 cm (12.9 in) for males and 31 cm (12.2 in) for females. They are strong, with a long body. The ratio of height to body length is about 2:3. The head of the Vallhund is wedge-shaped, with dark brown oval eyes and pricked ears. They are born with every variance of tail length, from no tail at all to full length, therefore they are often mistaken for having been docked. (Tail docking is illegal in Sweden.)
Colour and coat
The coat is short and harsh, with a tight topcoat and a soft, dense undercoat. The hair on the foreparts of the legs is slightly longer than that of the neck, chest and back parts of the hind legs. Fur color varies from grey, greyish brown and greyish yellow to reddish brown, with darker hair on the back, neck, and sides of the body. Lighter hair in the same shade of color as mentioned above can be seen on the muzzle, throat, chest, belly, buttocks, feet and hocks. They have lighter markings on their shoulders, also known as harness markings. Some dogs have white patches which appear, to a small extent, as a narrow blaze, neckstop or slight necklace, as well as having white markings on their fore and hindlegs and on the chest. The maximum is 30% white.
Health and lifespan
The Swedish Vallhund is generally a healthy dog. Its small stature contributes to its longevity, with an average lifespan of 15 years. Its pointy ears mean that—unlike dog breeds with long, hanging ears—ear problems are rare. This breed does well in hot climates because of its double layer coat, as long as the dog is provided cool shade and water. The breed does not do well in very deep snow because of its short legs. The Vallhund has an inherited type of progressive retinal atrophy disease in 34.9% of the population, which appears as mild to moderate night-blindness around the age of ten.
Activities
The Vallhund can compete in: dog agility trials, obedience, rally obedience, showmanship, flyball, tracking, hiking, and herding events. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Vallhunds that exhibit basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.
History
The Swedish Vallhund is an ancient, national dog breed of Sweden and may date back to the 8th or 9th century. Swedish Vallhunds originated in the county of Västergötland, which lies just south of lake Vänern. Here the small dog proved to be excellent for watching, guarding and herding. The breed dates to the Viking settlement of England and is thought to have played a part in the development of the modern Welsh Corgi and the Lancashire Heeler. According to the American Kennel Club, another theory of the breed's origin is that during the eighth or ninth century "either the Swedish Vallhund was brought to Wales or the Corgi was taken to Sweden, hence the similarities between the two breeds".
The Swedish Vallhund is related to larger spitz dogs and moose hunting dogs of Scandinavia. Large dogs of this spitz-type have been found buried with their masters in Stone-Age settlements in Scandinavia. The skeleton of a Swedish Vallhund is remarkably similar to that of the modern Norwegian Elkhound, another breed of spitz dog.
See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
References
Further reading
Serpell J., The Domestic Dog, Its Evolution. Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. 1995.
Hubbard Clifford. L B., Dogs in Britain; a Description of All Native Breeds and Most Foreign Breeds in Britain. London, MacMillan. 1948
Swedish Kennel Clubs Magazines Special number:"Hundsport Special" 5/86
Gascoigne.Nicky., The Swedish Vallhund. Dalsetter Designs. Wakefield. UK. 1989
Bayliss. J., A Study of the Swedish Vallhund (Västgötaspets) A Pictorial History - Owners' Hand Book. Eng. 2007.
Darling, L., The Swedish Vallhund (Vastgotaspets): A legacy of the Vikings - Aus. 2005
External links
FCI breeds
Dog breeds originating in Sweden
Herding dogs
Rare dog breeds
Spitz breeds | [
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235874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolition | Abolition | Abolition refers to the act of putting an end to something by law, and may refer to:
Abolitionism, abolition of slavery
Abolition of the death penalty, also called capital punishment
Abolition of monarchy
Abolition of nuclear weapons
Abolition of prisons
Police abolition movement
Abolition of suffering
Abolitionism (animal rights), related to veganism
Abolition of time zones
Abolition of borders
See also
Abolition of slavery timeline
Abolitionism (disambiguation) | [
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235875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwork%20of%20the%20Metaphysics%20of%20Morals | Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals | Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785; ; also known as the Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, Grounding of the Metaphysics of Morals, and the Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals) is the first of Immanuel Kant's mature works on moral philosophy and remains one of the most influential in the field. Kant conceives his investigation as a work of foundational ethics—one that clears the ground for future research by explaining the core concepts and principles of moral theory, and showing that they are normative for rational agents.
Kant purposes to lay bare the fundamental principle of morality and show that it applies to us. Central to the work is the role of what Kant refers to as the categorical imperative, the concept that one must act only according to that precept which he or she would will to become a universal law. He provides a groundbreaking argument that the rightness of an action is determined by the principle that a person chooses to act upon. This stands in stark contrast to the moral sense theories and teleological moral theories that dominated moral philosophy at the time of Kant's career.
The Groundwork is broken into a preface, followed by three sections. Kant's argument works from common reason up to the supreme unconditional law, in order to identify its existence. He then works backwards from there to prove the relevance and weight of the moral law. The book is famously obscure, and it is partly because of this that Kant later, in 1788, decided to publish the Critique of Practical Reason.
Preface
In the preface to the Groundwork, motivating the need for pure moral philosophy, Kant makes some preliminary remarks to situate his project and explain his method of investigation.
Kant opens the preface with an affirmation of the Ancient Greek idea of a threefold division of philosophy into logic, physics, and ethics.
Logic is purely formal—it deals only with the form of thought itself, not with any particular objects. Physics and ethics, on the other hand, deal with particular objects: physics is concerned with the laws of nature, ethics with the laws of freedom. Additionally, logic is an a priori discipline, i.e., logical truths do not depend on any particular experience for their justification. By contrast, physics and ethics are mixed disciplines, containing empirical and non-empirical parts. The empirical part of physics deals with contingently true phenomena, like what kind of physical entities there are and the relations in which they stand; the non-empirical part deals with fundamental concepts like space, time, and matter. Similarly, ethics contains an empirical part, which deals with the question of what—given the contingencies of human nature—tends to promote human welfare, and a non-empirical part, which is concerned with an a priori investigation into the nature and substance of morality.
Because it is a priori, Kant calls this latter, non-empirical part of ethics metaphysics of morals. It corresponds to the non-empirical part of physics, which Kant calls metaphysics of nature.
Metaphysics of morals
Kant proceeds to motivate the need for the special sort of inquiry he calls a metaphysics of morals: “That there must be such a philosophy is evident from the common idea of duty and of moral laws.” The moral law must “carry with it absolute necessity.”
The content and the bindingness of the moral law, in other words, do not vary according to the particularities of agents or their circumstances. Given that the moral law, if it exists, is universal and necessary, the only appropriate means to investigate it is through a priori rational reflection. Thus, a correct theoretical understanding of morality requires a metaphysics of morals. Kant believes that, until we have completed this sort of investigation, “morals themselves are liable to all kinds of corruption” because the “guide and supreme norm for correctly estimating them are missing.” A fully specified account of the moral law will guard against the errors and rationalization to which human moral reasoning is prone. The search for the supreme principle of morality—the antidote to confusion in the moral sphere—will occupy Kant for the first two chapters of the Groundwork.
Pure ethics
In essence, Kant's remarks in the preface prepare the reader for the thrust of the ideas he goes on to develop in the Groundwork. The purpose of the Groundwork is to prepare a foundation for moral theory. Because Kant believes that any fact that is grounded in empirical knowledge must be contingent, he can only derive the necessity that the moral law requires from a priori reasoning. It is with this significance of necessity in mind that the Groundwork attempts to establish a pure (a priori) ethics. Such an ethics explains the possibility of a moral law and locates what Kant calls the supreme principle of morality. The aim of the following sections of the Groundwork is to explain what the moral law would have to be like if it existed and to show that, in fact, it exists and is authoritative for us.
Section One
In section one, Kant argues from common-sense morality to the supreme principle of morality, which he calls the categorical imperative. Kant thinks that uncontroversial premises from our shared common-sense morality, and analysis of common sense concepts such as ‘the good’, ‘duty’, and ‘moral worth’, will yield the supreme principle of morality (i.e., the categorical imperative). Kant's discussion in section one can be roughly divided into four parts:
the good will;
the teleological argument;
the three propositions regarding duty; and
the categorical imperative.
The Good Will
Kant thinks that, with the exception of the good will, all goods are qualified. By qualified, Kant means that those goods are good insofar as they presuppose or derive their goodness from something else. For example, wealth can be extremely good if it is used for human welfare, but it can be disastrous if a corrupt mind is behind it. In a similar vein, we often desire intelligence and take it to be good, but we certainly would not take the intelligence of an evil genius to be good. The good will, by contrast, is good in itself. Kant writes, “A good will is not good because of what it effects or accomplishes, because of its fitness to attain some proposed end, but only because of its volition, that is, it is good in itself.” The precise nature of the good will is subject to scholarly debate.
The Teleological Argument
Kant believes that a teleological argument may be given to demonstrate that the “true vocation of reason must be to produce a will that is good.” As with other teleological arguments, such as the case with that for the existence of God, Kant's teleological argument is motivated by an appeal to a belief or sense that the whole universe, or parts of it, serve some greater telos, or end/purpose. If nature's creatures are so purposed, Kant thinks their capacity to reason would certainly not serve a purpose of self-preservation or achievement of happiness, which are better served by their natural inclinations. What guides the will in those matters is inclination.
By the method of elimination, Kant argues that the capacity to reason must serve another purpose, namely, to produce good will, or, in Kant's own words, to “produce a will that is...good in itself.” Kant's argument from teleology is widely taken to be problematic: it is based on the assumption that our faculties have distinct natural purposes for which they are most suitable, and it is questionable whether Kant can avail himself of this sort of argument.
The Three Propositions Regarding Duty
The teleological argument, if flawed, still offers that critical distinction between a will guided by inclination and a will guided by reason. That will which is guided by reason, Kant will argue, is the will that acts from duty. Kant's argument proceeds by way of three propositions, the last of which is derived from the first two.
First proposition
Although Kant never explicitly states what the first proposition is, it is clear that its content is suggested by the following common-sense observation. Common sense distinguishes among:
Kant thinks our actions only have moral worth and deserve esteem when they are motivated by duty. Kant illustrates the distinction between (b) and (c) with the example of a shopkeeper who chooses not to overcharge an inexperienced customer. The shopkeeper treats his customer fairly, but because it is in his prudent self-interest to do so, in order to preserve his reputation, we cannot assume that he is motivated by duty, and thus the shopkeeper's action cannot be said to have moral worth. Kant contrasts the shopkeeper with the case of a person who, faced with “adversity and hopeless grief”, and having entirely lost his will to live, yet obeys his duty to preserve his life. Because this person acts from duty, his actions have moral worth. Kant also notes that many individuals possess an inclination to do good; but however commendable such actions may be, they do not have moral worth when they are done out of pleasure. If, however, a philanthropist had lost all capacity to feel pleasure in good works but still did pursue them out of duty, only then would we say they were morally worthy.
Scholars disagree about the precise formulation of the first proposition. One interpretation asserts that the missing proposition is that an act has moral worth only when its agent is motivated by respect for the law, as in the case of the man who preserves his life only from duty. Another interpretation asserts that the proposition is that an act has moral worth only if the principle acted upon generates moral action non-contingently. If the shopkeeper in the above example had made his choice contingent upon what would serve the interests of his business, then his act has no moral worth.
Kant states that this is how we should understand the Scriptural command to love even one's enemy: love as inclination or sentiment cannot be commanded, only rational love as duty can be.
Second proposition
Kant's second proposition states:[A]n action from duty has its moral worth not in the purpose to be attained by it but in the maxim in accordance with which it is decided upon, and therefore does not depend upon the realization of the object of the action but merely upon the principle of volition in accordance with which the action is done without regard for any object of the faculty of desire.” A maxim of an action is its principle of volition. By this, Kant means that the moral worth of an act depends not on its consequences, intended or real, but on the principle acted upon.
Third proposition
Kant combines these two propositions into a third proposition, a complete statement of our common sense notions of duty. This proposition is that ‘duty is necessity of action from respect for law.’ This final proposition serves as the basis of Kant's argument for the supreme principle of morality, the categorical imperative.
Categorical Imperative: Universality
Kant believes that all of our actions, whether motivated by inclination or morality, must follow some law. For example, if a person wants to qualify for nationals in ultimate frisbee, he will have to follow a law that tells him to practice his backhand pass, among other things. Notice, however, that this law is only binding on the person who wants to qualify for nationals in ultimate frisbee. In this way, it is contingent upon the ends that he sets and the circumstances that he is in. We know from the third proposition, however, that the moral law must bind universally and necessarily, that is, regardless of ends and circumstances.
At this point, Kant asks, "what kind of law can that be, the representation of which must determine the will, even without regard for the effect expected from it...?" He concludes that the only remaining alternative is a law that reflects only the form of law itself, namely that of universality. Thus, Kant arrives at his well-known categorical imperative, the moral law referenced in the above discussion of duty. Kant defines the categorical imperative as the following:I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law.
Later, at the beginning of Section Two, Kant admits that it is in fact impossible to give a single example of an action that could be certainly said to have been done from duty alone, or ever to know one's own mind well enough to be sure of one's own motives. The important thing, then, is not whether such pure virtue ever actually exists in the world; the important thing is that that reason dictates duty and that we recognize it as such.
Section Two
In Section II, Kant starts from scratch and attempts to move from popular moral philosophy to a metaphysics of morals. Kant begins Section II of the Groundwork by criticizing attempts to begin moral evaluation with empirical observation. He states that even when we take ourselves to be behaving morally, we cannot be at all certain that we are purely motivated by duty and not by inclinations. Kant observes that humans are quite good at deceiving themselves when it comes to evaluating their motivations for acting, and therefore even in circumstances where individuals believe themselves to be acting from duty, it is possible they are acting merely in accordance with duty and are motivated by some contingent desire. However, the fact that we see ourselves as often falling short of what morality demands of us indicates we have some functional concept of the moral law.
Kant begins his new argument in Section II with some observations about rational willing. All things in nature must act according to laws, but only rational beings act in accordance with the representation of a law. In other words, only rational beings have the capacity to recognize and consult laws and principles in order to guide their actions. Thus, only rational creatures have practical reason. The laws and principles that rational agents consult yield imperatives, or rules that necessitate the will. For example, if a person wants to qualify for nationals in ultimate frisbee, he will recognize and consult the rules that tell him how to achieve this goal. These rules will provide him with imperatives that he must follow as long as he wants to qualify for nationals.
Imperatives
Imperatives are either hypothetical or categorical. Hypothetical imperatives provide the rules an agent must follow when he or she adopts a contingent end (an end based on desire or inclination). So, for example, if I want ice cream, I should go to the ice cream shop or make myself some ice cream. However, notice that this imperative only applies if I want ice cream. If I have no interest in ice cream, the imperative does not apply to me.
Kant posits that there are two types of hypothetical imperative—rules of skill and counsels of prudence. Rules of skill are determined by the particular ends we set and tell us what is necessary to achieve those particular ends. However, Kant observes that there is one end that we all share, namely our own happiness. Unfortunately, it is difficult, if not impossible, to know what will make us happy or how to achieve the things that will make us happy. Therefore, Kant argues, we can at best have counsels of prudence, as opposed to outright rules.
Categorical Imperative: Laws of nature
Recall that the moral law, if it exists, must apply universally and necessarily. Therefore, a moral law could never rest on hypothetical imperatives, which only apply if one adopts some particular end. Rather, the imperative associated with the moral law must be a categorical imperative. The categorical imperative holds for all rational agents, regardless of whatever varying ends a person may have. If we could find it, the categorical imperative would provide us with the moral law.
What would the categorical imperative look like? We know that it could never be based on the particular ends that people adopt to give themselves rules of action. Kant believes that this leaves us with one remaining alternative, namely that the categorical imperative must be based on the notion of a law itself. Laws (or commands), by definition, apply universally. From this observation, Kant derives the categorical imperative, which requires that moral agents act only in a way that the principle of their will could become a universal law. The categorical imperative is a test of proposed maxims; it does not generate a list of duties on its own. The categorical imperative is Kant's general statement of the supreme principle of morality, but Kant goes on to provide three different formulations of this general statement.
The Formula of the Universal Law of Nature
The first formulation states that an action is only morally permissible if every agent could adopt the same principle of action without generating one of two kinds of contradiction. This is called the Formula for the Universal Law of Nature, which states that one should, “act as if the maxim of your action were to become by your will a universal law of nature.” A proposed maxim can fail to meet such requirement in one of two ways.
Contradiction in conception
First, one might encounter a scenario in which one's proposed maxim would become impossible in a world in which it is universalized. For example, suppose a person in need of money makes it his or her maxim to attain a loan by making a false promise to pay it back. If everyone followed this principle, nobody would trust another person when he or she made a promise, and the institution of promise-making would be destroyed. However, the maxim of making a false promise in order to attain a loan relies on the very institution of promise-making that universalizing this maxim destroys. Kant calls this a "contradiction in conception" because it is impossible to conceive of the maxim being universalized.
Contradiction in willing
Second, a maxim might fail by generating what Kant calls a "contradiction in willing." This sort of contradiction comes about when the universalized maxim contradicts something that rational agents necessarily will. For example, a person might have a maxim never to help others when they are in need. However, Kant thinks that all agents necessarily wish for the help of others from time to time. Therefore, it is impossible for the agent to will that his or her maxim be universally adopted. If an attempt to universalize a maxim results in a contradiction in conception, it violates what Kant calls a perfect duty. If it results in a contradiction in willing, it violates what Kant calls an imperfect duty. Perfect duties are negative duties, that is duties not to commit or engage in certain actions or activities (for example theft). Imperfect duties are positive duties, duties to commit or engage in certain actions or activities (for example, giving to charity).
In the Groundwork, Kant says that perfect duties never admit of exception for the sake of inclination, which is sometimes taken to imply that imperfect duties do admit of exception for the sake of inclination. However, in a later work (The Metaphysics of Morals), Kant suggests that imperfect duties only allow for flexibility in how one chooses to fulfill them. Kant believes that we have perfect and imperfect duties both to ourselves and to others.
The Formula of Humanity
The second formulation of the categorical imperative is the Formula of Humanity, which Kant arrives at by considering the motivating ground of the categorical imperative. Because the moral law is necessary and universal, its motivating ground must have absolute worth. Were we to find something with such absolute worth, an end in itself, that would be the only possible ground of a categorical imperative. Kant asserts that, “a human being and generally every rational being exists as an end in itself.” The corresponding imperative, the Formula of Humanity, commands that “you use humanity, whether in your own persona or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.” When we treat others merely as means to our discretionary ends, we violate a perfect duty. However, Kant thinks that we also have an imperfect duty to advance the end of humanity. For example, making a false promise to another person in order to achieve the end of getting some money treats their rational nature as a mere means to one's selfish end. This is, therefore, a violation of a perfect duty. By contrast, it is possible to fail to donate to charity without treating some other person as a mere means to an end, but in doing so we fail to advance the end of humanity, thereby violating an imperfect duty.
The Formula of Autonomy and the Kingdom of Ends
The Formula of Autonomy takes something important from both the Formula for the Universal Law of Nature and the Formula of Humanity. The Formula for the Universal Law of Nature involves thinking about your maxim as if it were an objective law, while the Formula of Humanity is more subjective and is concerned with how you are treating the person with whom you are interacting. The Formula of Autonomy combines the objectivity of the former with the subjectivity of the latter and suggests that the agent ask what he or she would accept as a universal law. To do this, he or she would test his or her maxims against the moral law that he or she has legislated. The Principle of Autonomy is, “the principle of every human will as a will universally legislating through all its maxims.”
Kingdom of ends
Kant believes that the Formula of Autonomy yields another “fruitful concept,” the kingdom of ends. The kingdom of ends is the “systematic union” of all ends in themselves (rational agents) and the ends that they set. All ends that rational agents set have a price and can be exchanged for one another. Ends in themselves, however, have dignity and have no equivalent. In addition to being the basis for the Formula of Autonomy and the kingdom of ends, autonomy itself plays an important role in Kant's moral philosophy. Autonomy is the capacity to be the legislator of the moral law, in other words, to give the moral law to oneself. Autonomy is opposed to heteronomy, which consists of having one's will determined by forces alien to it. Because alien forces could only determine our actions contingently, Kant believes that autonomy is the only basis for a non-contingent moral law. It is in failing to see this distinction that Kant believes his predecessors have failed: their theories have all been heteronomous. At this point Kant has given us a picture of what a universal and necessary law would look like should it exist. However, he has yet to prove that it does exist, or, in other words, that it applies to us. That is the task of Section III.
Section Three
In section three, Kant argues that we have a free will and are thus morally self-legislating. The fact of freedom means that we are bound by the moral law. In the course of his discussion, Kant establishes two viewpoints from which we can consider ourselves; we can view ourselves:
as members of the world of appearances, which operates according to the laws of nature; or
as members of the intellectual world, which is how we view ourselves when we think of ourselves as having free wills and when we think about how to act.
These two different viewpoints allow Kant to make sense of how we can have free wills, despite the fact that the world of appearances follows laws of nature deterministically. Finally, Kant remarks that whilst he would like to be able to explain how morality ends up motivating us, his theory is unable to do so. This is because the intellectual world—in which morality is grounded—is something that we cannot make positive claims about.
Freedom and Willing
Kant opens section III by defining the will as the cause of our actions. According to Kant, having a will is the same thing as being rational, and having a free will means having a will that is not influenced by external forces. This is a negative definition of freedom—it tells us that freedom is freedom from determination by alien forces.
However, Kant also provides a positive definition of freedom: a free will, Kant argues, gives itself a law—it sets its own ends, and has a special causal power to bring them about. A free will is one that has the power to bring about its own actions in a way that is distinct from the way that normal laws of nature cause things to happen. According to Kant, we need laws to be able to act. An action not based on some sort of law would be arbitrary and not the sort of thing that we could call the result of willing.
Because a free will is not merely pushed around by external forces, external forces do not provide laws for a free will. The only source of law for a free will is that will itself. This is Kant's notion of autonomy. Thus, Kant's notion of freedom of the will requires that we are morally self-legislating; that we impose the moral law on ourselves. Kant thinks that the positive understanding of freedom amounts to the same thing as the categorical imperative, and that “a free will and a will under moral laws are one and the same.” This is the key notion that later scholars call the reciprocity thesis, which states that a will is bound by the moral law if and only if it is free. That means that if you know that someone is free, then you know that the moral law applies to them, and vice versa. Kant then asks why we have to follow the principle of morality. Although we all may feel the force of our consciences, Kant, examining phenomena with a philosophical eye, is forced to “admit that no interest impels me to do so.” He says that we clearly do “regard ourselves as free in acting and so to hold ourselves yet subject to certain laws,” but wonders how this is possible. He then explains just how it is possible, by appealing to the two perspectives that we can consider ourselves under.
Gods-eye and human perspective
According to Kant, human beings cannot know the ultimate structure of reality. Whilst humans experience the world as having three spatial dimensions and as being extended in time, we cannot say anything about how reality ultimately is, from a god's-eye perspective. From this perspective, the world may be nothing like the way it appears to human beings. We cannot get out of our heads and leave our human perspective on the world to know what it is like independently of our own viewpoint; we can only know about how the world appears to us, not about how the world is in itself. Kant calls the world as it appears to us from our point of view the world of sense or of appearances. The world from a god's-eye perspective is the world of things in themselves or the “world of understanding.”
It is the distinction between these two perspectives that Kant appeals to in explaining how freedom is possible. Insofar as we take ourselves to be exercising our free will, Kant argues, we have to consider ourselves from the perspective of the world of understanding. It is only in the world of understanding that it makes sense to talk of free wills. In the world of appearances, everything is determined by physical laws, and there is no room for a free will to change the course of events. If you consider yourself as part of the world of appearances, then you cannot think of yourself as having a will that brings things about.
Occupying Two Worlds
According to Kant, the categorical imperative is possible because, whilst we can be thought of as members of both of these worlds (understanding and appearance), it is the world of understanding that “contains the ground of the world of sense [appearance] and so too of its laws.” What this means is that the world of understanding is more fundamental than, or ‘grounds’, the world of sense. Because of this, the moral law, which clearly applies to the world of understanding, also applies to the world of sense as well, because the world of understanding has priority. To put the point slightly differently: Because the world of understanding is more fundamental and primary, its laws hold for the world of sense too. So the moral law binds us even in the world of appearances.
According to Kant, we think of ourselves as having free will. This lets us make judgments such as “you ought to have done that thing that you did not do.” Kant argues that this notion of freedom cannot be derived from our experience. We can be sure that this concept of freedom doesn't come from experience because experience itself contradicts it. Our experience is of everything in the sensible world and in the sensible world, everything that happens does so in accord with the laws of nature and there is no room for a free will to influence events.
So, Kant argues, we are committed to two incompatible positions. From the perspective of practical reason, which is involved when we consider how to act, we have to take ourselves as free. But from the perspective of speculative reason, which is concerned with investigating the nature of the world of appearance, freedom is impossible. So we are committed to freedom on the one hand, and yet on the other hand we are also committed to a world of appearances that is run by laws of nature and has no room for freedom. We cannot give up on either. We cannot avoid taking ourselves as free when we act, and we cannot give up our picture of the world as determined by laws of nature. As Kant puts it, there is a contradiction between freedom and natural necessity. He calls this a dialectic of reason.
The way Kant suggests that we should deal with this dialectic is through an appeal to the two perspectives we can take on ourselves. This is the same sort of move he made earlier in this section. On one perspective, the perspective of the world of understanding, we are free, whereas from the other, the perspective of the world of the senses or appearances, natural laws determine everything that happens. There is no contradiction because the claim to freedom applies to one world, and the claim of the laws of nature determining everything applies to the other. The claims do not conflict because they have different targets.
Kant cautions that we cannot feel or intuit this world of the understanding. He also stresses that we are unable to make interesting positive claims about it because we are not able to experience the world of the understanding. Kant argues that we cannot use the notion of the world of the understanding to explain how freedom is possible or how pure reason could have anything to say about practical matters because we simply do not and cannot have a clear enough grasp of the world of the understanding. The notion of an intelligible world does point us towards the idea of a kingdom of ends, which is a useful and important idea. We just have to be careful not to get carried away and make claims that we are not entitled to.
Critical reaction
In his book On the Basis of Morality (1840), Arthur Schopenhauer presents a careful analysis of the Groundwork. His criticism is an attempt to prove, among other things, that actions are not moral when they are performed solely from duty. Schopenhauer called Kant's ethical philosophy the weakest point in Kant's philosophical system and specifically targeted the Categorical Imperative, labeling it cold and egoistic. While he publicly called himself a Kantian, and made clear and bold criticisms of Hegelian philosophy, he was quick and unrelenting in his analysis of the inconsistencies throughout Kant's long body of work. Schopenhauer's biggest admirer, Friedrich Nietzsche, also criticizes the Categorical Imperative.
English editions and translations
1895. Fundamental principles of the metaphysics of ethics, translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
1949. Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, tr. T. K. Abbott, introduction by Marvin Fox. Indianapolis, NY: Bobbs-Merrill.
2005. Fundamental principles of the metaphysics of ethics, tr. T. K. Abbott. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. (pbk.)
2005. Groundwork for the metaphysics of morals, tr. T. K. Abbott, edited with revisions by Lara Denis. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.
1938. The fundamental principles of the metaphysic of ethics, translated by Otto Manthey-Zorn. New York: D. Appleton-Century.
1948. The Moral Law, translated by Herbert James Paton. London: Hutchinson's University Library.
1967. The Moral Law; Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, translated by H. J. Paton. New York: Barnes & Noble Books.
1991 The Moral Law: Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, tr. H. J. Paton. London: Routledge. .
1959 Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, and What is Enlightenment?, translated with an introduction by Lewis White Beck. New York: Liberal Arts Press.
1969. Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, tr. L. W. Beck, with critical essays edited by Robert Paul Wolff. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
1990. Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals and What is Enlightenment (2nd ed., revised), translated with an introduction by L. W. Beck. New York: Macmillan; London: Collier Macmillan. .
1970. Kant on the foundation of morality; a modern version of the Grundlegung, translated with commentary by Brendan E. A. Liddell. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. (pbk).
1981 Grounding for the metaphysics of morals, translated by James Wesley Ellington. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. (pbk.).
1983. Ethical philosophy: the complete texts of Grounding for the metaphysics of morals, and Metaphysical principles of virtue, part II of The metaphysics of morals, tr. J. W. Ellington, with an introduction by Warner A. Wick. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. .
1993. Grounding for the metaphysics of morals; with, On a supposed right to lie because of philanthropic concerns (3rd ed.), tr. J. W. Ellington. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. .
1994. Ethical philosophy : the complete texts of grounding for the metaphysics of morals and metaphysical principles of virtue, tr. J. W. Ellington. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. .
1998. Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals, translated by Mary J. Gregor, with an introduction by Christine Korsgaard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
2002. Groundwork for the metaphysics of morals, translated Arnulf Zweig, edited by Thomas E. Hill, Jr. and Arnulf Zweig. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
2002. Groundwork for the metaphysics of morals, translated Allen W. Wood, with essays by J. B. Schneewind, et al. New Haven: Yale University Press. .
2005. Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals, edited for easier reading by Jonathan F. Bennett.
2011. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals: A German-English Edition, edited and translated by Mary Gregor and Jens Timmermann. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
2013. Groundlaying toward the Metaphysics of Morals, two translations (one for scholars, one for students) in multiple formats, by Stephen Orr.
2019. 'Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals', edited and translated by Christopher Bennett, Joe Saunders and Robert Stern. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
See also
Immanuel Kant bibliography
Kantianism
Pure practical reason
Notes
External links
About the Groundwork
Groundlaying: Kant's Search for the Highest Moral Principle
1785 non-fiction books
Books by Immanuel Kant
Enlightenment philosophy
Ethics books
German non-fiction books
Philosophy books | [
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235876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouroboros | Ouroboros | The ouroboros or uroboros () is an ancient symbol depicting a serpent or dragon eating its own tail. The ouroboros entered Western tradition via ancient Egyptian iconography and the Greek magical tradition. It was adopted as a symbol in Gnosticism and Hermeticism and most notably in alchemy. The term derives , from oura 'tail' plus -boros '-eating'. The ouroboros is often interpreted as a symbol for eternal cyclic renewal or a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. The skin-sloughing process of snakes symbolizes the transmigration of souls, the snake biting its own tail is a fertility symbol in some religions, and the tail of the snake is a phallic symbol, the mouth is a yonic or womb-like symbol.
Historical representations
China
This first known example of an ouroboros (as a purely artistic representation) was discovered in China, on a piece of pottery in the Yellow River basin. The jar belonged to the neolithic Yangshao culture which occupied the area along the basin from 5000-3000 BC.
Ancient Egypt
One of the earliest known ouroboros motifs is found in the Enigmatic Book of the Netherworld, an ancient Egyptian funerary text in KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun, in the 14th century BC. The text concerns the actions of the god Ra and his union with Osiris in the underworld. The ouroboros is depicted twice on the figure: holding their tails in their mouths, one encircling the head and upper chest, the other surrounding the feet of a large figure, which may represent the unified Ra-Osiris (Osiris born again as Ra). Both serpents are manifestations of the deity Mehen, who in other funerary texts protects Ra in his underworld journey. The whole divine figure represents the beginning and the end of time.
The ouroboros appears elsewhere in Egyptian sources, where, like many Egyptian serpent deities, it represents the formless disorder that surrounds the orderly world and is involved in that world's periodic renewal. The symbol persisted in Egypt into Roman times, when it frequently appeared on magical talismans, sometimes in combination with other magical emblems. The 4th-century AD Latin commentator Servius was aware of the Egyptian use of the symbol, noting that the image of a snake biting its tail represents the cyclical nature of the year.
Gnosticism and alchemy
In Gnosticism, a serpent biting its tail symbolized eternity and the soul of the world. The Gnostic Pistis Sophia (c. 400 AD) describes the ouroboros as a twelve-part dragon surrounding the world with its tail in its mouth.
The famous ouroboros drawing from the early alchemical text, The Chrysopoeia of Cleopatra (), probably originally dating to the third century Alexandria but first known in a tenth-century copy, encloses the words hen to pan (), "the all is one". Its black and white halves may perhaps represent a Gnostic duality of existence, analogous to the Taoist yin and yang symbol. The chrysopoeia ouroboros of Cleopatra the Alchemist is one of the oldest images of the ouroboros to be linked with the legendary opus of the alchemists, the philosopher's stone.
A 15th-century alchemical manuscript, The Aurora Consurgens, features the ouroboros, where it is used amongst symbols of the sun, moon, and mercury.
World serpent in mythology
In Norse mythology, the ouroboros appears as the serpent Jörmungandr, one of the three children of Loki and Angrboda, which grew so large that it could encircle the world and grasp its tail in its teeth. In the legends of Ragnar Lodbrok, such as Ragnarssona þáttr, the Geatish king Herraud gives a small lindworm as a gift to his daughter Þóra Town-Hart after which it grows into a large serpent which encircles the girl's bower and bites itself in the tail. The serpent is slain by Ragnar Lodbrok who marries Þóra. Ragnar later has a son with another woman named Kráka and this son is born with the image of a white snake in one eye. This snake encircled the iris and bit itself in the tail, and the son was named Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye.
It is a common belief among indigenous people of the tropical lowlands of South America that waters at the edge of the world-disc are encircled by a snake, often an anaconda, biting its own tail.
The ouroboros has certain features in common with the Biblical Leviathan. According to the Zohar, the Leviathan is a singular creature with no mate, "its tail is placed in its mouth", while Rashi on Baba Batra 74b describes it as "twisting around and encompassing the entire world". The identification appears to go back as far as the poems of Kalir in the 6th-7th centuries.
Connection to Indian thought
In the Aitareya Brahmana, a Vedic text of the early 1st millennium BCE, the nature of the Vedic rituals is compared to "a snake biting its own tail."
Ouroboros symbolism has been used to describe the Kundalini. According to the medieval Yoga-kundalini Upanishad, "The divine power, Kundalini, shines like the stem of a young lotus; like a snake, coiled round upon herself she holds her tail in her mouth and lies resting half asleep as the base of the body" (1.82).
Storl (2004) also refers to the ouroboros image in reference to the "cycle of samsara".
Modern references
Jungian psychology
Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung saw the ouroboros as an archetype and the basic mandala of alchemy. Jung also defined the relationship of the ouroboros to alchemy:
The Jungian psychologist Erich Neumann writes of it as a representation of the pre-ego "dawn state", depicting the undifferentiated infancy experience of both mankind and the individual child.
Kekulé's dream
The German organic chemist August Kekulé described the eureka moment when he realized the structure of benzene, after he saw a vision of Ouroboros:
I was sitting, writing at my text-book; but the work did not progress; my thoughts were elsewhere. I turned my chair to the fire and dozed. Again the atoms were gamboling before my eyes. This time the smaller groups kept modestly in the background. My mental eye, rendered more acute by the repeated visions of the kind, could now distinguish larger structures of manifold conformation: long rows, sometimes more closely fitted together; all twining and twisting in snake-like motion. But look! What was that? One of the snakes had seized hold of its own tail, and the form whirled mockingly before my eyes. As if by a flash of lightning I awoke; and this time also I spent the rest of the night in working out the consequences of the hypothesis.
Cosmos
Martin Rees used the ouroboros to illustrate the various scales of the universe, ranging from 10−20 cm (subatomic) at the tail, up to 1025 cm (supragalactic) at the head. Rees stressed "the intimate links between the microworld and the cosmos, symbolised by the ouraborus", as tail and head meet to complete the circle.
Cybernetics
Cybernetics deployed circular logics of causal action in the core concept of Feedback in the directive and purposeful behaviour in human and living organisms, groups, and self-regulating machines. The general principle of feedback describes a circuit (electronic, social, biological, or otherwise) in which the output or result is a signal that influences the input or causal agent through its response to the new situation. W. Ross Ashby applied ideas from biology to his own work as a psychiatrist in "Design for a Brain" (1952): that living things maintain essential variables of the body within critical limits with the brain as a regulator of the necessary feedback loops. Parmar contextualises his practices as an artist in applying the cybernetic Ouroboros principle to musical improvisation.
Hence the snake eating its tail is an accepted image or metaphor in the autopoietic calculus for self-reference, or self-indication, the logical processual notation for analysing and explaining self-producing autonomous systems and "the riddle of the living", developed by Francisco Varela. Reichel describes this as:
The calculus derives from the confluence of the cybernetic logic of feedback, the sub-disciplines of Autopoiesis developed by Varela and Humberto Maturana, and calculus of indications of George Spencer Brown. In another related biological application:
Second-order cybernetics, or the cybernetics of cybernetics, applies the principle of self-referentiality, or the participation of the observer in the observed, to explore observer involvement in all behaviour and the praxis of science including D.J. Stewart's domain of "observer valued imparities".
Armadillo girdled lizard
The genus of the armadillo girdled lizard, Ouroborus cataphractus, takes its name from the animal's defensive posture: curling into a ball and holding its own tail in its mouth.
In Spanish culture
A medium-sized European hake, known in Spanish as , is often presented with its mouth biting its tail receiving the name of ("torus hake").
, "the hake that bites its tail", is a proverbial Spanish expression for circular reasoning and vicious circles.
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
BBC Culture – The ancient symbol that spanned millennia
Ancient Egyptian symbols
Dragons
Greek dragons
European legendary creatures
Greek mythology
Greek alchemy
Legendary serpents
Mythological archetypes
Pictograms
Heraldic beasts
Visual motifs
Magic symbols | [
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235879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy%20Central | Comedy Central | Comedy Central is an American basic cable channel owned by Paramount Global through its network division's MTV Entertainment Group unit, based in Manhattan. The channel is geared towards young adults aged 18–34 and carries comedy programming in the form of both original, licensed, and syndicated series, stand-up comedy specials, and feature films. It is available to approximately 86.723 million households in the United States as of September 2018.
Since the early 2000s, Comedy Central has expanded globally with localized channels in Europe (including the UK), India, Southeast Asia, Latin America, Australia and New Zealand, Middle East, and Africa. The international channels are operated by Paramount Networks International.
History
1989–1991: Pre-launch as The Comedy Channel
On November 15, 1989, Time-Life, the owners of HBO, launched The Comedy Channel as the first cable channel devoted exclusively to comedy-based programming. On April 1, 1990, Viacom (who owned MTV, VH1, and Nickelodeon) launched a rival channel called Ha! that featured reruns of situation comedies and some original sketch comedy.
The Comedy Channel's programs were broadcast from the HBO Downtown Studios at 120 East 23rd Street in Manhattan. The format prior to the merger with Ha! included several original and unconventional programs such as Onion World with Rich Hall and Mystery Science Theater 3000, as well as laid-back variety/talk shows hosted by comedians, including The Sweet Life with Rachel Sweet, Night After Night with Allan Havey, Sports Monster, and The Higgins Boys and Gruber, the latter of whom performed sketches in between showings of vintage television series like Supercar, Clutch Cargo, and Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp.
The standard format for The Comedy Channel's shows usually involved the various hosts introducing clips culled from the acts of stand-up comedians as well as classic comedies of the 1970s and 1980s, such as Young Frankenstein and Kentucky Fried Movie, presented in a style similar to music videos. In the early days, certain hours of the day when clips were shown without "host segments" were dubbed Short Attention Span Theater. In 1990, hosts under this title, Jon Stewart and Patty Rosborough, were introduced. Comedian Marc Maron also hosted the series.
While The Comedy Channel broadcast mostly low-budget original programming, Ha!'s schedule featured sitcom and sketch comedy reruns (many of which had been previously licensed for sister network Nick at Nite) as well as complete 90-minute reruns of Saturday Night Live from the sixth through 16th seasons.
After two years of limited distribution, the two channels merged into one, relaunching on April 1, 1991, as CTV: The Comedy Network. On June 1, 1991, the network changed its name to Comedy Central to prevent issues with the Canadian broadcast television network CTV, which would eventually be its Canadian content partner through The Comedy Network when that channel started operations six years later. Comedy Partners was originally a partnership of Home Box Office, Inc., the subsidiary of Time Warner that owned The Comedy Channel and HBO's half and Viacom Hearty Ha! Ha! LLC, the subsidiary that owned Ha! and Viacom's half of the network during its first years on air. Viacom bought out AOL Time Warner's half in April 2003 for $1.23 billion. Despite HBO's exit from the venture, the Viacom Media Networks division in charge of Comedy Central is still called Comedy Partners, currently being a partnership of Viacom International, the operating subsidiary of Paramount of which Paramount Media Networks is a division and Viacom Hearty Ha! Ha! LLC, the subsidiary that owned Ha! and Viacom's original half of the network.
1991–2000
From the late 1980s through the mid-1990s, much of the programming on Comedy Central and its predecessors consisted of comedy films, sitcom reruns, half-hour specials, and clip shows featuring comedians. Except for the cult favorite Mystery Science Theater 3000, the channel had a relatively small viewership. A notable early success was Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher, which after showing promise on Comedy Central was quickly snapped up by ABC. Additionally, The Daily Show had got its start with original host Craig Kilborn, although it would take a few more years for the show to reach high popularity (and a shift toward a focus on political humor) with the introduction of Jon Stewart (who was former co-host of Short Attention Span Theater from 1991). The channel was first launched as a joint venture between Time Warner and Viacom, while Warner Home Video distributed the home media rights to the network's shows until 2003.
Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist was also a notable original program from this era, as well as the game show Win Ben Stein's Money. Successful non-original programming included Canadian comedy group The Kids in the Hall and British shows such as the UK edition of Whose Line Is It Anyway? (the predecessor of the U.S. version, featuring much of the same American cast as would later be seen in the U.S.) and the sitcom Absolutely Fabulous. Some later seasons of AbFab, as it was informally known, were partially financed by Comedy Central. Comedy Central also had the national rights to broadcast reruns of Seattle's Almost Live! between 1992 and 1993.
The channel made a breakthrough when South Park premiered in 1997. Being one of the first major basic cable shows to carry the TV-MA rating for mature audiences, the show was considered too controversial to be picked up by any mainstream network; the Fox Broadcasting Company (known for The Simpsons) for example refused to pick up the series due to the over-the-top offensive content at the time. As word of mouth spread, the number of people who requested that Comedy Central should be added to their cable providers increased, and the channel became available in over 50% of American homes by 1998. But, by 1999, with the cancellation of Mystery Science Theater 3000, the channel was hemorrhaging viewers.
2000–2010
On November 13, 2000, Comedy Central introduced a modernized version of its globe logo, by straightening the buildings and removing the transmitter and marquee. The management of the network said that the transmitter of the 1992 and 1997 logos was said to "communicate the 1950s broadcast era". It also began to use a "seriously" styled-Baby Einstein graphics, and a new slogan "This is Comedy Central!". In 2002, Comedy Central Records was formed as a means of releasing albums by comedians that have appeared on the network.
By 2003, Viacom gained full ownership of Comedy Central, and since 2003, Comedy Central has created a tradition of roasting comedians in the style of the New York Friars' Club roasts. During these roasts, friends of the roastee, along with other comedians, take turns making fun of the roastee, the other roasters, and occasionally audience members. So far, the roastees have included Denis Leary, Jeff Foxworthy, Pamela Anderson, William Shatner, Flavor Flav, Bob Saget, Larry the Cable Guy, Joan Rivers, Rob Reiner, David Hasselhoff, Donald Trump, Charlie Sheen, Roseanne Barr, James Franco, Justin Bieber, Rob Lowe, Bruce Willis, and Alec Baldwin.
The success of South Park, despite its mature content, encouraged the network to continue to push the limits on adult language. Every late Friday (early Saturday morning) and Saturday night (early Sunday morning) at 1 am. ET, a movie, comedy special, or animated program is shown unedited for language as part of a block called the Secret Stash. It premiered on July 4, 2003, with the unedited cable television debut of South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. Though no language is censored on the Secret Stash, most nudity in the programs is still edited out, except for limited nudity allowed in animated programs such as Drawn Together, and rear nudity.
In late 2004, it was reported that the four highest-rated shows on Comedy Central were, in descending order, South Park, Chappelle's Show, The Daily Show and Reno 911!. Shortly thereafter, Dave Chappelle backed out of the much-anticipated third season of Chappelle's Show. Meanwhile, The Daily Show continued to climb in the ratings. In October 2005, on the occasion of a new three-year contract for South Park and the launch of Daily Show spin-off The Colbert Report, it was reported that South Park and The Daily Show were the two highest-rated shows on Comedy Central. Comedy Central chief Doug Herzog was reported as saying that he hoped to continue to air new seasons of South Park forever, and that The Colbert Report fulfilled a long-held plan to extend the Daily Show brand.
On April 5, 2006, in a controversial two-part episode arc titled "Cartoon Wars Part I" and "Cartoon Wars Part II", South Park touched the issue of the recent protest over the Danish cartoon drawings depicting the Muslim prophet Muhammad. The image of Muhammad did not appear in the episode. The episode also mocked fellow cartoon Family Guy. On April 13, 2006, Comedy Central issued a statement which appears to confirm that the network prohibited the show's creators from airing an image of Muhammad. The statement reads, "In light of recent world events, we feel we made the right decision." An anonymous source close to the show indicated that South Park creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone were informed of the policy several weeks earlier and wrote this story arc in protest. This was a change of policy for Comedy Central, having allowed South Park to portray an image of Muhammad in an earlier episode, "Super Best Friends". Oddly enough, an image of Muhammad was still briefly visible in the opening credits of the "Cartoon Wars" episodes (the image had been there as a call-back to "Super Best Friends").
On January 15, 2007, MTV Networks International launched Comedy Central in Germany which is available for free throughout Europe. The channel airs 33 shows either dubbed in German or subtitled while also airing locally produced shows. On April 30, Dutch channel The Box was relaunched as the Dutch version of Comedy Central during the primetime and overnight hours timesharing with Nickelodeon. On May 1, 2007, Comedy Central expanded to Italy, replacing Paramount Comedy.
On June 27, 2007, CTVglobemedia-owned networks CTV and The Comedy Network obtained the exclusive Canadian rights to the entire Comedy Central library of past and current programs on all electronic platforms, under a multi-year agreement with Viacom, expanding on past programming agreements between the two channels. Canadian users attempting to visit Comedy Central websites were redirected to The Comedy Network's website. The Canadian channel retains its brand name, but the agreement is otherwise very similar to the earlier CTV–Viacom deal for MTV in Canada. As of 2011, this geocaching no longer applies and both the Comedy Central and The Comedy Network websites can be accessed worldwide, except for videos which remain only accessible within each respective country.
In December 2007, Comedy Central picked up a show hosted by Lewis Black called Lewis Black's Root of All Evil, which debuted in March 2008. On January 9, 2008, it was announced the Comedy Central and MTV would allow the streaming its programs online for free starting in February that year. On January 24, Scott Landsman became the Vice President of Original Programming and Development at the network.
On March 27, 2008, the Swedish Radio and TV Authority approved an application from Comedy Central regarding being allowed to air television programs in Sweden. The grant allows Comedy Central to broadcast on the terrestrial television network between January 1, 2009, and March 31, 2014, after which a new request must be submitted to continue broadcasting. Comedy Central's U.S. flagship network picked up a remake of The Gong Show hosted by Dave Attell, star of his former self-titled Comedy Central series Insomniac, which debuted in July 2008. Another new show called Reality Bites Back premiered after The Gong Show with Dave Attell.
In June 2008, Comedy Central picked up the sketch comedy show Important Things with Demetri Martin, which began airing in February 2009. On April 1, 2009, Comedy Central began airing in New Zealand as channel 010 on SKY Digital. On April 6, Paramount Comedy in the UK and Ireland rebranded as Comedy Central. On April 7, 2009, it was announced Comedy Central would air new stand-up comedy specials starring Christopher Titus, Gabriel Iglesias, Pablo Francisco, Jim Breuer, Mitch Fatel and Pete Correale, and ventriloquist Jeff Dunham. An animated show entitled Ugly Americans was also picked up by the network. In 2009, The Goode Family premiered. Also in 2009, Thomas Lennon announced via Twitter that Reno 911! had been canceled after six seasons, much to fan disapproval. The network also played a role in the revival of the animated series Futurama, which Fox had canceled in 2003. New episodes began airing on Comedy Central in 2010. But in May 2013, Comedy Central released a statement saying that the contract between Futurama and Comedy Central would not be renewed and that the summer of 2013 would be Futurama's final season on the air. However, episodes continue to run weekly on Comedy Central.
In 2009, Comedy Central introduced an Internet viral video reaction show hosted by comedian Daniel Tosh called Tosh.0. During its second year in the summer of 2010, it was the most viewed show, overtaking the Daily Show and The Colbert Report for male audiences aged 18–49. Many of the segments in Tosh.0's past seasons have received more views on Comedy Central's YouTube channel than any other show.
South Park episodes "200" and "201" aired in April 2010, revisiting the issue of the Islamic religious figure Muhammad's perceived immunity to parody, for fear of violent retaliation. The Super Best Friends returned, but Muhammad was entirely covered by a black bar reading "CENSORED" through all of his screen time. By the second episode of the two-parter, Comedy Central decided to censor every instance of his name, as well as three entire monologues, from the end of the show. The monologues dealt with the subjects of censorship and intimidation but did not use Muhammad's name. Parker and Stone have since issued a statement to the press, confirming that the "bleeps" were added weeks after the show was finished and that Comedy Central has refused to let them post the original version of South Park, in addition to retroactively removing the original "Super Best Friends" episode. Parker threatened to quit the show after this incident.
2011–2018
On December 9, 2010, Comedy Central introduced a new logo for the network that launched on January 1, 2011, which left behind the previous theme of a world-sized "tower" broadcasting the network/skyscrapers, in favor of an image of two "C"'s, with one of them and the word "Central" turned upside-down within the new logomark. The new logo was designed to represent the network's unique brand of comedy (with some drawing comparisons to the copyright symbol as inspiration for its design and use), and to provide the network with a logo that could be easily used across different platforms, such as social media. However, the "bars" version of the logo used from 2000 to 2011 was intended to be Comedy Central's new logo as part of a planned rebranding in 2010, and the network used it short-lived until the network started a logo nicknamed the "Comedymark". The logo's resemblance to the one used by the Federal Communications Commission was also pointed out. It went on to win several industry awards.
The Polish version of the channel was the first international Comedy Central channel to switch to the new logo on February 20, 2011; followed by the Hungarian version on April 1, 2011. Versions of the channel in Germany and the Netherlands soon followed on October 1, 2011. Comedy Central New Zealand rebranded in April 2012. Viacom 18 launched the channel in India on January 23, 2012. StarHub launched Comedy Central Asia in Singapore on November 1, 2012; the channel was added to its Basic Entertainment Upsize group.
In 2012, Atom.com (formerly AtomFilms) was absorbed into Comedy Central.
On April 1, 2012, Comedy Central launched a Russian-language version of Comedy Central branded as Paramount Comedy in Russia.
On October 21, 2013, the network premiered a nightly comedy-game show series @midnight hosted by Chris Hardwick. @midnight served as an expansion to the network's nightly late-night programming. Due to low ratings, it was canceled on August 4, 2017, with the show airing its 600th and final episode as an hour-long special.
On May 14, 2014, Comedy Central expanded to Spain, replacing Paramount Comedy.
In 2014, it was announced that Stephen Colbert would leave Comedy Central to host The Late Show on CBS, following the retirement of David Letterman, the first host of Late Show. The final episode of The Colbert Report aired on Comedy Central on December 18, 2014, after nine years and a total of 1,447 episodes. The final episode of The Colbert Report was watched by 2.481 million viewers, making it the most-watched episode ever in the show's history. The finale was the most-watched cable program of the night in its time slot, beating The Daily Show which was seen by 2.032 million viewers. The Colbert Report was replaced on Comedy Central by Larry Wilmore from The Daily Show, who began hosting his series The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore on January 19, 2015. The show aired until August 18, 2016, when it was canceled due to low ratings. On February 10, 2015, Jon Stewart also announced his retirement and that he would also leave the network and The Daily Show after 16 years. Stewart's final episode aired on August 6, 2015, and Trevor Noah succeeded Stewart as new host on September 28, 2015.
On January 5, 2017, the Finnish Government granted television programming licenses in the UHF band. The grant applied by Nickelodeon International Ltd allows Comedy Central to broadcast from May 17, 2017, to January 10, 2027.
On November 16, 2017, Comedy Central launched a Ukrainian-language version of Comedy Central branded as Paramount Comedy in Ukraine. Ukrainian-language version of the channel is operated under the license purchased.
2018–present
In July 2018, Comedy Central refreshed its branding, maintaining the existing double-C logomark, but introducing a new in-house typeface, and changing the network's corporate color to amber (while also using other colors to denote flagship programs).
On February 11, 2019, Jimmy Kimmel announced on his talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live! that former show Crank Yankers will be revived on Comedy Central for a fifth 20-episode season. The new season will include pranks on social media and other platforms. Kimmel's brother Jonathan Kimmel will serve as showrunner and executive producer.
On May 1, 2019, the Viacom-owned Pluto TV launched two Comedy Central networks titled Comedy Central Pluto and Comedy Central Stand Up. The former airs classic Comedy Central original series such as Reno 911!, Crank Yankers and more, while the latter airs the network's stand up specials. Later on December 15, 2020, the Comedy Central Stand Up channel was removed and a new Comedy Central Animation channel was added.
On December 4, 2019, Viacom re-merged with CBS Corporation to form ViacomCBS.
In 2020, Comedy Central began shifting its programming towards adult animation, with series pickups of Beavis and Butt-Head, a reboot of The Ren & Stimpy Show, and Daria spin-off Jodie. The network also launched a new weekday animation block initially branded as Animation Contamination, featuring reruns of South Park, Futurama and The Cleveland Show. In turn, Comedy Central has decreased its live-action slate, announcing the cancellations of Drunk History and Tosh.0, as well as the migrations of South Side and The Other Two to HBO Max and Alternatino with Arturo Castro to Quibi.
High definition channels and service
The 1080i high definition simulcast feed of Comedy Central launched in 2009 and is available on all major cable and satellite providers. The standard definition Comedy Central downscales the HD feed and broadcasts in 16:9 letterboxed to fit the 4:3 ratio.
Programming
Criticism
Comedy Central has been a target of criticism from some advocacy groups, including the Parents Television and Media Council. The PTC criticizes their programming not merely for mature content, but also for what they perceive as bigotry and blasphemy, especially in regards to the programs South Park, Tosh.0, The Sarah Silverman Program, Halfway Home and the annual "Roast" special. The PTC has used their criticisms against Comedy Central for their support of the Family and Consumer Choice Act of 2007, which would allow American cable television subscribers to choose which channels they subscribe to and impose the same decency standards that are already in place on broadcast TV. The PTC has also persuaded some advertisers to lower their interest for the channel. PTC founder and former president L. Brent Bozell III said the channel has managed "to reach the top of its field in spite of – or, better put, because of – the network's sheer lack of comedic talent" by its "extensive reliance on shocking or disgusting humor."
On November 5, 2007, an open letter was written by VideoSift to protest the blocking of Comedy Central's embedded video content for non-American viewers.
On April 21, 2010, Comedy Central censored the South Park episode "201" in response to a death threat issued by users of a radical Muslim website over the episode's planned depiction of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, which led several newspaper columnists to condemn the network's actions as tantamount to abetting terrorism. As a rare result in the series' history, "201" and the episode that preceded it were heavily edited and are never aired as reruns.
References
External links
Comedy television networks
English-language television stations in the United States
Entertainment companies based in New York City
Peabody Award winners
Television channels and stations established in 1991
1991 establishments in New York City
1991 establishments in the United States
ViacomCBS Domestic Media Networks
Former WarnerMedia subsidiaries
Television networks in the United States
Stand-up comedy
2000s in comedy
2010s in comedy
2020s in comedy
Sirius XM Radio channels | [
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235883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Choctaw%20%281856%29 | USS Choctaw (1856) | USS Choctaw (1856) was a large (1,004-ton) steamer built for the merchant service, but acquired by the Union Navy during the second year of the American Civil War.
Choctaw, with her crew of 106, was outfitted by the Navy as a ram with heavy rifled guns and was used both as a gunboat and as a ram on the rivers of the Confederate States of America.
Construction
Choctaw, a sidewheel steamer, was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the Choctaw Indian tribe, formerly of Alabama and Mississippi, now resident in Oklahoma.
She was built for the merchant service; her keel was laid down at New Albany, Indiana, in 1853. She was launched in 1856. She was purchased by the United States Army on 27 September 1862 and converted into an ironclad ram by Edward Hartt, then transferred to commissioned into the United States Navy at St. Louis, Missouri on 23 March 1863 with Lieutenant Commander Francis M. Ramsay in command.
Civil War operations
From 23 April 1863, until the end of the war, Choctaw operated in the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Between 29 April and 1 May 1863, she stood up the Yazoo River for a feigned attack on Haynes' Bluff, Mississippi, designed to prevent the Confederates from reinforcing Grand Gulf. During this action, she was struck 53 times.
Remaining in the Yazoo, she took part in attacks with the Union Army which led to the destruction of Confederate works at Haynes' Bluff and the burning of the navy yard and ships lying there, at Yazoo City, between 18 and 23 May.
On 6 and 7 June, she helped to repel a Confederate attack at Milliken's Bend, Louisiana, after which she rescued a large number of Confederates from the river and sent them in as prisoners.
Between 7 March and 15 May 1864, she took part in the operations leading to the capture of Fort DeRussy.
Post-war decommissioning
Choctaw arrived at Algiers, Louisiana, on 20 July 1865, and was decommissioned on 22 July 1865. She was sold at New Orleans, Louisiana on 28 March 1866.
References
Ships of the Union Navy
Ships built in New Albany, Indiana
Steamships of the United States Navy
Rams of the United States Navy
Gunboats of the United States Navy
American Civil War patrol vessels of the United States
1856 ships
Maritime incidents in 1863 | [
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235886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Balkenende%20cabinet | Second Balkenende cabinet | The second Balkenende cabinet was the executive branch of the Government of the Netherlands from 27 May 2003 until 7 July 2006. The cabinet was formed by the Christian-democratic Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), the conservative-liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD), and the social-liberal Democrats 66 (D66) after the election of 2003. The cabinet was a centre-right coalition and had a slim majority in the House of Representatives with Christian Democratic Leader Jan Peter Balkenende serving as Prime Minister. Liberal Leader Gerrit Zalm, a former Minister of Finance, served as Deputy Prime Minister and returned as Minister of Finance, while former Progressive-Liberal Leader Thom de Graaf served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister without Portfolio for the Interior.
The cabinet served during the unstable 2000s. Domestically, immigration was a major point of attention and it had to deal with the murder of controversial filmmaker and critic Theo van Gogh, while internationally, it dealt with the war on terror and the government support for the Iraq War. The cabinet suffered several major internal and external conflicts including multiple cabinet resignations, such as that of Deputy Prime Minister De Graaf following the failed introducing of a new referendum system. The cabinet fell prematurely on 30 June 2006 after the Democrats 66 supported a motion of no confidence against Immigration Minister Rita Verdonk and withdraw its support with the Democrats 66 cabinet members resigning on 3 July 2006 and the cabinet continuing in a demissionary capacity until it was replaced by the caretaker third Balkenende cabinet on 7 July 2006.
Formation
On 24 January 2003 Queen Beatrix asked Minister of Justice Piet Hein Donner (CDA) to lead the coalition negotiations. The negotiations for the coalition were lengthy. Initially the CDA preferred to continue its Centre-right coalition with the VVD, but they did not have sufficient seats in the House of Representatives to continue in government without the support of a third party. Another coalition with Pim Fortuyn List (LPF) would be likely to be unpopular with voters after the events of the First Balkenende cabinet, and the D66 was unwilling to join such a coalition. A government supported by the Christian right-wing Reformed Political Party (SGP) and the social conservative Christian Union (CU) was opposed by the VVD.
A long negotiation between CDA and the Labour Party (PvdA) followed. The CDA and PvdA had come out of the elections as equal partners. The negotiations were troubled by the invasion of Iraq, the bad economic forecasts and personal animosity between incumbent Prime Minister and Leader of the Christian Democratic Appeal Jan Peter Balkenende and Wouter Bos the Leader of the Labour Party. After a couple of months talks were called off by Balkenende. At this point, D66 decided to join the coalition after all. The cabinet was based on a very slim majority in the House of Representatives of 78 seats out of 150. When VVD Member of the House of Representatives Geert Wilders left his party on 2 September 2004 (continuing as an Independent), the narrow majority of the cabinet slimmed down even further to 77 seats in the Member of the House of Representatives.
Term
Policy
The cabinet program is based around the slogan: Mee doen, Meer Werk, Minder Regels (Participation, More Jobs, and Fewer Rules).
The cabinet seeks to address the problems of integration of ethnic minorities (participation), the economic recession (more employment) and the lack of trust in government (Fewer Regulations).
Migration and Integration policy
The most controversial issue the cabinet addressed is the perceived lack of integration of ethnic minorities, especially immigrants from Morocco and Turkey. To solve this problem this cabinet has tried to reduce the influx of migrants, and to force migrants to take an integration course. The cabinet appointed Rita Verdonk (VVD) as a Minister without Portfolio within the Ministry of Justice with the responsibilities for Integration, Immigration and Asylum Affairs.
The number of immigrants allowed into the Netherlands was reduced by enforcing the asylum-seekers law of 2000 rigidly. This law was created under the Second Kok cabinet by the then Mayor of Amsterdam, Job Cohen. Controversially, 26,000 asylum-seekers who had lived in the Netherlands for over five years but who had not been granted asylum were deported. Furthermore, partners of Dutch citizens are only allowed to immigrate into the Netherlands if the Dutch partner earns more than 120 percent of the minimum income. This income requirement has been decreased back to 100% of the minimum wage in 2010 as a result of the judgement of the EU Court in the Chakroun case.
Since 2006, family migrants from 'non-Western' countries who want to immigrate into the Netherlands must pass an integration test. It tests the applicant's knowledge of the Dutch language, political system and social conventions. The test must be taken before entering the Netherlands, in a Dutch Embassy or Consulates in the country of origin.
Once in the Netherlands, migrants were obliged to pass a second test before receiving a permanent residence permit or being allowed to naturalise. 'Oudkomers', i.e. foreigners who have lived in the Netherlands for a long time, were obliged by the Dutch government to take the exam as well.
Economic Reform
The cabinet took power at a time when the Netherlands' economy was in poor shape, with increasing unemployment and slight economic contraction. To jump start economic growth, the cabinet has proposed tax cuts and reform of the system of social welfare.
The cabinet has implemented a new law for disability pensions. Most people enjoyed disability pensions under the old disability law received pensions even if they were only partially disabled and could still work. The pensions of these people have been cut, and so they are forced to return to the workforce. Furthermore, the cabinet has limited the possibility of early retirement. Without exception all Dutch employees will be forced to work until they have become 65, possibly longer.
The cabinet also has cut government spending by 5700 million euro, making a total of 11 billion euro, when combined with the cuts announced by the previous cabinet. Among other measures, free dental care, physiotherapy and anti-conception medication were cut, 12000 positions were to be eliminated in the armed forces and some of their bases closed, the link between benefit payment rates and salaries was to be broken, and the rental housing subsidy was reduced. At the same time, 4 billion euro in extra spending was made available, mainly in education and justice.
Government Reform
Another controversial issue is the reform of the Dutch political system. This was proposed to overcome the 'gap between politics and citizens', which became clear in the 2002 elections, which were dominated by the populist Pim Fortuyn who was later Assassinated during the election campaign. The cabinet appointed Thom de Graaf (D66) as Deputy Prime Minister and as a Minister without Portfolio within the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations with the responsibilities for Government Reform. Thom de Graaf (D66). De Graaf, who proposed an ambitious reform proposal, was met with much resistance. Two of the most important proposals were the directly elected mayor and the election system.
The Netherlands is one of the last countries in Europe not to have an elected mayor, instead he is appointed by the Crown. To change this the constitution has to be amended. A proposal to do this by former Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations Klaas de Vries (PvdA) in 2001, under the second Kok cabinet, was rejected in second reading by the Senate. This was because it would allow the controversial plans of De Graaf to be implemented. This would involve a mayor, directly elected by the city's population, who would have considerable power to take care of security and public order. The proposed election system would have preserved proportional representation but have done so with supplemental regional candidates.
On 23 March 2005, the Senate voted against a proposal to introduce a constitutional amendment that would allow the directly elected mayor. As a result, Thom de Graaf (D66) resigned as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Government Reform. The coalition parties then renegotiate a new coalition agreement. In the Easter weekend reached an agreement, the so-called Easter Accord. On 31 March 2005 Alexander Pechtold (D66) the Mayor of Wageningen and Chairman of the Democrats 66 was appointed as the new Minister for Government Reform. The position of Deputy Prime Minister was taken over by Minister of Economic Affairs Laurens Jan Brinkhorst (D66).
Opposition to policy
The cabinet was facing a lot of opposition, from the official opposition in the House of Representatives, from an extra-parliamentary movement, from international circles and from within. The left-wing parties in the House of Representatives where critical of the government. They perceived the policy on migration and integration as too hard and causing polarization between Dutch people and immigrants, and the economic reforms and budget cuts as untimely, because of the recession.
The extra-parliamentary movement "Keer het Tij" (Turn the Tide) has organized mass demonstrations against the government. Important partners within Keer het Tij where the three main left-wing opposition political parties the Labour Party (PvdA), Socialist Party and GreenLeft (GL), the largest trade union, the FNV, environmental organisations like Greenpeace and Milieu Defensie, and organisations of migrants. In 2004 they organized a political demonstration in the Hague. At the time the negotiations between the cabinet, the employers and the unions on early retirement had broken off, with the union leaders promising a "hot autumn".
Most international criticism comes from Belgium. Two ministers, the liberal minister of Foreign Affairs De Gucht and the Socialist vice-prime minister Van den Bossche of the purple Cabinet Verhofstadt II, have criticized the style of the Dutch cabinet, calling the prime minister Balkenende "Petty Bourgeois".
Criticism also rose out of the ranks of the largest government partner, the CDA. The former Christian-Democratic Prime Minister Dries van Agt and former leader of the parliamentary party, De Vries, criticized the cabinet for its anti-social policy. Minister Pechtold has opposed cabinet policy on terrorism and drug law in the media, breaking the unity of cabinet.
Resignations
In December 2003, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, was appointed Secretary-General of the NATO. He was succeeded by former diplomat Ben Bot.
In June 2004 a personal conflict between State Secretary for Higher Education Nijs and Minister of Education Van der Hoeven caused the departure of Nijs. This in turn caused a reshuffle: State Secretary for Social Affairs Rutte became State Secretary for Higher Education and Henk van Hoof (a state secretary in previous cabinets) became State Secretary for Social Affairs.
State Secretary for Higher Education Mark Rutte left the cabinet to become parliamentary leader of the VVD on 28 June 2006. He was supposed to be succeeded by former alderman of The Hague Bruno Bruins, but the cabinet fell just a day before he was installed.
2006 cabinet crisis
On 29 June 2006, a cabinet crisis erupted after cabinet member Rita Verdonk lost the support of the coalition party D66 over the Ayaan Hirsi Ali identity fraud controversy.
Hirsi Ali, VVD member and Member of parliament at the time, had signed a statement in which she expressed regret that she had misinformed Minister Verdonk regarding her name. On 28 June, Hirsi Ali made it known that her statement was coerced. In a parliamentary debate on 28 June extending into the next day, Verdonk and the Prime Minister maintained that the purpose of this statement was a legal one: Hirsi Ali was required to declare her intention to keep the name Hirsi Ali in order to retain her passport. However, in a crucial moment during the debate, member of parliament Van Beek asked the Prime Minister about the purpose of the apology. The Prime Minister answered that "it was a statement that the Minister for Integration and Immigration had to be able to live with". This was interpreted widely as a political deal-making by Verdonk at the expense of Hirsi Ali and not just a legality.
As a result, a motion of no confidence was initiated by opposition party GroenLinks against Minister Verdonk. Coalition party D66 supported this motion with strong words, stating that either the minister had to go, or D66 would leave the cabinet. However, the motion did not get a majority vote. On 29 June, the Prime Minister issued a statement declaring that the ministers unanimously declared that the rejected motion did have no consequences for the cabinet (as it was not supported, the minister was not forced to go). The chairman of the parliamentary D66 group, Lousewies van der Laan then declared in a new parliamentary session that D66 could no longer support the entire cabinet.
The apparent dissent between the D66 cabinet ministers opinion (that Verdonk did not have to go) and the D66 parliamentary group opinion (that Verdonk had to go) resulted in some tense hours where it appeared that the two D66 cabinet ministers Laurens Jan Brinkhorst and Alexander Pechtold had broken away from their party, supporting the cabinet but not their party member Lousewies van der Laan. However, in a reconvened parliamentary session later that evening, Brinkhorst announced that he and Pechtold had resigned and supported their parliamentary group in this issue. The apparent difference was merely based on legality: Since the CDA and VVD ministers did not want to dismiss Verdonk, the D66 ministers could do nothing but state the obvious legal fact that an unsupported motion has no legal consequence. The political decision to leave the coalition was subsequently made by the parliamentary group.
Shortly after, Prime Minister Balkenende announced that all remaining members of the cabinet would offer their resignations (portfolios) to Queen Beatrix. At the end of that day, it was expected that new elections would be called for October 2006 at the earliest.
In the meantime, VVD and CDA blamed D66 for the cabinet's demise: they argued that Verdonk did in fact respect the wishes of parliament when she ordered the re-examination of Hirsi Ali's passport position. On his first day as parliamentary leader of the VVD, Mark Rutte was furious with D66, labeling their actions as scandalous. Lousewies van der Laan countered that she wanted only Verdonk and not the entire cabinet to resign, and that it was about the coerced statement, which she interpreted as abuse of power by the minister. She blamed VVD and CDA for keeping Verdonk as minister.
The newspaper Het Financieele Dagblad (FD) on 30 June commented that it was highly unusual for a cabinet to resign after surviving 29 June motion of no confidence. According to the FD, Balkenende made an "expensive miscalculation" and the coalition was not able to cope with "accumulation of governmental screw ups, ego maniacal told-you-so attitude and political profiteering". As Prime Minister, Balkenende should have steered his cabinet around the pitfalls. On the same day, the Volkskrant commented that D66 never was a strong supporter of this center-right cabinet and least of all a supporter of Verdonk. The newspaper described Balkenende as a poor leader with his ministers failing to acknowledge him. In short, the cabinet "slipped over a banana skin" according to this paper. NRC Handelsblad's main editorial praised D66 and put the blame on Balkenende for not being able to limit the damage to a single minister. The paper questioned whether the CDA should maintain him as their political leader.
The timing of the cabinet collapse was poorly chosen for the two remaining coalition parties: the economy was improving after 3 years of harsh reforms and little growth; finally, more people were working and unemployment rates showed a decline. The reforms initiated three years ago (one of them a 20 billion euro spending cut) were starting to deliver results. It was felt that CDA and VVD had not been able to benefit from it to its full potential. The polls had already showed improved voter support for VVD and CDA compared to the record-low results the year before. The 29 June Nova poll allotted 38 seats to the CDA, 31 seats to the VVD, and 3 seats to D66; a majority requires 76 seats.
With the collapse of the cabinet some of its initiatives became jeopardized: economic liberalization for gas utility companies, new rules for competition regulators, and liberalizations in the subsidized housing market. A demissionary cabinet would not have been able to tackle these issues but a minority government still could.
On 30 June 2006, the Prime Minister met with Queen Beatrix offering the resignation of the two D66 ministers and offering their portfolios to the other ministers. He expressed his preference for a minority government, a so-called rompkabinet. Maxime Verhagen of the CDA and Mark Rutte (VVD) also gave their support for this solution when they were invited for consultation with Beatrix. Two important considerations were imminent for them: the Dutch military NATO mission to Uruzgan, Afghanistan, and the decision on the 2007 budget to be made in September 2006. The main opposition leaders were in favor of a demissionary cabinet (without authority for new policies), and elections as soon as possible.
In an interview with NRC Handelsblad on 1 July, Alexander Pechtold raised his suspicion that VVD and CDA had already for a long time been prepared to drop D66 from the coalition in favor of the support by Pim Fortuyn List (LPF). According to Pechtold this explained the reluctance of VVD and CDA ministers to offer constructive solutions at the height of the crisis. The LPF expressed their support for a minority cabinet on numerous occasions, adding the irony that after the first Balkende cabinet failed in 2003 because of the destructive attitude of LPF, the same LPF was ready to replace D66.
2006 Information round
Also on 1 July, Queen Beatrix appointed Minister of State and former United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Ruud Lubbers as so-called informateur to see if a so-called rump cabinet could be formed. This would be a cabinet of CDA and VVD with a minority of seats in parliament, which would have to seek support from one or more opposition parties for every decision. At this stage, general elections were planned to take place in November 2006. According to Lubbers the prospective third Balkenende cabinet should be based on the coalition agreement of 2003 and the more recent Easter Accord.
Lubbers' information task was expected to take until 7 July with elections set at 22 November 2006. However, Lubbers was able to present his final conclusions to the Queen already on 5 July. Balkenende was then appointed as the so-called formateur with the actual task of forming a new cabinet. He appointed new ministers and presented a formal cabinet statement to parliament on 7 July 2006.
Cabinet members
References
External links
Official
Kabinet-Balkenende II Parlement & Politiek
Kabinet Balkenende II Rijksoverheid
Cabinets of the Netherlands
2003 establishments in the Netherlands
2006 disestablishments in the Netherlands
Cabinets established in 2003
Cabinets disestablished in 2006 | [
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235887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobius | Macrobius | Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, usually referred to as Macrobius (fl. AD 400), was a Roman provincial who lived during the early fifth century, during Late Antiquity, the period of time corresponding to the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, and when Latin was as widespread as Greek among the elite. He is primarily known for his writings, which include the widely copied and read Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis ("Commentary on the Dream of Scipio") about Somnium Scipionis, which was one of the most important sources for Neoplatonism in the Latin West during the Middle Ages; the Saturnalia, a compendium of ancient Roman religious and antiquarian lore; and De differentiis et societatibus graeci latinique verbi ("On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb"), which is now lost.
Name
The correct order of his names is "Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius", which is how it appears in the earliest manuscripts of the Saturnalia, and how he is addressed in the excerpts from his lost De differentiis. Only in later manuscripts were his names reversed as "Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius", which James Willis then adopted for his edition of the Commentary. Alan Cameron notes that Cassiodorus and Boethius both refer to him as "Macrobius Theodosius", while he was known during his lifetime as "Theodosius": the dedication to the De differentiis is addressed Theodosius Symmacho suo ("Theodosius to his Symmachus"), and by the dedicatory epistle to Avianus's Fables, where he is addressed as Theodosi optime.
Life
Little is known for certain about Macrobius, but there are many theories and speculations about him. He states at the beginning of his Saturnalia that he was "born under a foreign sky" (sub alio ortus caelo), and both of his major works are dedicated to his son, Eustachius. His major works have led experts to assume that he was a pagan.
Which "foreign sky" Macrobius was born under has been the subject of much speculation. Terrot Glover considers Macrobius either an ethnic Greek, or born in one of the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire, such as Egypt, due to his intimate knowledge of Greek literature. J. E. Sandys went further and argued that Macrobius was born in one of the Greek provinces. However other experts, beginning with Ludwig van Jan, point out that despite his familiarity with Greek literature Macrobius was far more familiar with Latin than Greek—as evidenced by his enthusiasm for Vergil and Cicero—and favor North Africa, which was part of the Latin-speaking portion of the Roman Empire.
Scholars have attempted to identify him with a Macrobius who is mentioned in the Codex Theodosianus as a praetorian prefect of Spain (399–400), and a proconsul of Africa (410). The Codex Theodosianus also records a praepositus (or lord chamberlain) named Macrobius in 422. A number of older authorities go so far as to identify Macrobius the author with the first, and date his floruit to 399–410. There are objections to either identification: as Alan Cameron notes, the complete name of the first candidate is attested in an inscription to be "Flavius Macrobius Maximianus", while the second is excluded because "A praepositus must at this period have been a eunuch."
However, since Macrobius is frequently referred to as vir clarissimus et inlustris, a title which was achieved by holding public office, we can reasonably expect his name to appear in the Codex Theodosianus. Further, Cameron points out that during his lifetime Macrobius was referred to as "Theodosius", and looking for that name Cameron found a Theodosius who was praetorian prefect of Italy in 430. "It is significant that the only surviving law addressed to this Theodosius sanctions a privilege for Africa Proconsularis on the basis of information received concerning Byzacena," Cameron notes.
Works
Commentary on the "Dream of Scipio"
Macrobius's most influential book and one of the most widely cited books of the Middle Ages was a commentary on the book Dream of Scipio narrated by Cicero at the end of his Republic. The nature of the dream, in which the elder Scipio appears to his (adopted) grandson and describes the life of the good after death and the constitution of the universe from a Stoic and Neo-Platonic point of view, gave occasion for Macrobius to discourse upon the nature of the cosmos, transmitting much classical philosophy to the later Middle Ages. In astronomy, this work is noted for giving the diameter of the Sun as twice the diameter of the Earth. Of a third work On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb, we only possess an abstract by a certain Johannes, doubtfully identified with Johannes Scotus Eriugena (9th century).
See editions by Ludwig von Jan (1848–1852, with a bibliography of previous editions, and commentary), Franz Eyssenhardt (1893, Teubner text), James Willis (1994, new Teubner), and R. A. Kaster (OCT and Loeb, 2011); on the sources of the Saturnalia see H. Linke (1880) and Georg Wissowa (1880). The grammatical treatise will be found in Jan's edition and Heinrich Keil's Grammatici latini; see also Georg Friedrich Schömann, Commentatio macrobiana (1871).
Saturnalia
Macrobius's Saturnalia (, "Seven Books of the Saturnalia") consists of an account of the discussions held at the house of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus during the holiday of the Saturnalia. It contains a great variety of curious historical, mythological, critical, antiquarian and grammatical discussions. "The work takes the form of a series of dialogues among learned men at a fictional banquet."
Editions and translations
Robert A. Kaster (ed.), Macrobius: Saturnalia. Loeb classical library 510–512. Cambridge, MA/ London: Harvard University Press, 2011. 3 volumes.
Percival Vaughan Davies (trans.), Macrobius: The Saturnalia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.
William Harris Stahl (trans.), Macrobius: Commentary on the Dream of Scipio. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. (Second printing, with revisions, 1966)
Legacy
A prominent lunar crater is named after Macrobius.
Macrobius Cove in Antarctica is named after Macrobius.
Gallery
Cicero's Dream of Scipio described the Earth as a globe of insignificant size in comparison to the remainder of the cosmos. Many early medieval manuscripts of Macrobius include maps of the Earth, including the antipodes, zonal maps showing the Ptolemaic climates derived from the concept of a spherical Earth and a diagram showing the Earth (labeled as globus terrae, the sphere of the Earth) at the center of the hierarchically ordered planetary spheres.
Images from a 12th-century manuscript of Macrobius's Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis (Parchment, 50 ff.; 23.9 × 14 cm; Southern France). Date: ca. 1150. Source: Copenhagen, Det Kongelige Bibliotek, ms. NKS 218 4°.
See also
Allegory in the Middle Ages
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Brigitte Englisch: Die Artes liberales im frühen Mittelalter (5.–9. Jahrhundert). Das Quadrivium und der Komputus als Indikatoren für Kontinuität und Erneuerung der exakten Wissenschaften zwischen Antike und Mittelalter. Steiner, Stuttgart 1994,
Frateantonio, C., "Praetextatus – Verteidiger des römischen Glaubens? Zur gesellschaftlichen (Neu-)Inszenierung römischer Religion in Macrobius' Saturnalien," Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum, 11,2 (2007), 360–377.
Kaster, R. (ed), Studies on the Text of Macrobius’s ‘Saturnalia’ (New York, 2010) (American Philological Association. American Classical Studies, 55).
Cameron, A., The Last Pagans of Rome (Oxford, 2011).
External links
Macrobius: The Saturnalia, the Latin text of the critical edition edited by Ludwig von Jan (Gottfried Bass; Quedlinburg and Leipzig, 1852), web edition by Bill Thayer.
Opera quae supersunt, 2 voll., Quedlinburgi et Lipsiae, typis et sumptibus Godofredi Bassii, 1848-52: vol. 1, vol. 2.
Iohannis (Scoti) defloratio de Macrobio, a paraphrase of Macrobius' De uerborum Graeci et Latini differentiis uel societatibus. Also as Excerpta parisina in Grammatici latini, vol. 5, Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1923, pagg. 599-629.
Macrobii excerpta Bobiensa, some extracts from Macrobius' De uerborum Graeci et Latini differentiis uel societatibus. Also as Excerpta bobiensa in Grammatici latini, vol. 5, cit., pagg. 631-55.
Bibliography on Macrobius' grammatical work
4th-century Romans
5th-century Byzantine writers
5th-century philosophers
5th-century Latin writers
Ancient Roman antiquarians
Ancient Roman scholars of religion
Grammarians of Latin
Late-Roman-era pagans
Latin-language writers
Neoplatonists
Philosophers of Roman Italy
Praetorian prefects of Italy
Roman-era philosophers
Romans from Africa | [
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235888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon%20Stewart | Jon Stewart | Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962) is an American comedian, writer, producer, director, political commentator, actor, and television host. He hosted The Daily Show, a satirical news program on Comedy Central, from 1999 to 2015. Stewart now hosts The Problem with Jon Stewart, which premiered September 2021 on Apple TV+.
Stewart started as a stand-up comedian but branched into television as host of Short Attention Span Theater for Comedy Central. He went on to host You Wrote It, You Watch It (1992–1993) and then The Jon Stewart Show (1993–1995), both on MTV, until The Jon Stewart Show was retooled, dropped by the network and moved to syndication. Stewart has also appeared in several films, including Big Daddy (1999) and Death to Smoochy (2002), but did few cinematic projects after becoming host of The Daily Show in 1999. He also was a writer and co-executive producer of the show. After Stewart joined, The Daily Show steadily gained popularity and critical acclaim, and during his tenure, won 22 Primetime Emmy Awards, two Grammy Awards and also was nominated for news and journalism awards. Stewart hosted the 78th and 80th Academy Awards. He is the co-author of America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction, which was one of the best-selling books in the US in 2004, and Earth (The Book): A Visitor's Guide to the Human Race, released in 2010.
Since leaving The Daily Show, Stewart has mostly maintained a low profile in entertainment industry circles, but has used his celebrity and voice in a sustained advocacy for 9/11 first responders, and also for war veterans' health benefits. In 2019 he received the New York City Bronze Medallion for his "tireless advocacy, inspiration, and leadership (helping to) pass the permanent authorization of the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund Act".
Early life and education
Jon Stewart was born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz on November 28, 1962, in New York City, to Marian (née Laskin), a teacher and later educational consultant, and Donald Leibowitz, an energy coordinator for the New Jersey Department of the Treasury. Stewart's family members are Jewish immigrants to America from Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. One of his grandfathers was born in Manzhouli (now part of Inner Mongolia). He is the second of four sons, with older brother Lawrence, and younger brothers Dan and Matthew.
Stewart's parents divorced when he was eleven years old, and Stewart was largely estranged from his father. Because of his strained relationship with his father, which in 2015 he described as "still 'complicated'", he dropped his surname and began using his middle name. Stewart stated, "There was a thought of using my mother's maiden name, but I thought that would be just too big a fuck you to my dad... Did I have some problems with my father? Yes. Yet people always view [changing my surname] through the prism of ethnic identity." He had his surname changed legally to Stewart in 2001. Stewart and his brother Lawrence, who was previously the chief operating officer of NYSE Euronext (parent company of the New York Stock Exchange), grew up in Lawrenceville, New Jersey, where they attended Lawrence High School. According to Stewart, he was subjected to anti-Semitic bullying as a child. He describes himself in high school as "very into Eugene Debs and a bit of a leftist."
Stewart grew up in the era of the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal, which inspired in him "a healthy skepticism towards official reports". His first job was working with his brother at a Woolworth's store, and jokingly says being fired by Lawrence was one of the "scarring events" of his youth. He has also credited legendary television producer Norman Lear as someone who "raised me."
Stewart graduated in 1984 from The College of William & Mary where he initially majored in chemistry before switching to psychology. While at William & Mary, Stewart became a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity, but eventually began disassociating himself from them; leaving the fraternity altogether after six months. "My college career was waking up late, memorizing someone else's notes, doing bong hits, and going to soccer practice", he later said. He was a three-year starter in 1981, 1982 and 1983 with the Tribe men's soccer team. He had 10 goals and 12 assists on a squad that went 40–15–9 (.695) in his three seasons with the program. He is listed as Jon Leibowitz in official William & Mary Athletics records. The former head coach of the Tribe men's soccer team from 1971 to 2003, Al Albert, describes Jon as "athletic and feisty and quick" and added that he "wasn't the most technical or clinical player, but he could make things happen."
After college, Stewart held numerous jobs: a contingency planner for the New Jersey Department of Human Services, a contract administrator for the City University of New York, a puppeteer for children with disabilities, a soccer coach at Gloucester High School in Virginia, a caterer, a busboy, a shelf stocker at Woolworth's, a bartender at the Franklin Corner Tavern (a local blue-collar bar), and a bartender at the legendary City Gardens in Trenton, New Jersey. He has said that working at City Gardens was a pivotal moment for him: "finding this place City Gardens was like, 'Oh, maybe I'm not a giant weirdo. Maybe there are other people who have a similar sense of yearning for something other than what they have now.' I think it inspired a lot of people, man. It was a very creative environment. It was a place of great possibility."
Career
Early work
With a reputation for being a funny man in school, Jon Stewart returned to New York City in 1986 to try his hand at the comedy club circuit, but he could not muster the courage to get on stage until the following year. He made his stand-up debut at The Bitter End, where one of his comedic idols, Woody Allen, also began. He began using the stage name "Jon Stewart" by dropping his last name and changing the spelling of his middle name "Stuart" to "Stewart". He often jokes this is because people had difficulty with the pronunciation of Leibowitz or it "sounded too Hollywood" (a reference to Lenny Bruce's joke on the same theme). He has implied that the name change was due to a strained relationship with his father, with whom Stewart no longer had any contact.
Stewart became a regular at the Comedy Cellar, where he was the last performer every night. For two years, he would perform at 2 a.m. while developing his comedic style. In 1989, Stewart landed his first television job as a writer for Caroline's Comedy Hour. In 1990, he began co-hosting Comedy Central's Short Attention Span Theater, with Patty Rosborough. In 1992, Stewart hosted the short-lived You Wrote It, You Watch It on MTV, which invited viewers to send in their stories to be acted out by the comedy troupe, The State.
Stewart relates that his career did not take off until his March 6, 1992, appearance on NBC's Late Night with David Letterman. He was considered a finalist to take over Letterman's position upon his departure from the program, but instead, it was given to relatively unknown Conan O'Brien. He co-hosted MTV Spring Break '93 Blind Date from Daytona Beach with Melissa Rivers.
The Jon Stewart Show
Later in 1993, Stewart developed The Jon Stewart Show, a talk show on MTV, which was later dropped by the network and was syndicated for its last two years. The Jon Stewart Show was the first talk show on that network and was an instant hit, becoming the second-highest rated MTV show, behind Beavis and Butt-Head. In 1994, Paramount canceled The Arsenio Hall Show and, with new corporate sibling MTV (through MTV parent Viacom's acquisition of the studio), launched an hour-long syndicated late-night version of The Jon Stewart Show. Many local affiliates had moved Hall's show to 2 a.m. during its decline and Stewart's show inherited such early morning time slots in many cities. Ratings were dismal and the show was canceled in June 1995.
Among the fans of the show was David Letterman, who was the final guest of The Jon Stewart Show. Letterman signed Stewart with his production company, Worldwide Pants. Stewart then became a frequent guest host for Tom Snyder on The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder, which was produced by Letterman and aired after the Late Show on CBS. This led to much speculation that Stewart would soon replace Snyder permanently, but instead, Stewart was offered the time slot after Snyder's, which he turned down.
In 1996 Stewart hosted a short-lived talk show entitled, Where's Elvis This Week?, that was a half-hour, weekly comedy television program. It aired on Sunday nights in the United Kingdom on BBC Two. It was filmed at the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City and featured a set of panelists, two from the UK and two from the United States, who discussed news items and cultural issues. The show premiered in the UK on October 6, 1996; five episodes aired in total. Notable panelists included Dave Chappelle, Eddie Izzard, Phill Jupitus, Nora Ephron, Craig Kilborn, Christopher Hitchens, Armando Iannucci, Norm Macdonald, and Helen Gurley Brown. In 1997, Stewart was chosen as the host and interviewer for George Carlin's tenth HBO special, 40 Years of Comedy.
The Daily Show
In 1998, when Craig Kilborn left the show to replace Tom Snyder on The Late Late Show, Stewart began hosting The Daily Show on Comedy Central. The Daily Show blends humor with the day's top news stories, usually in politics, while simultaneously poking fun at politicians, newsmakers, and the news media. In an interview on The O'Reilly Factor, Stewart denied the show has any intentional political agenda, saying the goal was "schnicks and giggles" and that "[t]he same weakness that drove me into comedy also informs my show", meaning that he was uncomfortable talking without hearing the audience laugh. In his first Daily Show on-air appearance on January 11, 1999, Stewart told his guest that evening, Michael J. Fox, that he felt as if "this is my bar mitzvah". His style was described by one critic as, "Stewart does not offer us cynicism for its own sake, but as a playful way to offer the kinds of insights that are not permitted in more serious news formats that slavishly cling to official account of events."
Until Trevor Noah permanently took over the show in 2015, Stewart hosted almost all airings of the program, except for a few occasions when correspondents such as Stephen Colbert, Rob Corddry, Jason Jones, and Steve Carell subbed for him, and during John Oliver's stint as host during the summer of 2013. Stewart won twenty Primetime Emmy Awards for The Daily Show as either a writer or producer, and two for producing The Colbert Report (2013–14), earning a total of twenty-two Primetime Emmy Awards, the most wins for a male individual. In 2005, Stewart and The Daily Show received the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album for the audiobook edition of America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction. In 2000 and 2004, the show won two Peabody Awards for its coverage of the U.S. presidential elections in those years, called "Indecision 2000" and "Indecision 2004", respectively.
The show of September 20, 2001, the first show after the attacks of September 11th, 2001, began with no introduction. Before this, the introduction included footage of a fly-in toward the World Trade Center and New York City. The first nine minutes of the show included a tearful Stewart discussing his personal view on the event. His remarks ended as follows:
In mid-2002, amid rumors that David Letterman was going to switch from CBS to ABC when his contract ran out, Stewart was rumored as Letterman's replacement on CBS. Ultimately, Letterman renewed his contract with CBS. On the March 9, 2002, episode of Saturday Night Live, hosted by Stewart, a Weekend Update sketch poked fun at the situation.
In late 2002, ABC offered Stewart his own talk show to air right after Nightline. Stewart's contract with The Daily Show was near expiring, and he expressed strong interest. ABC, however, decided to give another Comedy Central figure, Jimmy Kimmel, the post-Nightline slot.
On April 4, 2006, Stewart confronted U.S. Senator John McCain (R-AZ) on The Daily Show about his decision to appear at Liberty University, an institution founded by Jerry Falwell whom McCain previously had denounced as one of the "agents of intolerance". In the interchange, Stewart asked McCain, "You're not freaking out on us? Are you freaking out on us, because if you're freaking out ... and you're going into the crazy base world—are you going into crazy base world?" McCain replied, "Just– just– just a little" and "I'm afraid so." The clip was played on CNN, was noted and discussed in more detail in the blogosphere and was followed up on in the mainstream media.
In 2007, The Daily Show was involved in former correspondent Stephen Colbert's announcement that he would run for president in 2008. In 2008, Stewart appeared on the news program Democracy Now!. A 2008 New York Times story questioned whether he was, in a phrase originally used to describe longtime network news anchor Walter Cronkite, "the most trusted man in America".
On April 28, 2009, during a discussion on torture with Clifford May, Stewart expressed his opinion that former President Harry S. Truman was a war criminal for his use of the atomic bomb on Japan during World War II. He defended his assertion moments later:
"Here's what I think of the atom bombs. I think if you dropped an atom bomb fifteen miles offshore and you said, 'The next one's coming and hitting you', then I would think it's okay. To drop it on a city, and kill a hundred thousand people? Yeah. I think that's criminal." On April 30, Stewart apologized on his program, and stated he did not believe Truman was a war criminal: "I shouldn't have said that, and I did. So I say right now, no, I don't believe that to be the case. The atomic bomb, a very complicated decision in the context of a horrific war, and I walk that back because it was in my estimation a stupid thing to say."
In April 2010, Comedy Central renewed Stewart's contract to host The Daily Show into 2013. According to a Forbes list of celebrities in 2008, he was earning $14 million a year.
On September 16, 2010, Stewart and Stephen Colbert announced a rally for October 30, known as the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear. It took place on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. and attracted an estimated 215,000 participants. In December 2010, Stewart was credited by the White House, other media, and political news outlets for bringing awareness of the Republican filibuster on the James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act to the public, leading to the ultimate passing of the bill that provides health benefits to first responders whose health has been adversely affected by their work at Ground Zero.
On the show of January 10, 2011, Stewart began with a monologue about the shootings in Tucson, Arizona. He said he wished the "ramblings of crazy people didn't in any way resemble how we actually talk to each other on television". Before a commercial break, Stewart told viewers that the show would continue as usual the next night. After the commercial break, the show featured a rerun of a field piece done by Jason Jones two years earlier.
The New York Times opined that Stewart is "the modern-day equivalent of Edward R. Murrow" and the UK national newspaper The Independent called him the "satirist-in-chief". In an interview, Senator John McCain described Stewart as "a modern-day Will Rogers and Mark Twain".
Writer Wyatt Cenac said that Stewart cursed him out after Cenac acknowledged he was uncomfortable about a June 2011 Daily Show bit about Republican presidential candidate Herman Cain (reported in July 2015).
In March 2013, it was announced that Stewart would be taking a 12-week hiatus from The Daily Show to direct the film Rosewater, which is based on the book Then They Came for Me by Maziar Bahari. Beginning June 10, 2013, The Daily Show correspondent John Oliver assumed primary hosting duties during Stewart's break. The TV Guide annual survey for 2013 star salaries showed that Stewart was the highest-paid late night host, making an estimated $25–30 million per year.
On July 14, 2014, Stewart interviewed Hillary Clinton about the Middle East. Clinton's condemnations of Hamas led Stewart to ask her: "But don't you think they would look at that though as, they've given a lot of different things a chance and these are the only guys to them that are giving any resistance to what their condition is?" For Gazans living in that situation, he said Hamas could be viewed as "freedom fighters".
Leaving The Daily Show
During a taping of the show on February 10, 2015, Stewart announced he was leaving The Daily Show. Comedy Central president Michele Ganeless confirmed Stewart's retirement with a statement. Later, it was announced that South African comedian Trevor Noah would succeed Stewart as the host of the show. On April 20, 2015, Stewart indicated that his final show would be on August 6, 2015.
On July 28, 2015, Darren Samuelsohn of Politico reported that twice, Stewart had been at the White House for previously unreported meetings with President Obama: once in October 2011 and once in February 2014. Michael D. Shear of The New York Times also picked up on the story. Stewart responded on his show by pointing out that the meetings were listed in the president's publicly available visitor log and that he has been asked to meet privately by many prominent individuals, including Roger Ailes of Fox News. He said Obama encouraged him not to make young Americans cynical about their government and Stewart said that his reply was that he was "skeptically idealistic".
On June 19, 2015, in the wake of the Charleston Church Shooting, Stewart decided not to write jokes for the opening monologue. Elaborating on his decision, Stewart stated, "I honestly have nothing other than just sadness". Stewart spoke about the racial disparity and injustices in America, saying "The Confederate flag flies over South Carolina ... and the roads are named for Confederate generals" describing it as "racial wallpaper". Instead he designated a large portion of the show to his guest that night Malala Yousafzai, calling her "an incredible inspiration," and that "to be quite honest with you, I don't think there's anyone else in the world I would rather talk to tonight than Malala: So that's what we're going to do. And sorry about no jokes."
On August 5, 2015, Stewart's friend of 30 years, comedian Louis C.K., was selected to be the last guest before the final Daily Show episode with Stewart helming the show. C.K. joked that he was there "representing comedy to say good job".
The hour-long-plus final Daily Show on August 6 featured reunions with former correspondents Stephen Colbert, Steve Carell, John Oliver, Samantha Bee, Hasan Minhaj, Ed Helms, Kristen Schaal, Larry Wilmore, Jessica Williams, Aasif Mandvi, Lewis Black, John Hodgman, Rob Corddry, Olivia Munn, Josh Gad, Michael Che, and Mo Rocca and cameo video clips from people Stewart had targeted over the years, including Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Lindsey Graham, Chris Christie, John Kerry, Chuck Schumer, Bill O'Reilly, Wolf Blitzer, Joe Scarborough, and Mika Brzezinski. During the final episode, there was a pre-taped behind-the-scenes look at the show spoofing the long-take Copacabana scene from Goodfellas, featuring a brief appearance by Martin Scorsese. It concluded with a performance by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band.
Post-Daily Show
In November 2015, it was announced that Stewart signed a four-year deal with HBO that would include exclusive digital content for HBO NOW, HBO Go, and other platforms. HBO programming president Casey Bloys has said that "the idea is it will be an animated parody of a cable news network with an Onion-like portal." The team began working with the cloud graphics company, OTOY, to build a system for creating content. Confirmed to be working on the project included Mike Brown, Steve Waltien, Chelsea Devantez, Lucy Steiner, Kate James, and Robby Slowik. The team tested material in Red Bank, New Jersey at The Count Basie Theatre Performing Arts Academy.
The show's premiere was moved several times, from fall 2016, to the first quarter of 2017, and then cancelled on May 23, 2017. The cancelation statement read:
After his contract with HBO ended, Stewart signed a multi-year show deal with Apple. On September 30, 2021, Stewart's new series, The Problem with Jon Stewart, premiered on AppleTV. The series features hour-long, single-subject episodes. In addition to hosting the show, Stewart serves as executive producer through his company, Busboy Productions.
Writing
In 1998, Stewart released his first book, Naked Pictures of Famous People, a collection of humorous short stories and essays. The book reached The New York Times Best Seller List.
In 2004, Stewart and The Daily Show writing staff released, America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction, a mock high-school history textbook offering insights into the unique American system of government, dissecting its institutions, explaining its history and processes, and satirizing such popular American political precepts as, "one man, one vote", "government by the people", and "every vote counts". The book sold millions of copies upon its 2004 release and ended the year as a top-fifteen best seller.
In 2005, Stewart provided the voice of President James A. Garfield for the audiobook version of Sarah Vowell's Assassination Vacation. In 2007, Stewart voiced Mort Sinclaire, former TV comedy writer and communist, on Stephen Colbert's audiobook version of I Am America (And So Can You!).
In 2010, Stewart and The Daily Show writing staff released a sequel to their first book entitled, Earth (The Book): A Visitor's Guide to the Human Race. The book is meant to serve as a Baedeker travel guide for an alien civilization that discovers Earth after humanity has died out, most likely by its own hands.
In March 2012, Stewart interviewed Bruce Springsteen for Rolling Stone.
Acting
Stewart's first film role was a bit part in the box-office bomb, Mixed Nuts. He landed a minor part in The First Wives Club, but his scene was deleted. In 1995, Stewart signed a three-year deal with Miramax. Stewart played romantic leads in the films, Playing by Heart and Wishful Thinking. He had a supporting role in the romantic comedy, Since You've Been Gone and in the horror film, The Faculty. Other films were planned for Stewart to write and star in, but they never were produced. Stewart maintained a relationship with Miramax founders Harvey and Bob Weinstein and appeared in films they produced including, Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Doogal, and the documentary, Wordplay.
He appeared in Half Baked as an "enhancement smoker" and in Big Daddy as Adam Sandler's roommate; he has joked on the Daily Show and in the documentary The Aristocrats that to get the role, he slept with Sandler. Stewart often makes fun of his appearances in the high-profile flop, Death to Smoochy, in which he played a treacherous television executive; and the animated film Doogal, where he played a blue spring named Zeebad who shot a freeze ray from his mustache. In 2007, Stewart made a cameo appearance as himself in Evan Almighty, which starred former Daily Show correspondent Steve Carell. In the movie, Stewart was seen on a television screen in a fictional Daily Show episode poking fun at Carell's character for building an ark.
Stewart had a recurring role in The Larry Sanders Show, playing himself as an occasional substitute and possible successor to late-night talk show host Larry Sanders (played by Garry Shandling). In 1998, Stewart hosted the television special, Elmopalooza, celebrating 30 years of Sesame Street. He has guest-starred on other sitcoms including The Nanny, Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist, Spin City, NewsRadio, American Dad!, and The Simpsons. He also has made guest appearances on the children's television series Between the Lions, Sesame Street, Jack's Big Music Show, and Gravity Falls.
Producing
In the mid-1990s, Stewart launched his own production company, Busboy Productions, naming the company in reference to his previous job as a busboy. Stewart signed a deal with Miramax to develop projects through his company, but none of his ideas have been produced. After Stewart's success as host and producer of The Daily Show, he revived Busboy Productions with Daily Show producers Ben Karlin and Rich Korson. In 2002, Busboy planned to produce a sitcom for NBC starring Stephen Colbert, but the show did not come to fruition.
In 2005, Comedy Central reached an agreement with Busboy in which Comedy Central would provide financial backing for the production company. Comedy Central has a first-look agreement on all projects, after which Busboy is free to shop them to other networks.
The deal spawned the Daily Show spin-off The Colbert Report and its replacement, The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore. Other projects include the sitcom pilot Three Strikes, the documentary Sportsfan, the series Important Things with Demetri Martin, and the film The Donor.
After Stewart's departure from The Daily Show, he was listed as an executive producer on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. In addition, Stewart has presented occasional comedic monologues filled with political and media commentary.
In July 2017, HBO announced Stewart would produce a stand-up comedy special for the network, his first stand-up special since 1996.
Directing
In March 2010, Stewart announced that he had optioned rights to the story of journalist Maziar Bahari, who was imprisoned in Iran for 118 days. On June 6, 2011, episode of The Daily Show, Stewart again hosted Bahari, and in March 2013, he announced that he was leaving the show for 12 weeks to direct the film version of Bahari's 2011 book, Then They Came For Me. Stewart's screenplay adaptation is entitled, Rosewater. It premiered at the September 2014 Toronto International Film Festival, receiving "generally favorable" reviews, and was released to general audiences on November 14, 2014.
On directing, Stewart noted on Employee of the Month that The Daily Show influenced his directing process more than his acting gigs did. He said, "It's about the collaboration. It's about understanding. Doing a show taught me this process of clarity of vision, but the flexibility of process. So know your intention, know where you're wanting to go with the scene with the way that you want it to go, the momentum shifts, the emphasis, where you want it to be." He also expressed interest in directing more films.
Stewart directed the political satire Irresistible, released in June 2020, which follows a demoralized Democratic strategist (played by Daily Show alumnus Steve Carell), who helps a retired veteran (Chris Cooper) run for mayor in a small, blue collar town in Wisconsin.
Hosting and public speaking
Stewart has hosted the Grammy Awards twice, in 2001 and in 2002, and the 78th Academy Awards, which were held March 5, 2006, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood. Critical response to Stewart's performance was mixed. Roger Ebert compared him favorably to legendary Oscar host Johnny Carson. Other reviewers were less positive; Tom Shales of The Washington Post said that Stewart hosted with "smug humorlessness". James Poniewozik of TIME said that Stewart was a bad host, but a great "anti-host" in that he poked fun at parts of the broadcast that deserved it, which lent him a degree of authenticity with the non-Hollywood audience. Stewart and correspondent John Oliver later poked fun at his lackluster reception on The Daily Show coverage of the 79th Academy Awards by saying that the "demon of last year's Oscars had finally been exorcised".
Stewart returned to host the 80th Academy Awards on February 24, 2008. The reception to his performance was better received. Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe felt the ceremony was average, but praised Stewart, writing that, "It was good to see Jon Stewart being Jon Stewart. He is shaping up to be a dependable Oscar host for the post-Billy Crystal years. He's not musical, but he's versatile enough to swing smoothly between jokes about politics, Hollywood, new media, and, most importantly, hair." Variety columnist Brian Lowry lauded Stewart's performance noting that he "earned his keep by maintaining a playful, irreverent tone throughout the night, whether it was jesting about Cate Blanchett's versatility or watching Lawrence of Arabia on an iPhone screen.
In December 2009, Stewart gave a speech at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts honoring Bruce Springsteen, one of that year's Kennedy Center Honors recipients, and of whom Stewart is a fan. Stewart gave another speech paying tribute to Springsteen in February 2013 as part of the singer's MusiCares Person of the Year award ceremony.
Stewart began a comedic feud with WWE wrestler Seth Rollins in March 2015, and appeared on WWE Raw during a Daily Show-styled segment hosted by Rollins. On August 23, 2015, Stewart returned to host the WWE's SummerSlam at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York. Later, he got involved in the main event between Rollins and John Cena, helping Rollins retain his WWE World Heavyweight Championship, as well as winning Cena's United States Championship when he interfered and hit Cena with a steel chair. The next night on Raw, he explained his actions, saying he did it for Ric Flair (who was also present), which was to retain his world championship record. Cena then gave Stewart his finishing move, the Attitude Adjustment, to end the segment. Stewart returned at SummerSlam on August 21, 2016, as a special guest.
In 2016, Stewart joined President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and David Letterman in honoring military families on May 5 at Joint Base Andrews, Maryland. The special celebration which marked both the USO's 75th anniversary and the fifth anniversary of Joining Forces.
Stewart got into a Twitter war with then-presidential candidate Donald Trump, who in multiple tweets stated that Stewart's changing his name indicated that he was a fraud. Stewart and some analysts considered this to be anti-Semitic. Trump then tweeted that Stewart should be "proud of his heritage", and Stewart tweeted back, facetiously, that Trump's real name was "Fuckface Von Clownstick" and that Trump should be proud of the "Clownstick heritage".
In June 2017, Stewart spoke at the funeral service for Ray Pfeifer, an FDNY firefighter from Hicksville, New York, who died after an eight-year battle with cancer as a result of service as a first responder at the September 11 attacks.
Criticism of television journalists
Stewart is known as an outspoken, humorous critic of personality-driven media shows, in particular, those of the U.S. media broadcast networks such as CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC. Critics say Stewart benefits from a double standard: he critiques other news shows from the safe, removed position of his "news satire" desk; Stewart asserts that neither his show nor Comedy Central purport to be anything other than satire and comedy.
Crossfire appearance
In a televised exchange with then-CNN correspondent Tucker Carlson on Crossfire on October 15, 2004, Stewart criticized the state of television journalism and pleaded with the show's hosts to "stop hurting America", and he referred to both Carlson and co-host Paul Begala as "partisan hacks". When posted on the internet, this exchange became widely viewed and was a topic of much media discussion.
Despite being on the program to comment on current events, Stewart immediately shifted the discussion toward the show itself, asserting that Crossfire had failed in its responsibility to inform and educate viewers about politics as a serious topic. Stewart stated that the show engaged in partisan hackery instead of honest debate, and said that the hosts' assertion that Crossfire is a debate show is like "saying pro wrestling is a show about athletic competition". Carlson responded by saying that Stewart criticizes news organizations for not holding public officials accountable, but when he interviewed John Kerry, Stewart asked a series of "softball" questions (Stewart has acknowledged he voted for Kerry in the 2004 presidential election). Stewart responded that he didn't realize "the news organizations look to Comedy Central for their cues on integrity". When Carlson continued to press Stewart on the Kerry issue, Stewart said, "You're on CNN! The show that leads into me is puppets making crank phone calls! What is wrong with you?" In response to prods from Carlson, "Come on. Be funny." Stewart said, "No, I'm not going to be your monkey." Later in the show when Carlson jibed, "I do think you're more fun on your show", Stewart retorted, "You're as big a dick on your show as you are on any show." In response to Stewart's criticisms, Carlson said, "You need to get a job at a journalism school", to which Stewart responded, "You need to go to one!"
Stewart discussed the incident on The Daily Show the following Monday:
In January 2005, CNN announced that it was canceling Crossfire. When asked about the cancellation, CNN's incoming president, Jonathan Klein, referred to Stewart's appearance on the show: "I think he made a good point about the noise level of these types of shows, which does nothing to illuminate the issues of the day."
On March 18, 2009, Carlson wrote a blog entry for The Daily Beast criticizing Stewart for his handling of the CNBC controversy (see below). Carlson discussed the CNN incident and claimed that Stewart remained backstage for at least "an hour" and "continued to lecture our staff", something Carlson described as, "one of the weirdest things I have ever seen".
Criticism of CNBC
Stewart again became a viral internet phenomenon following a March 4, 2009, The Daily Show sequence. CNBC canceled Rick Santelli's scheduled appearance on The Daily Show that day, so the show ran a short segment showing CNBC giving poor investment advice.
Subsequent media coverage of exchanges between Stewart and Jim Cramer, who had been featured heavily in the original segment, led to a highly anticipated face-to-face confrontation on The Daily Show. The episode received much media attention and became the second most-viewed episode of The Daily Show, trailing only the 2009 Inauguration Day episode. It had 2.3 million total viewers, and the next day, the show's website saw its highest day of traffic in 2009. Although Cramer acknowledged on the show that some of Stewart's criticisms of CNBC were valid and that the network could "do better", he later said on The Today Show that Stewart's criticism of the media was "naïve and misleading."
Criticism of Fox News
Throughout his tenure on The Daily Show, Stewart frequently accused Fox News of distorting the news to fit a conservative agenda, at one point ridiculing the network as "the meanest sorority in the world". In November 2009, Stewart "called out" Fox News for using some footage from a previous Tea Party rally during a report on a more recent rally, making the latter event appear more highly attended than it was. The show's anchor, Sean Hannity, apologized for the footage use the following night. A month later, Stewart criticized Fox & Friends cohost Gretchen Carlson – a former Miss America and a Stanford graduate – for claiming that she googled words such as "ignoramus" and "czar". Stewart said that Carlson was dumbing herself down for "an audience who sees intellect as an elitist flaw".
Stewart stepped up his criticism of Fox News in 2010; within five months, The Daily Show had 24 segments criticizing the Fox News coverage. Bill O'Reilly, host of the talk show The O'Reilly Factor on Fox News, countered that The Daily Show was a "key component of left-wing television" and that Stewart loved Fox News because the network was "not boring".
During an interview with Chris Wallace on June 19, 2011, Stewart called Wallace "insane" for saying that Stewart's earlier comparison of the marketing techniques of a Sarah Palin campaign video and an anti-herpes medicine ad was a political comment. Stewart also said Fox viewers are the "most consistently misinformed" viewers of political media. This comment was ranked by the fact-checking site, PolitiFact, as false, with conditions. Stewart later accepted his error.
In 2014, Stewart engaged in an extended "call-out" of Fox News, based on their coverage of food stamps and U.S. government assistance, opining that said coverage was biased. This culminated in segments across multiple episodes, specifically singling out Sean Hannity and his show's coverage of the Bundy standoff. Hannity would "return fire" by calling out Stewart for associating himself with Cat Stevens during his Rally in 2010. Stewart responded to this by criticizing Hannity for frequently calling Ted Nugent a "friend and frequent guest" on his program and supporting Nugent's violent rhetoric toward Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton in 2007. In late August 2014, Stewart criticized the manner in which Fox News portrayed the events surrounding the shooting of teenager Michael Brown by police officer Darren Wilson in Ferguson, Missouri, and the subsequent protests from citizens.
Advocacy of the 9/11 First Responders Bill
Over the years, Stewart sometimes used The Daily Show to argue for causes such as the treatment of veterans and 9/11 first responders. He is credited with breaking a Senate deadlock over a bill to provide health care and benefits for 9/11 emergency workers; the bill passed three days after he featured a group of 9/11 responders on the show. In March 2009, he criticized a White House proposal to remove veterans from Veterans Administration rolls if they had private health insurance; the White House dropped the plan the next day. In 2010, Stewart held an interview with a panel of four of the 9/11 first responders Kenny Specht with the FDNY, Chris Bowman NYPD, Ken George DOT, and Kevin Devlin, Operating Engineer of Heavy Equipment, who discussed their health problems with Stewart. In 2015 four months after leaving The Daily Show he returned to reunite the four, with Specht as the only panelist healthy enough to attend. Devlin had died and the two other panelists, Bowman and George, were too ill to make it to the show.
In February and June 2019, Stewart again went to Congress to oppose the $7.375 billion limit in pay-outs to 9/11 responders through December 2020 and to lobby for permanent funding for the Victims Compensation Fund past December 2020, delivering a tearful testimony.
Stewart continued to be a vocal advocate, appearing on late night shows such as The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, The Daily Show with Trevor Noah, and news programs such as Fox News Sunday with Chris Wallace, and The Fox Report with Shepherd Smith. On July 12, 2019, the House approved the bill overwhelmingly 402–12. The bill came to the Senate floor where it passed the 9/11 Victim Compensation Fund through 2092, virtually funding health care for 9/11 victims and first responders for life. The vote was 97–2 with Republican Senators Rand Paul (KY) and Mike Lee (UT) opposing. When hearing that the bill had been passed, Stewart responded by saying, "It has been the honor of my life working with the 9/11 first responders...these families deserve better...and I will follow you wherever your next adventure shall be".
Writers Guild of America strike of 2007–2008
Stewart was an important factor in the unionization of the Comedy Central writers. The Daily Show writers were the first of Comedy Central's writers to be able to join the guild, after which other shows followed.
Stewart supported the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike. On The Daily Show episode just before the strike, he sarcastically commented about how Comedy Central had made available all episodes for free on their website, but without advertising, and said, "go support our advertisers". The show went on hiatus when the strike began, as did other late-night talk shows. Upon Stewart's return to the show on January 7, 2008, he refused to use the title, The Daily Show, stating that The Daily Show was the show made with all of the people responsible for the broadcast, including his writers. During the strike, he referred to his show as A Daily Show with Jon Stewart until the strike ended on February 13, 2008.
Stewart's choice to return to the air did bring criticism that he was undermining the writers of his show. Seth MacFarlane wrote an inside joke into an episode of Family Guy about this, causing Stewart to respond with an hour-long call in which he questioned how MacFarlane could consider himself the "moral arbiter" of Hollywood. Other former writers of The Daily Show such as David Feldman also have indicated that Stewart was anti-union at the time and punished his writers for their decision to unionize.
The Writers Guild Strike of 2007–08 also was responsible for a notable mock feud between Stewart, Stephen Colbert, and Conan O'Brien in early 2008. Without writers to help fuel their banter, the three comedians concocted a crossover/rivalry to garner more viewers during the ratings slump. Colbert claimed that because of "the Colbert bump", he was responsible for Mike Huckabee's success in the 2008 presidential race. O'Brien claimed that he was responsible for Huckabee's success because not only had he mentioned Huckabee on his show, but also that he was responsible for Chuck Norris's success (Norris backed Huckabee). In response, Stewart claimed that he was responsible for the success of O'Brien since Stewart had featured him on The Jon Stewart Show, and in turn, the success of Huckabee. This resulted in a three-part comedic battle between the three pundits, with all three appearing on each other's shows. The feud ended on Late Night with Conan O'Brien with a mock brawl involving the three hosts.
Influences
Stewart has said his influences include George Carlin, Lenny Bruce, Woody Allen, David Letterman, Steve Martin, and Richard Pryor.
Among comedians who say they were influenced by Stewart are Stephen Colbert, John Oliver, Hasan Minhaj, Samantha Bee, Larry Wilmore, Bassem Youssef, Trevor Noah, and Jordan Klepper.
Personal life
Stewart is irreligious, but of Jewish heritage.
While making the 1997 film, Wishful Thinking, a production assistant on the film arranged for a blind date between Stewart and Tracey Lynn McShane. They dated for four years. Stewart proposed to her through a personalized crossword puzzle created with the help of Will Shortz, the crossword editor at The New York Times. They married in 2000. On June 19, 2001, Stewart and his wife filed a joint name change application and legally changed both of their surnames to "Stewart". With the help of in vitro fertilization, the couple has two children.
In 2000, when he was labelled a Democrat, Stewart generally agreed, but described his political affiliation as "more socialist or independent" than Democratic, and Stewart has voted for Republicans, the last time being in the 1988 presidential election when he voted for George H. W. Bush over Michael Dukakis. He described Bush as having "an integrity about him that I respected greatly". He has been a vocal proponent of single-payer health care system.
In 2013, Stewart and his wife bought a farm in Middletown, New Jersey, called "Bufflehead Farm". The Stewarts operate it as a sanctuary for abused animals.
In 2015, Stewart began eating a vegetarian diet for ethical reasons; his wife is a long-time vegan.
In 2017, Stewart and his wife received approval to open a 45-acre (18 ha) animal sanctuary in Colts Neck, New Jersey, a home to animals saved from slaughterhouses and live markets.
Honors and awards
Stewart and other members of The Daily Show have received three Peabody Awards for "Indecision 2000" and "Indecision 2004", covering the 2000 presidential election and the 2004 presidential election, respectively. He received his third Peabody in 2016 for his tenure at The Daily Show.
The Daily Show received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety, Music, or Comedy Program in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2015 and Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series for 10 consecutive years from 2003 to 2012. In 2013, the award for both categories instead went to The Daily Show spin-off The Colbert Report. In 2015, The Daily Show resurfaced, winning both categories for one last time for Stewart's swan song as host. Stewart won the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album in 2005 for his recording, America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction.
In the December 2003 New Year's edition of Newsweek, Stewart was named the "Who's Next?" person for 2004, with the magazine predicting that he would emerge as an absolute sensation in that year. (The magazine said they had been correct at the end of that year.) Stewart was named among the 2005 Time 100, an annual list of 100 of the most influential people of the year by Time magazine.
In 2004, Stewart spoke at the commencement ceremonies at his alma mater, William and Mary, and received an honorary Doctor of Arts degree. Stewart was the Class Day keynote speaker at Princeton University in 2004, and the 2008 Sacerdote Great Names speaker at Hamilton College. Stewart and The Daily Show received the 2005 National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language. Stewart was presented an Honorary All-America Award by the National Soccer Coaches Association of America (NSCAA) in 2006.
On April 21, 2009, President of Liberia Ellen Johnson Sirleaf made Stewart a chief. On October 26, 2010, Stewart was named the Most Influential Man of 2010 by AskMen.
For his advocacy on behalf of 9/11 victims and families, Stewart was one of eighteen individuals and organizations awarded the Bronze Medallion on December 16, 2019. The Bronze Medallion is the highest award conferred upon civilians by New York City.
Filmography
Film
Television
Bibliography
Naked Pictures of Famous People (Rob Weisbach Books, 1998). .
America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction (Warner Books, September 2004). .
Earth (The Book): A Visitor's Guide to the Human Race (Grand Central Publishing, 2010). .
See also
New Yorkers in journalism
Political satire
References
Further reading
David Marchese, "Jon Stewart Is Back to Weigh In", The New York Times Magazine, June 15, 2020.
Lisa Rogak, Angry Optimist: The Life and Times of Jon Stewart. New York: Saint Martin's Griffin, 2014. .
Bruce Watson, Jon Stewart: Beyond the Moments of Zen. New Word City, 2014.
External links
The Daily Show profile
1962 births
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American film producers
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American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
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Grammy Award winners
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Living people
Male actors from New Jersey
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Writers from New York City
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Television producers from New Jersey
Association football players not categorized by nationality | [
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235889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg%20Friedrich%20Sch%C3%B6mann | Georg Friedrich Schömann | Georg Friedrich Schömann (28 June 1793 – 25 March 1879), was a German classical scholar of Swedish heritage.
Background
He was born at Stralsund in Pomerania. He studied at the Universities of Greifswald and Jena, earning his PhD at Greifswald in 1815. In 1820 he obtained his habilitation with the thesis "De sortitione iudicum apud Athenienses". In 1827 he was appointed professor of ancient literature and rhetoric at the University of Greifswald, where in 1844, he was named first librarian. He died in Greifswald on 25 March 1879.
Classical studies
Schömann's main interest was in the constitutional and religious antiquities of Greece. His first works on the subject were "De comitiis Atheniensium" (1819), the first independent account of the forms of Athenian political life, and a treatise "De sortitione judicum apud Athenienses" (1820). In conjunction with M. H. E. Meier, Schömann wrote "Der attische Process" (1824). Among his other works are:
editions of Isaeus (1831) and Plutarch's "Agis and Cleomenes" (1839, important for the Attic law of inheritance and the history of the Spartan constitution).
"Antiquitates juris publici Graecorum" (1838).
a critical examination of Grote's account of the Athenian constitution (1854, Eng. trans. by Bernard Bosanquet, 1878) from a conservative point of view.
"Griechische Alterthümer" (2 volumes, 1855, 1859, 2nd edition 1861, 3rd edition 1871-73), treating of the general historical development of the Greek states, followed by a detailed account of the constitutions of Sparta, Crete and Athens, the cults and international relations of the Greek tribes.
The question of the religious institutions of the Greeks, which Schömann considered an essential part of their public life, soon attracted his attention, and he took the view that everything really religious was akin to Christianity, and that the greatest intellects of Greece produced intuitively Christian, dogmatic ideas. From this point of view he edited the "Theogony" of Hesiod (1868), with a commentary, chiefly mythological, and Cicero's "De natura deorum" (1850, 4th ed. 1876); translated with introduction and notes Aeschylus's "Prometheus Bound", and wrote a "Prometheus Unbound" (1844), in which Prometheus is brought to see the greatness of his offense and is pardoned by Zeus. Of his contributions on grammatical subjects special mention may be made of "Die Lehre von den Redetheilen nach den Alten dargestellt und beurtheilt" (1862), an introduction to the elements of the science of grammar. His many-sidedness is shown in his "Opuscula academica" (4 volumes, 1856-1871).
In Samuel Butler’s The Way of All Flesh (1903), the protagonist, Earnest Pontifex, is given a copy of De Comitiis Atheniensibus by his headmaster, Dr. Skinner.
See also
See Franz Susemihl in Conrad Bursian's "Biog. Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde" (1879); A. Baumeister in "Allgemeine deutsche Biographie", xxxii.; C. Bursian, "Gesch. der class. Philologie in Deutschland" (1883), and J. E. Sandys, "Hist. of Classical Scholarship", iii. (1908), p. 165.
References
1793 births
1879 deaths
German classical scholars
People from Stralsund
People from Swedish Pomerania
University of Greifswald faculty
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Translators from Greek
19th-century translators
German people of Swedish descent | [
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235890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing | Outsourcing | Outsourcing is an agreement in which one company hires another company to be responsible for a planned or existing activity that is or could be done internally,
and sometimes involves transferring employees and assets from one firm to another.
The term outsourcing, which came from the phrase outside resourcing, originated no later than 1981. The concept, which The Economist says has "made its presence felt since the time of the Second World War", often involves the contracting of a business process (e.g., payroll processing, claims processing), operational, and/or non-core functions, such as manufacturing, facility management, call centre/call centre support).
The practice of handing over control of public services to private enterprises, even if on a short-term limited basis, may also be described as "outsourcing".
Outsourcing includes both foreign and domestic contracting, and sometimes includes offshoring (relocating a business function to a distant country) or nearshoring (transferring a business process to a nearby country).
Offshoring and outsourcing are not mutually inclusive: there can be one without the other. They can be intertwined (offshore outsourcing), and can be individually or jointly, partially or completely reversed, involving terms such as reshoring, inshoring, and insourcing.
Terminology
Offshoring is moving the work to a distant country. If the distant workplace is a foreign subsidiary/owned by the company, then the offshore operation is a captive, sometimes referred to as in-house offshore.
is the practice of hiring an external organization to perform some business functions ("Outsourcing") in a country other than the one where the products or services are actually performed, developed or manufactured ("Offshore").
Insourcing entails bringing processes handled by third-party firms in-house, and is sometimes accomplished via vertical integration.
Nearshoring refers to outsource to a nearby country.
refers to outsourcing to companies in more rural locations within the same country.
(also known as ) is a form of IT-enabled "transfer of service industry employment from offices to home-based ... with appropriate telephone and Internet facilities". These telecommuting positions may be customer-facing or back-office, and the workers may be employees or independent contractors.
In-housing refers to hiring employees or using existing employees/resources to undo an outsourcing.
An Intermediary is a business which provides a contract service to another organization while contracting out that same service.
Make or buy decision refers to an organization's decision whether to outsource a process or service or to deliver it itself.
Acronyms
Some of the acronyms related to BPO (Business Process Outsourcing) are:
Overview
Motivations
Global labor arbitrage can provide major financial savings from lower international labor rates, which could be a major motivation for offshoring. Cost savings from economies of scale and specialization can also motivate outsourcing, even if not offshoring. Since about 2015 indirect revenue benefits have increasingly become additional motivators.
Another motivation is speed to market. To make this work, a new process was developed: "outsource the outsourcing process". Details of managing DuPont's CIO Cinda Hallman's $4 billion 10-year outsourcing contract with Computer Sciences Corporation and Andersen Consulting were outsourced, thus avoiding "inventing a process if we'd done it in-house". A term subsequently developed to describe this is .
Outsourcing can offer greater budget flexibility and control by allowing organizations to pay for the services and business functions they need, when they need them. It is often perceived to reduce hiring and training specialized staff, to make available specialized expertise, and to decrease capital, operating expenses, and risk.
"Do what you do best and outsource the rest" has become an internationally recognized business tagline first "coined and developed" in the 1990s by management consultant Peter Drucker. The slogan was primarily used to advocate outsourcing as a viable business strategy. Drucker began explaining the concept of "Outsourcing" as early as 1989 in his Wall Street Journal article entitled "Sell the Mailroom".
Sometimes the effect of what looks like outsourcing from one side and insourcing from the other side can be unexpected: The New York Times reported in 2001 that "6.4 million Americans .. worked for foreign companies as of 2001, [but] more jobs are being outsourced than" [the reverse].
Agreements
Two organizations may enter into a contractual agreement involving an exchange of services, expertise, and payments. Outsourcing is said to help firms to perform well in their core competencies, fuel innovation, and mitigate a shortage of skill or expertise in the areas where they want to outsource.
History
20th century
Following the adding of management layers in the 1950s and 1960s to support expansion for the sake of economy of scale, corporations found that agility and added profits could be obtained by focusing on core strengths; the 1970s and 1980s were the beginnings of what later was named outsourcing. Kodak's 1989 "outsourcing most of its information technology systems" was followed by others during the 1990s.
In 2013, the International Association of Outsourcing Professionals gave recognition to Electronic Data Systems Corporation's Morton H. Meyerson who, in 1967, proposed the business model that eventually became known as outsourcing.
IT-enabled services offshore outsourcing
Growth of offshoring of IT-enabled services, although not universally accepted, both to subsidiaries and to outside companies (offshore outsourcing) is linked to the availability of large amounts of reliable and affordable communication infrastructure following the telecommunication and Internet expansion of the late 1990s. Services making use of low-cost countries included
back-office and administrative functions, such as finance and accounting, HR, and legal
call centers and other customer-facing departments, such as marketing and sales services
IT infrastructure and application development
knowledge services, including engineering support, product design, research and development, and analytics.
Early 21st century
In the early 21st century, businesses increasingly outsourced to suppliers outside their own country, sometimes referred to as offshoring or offshore outsourcing. Other options subsequently emerged: nearshoring, crowdsourcing, multisourcing, strategic alliances/strategic partnerships, strategic outsourcing.
From Drucker's perspective, a company should only seek to subcontract in those areas in which it demonstrated no special ability. The business strategy outlined by his slogan recommended that companies should take advantage of a specialist provider's knowledge and economies of scale to improve performance and achieve the service needed.
In 2009, by way of recognition, Peter Drucker posthumously received a significant honor when he was inducted into the Outsourcing Hall of Fame for his outstanding work in the field.
Limitations due to growth
Inflation, high domestic interest rates, and economic growth pushed India's IT salaries 10 - 15%, making some jobs relatively "too" expensive, compared to other offshoring destinations. Areas for advancing within the value chain included research and development, equity analysis, tax-return processing, radiological analysis, and medical transcription.
Offshore alternatives
Japanese companies outsourced to China, particularly to formerly Japanese-occupied cities. German companies have outsourced to Eastern European countries with German-language affiliation, such as Poland and Romania. French companies outsource to North Africa for similar reasons.
For Australian IT companies, Indonesia is one of the major choice of offshoring destination. Near-shore location, common time zone and adequate IT work force are the reasons for offshoring IT services to Indonesia.
Growth of white-collar outsourcing
Although offshoring initially focused on manufacturing, white-collar offshoring/outsourcing has grown rapidly since the early 21st century. The digital workforce of countries like India and China are only paid a fraction of what would be minimum wage in the US. On average, software engineers are getting paid between 250,000 and 1,500,000 rupees (US$4,000 to US$23,000) in India as opposed to $40,000–$100,000 in countries such as the US and Canada. Closer to the US, Costa Rica has become a big source for the advantages of a highly educated labor force, a large bilingual population, stable democratic government, and similar time zones with the United States. It takes only a few hours to travel between Costa Rica and the US. Companies such as Intel, Procter & Gamble, HP, Gensler, Amazon and Bank of America have big operations in Costa Rica.
Unlike outsourced manufacturing, outsourced white collar workers can choose their working hours, and for which companies to work. Clients benefit from telecommuting, reduced office space, management salary, and employee benefits as these individuals are contracted workers.
However, ending a government oursourcing arrangement has its difficulties too.
Reasons for outsourcing
While U.S. companies do not outsource to reduce high top level executive or managerial costs, they primarily outsource to reduce peripheral and "non-core" business expenses. Further reasons are higher taxes, high energy costs, and excessive government regulation or mandates.
Mandated benefits like social security, Medicare, and safety protection (OSHA regulations) are also motivators. By contrast, executive pay in the United States in 2007, which could exceed 400 times more than average workers — a gap 20 times bigger than it was in 1965 is not a factor.
Other reasons include reducing and controlling operating costs, improving company focus, gaining access to world-class capabilities, tax credits, freeing internal resources for other purposes, streamlining or increasing efficiency for time-consuming functions, and maximizing use of external resources. For small businesses, contracting/subcontracting/"outsourcing" might be done to improve work-life balance
Outsourcing models
There are many outsourcing models, with variations by country, year and industry.
Another approach is to differentiate between tactical and strategic outsourcing models. Tactical models include:
Staff augmentation
Project-based
To gain expertise not available in-house.
Strategic consultancy includes for Business process improvement.
Innovation outsourcing
When offshore outsourcing knowledge work, firms heavily rely on the availability of technical personnel at offshore locations. One of the challenges in offshoring engineering innovation is a reduction in quality.
Co-sourcing
Co-sourcing is a hybrid of internal staff supplemented by an external service provider. Co-sourcing can minimize sourcing risks, increase transparency, clarity and lend toward better control than fully outsourced.
Co-sourcing services can supplement internal audit staff with specialized skills such as information risk management or integrity services, or help during peak periods, or similarly for other areas such as software development or human resources.
Identity management co-sourcing
Identity management co-sourcing is when on-site hardware interacts with outside identity services.
This contrasts with an "all in-the-cloud" service scenario, where the identity service is built, hosted and operated by the service provider in an externally hosted, cloud computing infrastructure.
Offshore Software R&D Co-sourcing
Offshore Software R&D is the provision of software development services by a supplier (whether external or internal) located in a different country from the one where the software will be used. The global software R&D services market, as contrasted to Information Technology Outsourcing (ITO) and BPO, is rather young and currently is at a relatively early stage of development.
Countries involved in outsourced software R&D
Canada, India, Ireland, and Israel were the four leading countries as of 2003. Although many countries have participated in the Offshore outsourcing of software development, their involvement in co-sourced and outsourced Research & Development (R&D) was somewhat limited. Canada, the second largest by 2009, had 21%
As of 2018, the top three were deemed by one "research-based policy analysis and commentary from leading economists" as China, India and Israel."
Gartner Group adds in Russia, but does not make clear whether this is pure R&D or run-of-the-mill IT outsourcing.
Usability issues in offshore development
The main driver for offshoring development work has been the greater availability of developers at a lower cost than in the home country. However, the rise in offshore development has taken place in parallel with an increased awareness of the importance of usability, and the user experience, in software. Outsourced development poses special problems for development, i.e. the more formal, contractual relationship between the supplier and client, and geographical separation place greater distance between the developers and users, which makes it harder to reflect the users' needs in the final product. This problem is exacerbated if the development is offshore. Further complications arise from cultural differences, which apply even if the development is carried out by an in-house offshore team.
Historically offshore development concentrated on back office functions but, as offshoring has grown, a wider range of applications have been developed. Offshore suppliers have had to respond to the commercial pressures arising from usability issues by building up their usability expertise. Indeed, this problem has presented an attractive opportunity to some suppliers to move up market and offer higher value services.
Legal issues
Offshore Software R&D means that company A turns over responsibility, in whole or in part, of an in-house software development to company B whose location is outside of company A's national jurisdiction. Maximizing the economic value of an offshore software development asset critically depends on understanding how best to use the available forms of legal regulations to protect intellectual rights. If the vendor cannot be trusted to protect trade secrets, then the risks of an offshoring software development may outweigh its potential benefits. Hence, it is critical to review the intellectual property policy of the potential offshoring supplier. The intellectual property protection policy of an offshore software development company must be reflected in these crucial documents: General Agreement; Non-Disclosure Agreement; Employee Confidentiality Contract.
2000-2012 R&D
As forecast in 2003, R&D is outsourced. Ownership of intellectual property by the outsourcing company, despite outside development, was the goal. To defend against tax-motivated cost-shifting, the US government passed regulations in 2006 to make outsourcing research harder. Despite many R&D contracts given to Indian universities and labs, only some research solutions were patented.
While Pfizer moved some of its R&D from the UK to India, a Forbes article suggested that it is increasingly more dangerous to offshore IP sensitive projects to India, because of India's continued ignorance of patent regulations. In turn, companies such as Pfizer and Novartis, have lost rights to sell many of their cancer medications in India because of lack of IP protection.
Future trends
A 2018 "The Future of Outsourcing" report began with "The future of outsourcing is digital." The ""Do what you do best and outsource the rest" approach means that "integration with retained systems" is the new transition challenge - people training still exists, but is merely an "also."
There is more complexity than before, especially when the outside company may be an integrator.
While the number of technically skilled labor grows in India, Indian offshore companies are increasingly tapping into the skilled labor already available in Eastern Europe to better address the needs of the Western European R&D market.
Changed government outsourcing focus
Forbes considered the US Presidential election of 2016 "the most disruptive change agent for the outsourcing industry", especially the renewed "invest in America" goal highlighted in campaigning, but the magazine tepidly reversed direction in 2019 as to the outcome for employment.
Furthermore, there are growing legal requirements for data protection, where obligations and implementation details must be understood by both sides. This includes dealing with customer rights.
Implications
Performance measurement
Focusing on software quality metrics is a good way to maintain track of how well a project is performing.
Management processes
Globalization and complex supply chains, along with greater physical distance between higher management and the production-floor employees often requires a change in management methodologies, as inspection and feedback may not be as direct and frequent as in internal processes. This often requires the assimilation of new communication methods such as voice over IP, instant messaging, and Issue tracking systems, new time management methods such as time tracking software, and new cost- and schedule-assessment tools such as cost estimation software.
The term Transition methodology describes the process of migrating knowledge, systems, and operating capabilities between the two sides.
Communications and customer service
In the area of call center outsourcing, especially when combined with offshoring, agents may speak with different linguistic features such as accents, word use and phraseology, which may impede comprehension.
Governance
In 1979, Nobel laureate Oliver E. Williamson wrote that the governance structure is the "framework within which the integrity of a transaction is decided." Adding further that "because contracts are varied and complex, governance structures vary with the nature of the transaction." University of Tennessee researchers have been studying complex outsourcing relationships since 2003. Emerging thinking regarding strategic outsourcing is focusing on creating a contract structure in which the parties have a vested interest in managing what are often highly complex business arrangements in a more collaborative, aligned, flexible, and credible way.
Security
Reduced security, sometimes related to lower loyalty may occur, even when "outsourced" staff change their legal status but not their desk. While security and compliance issues are supposed to be addressed through the contract between the client and the suppliers, fraud cases have been reported.
In April 2005, a high-profile case involved the theft of $350,000 from four Citibank customers when call-center workers acquired the passwords to customer accounts and transferred the money to their own accounts opened under fictitious names. Citibank did not find out about the problem until the American customers noticed discrepancies with their accounts and notified the bank.
Information technology
Richard Baldwin's 2006 The Great Unbundling work was followed in 2012 by Globalization's Second Acceleration (the Second Unbundling) and in 2016 by The Great Convergence: Information Technology and the New Globalization. It is here, rather than in manufacturing, that the bits economy can advance in ways that the economy of atoms and things can't: an early 1990s Newsweek had a half page cartoon showing someone who had just ordered a pizza online, and was seeking help to download it.
Step-in rights
If both sides have a contract clause permitting step-in rights, then there is a right, though not an obligation, to take over a task that is not going well, or even the entire project.
Issues and reversals
A number of outsourcings and offshorings that were deemed failures led to reversals signaled by use of terms such as Insourcing and reshoring. The New York Times reported in 2017 that IBM "plans to hire 25,000 more workers in the United States over the next four years," overlapping India-based Infosys's "10,000 workers in the United States over the next two years." A clue to a tipping point having been reached was a short essay titled "Maybe You Shouldn't Outsource Everything After All" and the longer "That Job Sent to India May Now Go to Indiana."
Among problems encountered were supply-and-demand induced raises in salaries and lost benefits of similar-time-zone. Other issues were differences in language and culture. Another reason for a decrease in outsourcing is that many jobs that were subcontracted abroad have been replaced by technological advances.
According to a 2005 Deloitte Consulting survey, a quarter of the companies which had outsourced tasks reversed their strategy.
These reversals, however, did not undo the damage. New factories often:
were in different locations
needed different skill sets
used more automation.
Public opinion in the US and other Western powers opposing outsourcing was particularly strengthened by the drastic increase in unemployment as a result of the 2007–2008 financial crisis. From 2000 to 2010, the US experienced a net loss of 687,000 jobs due to outsourcing, primarily in the computers and electronics sector. Public disenchantment with outsourcing has not only stirred political responses, as seen in the 2012 US presidential campaigns, but it has also made companies more reluctant to outsource or offshore jobs.
A counterswing depicted by a 2016 Deloitte survey suggested that companies are no longer reluctant to outsource. Deloitte's survey identified three trends:
Companies are broadening their approach to outsourcing as they begin to view it as more than a simple cost-cutting play
Organizations are "redefining the ways they enter into outsourcing relationships and manage the ensuing risks".
Organizations are changing the way they are managing their relationships with outsourcing providers to "maximize the value of those relationships".
Insourcing
Insourcing is the process of reversing an outsourcing, possibly using help from those not currently part of the inhouse staff.
Outsourcing has gone through many iterations and reinventions, and some outsourcing contracts have been partially or fully reversed. Often the reason is to maintain control of critical production or competencies, and insourcing is used to reduce costs of taxes, labor and transportation.
Regional insourcing, a related term, is when a company assigns work to a subsidiary that is within the same country. This differs from onshoring and reshoring: these may be either inside or outside the company.
Regional insourcing
Regional insourcing is a process in which a company establishes satellite locations for specific entities of their business, making use of advantages one state may have over another This concept focuses on the delegating or reassigning of procedures, functions, or jobs from production within a business in one location to another internal entity that specializes in that operation. This allows companies to streamline production, boost competency, and increase their bottom line.
This competitive strategy applies the classical argument of Adam Smith, which posits that two nations would benefit more from one another by trading the goods that they are more proficient at manufacturing.
Net effect on jobs
To those who are concerned that nations may be losing a net number of jobs due to outsourcing, some point out that insourcing also occurs. A 2004 study in the United States, the United Kingdom, and many other industrialized countries more jobs are insourced than outsourced. The New York Times disagreed, and wrote that free trade with low-wage countries is win-lose for many employees who find their jobs offshored or with stagnating wages.
The impact of offshore outsourcing, according to two estimates published by The Economist showed unequal effect during the period studied 2004 to 2015, ranging from 150,000 to as high as 300,000 jobs lost per year.
In 2010, a group of manufacturers started the Reshoring Initiative, focusing on bringing manufacturing jobs for American companies back to the country. Their data indicated that
140,000 American jobs were lost in 2003 due to offshoring. Eleven years later in 2014, the United States recovered 10,000 of those offshored positions; this marked the highest net gain in 20 years. More than 90% of the jobs that American companies "offshored" and outsourced manufacturing to low cost countries such as China, Malaysia and Vietnam did not return.
Insourcing crossbreeds
The fluctuation of prefixes and names give rise to many more "cross-breeds" of insourcing. For example, "offshore insourcing" is "when companies set up their own "" process centers overseas, sometimes called a Captive Service, taking advantage of their cheaper surroundings while maintaining control of their back-office work and business processes." "" refers to hiring developers to work in-house from virtual (remote) facilities.
In the United States
A 2012 series of articles in Atlantic Magazine highlighted a turning of the tide for parts of the USA's manufacturing industry. Specific causes identified include rising third-world wages, recognition of hidden off-shoring costs, innovations in design/manufacture/assembly/time-to-market, increasing fuel and transportation costs, falling energy costs in the US, increasing US labor productivity, and union flexibility. Hiring at GE's giant Appliance Park in Louisville increased 90% during 2012.
Standpoint of labor
From the standpoint of labor, outsourcing may represent a new threat, contributing to worker insecurity, and is reflective of the general process of globalization and economic polarization.
Low-skilled work: Outsourced low-skilled work to contractors who tend to employ migrant labor is causing a revival of radical trade union activity. In the UK, major hospitals, universities, ministries and corporations are being pressured; outsourced workers often earn minimum wage and lack sick pay, annual leave, pensions and other entitlements enjoyed by directly employed staff at the same workplaces.
In-housing: In January 2020, Tim Orchard, the CEO of Imperial College Healthcare Trust stated that the in-housing of over 1,000 Sodexo cleaners, caterers and porters across five NHS hospitals in London "will create additional cost pressures next year but we are confident that there are also benefits to unlock, arising from better team working, more co-ordinated planning and improved quality."
USA base: On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much and can no longer rely on consumer spending to drive demand.
Standpoint of government
Western governments may attempt to compensate workers affected by outsourcing through various forms of legislation. In Europe, the Acquired Rights Directive attempts to address the issue. The Directive is implemented differently in different nations. In the United States, the Trade Adjustment Assistance Act is meant to provide compensation for workers directly affected by international trade agreements. Whether or not these policies provide the security and fair compensation they promise is debatable.
Government response
In response to the recession, President Obama launched the SelectUSA program in 2011. In January 2012, President Obama Issued a Call to Action to Invest in America at the White House "Insourcing American Jobs" Forum. Obama met with representatives of companies such as Otis Elevator, Apple, DuPont, Master Lock, all of which had recently brought jobs back or made significant investments in the United States.
Policy-making strategy
A main feature of outsourcing influencing policy-making is the unpredictability it generates regarding the future of any particular sector or skill-group. The uncertainty of future conditions influences governance approaches to different aspects of long-term policies.
In particular, distinction is needed between
cyclical unemployment – for which pump it up solutions have worked in the past, and
structural unemployment – when "businesses and industries that employed them no longer exist, and their skills no longer have the value they once did."
Competitiveness
A governance that attempts adapting to the changing environment will facilitate growth and a stable transition to new economic structures until the economic structures become detrimental to the social, political and cultural structures.
Automation increases output and allows for reduced cost per item. When these changes are not well synronized, unemployment or underemployment is a likely result. When transportation costs remain unchanged, the negative effect may be permanent; jobs in protected sectors may no longer exist.
USA outsourcing's effect on Mexico, studies suggest, is that for every 10% increase in US wages, north Mexico cities along the border experienced wage rises of 2.5%, about 0.69% higher than in inner cities.
By contrast, higher rates of saving and investment in Asian countries, along with rising levels of education, studies suggest, fueled the ‘Asian miracle’ rather than improvements in productivity and industrial efficiency. There was also an increase in patenting and research and development expenditures.
Industrial policy
Outsourcing results from an internationalization of labor markets as more tasks become tradable. According to leading economist Greg Mankiw, the labour market functions under the same forces as the market of goods, with the underlying implication that the greater the number of tasks available to being moved, the better for efficiency under the gains from trade. With technological progress, more tasks can be offshored at different stages of the overall corporate process.
The tradeoffs are not always balanced, and a 2004 viewer of the situation said "the total number of jobs realized in the United States from insourcing is far less than those lost through outsourcing."
Environmental policy
Import competition has caused a de facto ‘race-to-the-bottom’ where countries lower environmental regulations to secure a competitive edge for their industries relative to other countries.
As Mexico competes with China over Canadian and American markets, its national Commission for Environmental Cooperation has not been active in enacting or enforcing regulations to prevent environmental damage from increasingly industrialized Export Processing Zones. Similarly, since the signing of NAFTA, heavy industries have increasingly moved to the US which has a comparative advantage due to its abundant presence of capital and well-developed technology. A further example of environmental de-regulation with the objective of protecting trade incentives have been the numerous exemptions to carbon taxes in European countries during the 1990s.
Although outsourcing can influence environmental de-regulatory trends, the added cost of preventing pollution does not majorly determine trade flows or industrialization.
Success stories
Companies such as ET Water Systems (now a Jain Irrigation Systems company), GE Appliances and Caterpillar found that with the increase of labor costs in Japan and China, the cost of shipping and custom fees, it cost only about 10% more to manufacture in America. Advances in technology and automation such as 3D printing technologies have made bringing manufacturing back to the United States, both cost effective and possible. Adidas, for example, plans producing highly customized shoes with 3D printers in the U.S.
Globalization and socio-economic implications
Industrialization
Outsourcing has contributed to further levelling of global inequalities as it has led to general trends of industrialization in the Global South and deindustrialization in the Global North.
Not all manufacturing should return to the U.S. The rise of the middle class in China, India and other countries has created markets for the products made in those countries. Just as the U.S. has a "Made in U.S.A." program, other countries support products made in their countries as well. Localization, the process of manufacturing products for the local market, is an approach to keeping some manufacturing offshore and bringing some of it back. Besides the cost savings of manufacturing closer to the market, the lead time for adapting to changes in the market is faster.
The rise in industrial efficiency which characterized development in developed countries has occurred as a result of labor-saving technological improvements. Although these improvements do not directly reduce employment levels but rather increase output per unit of work, they can indirectly diminish the amount of labor required for fixed levels of output.
Growth and income
It has been suggested that "workers require more education and different skills, working with software rather than drill presses" rather than rely on limited growth labor requirements for non-tradable services.
By location
United States
Protection of some data involved in outsourcing, such as about patients (HIPAA) is one of the few federal protections.
"Outsourcing" is a continuing political issue in the United States, having been conflated with offshoring during the 2004 U.S. presidential election. The political debate centered on outsourcing's consequences for the domestic U.S. workforce. Democratic U.S. presidential candidate John Kerry called U.S. firms that outsource jobs abroad or that incorporate overseas in tax havens to avoid paying their "fair share" of U.S. taxes "Benedict Arnold corporations".
A Zogby International August 2004 poll found that 71% of American voters believed "outsourcing jobs overseas" hurt the economy while another 62% believed that the U.S. government should impose some legislative action against these companies, possibly in the form of increased taxes. President Obama promoted the 'Bring Jobs Home Act' to help reshore jobs by using tax cuts and credits for moving operations back to the USA. The same bill was reintroduced in the 113th United States Congress as the Bring Jobs Home Act (S. 2569; 113th Congress).
While labor advocates claim union busting as one possible cause of outsourcing, another claim is high corporate income tax rate in the U.S. relative to other OECD nations, and the practice of taxing revenues earned outside of U.S. jurisdiction, a very uncommon practice. Some counterclaim that the actual taxes paid by US corporations may be considerably lower than "official" rates due to the use of tax loopholes, tax havens, and "gaming the system".
Sarbanes-Oxley has also been cited as a factor.
Europe
Council Directive 77/187 of 14 February 1977 protects employees' rights in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of businesses (as amended 29 June 1998, Directive 98/50/EC & 12 March 2001's Directive 2001/23). Rights acquired by employees with the former employer are to be safeguarded when they, together with the undertaking in which they are employed, are transferred to another employer, i.e., the contractor.
Case subsequent to the European Court of Justice's Christel Schmidt v. Spar- und Leihkasse der früheren Ämter Bordesholm, Kiel und Cronshagen, Case C-392/92 [1994] have disputed whether a particular contracting-out exercise constituted a transfer of an undertaking (see, for example, Ayse Süzen v. Zehnacker Gebäudereinigung GmbH Krankenhausservice, Case C-13/95 [1997]). In principle, employees may benefit from the protection offered by the directive.
Asia
Countries that have been the focus of outsourcing include India, Pakistan, and the Philippines for American and European companies, and China and Vietnam for Japanese companies.
The Asian IT service market is still in its infancy, but in 2008 industry think tank Nasscom-McKinsey predicted a $17 billion IT service industry in India alone.
A China-based company, Lenovo, outsourced/reshored manufacturing of some time-critical customized PCs to the U.S. since "If it made them in China they would spend six weeks on a ship."
Article 44 of Japan's Employment Security Act implicitly bans the domestic/foreign workers supplied by unauthorized companies regardless of their operating locations. The law will apply if at least one party of suppliers, clients, labors reside in Japan, and if the labors are the integral part of the chain of command by the client company, or the supplier.
No person shall carry out a labor supply business or have workers supplied by a person who carries out a labor supply business work under his/her own directions or orders, except in cases provided for in the following Article.
A person who falls under any of the following items shall be punished by imprisonment with work for not more than one year or a fine of not more than one million yen. (Article 64)
Unless permitted by act, no person shall obtain profit by intervening, as a business, in the employment of another.
Victims can lodge a criminal complaint against the CEO of the suppliers and clients. The CEO risks arrest, and the Japanese company may face a private settlement with financial package in the range between 20 and 100 million JPY (200,000 - million USD).
Nearshoring
When the New York Times headlined "Near Source of Supplies the Best Policy" their main focus was on "cost of production."
Although transportation cost was addressed, they did not choose among:
transporting supplies to place of production
transporting finished goods to place(s) of sale
cost and availability of labor
Nearshoring or Nearsourcing is having business processes, especially information technology processes such as application maintenance and development or testing, in a nearby country, often sharing a border with the target country. Commonalities usually include: geographic, temporal (time zone), cultural, social, linguistic, economic, political, or historical linkages.
The term Nearshoring is a derivative of the business term offshoring. The hybrid term "nearshore outsourcing" is sometimes used as an alternative for nearshoring, since nearshore workers are not employees of the company for which the work is performed. It can also be a reversal, by contracting a development partner in a different country but in close proximity (same or nearby time zone), facilitating communication and allowing frequent visits. This is a business strategy to place some or all of its operations close to where its products are sold. Typically, this is contrasted with the trend to outsource low-wage manufacturing operations to developing nations (offshoring), and reflects a reversal of that trend. Sometime, the work is done by an outside contracted company rather than internally (insourcing), but unlike offshore outsourcing, the work is done in fairly close proximity to either the company headquarters or its target market.
In Europe, nearshore outsourcing relationships are between clients in larger European economies and various providers in smaller European nations.
Major centers are Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Czech Republic, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Portugal, Slovakia, and the Baltic. The attraction is lower-cost skilled labor forces, and a less stringent regulatory environment, but crucially they allow for more day to day physical oversight. These countries also have strong cultural ties to the major economic centers in Europe as they are part of EU. For example, as of 2020 Portugal is considered to be the most trending outsourcing destination as big companies like Mercedes, Google, Jaguar, Sky News, Natixis and BNP Paribas opening development centers in Lisbon and Porto, where labor costs are lower, talent comes from excellent Universities, there's availability of skills and the time zone is GMT (the same as London).
In the US, American clients nearshore to Canada and Mexico, as well as to many nations in Central and South America.
Reasons to nearshore
Culture
Cultural alignment with the business is often more readily achieved through near-sourcing due to there being similarities between the cultures in which the business is located and in which services are sub-contracted, including for example proficiency with the language used in that culture.
Communication
Constraints imposed by time zones can complicate communication; near-sourcing or nearshoring offers a solution. English language skills are the cornerstone of Nearshore and IT services. Collaboration by universities, industry, and government has slowly produced improvements. Proximity also facilitates in-person interaction regularly and/or when required.
Other Advantages
Software development nearshoring is mainly due to flexibility when it comes to upscale or downscale teams or availability of low cost
skilled developers. The nearshoring of call centers, shared services centers, and (Business Process Outsourcing) rose as offshore outsourcing was seen to be relatively less valuable.
The complexities of offshoring stem from language and cultural differences, travel distances, workday/time zone mismatches, and greater effort for needed for establishing trust and long-term relationships. Many nearshore providers attempted to circumvent communication and project management barriers by developing new ways to align organizations. As a result, concepts such as remote insourcing were created to give clients more control in managing their own projects. Nearshoring still hasn't overcome all barriers, but proximity allows more flexibility to align organizations.
Visa requirements
The United States has a special visa, the H-1B, which enables American companies to temporarily (up to three years, or by extension, six) hire foreign workers to supplement their employees or replace those holding existing positions. In hearings on this matter, a United States senator called these "their outsourcing visa."
Examples
In 2003 Procter & Gamble outsourced their facilities' management support, but it did not involve offshoring.
Dell offshored to India in 2001 but reversed since "customers were not happy with the prior arrangement ..."
Print and mail outsourcing
Print and mail outsourcing is the outsourcing of document printing and distribution.
The Print Services & Distribution Association was formed in 1946, and its members provide services that today might involve the word outsource. Similarly, members of the Direct Mail Marketing Association were the "outsourcers" for advertising agencies and others doing mailings. DMMA celebrated their 100th anniversary in 2017.
The term "outsourcing" became very common in the print and mail business during the 1990s, and later expanded to be very broad and inclusive of most any process by the year 2000. Today, there are web based print to mail solutions for small to mid-size companies which allow the user to send one to thousands of documents into the mail stream, directly from a desktop or web interface.
Marketing outsourcing
The term outsource marketing has been used in Britain to mean the outsourcing of the marketing function. The motivation for this has been:
cost reduction.
specialized expertise.
speed of execution
short term staff augmentation
While much of this work is the "bread and butter" of specialized departments within advertising agencies, sometimes specialist are used, such as when the Guardian newspaper outsourced most of their marketing design in May 2010.
Business Process Outsourcing
Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) is a subset of outsourcing that involves the contracting of the operations and responsibilities of a specific business process to a third-party service provider. Originally, this was associated with manufacturing firms, such as Coca-Cola that outsourced large segments of its supply chain.
BPO is typically categorized into back office and front office outsourcing.
BPO can be offshore outsourcing, near-shore outsourcing to a nearby country, or onshore outsource to the same country. Information Technology Enabled Service (ITES-BPO), Knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) and Legal process outsourcing (LPO) are some of the sub-segments of BPO.
Although BPO began as a cost-reducer, changes (specifically the move to more service-based rather than product-based contracts), companies now choose to outsource their back-office increasingly for time flexibility and direct quality control. Business process outsourcing enhances the flexibility of an organization in different ways:
BPO vendor charges are project-based or fee-for-service, using business models such as Remote In-Sourcing or similar software development and outsourcing models. This can help a company to become more flexible by transforming fixed into variable costs. A variable cost structure helps a company responding to changes in required capacity and does not require a company to invest in assets, thereby making the company more flexible.
BPO also permits focusing on a company's core competencies.
Supply chain management with effective use of supply chain partners and business process outsourcing can increase the speed of several business processes.
BPO caveats
Even various contractual compensation strategies may leave the company as having a new "single point of failure" (where even an after the fact payment is not enough to offset "complete failure of the customer's business"). Unclear contractual issues are not the only risks; there's also changing requirements and unforeseen charges, failure to meet service levels, and a dependence on the BPO which reduces flexibility. The latter is called lock-in; flexibility may be lost due to penalty clauses and other contract terms. Also, the selection criteria may seem vague and undifferentiated
Security risks can arise regarding both from physical communication and from a privacy perspective. Employee attitude may change, and the company risks losing independence.
Risks and threats of outsourcing must therefore be managed, to achieve any benefits. In order to manage outsourcing in a structured way, maximising positive outcome, minimising risks and avoiding any threats, a business continuity management (BCM) model is set up. BCM consists of a set of steps, to successfully identify, manage and control the business processes that are, or can be outsourced.
Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is a framework of BPO focused on identifying potential outsourceable information systems. L. Willcocks, M. Lacity and G. Fitzgerald identify several contracting problems companies face, ranging from unclear contract formatting, to a lack of understanding of technical IT processes.
Technological pressures
Industry analysts have identified robotic process automation (RPA) software and in particular the enhanced self-guided RPAAI based on artificial intelligence as a potential threat to the industry and speculate as to the likely long-term impact. In the short term, however, there is likely to be little impact as existing contracts run their course: it is only reasonable to expect demand for cost efficiency and innovation to result in transformative changes at the point of contract renewals. With the average length of a BPO contract being 5 years or more – and many contracts being longer – this hypothesis will take some time to play out.
On the other hand, an academic study by the London School of Economics was at pains to counter the so-called "myth" that RPA will bring back many jobs from offshore. One possible argument behind such an assertion is that new technology provides new opportunities for increased quality, reliability, scalability and cost control, thus enabling BPO providers to increasingly compete on an outcomes-based model rather than competing on cost alone. With the core offering potentially changing from a "lift and shift" approach based on fixed costs to a more qualitative, service based and outcomes-based model, there is perhaps a new opportunity to grow the BPO industry with a new offering.
Industry size
One estimate of the worldwide BPO market from the BPO Services Global Industry Almanac 2017, puts the size of the industry in 2016 at about US$140 billion.
India, China and the Philippines are major powerhouses in the industry. In 2017, in India, the BPO industry generated US$30 billion in revenue according to the national industry association. The BPO industry is a small segment of the total outsourcing industry in India. The BPO industry workforce in India is expected to shrink by 14% in 2021.
The BPO industry and IT services industry in combination are worth a total of US$154 billion in revenue in 2017. The BPO industry in the Philippines generated $22.9 billion in revenues in 2016, while around 700 thousand medium and high skill jobs would be created by 2022.
In 2015, official statistics put the size of the total outsourcing industry in China, including not only the BPO industry but also IT outsourcing services, at $130.9 billion.
See also
Outstaffing
Collaboration
Banking BPO services
BPO security
Business process outsourcing to India
Business process outsourcing in the Philippines
Business process outsourcing in China
Call center industry in the Philippines
Call center industry in Bangladesh
Contract manufacturer
Contingent workforce
Crowdsourcing
Facilities management
Freelance marketplace
Globality
Global sourcing
Globalization
Globally Integrated Enterprise
Licensed production
Offshore custom software development
Offshoring Research Network
Outsourced document processing
Professional Employer Organization
Recruitment
Selfsourcing
Software testing outsourcing
Supply chain
Telecentre
Telecommuting
Theory of the firm#Economic theory of outsourcing
Virtual assistance
References
Further reading
External links
Business-to-business
Business process
Business terms
Economic globalization
Information technology
Information technology management
International business
International factor movements
International trade
Office work
Offshoring
Postal services
Telecommuting | [
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235892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurality%20%28voting%29 | Plurality (voting) | A plurality vote (in Canada and the United States) or relative majority (in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth except Canada) describes the circumstance when a candidate or proposition polls more votes than any other but does not receive more than half of all votes cast.
For example, if from 100 votes that were cast, 45 were for Candidate A, 30 were for Candidate B and 25 were for Candidate C, then Candidate A received a plurality of votes but not a majority. In some votes, the winning candidate or proposition may have only a plurality, depending on the rules of the organization holding the vote.
Versus majority
In international institutional law, a "simple majority" (also a "majority") vote is more than half of the votes cast (disregarding abstentions) among alternatives; a "qualified majority" (also a "supermajority") is a number of votes above a specified percentage (e.g. two-thirds); a "relative majority" (also a "plurality") is the number of votes obtained that is greater than any other option; and an "absolute majority" is a number of votes "greater than the number of votes that possibly can be obtained at the same time for any other solution", when voting for multiple alternatives at a time.
Henry Watson Fowler suggested that the American terms "plurality" and "majority" offer single-word alternatives for the corresponding two-word terms in British English, "relative majority" and "absolute majority", and that in British English "majority" is sometimes understood to mean "receiving the most votes" and can therefore be confused with "plurality". William Poundstone observes that systems which allow choosing by a plurality of votes are more vulnerable to the spoiler effect—where two or more similar choices each draw fewer votes than a dissimilar choice that would have lost to any individual similar choice on its own—than systems which require a majority.
See also
Plurality voting system
Plurality-at-large voting
Plurality opinion
Voting system
Notes
References
Majority
Voting theory | [
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235893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submersible%20pump | Submersible pump | A submersible pump (or sub pump, electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between the pump and the fluid surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface, rather than jet pumps, which create a vacuum and rely upon atmospheric pressure. Submersibles use pressurized fluid from the surface to drive a hydraulic motor downhole, rather than an electric motor, and are used in heavy oil applications with heated water as the motive fluid.
History
Ca. 1928 Armenian oil delivery system engineer and inventor Armais Arutunoff successfully installed the first submersible oil pump in an oil field. In 1929, Pleuger Pumps (today Pleuger Industries) pioneered the design of the submersible turbine pump, the forerunner of the modern multi-stage submersible pump.
Working principle
Electric submersible pumps are multistage centrifugal pumps operating in a vertical position. Liquids, accelerated by the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the diffuser, where a conversion of kinetic to pressure energy takes place. This is the main operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow pumps. In the HSP, the motor is a hydraulic motor rather than an electrical motor, and may be closed cycle (keeping the power fluid separate from the produced fluid) or open cycle (mingling the power fluid with the produced fluid downhole, with surface separation).
The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical coupling at the bottom of the pump. Fluids
enter the pump through an intake screen and are lifted by the pump stages. Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the length of the shaft, providing radial support to the pump shaft. An optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump, but most of those forces are absorbed by the protector's thrust bearing.
There are also screw-type submersible pumps, there is a steel screw which is used as a working element in them. The screw allows the pump to work in water with a high sand content and other mechanical impurities.
Applications
Submersible pumps are found in many applications. Single stage pumps are used for drainage, sewage pumping, general industrial pumping and slurry pumping. They are also popular with Pond filters. Multiple stage submersible pumps are typically lowered down a borehole, and most typically used for residential, commercial, municipal and industrial water extraction (abstraction), water wells and in oil wells.
Other uses for submersible pumps include sewage treatment plants, seawater handling, fire fighting (since it is flame retardant cable), water well and deep well drilling, offshore drilling rigs, artificial lifts, mine dewatering, and irrigation systems.
Pumps in electrical hazardous locations used for combustible liquids or for water that may be contaminated with combustible liquids must be designed not to ignite the liquid or vapors.
Use in oil wells
Submersible pumps are used in oil production to provide a relatively efficient form of "artificial lift", able to operate across a broad range of flow rates and depths. By decreasing the pressure at the bottom of the well (by lowering bottom-hole flowing pressure, or increasing drawdown), significantly more oil can be produced from the well when compared with natural production. The pumps are typically electrically powered, referred to as Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESP) or if hydraulically powered, referred to as Hydraulic Submersible Pumps (HSP).
ESP systems consist of both surface components (housed in the production facility, for example an oil platform), and sub-surface components (found in the well hole). Surface components include the motor controller (often a variable speed controller), surface cables and transformers. The subsurface components are deployed by attaching to the downhole end of a tubing string, while at the surface, and then lowered into the well bore along with the tubing.
A high-voltage (3 to 5 kV) alternating-current source at the surface drives the subsurface motor. Until recently, ESPs had been costly to install due to the requirement of an electric cable extending from the source to the motor. This cable had to be wrapped around jointed tubing and connected at each joint. New coiled tubing umbilicals allow for both the piping and electric cable to be deployed with a single conventional coiled tubing unit. Cables for sensor and control data may also be included.
The subsurface components generally include a pump portion and a motor portion, with the motor downhole from the pump. The motor rotates a shaft that, in turn, rotates pump impellers to lift fluid through production tubing to the surface. These components must reliably work at high temperatures of up to and high pressures of up to , from deep wells of up to deep with high energy requirements of up to 1000 horsepower (750 kW). The pump itself is a multi-stage unit, with the number of stages being determined by the operating requirements. Each stage includes an impeller and diffuser. Each impeller is coupled to the rotating shaft and accelerates fluid from near the shaft radially outward. The fluid then enters a non-rotating diffuser, which is not coupled to the shaft and contains vanes that direct fluid back toward the shaft. Pumps come in diameters from 90 mm (3.5 inches) to 254 mm (10 inches) and vary between and in length. The motor used to drive the pump is typically a three-phase, squirrel cage induction motor, with a nameplate power rating in the range 7.5 kW to 560 kW (at 60 Hz).
ESP assemblies may also include: seals coupled to the shaft between the motor and pump; screens to reject sand; and fluid separators at the pump intake that separate gas, oil and water. ESPs have dramatically lower efficiencies with significant fractions of gas, greater than about 10% volume at the pump intake, so separating gas from oil prior to the pump can be important. Some ESPs include a water/oil separator which permits water to be re-injected downhole. As some wells produce up to 90% water, and fluid lift is a significant cost, re-injecting water before lifting it to the surface can reduce energy consumption and improve economics Given ESPs' high rotational speed of up to 4000 rpm (67 Hz) and tight clearances, they are not very tolerant of solids, such as sand.
There are at least 15 brands of oilfield ESPs used throughout the world.
Cables
Submersible pump cable are electrical conductors designed for use in wet ground or under water, with types specialized for pump environmental conditions.
A submersible pump cable is a specialized product to be used for a submersible pump in a deep well, or in similarly harsh conditions. The cable needed for this type of application must be durable and reliable, as the installation location and environment can be extremely restrictive as well as hostile. As such, submersible pump cable can be used in both fresh and salt water. It is also suitable for direct burial and within well castings. A submersible pump cable's area of installation is physically restrictive. Cable manufacturers must keep these factors in mind to achieve the highest possible degree of reliability. The size and shape of submersible pump cable can vary depending on the usage and preference and pumping instrument of the installer. Pump cables are made in single and multiple conductor types and may be flat or round in cross section; some types include control wires as well as power conductors for the pump motor.
Conductors are often color-coded for identification and an overall cable jacket may also be color-coded.
Major types of cable include:
In 3&4 Core cable as per right side SPC types image shown, plain Copper/Tinned Copper used as a conductor.
PVC 3&4 Core Cable
Flat Cable
Round Cable
Rubber 3&4 Core Cable
Flat Cable
Round Cable
Flat Drincable
HO7RN-F Cable
See also
Centrifugal pump
Eductor-jet pump
Booster pump
References
External links
]
Versatile Pump Works Under Water, July 1947, Popular Science excellent cutaway drawing of large public water works submersible pump design
Pumps
Irrigation
Oil wells | [
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235896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-face%20mechanical%20seal | End-face mechanical seal | An end-face mechanical seal, or a mechanical end-face seal, also referred to as a mechanical face seal but usually simply as a mechanical seal, is a type of seal used in rotating equipment, such as pumps, mixers, blowers, and compressors. When a pump operates, the liquid could leak out of the pump between the rotating shaft and the stationary pump casing. Since the shaft rotates, preventing this leakage can be difficult. Earlier pump models used mechanical packing (otherwise known as gland packing) to seal the shaft. Since World War II, mechanical seals have replaced packing in many applications.
An end-face mechanical seal uses both rigid and flexible elements that maintain contact at a sealing interface and slide on each other, allowing a rotating element to pass through a sealed case. The elements are both hydraulically and mechanically loaded with a spring or other device to maintain contact. For similar designs using flexible elements, see radial shaft seal (or "lip seal") and O-ring.
Mechanical seal fundamentals
An end-face mechanical seal consists of rotating and stationary components which are tightly pressed together using both mechanical and hydraulic forces. Even though these components are tightly pressed together, a small amount of leakage occurs through a clearance that is related to the surface roughness.
Components
All end-face mechanical seals have both rotating elements and stationary elements and include five basic components:
seal ring
mating ring
secondary sealing elements
springs
hardware.
The seal ring and mating ring are sometimes referred to as the primary sealing surfaces. The primary sealing surfaces are the heart of the end-face mechanical seal. A common material combination for the primary sealing surfaces is a hard material, such as silicon carbide, ceramic or tungsten carbide and a softer material, such as carbon. Many other materials can be used depending on pressure, temperature and the chemical properties of the liquid being sealed. The seal ring and mating ring are in intimate contact, one ring rotates with the shaft and the other ring is stationary. Either ring may be rotating or stationary. Also, either ring may be made of hard or soft material. These two rings are machined using a process called lapping in order to obtain the necessary degree of surface finish and flatness. The seal ring is flexible in the axial direction; the mating ring is not flexible.
Seal ring
By definition, the seal ring is the axially flexible member of the end-face mechanical seal. The design of the seal ring must allow for minimizing distortion and maximizing heat transfer while considering the secondary sealing element, drive mechanism, spring and ease of assembly. Many seal rings contain the seal face diameters, although this is not a requirement of the primary ring. The seal ring always contains the balance diameter.
The shape of the seal ring may vary considerably according to the incorporation of various design features. In fact, the shape of the seal ring is often the most distinct identifying characteristic of a seal.
Mating ring
By definition, the mating ring is the non-flexible member of the mechanical seal. The design of the mating ring must allow for minimizing distortion and maximizing heat transfer while considering ease of assembly and the static secondary sealing element. The mating ring can contain the seal face diameters, although this is not a requirement of the mating ring. To minimize primary ring motion, the mating ring must be mounted solidly and should form a perpendicular plane for the primary ring to run against. Like seal rings, mating rings are available in many different shapes.
Secondary sealing elements
Secondary sealing elements are gaskets which provide sealing between the seal ring and shaft (or housing) and the mating ring and shaft (or housing). Typical secondary sealing elements include O-rings, wedges or rubber diaphragms. The secondary sealing elements (there may be a number of them) are not rotating relative to one another. The secondary sealing element for the mating ring is always static axially (although it may be rotating). Secondary sealing elements for the seal ring are described as being either pusher or non-pusher in the axial direction. The term pusher is applied to secondary seals that must be pushed back and forth by the movement of the shaft or primary ring whereas non-pusher secondary seals are static and associated with bellows seal rings.
Springs
In order to keep the primary sealing surfaces in intimate contact, an actuating force is required. This actuating force is provided by a spring. In conjunction with the spring, axial forces may also be provided by the pressure of the sealed fluid acting on the seal ring. Many different types of springs are used in mechanical seals: single spring, multiple springs, wave springs, and metal bellows.
Hardware
The term "hardware" is used to describe various devices which hold the other components together in the desired relationship. For example, a retainer might be used to package the seal ring, secondary sealing element and springs into a single unit. Another example of hardware is the drive mechanism which is necessary to prevent axial and rotational slippage of the seal on the shaft.
Classifications
There are a number of different ways in which “seals” may be classified. Sometimes a reference to a “seal” may be to a sealing system whereas other times the reference is to a device such as a gasket, an O-ring, compression packing, etc. In this article, the reference is to an end-face mechanical seal.
One such method of classification considers design features or the configuration in which these features may be used. Classification by Design accounts for the details and features incorporated into a single seal ring/mating ring pair. Classification by Configuration includes the orientation and combination of the seal ring/mating ring pair.
Design features
The individual components of end-face mechanical seals may be designed to include features such as:
face treatments such as hydrodynamic features, pads, etc.
balance ratio
pusher or bellows
spring design
hardware for containing assembly and providing drive mechanism
considerations for secondary sealing element.
In general, design features are not completely independent; that is, emphasis of a particular feature may also influence other features. For example, selection of a particular secondary sealing element may influence the shape of the seal ring.
Face treatment
The most common seal face design is a plain, flat, smooth surface but there are many special treatments intended for specific applications. The most common objective for the face treatment is to reduce the magnitude of mechanical contact. In general, face treatments provide a means of modifying the pressure distribution between the seal faces through hydrostatic or hydrodynamic topography. Seal face topography refers to the three dimensional aspects of the seal face surface.
Balance ratio
In addition to the spring force, the seal faces are pushed together through pressure acting hydrostatically on the geometry of the seal. The ratio of the geometric area tending to close the seal faces to the area tending to open the seal faces is called the balance ratio.
Pusher or bellows seal ring
Pusher seals employ a dynamic secondary sealing element (typically an O-ring) which moves axially with the seal ring. Bellows seals employ a static secondary seal (such as an O-ring, high temperature graphite packing, or elastomeric bellows and axial movement is accommodated by contraction or expansion of the bellows.
Spring design
Many different types of springs are used, including: relatively large single coil springs, multiple sets of small coil springs, and wave springs. A formed or welded metal bellows can also act as the spring. Corrosion, clogging and movement are major considerations when selecting a spring design.
Hardware
In addition to retaining the other components, the seal hardware includes the drive mechanism which is necessary to prevent axial and rotational slippage of the seal on the shaft. The drive mechanism must withstand the torque produced by the seal faces while also allowing the seal ring to move axially. In addition to torque, the drive mechanism must withstand the axial thrust produced by hydrostatic pressure acting on the components. The various types of drive mechanisms include: dent drive, key drive, set screws, pins, slots, snap rings and many more. Typically, the retainer for the seal ring might include set screws, a dent or slot drive, recesses for the spring and a snap ring to complete the assembly. In contrast, mating ring hardware might be only a pin or slot to prevent rotation. Corrosion is a major consideration when selecting seal hardware.
Considerations for secondary sealing elements
Both the seal ring and mating must accommodate secondary sealing elements. In some designs, various retainers, sleeves and other components may also include secondary sealing elements. Whereas a simple O-ring might require only a groove for fitting, some secondary sealing elements (for example, packing) might require mechanical compression. Although O-rings are available in many elastomers, sometimes an elastomer might not be compatible with the fluid being sealed or might be considered too expensive. In such cases, a secondary sealing element might be manufactured from perfluoroelastomer and shaped in the form of a wedge, V or U.
Configurations
Although all end-face mechanical seals must contain the five elements described above, those functional elements may be arranged or oriented in many different ways. Several dimensional and functional standards exist, such as API Standard 682 - Shaft Sealing Systems for Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps, which describes the configurations for used in Oil & Gas applications. Even though the scope of API 682 is somewhat limited, it may be extended to describe end-face mechanical seals in general.
Configuration refers to the number and orientation of the components in the end-face mechanical seal assembly. For example, springs may be rotating or stationary. Single or multiple pairs of sealing faces may be used. For multiple seals, the individual pairs of sealing faces may be similarly oriented or opposed. Containment devices such as bushings may or may not be used as part of the configuration.
Component vs cartridge
The basic components of an end-face mechanical seal may be installed directly onto the shaft but a popular approach is to pre-assemble the components into some sort of package for ease of installation. When the components are pre-assembled onto a sleeve and gland plate, the complete assembly is called a cartridge seal. This complete assembly can be easily slid onto the shaft and bolted in place thus reducing the potential for installation errors. Some cartridge seals use regular component seal parts whereas other cartridge seals might use specific purpose parts. API 682 specifies that only cartridge seals are acceptable to the standard.
Rotating vs stationary springs
Either the seal ring or the mating ring may be the rotating element. Seals with rotating seal rings are said to be "rotating" seals; seals with stationary seal rings are said to be "stationary" seals. Because the springs are always associated with the seal rings, sometimes the distinction is made as "rotating springs" versus "stationary springs". For convenience, rotating seals are used in most equipment; however, stationary seals have some advantages over rotating seals. In small, mass-produced seals for modest services, the entire seal may be placed in a package which minimizes shaft and housing requirements for the equipment. Stationary seals are also used to advantage in large sizes or at high rotational speeds.
Single vs multiple
When classifying end-face mechanical seals by configuration, the first consideration is whether there is only one set of sealing faces or multiple sets. If multiple sets are used, are the sets configured to be unpressurized or pressurized.
Tandem seals
A tandem seal consists of two sets primary sealing surfaces with the space in-between the two seals filled with a compatible low pressure fluid called the buffer fluid. This buffer fluid/space may be monitored to detect performance of the assembly. Unfortunately, the definition of “tandem seal” was often stated in a confusing manner. In particular, a tandem seal was usually described as two seals pointing in the same direction; that is, in a face-to-back orientation. This orientation is not necessary to the function of the configuration and the API chose to use the term Arrangement 2 instead of tandem in the API 682 standard.
Double seals
A double seal consists of two sets primary sealing surfaces with the space in-between the two seals filled with a compatible pressurized fluid called the barrier fluid. This barrier fluid/space may be monitored to detect performance of the assembly. Unfortunately, the definition of “double seal” was often stated in a confusing manner. In particular, a double seal was usually described as two seals pointing in the opposite direction; that is, in a back-to-back orientation. This orientation is not necessary to the function of the configuration and the API chose to use the term Arrangement 3 instead of double in the API 682 standard.
Seal piping plans
An end-face mechanical seal generates heat from rubbing and viscous shear and must be cooled to assure good performance and reliable operation. Typically, cooling is provided by circulating fluid around the seal. This fluid, known as a flush, may be the same as the fluid being sealed or an entirely different fluid. The flush may be heated, filtered or otherwise treated to improve the operating environment around the seal. Collectively, the flush and treating systems are known as piping plans. Piping plans for mechanical seals are defined by American Petroleum Institute specification 682 and are given a number. Some piping plans are used for single seals and some only for multiple seals. Some piping plans are intended to provide a means of monitoring the seal. Some sealing systems include more than one piping plan. See the table below for a summary and description of piping plans.
Origins and development
The mechanical seal appears to have been invented by George J. Cooke
His design was originally called a "Cooke Seal" and he founded the Cooke Seal Company. Cooke's seal (which actually did not have a means of drive) was first used in refrigeration compressors. The Cooke Seal Company was a sideline product for Cooke and he sold the company to Muskegon Piston Ring Company where it became the Rotary Seal Division. Muskegon Piston Ring sold its Rotary Seal Division to EG&G Sealol who were later acquired by John Crane Incorporated.
The first commercially successful mechanical seal to be used on centrifugal pumps was probably made by the Cameron Division of the Ingersoll-Rand Company. The Cameron seal was installed in a number of centrifugal pipeline pumps in 1928.
Mechanical seals in the 1930s often used a face combination of hardened steel versus leaded bronze. Carbon-graphite was not widely used as a seal face material until after World War II. Soft packing was used as secondary sealing elements. The O-ring was developed in the 1930s but not used in mechanical seals until after World War II.
In the late 1930s, probably about 1938 or 1939, mechanical seals began to replace packing on automobile water pumps. The famous Jeep of WWII used a rubber bellows seal in the water pump. After WWII, all automobile water pumps used mechanical seals.
In the mid-1940s pump manufacturers such as Ingersoll-Rand, Worthington, Pacific, Byron Jackson, United, Union and others began to make their own mechanical seals. Eventually most of these companies got out of the seal business but the Byron Jackson seal became the Borg-Warner seal (now Flowserve) and the Worthington seal was sold to Chempro (now John Crane - Sealol).
Cartridge seals were used on a regular basis by 1950; this convenient packaging of seal, sleeve and gland was probably developed by C. E. Wiessner of Durametallic about 1942.
By 1954, mechanical seals were used with such regularity in the refining and process industries that the American Petroleum Institute included seal specifications in the first edition of its Standard 610, "Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Services".
By 1956, many of the conceptual designs and application guidelines that are in use today had been developed. Commercially available designs included both rotating and stationary flexible elements, balanced and unbalanced hydraulic loading, rubber and metal bellows, and a wide variety of spring designs and types. Secondary sealing elements included O-rings, wedges, U-cups and various packings. Carbon-graphite was widely used as a seal face material; the mating seal face was often cast iron, Ni-resist, 400 series stainless steel, Stellite or aluminum oxide although tungsten carbide was coming into use. Stainless steel was widely used for springs, retainers, sleeves and glands. Single and multiple seal arrangements were used as necessary to accomplish the required performance. In 1957, Sealol introduced the edge welded metal bellows seal. Previously, metal bellows seals had used a formed bellows which was much thicker and stiffer.
In 1959, John C. Copes of Baton Rouge, LA filed for a patent on a split seal and was awarded Patent #3025070 in 1962. In the Copes design, only the faces were split. Copes chose to provide custom split seals which he manufactured himself so very few of his split seals were produced.
The Clean Air Act of 1990 placed limits on fugitive emissions from pumps. Seal manufacturers responded with improved designs and better materials. In October, 1994, the American Petroleum Institute released API Standard 682, "A Shaft Sealing Systems for Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps”. This standard had a major effect on the sealing industry. In addition to providing guidelines for seal selection, API 682 requires qualification testing by the seal manufacturers. API 682 is now in its 4th Edition and work has begun on 5th Edition.
There has been much consolidation in the mechanical seal industry. Among the major manufacturers:
John Crane (Smiths Group of Great Britain) includes Sealol (Rotary), Flexibox, Safematic, Ropac;
Flowserve includes BW/IP (Borg-Warner), Durametallic, Five Star, Pacific Wietz;
EagleBurgmann includes Eagle, Burgmann.
Today, in addition to face patterns such as spiral grooves and waves, materials have been developed that have special surfaces to promote hydrodynamic lift. Lasers can be used to etch microscopic, performance enhancing textures on the surface of the seal face. Piezoelectric materials and electronic controls are being investigated for creating truly controllable seals. The application of specialized seal face patterns, surfaces, and controls is an emerging technology that is developing rapidly and holds great promise for the future.
See also
Labyrinth Seal
Dry gas seal
References
Bloch, Heinz P. and Budris, Allan R., "Pump User’s Handbook Second Edition", CRC Press, 2006.
Lebeck, A. O., "Principles and Design of Mechanical Face Seals", New York: Wiley-Interscience, (1991).
Pumps
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235898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short%20circuit | Short circuit | A short circuit (sometimes abbreviated to short or s/c) is an electrical circuit that allows a current to travel along an unintended path with no or very low electrical impedance. This results in an excessive current flowing through the circuit.
The opposite of a short circuit is an "open circuit", which is an infinite resistance between two nodes.
Definition
A short circuit is an abnormal connection between two nodes of an electric circuit intended to be at different voltages. This results in an electric current limited only by the Thévenin equivalent resistance of the rest of the network which can cause circuit damage, overheating, fire or explosion. Although usually the result of a fault, there are cases where short circuits are caused intentionally, for example, for the purpose of voltage-sensing crowbar circuit protectors.
In circuit analysis, a short circuit is defined as a connection between two nodes that forces them to be at the same voltage. In an 'ideal' short circuit, this means there is no resistance and thus no voltage drop across the connection. In real circuits, the result is a connection with almost no resistance. In such a case, the current is limited only by the resistance of the rest of the circuit.
Examples
A common type of short circuit occurs when the positive and negative terminals of a battery are connected with a low-resistance conductor, like a wire. With a low resistance in the connection, a high current will flow, causing the delivery of a large amount of energy in a short period of time.
A high current flowing through a battery can cause a rapid increase of temperature, potentially resulting in an explosion with the release of hydrogen gas and electrolyte (an acid or a base), which can burn tissue and cause blindness or even death. Overloaded wires will also overheat causing damage to the wire's insulation, or starting a fire. High current conditions may also occur with electric motor loads under stalled conditions, such as when the impeller of an electrically driven pump is jammed by debris; this is not a short, though it may have some similar effects.
In electrical devices, unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a wire's insulation breaks down, or when another conducting material is introduced, allowing charge to flow along a different path than the one intended.
In mains circuits, short circuits may occur between two phases, between a phase and neutral or between a phase and earth (ground). Such short circuits are likely to result in a very high current and therefore quickly trigger an overcurrent protection device. However, it is possible for short circuits to arise between neutral and earth conductors and between two conductors of the same phase. Such short circuits can be dangerous, particularly as they may not immediately result in a large current and are therefore less likely to be detected. Possible effects include unexpected energisation of a circuit presumed to be isolated. To help reduce the negative effects of short circuits, power distribution transformers are deliberately designed to have a certain amount of leakage reactance. The leakage reactance (usually about 5 to 10% of the full load impedance) helps limit both the magnitude and rate of rise of the fault current.
A short circuit may lead to formation of an electric arc. The arc, a channel of hot ionized plasma, is highly conductive and can persist even after significant amounts of original material from the conductors has evaporated. Surface erosion is a typical sign of electric arc damage. Even short arcs can remove significant amounts of material from the electrodes. The temperature of the resulting electrical arc is very high (tens of thousands of degrees), causing the metal on the contact surfaces to melt, pool and migrate with the current, as well as to escape into the air as fine particulate matter.
Damage
A short circuit fault current can, within milliseconds, be thousands of times larger than the normal operating current of the system. Damage from short circuits can be reduced or prevented by employing fuses, circuit breakers, or other overload protection, which disconnect the power in reaction to excessive current. Overload protection must be chosen according to the current rating of the circuit. Circuits for large home appliances require protective devices set or rated for higher currents than lighting circuits. Wire gauges specified in building and electrical codes are chosen to ensure safe operation in conjunction with the overload protection. An overcurrent protection device must be rated to safely interrupt the maximum prospective short-circuit current.
In an improper installation, the overcurrent from a short circuit may cause ohmic heating of the circuit parts with poor conductivity (faulty joints in wiring, faulty contacts in power sockets, or even the site of the short circuit itself). Such overheating is a common cause of fires. An electric arc, if it forms during the short circuit, produces high amount of heat and can cause ignition of combustible substances as well.
In industrial and utility distribution systems, dynamic forces generated by high short-circuit currents cause conductors to spread apart. Busbars, cables, and apparatus can be damaged by the forces generated in a short circuit.
Related concepts
In electronics, the ideal model (infinite gain) of an operational amplifier is said to produce a virtual short circuit between its input terminals because no matter what the output voltage is, the difference of potential between its input terminals is zero. If one of the input terminals is connected to the ground, then the other one is said to provide a virtual ground because its potential is (ideally) identical to that of the ground. An ideal operational amplifier also has infinite input impedance, so unlike a real short circuit, no current flows between the terminals of the virtual short.
See also
Annealing by short circuit
Breaking capacity
Conditional short-circuit current
Short-circuit test
Other electrical faults:
Ground fault
Ohm's law
Overcurrent, electrical overload
References
External links
Troubleshooting Strategy for US/Canadian Homes from The Circuit Detective
Electricity
Electrical engineering
Safety
Fire prevention
Fire protection | [
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235899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit%20breaker | Circuit breaker | A circuit breaker is an electrical safety device designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by an overcurrent or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow to protect equipment and to prevent the risk of fire. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.
Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or individual household appliances, to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a circuit breaker, or fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system, is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).
Origins
An early form of circuit breaker was described by Thomas Edison in an 1879 patent application, although his commercial power distribution system used fuses. Its purpose was to protect lighting circuit wiring from accidental short circuits and overloads. A modern miniature circuit breaker similar to the ones now in use was patented by Brown, Boveri & Cie in 1924. Hugo Stotz, an engineer who had sold his company to BBC, was credited as the inventor on DRP (Deutsches Reichspatent) 458392. Stotz's invention was the forerunner of the modern thermal-magnetic breaker commonly used in household load centers to this day.
Interconnection of multiple generator sources into an electrical grid required the development of circuit breakers with increasing voltage ratings and increased ability to safely interrupt the increasing short-circuit currents produced by networks. Simple air-break manual switches produced hazardous arcs when interrupting high voltages; these gave way to oil-enclosed contacts, and various forms using the directed flow of pressurized air, or pressurized oil, to cool and interrupt the arc. By 1935, the specially constructed circuit breakers used at the Boulder Dam project used eight series breaks and pressurized oil flow to interrupt faults of up to 2,500 MVA, in three cycles of the AC power frequency.
Operation
All circuit breaker systems have common features in their operation, but details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. In small mains and low voltage circuit breakers, this is usually done within the device itself. Typically, the heating or magnetic effects of electric current are employed. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with protective relay pilot devices to sense a fault condition and to operate the opening mechanism. These typically require a separate power source, such as a battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protective relays, and an internal control power source.
Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts must open to interrupt the circuit; this is commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within the breaker, such as a spring or compressed air to separate the contacts. Circuit breakers may also use the higher current caused by the fault to separate the contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic field. Small circuit breakers typically have a manual control lever to switch off the load or reset a tripped breaker, while larger units use solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys and other highly conductive materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and molded-case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.
When a high current or voltage is interrupted, an arc is generated. The length of the arc is generally proportional to the voltage while the intensity (or heat) is proportional to the current. This arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium the arc forms in. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:
Lengthening or deflecting the arc
Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
Division into partial arcs
Zero point quenching (contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform, effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero-crossing occurs at twice the line frequency; i.e., 100 times per second for 50 Hz and 120 times per second for 60 Hz AC.)
Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits.
Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.
Arc interruption
Low-voltage miniature circuit breakers (MCB) use air alone to extinguish the arc. These circuit breakers contain so-called arc chutes, a stack of mutually insulated parallel metal plates that divide and cool the arc. By splitting the arc into smaller arcs the arc is cooled down while the arc voltage is increased and serves as an additional impedance that limits the current through the circuit breaker. The current-carrying parts near the contacts provide easy deflection of the arc into the arc chutes by a magnetic force of a current path, although magnetic blowout coils or permanent magnets could also deflect the arc into the arc chute (used on circuit breakers for higher ratings). The number of plates in the arc chute is dependent on the short-circuit rating and nominal voltage of the circuit breaker.
In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.
Gas (usually sulfur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the stretched arc.
Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material). The arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (less than ). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switch gear to 38,000 volts.
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.
Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon age and construction of the device. The maximum current value and let-through energy determine the quality of the circuit breakers.
Short circuit
Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that they are expected to carry, and the maximum short-circuit current that they can safely interrupt. This latter figure is the ampere interrupting capacity (AIC) of the breaker.
Under short-circuit conditions, the calculated or measured maximum prospective short-circuit current may be many times the normal, rated current of the circuit. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the current to continue. This condition can create conductive ionized gases and molten or vaporized metal, which can cause the further continuation of the arc, or creation of additional short circuits, potentially resulting in the explosion of the circuit breaker and the equipment that it is installed in. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc.
The maximum short-circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing. Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short-circuit current higher than the breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to safely interrupt a fault. In a worst-case scenario, the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to explode when reset.
Typical domestic panel circuit breakers are rated to interrupt () short-circuit current.
Miniature circuit breakers used to protect control circuits or small appliances may not have sufficient interrupting capacity to use at a panel board; these circuit breakers are called "supplemental circuit protectors" to distinguish them from distribution-type circuit breakers.
Standard current ratings
Circuit breakers are manufactured in standard sizes, using a system of preferred numbers to cover a range of ratings. Miniature circuit breakers have a fixed trip setting; changing the operating current value requires changing the whole circuit breaker. Larger circuit breakers can have adjustable trip settings, allowing standardized elements to be applied but with a setting intended to improve protection. For example, a circuit breaker with a 400 ampere "frame size" might have its overcurrent detection set to operate at only 300 amperes, to protect a feeder cable.
For low voltage distribution circuit breakers, International Standards, IEC 60898-1 defines the rated current as the maximum current that the breaker is designed to carry continuously. The commonly available preferred values for the rated current are 1A, 2A, 4A, 6 A, 10 A, 13 A, 16 A, 20 A, 25 A, 32 A, 40 A, 50 A, 63 A, 80 A, 100 A, and 125 A. The circuit breaker is labeled with the rated current in amperes prefixed by a letter, which indicates the instantaneous tripping current that causes the circuit breaker to trip without intentional time delay expressed in multiples of the rated current:
Circuit breakers are also rated by the maximum fault current that they can interrupt; this allows use of more economical devices on systems unlikely to develop the high short-circuit current found on, for example, a large commercial building distribution system.
In the United States, Underwriters Laboratories (UL) certifies equipment ratings, called Series Ratings (or "integrated equipment ratings") for circuit breaker equipment used for buildings. Power circuit breakers and medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers used for industrial or electric power systems are designed and tested to ANSI or IEEE standards in the C37 series. For example, standard C37.16 lists preferred frame size current ratings for power circuit breakers in the range ofo 600 to 5000 amperes. Trip current settings dn time-current characteristics of these breakers are generally adjustable.
For medium and high voltage circuit breakers used in switchgear or substations and generating stations, relatively few standard frame sizes are generally manufactured. These circuit breakers are usually controlled by separate protective relay systems, offering adjustable tripping current and time settings as well as allowing for more complex protection schemes.
Types
Many classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.
Low-voltage
Low-voltage (less than 1,000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include:
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)—rated current up to 125 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category.
Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)—rated current up to 1,600 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.
Low-voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or switchgear cabinets.
The characteristics of low-voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear.
Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electric motor operators so they can open and close under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power.
Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, such as DC for subway lines. Direct current requires special breakers because the arc is continuous—unlike an AC arc, which tends to go out on each half cycle, direct current circuit breaker has blow-out coils that generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a breaker panel.
The DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The design includes the following components:
Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation.
Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
Contacts - allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.
Terminals
Bimetallic strip - separates contacts in response to smaller, longer-term overcurrents
Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly.
Solenoid - separates contacts rapidly in response to high overcurrents
Arc divider/extinguisher
Solid state
Solid-state circuit breakers, also known as digital circuit breakers are a technological innovation which promises advance circuit breaker technology out of the mechanical level, into the electrical. This promises several advantages, such as cutting the circuit in fractions of microseconds, better monitoring of circuit loads and longer lifetimes.
Magnetic
Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by spring action. They are the most commonly used circuit breakers in the USA.
Thermal-magnetic
Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards in Europe and countries with a similar wiring arrangements, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides a time response feature, that trips the circuit breaker sooner for larger over currents but allows smaller overloads to persist for a longer time. This allows short current spikes such as are produced when a motor or other non-resistive load is switched on. With very large over-currents during a short circuit, the magnetic element trips the circuit breaker with no intentional additional delay.
Magnetic-hydraulic
A magnetic-hydraulic circuit breaker uses a solenoid coil to provide operating force to open the contacts. Magnetic-hydraulic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short-circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker.
Large power circuit breakers, applied in circuits of more than 1000 volts, may incorporate hydraulic elements in the contact operating mechanism. Hydraulic energy may be supplied by a pump, or stored in accumulators. These form a distinct type from oil-filled circuit breakers where oil is the arc extinguishing medium.
Common trip (ganged) breakers
To provide simultaneous breaking on multiple circuits from a fault on any one, circuit breakers may be made as a ganged assembly. This is a very common requirement for 3 phase systems, where breaking may be either 3 or 4 pole (solid or switched neutral). Some makers make ganging kits to allow groups of single phase breakers to be interlinked as required.
In the US, where split phase supplies are common, in branch circuits with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two-pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240-volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards.
Separate circuit breakers must never be used for live and neutral, because if the neutral is disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a very dangerous condition arises: the circuit appears de-energized (appliances don't work), but wires remain live and some residual-current devices (RCDs) may not trip if someone touches the live wire (because some RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when neutral wire switching is needed.
Shunt-trip units
A shunt-trip unit appears similar to a normal breaker and the moving actuators are 'ganged' to a normal breaker mechanism to operate together in a similar way, but the shunt trip is a solenoid intended to be operated by an external constant voltage signal, rather than a current, commonly the local mains voltage or DC. These are often used to cut the power when a high risk event occurs, such as a fire or flood alarm, or another electrical condition, such as over voltage detection. Shunt trips may be a user fitted accessory to a standard breaker, or supplied as an integral part of the circuit breaker.
Medium-voltage
Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 40.5kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:
Vacuum circuit breakers—With rated current up to 6,300A, and higher for generator circuit breakers application (up to 16,000A & 140kA). These breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container - aka "bottle". Long life bellows are designed to travel the 6–10 mm the contacts must part. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 40,500V, which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers have longer life expectancy between overhaul than do other circuit breakers. In addition their global warming potential is by far lower than SF6 circuit breaker.
Air circuit breakers—Rated current up to 6,300A and higher for generator circuit breakers. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.
SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing breaker removal without disturbing power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.
High-voltage
Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault.
High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:
Bulk oil
Minimum oil
Air blast
Vacuum
SF6
CO2
Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc.
Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1,200kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011, followed by ABB in April the following year.
High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability.
High-voltage direct current circuit breakers are still a field of research as of 2015. Such breakers would be useful to interconnect HVDC transmission systems.
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage
A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.
Disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB)
The disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB) was introduced in 2000 and is a high-voltage circuit breaker modeled after the SF6-breaker. It presents a technical solution where the disconnecting function is integrated in the breaking chamber, eliminating the need for separate disconnectors. This increases the availability, since open-air disconnecting switch main contacts need maintenance every 2–6 years, while modern circuit breakers have maintenance intervals of 15 years. Implementing a DCB solution also reduces the space requirements within the substation, and increases the reliability, due to the lack of separate disconnectors.
In order to further reduce the required space of substation, as well as simplifying the design and engineering of the substation, a fiber optic current sensor (FOCS) can be integrated with the DCB. A 420 kV DCB with integrated FOCS can reduce a substation's footprint with over 50% compared to a conventional solution of live tank breakers with disconnectors and current transformers, due to reduced material and no additional insulation medium.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) high-voltage
In 2012, ABB presented a 75kV high-voltage breaker that uses carbon dioxide as the medium to extinguish the arc. The carbon dioxide breaker works on the same principles as an SF6 breaker and can also be produced as a disconnecting circuit breaker. By switching from SF6 to CO2, it is possible to reduce the CO2 emissions by 10 tons during the product's life cycle.
"Smart" circuit breakers
Several firms have looked at adding monitoring for appliances via electronics or using a digital circuit breaker to monitor the breakers remotely. Utility companies in the United States have been reviewing use of the technology to turn on and off appliances, as well as potentially turning off charging of electric cars during periods of high electrical grid load. These devices under research and testing would have wireless capability to monitor the electrical usage in a house via a smartphone app or other means.
Other breakers
The following types are described in separate articles.
Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device:
Residual-current device (RCD), or residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) — detects current imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection. In the United States and Canada, these are called ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI).
Residual-current circuit breaker with overcurrent protection (RCBO) — combines the functions of a RCD and a MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada, these are called GFCI breakers.
Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) — This detects current in the earth wire directly rather than detecting imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations as they cannot detect any dangerous condition where the current is returning to earth by another route - such as via a person on the ground or via plumbing. (also called VOELCB in the UK).
Recloser — A type of circuit breaker that closes automatically after a delay. These are used on overhead electric power distribution systems, to prevent short duration faults from causing sustained outages.
Polyswitch (polyfuse) — A small device commonly described as an automatically resetting fuse rather than a circuit breaker.
See also
Arc-fault circuit interrupter
Breaking capacity
Circuit breaker analyzer
Circuit total limitation (CTL)
Distribution board (Circuit breaker panel)
Earthing system
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)
Hybrid switchgear module
Insulation monitoring device
Motor control center (MCC)
Network protector
Power distribution center (PDC)
Power system protection
Remote racking system
Ring Main Unit
Selectivity (circuit breakers)
Stab-Lok—a popular type of circuit breaker manufactured from 1950 to 1990, now widely deemed unsafe
Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker
Zener diode—a diode that allows current to flow in reverse direction (to beak at certain level of voltage, an opposite effect)
References
General
BS EN 60898-1. Electrical accessories — Circuit breakers for over-current protection for household and similar installations. British Standards Institution, 2003.
Electric power systems components
Electrical wiring
Over-current protection devices
20th-century inventions
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235900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overload | Overload | Overload or overloaded may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Overload (novel), a 1979 novel by Arthur Hailey
Overload (Teen Titans), a character from the Teen Titans animated series
Overload (video game), a 2018 first-person shooter game from Revival Productions
"Overload", an episode from the second season of the television series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
Medical
Information overload, having too much information to make a decision or remain informed about a topic
Iron overload, an accumulation of iron in the body from any cause
Sensory overload, occurs when one or more of the body's senses experiences over-stimulation from the environment
Music
Bands
Overload (Chinese band), a Chinese rock / thrash metal band
Overload (Pakistani band), a Pakistani rock band from Lahore, Punjab
Overload (Swedish band), a heavy metal band from Bollnäs, Sweden
Overload Generation, an English boy band
Albums
Overload (Anthem album), a 2000 album by Japanese heavy metal band Anthem
Overload (Georgia Anne Muldrow album), a 2018 album by American musician Georgia Anne Muldrow
Overload (Harem Scarem album), a 2005 album by the Canadian hard rock band Harem Scarem
Overload (Overload album), a 2006 album by Pakistani rock band Overload
Overloaded: The Singles Collection, a 2006 album by the Sugababes
Songs
"Overload" (John Legend song), a song from the album Darkness and Light (album)
"Overload" (Dot Rotten song), a 2012 grime/dubstep song by rapper Dot Rotten
"Overload" (Sugababes song), a 2000 pop song by the UK girl group Sugababes
"Overload" (Voodoo and Serano song), a 2003 dance song by Voodoo and Serano
"Overload", a song by Raven from their 1987 album Life's a Bitch
"The Overload", a song by Talking Heads from their 1980 album Remain in Light
Technology
Electrical overload
Function overloading, the ability to create multiple functions of the same name with different implementations
Mechanical overload (engineering), when a component is stressed to failure in one event
Operator overloading, a process where different operators have different implementations depending on their arguments
Overload (magazine), a software development journal
Overload protection, for power supplies
Other uses
Overload (chess)
Overload (convention), a comic and manga convention held in Auckland, New Zealand
Operation Overload, a military operation by the Rhodesian Army in 1974
See also
Maximum Overload (disambiguation)
Overloading (disambiguation)
Overlay (disambiguation)
Overlap (disambiguation)
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235901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20Ribbeck | Otto Ribbeck | Johann Carl Otto Ribbeck (23 July 1827, in Erfurt – 18 July 1898, in Leipzig), was a German classical scholar. His works are mostly confined to criticisms of Latin poetry and to classical character sketches.
Biography
He was born at Erfurt in Saxony. In early life he went to Berlin, where he studied under Karl Lachmann, Franz Bopp and August Böckh, and from there to Bonn where he was a close student of the methods of Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker and Friedrich Ritschl. Having received his degree in Berlin and traveled for a year through Italy, in 1853 he returned to Berlin, where he entered Böckh's school. He then taught at Elberfeld and Bern. Having held professorial appointments at Kiel and Heidelberg, he succeeded Ritschl in the chair of classical philology at Leipzig, where he died.
Work
Ribbeck was the author of several standard works on the poets and poetry of Rome, the most important of which are the following: Geschichte der römischen Dichtung (“History of Roman poetry,” 2nd ed., 1894–1900); Die römische Tragodie im Zeitalter der Republik (“Roman tragedy during the time of the republic,” 1875); Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, including the tragic and comic fragments (3rd ed., 1897).
As a textual critic he was distinguished by considerable rashness, and never hesitated to alter, rearrange or reject as spurious what failed to reach his standard of excellence. These tendencies are strikingly shown in his editions of the Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace (1869), the Satires of Juvenal (1859) and in the supplementary essay Der echte und unechte Juvenal (“Genuine and fraudulent Juvenal,” 1865). In later years, however, he became much more conservative.
His edition of Virgil (Vergelii Opera, with prolegomena and critical notes, 5 vols., 1859–69; 2nd ed., 1894–1895), although only critical, is a work of great erudition, especially the prolegomena. His biography of Ritschl (1879–1881) is one of the best works of its kind. The influence of Ritschl may be seen in Ribbeck's critical edition of the Miles Gioriosus of Plautus, and Beiträge zur Lehre von den lateinischen Partikeln (“Contributions to the teachings on Latin particles”), a work of much promise, which causes regret that he did not publish further results of his studies in that direction. His miscellaneous Reden und Vorträge were published after his death (Leipzig, 1899). He took great interest in the monumental Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, and it was chiefly owing to his efforts that the government of Saxony was induced to assist its production by a considerable subsidy. Classical character sketches (which appeared in the Rheinische Museum, of which he became editor in 1876) include Alazon (1882), Kolax (1885) and Agrockos (1885).
Further reading
Emma Ribbeck, ed., Otto Ribbeck, ein Bild seines Lebens aus seinen Briefen 1846–1898 (Stuttgart: Cotta, 1901).
Bibliography
Scaenicae romanorum poesis fragmenta, Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1852–55, vol. 1, vol. 2.
Scaenicae romanorum poesis fragmenta, Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1871–73, 2nd edition, vol. 1, vol. 2.
Scaenicae romanorum poesis fragmenta, Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1897–98, 3rd edition, vol. 1, vol. 2.
References
1827 births
1898 deaths
Writers from Erfurt
German classical scholars
Heidelberg University faculty
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
University of Bonn alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni | [
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] |
235902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borehole | Borehole | A borehole is a narrow shaft bored in the ground, either vertically or horizontally. A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of water, other liquids (such as petroleum) or gases (such as natural gas), as part of a geotechnical investigation, environmental site assessment, mineral exploration, temperature measurement, as a pilot hole for installing piers or underground utilities, for geothermal installations, or for underground storage of unwanted substances, e.g. in carbon capture and storage.
Importance
Engineers and environmental consultants use the term borehole to collectively describe all of the various types of holes drilled as part of a geotechnical investigation or environmental site assessment (a so-called Phase II ESA). This includes holes advanced to collect soil samples, water samples or rock cores, to advance in situ sampling equipment, or to install monitoring wells or piezometers. Samples collected from boreholes are often tested in a laboratory to determine their physical properties, or to assess levels of various chemical constituents or contaminants.
Typically, a borehole used as a water well is completed by installing a vertical pipe (casing) and well screen to keep the borehole from caving. This also helps prevent surface contaminants from entering the borehole and protects any installed pump from drawing in sand and sediment. Oil and natural gas wells are completed in a similar, albeit usually more complex, manner.
As detailed in proxy (climate), borehole temperature measurements at a series of different depths can be effectively "inverted" (a mathematical formula to solve a matrix equation) to help estimate historic surface temperatures.
Clusters of small-diameter boreholes equipped with heat exchangers made of plastic PEX pipe can be used to store heat or cold between opposing seasons in a mass of native rock. The technique is called seasonal thermal energy storage. Media that can be used for this technique ranges from gravel to bedrock. There can be a few to several hundred boreholes, and in practice, depths have ranged from 150 to 1000 feet.
History
Borehole drilling has a long history. By at least the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), the Chinese used deep borehole drilling for mining and other projects. The British sinologist and historian Michael Loewe states that borehole sites could reach as deep as 600 m (2000 ft). K.S. Tom describes the drilling process: "The Chinese method of deep drilling was accomplished by a team of men jumping on and off a beam to impact the drilling bit while the boring tool was rotated by buffalo and oxen." This was the same method used for extracting petroleum in California during the 1860s (i.e. "Kicking Her Down"). A Western Han Dynasty bronze foundry discovered in Xinglong, Hebei had nearby mining shafts which reached depths of 100 m (328 ft) with spacious mining areas; the shafts and rooms were complete with a timber frame, ladders and iron tools. By the first century BC, Chinese craftsmen cast iron drill bits and drillers were able to drill boreholes up to 4800 feet (1500 m) deep. By the eleventh century AD, the Chinese were able to drill boreholes up to 3000 feet in depth. Drilling for boreholes was time-consuming and long. As the depth of the holes varied, the drilling of a single well could last nearly one full decade. It wasn't up until the 19th century that Europe and the West would catch up and rival ancient Chinese borehole drilling technology.
For many years, the world's longest borehole was the Kola Superdeep Borehole in Russia. From 2011 until August 2012 the record was held by the long Sakhalin-I Odoptu OP-11 Well, offshore the Russian island Sakhalin. The Chayvo Z-44 extended-reach well took the title of the world's longest borehole on 27 August 2012. Z-44's total measured depth is 12,376 m (40,604 ft). However, ERD wells are more shallow than the Kola Borehole, owing to a large horizontal displacement.
Methodology
Drillers may sink a borehole using a drilling rig or a hand-operated rig. The machinery and techniques to advance a borehole vary considerably according to manufacturer, geological conditions, and the intended purpose. For offshore drilling floating units or platforms supported by the seafloor are used for the drilling rig.
See also
Askam Borehole in Pennsylvania
Casing cutter
Deep borehole disposal
Hole opener
Horizontal drillhole disposal
Kola Superdeep Borehole
Vertical seismic profile
References
External links
Boreholes: Swiss Geological Survey
Chinese inventions
Drilling technology
Hole making | [
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235903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaft | Shaft | Shaft may refer to:
Rotating machine elements
Shaft (mechanical engineering), a rotating machine element used to transmit power
Line shaft, a power transmission system
Drive shaft, a shaft for transferring torque
Axle, a shaft around which one or more wheels rotate
Vertical narrow passages
Elevator shaft, a vertical passage housing a lift or elevator
Ventilation shaft, a vertical passage used in mines and tunnels to move fresh air underground, and to remove stale air
Shaft (civil engineering), an underground vertical or inclined passageway
Pitch (ascent/descent), a significant underground vertical space in caving terminology
Shaft mining, the method of excavating a vertical or near-vertical tunnel from the top down, where there is initially no access to the bottom
Shafting, illicit travelling through shafts
Long narrow rigid bodies
The body of a column, or the column itself
Handle (grip) of hand-tools
Shaft (golf), the long, tapered tube which connects the golfer’s hands to the club head
Staff, various applications
Fiction
Shaft (franchise), a media franchise involving novels, comics, TV, film
Shaft (novel), 1970 novel by Ernest Tidyman about an African-American private detective
Shaft (1971 film), a film based on the novel
Shaft (song), theme song from the original film, serving as the theme for the entire franchise
Shaft (2000 film), a direct sequel/spin-off of the 1971 film, released in 2000, and fourth film in the series
Shaft (2000 soundtrack)
Shaft (2019 film), a direct sequel to the 2000 film and fifth film in the series
Shaft (TV series), a 1973-1974 series of TV movies
Shaft (Dynamite Entertainment), a comic book series based on the character John Shaft
John Shaft, the titular character of the franchise
Shaft (Castlevania), the dark priest from the Castlevania video game series
Shaft (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics ninja character
Shaft (Image Comics), a comic book character created by Rob Liefeld for his comic Youngblood
Down (film), a 2001 horror film also known as The Shaft
Music
Shaft (rave group), a UK dance music act which had a 1991 hit with "Roobarb and Custard" sampling vintage children's television programme Roobarb
Shaft (British electronic duo), a dance music act which had a 1999 hit with a cover-remix of "(Mucho Mambo) Sway"
Shaft (New Zealand band), a New Zealand indie band
Shaft (club), a blues and jazz club in Istanbul, Turkey
Shaft (Isaac Hayes album), the soundtrack for the film of the same name, recorded by Isaac Hayes
"Theme from Shaft", performed by Isaac Hayes
Shaft (Bernard Purdie album), a 1971 jazz album featuring a cover of the above track
Places
Borden Shaft, Maryland, formerly called Shaft
Shaft County, an administrative division of Gīlan Province in Iran
Shaft, Iran, the capital of Shaft County
Shaft, Bushehr, a village and island in Bushehr Province, Iran
Other
Shaft (company), a Japanese animation studio
Penis shaft, a part of the penis
Diaphysis, shaft of a long bone | [
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235904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitri%20Tiomkin | Dimitri Tiomkin | Dimitri Zinovievich Tiomkin (, Dmitrij Zinov'evič Tjomkin, , Dmytro Zynoviyovyč Tomkin) (May 10, 1894 – November 11, 1979) was a Russian-born American film composer and conductor. Classically trained in St. Petersburg, Russia before the Bolshevik Revolution, he moved to Berlin and then New York City after the Russian Revolution. In 1929, after the stock market crash, he moved to Hollywood, where he became best known for his scores for Western films, including Duel in the Sun, Red River, High Noon, The Big Sky, 55 Days at Peking, Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, and Last Train from Gun Hill.
Tiomkin received 22 Academy Award nominations and won four Oscars, three for Best Original Score for High Noon, The High and the Mighty, and The Old Man and the Sea, and one for Best Original Song for "The Ballad of High Noon" from the former film.
Early life and education
Dimitri Tiomkin was born in Kremenchuk, then part of the Russian Empire (now central Ukraine).
His family was of Jewish descent; his father Zinovy Tiomkin was a "distinguished pathologist" and associate of Professor Paul Ehrlich, and later a notable Zionist leader. His mother, Marie Tartakovskaya, was a musician who began teaching the young Tiomkin piano at an early age. Her hope was to have her son become a professional pianist, according to Tiomkin biographer, Christopher Palmer. Tiomkin described his mother as being "small, blonde, merry and vivacious."
Tiomkin was educated at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, where he studied piano with Felix Blumenfeld, teacher of Vladimir Horowitz, and harmony and counterpoint with Alexander Glazunov, mentor to Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich. He also studied piano with Isabelle Vengerova.
He survived the revolution and found work under the new regime. In 1920, while working for the Petrograd Military District Political Administration (PUR), Tiomkin was one of the lead organizers of two revolutionary mass spectacles, the Mystery of Liberated Labor, a pseudo-religious mystery play for the May Day festivities, and The Storming of the Winter Palace for the celebrations of the third anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. He supported himself while living in St. Petersburg by playing piano accompaniment for numerous Russian silent films.
Because the revolution had diminished opportunities for classical musicians in Russia, Tiomkin joined many exiles in moving to Berlin after the Russian Revolution to live with his father. In Berlin, from 1921 to 1923, he studied with the pianist Ferruccio Busoni and Busoni's disciples Egon Petri and Michael von Zadora. He composed light classical and popular music, and
made his performing debut as a pianist playing Franz Liszt's Piano Concerto No. 2 with the Berlin Philharmonic.
He moved to Paris with his roommate, Michael Khariton, to perform a piano duo repertory together. They did this before the end of 1924.
Life in America
In 1925 the duo received an offer from the New York theatrical producer Morris Gest and emigrated to the US. They performed together on the Keith/Albee and Orpheum vaudeville circuits, in which they accompanied a ballet troupe run by the Austrian ballerina Albertina Rasch. Tiomkin and Rasch's professional relationship evolved into a personal one, and they married in 1927.
While in New York, Tiomkin gave a recital at Carnegie Hall that featured contemporary music by Maurice Ravel, Alexander Scriabin, Francis Poulenc, and Alexandre Tansman. He and his new wife went on tour to Paris in 1928, where he played the European premiere of American George Gershwin's Concerto in F at the Paris Opera, with Gershwin in the audience.
After the stock market crash in October 1929 reduced work opportunities in New York, Tiomkin and his wife moved to Hollywood, where she was hired to supervise dance numbers in MGM film musicals. He worked on some minor films, some without being credited under his own name. His first significant film score project was for Paramount's Alice in Wonderland (1933). Although Tiomkin worked on some smaller film projects, his goal was to become a concert pianist. In 1937 he broke his arm, injuring it so much that he ended that possible career. He began to focus on work as a film music composer.
Working for Frank Capra (1937-1946)
Tiomkin received his first break from Columbia director Frank Capra, who chose him to write and perform the score for Lost Horizon (1937). The film gained significant recognition for Tiomkin in Hollywood. It was released the same year that he became a naturalized US citizen.
In his autobiography, Please Don't Hate Me! (1959), Tiomkin recalls how the assignment by Capra forced him to first confront a director in a matter of music style:
He worked on other Capra films during the following decade, including the comedy You Can't Take It With You (1938), Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939), Meet John Doe (1941), and It's a Wonderful Life (1946). During World War II, he continued his close collaboration with Capra by composing scores for his Why We Fight series. These seven films were commissioned by the US government to show American soldiers the reason for United States' participation in the war. They were later released to the general US public to generate support for American involvement.
Tiomkin credited Capra for broadening his musical horizons by shifting them away from a purely Eurocentric and romantic style to a more American style based on subject matter and story.
High Noon (1952)
Following his work for Fred Zinnemann on The Men (1950), Tiomkin composed the score for the same director's High Noon (1952). His theme song was "Do Not Forsake Me, Oh My Darlin'" ("The Ballad of High Noon"). At its opening preview to the press, the film, which starred Gary Cooper and Grace Kelly, did badly. Tiomkin writes that "film experts agreed that the picture was a flat failure... The producers hesitated to release the picture." Tiomkin bought the rights to the song and released it as a single for the popular music market, with singer Frankie Laine. The record became an immediate success worldwide.
Based on the song's popularity, the studio released the film four months later, with the words sung by country western star Tex Ritter. The film received seven Academy Award nominations and won four awards, including two for Tiomkin: Best Original Music and Best Song. Walt Disney presented him with both awards that evening.
According to film historian Arthur R. Jarvis, Jr., the score "has been credited with saving the movie." Another music expert, Mervyn Cooke, agrees, adding that "the song's spectacular success was partly responsible for changing the course of film-music history". Tiomkin was the second composer to receive two Oscars (score and song) for the same dramatic film. (The first was Leigh Harline, who won Best Original Score for Disney's Pinocchio and Best Song for "When You Wish Upon a Star". Ned Washington wrote its lyrics as he did for "Do Not Forsake Me, Oh My Darlin".)
The song's lyrics briefly tell High Noons entire story arc, a tale of cowardice and conformity in a small Western town. Tiomkin composed his entire score around this single western-style ballad. He also eliminated violins from the ensemble. He added a subtle harmonica in the background, to give the film a "rustic, deglamorized sound that suits the anti-heroic sentiments" expressed by the story.
According to Russian film historian Harlow Robinson, building the score around a single folk tune was typical of many Russian classical composers. Robinson adds that the source of Tiomkin's score, if indeed folk, has not been proven. The Encyclopedia of Modern Jewish Culture, on page 124, states: "The fifty-year period in the USA between 1914, the start of the First World War and the year of Irving Berlin's first full score, Watch Your Step, and 1964, the premiere of Bock and Harnick's Fiddler on the Roof, is informed by a rich musical legacy from Yiddish folk tunes (for example Mark Warshavsky's "Di milners trem," The miller's tears: and Dimitri Tiomkin's "Do Not Forsake Me." High Noon) ... "
Tiomkin won two more Oscars in subsequent years: for The High and the Mighty (1954), directed by William A. Wellman, and featuring John Wayne; and The Old Man and the Sea (1958), adapted from an Ernest Hemingway novel. During the 1955 ceremonies, Tiomkin thanked all of the earlier composers who had influenced him, including Beethoven, Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, and other names from the European classical tradition.
The composer worked again for Zinnemann on The Sundowners (1960).
Film genres and other associations
Many of his scores were for Western films, which were extremely popular in this period, and for which he is best remembered. His first Western was the King Vidor-directed Duel in the Sun (1946). In addition to High Noon, among his other Westerns were Giant (1956), Friendly Persuasion (1956), Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), and Last Train from Gun Hill (1959). Rio Bravo (1959), The Alamo (1960), Circus World (1964) and The War Wagon (1967) were made with the involvement of John Wayne. Tiomkin received Oscar nominations for his scores in both Giant and The Alamo. He told TV host Gig Young that his aim in creating the score for Giant was to capture the "feelings of the great land and great state of Texas."
Although influenced by European music traditions, Tiomkin was self-trained as a film composer. He scored many films of various genres, including historical dramas such as Cyrano de Bergerac (1950), The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964), and Great Catherine (1968); war movies such as The Court-Martial of Billy Mitchell (1955), The Guns of Navarone (1961), and Town Without Pity (1961); and suspense thrillers such as 36 Hours (1965).
Tiomkin also wrote scores for four of Alfred Hitchcock's suspense dramas: Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Strangers on a Train (1951), I Confess (1953), and Dial M for Murder (1954). Here he used a lush style relying on solo violins and muted trumpets. He composed the score for the science fiction thriller The Thing from Another World (1951), which is considered his "strangest and most experimental score." He also worked with Howard Hawks on The Big Sky (1952) and Land of the Pharaohs (1955), with John Huston on The Unforgiven (1960), and with Nicholas Ray on 55 Days at Peking (1963).
Television
In addition to the cinema, Tiomkin composed for television, including such memorable theme songs as Rawhide (1959) and Gunslinger. (A cover version of the theme from Rawhide was performed in the musical film The Blues Brothers (1980); the in-joke that the composer was a Ukrainian-born Jewish American was lost on the crowd at the cowboy bar.) Although Tiomkin was hired to compose the theme for The Wild Wild West (1965), the producers rejected his music and subsequently hired Richard Markowitz as his replacement.
Tiomkin also made a few cameo appearances on television programs. These include being the mystery challenger on What's My Line? and an appearance on Jack Benny's CBS program in December 1961, in which he attempted to help Benny write a song. He also appeared as a contestant on the 20 October 1955 episode of the TV quiz program You Bet Your Life, hosted by Groucho Marx.
He composed the music to the song "Wild Is The Wind". It was originally recorded by Johnny Mathis for the film Wild Is the Wind (1957).
Composition styles and significance
Although Tiomkin was a trained classical pianist, he adapted his music training in Russia to the rapidly expanding Hollywood film industry, and taught himself how to compose meaningful film scores for almost any story type. Film historian David Wallace notes that despite Tiomkin's indebtedness to Europe's classical composers, he would go on to express more than any other composer, "the American spirit—its frontier spirit, anyway—in film music."
Tiomkin had no illusions about his talent and the nature of his film work when compared to the classical composers. "I am no Prokofiev, I am no Tchaikovsky. But what I write is good for what I write for. So please, boys, help me." Upon receiving his Oscar in 1955 for The High and the Mighty, he became the first composer to publicly list and thank the great European masters, including Beethoven, Strauss, and Brahms, among others.
Music historian Christopher Palmer says that Tiomkin's "genius lay in coming up with themes and finding vivid ways of creating sonic color appropriate to the story and visual image, not in his ability to combine the themes into a complex symphonic structure that could stand on its own." In addition he speculates how a Russian-born pianist like Tiomkin, who was educated at a respected Russian music conservatory, could have become so successful in the American film industry:
Tiomkin alluded to this relationship in his autobiography:
Techniques of composing
Tiomkin's methods of composing a film score have been analyzed and described by music experts. Musicologist Dave Epstein, for one, has explained that after reading the script, Tiomkin would then outline the film's major themes and movements. After the film itself has been filmed, he would make a detailed study of the timing of scenes, using a stopwatch to arrange precise synchronization of the music with the scenes. He would complete the final score after assembling all the musicians and orchestra, rehearse a number of times, and then record the final soundtrack.
Tiomkin paid careful attention to the voices of the actors when composing. According to Epstein, he "found that in addition to the timbre of the voice, the pitch of the speaking voice must be very carefully considered..." To accomplish this, Tiomkin would go to the set during filming and would listen to each of the actors. He would also talk with them individually, noting the pitch and color of their voices.
Tiomkin explains why he took the extra time with actors:
Death and legacy
Dimitri Tiomkin died in London, England in 1979 two weeks after fracturing his pelvis in a fall. He was interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.
During the 1950s Tiomkin was the highest-paid film composer, composing close to a rate of a picture each month, achieving his greatest fame during the 1950s and 1960s. Between 1948 and 1958, his "golden decade," he composed 57 film scores. In 1952 he composed nine film scores, including High Noon, for which he won two Academy Awards. In the same decade, he won two more Oscars and his film scores were nominated nine times.
He was honored in the Soviet Union and Russia. In 1967, he was a member of the jury of the 5th Moscow International Film Festival. In 2014, his theme songs to It's a Wonderful Life and Giant were played during the closing ceremony for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.
Beginning with Lost Horizon in 1937, through his retirement from films in 1979, and until modern times, he is recognized as being the only Russian to have become a Hollywood film composer. Other Russian-born composers, such as Irving Berlin, wrote their scores for Broadway plays, many of which were later adapted to film.
Tiomkin was the first film score composer to write both the title theme song and the score. He expanded on that technique in many of his westerns, including High Noon and Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, in which the theme song was repeated as a common thread running through the entire film. For the film Red River his biographer Christopher Palmer describes how the music immediately sets the epic and heroic tone for the film:
Because of this stylistic contribution to westerns, along with other film genres, using title and ongoing theme songs, he had the greatest impact on Hollywood films in the following decades up until the present. With many of his songs being used in the title of films, Tiomkin created what composer Irwin Bazelon called "title song mania." In subsequent decades, studios often attempted to create their own hit songs to both sell as a soundtrack and to enhance the movie experience, with a typical example being the film score for Titanic.
He was known to use "source music" in his scores. Some experts claim these were often based on Russian folk songs. Much of his film music, especially for westerns, was used to create an atmosphere of "broad, sweeping landscapes," with a prominent use of chorus. During a TV interview, he credited his love of the European classic composers along with his ability to adapt American folk music styles to creating grand American theme music.
A number of Tiomkin's film scores were released on LP soundtrack albums, including Giant and The Alamo. Some of the recordings, which usually featured Tiomkin conducting his own music, have been reissued on CD. The theme song to High Noon has been recorded by many artists, with one German CD producer, Bear Family Records, producing a CD with 25 different artists performing that one song.
In 1999, the US Postal Service added his image to their "Legends of American Music" stamp series. The series began with the issuance of one featuring singer Elvis Presley in 1993. Tiomkin's image was added as part of their "Hollywood Composers" selection.
In 1976, RCA Victor released Lost Horizon: The Classic Film Scores of Dimitri Tiomkin (US catalogue #ARL1-1669, UK catalogue #GL 43445) with Charles Gerhardt and the National Philharmonic Orchestra. Featuring highlights from various Tiomkin scores, the album was later reissued by RCA on CD with Dolby Surround Sound.
The American Film Institute ranked Tiomkin's score for High Noon as #10 on their list of the 100 greatest film scores. His scores for the following films were also nominated for the list:
The Alamo (1960)
Dial M for Murder (1954)
Duel in the Sun (1946)
Friendly Persuasion (1956)
The Guns of Navarone (1961)
Lost Horizon (1937)
Awards and nominations
Academy Awards
1972 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring Adaptation and Original Song" Score for Tchaikovsky (1969)
1965 - nominated for "Best Music, Score - Substantially Original" for The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964)
1964 - nominated (with Paul Francis Webster) for "Best Music, Original Song" for 55 Days at Peking (1963) for "So Little Time", sung by Andy Williams
1964 - nominated for "Best Music, Score - Substantially Original" for 55 Days at Peking (1963)
1962 - nominated for "Best Music, Original Song" for Town Without Pity (1961)
1962 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for The Guns of Navarone (1961)
1961 - nominated (with Paul Francis Webster) for "Best Music, Original Song" for The Alamo (1960) for "The Green Leaves of Summer", sung by The Brothers Four
1961 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for The Alamo (1960)
1961 - nominated for "Best Music, Original Song" for The Young Land (1959)
1959 - won an Oscar for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for The Old Man and the Sea (1958)
1958 - nominated for "Best Music, Original Song" for Wild Is the Wind (1957)
1957 - nominated for "Best Music, Original Song" for "Friendly Persuasion", "Best Scoring of a Dramatic Picture" for "Giant" (1956)
1955 - won an Oscar for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for The High and Mighty
1955 - nominated for "Best Music, Original Song" for "The High and the Mighty" (1954)
1953 - won (with Ned Washington) an Oscar for "Best Music, Original Song" for High Noon (1952) for "Do Not Forsake Me, Oh My Darlin'", sung by Tex Ritter
1953 - won an Oscar for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for High Noon (1952)
1950 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for Champion (1949)
1945 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1944)
1944 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for The Moon and Sixpence (1943)
1943 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture" for The Corsican Brothers (1941)
1940 - nominated for "Best Music, Scoring" for Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939)
Golden Globe Awards
1965 for "Best Original Score" for The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964)
1962 for "Best Motion Picture Score" for The Guns of Navarone (1961)
1962 for "Best Motion Picture Song" for Town without Pity (1961)
1961 for "Best Original Score" for The Alamo (1960)
1957 he received the "Special Award" as "Recognition for film music"
1955 he received the "Special Award" "For creative musical contribution to Motion Picture"
1953 for "Best Motion Picture Score" for High Noon (1952)
References
External links
Official site
Dimitri Tiomkin
Dimitri Tiomkin's Golden Decade
Multimedia links
Audio clips, 40 film samples
, audio score compilation by Berny Debney, 10 minutes
Tiomkin on You Bet Your Life in 1955
1894 births
1979 deaths
People from Kremenchuk
People from Poltava Governorate
Ukrainian Jews
Soviet emigrants to the United States
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
American film score composers
American male film score composers
American male conductors (music)
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
Jewish American film score composers
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American Jews | [
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] |
235906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20cultural%20institutions | List of Swedish cultural institutions | This is a list of institutions related to the culture of Sweden.
Swedish 20th-century culture is noted by pioneering works by the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. Later, moguls like Ingmar Bergman and actresses such as Greta Garbo, Ingrid Bergman and Anita Ekberg made careers abroad. Swedish music is in many minds connected with ABBA, although more recently indie bands like The Soundtrack of Our Lives, The Hives, Sahara Hotnights and The (International) Noise Conspiracy have started achieving international fame. The Swedish hip hop scene is booming. Swedish literature is also vibrant and active, and Sweden ranks third in the list of countries with the most Nobel Prize laureates in literature.
Language-related institutions
Strindberg Museum
Swedish Academy
Swedish Language Council
Art and design instutitons
Hallwyl Museum
Millesgården
Moderna Museet
Nationalmuseum
Nordic Watercolour Museum
Prince Eugen's Waldemarsudde
Röhsska Museum
Rooseum
Royal Swedish Academy of Arts
Swedish Centre for Architecture and Design
Swedish National Art Council
Thiel Gallery
Zorn Collections
Music institutions
Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra
Royal Swedish Academy of Music
Swedish National Collections of Music
Swedish National Concert Institute
Theatre and dance institutions
Dansens hus (House of Dance)
Dansmuseet
Drottningholm Palace Theatre
The Göteborg Opera
Malmö Opera and Music Theatre
NorrlandsOperan
Royal Dramatic Theatre
Royal Swedish Opera
Swedish National Touring Theatre
Stockholm City Theatre
Heritage institutions
Crown palaces in Sweden
Livrustkammaren
Maritime museums in Sweden
Marinmuseum
Maritiman
Maritime Museum (Stockholm)
Oskarshamn Maritime Museum
Vasa Museum
Nordic Museum
Skansen
Skokloster Castle
Swedish Army Museum
Swedish History Museum
Swedish Museum of Natural History
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Museum of Work
Museum of World Culture
Media
List of Swedish newspapers
List of Swedish radio channels
List of Swedish television channels
Sveriges Radio (Swedish Radio Ltd)
Sveriges Television
Sveriges Utbildningsradio (Swedish Educational Broadcasting Company)
Swedish Film Institute
Swedish National Board of Film Classification
Archiving institutions
Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities
Swedish Biographical Dictionary
Swedish Institute for Dialectology, Onomastics and Folklore Research
Swedish National Archives
Swedish Regional Archives
Swedish culture
Cultural institutions | [
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] |
235907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20extraction | Water extraction | Water extraction is the process of taking water from any source, either temporarily or permanently, for flood control or to obtain water for, for example, irrigation. The extracted water could also be used as drinking water after suitable treatment.
Depending on the environmental legislation in the country, controls may be placed on extraction to limit the amount of water that can be removed. The over-extraction of water can lead to dry rivers or declining groundwater levels.
The science of hydrogeology is used to determine safe water extraction levels.
Water can go through dams that are used to regulate or stop water from coming though, creating hydroelectricity.
See also
Atmospheric water generator
Desalination
Reclaimed water
Groundwater extraction
References
Hydrology | [
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235908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongling | Tongling | Tongling (; former names: Tunglinghsien, Tungkwanshan) is a prefecture-level city in southern Anhui province. A river port along the Yangtze River, Tongling borders Wuhu to the east, Chizhou to the southwest and Anqing to the west.
As of the 2020 census, its population was 1,311,726 inhabitants whom 842,675 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of 3 urban districts.
The asteroid 12418 Tongling was named after the city.
Geography
Tongling is located in southern Anhui on the southern (right) bank of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, with latitude ranging from 30° 45' 12" to 31° 07' 56" N and longitude ranging from 117° 42' 00" to 118° 10' 06" E; the maximal north–south extent is , and the greatest east–west width is . It borders Fanchang County to the southeast, Qingyang County and Nanling County to the south, Guichi District of Chizhou to the southwest, and, northwest across the Yangtze, Wuwei County and Zongyang County.
Administration
The prefecture-level city of Tongling administers 4 county-level divisions, including 3 districts and 1 county.
Tongguan District ()
Jiao District ()
Yi'an District ()
Zongyang County ()
In 2012, the provincial government made plans to cede Zongyang County from Anqing City to Tongling City, in order to grant the latter land across the Yangtze.
Defunct divisions
Tongguanshan District ()
Shizishan District ()
History
Tongling has been famous as a beautiful mountain city since its origins in the Han dynasty over 1500 years ago. Owing to its copper and tin deposits, it was an important center in the past for bronze production. The scale of industrial activity gradually increased through the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties, the Japanese occupation of 1938–45, and especially under the Communist government since 1949.
Economy
Today the city's industrial base still revolves around the several nearby copper mines and copper processing operations. The local mineral resources also include : iron, coal, gold, silver, tin, Iron sulfide, plus more than twenty other rare minerals associated with them such as nickel, cadmium, gallium, molybdenum, germanium and selenium. Other important industries include chemical works, textiles, building materials, electronics, machinery and food processing. Long a hub of water transportation, in 1995 Tongling became the site of Anhui Province's first highway bridge spanning the Yangtze River.
Although Tongling City is mostly mountainous, the surrounding flatlands are rich agricultural regions producing rice, wheat, cotton, beans, garlic, herbal medicines and ginger. Large amounts of fish are also harvested in the region.
Tongling is the center for conservation efforts to preserve the last remaining Yangtze freshwater dolphins. Two semi-natural reserves have been established in the Tongling area, in the Tongling and Shishou oxbow lakes, but as yet no dolphins have been successfully captured and moved from the river into the lakes.
Tongling has developed at a rapid speed in the past 5 years, i.e. 2003 to 2007.The average GDP per capita has reached ¥44,870 in 2008 which is the second in Anhui province. And the increasing rate is 13%, far more than the average increasing rate of the whole province which is 12.8%.And it aims to achieve $10000 GDP per capita in 2012.
As of 2016, Tongling City, administered 3 districts and 1 county, the total population of 1.7185 million people. GDP of 95.73 billion yuan. By industry, the added value of the primary industry was 4.89 billion yuan, the added value of the secondary industry was 56.96 billion yuan, and the added value of the tertiary industry was 33.87 billion yuan. The three industrial structures are 5.1: 59.5: 35.4. According to the resident population, the annual per capita GDP is 59,960 yuan.
Transport
As of November 2017, Tongling has two bridges across the Yangtze River.
Rail
Tongling is served by the Nanjing–Tongling, Tongling–Jiujiang, Lujiang-Tongling Railways, Nanjing–Anqing Intercity Railway and Hefei-Fuzhou High-Speed Railway.
Culture
The famous poet of Tang Dynasty, Li Bai (c.700–762, also known as Li Po) praised the beauty and richness of Tongling. The Tongling Sports Centre Stadium is located in the city. The football stadium has a capacity of 30,000 and it opened in 2018.
Local specialties
Tongling ginger
Tongling ginger is one of the "eight treasures" of Tongling. It is a perennial herb and an annual cultivated crop. Tongling ginger is scientifically identified by the Anhui Academy of Agricultural Sciences Horticulture and belongs to the type of white ginger. The fresh ginger skin is white and slightly yellow, the ginger is bergamot-shaped, and the petals are thick and thick.
Tongling dried tofu
Tongling dried tofu which began production in the Ming Dynasty and has a history of more than 400 years. Because Datong Town is the only way to the Buddhist shrine Jiuhua Mountain, pilgrims worshipping Buddhas from all over the country and Korea, India and other countries must purchase Tongling dried tofu for vegetarian food.
International relations
The contract of town-twinning with the city of Marbach am Neckar in Baden-Württemberg, Germany was established in 1990 and was among the first Sino-German town-twinnings, or sister city relationships. One lady citizen of Marbach am Neckar has been awarded honorary citizenship of Tongling City in 2005, recognizing her relentless effort to keep up the town-twinning. Marbach is the birthplace of the famous German poet Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), as a symbol of friendship a statue was erected in local Tianjinhu-Lake-Park.
Tongling has been twinned with the Borough of Halton in England since 1997. A Chinese friendship garden was created in the grounds of Runcorn Town Hall in 2006, including a bronze statue gifted by the twin city of Tongling.
References
External links
Government website of Tongling (in Simplified Chinese)
Cities in Anhui
Populated places on the Yangtze River | [
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235912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doggerel | Doggerel | Doggerel, or doggrel, is poetry that is irregular in rhythm and in rhyme, often deliberately for burlesque or comic effect. Alternatively, it can mean verse which has a monotonous rhythm, easy rhyme, and cheap or trivial meaning. The word is derived from the Middle English dogerel, probably a derivative of dog. In English it has been used as an adjective since the 14th century and a noun since at least 1630.
Appearing since ancient times in the literatures of many cultures, it is characteristic of nursery rhymes and children's song.
Examples
The Scottish poet William McGonagall (1825-1902) has become famous for his doggerel, which many remember with affection despite its seeming technical flaws, as in his poem "The Tay Bridge Disaster":
Ogden Nash (1902–1971) made a virtue of writing what appears to be doggerel but is actually clever and entertaining despite its apparent technical faults.
Hip hop lyrics have also explored the artful possibilities of doggerel.
Chaucer's Tale of Sir Thopas is written in this format. It irritates the Host of The Tabard so much that he interrupts him and makes him tell a different tale.
See also
Accentual verse
Crambo
Knittelvers
Nonsense poetry
References
Genres of poetry
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235914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Julius%20Solinus | Gaius Julius Solinus | Gaius Julius Solinus was a Latin grammarian, geographer, and compiler who probably flourished in the early 3rd century AD. Historical scholar Theodor Mommsen dates him to the middle of the 3rd century.
Solinus was the author of De mirabilibus mundi ("The wonders of the world") which circulated
both under the title Collectanea rerum memorabilium ("Collection of Curiosities"), and Polyhistor, though the latter title was favoured by the author himself. The work is indeed a description of curiosities in a chorographic framework. Adventus, to whom it is dedicated, is identified with Oclatinius Adventus, Roman consul in AD 218. It contains a short description of the ancient world, with remarks on historical, social, religious, and natural history questions. The greater part is taken from Pliny's Natural History and the geography of Pomponius Mela.
According to Mommsen, Solinus also relied upon a chronicle (possibly by Cornelius Bocchus) and a Chorographia pliniana, an epitome of Pliny's work with additions made about the time of Hadrian. Schanz, however, suggests the Roma and Prata of Suetonius.
A greatly revised version of his original text was made, perhaps by Solinus himself. This version contains a letter that Solinus wrote as an introduction to the work, which gives the work the title Polyhistor ("multi-descriptive"). Both versions of the work circulated widely and eventually Polyhistor was taken for the author's name. It was popular in the Middle Ages, hexameter abridgments being current under the names of Theodericus and Petrus Diaconus.
The commentary by Saumaise in his Plinianae exercitationes (1689) is considered indispensable; the 1895 edition by Mommsen includes a valuable introduction on the manuscripts, the authorities used by Solinus, and subsequent compilers. See also Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 389; and Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (1904), iv. I. There is an early modern English translation by Arthur Golding (1587) and a modern one with commentary by Dr. Arwen Apps of Macquarie University.
References
Text and Translation
Kai Brodersen, Solinus: Wunder der Welt. Collectanea rerum mirabilium. Lateinisch und Deutsch. Edition Antike. Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchgesellschaft 2014.
Arwen Elizabeth Apps, Gaius Iulius Solinus and His Polyhistor, Macquarie University, 2011 (PhD Dissertation)
Sources and Studies
Hermann Walter, Die ‘Collectanea rerum memorabilium’ des C. Julius Solinus. Ihre Entstehung und die Echtheit ihrer Zweitfassung, Wiesbaden, 1969 (Hermes. Einzelschriften, 22).
Kai Brodersen (ed.), Solinus. New Studies. Heidelberg: Verlag Antike 2014.
External links
Gaius Julius Solinus, the Polyhistor, English translation by Arwen Apps (in ToposText.org, from her PhD diss., Macquarie University, 2011)
Ivlii Solini de sitv et memorabilibvs orbis capitvla, Editio princeps, Venice 1473, at the Bavarian State Library
Gaii Iulii Solini de Mirabilibus Mundi at The Latin Library, Latin texts of both the C.L.F. Panckoucke edition (Paris 1847) and the Mommsen edition (1864).
Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Solinus in .jpg and .tiff format.
The excellent and pleasant worke of Iulius Solinus Polyhistor Contayning the noble actions of humaine creatures, the secretes & prouidence of nature, the description of countries, the maners of the people: with many meruailous things and strange antiquities, seruing for the benefitt and recreation of all sorts of persons. Translated out of Latin into English, by Arthur Golding. Gent.
3rd-century Romans
3rd-century Latin writers
solinus
Geographers
Solinus, Gaius
Post–Silver Age Latin writers
Roman-era geographers
3rd-century geographers | [
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235916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jada%20Pinkett%20Smith | Jada Pinkett Smith | Jada Koren Pinkett Smith (; née Pinkett; born September 18, 1971) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles in A Different World (1991–1993), The Nutty Professor (1996), as Niobe in The Matrix Reloaded (2003), The Matrix Revolutions (2003) and The Matrix Resurrections (2021), Gotham (2014–2017) and Girls Trip (2017). In 2018, Pinkett Smith began co-hosting the Facebook Watch talk show Red Table Talk, for which she has received a Daytime Emmy Award from seven nominations. Time magazine named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2021.
Her other notable roles include a guest appearance on the short-lived sitcom True Colors (1990), Menace II Society (1993), Set It Off (1996), Scream 2 (1997), Ali (2001), Collateral (2004), the Madagascar films (2005–2012), Hawthorne (2009–2011), Magic Mike XXL (2015), Bad Moms (2016), and Angel Has Fallen (2019).
Pinkett Smith launched her music career in 2002, when she helped create the heavy metal band Wicked Wisdom, for which she was a singer and songwriter. Along with her husband Will Smith, she has a production company, and has had producing credits in films, documentaries, and television series. She also wrote a children's book, Girls Hold Up This World, which was published in 2004, and landed at number two on The New York Times Best Seller list.
Since 1997, Pinkett Smith has been married to Will Smith, with whom she has two children: son Jaden and daughter Willow. Through their marriage, she is also stepmother to Smith's son from his earlier marriage, Trey Smith.
Early life and family
Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Jada Pinkett Smith was named after her mother's favorite soap opera actress, Jada Rowland. Pinkett Smith is of Jamaican and Bajan descent on her mother's side and African-American descent on her father's side. Her parents are Adrienne Banfield-Jones, the head nurse of a Baltimore inner-city clinic, and Robsol Pinkett Jr., who ran a construction company. Banfield-Jones, who during the 2010s became Adrienne Banfield-Norris, became pregnant in high school; the couple married but divorced after several months. Banfield-Jones raised Pinkett with the help of her own mother, Marion Martin Banfield, a Jamaican-born social worker. Banfield noticed her granddaughter's passion for the performing arts and enrolled her in piano, tap dance, and ballet lessons.
Pinkett Smith has remained close to her mother and said, "A mother and daughter's relationship is usually the most honest, and we are so close." She also added: "[My mother] understood what I wanted and never stood in my way." She participated as the maid of honor in Banfield-Norris's 1998 wedding to Paul Jones, a telecommunications executive. Pinkett Smith has shown great admiration for her grandmother, saying, "My grandmother was a doer who wanted to create a better community and add beauty to the world."
Pinkett Smith attended the Baltimore School for the Arts, where she met and became close friends with her classmate, rapper Tupac Shakur. When she met Shakur, she was a drug dealer. Her mother had been a heroin addict. She majored in dance and theatre and graduated in 1989. After graduation, she spent a year at the North Carolina School of the Arts.
Acting career
Beginnings (1990–1995)
Pinkett began her acting career in 1990, when she starred in an episode of True Colors. She received guest roles in television shows such as Doogie Howser, M.D. (1991) and 21 Jump Street (1991), and earned a role on comedian Bill Cosby's NBC television sitcom A Different World in 1991, as college freshman Lena James.
In 1994, Pinkett Smith acted with Keenen Ivory Wayans in the action and comedy film A Low Down Dirty Shame. She described her character, Peaches, as "raw" with "major attitude", and her acting garnered positive reviews. The New York Times wrote, "Ms. Pinkett, whose performance is as sassy and sizzling as a Salt-N-Pepa recording, walks away with the movie." In 1994, she also starred as a title character in Doug McHenry's romantic drama Jason's Lyric (1994), opposite Allen Payne; in 1995, played a convict on work release in the horror film Demon Knight (1995). In his review of the former film, Roger Ebert praised the chemistry between Payne and Pinkett Smith, writing: "[He] has powerful chemistry with the enigmatic, teasing, tender character played by Pinkett; they really seem to like one another, which is not a feeling you always pick up in screen romances".
Rise to prominence (1996–2003)
Pinkett Smith starred with actor and comedian Eddie Murphy in the 1996 remake of The Nutty Professor, portraying the love interest of a kindhearted university professor who is morbidly obese. The film was a commercial success, earning $25 million in its first weekend in North America and eventually $274 million worldwide. She also had a lead role in Set It Off (1996), a crime drama about four women who rob banks to escape from poverty, opposite Queen Latifah, Vivica A. Fox, and Kimberly Elise. Her acting in the film was noted in the San Francisco Chronicle, which wrote that she was "the one to watch". Budgeted at $9 million, Set It Off made $41 million globally.
In 1997, Pinkett Smith had a cameo role in Scream 2 as a college student who is brutally murdered in front of hundreds of filmgoers. The film made more than $100 million at the North American box office. In 1998, she played a news reporter in the thriller Return to Paradise, with Joaquin Phoenix and Vince Vaughn, and took on the title role of an extroverted woman, alongside Tommy Davidson, in the comedy Woo. While favorably reviewing her performance in Woo, Derek Armstrong of AllMovie wrote that the script was "formulaic" and "not much of a vehicle for its impish starlet". She next starred in Spike Lee's film Bamboozled (2000) as a personal assistant to the main character, played by Damon Wayans. Although the film met with mediocre reviews, it won the National Board of Review's Freedom of Expression Award.
In 2001, Pinkett Smith portrayed a loud-mouthed wife in the moderately successful comedy Kingdom Come, with LL Cool J, Vivica A. Fox, Anthony Anderson, Toni Braxton, and Whoopi Goldberg. In the biographical sports drama Ali (also 2001), she played Sonji Roi, the first wife of boxer Muhammad Ali, opposite Will Smith. While she loved the final product, she initially did not think she was the right person for the role: "I felt like because we were a couple off screen, for people to see us together on the screen in a movie like this, would take people out of the movie, that people would see Will and Jada there—they wouldn't see Ali and Sonji".
Perhaps her best-known role to date is the part of human rebel Niobe in the films The Matrix Reloaded (2003) and The Matrix Revolutions (2003), sequels to 1999's The Matrix, and the related video game Enter The Matrix (2003). The character was written specifically with Pinkett Smith in mind. Directly after she filmed her scenes for Ali, Pinkett Smith flew to Australia to work on the Matrix sequels. The sequels earned over $91 million and $48 million during their North American opening weekends, respectively.
Acting, producing, and directing (2004–2013)
In the neonoir thriller Collateral (2004), alongside Jamie Foxx and Tom Cruise, Pinkett Smith played a U.S. Justice Department prosecutor and the target of a contract killer. The film was a critical and commercial success, grossing $217.8 million worldwide. She voiced Gloria, a strong, confident, but sweet hippopotamus, in the computer animated film Madagascar (2005). Tom McGrath, one of the film's directors, said they found all these traits in her voice when they listened to her. Despite a mixed response from critics, the film was a commercial success, earning $532 million worldwide, making it one of the biggest hits of 2005. In 2007, she played the wife of an affluent dentist in the drama Reign Over Me, with Adam Sandler, Don Cheadle, Liv Tyler, and Donald Sutherland. Entertainment Weekly called the film a "strange, black-and-blue therapeutic drama equally mottled with likable good intentions and agitating clumsiness", and found Pinkett Smith "graceful" in it.
In 2008, Pinkett Smith took on the role of a lesbian author in the all-female comedy The Women, opposite Meg Ryan, Annette Bening, Debra Messing, and Eva Mendes. Though a commercial success, The Women was panned by critics, with Pinkett Smith earning a nomination for the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress for her performance. Her directorial debut was the drama The Human Contract (also 2008); she also wrote, and starred as the sister of a successful but unhappy businessman, with Paz Vega and Idris Elba. It debuted at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2008. The success of Madagascar led Pinkett Smith to return to the role of Gloria in the 2008 sequel Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa, which earned US$603 million at the international box office.
Pinkett Smith was an executive producer and starred as a Chief Nursing Officer in the TNT medical drama Hawthorne, which premiered on June 16, 2009. USA Today remarked: "Pinkett Smith's Hawthorne is tired in every sense of the word, and she's not the only one. Every character and event falls under the category of painfully predictable". Hawthorne ended on August 16, 2011, after three seasons. While she reprised the voice role of Gloria in Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted (2012), which made over US$746 million, she also voiced the character in the NBC Christmas special Merry Madagascar (2009) and the direct-to-DVD film Madly Madagascar (2013).
Commercial success (2014–present)
Beginning in 2014, Pinkett Smith starred in the first season of the FOX crime drama Gotham, as Gotham City gangster Fish Mooney. She returned, recurrently, in the second and third seasons of the series. In 2015, she starred in the comedy Magic Mike XXL, as the manager of a star stripper club, opposite Channing Tatum and Joe Manganiello. The film made US$122.5 million worldwide. She starred with Mila Kunis, Kristen Bell and Christina Applegate in the comedy Bad Moms (2016), as the sidekick of a domineering parent-teacher association head. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the cast and humor, though did not feel it could "take full advantage of its assets". The film, nevertheless, earned more than US$183.9 million.
Pinkett Smith next took on the role of a nurse and uptight mom in the comedy Girls Trip (2017), alongside Regina Hall, Queen Latifah and Tiffany Haddish. The film was chosen by Time magazine as one of its top ten films of 2017, and grossed US$140 million worldwide, including over US$100 million domestically, the first comedy of 2017 to do so. In July 2017, Pinkett Smith appeared at the Essence Festival where, on the Empowerment Stage, she appeared to talk alongside Queen Latifah. Pinkett Smith spoke highly of the cast reflecting their characters in real life, stating that they are all women who love other women and work to empower each other, a feature that she notes as rare in Hollywood.
Beginning in May 2018, Pinkett Smith has hosted the Facebook Watch talk show Red Table Talk, which features her mom and her daughter and focuses on a wide range of topics, with these being watched from three different perspectives. In a positive review, USA Todays Maeve McDermott praised the series for its "insightful guests, no-holds-barred topics and Smith's magnetic hosting presence".
Musical career
Under the name Jada Koren, Pinkett Smith formed the metal band Wicked Wisdom in 2002. The band consists of Pinkett Smith performing lead vocals, Pocket Honore (guitar, vocals), Cameron "Wirm" Graves (guitar, keyboard, vocals), and Rio (bass, vocals). The band is managed by James Lassiter and Miguel Melendez of Overbrook Entertainment, a company co-founded by Pinkett Smith's husband Will Smith.
The band's self-titled debut album was released on February 21, 2006, by Pinkett Smith's production company 100% Womon and Suburban Noize Records. Will Smith served as the project's executive producer. The album made it to Billboard's Top Heatseekers chart, and peaked at number 44 during the week of March 11, 2006. AllMusic reviewer Alex Henderson said of the album, "[Pinkett Smith] shows herself to be an expressive, commanding singer" and that "[Wicked Wisdom] shows considerable promise". The band promoted the album in 2006, touring with heavy metal band Sevendust.
Onyx Hotel Tour
Wicked Wisdom landed a slot on Britney Spears' Onyx Hotel Tour in 2004, one of the year's highest-profile tours. The band opened for Spears for eight dates in April and May 2004, during the European leg of the tour.
Ozzfest 2005
In 2005, Sharon Osbourne went to see Wicked Wisdom perform at a small nightclub in Los Angeles. She said, "I was blown away. When you see and hear Jada with her band it's apparent that she has nothing but love and respect for this genre of music". In May 2005 organizers announced Wicked Wisdom would perform on the second stage of 2005's Ozzfest. Fans of the festival were outraged, claiming the band did not have the credibility to perform at the music festival. Aware of the questions about the band's addition to Ozzfest, Pinkett Smith said, "I'm not here asking for any favors. You've got to show and prove. And not every audience is going to go for it." Wicked Wisdom's guitarist Pocket Honore said while early dates of the tour were rocky, "once word got out that we weren't a joke, people started coming out and by the sixth or seventh gig we were on fire". Pinkett Smith agreed, saying, "After seven dates within the Ozzfest tour, the whole attitude of it started to turn around once the word of mouth started getting out."
Other ventures
Business
After opening her music company 100% Women Productions, Pinkett Smith created her own fashion label, Maja, in 1994. The clothing line features women's T-shirts and dresses embellished with the slogan "Sister Power", sold primarily through small catalogs.
In 2003, Pinkett Smith and Smith helped to create the television series All of Us, which aired on UPN/The CW. Pinkett Smith published her first children's book, Girls Hold Up This World, in 2004. "I wrote the book for Willow and for her friends and for all the little girls in the world who need affirmation about being female in this pretty much masculine world. I really tried to capture different sides of femininity. I want girls in the world to feel powerful, to know they have the power to change the world in any way they wish."
In 2005, Pinkett Smith became one of many celebrities to invest a combined total of US$10 million in Carol's Daughter, a line of beauty products created by Lisa Price. She became a spokesman for the beauty line, and said, "To be a part of another African American woman's dream was just priceless to me."
Philanthropy
In 1997, Pinkett Smith was the emcee of the Million Woman March in Philadelphia.
Together with Will, Pinkett Smith has created the Will and Jada Smith Family Foundation in Baltimore, Maryland, a charity which focuses on youth in urban inner cities and family support. Her aunt, Karen Banfield Evans, is the foundation's executive director. The charity was awarded the David Angell Humanitarian Award by The American Screenwriters Association (ASA) in 2006. The Will and Jada Smith Family Foundation has provided grants to non-profit organizations such as YouthBuild, and Pinkett Smith has made personal donations to organizations such as Capital K-9s.
In 2006, Pinkett Smith donated $1 million to her high school alma mater, the Baltimore School for the Arts, and dedicated the new theater to her classmate and close friend Tupac Shakur.
When Pinkett Smith's aunt, Karen Banfield Evans, was diagnosed with lupus, the Will and Jada Smith Family Foundation, in association with the Lupus Foundation of America and Maybelline, held the first annual "Butterflies Over Hollywood" event on September 29, 2007, at the El Rey Theatre in Los Angeles. The event raised funds for LFA public and professional educational programs. The Will and Jada Smith Family Foundation was presented with an award in 2007 at the 4th Annual Lupus Foundation of America Awards.
In 2012, on behalf of PETA, Pinkett Smith wrote a letter to Baltimore's mayor, asking that the visiting Ringling Brothers Circus "comply with Baltimore's absolute prohibition of the use of devices such as bullhooks" and not harm the elephants. In 2013, she appeared in a video clip for Gucci's "Chime for Change" campaign that aims to raise funds and awareness of women's issues globally.
Personal life
Pinkett Smith had a close friendship with rapper Tupac Shakur that formed while they attended the Baltimore School for the Arts. She later appeared in his music videos "Keep Ya Head Up" (1993) and "Temptations" (1995). In 1995, she contributed $100,000 towards Shakur's bail as he awaited an appeal on his sexual abuse conviction. Pinkett Smith stated in the 2003 documentary Tupac: Resurrection that he was "one of my best friends. He was like a brother. It was beyond friendship for us. The type of relationship we had, you only get that once in a lifetime."
Pinkett Smith dated former basketball player Grant Hill while he attended Duke University.
Family
She met Will Smith in 1994 on the set of Smith's television show The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, when she auditioned for the role of his character's girlfriend, Lisa Wilkes. She was considered too short and the role went to actress Nia Long. Will and Jada later began dating after he separated from Sheree Fletcher. Prior to this, Will had developed an attraction to Jada, but did not act on it. Jada eventually moved from her hometown of Baltimore to California to be with him. On December 31, 1997, while Jada was three months pregnant, about 100 guests attended their wedding at The Cloisters, near her hometown of Baltimore, Maryland. Regarding her marriage, Jada said that they are "private people" and told one interviewer, "I will throw my career away before I let it break up our marriage. I made it clear to Will. I'd throw it away completely". The pair produce films through their joint production company, Overbrook Entertainment and Westbrook Inc.
In April 2013, Pinkett Smith caused many to believe she and Will were in an open marriage after stating in an interview: "I've always told Will, 'You can do whatever you want as long as you can look at yourself in the mirror and be okay'. Because at the end of the day, Will is his own man. I'm here as his partner, but he is his own man". However, she denied such, clarifying her statements on Facebook, writing: "Open marriage? The statement I made in regard to, 'Will can do whatever he wants', has illuminated the need to discuss the relationship between trust and love and how they co-exist".
Jada and Will have two children, Jaden (born 1998), and Willow (born 2000). She is also the stepmother of Trey Smith, Will's son from a previous marriage.
Will commented in 2008 on their parenting styles: "We're not strict but we definitely believe it's a very important component for rearing children. It creates safety for them. They understand that they need guidance." The family resides in a home, on , in Malibu.
Controversy
In May 2014, Jada and Will's parenting skills were questioned when Moisés Arias, who was 20 at the time, was photographed shirtless in a bed with then-13-year-old Willow Smith, which triggered an investigation by the Los Angeles County Department of Children and Family Services.
Scientology
After meeting Tom Cruise during the filming of Collateral in 2004, Pinkett Smith and Smith donated US$20,000 to the Hollywood Education and Literacy Program (HELP), Scientology's basis for homeschooling.
Affairs
In late June 2020, singer August Alsina claimed that he and Jada had been involved in an affair in 2016, with Will Smith's permission. A spokesman for Pinkett Smith denied the claims, saying they were "absolutely not true". On July 10, during an episode of Red Table Talk featuring Will Smith, Pinkett Smith confirmed an "entanglement" with Alsina during her separation from Will, although not with Will's permission. Jada said Alsina misconstrued it as permission because she and Will were "separated amicably". Pinkett Smith further claimed she wanted to "heal" Alsina, but needed to find healing for herself first. She eventually got back with Will after breaking things off with Alsina and stated she has not spoken to him since.
After Pinkett Smith's use of the word "entanglement" went viral on the Internet, Alsina released a collaboration titled "Entanglements" with rapper Rick Ross on July 19, 2020, singing "The definition of entanglement is when you get tangled in the sheets".
In 2021, Pinkett Smith stated that she was guilty of having an affair with a man; Will Smith also admitted to having had sex outside the marriage as well.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Wicked Wisdom
New Village Leadership Academy
1971 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Los Angeles
Actresses from Baltimore
African-American women singer-songwriters
Will Smith
African-American film producers
African-American rock singers
American women heavy metal singers
Musicians from Baltimore
Philadelphia 76ers owners
Singers from Los Angeles
American women rock singers
American heavy metal singers
American television actresses
African-American actresses
American film actresses
American voice actresses
African-American businesspeople
American women in business
Nu metal singers
American women film producers
American film producers
Television producers from California
American women television producers
Comedians from Maryland
Singer-songwriters from Maryland
Time 100
21st-century African-American women singers
University of North Carolina alumni
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235918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Jekyll%20and%20Mr.%20Hyde%20%28character%29 | Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (character) | Dr. Henry Jekyll, nicknamed in some copies of the story as Harry Jekyll, and his alternative personality, Mr. Edward Hyde, is the central character of Robert Louis Stevenson's 1886 novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. In the story, he is a good friend of main protagonist Gabriel John Utterson. Jekyll is a kind and respected English doctor who has repressed evil urges inside of him. In an attempt to hide this, he develops a type of serum that he believes will effectively mask his dark side. Instead, Jekyll transforms into Edward Hyde, the physical and mental manifestation of his evil personality. This process happens more regularly until Jekyll becomes unable to control when the transformations occur.
Fictional character biography
Doctor Henry Jekyll is a doctor who feels that he is battling between the benevolence and malevolence within himself, thus leading to the struggle with his alter ego Edward Hyde. He spends his life trying to repress evil urges that are not fitting for a man of his stature. Jekyll develops a serum in an attempt to mask this hidden evil. However, in doing so, Jekyll transforms into Hyde, a hideous creature without compassion or remorse. Jekyll has a friendly personality, but as Hyde, he becomes mysterious and violent. As time goes by, Hyde grows in power and eventually manifests whenever Jekyll shows signs of physical or moral weakness, no longer needing the serum to be released.
Stevenson never says exactly what Hyde does, generally saying that it is something of an evil and lustful nature. Thus, in the context of the times, it is abhorrent to Victorian religious morality. Hyde may have been reeling in activities such as engaging with prostitutes or buggery. However, it is Hyde's violent activities that seem to give him the most thrills, driving him to attack and murder Sir Danvers Carew without apparent reason, making him a hunted outlaw throughout England. Carew was a client of Gabriel Utterson, Jekyll's lawyer and friend, who is concerned by Hyde's history of violence and the fact that Jekyll changed his will, leaving everything to Hyde. Dr. Hastie Lanyon, a mutual acquaintance of Jekyll and Utterson, dies of shock after receiving information relating to Jekyll. Before his death, Lanyon gives Utterson a letter to be opened after Jekyll's death or disappearance.
When Jekyll refuses to leave his lab for weeks, Utterson and Jekyll's butler Mr. Poole break into the lab. Inside, they find the body of Hyde wearing Jekyll's clothes and apparently dead from suicide. They find also a letter from Jekyll to Utterson promising to explain the entire mystery. Utterson takes the document home where he first reads Lanyon's letter and then Jekyll's. The first reveals that Lanyon's deterioration and eventual death resulted from seeing Hyde drinking a serum or potion and subsequently turning into Jekyll. The second letter explains that Jekyll, having previously indulged unstated vices (and with it the fear that discovery would lead to his losing his social position), found a way to transform himself and thereby indulge his vices without fear of detection. But Jekyll's transformed personality Hyde was effectively a sociopath — evil, self-indulgent, and utterly uncaring to anyone but himself. Initially, Jekyll was able to control the transformations, but then he became Hyde involuntarily in his sleep.
At this point, Jekyll resolved to cease becoming Hyde. One night however, the urge gripped him too strongly. After the transformation, he immediately rushed out and violently killed Carew. Horrified, Jekyll tried more adamantly to stop the transformations. For a time, he proved successful by engaging in philanthropic work. One day at a park, he considered how good a person he had become as a result of his deeds (in comparison to others), believing himself redeemed. However, before he completed his line of thought, he looked down at his hands and realized that he had suddenly transformed once again into Hyde. This was the first time that an involuntary metamorphosis had happened in waking hours. Far from his laboratory and hunted by the police as a murderer, Hyde needed help to avoid being caught. He wrote to Lanyon (in Jekyll's hand) asking his friend to retrieve the contents of a cabinet in his laboratory and to meet him at midnight at Lanyon's home in Cavendish Square. In Lanyon's presence, Hyde mixed the potion and transformed back to Jekyll - ultimately leading to Lanyon's death. Meanwhile, Jekyll returned to his home only to find himself ever more helpless and trapped as the transformations increased in frequency and necessitated even larger doses of potion in order to reverse them.
Eventually, the stock of ingredients from which Jekyll had been preparing the potion ran low, and subsequent batches prepared by Dr. Jekyll from renewed stocks failed to produce the transformation. Jekyll speculated that the one essential ingredient that made the original potion work (a salt) must have itself been contaminated. After sending Poole to one chemist after another to purchase the salt that was running low only to find it wouldn't work, he assumed that subsequent supplies all lacked the essential ingredient that made the potion successful for his experiments. His ability to change back from Hyde into Jekyll had slowly vanished in consequence. Jekyll wrote that even as he composed his letter, he knew that he would soon become Hyde permanently, having used the last of this salt and he wondered if Hyde would face execution for his crimes or choose to kill himself. Jekyll noted that in either case, the end of his letter marked the end of his life. He ended the letter saying "I bring the life of that unhappy Henry Jekyll to an end". With these words, both the document and the novella come to a close.
The original pronunciation of "Jekyll", as used in Stevenson's native Scotland, rhymed with "treacle", thus ().
Adaptations
While there are adaptations of the book, the section depicts the different portrayals in different media appearances:
Television
Dr. Jekyll appeared in some of Warner Bros.' Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies animated shorts.
Dr. Jerkyl's Hide (1954) features Sylvester turning into a Hyde-like cat upon ingesting the formula which he mistook for soda pop where he attacks Spike the Bulldog and Chester the Terrier.
Hyde and Hare (1955) depicts Dr. Jekyll (voiced by Mel Blanc) bringing Bugs Bunny to his apartment. When Dr. Jekyll drinks his formula, he becomes Mr. Hyde who is depicted with green skin and red eyes. Toward the end of the short, Bugs Bunny drinks the formula and transforms into a Hyde-like rabbit.
In Hyde and Go Tweet (1960), Dr. Jekyll drinks a formula that turns himself into Mr. Hyde. The commotion wakes Sylvester, who then sees Hyde revert to the form of Jekyll. Tweety later exposes himself to Dr. Jekyll's formula and he becomes a Hyde-like canary.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in Climax! episode "The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde". Hosted by Bill Lundigan, this episode was originally aired on 28 July 1955 (Season 1 Episode 34). The story was adapted for television by Gore Vidal.
Loosely based on Stevenson's novel, the first season episode of Star Trek: The Original Series, The Enemy Within, Captain Kirk is split into two people, one evil and one good.
The Scooby-Doo, Where are You! episode "Nowhere to Hyde" features the Ghost of Mr. Hyde (voiced by John Stephenson) who is committing jewelry store robberies and one of the suspects is a descendant of Dr. Jekyll.
In the Dynomutt, Dog Wonder episode "Everyone Hyde!", the criminal Willie the Weasel (voiced by Henry Corden) creates a similar formula (which is related to Dr. Jekyll's formula) that turns him into Mr. Hyde.
The grandson of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde are featured in The Comic Strip segment "Mini Monsters" voiced by Earl Hammond. He works as the camp physician at Camp Mini-Mon.
In the Gravedale High episode "Fear of Flying", there is a medical version of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (voiced by Frank Welker) that works as a doctor for the monsters. Mr. Hyde serves as Dr. Jekyll's "partner" where Dr. Jekyll would turn into him for any second opinions of anyone's medical problems.
In the All Dogs Go to Heaven: The Series episode "Dr. Beagle and Mangy Hyde", Charlie turns into a Mr. Hyde-like monster (voiced by Brad Garrett) when eating dog food tainted with a dangerous substance Carface had.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in the Animaniacs episode "Brain Meets Brawn", voiced by Jeff Bennett. Dr. Jekyll was seen taking a serum that turns him into Mr. Hyde who is then attacked by the police. They take a break in the conflict when tea time occurs. Afterwards, the police subdue Mr. Hyde and take him away to the police station. Dr. Jekyll's serum inspires Brain to take it so that he can break Big Ben in this monster form whenever he is angered.
The 2004 TV series Power Rangers: Dino Thunder (American adaptation of Bakuryū Sentai Abaranger), Mesogog was based on a character but caused by an experiment with dinosaur DNA gone wrong.
The 2007 TV serial Jekyll starred James Nesbitt as Tom Jackman, a modern Jekyll whose Hyde persona wreaks havoc in modern London. In the course of the series, it is revealed that the original Jekyll's transformation into Hyde was a 'natural' process, triggered by Jekyll's love for his maid rather than any kind of potion, and Jackman is the descendant of one of Hyde's bastard sons, while his wife is a clone of Jekyll's maid created by a corporation to try and duplicate the Hyde process. As with most modern adaptations, Hyde is depicted as possessing superhuman strength, able to tear a lion apart with his bare hands, and is depicted as being impulsive and childish rather than explicitly evil, although the physical changes are fairly subtle, such as Hyde having darker eyes and a different hairstyle. At the series' conclusion, Hyde apparently sacrifices himself to save Jackman, "dying" when he is shot but somehow able to stop Jackman "sharing the damage", with the result that the bullets remain in Jackman but he has no injuries to demonstrate where they entered his body.
NBC's Do No Harm is a modern retelling of the Jekyll and Hyde story featuring a renamed Jekyll-like character named Dr. Jason Cole (played by Steven Pasquale) trying to stop his drug-addicted, sociopathic, Hyde-like counterpart named Ian Price from ruining his professional and private life. Unlike the original story, the main character is a highly respected neurosurgeon who is able to keep his alter-ego in check through the use of an experimental sedative. Also, Jason suffers from dissociative identity disorder instead of developing a serum that separates the good and evil in a person.
The Phineas and Ferb episode "The Monster of Phineas-n-Ferbenstein" features the villain Dr. Jekyll Doofenshmirtz drinking a potion to turn himself into a monster.
The Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero episode "Rip-Penn" features Penn as Dr. Barzelby (inspired by Dr. Jekyll), who accidentally drinks a potion that turns him into a monster version of Penn's nemesis Rippen during a mission to the Gothic Mystery World.
SBS's Hyde, Jekyll, Me portrays a man, Goo Seo Jin, who is in line as a successor of the conglomerate group his family owns but has dissociative identity disorder. His other personality, Robin, is the opposite of his usual cold, cynical self; Robin is kind, gentle and has a savior complex.
Shazad Latif portrays an Anglo-Indian Dr. Henry Jekyll on the third season of Penny Dreadful. In the show, Jekyll is the illegitimate child of an English nobleman and an Indian woman. His father abandoned Jekyll and his mother in India, and after Jekyll's mother dies from leprosy, he goes to the University of Cambridge, where he befriends Victor Frankenstein but is ultimately expelled from Cambridge after getting into a fight with a professor due to the professor's racist comments. He then works at Bedlam Hospital, developing a serum to pacify patients and bring out a calm, tame nature. In the last episode of the show, Jekyll's father dies and he inherits his title: Lord Hyde.
The 2015 TV series Jekyll & Hyde focuses on the illegitimate grandson of Henry Jekyll named Doctor Robert Jekyll who has inherited his grandfather's Hyde personality. While Robert is initially able to control his transformation with pills, as the series unfolds, he learns about various demonic threats to the world, and is forced to harness the superhuman strength he possesses as Hyde to oppose these forces. In the course of the series, Robert Jekyll works with Henry Jekyll's old assistant and even meets Henry Jekyll's lover (and hence his grandmother), although his Hyde persona never gains a first name.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in Once Upon a Time, with Dr. Jekyll portrayed by Hank Harris and Mr. Hyde portrayed by Sam Witwer. They first appear in the season five finale "Only You" and "An Untold Story". Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde are shown as inhabitants of the Land of Untold Stories, who follow the heroes to Storybrooke while emigrating the inhabitants of the Land of Untold Stories to Storybrooke as well. They originally came from the Victorian England world until Mr. Hyde accidentally killed their love interest. In season six, Mr. Hyde strikes up an allegiance with Regina Mills' Evil Queen side. It's revealed that Jekyll's serum failed to remove his capacity for evil and he is killed by Captain Hook which causes Hyde to die as well as a side effect of the serum.
Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in Mary Shelley's Frankenhole, as a minor character who only appears in a few episodes. In the show, he is depicted as a pharmacist in the village that Victor Frankenstein's castle overlooks. He constantly seeks the approval Frankenstein, who views Jekyll as nothing more than an annoyance. Jekyll rarely transforms into Mr. Hyde, though when he does, Hyde usually will only make stereotypical sexist comments towards female characters. Like the novel, Jekyll does not need the serum to transform into Hyde, as in one episode, Victor manages to get Jekyll to turn into Hyde by mocking him.
Film
John Barrymore played Jekyll and Hyde in the 1920 silent movie adaptation of the novel. This is the earliest film based on the novella.
Fredric March played Jekyll and Hyde in the 1931 film adaptation of the novel, for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor.
Spencer Tracy played Jekyll and Hyde in the 1941 film adaptation of the novel.
Louis Hayward played Jekyll and Hyde in The Son of Dr. Jekyll.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear as the antagonists in the 1953 short film Spooks! starring The Three Stooges. Here, the duo are two separate characters. This Dr. Jekyll is a mad scientist who kidnaps a beautiful woman to transplant her brain with that of a gorilla while Mr. Hyde is his assistant. Dr. Jekyll was portrayed by Philip Van Zandt while Mr. Hyde was portrayed by Tom Kennedy.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in Abbott and Costello Meet Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1953), played by Boris Karloff and Eddie Parker respectively .
Jack Palance played the two characters in the 1968 TV movie.
David Hemmings played the characters in the 1980 version, but instead of transforming into a hideous being, he becomes younger and very physically attractive. And even though he still does evil things, he seems to be more of a gentlemen at times and less remorseless than other versions of this character. The movie was only made for TV.
Mark Blankfield played Jekyll and Hyde in the 1982 comedy Jekyll and Hyde... Together Again, wherein Jekyll discovers a white powder that unleashes the animal in every man and in his case transforming him from a shy and timid doctor into Hyde, a sex-crazed party animal.
John Hannah played Jekyll and Hyde in the 2003 television film adaptation of the novel.
In the Hammer Horror film Dr. Jekyll and Sister Hyde, Dr. Jekyll (Ralph Bates), rather than transforming into an deformed monster, transforms into a beautiful yet malicious femme fatale (Martine Beswick), his goal in this instance being to find a means of extending life rather than dividing man's good and evil natures from each other.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in Mad Monster Party?, voiced by Allen Swift. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear as guests at a party thrown by Baron Boris von Frankenstein at his castle on the Isle of Evil. Dr. Jekyll keeps his elixir in his cane whenever he wants to turn into Mr. Hyde. Also, Dr. Jekyll's cane doubles as an umbrella as seen when Mr. Hyde uses it to keep the sleeping Creature from spewing water onto him at night.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in Mad, Mad, Mad Monsters (a "prequel of sorts" to Mad Monster Party?), voiced again by Allen Swift. Dr. Jekyll appears as a therapist that the mail carrier Harvey visits after delivering the invitations to the wedding of the Monster and his bride at the Transylvania Astoria Hotel. At the end of the film, Harvey visits Dr. Jekyll again. This time, Dr. Jekyll drinks his serum and becomes Mr. Hyde. As the credits roll, Harvey is chased by Mr. Hyde who is joined by the other monsters. The bellhop Norman joins the chase in order to get Mr. Hyde's autograph.
Mr. Hyde appears in The Nightmare Before Christmas, voiced by Randy Crenshaw. He appears as one of the citizens of Halloween Town. Only seen in his "Hyde" form, he keeps two smaller versions of himself underneath his hat.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in the 1994 film The Pagemaster, voiced by Leonard Nimoy. Richard, Adventure, Fantasy, and Horror encounter Dr. Jekyll in the horror section of the Written World. He transforms into Mr. Hyde during the encounter and attacks the group. Fantasy was able to break the chandelier that fell onto Mr. Hyde and sent him falling through the floor. When Richard encounters the Pagemaster again, Dr. Jekyll is among the book characters that appear in the magical twister to congratulate him.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in the 1996 film Mary Reilly, portrayed by John Malkovich.
The film The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (adapted from the comic book series) features Jason Flemyng as both Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (the latter using prosthetic makeup to appear as a Hulk-esque version of the character with superhuman strength). Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde are employed by The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen to combat the ruthless criminal known as the Fantom, who is revealed in the course of the film to be "M", the man who recruited them, and also Professor Moriarty, who intends to acquire the power of the League for use in his plans to trigger a world war and sell his weapons for profit. His mole in the League, Dorian Gray, manages to acquire a sample of the Hyde serum, which he is able to duplicate, one of Moriarty's men drinking a massive overdose of the Hyde serum to become an even larger version of Hyde. Despite the other Hyde's size and raw power, he is defeated when he burns through the formula at an accelerated rate, resulting in Moriarty's fortress collapsing on top of him.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde appear in Van Helsing, with Dr. Jekyll portrayed by Stephen Fisher while Robbie Coltrane provides the voice of the CGI animated Mr. Hyde. Like the version that was seen in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Mr. Hyde is also portrayed as a large, hulking brute. Van Helsing has pursued Hyde to Paris, France after having failed to capture him in an earlier confrontation in London, England. He is superhumanly strong and displays agility comparable to that of a great ape. While not invulnerable, he's extremely tough and sustains severe injuries that ultimately do little to impede or slow him down to any appreciable degree. Upon exchanging banter, they begin fighting in the bell tower of Notre Dame Cathedral with Van Helsing initially gaining the advantage by severing Hyde's left arm at the biceps, which regresses to a normal form after landing on the floor. Hyde rallies and assaults Van Helsing, using his right arm to hurl him through the roof of the cathedral. He then gloats before tossing Van Helsing off the roof only for Van Helsing to fire a grappling gun that sends the hook & line through the center of Hyde's body, which Van Helsing uses to stop his fall. He attempts to pull Hyde off the roof, only for Hyde to begin pulling him upward, seemingly unfazed by the large hole in his body. Hyde trips over the edge of the roof, his falling weight pulling Van Helsing up to the roof before the line breaks. As it breaks, the momentum swings Hyde through the Rose Window of the cathedral and, while he falls, Hyde transforms back into the form of Henry Jekyll and dies from the fall. A police officer spots Van Helsing on top of the cathedral and holds him accountable for Dr. Jekyll's death.
The novelization of the film portrays Hyde as not only a murderer, but a cannibal as well. The novel says the body of the murdered woman Van Helsing discovers on the streets of Paris as partially devoured while the same scene in the film shows the woman's body intact. However, the film does suggest that Hyde is cannibalistic when he encounters Van Helsing in Notre Dame and tells him "You're a big one. You'll be hard to digest." In the Game Version Hyde tells Van Helsing that he is responsible for the murders and digestion of several people including children.
The Ghost of Mr. Hyde made a cameo in Scooby-Doo! and the Goblin King as a patron in a monster bar.
The Dynomutt version of Mr. Hyde appeared in Scooby-Doo! Mask of the Blue Falcon, voiced by John DiMaggio.
Russell Crowe played Dr. Jekyll in The Mummy, which is the first installment in Universal's Dark Universe and is a role which would have been elaborated on in further films within the series. It is suggested that Jekyll's transformation into Hyde was a "natural" condition, as he reflects on how someone- implied to be him- realized that he was succumbing to evil but was able to find a cure as a physician, requiring regular injections of an unspecified compound to prevent himself becoming Hyde, an aggressive and sadistic persona. Despite the personality transformation, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde have the same appearance with the exception of their skin and eyes, although they also have a different palmprint with the result that palm scanners that will allow Jekyll access will prohibit Hyde from using the same door. As Hyde, he exhibits greater levels of physical strength, endurance and aggression as well as improved combat abilities.
Comics
In The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume One and Volume Two by Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill, Henry Jekyll is a scientist who is the lesser half of Edward Hyde and member of the Victorian League. This incarnation of Jekyll and Hyde reveals that eventually Jekyll found that he would transform into Hyde under stress, not unlike Hulk. Likewise, Hyde has become progressively taller and bulkier than Jekyll, while Jekyll has become shorter and withered. During a dinner scene, Hyde explains that this is because splitting himself and Jekyll into separate identities resulted in him losing his restraints and growing beyond his original limits, while Jekyll withered away without anything to drive him. During the Martian invasion, he developed a strong respect for Mina Murray and sacrificed himself to stop Martian tripods from crossing London Bridge. His self-sacrifice was honored in having Serpentine Park named into Hyde Park and a statue of Mr. Hyde is seen in the park in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier and throughout The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century.
The Marvel Comics superhero Hulk is loosely based on Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Frankenstein's Monster. The supervillain Mister Hyde is more directly inspired by Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
The DC Comics supervillain Two-Face was inspired by Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde due to their split personality.
Music
The Who recorded the song "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" on their album Magic Bus: The Who on Tour.
Renaissance recorded the song "Jekyll and Hyde" on their album Azure d'Or.
The Damned recorded a song titled "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" on their 1980 release The Black Album.
Dr. Jeckyll & Mr. Hyde was a 1980s hip hop group.
The split personality theme - I am to myself what Jekyll must have been to Hyde - is featured in ABBA song Me and I (1980).
Men at Work parodied the two names somewhat for their song, Dr. Heckyll & Mr. Jive in 1983.
South Korean boy band VIXX released their first mini-album, Hyde, and first repackaged mini album, Jekyll, based on the novel.
Heavy metal band Judas Priest released a song entitled "Jekyll and Hyde" on their 2001 album "Demolition."
Another heavy metal band, Iced Earth, released a song entitled "Jekyll & Hyde" on their 2001 album, "Horror Show."
American Christian Rock band Petra recorded a song Jekyll & Hyde for their 2003 album with the same name.
American rock band Halestorm released an album in 2012 called The Strange Case Of..., with a track called "Mz. Hyde". The title of the album and song is referencing singer Lzzy Hale's on stage and off stage sides to her life.
In 2010, Lara Fabian released a song "Mademoiselle Hyde" on her album "Mademoiselle Zhivago", composed by Igor Krutoy. In 2019, the song was rearranged by Igor Krutoy and sung by Dimash Kudaibergen.
In 2015, Five Finger Death Punch released a single named "Jekyll & Hyde".
Ice Nine Kills released the single "Me, Myself & Hyde" in February 2015.
Zac Brown Band released the album Jekyll + Hyde in 2015.
In 2015, artist Jonathan Thulin released a single called "Jekyll & Hyde".
In 2019, artist Gray Matta released Shadow of Fire: Short Stories Pt. 1 EP, which featured a track called "Jekyll & Hyde ft. Resilient & Josie Lunn".
In 2019, artist Bishop Briggs released the song "Jekyll & Hyde" as the third track to the album "Champion."
In 2019, K-pop group Exo released the song "Jekyll" in their sixth album Obsession.
Stage
The story was adapted into a stage musical simply titled Jekyll & Hyde, with music by Frank Wildhorn and book by Leslie Bricusse. It premiered on May 24, 1990 at the Alley Theatre in Houston, Texas, with Chuck Wagner playing the title role(s) and Linda Eder as Lucy Harris. The stage version includes several character changes: Jekyll believes the evil in man is the reason for his father's mental deficiencies and is the driving force of his work; he is also engaged to Sir Danvers' daughter, Emma, while her former lover, Simon Stride, is still longing for her affections. The musical also features a prostitute named Lucy Harris, who is the object of Hyde's lust. Hyde also murders seven people in the musical: each member of the Board of Governors at the hospital where Jekyll is employed and rejected his work, along with Lucy and Stride. Robert Cuccioli originated the role(s) for the first U.S. tour in 1995, and then in the original Broadway theatre version in 1997. Other notable actors to play the role(s) include: Jack Wagner, Anthony Warlow, Sebastian Bach, David Hasselhoff, Rob Evan, and Constantine Maroulis in the 2013 revival.
Video games
In Fortnite, a popular 3rd-person shooter video game, an outfit is based on Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, named "The Good Doctor". The outfit also has an alternate style, named "Hyde". When equipped with the outfit, you can perform an emote to change from Dr. Jekyll to Mr. Hyde (although the former is not directly stated to be Dr. Jekyll).
Mr. Hyde is set to appear in the horror fighting game Terrordrome 2: Reign of the Legends.
The NES game "Jekyll and Hyde" which has gained a cult following in recent years due in part to the game being featured on the YouTube channel "Cinnemassacre" in an episode of the Angry Video Game Nerd (AVGN) where The Nerd claims it to be the worst thing to ever play on the NES game system.
Miscellaneous
The Lego Minifigures theme has a character in Series 9 named Mr. Good and Evil, who is based on Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
In Monster High, there are characters named Jackson Jekyll and Holt Hyde who are the descendants of Dr. Jekyll. They are voiced by Cindy Robinson in the webisodes and TV specials.
In Fate/Prototype: Fragments of Blue & Silver, a light novel series based on the original drafts of Fate/stay night, Dr. Jekyll appears as the Servant of the Berserker class, portrayed as a gentle and good looking young man. His Noble Phantasm allows him to transform into Mr. Hyde.
In Servamp, a manga written and illustrated by Strike Tanaka, there are two characters known as Licht Jekylland Todoroki and Lawless of Greed (later given the name of Hyde by the former). They have no direct correlation with Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in personality traits from the original novel, but their names, as well as their roles as opposites to each other (Licht as an Angel and Hyde as a Demon) nod to the original story. Their combined special attack is titled "Jekyll and Hyde".
In Fate/Grand Order, a mobile video game based on the Fate/stay night visual novel and franchise from Type-Moon, a Servant under the classes Assassin and Berserker appears, named "Henry Jekyll & Hyde." In most of his appearance during battle sequences, he is the Assassin-class Servant Henry Jekyll, however when using his Noble Phantasm, or special ability, he becomes the Berserker-class Servant Hyde.
In the BBC radio sketch show John Finnemore's Souvenir Programme, one sketch depicts the relationship between Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (played by John Finnemore and Simon Kane respectively) as that of aggrieved flatmates. They enter into a tit-for-tat exchange which ends in begrudging compromise after Jekyll threatens to get a vasectomy.
References
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Male literary villains
Fictional monsters
Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde | [
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235919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Golding | Arthur Golding | Arthur Golding (May 1606) was an English translator of more than 30 works from Latin into English. While primarily remembered today for his translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses because of its influence on William Shakespeare's works, in his own time he was most famous for his translation of Caesar's Commentaries, and his translations of the sermons of John Calvin were important in spreading the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation.
Biography
Arthur Golding was born in East Anglia, before 25 May 1535/36, the second son of John Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halstead, Essex, an auditor of the Exchequer, and his second wife, Ursula (d. c. 1564), daughter and co-heir of William Merston of Horton in Surrey, in a family of eleven children (four from John Golding's first wife, Elizabeth). In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Golding family had prospered in the cloth trade, and by marrying heiresses had become fairly wealthy and respectable by the time of Arthur's birth, probably in London. When Golding was 11, his father died. In 1548 his half-sister Margery, by John's first wife, became the second wife of John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford, and by 1552 his brother Henry was steward for his brother-in-law's household. Another sister Dorothy married Edmund Docwra and was mother of the soldier and statesman Henry Docwra, 1st Baron Docwra of Culmore.
By 1549 Arthur was in the service of Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, then Lord Protector. He matriculated as a fellow commoner at Jesus College, Cambridge in 1552. Henry was elected to Parliament in 1558, probably because of Oxford's influence, and from the later 1550s Arthur worked on a translation of Pompeius Trogus that he planned to dedicate to Oxford. But Oxford died in August 1562, and his son Edward, the 17th earl, became a ward in the house of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, in The Strand. Cecil appears to have employed Golding as his nephew's tutor for several years, for two of his dedications are dated from Cecil House, and in 1567 he dated a dedication from Barwicke, one of the de Vere manors near White Colne, Essex.
Golding married Usula (d. 1610), daughter of John Roydon of Chilham, Kent, sometime before 1575. They had eight children. The death in 1576 of an older brother, Henry, left him with some property, but it was heavily encumbered with debt and litigation with the heirs of his brother's widow proved expensive. Golding borrowed heavily in the 1580s and was in debtors' prison in the early 1590s. He died in May 1606 and was buried on 13 May at St Andrew's Church, Belchamp St Paul.
Translation of Ovid
Golding is remembered chiefly for his translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses. The first edition appeared in 1567 and was the first to be translated directly from Latin into English. A revised edition appeared in 1575 and there were further editions in 1587, 1603 and 1612. Many other translations followed, including George Sandys's (1621) and Samuel Garth's (1717). Golding's translation, however, was read by Shakespeare and Spenser and "conveys a spirited Ovid with all his range of emotion and diversity of plot". Golding represents the stories he translates in a vivid way, "delivering every twist and turn in as whole-hearted a manner as possible". His translations are clear, faithful and fluent, as seen in this excerpt where Ovid compares blood gushing from Pyramus' wound to water bursting from a pipe:
<blockquote>
And when he had bewept and kist the garment which he knew,
Receyve thou my bloud too (quoth he) and therewithal he drew
His sworde, the which among his guttes he thrust, and by and by
Did draw it from the bleeding wound beginning for to die,
And cast himself upon his backe, the bloud did spin on hie
As when a Conduite pipe is crackt, the water bursting out
Doth shote it selfe a great way off and pierce the Ayre about.<ref>Ovid. The Fyrst Fower Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos Worke, Entitled Metamorphosis, Translated Oute of Latin into Englishe Meter. Trans. Arthur Golding. Ed. J.M. Cohen. London: Willyam Seres, 1567. Print.</ref> (4.143–9)
</blockquote>
Written in rhyming couplets of iambic heptameter (fourteeners), the book's full title was The Fyrst Fower Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos Worke, Entitled Metamorphosis, Translated Oute of Latin into Englishe Meter (1565). In 1567 Golding completed all fifteen books of Ovid's poem. The influence of this book and ultimately its translation did not go unnoticed and was influential to many great writers. Its influence has been detected in Spenser's Faerie Queene, in John Studley's translations of Seneca, in Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine and Edward II, and many more. Even William Shakespeare knew of Golding's Ovid and recalls it in a number of his plays. However, Shakespeare did have knowledge of versions other than Golding's—for instance, a passage in Shakespeare's The Tempest seems to have a closer resemblance to the original Latin text than to Golding's English version. Golding's translation, though, is without any question the most influential version on Shakespeare, and Shakespeare's use of it has become an important part of the history of the translation itself. As a man of strong Puritan sympathies, he intended the work to be read as a moral allegory, and a verse on the title page cautioned the reader that:
With skill heede and judgment thys work must bee red
For else to the reader it stands in small stead.
He prefixed a long metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work of edification, in which he asked his readers to look past the heretical content of the pagan poem, set forth the morals which he supposed to underlie the stories, and attempted to show how the pagan machinery might be brought into line with Christian thought.
It was from Golding's pages that many of the Elizabethans drew their knowledge of classical mythology. In his ABC of Reading the poet Ezra Pound reproduced passages of the translation, noting: "Though it is the most beautiful book in the English language, I am not citing it for its decorative purposes but its narrative quality."
Other translations
Most of Golding's work consists of prose translations that were from Latin and French texts. A Calvinist, he translated contemporary Protestant leaders: Heinrich Bullinger, William, Prince of Orange, Theodore Beza, and Philippe de Mornay. He translated also Leonardo Bruni's History of the War Against the Goths, Froissart's Chronicles in Sleidan's epitome, and Aesop's fables. Further translations were: the Commentaries of Caesar (1563, 1565, 1590), the history of Junianus Justinus (1564), the theological writings of Niels Hemmingsen (1569) and David Chytraeus (1570), Theodore Beza's Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice (1575), the De Beneficiis of Seneca the Younger (1578), the geography of Pomponius Mela (1585), the Polyhistor of Gaius Julius Solinus (1587), Calvin's commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the Book of Job.
Golding was given the job of completing John Brende's translation of Caesar's Gallic War when Brende died. Sir William Cecil passed the manuscript to Golding for completion sometime between Brende's death in 1560 or 1561 (the exact year he died is not certain) and 1564. At same time Golding was working on the first four books of Ovid's Metamorphoses, which he finished in December 1564. He completed a translation begun by Philip Sidney from Philippe de Mornay, A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion (1604).
He produced few original works. One was the account of a murder in 1577 and another of a prose Discourse on the earthquake of 1580, in which he saw a judgment of God on the wickedness of his time. He inherited three considerable estates in Essex, the greater part of which he sold in 1595. The last record of Golding in an order dated 25 July 1605, giving him license to print some of his works.
Golding, in translation of The sermons of J. Calvin upon Deuteronomie, has the first known recorded instance of the idiom "neither here nor there".
Over the course of his lifetime, Golding translated up to 5.5 million words.
Legacy
Golding's "puritan cast of mind" is an important aspect of his writing. During his time it was more uncommon to translate works that reflect pagan society, such as works by Ovid. Golding, however, did not allow conformity to sway his work. Ovid's Metamorphoses, for example, does not mention Christian symbols; in fact it was written before Christ's time. What makes Arthur Golding an influential and important character to study is his desire to pull Christian symbolism from the text and write in such a way as to make the work accessible to his peers. Undoubtedly, Golding spent time translating works by Calvin that would further his reputation as a decent Puritan, but by challenging the authority that condemns so called "pagan" texts such as the Metamorphoses, Golding forged a path for subsequent writers. Golding's influence upon Shakespeare's knowledge of Ovid cannot be diminished. Without Golding's translation, common knowledge of the ancient text would not have been understood in the same clear light. In essence, Golding's contribution to English literature was his translation of the Metamorphoses because not only does he create an accessible work for many to understand, but he also translates in such a way as to infuse the work with Christian theology.
Notes
References
Considine, John. "Golding, Arthur (1535/6–1606)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, accessed 13 Oct 2010.
"Golding, Arthur." Oxford Dictionary Of National Biography. 8th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. 75-77. Print.
"Golding, Arthur." The Oxford Companion To English Literature. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. 424. Print.
"Golding, Arthur." The Cambridge Guide To English Literature. 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006 444-45. Print.
Ovid. The Fyrst Fower Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Metamorphosis, translated oute of Latin into Englishe meter. Ed. J.M. Cohen. Trans. Arthur Golding. London: Willyam Seres, 1567. Print.
Pound, Ezra. ABC of Reading (1934) New Directions (reprint). The Cambridge Companion To Ovid. Ed. Philipe Hardie. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Print.
Wortham, James. "Arthur Golding and the Translation of Prose." Literary Criticism from 1400 to 1800''. Aug. 1949. 339-37. Gale Literature Resource Center. Web. 28 February 2012.
External links
1530s births
1606 deaths
People from Essex
16th-century English translators
Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge
Latin–English translators | [
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235921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%20Smith%20%28writer%29 | Charlotte Smith (writer) | Charlotte Smith (née Turner; – ), an English novelist and poet of the Romantic period, prompted a revival of the English sonnet, helped to set conventions for Gothic fiction and wrote political novels of sensibility. Despite ten novels, four children's books and other works, she saw herself mainly as a poet, expecting to be remembered for her Elegiac Sonnets. She is credited with turning the sonnet into an expression of woeful sentiment. She left her husband and began writing to support their children. Her struggles for legal independence as a woman affect her poetry, novels and autobiographical prefaces. Her early novels show development in sentimentality. Later ones such as Desmond and The Old Manor House praised the ideals of the French Revolution. Waning interest left her destitute by 1803. Barely able to hold a pen, she sold her book collection to pay debts and died in 1806. Largely forgotten by the mid-19th century, she has since been seen as a major Romantic writer.
Early life
Charlotte Turner was born on 4 May 1749 in London and baptised on 12 June as the oldest child of well-to-do Nicholas Turner and Anna Towers. Her two siblings, Nicholas and Catherine Ann, were born over the next five years. Smith received a typical girl's education in a wealthy, late 18th-century family. Her childhood was marked by her mother's early death (probably giving birth to Catherine) and her father's reckless spending. After losing his wife, Nicholas Turner travelled and the children were raised by Lucy Towers, their maternal aunt; when exactly their father returned is unknown.
At the age of six, Charlotte went to school in Chichester and took drawing lessons from the painter George Smith. Two years later, she, her aunt and her sister moved to London, where she attended a girls' school in Kensington and learned dancing, drawing, music and acting. She loved to read and wrote poems, which her father encouraged. She even submitted a few to the Lady's Magazine for publication, but they were not accepted.
Marriage and first publication
Nicholas Turner met with financial difficulties on his return to England and had to sell some of the family's holdings. He married the wealthy Henrietta Meriton in 1765. His daughter entered society at the age of 12, leaving school and being tutored at home. His reckless spending then forced her to marry early. In a marriage on 23 February 1765 at the age of 15, which she later described as prostitution, she was given by her father to a violent, profligate man, Benjamin Smith, son of Richard Smith, a wealthy West Indian merchant and a director of the East India Company. The marriage proposal was accepted for her by her father. Condemning his action 40 years later, Smith said it had turned her into a "legal prostitute".
The Smiths had twelve children. Their first, in 1766, died the next year just days after the birth of their second, Benjamin Berney (1767–1777). Their ten more children between 1767 and 1785 were William Towers (born 1768), Charlotte Mary (born 1769), Braithwaite (born 1770), Nicholas Hankey (1771–1837), Charles Dyer (born 1773), Anna Augusta (1774–1794), Lucy Eleanor (born 1776), Lionel (1778–1842), Harriet (born c. 1782), and George (born c. 1785). Six of their children survived her.
The Smith marriage was unhappy. She detested living in commercial Cheapside (the family later moved to Southgate and Tottenham) and argued with her in-laws, whom she saw as unrefined and uneducated. They in turn mocked her for spending time reading, writing and drawing. Meanwhile Benjamin proved violent, unfaithful and profligate. Only her father-in-law, Richard, appreciated her writing abilities, although he wanted her to use them to further his business interests. Richard Smith owned plantations in Barbados and he and his second wife brought five slaves to England, who along with their descendants, were included as part of the family property in his will. Although Charlotte Smith later argued against slavery in works such as The Old Manor House (1793) and Beachy Head, she herself benefited from the income and slave labour of Richard Smith's plantations, and assisted in the family business that her husband had abandoned by helping Richard Smith with his correspondence.
She persuaded Richard to set Benjamin up as a gentleman farmer in Hampshire and lived with him from 1774 until 1783 at Lys Farm, Bramdean, about 10 miles east of Winchester. Worried about Charlotte's future and that of his grandchildren and concerned that his son would continue his irresponsible ways, Richard Smith willed most of his property to Charlotte's children. However, he drew up the will himself and it contained legal problems. The inheritance, originally worth nearly £36,000, was tied up in chancery after his death in 1776 for almost 40 years. Smith and her children saw little of it. (It has been proposed that this may have inspired the famous fictional case of interminable legal proceedings, Jarndyce and Jarndyce, in Dickens's Bleak House.
In fact, Benjamin illegally spent at least a third of the legacy and ended up in King's Bench Prison, a debtor's prison, in December 1783. Smith moved in with him and it was there that she wrote and published her first work. Elegiac Sonnets (1784) achieved instant success, allowing Charlotte to pay for their release from prison. Smith's sonnets helped initiate a revival of the form and granted an aura of respectability to her later novels, as poetry was then considered the highest art. Smith revised Elegiac Poems several times over the years, eventually creating a two-volume work.
Novelist and poet
Smith's husband fled to France to escape his creditors. She joined him there until, thanks largely to her, he was able to return to England.
After Benjamin Smith was released from prison, the entire family moved to Dieppe, France to avoid further creditors. Charlotte returned to negotiate with them, but failed to come to an agreement. She went back to France and in 1784 began translating works from French into English. In 1787 she published The Romance of Real Life, consisting of translated selections on François Gayot de Pitaval's trials. She was forced to withdraw her other translation, Manon Lescaut, after it was argued that the work was immoral and plagiarised. In 1786, she published it anonymously.
In 1785, the family returned to England and moved to Woolbeding House near Midhurst, Sussex. Smith's relations with her husband did not improve and on 15 April 1787 she left him after 22 years of marriage, writing that she might "have been contented to reside in the same house with him" had not "his temper been so capricious and often so cruel," so that her "life was not safe". When Charlotte left Benjamin, she did not secure a legal agreement to protect her profits – he would have access to them under English primogeniture laws. Smith knew that her children's future rested on a successful settlement of the lawsuit over her father-in-law's will, and so made every effort to earn enough money to fund the suit and retain the family's genteel status.
Smith claimed the position of gentlewoman, signing herself "Charlotte Smith of Bignor Park" on the title page of Elegiac Sonnets. All her works were published under her own name, "a daring decision" for a woman at the time. Her success as a poet allowed her to make this choice and she identified herself as a poet throughout her career. Although she published far more prose than poetry and her novels brought her more money and fame, she believed poetry would bring her respectability. As Sarah Zimmerman claimed in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, "She prized her verse for the role it gave her as a private woman whose sorrows were submitted only reluctantly to the public."
After leaving her husband, Smith moved to a town near Chichester and decided to write novels, as they would make more money than poetry. Her first one, Emmeline (1788), was a success, selling 1500 copies within months. She wrote nine more in the next ten years: Ethelinde (1789), Celestina (1791), Desmond (1792), The Old Manor House (1793), The Wanderings of Warwick (1794), The Banished Man (1794), Montalbert (1795), Marchmont (1796), and The Young Philosopher (1798). Smith was beginning her novelist career at a time when women's fiction was expected to focus on romance and to focus on "a chaste and flawless heroine subjected to repeated melodramatic distresses until reinstated in society by the virtuous hero". Although Smith's novels employed this structure, they also included political commentary, notably support of the French Revolution through her male characters. At times, she challenged the typical romance plot by including "narratives of female desire" or "tales of females suffering despotism". Her novels contributed to the development of Gothic fiction and the novel of sensibility.
Smith's novels include autobiographical characters and events. While a common device at the time, Antje Blank writes in The Literary Encyclopedia, "few exploited fiction's potential of self-representation with such determination as Smith." For example, Mr and Mrs Stafford in Emmeline are portraits of Charlotte and Benjamin. She suffered sorely throughout her life. Her mother died in childbirth when Charlotte was three. Charlotte's own first child died a day after her second child, Benjamin Berney, was born and Benjamin lived only ten years. The prefaces to Smith's novels told of her own struggles, including the deaths of several of her children. According to Zimmerman, "Smith mourned most publicly for her daughter Anna Augusta, who married an émigré... and died aged twenty in 1795." Smith's prefaces placed her as a suffering sentimental heroine and as a vocal critic of laws that kept her and her children in poverty.
Smith's experiences led her to argue for legal reforms that would grant women more rights, making the case for these in her novels. Her stories showed the "legal, economic, and sexual exploitation" of women by marriage and property laws. Initially readers were swayed by her arguments; writers such as William Cowper patronised her. However, as years passed readers became exhausted by Smith's stories of struggle and inequality. The public shifted to the view of the poet Anna Seward, who called Smith "vain" and "indelicate" for exposing her husband to "public contempt".
Smith moved frequently due to financial concerns and declining health. In the last 20 years of her life, she lived in: Chichester, Brighton, Storrington, Bath, Exmouth, Weymouth, Oxford, London, Frant, and Elstead. She eventually settled at Tilford, Surrey.
Smith became involved with English radicals while living in Brighton in 1791–1793. Like them, she supported the French Revolution and its republican principles. Her epistolary novel Desmond tells of a man journeying to revolutionary France and convinced of the rightness of the revolution. He contends that England should be reformed as well. The novel was published in June 1792, a year before France and Britain went to war and before the Reign of Terror began, which shocked the public, turning them against the revolutionaries. Like many radicals, Smith criticised the French, but retained the original ideals of the revolution. To support her family, Smith had to sell her works, and so was eventually forced, as Blank claims, to "tone down the radicalism that had characterised the authorial voice in Desmond and adopt more oblique techniques to express her libertarian ideals". She set her next novel, The Old Manor House (1793) in the American War of Independence, which allowed her to discuss democratic reform without directly addressing the French situation. However, her last novel, The Young Philosopher (1798), was a final piece of "outspoken radical fiction". Her protagonist leaves Britain for a more hopeful America.
The Old Manor House is "frequently deemed [Smith's] best" novel for its sentimental themes and development of minor characters. Novelist Walter Scott labelled it as such, and poet and critic Anna Laetitia Barbauld chose it for her anthology The British Novelists (1810). As a successful novelist and poet, Smith communicated with famous artists and thinkers of the day, including musician Charles Burney (father of Frances Burney), poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, scientist and poet Erasmus Darwin, lawyer and radical Thomas Erskine, novelist Mary Hays, playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and poet Robert Southey. An array of periodicals reviewed her works, including the Anti-Jacobin Review, the Analytical Review, the British Critic, The Critical Review, the European Magazine, the Gentleman's Magazine, the Monthly Magazine, and the Universal Magazine.
Smith earned most money between 1787 and 1798, after which she was no longer so popular; several reasons have been given for the declining public interest, including "erosion of the quality of her work after so many years of literary labour, an eventual waning of readerly interest as she published, on average, one work per year for twenty-two years, and a controversy that attached to her public profile" as she wrote on the French Revolution. Both radical and conservative periodicals criticized her novels about the revolution. Her insistence on pursuing a lawsuit over Richard Smith's inheritance lost her several patrons. Her increasingly blunt prefaces made her less appealing.
To continue earning money, Smith began writing in less politically charged genres. This included a collection of tales, Letters of a Solitary Wanderer (1801–1802) and the play What Is She? (1799, attributed). Her most successful foray was into children's books: Rural Walks (1795), Rambles Farther (1796), Minor Morals (1798), and Conversations Introducing Poetry (1804). She also wrote two volumes of a history of England (1806) and A Natural History of Birds (1807, posthumous). She returned also to poetry: Beachy Head and Other Poems (1807) appeared posthumously. Publishers paid less for these, however, and by 1803 Smith was poverty-stricken. She could barely afford food or coal. She even sold her beloved library of 500 books to pay off debts, but feared being sent to jail for the remaining £20.
Illness and death
Smith complained of gout for many years (it was likely rheumatoid arthritis), which made it increasingly difficult and painful for her to write. By the end of her life, it had almost paralysed her. She wrote to a friend that she was "literally vegetating, for I have very little locomotive powers beyond those that appertain to a cauliflower." On 23 February 1806, her husband died in a debtors' prison and Smith finally received some money he owed her, but she was too ill to do anything with it. She died at Tilford a few months later, on 28 October 1806, and was buried at Stoke Church, Stoke Park, near Guildford. The lawsuit over her father-in-law's estate was settled seven years later, on 22 April 1813, more than 36 years after Richard Smith's death.
Literary circle
Smith's novels were read and assessed by friends who were also writers, as she would return the favour and they found it beneficial to improve and encourage each other's work. Ann Radcliffe, who also wrote Gothic fiction, was among those friends. Along with praise, Smith also received backlash from other writers. "Jane Austen – though she ridiculed Smith's novels, actually borrowed plot, character, and incident from them." John Bennet (1792) wrote that "the little sonnets of Miss Charlotte Smith are soft, pensive, sentimental and pathetic, as a woman's productions should be. The muses, if I mistake not, will, in time, raise her to a considerable eminence. She has, as yet, stepped forth only in little things, with a diffidence that is characteristic of real genius in its first attempts. Her next public entre may be more in style, and more consequential." Smith is never too specific about her republicanism; her ideas rest on the scholars Rousseau, Voltaire Diderot, Montesquieu, and John Locke. "Charlotte Smith tried not to swim too strongly against the current of public view, because she needed to sell her novels in order to provide for her children."
Robert Southey, a poet and contributor to the early Romanticist movement, also sympathised with Smith's hardships. He says, "[although] she has done more and done better than other women writers, it has not been her whole employment — she is not looking out for admiration and talking to show off." In addition to Jane Austen, Henrietta O'Neill, Reverend Joseph Cooper Walker, and Sarah Rose were people Smith saw as trusted friends. Having become famous for marrying into a great Irish home, Henrietta O'Neill, like Austen, provided Smith "with a poetic, sympathetic friendship and with literary connections," helping her gain an "entry into a fashionable, literary world to which she otherwise had little access; here she almost certainly met Dr. Moore (author of A View of Society and Manners in Italy and Zeluco) and Lady Londonderry.
One of Smith's longest friends and respected mentors was Reverend Joseph Cooper Walker, a Dublin antiquarian and writer. "Walker handled her dealings with John Rice, who published Dublin editions of many of her works. She confided openly in Walker about literary and familial matters." Through publication of personal letters Smith sent to a close companion, Sarah Rose, readers are shown a more positive and joyful side to Smith. Although today his writing is seen as mediocre, William Hayley, another friend of Smith's, was "liked, respected, influential" in their time, especially as he was offered the laureateship on the death of Thomas Warton." As time went on, Hayley Smith withdrew support from her in 1794 and corresponded with her only infrequently. Smith saw Hayley's actions as betrayal; he would often make claims that she was a "Lady of signal sorrows, signal woes." Even with her success as a writer and handful of accredited friends through her lifetime, Smith was "sadly isolated from other writers and literary friends." Although many believed in Hayley's statements, many saw Smith as a "woman of signal achievement, energy, ambition, devotion, and sacrifice. Her children and her literary career evoked from her best efforts, and did so in about equal measure."
Legacy and critical reputation
Stuart Curran, as editor of Smith's poems, has written that she is "the first poet in England whom in retrospect we would call Romantic". She helped shape the "patterns of thought and conventions of style" for the period and was responsible for rekindling the sonnet form in England. She influenced popular Romantic poets of her time such as, William Wordsworth and John Keats. Wordsworth, the leading Romantic poet, believed that Smith wrote "with true feeling for rural nature, at a time when nature was not much regarded by English Poets". He also stated in the 1830s that she was "a lady to whom English verse is under greater obligations than are likely to be either acknowledged or remembered." By the mid-19th century, however, Smith was largely forgotten. Smith was respected for also for her ten novels, publishing works in a variety of genres. These include Gothic, revolutionary, educational, epistolary but always incorporating the novel of sensibility. Although they have yet to receive any "critical attention" today, Smith was famous for children's books she wrote in her writing period. Smith is noted as one of the most popular poets of her time. One of the first poets to receive a salary, Henry James Pye claimed Smith was "[excelled] in two species of composition so different as the novel and the sonnet, and whose powers are so equally capable of charming the imagination, and awakening the passions."
Smith is known for striving to produce her writing at the same level and expectation as Anna Barbauld and famous political economist, Francis Edgeworth. The inspiration she received in the 17th century from these writers helped her build an audience and dominate in certain genres. Smith was notorious for not only expressing her personal and emotional struggles but also for the anxiety and complications she faced when it came to meeting deadlines, mailing out completed volumes, and payment advancements. She was keen in persuading her publishers to work with her issues. Smith would submit final drafts in exchange for "food, lodging, and expenses for her children". Other publishers willing to negotiate with Smith throughout her career as a writer were Thomas Cadell the elder, Thomas Cadell the younger, and William Davies. Unfortunately she also struggled with disputes from "various booksellers over copyright, a printer's competence, or the quality of an engraving for an illustration. She would argue that the time was ripe for a second edition of a novel."
Smith "clung to her own sense of herself as a gentlewoman of integrity". The negative sides that Smith claimed to have experienced during the publication process were perceived as self-pity by many publishers of her time, affecting her relationship and reputation with them. Smith's push to be taken seriously and how she emerges as an essential figure of the "Age of Sensibility" is observed in her powerful use of vulnerability. Antje Blank of The Literary Encyclopedia states, "Few exploited fiction's potential of self-representation with such determination as Smith." Her work is defined as "squarely in the cult of sensibility: she believed in the virtue of kindness, in generosity to those less fortunate, and in the cultivation of the finer feelings of sympathy and tenderness for those who suffered needlessly."
Ultimately, "Smith's autobiographical incursions" bridge the old and the new, "older poetic forms and an emerging Romantic voice." Smith was a skillful satirist and political commentator on the condition of England, and this is, I think, the most interesting aspect of her fiction and the one that had most influence on later writers." Oneț felt that Smith's work "rejected an identity defined exclusively by emotionality, matrimony, the family unit, and female sexuality." Overall Smith's career in writing was rejoiced, well perceived and popular until her later years of living. "Smith deserves to be read not simply as a writer whose work demonstrates changes in taste, but as one of the primary voices of her time and a worthy contemporary of the male romantic poets."
Smith's novels reappeared at the end of the 20th century, when critics "interested in the period's women poets and prose writers, the Gothic novel, the historical novel, the social problem novel, and post-colonial studies" argued for her significance as a writer. They concluded that she helped to revitalise the English sonnet, a view found in Coleridge and others. Scott wrote that she "preserves in her landscapes the truth and precision of a painter" and poet. Barbauld claimed that Smith was the first to include sustained natural description in novels. In 2008, Smith's complete prose became available to the general public. The edition contains all her novels, the children's stories and rural walks.
Selected works
Poetry
Elegiac Sonnets (1784)
"On Being Cautioned Against Walking on an Headland" (1797)
The Emigrants (1793)
Written on a port on a dark evening (1800)
Beachy Head and Other Poems (1807)
Novels
Emmeline; or The Orphan of the Castle (1788)
Ethelinde; or the Recluse of the Lake (1789)
Celestina (1791)
Desmond (1792)
The Old Manor House (1793)
The Wanderings of Warwick (1794)
The Banished Man (1794)
Montalbert (1795)
Marchmont (1796)
The Young Philosopher (1798)
Educational works
Rural Walks (1795)
Rambles Farther (1796)
Minor Morals (1798)
Letters Of A Solitary Wanderer (1800)
Conversations Introducing Poetry (1804)
Notes
References
Bibliography
}}
External links
Charlotte Smith at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
(mainly under 'Smith, Charlotte Turner')
Complete Poetical Works of Charlotte Smith at Delphi Classics
Works
Selected works of Smith at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln
Elegiac Sonnets (1827) at the British Women Romantic Poets Project
"The Emigrants" (1793) at the British Women Romantic Poets Project
Beachy Head; With Other Poems (1807) at the British Women Romantic Poets Project
The Old Manor House (1793) at A Celebration of Women Writers
Letters of a Solitary Wanderer (1802) at the Internet Archive
Rural Walks (1795 at the Internet Archive
Emmeline (1789, third edition), Vol. 1, Vol. 2 Vol. 3, and Vol. 4 at Internet Archive
Ethelinde (1789) at Internet Archive
Celestina (1791, second edition), Vol. 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, and Vol.4 at Internet Archive
Wanderings of Warwick (1794) at Internet Archive
Montalbert (1795) at Internet Archive
Marchmont (1796) at Internet Archive
The Young Philosopher (1798) at Google Books
1749 births
1806 deaths
18th-century British women writers
18th-century English novelists
19th-century English women writers
19th-century English novelists
English women novelists
English women poets
Romantic poets
Sonneteers
Writers of Gothic fiction
Writers of the Romantic era
People from the Borough of Waverley
18th-century English women
18th-century English people | [
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235923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buttermilk | Buttermilk | Buttermilk is a fermented dairy drink. Traditionally, it was the liquid left behind after churning butter out of cultured cream. As most modern butter is not made with cultured cream but uncultured sweet cream, most modern buttermilk is cultured separately. It is common in warm climates where unrefrigerated fresh milk sours quickly.
Buttermilk can be drunk straight, and it can also be used in cooking. In making soda bread, the acid in buttermilk reacts with the raising agent, sodium bicarbonate, to produce carbon dioxide which acts as the leavening agent. Buttermilk is also used in marination, especially of chicken and pork.
Traditional buttermilk
Originally, buttermilk referred to the liquid left over from churning butter from cultured or fermented cream. Traditionally, before the advent of homogenization, the milk was left to sit for a period of time to allow the cream and milk to separate. During this time, naturally occurring lactic acid-producing bacteria in the milk fermented it. This facilitates the butter churning process, since fat from cream with a lower pH coalesces more readily than that of fresh cream. The acidic environment also helps prevent potentially harmful microorganisms from growing, increasing shelf life.
Traditional buttermilk is still common in many Arabic, Indian, Nepalese, Pakistani, Finnish and Dutch households, but rarely found in other Western countries. It is a common drink in many Indian and Nepalese homes, and often served with roasted maize. In the Arab world, buttermilk is a common beverage to be sold ice cold with other dairy products. It is popular during Ramadan, where it is consumed during iftar and .
Cultured buttermilk
Cultured buttermilk was first commercially introduced in the United States in the 1920s. Commercially available cultured buttermilk is milk that has been pasteurized and homogenized, and then inoculated with a culture of Lactococcus lactis or Lactobacillus bulgaricus plus Leuconostoc citrovorum to simulate the naturally occurring bacteria in the old-fashioned product. The tartness of cultured buttermilk is primarily due to lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria while fermenting lactose, the primary sugar in milk. As the bacteria produce lactic acid, the pH of the milk decreases and casein, the primary milk protein, precipitates, causing the curdling or clabbering of milk. This process makes buttermilk thicker than plain milk. While both traditional and cultured buttermilk contain lactic acid, traditional buttermilk tends to be less viscous than cultured buttermilk.
When introduced in America, cultured buttermilk was popular among immigrants, and was viewed as a food that could slow aging. It reached peak annual sales of in 1960. Buttermilk's popularity has declined since then, despite an increasing population, and annual sales in 2012 reached less than half that number.
However, condensed buttermilk and dried buttermilk remain important in the food industry. Liquid buttermilk is used primarily in the commercial preparation of baked goods and cheese. Buttermilk solids are used in ice cream manufacturing, as well as being added to pancake mixes to make buttermilk pancakes.
Acidified buttermilk
Acidified buttermilk is a substitute made by adding a food-grade acid such as vinegar or lemon juice to milk. It can be produced by mixing 1 tablespoon () of acid with 1 cup () of milk and letting it sit until it curdles after about 10 minutes. Any level of fat content for the milk ingredient may be used, but whole milk is usually used for baking. In the process to make paneer, the acidification is done in the presence of heat.
Nutrition
Commercially produced buttermilk is comparable to regular milk in terms of food energy and fat. One cup (237 mL) of whole milk contains and 8.9 grams of fat. One cup of whole buttermilk contains and 8.1 grams of total fat. Low-fat buttermilk is also available. Buttermilk contains vitamins, potassium, calcium, and traces of phosphorus.
See also
Butterfat, the fatty portion from which butter is made
List of dairy products
Ranch dressing, a buttermilk-based salad dressing
Sarasson, a cheese spread made from buttermilk
Whey, the liquid left over after producing cheese
References
External links
Making cultured buttermilk
Bulgarian drinks
Cuisine of Northern Ireland
Fermented dairy products
Dutch cuisine
Milk-based drinks
Ukrainian drinks | [
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235926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20polymerase | DNA polymerase | A DNA polymerase is a member of a family of enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of DNA molecules from nucleoside triphosphates, the molecular precursors of DNA. These enzymes are essential for DNA replication and usually work in groups to create two identical DNA duplexes from a single original DNA duplex. During this process, DNA polymerase "reads" the existing DNA strands to create two new strands that match the existing ones.
These enzymes catalyze the chemical reaction
deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn pyrophosphate + DNAn+1.
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the three prime (3')-end of a DNA strand, one nucleotide at a time. Every time a cell divides, DNA polymerases are required to duplicate the cell's DNA, so that a copy of the original DNA molecule can be passed to each daughter cell. In this way, genetic information is passed down from generation to generation.
Before replication can take place, an enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA molecule from its tightly woven form, in the process breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide bases. This opens up or "unzips" the double-stranded DNA to give two single strands of DNA that can be used as templates for replication in the above reaction.
History
In 1956, Arthur Kornberg and colleagues discovered DNA polymerase I (Pol I), in Escherichia coli. They described the DNA replication process by which DNA polymerase copies the base sequence of a template DNA strand. Kornberg was later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1959 for this work. DNA polymerase II was discovered by Thomas Kornberg (the son of Arthur Kornberg) and Malcolm E. Gefter in 1970 while further elucidating the role of Pol I in E. coli DNA replication. Three more DNA polymerases have been found in E. coli, including DNA polymerase III (discovered in the 1970s) and DNA polymerases IV and V (discovered in 1999).
Function
The main function of DNA polymerase is to synthesize DNA from deoxyribonucleotides, the building blocks of DNA. The DNA copies are created by the pairing of nucleotides to bases present on each strand of the original DNA molecule. This pairing always occurs in specific combinations, with cytosine along with guanine, and thymine along with adenine, forming two separate pairs, respectively. By contrast, RNA polymerases synthesize RNA from ribonucleotides from either RNA or DNA.
When synthesizing new DNA, DNA polymerase can add free nucleotides only to the 3' end of the newly forming strand. This results in elongation of the newly forming strand in a 5'–3' direction.
It is important to note that the directionality of the newly forming strand (the daughter strand) is opposite to the direction in which DNA polymerase moves along the template strand. Since DNA polymerase requires a free 3' OH group for initiation of synthesis, it can synthesize in only one direction by extending the 3' end of the preexisting nucleotide chain. Hence, DNA polymerase moves along the template strand in a 3'–5' direction, and the daughter strand is formed in a 5'–3' direction. This difference enables the resultant double-strand DNA formed to be composed of two DNA strands that are antiparallel to each other.
The function of DNA polymerase is not quite perfect, with the enzyme making about one mistake for every billion base pairs copied. Error correction is a property of some, but not all DNA polymerases. This process corrects mistakes in newly synthesized DNA. When an incorrect base pair is recognized, DNA polymerase moves backwards by one base pair of DNA. The 3'–5' exonuclease activity of the enzyme allows the incorrect base pair to be excised (this activity is known as proofreading). Following base excision, the polymerase can re-insert the correct base and replication can continue forwards. This preserves the integrity of the original DNA strand that is passed onto the daughter cells.
Fidelity is very important in DNA replication. Mismatches in DNA base pairing can potentially result in dysfunctional proteins and could lead to cancer. Many DNA polymerases contain an exonuclease domain, which acts in detecting base pair mismatches and further performs in the removal of the incorrect nucleotide to be replaced by the correct one. The shape and the interactions accommodating the Watson and Crick base pair are what primarily contribute to the detection or error. Hydrogen bonds play a key role in base pair binding and interaction. The loss of an interaction, which occurs at a mismatch, is said to trigger a shift in the balance, for the binding of the template-primer, from the polymerase, to the exonuclease domain. In addition, an incorporation of a wrong nucleotide causes a retard in DNA polymerization. This delay gives time for the DNA to be switched from the polymerase site to the exonuclease site. Different conformational changes and loss of interaction occur at different mismatches. In a purine:pyrimidine mismatch there is a displacement of the pyrimidine towards the major groove and the purine towards the minor groove. Relative to the shape of DNA polymerase's binding pocket, steric clashes occur between the purine and residues in the minor groove, and important van der Waals and electrostatic interactions are lost by the pyrimidine. Pyrimidine:pyrimidine and purine:purine mismatches present less notable changes since the bases are displaced towards the major groove, and less steric hindrance is experienced. However, although the different mismatches result in different steric properties, DNA polymerase is still able to detect and differentiate them so uniformly and maintain fidelity in DNA replication. DNA polymerization is also critical for many mutagenesis processes and is widely employed in biotechnologies.
Structure
The known DNA polymerases have highly conserved structure, which means that their overall catalytic subunits vary very little from species to species, independent of their domain structures. Conserved structures usually indicate important, irreplaceable functions of the cell, the maintenance of which provides evolutionary advantages. The shape can be described as resembling a right hand with thumb, finger, and palm domains. The palm domain appears to function in catalyzing the transfer of phosphoryl groups in the phosphoryl transfer reaction. DNA is bound to the palm when the enzyme is active. This reaction is believed to be catalyzed by a two-metal-ion mechanism. The finger domain functions to bind the nucleoside triphosphates with the template base. The thumb domain plays a potential role in the processivity, translocation, and positioning of the DNA.
Processivity
DNA polymerase's rapid catalysis is due to its processive nature. Processivity is a characteristic of enzymes that function on polymeric substrates. In the case of DNA polymerase, the degree of processivity refers to the average number of nucleotides added each time the enzyme binds a template. The average DNA polymerase requires about one second locating and binding a primer/template junction. Once it is bound, a nonprocessive DNA polymerase adds nucleotides at a rate of one nucleotide per second. Processive DNA polymerases, however, add multiple nucleotides per second, drastically increasing the rate of DNA synthesis. The degree of processivity is directly proportional to the rate of DNA synthesis. The rate of DNA synthesis in a living cell was first determined as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage infected E. coli. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second.
DNA polymerase's ability to slide along the DNA template allows increased processivity. There is a dramatic increase in processivity at the replication fork. This increase is facilitated by the DNA polymerase's association with proteins known as the sliding DNA clamp. The clamps are multiple protein subunits associated in the shape of a ring. Using the hydrolysis of ATP, a class of proteins known as the sliding clamp loading proteins open up the ring structure of the sliding DNA clamps allowing binding to and release from the DNA strand. Protein-protein interaction with the clamp prevents DNA polymerase from diffusing from the DNA template, thereby ensuring that the enzyme binds the same primer/template junction and continues replication. DNA polymerase changes conformation, increasing affinity to the clamp when associated with it and decreasing affinity when it completes the replication of a stretch of DNA to allow release from the clamp.
Variation across species
Based on sequence homology, DNA polymerases can be further subdivided into seven different families: A, B, C, D, X, Y, and RT.
Some viruses also encode special DNA polymerases, such as Hepatitis B virus DNA polymerase. These may selectively replicate viral DNA through a variety of mechanisms. Retroviruses encode an unusual DNA polymerase called reverse transcriptase, which is an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (RdDp). It polymerizes DNA from a template of RNA. gene therapy is the eukaryotes . Euryarchaeota of PolD (DP1/DP2 heterodimer|) eu telo
Prokaryotic polymerase
Prokaryotic polymerases exist in two forms: core polymerase and holoenzyme. Core polymerase synthesizes DNA from the DNA template but it cannot initiate the synthesis alone or accurately. Holoenzyme accurately initiates synthesis.
Pol I
Prokaryotic family A polymerases include the DNA polymerase I (Pol I) enzyme, which is encoded by the polA gene and ubiquitous among prokaryotes. This repair polymerase is involved in excision repair with both 3'–5' and 5'–3' exonuclease activity and processing of Okazaki fragments generated during lagging strand synthesis. Pol I is the most abundant polymerase, accounting for >95% of polymerase activity in E. coli; yet cells lacking Pol I have been found suggesting Pol I activity can be replaced by the other four polymerases. Pol I adds ~15-20 nucleotides per second, thus showing poor processivity. Instead, Pol I starts adding nucleotides at the RNA primer:template junction known as the origin of replication (ori). Approximately 400 bp downstream from the origin, the Pol III holoenzyme is assembled and takes over replication at a highly processive speed and nature.
Taq polymerase is a heat-stable enzyme of this family that lacks proofreading ability.
Pol II
DNA polymerase II is a family B polymerase encoded by the polB gene. Pol II has 3'–5' exonuclease activity and participates in DNA repair, replication restart to bypass lesions, and its cell presence can jump from ~30-50 copies per cell to ~200–300 during SOS induction. Pol II is also thought to be a backup to Pol III as it can interact with holoenzyme proteins and assume a high level of processivity. The main role of Pol II is thought to be the ability to direct polymerase activity at the replication fork and help stalled Pol III bypass terminal mismatches.
Pfu DNA polymerase is a heat-stable enzyme of this family found in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus. Detailed classification divides family B in archaea into B1, B2, B3, in which B2 is a group of pseudoenzymes. Pfu belongs to family B3. Others PolBs found in archaea are part of "Casposons", Cas1-dependent transposons. Some viruses (including Φ29 DNA polymerase) and mitochondrial plasmids carry polB as well.
Pol III
DNA polymerase III holoenzyme is the primary enzyme involved in DNA replication in E. coli and belongs to family C polymerases. It consists of three assemblies: the pol III core, the beta sliding clamp processivity factor, and the clamp-loading complex. The core consists of three subunits: α, the polymerase activity hub, ɛ, exonucleolytic proofreader, and θ, which may act as a stabilizer for ɛ. The beta sliding clamp processivity factor is also present in duplicate, one for each core, to create a clamp that encloses DNA allowing for high processivity. The third assembly is a seven-subunit (τ2γδδ′χψ) clamp loader complex.
The old textbook "trombone model" depicts an elongation complex with two equivalents of the core enzyme at each replication fork (RF), one for each strand, the lagging and leading. However, recent evidence from single-molecule studies indicates an average of three stoichiometric equivalents of core enzyme at each RF for both Pol III and its counterpart in B. subtilis, PolC. In-cell fluorescent microscopy has revealed that leading strand synthesis may not be completely continuous, and Pol III* (i.e., the holoenzyme α, ε, τ, δ and χ subunits without the ß2 sliding clamp) has a high frequency of dissociation from active RFs. In these studies, the replication fork turnover rate was about 10s for Pol III*, 47s for the ß2 sliding clamp, and 15m for the DnaB helicase. This suggests that the DnaB helicase may remain stably associated at RFs and serve as a nucleation point for the competent holoenzyme. In vitro single-molecule studies have shown that Pol III* has a high rate of RF turnover when in excess, but remains stably associated with replication forks when concentration is limiting. Another single-molecule study showed that DnaB helicase activity and strand elongation can proceed with decoupled, stochastic kinetics.
Pol IV
In E. coli, DNA polymerase IV (Pol IV) is an error-prone DNA polymerase involved in non-targeted mutagenesis. Pol IV is a Family Y polymerase expressed by the dinB gene that is switched on via SOS induction caused by stalled polymerases at the replication fork. During SOS induction, Pol IV production is increased tenfold and one of the functions during this time is to interfere with Pol III holoenzyme processivity. This creates a checkpoint, stops replication, and allows time to repair DNA lesions via the appropriate repair pathway. Another function of Pol IV is to perform translesion synthesis at the stalled replication fork like, for example, bypassing N2-deoxyguanine adducts at a faster rate than transversing undamaged DNA. Cells lacking the dinB gene have a higher rate of mutagenesis caused by DNA damaging agents.
Pol V
DNA polymerase V (Pol V) is a Y-family DNA polymerase that is involved in SOS response and translesion synthesis DNA repair mechanisms. Transcription of Pol V via the umuDC genes is highly regulated to produce only Pol V when damaged DNA is present in the cell generating an SOS response. Stalled polymerases causes RecA to bind to the ssDNA, which causes the LexA protein to autodigest. LexA then loses its ability to repress the transcription of the umuDC operon. The same RecA-ssDNA nucleoprotein posttranslationally modifies the UmuD protein into UmuD' protein. UmuD and UmuD' form a heterodimer that interacts with UmuC, which in turn activates umuC's polymerase catalytic activity on damaged DNA. In E. coli, a polymerase “tool belt” model for switching pol III with pol IV at a stalled replication fork, where both polymerases bind simultaneously to the β-clamp, has been proposed. However, the involvement of more than one TLS polymerase working in succession to bypass a lesion has not yet been shown in E. coli. Moreover, Pol IV can catalyze both insertion and extension with high efficiency, whereas pol V is considered the major SOS TLS polymerase. One example is the bypass of intra strand guanine thymine cross-link where it was shown on the basis of the difference in the mutational signatures of the two polymerases, that pol IV and pol V compete for TLS of the intra-strand crosslink.
Family D
In 1998, the family D of DNA polymerase was discovered in Pyrococcus furiosus and Methanococcus jannaschii. The PolD complex is a heterodimer of two chains, each encoded by DP1 (small proofreading) and DP2 (large catalytic). Unlike other DNA polymerases, the structure and mechanism of the DP2 catalytic core resemble that of multi-subunit RNA polymerases. The DP1-DP2 interface resembles that of Eukaryotic Class B polymerase zinc finger and its small subunit. DP1, a Mre11-like exonuclease, is likely the precursor of small subunit of Pol α and ε, providing proofreading capabilities now lost in Eukaryotes. Its N-terminal HSH domain is similar to AAA proteins, especially Pol III subunit δ and RuvB, in structure. DP2 has a Class II KH domain. Pyrococcus abyssi polD is more heat-stable and more accurate than Taq polymerase, but has not yet been commercialized. It has been proposed that family D DNA polymerase was the first to evolve in cellular organisms and that the replicative polymerase of the Last Universal Cellular Ancestor (LUCA) belonged to family D.
Eukaryotic DNA polymerase
Polymerases β, λ, σ, μ (beta, lambda, sigma, mu) and TdT
Family X polymerases contain the well-known eukaryotic polymerase pol β (beta), as well as other eukaryotic polymerases such as Pol σ (sigma), Pol λ (lambda), Pol μ (mu), and Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT). Family X polymerases are found mainly in vertebrates, and a few are found in plants and fungi. These polymerases have highly conserved regions that include two helix-hairpin-helix motifs that are imperative in the DNA-polymerase interactions. One motif is located in the 8 kDa domain that interacts with downstream DNA and one motif is located in the thumb domain that interacts with the primer strand. Pol β, encoded by POLB gene, is required for short-patch base excision repair, a DNA repair pathway that is essential for repairing alkylated or oxidized bases as well as abasic sites. Pol λ and Pol μ, encoded by the POLL and POLM genes respectively, are involved in non-homologous end-joining, a mechanism for rejoining DNA double-strand breaks due to hydrogen peroxide and ionizing radiation, respectively. TdT is expressed only in lymphoid tissue, and adds "n nucleotides" to double-strand breaks formed during V(D)J recombination to promote immunological diversity.
Polymerases α, δ and ε (alpha, delta, and epsilon)
Pol α (alpha), Pol δ (delta), and Pol ε (epsilon) are members of Family B Polymerases and are the main polymerases involved with nuclear DNA replication. Pol α complex (pol α-DNA primase complex) consists of four subunits: the catalytic subunit POLA1, the regulatory subunit POLA2, and the small and the large primase subunits PRIM1 and PRIM2 respectively. Once primase has created the RNA primer, Pol α starts replication elongating the primer with ~20 nucleotides. Due to its high processivity, Pol δ takes over the leading and lagging strand synthesis from Pol α. Pol δ is expressed by genes POLD1, creating the catalytic subunit, POLD2, POLD3, and POLD4 creating the other subunits that interact with Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA), which is a DNA clamp that allows Pol δ to possess processivity. Pol ε is encoded by the POLE1, the catalytic subunit, POLE2, and POLE3 gene. It has been reported that the function of Pol ε is to extend the leading strand during replication, while Pol δ primarily replicates the lagging strand; however, recent evidence suggested that Pol δ might have a role in replicating the leading strand of DNA as well. Pol ε's C-terminus "polymerase relic" region, despite being unnecessary for polymerase activity, is thought to be essential to cell vitality. The C-terminus region is thought to provide a checkpoint before entering anaphase, provide stability to the holoenzyme, and add proteins to the holoenzyme necessary for initiation of replication. Pol ε has a larger "palm" domain that provides high processivity independently of PCNA.
Compared to other Family B polymerases, the DEDD exonuclease family responsible for proofreading is inactivated in Pol α. Pol ε is unique in that it has two zinc finger domains and an inactive copy of another family B polymerase in its C-terminal. The presence of this zinc finger has implications in the origins of Eukaryota, which in this case is placed into the Asgard group with archaeal B3 polymerase.
Polymerases η, ι and κ (eta, iota, and kappa)
Pol η (eta), Pol ι (iota), and Pol κ (kappa), are Family Y DNA polymerases involved in the DNA repair by translation synthesis and encoded by genes POLH, POLI, and POLK respectively. Members of Family Y have five common motifs to aid in binding the substrate and primer terminus and they all include the typical right hand thumb, palm and finger domains with added domains like little finger (LF), polymerase-associated domain (PAD), or wrist. The active site, however, differs between family members due to the different lesions being repaired. Polymerases in Family Y are low-fidelity polymerases, but have been proven to do more good than harm as mutations that affect the polymerase can cause various diseases, such as skin cancer and Xeroderma Pigmentosum Variant (XPS). The importance of these polymerases is evidenced by the fact that gene encoding DNA polymerase η is referred as XPV, because loss of this gene results in the disease Xeroderma Pigmentosum Variant. Pol η is particularly important for allowing accurate translesion synthesis of DNA damage resulting from ultraviolet radiation. The functionality of Pol κ is not completely understood, but researchers have found two probable functions. Pol κ is thought to act as an extender or an inserter of a specific base at certain DNA lesions. All three translesion synthesis polymerases, along with Rev1, are recruited to damaged lesions via stalled replicative DNA polymerases. There are two pathways of damage repair leading researchers to conclude that the chosen pathway depends on which strand contains the damage, the leading or lagging strand.
Polymerases Rev1 and ζ (zeta)
Pol ζ another B family polymerase, is made of two subunits Rev3, the catalytic subunit, and Rev7 (MAD2L2), which increases the catalytic function of the polymerase, and is involved in translesion synthesis. Pol ζ lacks 3' to 5' exonuclease activity, is unique in that it can extend primers with terminal mismatches. Rev1 has three regions of interest in the BRCT domain, ubiquitin-binding domain, and C-terminal domain and has dCMP transferase ability, which adds deoxycytidine opposite lesions that would stall replicative polymerases Pol δ and Pol ε. These stalled polymerases activate ubiquitin complexes that in turn disassociate replication polymerases and recruit Pol ζ and Rev1. Together Pol ζ and Rev1 add deoxycytidine and Pol ζ extends past the lesion. Through a yet undetermined process, Pol ζ disassociates and replication polymerases reassociate and continue replication. Pol ζ and Rev1 are not required for replication, but loss of REV3 gene in budding yeast can cause increased sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents due to collapse of replication forks where replication polymerases have stalled.
Telomerase
Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein which functions to replicate ends of linear chromosomes since normal DNA polymerase cannot replicate the ends, or telomeres. The single-strand 3' overhang of the double-strand chromosome with the sequence 5'-TTAGGG-3' recruits telomerase. Telomerase acts like other DNA polymerases by extending the 3' end, but, unlike other DNA polymerases, telomerase does not require a template. The TERT subunit, an example of a reverse transcriptase, uses the RNA subunit to form the primer–template junction that allows telomerase to extend the 3' end of chromosome ends. The gradual decrease in size of telomeres as the result of many replications over a lifetime are thought to be associated with the effects of aging.
Polymerases γ, θ and ν (gamma, theta and nu)
Pol γ (gamma), Pol θ (theta), and Pol ν (nu) are Family A polymerases. Pol γ, encoded by the POLG gene, was long thought to be the only mitochondrial polymerase. However, recent research shows that at least Pol β (beta), a Family X polymerase, is also present in mitochondria. Any mutation that leads to limited or non-functioning Pol γ has a significant effect on mtDNA and is the most common cause of autosomal inherited mitochondrial disorders. Pol γ contains a C-terminus polymerase domain and an N-terminus 3'–5' exonuclease domain that are connected via the linker region, which binds the accessory subunit. The accessory subunit binds DNA and is required for processivity of Pol γ. Point mutation A467T in the linker region is responsible for more than one-third of all Pol γ-associated mitochondrial disorders. While many homologs of Pol θ, encoded by the POLQ gene, are found in eukaryotes, its function is not clearly understood. The sequence of amino acids in the C-terminus is what classifies Pol θ as Family A polymerase, although the error rate for Pol θ is more closely related to Family Y polymerases. Pol θ extends mismatched primer termini and can bypass abasic sites by adding a nucleotide. It also has Deoxyribophosphodiesterase (dRPase) activity in the polymerase domain and can show ATPase activity in close proximity to ssDNA. Pol ν (nu) is considered to be the least effective of the polymerase enzymes. However, DNA polymerase nu plays an active role in homology repair during cellular responses to crosslinks, fulfilling its role in a complex with helicase.
Plants use two Family A polymerases to copy both the mitochondrial and plastid genomes. They are more similar to bacterial Pol I than they are to mammalian Pol γ.
Reverse transcriptase
Retroviruses encode an unusual DNA polymerase called reverse transcriptase, which is an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (RdDp) that synthesizes DNA from a template of RNA. The reverse transcriptase family contain both DNA polymerase functionality and RNase H functionality, which degrades RNA base-paired to DNA. An example of a retrovirus is HIV. Reverse transcriptase is commonly employed in amplification of RNA for research purposes. Using an RNA template, PCR can utilize reverse transcriptase, creating a DNA template. This new DNA template can then be used for typical PCR amplification. The products of such an experiment are thus amplified PCR products from RNA.
Each HIV retrovirus particle contains two RNA genomes, but, after an infection, each virus generates only one provirus. After infection, reverse transcription is accompanied by template switching between the two genome copies (copy choice recombination). From 5 to 14 recombination events per genome occur at each replication cycle. Template switching (recombination) appears to be necessary for maintaining genome integrity and as a repair mechanism for salvaging damaged genomes.
Bacteriophage T4 DNA polymerase
Bacteriophage (phage) T4 encodes a DNA polymerase that catalyzes DNA synthesis in a 5’ to 3’ direction. The phage polymerase also has an exonuclease activity that acts in a 3’ to 5’ direction, and this activity is employed in the proofreading and editing of newly inserted bases. A phage mutant with a temperature sensitive DNA polymerase, when grown at permissive temperatures, was observed to undergo recombination at frequencies that are about two-fold higher than that of wild-type phage.
It was proposed that a mutational alteration in the phage DNA polymerase can stimulate template strand switching (copy choice recombination) during replication.
See also
Biological machines
DNA sequencing
Enzyme catalysis
Genetic recombination
Molecular cloning
Polymerase chain reaction
Protein domain dynamics
Reverse transcription
RNA polymerase
Taq DNA polymerase
References
Further reading
External links
Unusual repair mechanism in DNA polymerase lambda, Ohio State University, July 25, 2006.
A great animation of DNA Polymerase from WEHI at 1:45 minutes in
3D macromolecular structures of DNA polymerase from the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
EC 2.7.7
DNA replication
DNA
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235929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomponius%20Mela | Pomponius Mela | Pomponius Mela, who wrote around AD 43, was the earliest Roman geographer. He was born in Tingentera (now Algeciras) and died AD 45.
His short work (De situ orbis libri III.) remained in use nearly to the year 1500. It occupies less than one hundred pages of ordinary print, and is described by the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) as "dry in style and deficient in method, but of pure Latinity, and occasionally relieved by pleasing word-pictures." Except for the geographical parts of Pliny's Historia naturalis (where Mela is cited as an important authority), the De situ orbis is the only formal treatise on the subject in Classical Latin.
Biography
Little is known of the author except his name and birthplace—the small town of Tingentera or Cingentera in southern Spain, on Algeciras Bay (Mela ii. 6, § 96; but the text is here corrupt). The date of his writing may be approximately fixed by his allusion (iii. 6 § 49) to a proposed British expedition of the reigning emperor, almost certainly that of Claudius in AD 43. That this passage cannot refer to Julius Caesar is evidenced by several references to events of Augustus's reign; especially to certain new names given to Spanish towns. It has been conjectured that Pomponius Mela may have been related in some way to Marcus Annaeus Mela, who was the son of Seneca the Elder and father of Lucan.
Geographical knowledge
The general views of the De situ orbis mainly agree with those current among Greek writers from Eratosthenes to Strabo; the latter was probably unknown to Mela. But Pomponius is unique among ancient geographers in that, after dividing the Earth into five zones, of which two only were habitable, he asserts the existence of antichthones, inhabiting the southern temperate zone inaccessible to the folk of the northern temperate regions from the unbearable heat of the intervening torrid belt. On the divisions and boundaries of Europe, Asia and Africa, he repeats Eratosthenes; like all classical geographers from Alexander the Great (except Ptolemy) he regards the Caspian Sea as an inlet of the Northern Ocean, corresponding to the Persian and Arabian (Red Sea) gulfs on the south.
His Indian conceptions are inferior to those of some earlier Greek writers; he follows Eratosthenes in supposing that country to occupy the south-eastern angle of Asia, whence the coast trended northwards to Scythia, and then swept round westward to the Caspian Sea. As usual, he places the Rhipaean Mountains and the Hyperboreans near the Scythian Ocean. In western Europe his knowledge (as was natural in a Spanish subject of Imperial Rome) was somewhat in advance of the Greek geographers. He defines the western coast-line of Spain and Gaul and its indentation by the Bay of Biscay more accurately than Eratosthenes or Strabo, his ideas of the British Isles and their position are also clearer than his predecessors. He is the first to name the Orcades or Orkney Islands, which he defines and locates pretty correctly. Of northern Europe his knowledge was imperfect, but he speaks of a great bay ("Codanus sinus") to the north of Germany, among whose many islands was one, "Codanovia", of pre-eminent size; this name reappears in Pliny the Elder's work as Scatinavia. Codanovia and Scatinavia were both Latin renderings of the Proto-Germanic *Skaðinawio, the Germanic name for Scandinavia.
Descriptive method
Mela's descriptive method follows ocean coasts, in the manner of a periplus, probably because it was derived from the accounts of navigators. He begins at the Straits of Gibraltar, and describes the countries adjoining the south coast of the Mediterranean; then he moves round by Syria and Asia Minor to the Black Sea, and so returns to Spain along the north shore of the Euxine, Propontis, etc. After treating the Mediterranean islands, he next takes the ocean littoral—to west, north, east and south successively—from Spain and Gaul round to India, from India to Persia, Arabia and Ethiopia; and so again works back to Spain. Like most classical geographers he conceives of the continent of Africa as surrounded by sea and not extending very far south.
Editions
The editio princeps of Mela was published at Milan in 1471; the first critical edition was by Vadianus (Basel, 1522), superseded by those of Johann Heinrich Voss (1658), Johann Friedrich Gronovius (1685 and 1696), A. Gronovius (1722 and 1728), and Tzschucke (1806–1807), in seven parts (Leipzig; the most elaborate of all); G. Paithey's (Berlin, 1867) for its text. The English translation by Arthur Golding (1585) was celebrated; see also Edward Bunbury, Ancient Geography, ii. 352–368, and D. Detlefsen, Quellen und Forschungen zur alten Gesch. und Geog. (1908).
A recent English translation is that of F. E. Romer, originally published in 1998.
Works
References
Sources
Attribution
45 deaths
Roman-era geographers
1st-century Romans
Romans from Hispania
Year of birth unknown
1st-century geographers | [
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235935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topoisomerase | Topoisomerase | Topoisomerases (or DNA topoisomerases) are enzymes that participate in the overwinding or underwinding of DNA. The winding problem of DNA arises due to the intertwined nature of its double-helical structure. During DNA replication and transcription, DNA becomes overwound ahead of a replication fork. If left unabated, this torsion would eventually stop the ability of DNA or RNA polymerases involved in these processes to continue down the DNA strand.
In order to prevent and correct these types of topological problems caused by the double helix, topoisomerases bind to DNA and cut the phosphate backbone of either one or both the DNA strands. This intermediate break allows the DNA to be untangled or unwound, and, at the end of these processes, the DNA backbone is resealed again. Since the overall chemical composition and connectivity of the DNA do not change, the DNA substrate and product are chemical isomers, differing only in their global topology, resulting in the name for these enzymes. Topoisomerases are isomerase enzymes that act on the topology of DNA.
Bacterial topoisomerases and human topoisomerases proceed via similar mechanisms for managing DNA supercoils. Topoisomerases can be further classified into subfamilies. In the type I family, there are two subfamilies; type IA and type IB when the enzyme links to the 5’ phosphate of the DNA strand, and the 3’ phosphate on the DNA, respectively. In the type II family, the structure and organism determine the subfamilies and their functions.
Discovery
In the 1970s, James C. Wang was the first to discover a topoisomerase when he identified E. coli topoisomerase I. Topo EC-codes are as follows: ATP-independent (type I), ; ATP-dependent (Type II): .
Function
The overall function of DNA topoisomerase is to manage the topological state of the DNA in the cell. There are two types or families of this enzyme; type I family and type II family. Type I family passes one strand of the DNA through a break in the opposing strand. In other words, DNA topoisomerase type I enzyme cleaves only one strand of DNA. Type II family passes a region of duplex (two strands) from the same molecule or a different molecule through a double stranded gap. To summarize, type II cleaves both strands of DNA, that results in a double-stranded break. Topoisomerases can either relieve negative supercoils, both positive and negative supercoils, or induce positive and negative supercoiling in DNA. The enzymes also can promote catenation (when two single circular DNA strands are linked together after replication) and decatenation (the separation of two linked, closed, circular chromosomes), and can also relieve entanglement of linear chromosomes.
The double-helical configuration of DNA strands makes them difficult to separate, which is required by helicase enzymes if other enzymes are to transcribe the sequences that encode proteins, or if chromosomes are to be replicated. In circular DNA, in which double-helical DNA is bent around and joined in a circle, the two strands are topologically linked, or knotted. Otherwise identical loops of DNA, having different numbers of twists, are topoisomers, and cannot be interconverted without the breaking of DNA strands. Topoisomerases catalyze and guide the unknotting or unlinking of DNA by creating transient breaks in the DNA using a conserved tyrosine as the catalytic residue.
The insertion of (viral) DNA into chromosomes and other forms of recombination can also require the action of topoisomerases.
Topologically linked circular molecules, aka catenanes, adopt a positive supercoiled form during the process of replication of circular plasmids. The unlinking of catenanes is performed by type IIA topoisomerases, which were recently found to be more efficient unlinking positive supercoiled DNA.The conformational properties of negative vs. positive supercoiled catenanes affects their features in respect to their corresponding enzymatic reaction catalyzed by topoisomerases. Experiments have demonstrated that positive supercoiled DNA provides a sharp DNA bend in the first bound DNA segment, which allows the topoisomerase to bind successfully and therefore carry on its enzymatic reaction to the following segment in a specific inside-to-outside matter. On the other hand, negative supercoiled DNA does not provide such bend and the access of the enzyme to the first segment is nearly impossible, therefore inhibiting unlinking.
Topoisomerase is also found in the mitochondria of cells. The mitochondria generate ATP as well as playing a role in programmed cell death and aging. The mitochondrial DNA of animal cells is a circular, double-stranded DNA that requires the activity of topoisomerase to be replicated. The classes of topoisomerase found in the mitochondria are I, IIβ, IIIα.
Yeast
Yeast cells are known to use three topoisomerases: Topoisomerase I, from the IB subfamily, is required for growth. It provides the replication fork with the ability to move forward, as well as removes positive and negative supercoils associated with transcription. Topoisomerase II from the IIA subfamily, is needed for decatenation of linked chromosomes and preparation for segregation during mitosis. Topoisomerase II cannot induce negative supercoils, but can relax both positive and negative supercoils like topoisomerase I, and can replace topoisomerase I if absent. Topoisomerase III from the IA family is used for cell growth. Without topoisomerase III, recombination rates in mitosis and meiosis can increase, which slows growth in cells. In S. pombe cells, III is used to sustain cell division.
Higher eukaryotes
Higher eukaryotic organisms are more complex organisms and typically require more complex cellular machinery. These organisms generally have a topoisomerase I, two type IIA topoisomerases, and two type III enzymes. Topoisomerase I helps with replication fork movement and relaxes supercoils associated with transcription. It is also used for relaxing solenoidal supercoils that form when chromosomes condense in preparation for mitosis. The two type IIA topoisomerases, IIα and IIβ, are used to unlink intertwined daughter duplexes, as well as assist in cell division and suppression of recombination, respectively. Type IIIα and IIIβ are thought to work in embryogenesis and interact with helicases, respectively.
Eubacteria
E. coli contains four DNA topoisomerases: two type IA enzymes (I and III), and two type IIA (DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV). DNA topoisomerase III and IV have similar functions. Topoisomerase III is incapable of relaxing positive supercoils, but it works to support replication fork movement on plasmid DNA in vitro. It can decatenate the winding that is happening behind the replication fork by focusing on nicks in the DNA. Topoisomerase IV is the most effective decatenating enzyme in E. coli. It also relaxes negative supercoils. DNA gyrase uses the hydrolysis of ATP to generate negative supercoiling in bacterial chromosomes. It relaxes positive supercoils ahead of the replication fork and acts in chromosome condensing. Finally, topoisomerase I helps with generating some negative supercoiling along with topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase.
Archaea
There is limited knowledge about the archaeal genome sequences. Therefore, there is also limited knowledge about the topoisomerase enzymes. They do contain a reverse gyrase, a type IA topoisomerase, and topoisomerase VI. The functions of the topoisomerases in archaea are comparable to the enzymes in eubacteria. The only noteworthy difference is that topoisomerase VI in archaea is responsible for decatenation of DNA replication intermediates, and it relaxes both positive and negative supercoils.
Bacteriophage
The bacteriophage (phage) T4 gyrase (type II topoismerase) is a multisubunit protein consisting of the products of genes 39, 52 and probably 60. It catalyses the relaxation of negatively or positively superhelical DNA and is employed in phage DNA replication during infection of the E. coli bacterial host. Since the host E. coli DNA gyrase can partially compensate for the loss of the phage T4 gene products, mutants defective in either genes 39, 52 or 60 do not completely abolish phage DNA replication, but rather delay its initiation. Mutants defective in genes 39, 52 or 60 show increased genetic recombination as well as increased base-substitution and deletion mutation suggesting that the host compensated DNA synthesis is less accurate than that directed by wild-type phage. Mutants defective in genes 39, 52 and 60 also have reduced ability to carry out multiplicity reactivation, a form of recombinational repair that can deal with different types of DNA damage.
DNA topology
DNA topology is the tertiary conformations of DNA, such as supercoiling, knotting, and catenation. Topology of DNA can be disrupted by most metabolic processes: RNA polymerase can cause positive supercoils by over-winding the DNA in front of the enzyme, and can also cause negative supercoils by under-winding the DNA behind the enzyme. DNA polymerase has the same effect in DNA replication. Positive and negative supercoiling balance out the entire global topology of the DNA, so overall, the topology remains the same. However, as the DNA replication or transcription fork moves forward and positive supercoiling increases, the DNA strands wrap tighter and tighter around each other, making it more difficult for the polymerase to move forward. It is important for the local topology of DNA ahead of and behind the polymerase to be relieved so that replication and cell division can proceed. This is what DNA topoisomerases are used for.
Topological problems
There are three main types of problems:
Supercoiling
Knotting
Catenation
Outside of the essential processes of replication or transcription, DNA must be kept as compact as possible, and these three states help this cause. However, when transcription or replication occurs, DNA must be free, and these states seriously hinder the processes. In addition, during replication, the newly replicated duplex of DNA and the original duplex of DNA become intertwined and must be completely separated in order to ensure genomic integrity as a cell divides. As a transcription bubble proceeds, DNA ahead of the transcription fork becomes overwound, or positively supercoiled, while DNA behind the transcription bubble becomes underwound, or negatively supercoiled. As replication occurs, DNA ahead of the replication bubble becomes positively supercoiled, while DNA behind the replication fork becomes entangled forming precatenanes. One of the most essential topological problems occurs at the very end of replication, when daughter chromosomes must be fully disentangled before mitosis occurs. Topoisomerase IIA plays an essential role in resolving these topological problems.
Clinical significance
Many drugs operate through interference with the topoisomerases
The broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibiotics act by disrupting the function of bacterial type II topoisomerases. These small molecule inhibitors act as efficient anti-bacterial agents by hijacking the natural ability of topoisomerase to create breaks in chromosomal DNA.
Some chemotherapy drugs called topoisomerase inhibitors work by interfering with mammalian-type eukaryotic topoisomerases in cancer cells. This induces breaks in the DNA that ultimately lead to programmed cell death (apoptosis). This DNA-damaging effect, outside of its potential curative properties, may lead to secondary neoplasms in the patient.
Topoisomerase I is the antigen recognized by Anti Scl-70 antibodies in scleroderma.
Classes
Topoisomerases can fix these topological problems and are separated into two types depending on the number of strands cut in one round of action: Both these classes of enzyme utilize a conserved tyrosine. However these enzymes are structurally and mechanistically different. For a video of this process click here.
A type I topoisomerase cuts one strand of a DNA double helix, relaxation occurs, and then the cut strand is re-ligated. Cutting one strand allows the part of the molecule on one side of the cut to rotate around the uncut strand, thereby reducing stress from too much or too little twist in the helix. Such stress is introduced when the DNA strand is "supercoiled" or uncoiled to or from higher orders of coiling. Type I topoisomerases that do not require ATP for hydrolysis are subdivided into three subclasses:
Type IA topoisomerases, which share many structural and mechanistic features with the type II topoisomerases. Examples of type IA topoisomerases include prokaryotic topoisomerase I and III, eukaryotic topoisomerase IIIα and topoisomerase IIIβ and reverse gyrase. Like type II topoisomerases, type IA topoisomerases form a covalent intermediate with the 5' end of DNA.
Type IB topoisomerases, which utilize a controlled rotary mechanism. Examples of Type IB topoisomerases include Eukaryotic and eukaryal viral topoisomerase I. In the past, type IB topoisomerases were referred to as eukaryotic topoisomerase I, but IB topoisomerases are present in all three domains of life. Type IB topoisomerases form a covalent intermediate with the 3' end of DNA.
Type IC topoisomerase (also called topoisomerase V) has been identified. While it is structurally unique from type IA and IB topoisomerases, It shares a similar mechanism with type IB topoisomerase.
A type II topoisomerase cuts both strands of one DNA double helix, passes another unbroken DNA helix through it, and then re-ligates the cut strands. Type II topoisomerases utilize ATP hydrolysis and are subdivided into two subclasses which possess similar structure and mechanisms:
Type IIA topoisomerases which include eukaryotic and eukaryal viral topoisomerase IIα and topoisomerase IIβ, bacterial gyrase, and topoisomerase IV.
Type IIB topoisomerases, which include topoisomerase VI found in archaea.
Both type I and type II topoisomerases change the linking number (L) of DNA. Type IA topoisomerases change the linking number by one, type IB and type IC topoisomerases change the linking number by any integer, whereas type IIA and type IIB topoisomerases change the linking number by two.
DNA topoisomerase type I family
DNA topoisomerase type I family consists of two subfamilies; type IA and type IB. Type IA DNA topoisomerase amongst various organisms generally share the following properties: All of the enzymes are monomers. The enzyme shares a covalent interaction of a 5' phosphodiester bond at its tyrosine active site with the end of a DNA strand. The mechanism of relaxation of supercoiling requires magnesium(II). In plasmid DNA, the negative supercoils produced can be substrates for the relaxation mechanism, a process which does not go to completion. Type IA also requires an exposed single-stranded region within the DNA substrate. The linking number of DNA changes with relaxation. Type IA topoisomerase can catalyze catenation, decatenation, knotting and unknotting of the DNA.
There are three classes within the subfamily of type IB topoisomerase: topoisomerase I in eukaryotes, topoisomerase V in prokaryotes, and the poxvirus topoisomerase. Type IB subfamily topoisomerases are generally classified by their ability to relax both negative and positive supercoils, and the relaxation mechanism goes to completion (unlike type IA). They form a covalent interaction through the tyrosine active site on the enzyme and the 3’ phosphate on the DNA strand. The relaxation mechanism does not require magnesium(II). Both type IA and type IB topoisomerases, within the Type I family, have very distinct differences in their properties.
DNA topoisomerase type II family
Type II family of topoisomerases share general features and properties that make them distinguishable from the type I family. All type II DNA topoisomerases are dimers. They bind to a duplex DNA and cleave both strands, staggering four bases. Cleavage is done by a covalent interaction between each dimer subunit to the 5’ phosphate on the DNA, creating a phosphotyrosine bond. The reaction pulls the two ends of the cleaved DNA apart – this is called the gated (G-) segment. The transported (T-) segment, a region on the same or a different DNA duplex, is passed through G-segment. This changes the linking number when the DNA is circular (plasmid). The relaxation mechanism requires magnesium(II) and hydrolysis of ATP. The active site containing amino acid tyrosines have a helix-turn-helix motif, which collaborates with acidic residues to activate catalysis. Prokaryotic type II topoisomerases are heterotetrameric. Eukaryotic type II topoisomerases are homodimeric. Type II are also better at DNA relaxation, instead of decatenation, meaning they are better enzymes for relieving topological stresses in linear DNA versus circular DNA.
See also
DNA topology
Supercoil
Type I topoisomerase
Type II topoisomerase
Topoisomerase I
Topoisomerase IIα
Topoisomerase IIβ
Topoisomerase IIIα
Topoisomerase IIIβ
References
Further reading
External links
EC 5.99.1
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235938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Friedrich%20Gronovius | Johann Friedrich Gronovius | Johann Friedrich Gronovius (the Latinized form of Gronow; 8 September 1611 – 28 December 1671) was a German classical scholar, librarian and critic.
Born in Hamburg, he studied at several universities and travelled in England, France and Italy. In 1643, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at Leiden, where he remained until his death. In 1665, Gronovius succeeded Antonius Thysius the Younger as the 6th Librarian of Leiden University (see also Raffaello Fabretti).
Gronovius edited and annotated Statius, Plautus, Livy, Tacitus, Aulus Gellius and Seneca's tragedies. In addition, he was the author of Commentarius de sestertiis (1643) and of an edition of Hugo Grotius's De jure belli et pacis (1660), amongst numerous other works. His Observationes contain a number of brilliant emendations. His son Jakob Gronovius was also a classical scholar.
Johann Friedrich Gronovius died in Leiden in 1671.
References
Further reading
John Edwin Sandys (1908), History of Classical Scholarship, II, 1908
Friedrich August Eckstein in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste
1611 births
1671 deaths
17th-century Latin-language writers
German classical scholars
Leiden University faculty
Dutch librarians
Writers from Hamburg | [
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235943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hype | Hype | Hype (derived from hyperbole) is promotion, especially promotion consisting of exaggerated claims.
Hype or The Hype may also refer to:
Film and television
Hype (TV series), an American comedy television series
The Hype (TV series), an Australian television series
Hype!, a documentary about the popularity of grunge rock in the early to mid 1990s
Music
The Hype (band), fronted by David Bowie
"The Hype", an early name of the Irish rock band U2
DJ Hype, British drum and bass DJ
Hype Williams (born 1970), music video director
Hype (album), 1981 album by Robert Calvert
Hype! (soundtrack), a 1996 soundtrack to the Hype! documentary
"Hype" (song), a 2016 single by Dizzee Rascal and Calvin Harris
"Hype", a 2016 song from the album Views by Drake
"The Hype", a song from the 2011 album Kill the Lights by The New Cities
"The Hype" (Shopping song), by post-punk band Shopping
"The Hype" (Twenty One Pilots song), by American rock band Twenty One Pilots
Other uses
Hype (marketing)
Hype: The Time Quest, a 1999 PC role-playing game by Playmobil
Hype Energy, brand of high-energy drinks
Skywalk Hype, a German paraglider design | [
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235948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffaello%20Fabretti | Raffaello Fabretti | Raphael Fabretti (1618 – 7 January 1700) was an Italian antiquarian.
Born at Urbino in the Marche, he studied law at Cagli and Urbino, where he took his doctorate at the age of eighteen. While in Rome he attracted the notice of Cardinal Lorenzo Imperiali, who employed him successively as treasurer and auditor of the papal legation in Spain, where he remained thirteen years. Meanwhile, his favourite classical and antiquarian studies were not neglected; and on his return journey he made important observations of the relics and monuments of Spain, France, and Italy.
At Rome he was appointed judge of appellation of the Capitol, but left to be auditor of the legation at Urbino. After three years he returned to Rome, on the invitation of Cardinal Gaspare Carpegna, vicar of Pope Innocent XI, and devoted himself to antiquarian research, examining with minute care the monuments and inscriptions of the Campagna. He always rode a horse which his friends nicknamed "Marco Polo", after the Venetian traveller. Pope Innocent XII made him keeper of the archives of the Castel Sant'Angelo, a charge he retained until his death. His collection of inscriptions and monuments was purchased by Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Stoppani, and placed in the ducal palace at Urbino, where they may still be seen.
His work De Aquis et Aquaeductibus veteris Romae (1680), three dissertations on the topography of ancient Latium, is inserted in Graevius's Thesaurus, iv (1677). His interpretation of certain passages in Livy and other classical authors involved him in a dispute with Gronovius, which bore a strong resemblance to that between John Milton and Claudius Salmasius, Gronovius addressing Fabretti as Faber Rusticus, and the latter, in reply, speaking of Gronovius and his "titivilitia". In this controversy Fabretti used the pseudonym "Iasitheus", which he afterwards took as his pastoral name in the Academy of the Arcadians.
His other works, De Columna Trajani Syntagma (1683), and Inscriptionum Antiquarum Explicatio (1699), throw much light on Roman antiquity. In the former is to be found his explication of an early Imperial Roman bas-relief, with inscriptions, now in the Capitol at Rome, representing the war and taking of Troy, one of the Tabulae Iliacae. Letters and other shorter works of Fabretti are to be found in publications of the time, such as the Journal des Savants.
Sourcess
H. B. Evans Aqueduct Hunting in the Seventeenth Century. Raffaello Fabretti’s De aquis et aquaeductibus veteris Romae. Pp. xvi + 309, maps, ills. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002. .
References
1618 births
1700 deaths
17th-century Latin-language writers
People from Urbino
Italian classical scholars | [
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235950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrageenan | Carrageenan | Carrageenans or carrageenins ( , from Irish , "little rock") are a family of natural linear sulfated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds. The most well-known and still most important red seaweed used for manufacturing the hydrophilic colloids to produce carrageenan is Chondrus crispus (Irish moss) which is a dark red parsley-like plant that grows attached to the rocks. Carrageenans are widely used in the food industry, for their gelling, thickening, and stabilizing properties. Their main application is in dairy and meat products, due to their strong binding to food proteins. In recent years, carrageenans have emerged as a promising candidate in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications as they resemble native glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). They have been mainly used for tissue engineering, wound coverage and drug delivery.
Carrageenans contain 15-40% ester-sulfate content, which makes them anionic polysaccharides. They can be mainly categorized into three different classes based on their sulfate content. Kappa-carrageenan has one sulfate group per disaccharide, iota-carrageenan has two, and lambda-carrageenan has three.
Gelatinous extracts of the Chondrus crispus seaweed have been used as food additives since approximately the fifteenth century. Carrageenan is a vegetarian and vegan alternative to gelatin in some applications, so may be used to replace gelatin in confectionery and other food. There is no clinical evidence for carrageenan as an unsafe food ingredient, mainly because its fate after digestion is inadequately determined.
The first commercial cultivation of Eucheuma and Kappaphycus spp. for carrageenan was developed in the Philippines. The global top producers of carrageenan are the Philippines and Indonesia. Carrageenan, along with agar, are used to produce traditional jelly desserts in the Philippines called gulaman.
Properties
Carrageenans are large, highly flexible molecules that form curling helical structures. This gives them the ability to form a variety of different gels at room temperature. They are widely used in the food and other industries as thickening and stabilizing agents.
All carrageenans are high-molecular-weight polysaccharides and mainly made up of alternating 3-linked b-D-galac- topyranose (G-units) and 4-linked a-D-galactopyranose (D-units) or 4-linked 3,6-anhydro-a-D-galactopyranose (DA-units), forming the disaccharide repeating unit of carrageenans.
There are three main commercial classes of carrageenan:
Kappa forms strong, rigid gels in the presence of potassium ions, and reacts with dairy proteins. It is sourced mainly from Kappaphycus alvarezii.
Iota forms soft gels in the presence of calcium ions. It is produced mainly from Eucheuma denticulatum.
Lambda does not gel, and is used to thicken dairy products.
The primary differences that influence the properties of kappa, iota, and lambda carrageenan are the number and position of the ester sulfate groups on the repeating galactose units. Higher levels of ester sulfate lower the solubility temperature of the carrageenan and produce lower strength gels, or contribute to gel inhibition (lambda carrageenan).
Many red algal species produce different types of carrageenans during their developmental history. For instance, the genus Gigartina produces mainly kappa carrageenans during its gametophytic stage, and lambda carrageenans during its sporophytic stage.
All are soluble in hot water, but in cold water, only the lambda form (and the sodium salts of the other two) are soluble.
When used in food products, carrageenan has the EU additive E numbers E407 or E407a when present as "processed eucheuma seaweed". Technically carrageenan is considered a dietary fibre.
In parts of Scotland and Ireland, where it is known by a variety of local and native names, Chondrus crispus is boiled in milk and strained, before sugar and other flavourings such as vanilla, cinnamon, brandy, or whisky are added. The end-product is a kind of jelly similar to panna cotta, tapioca, or blancmange.
Production
Although carrageenans were introduced on an industrial scale in the 1930s, they were known to be used in China since around 600 BCE (where Gigartina was used) and in Ireland around 400 CE Carrageen ‘gelatin’ can be prepared by boiling of rinsed Irish moss in of water for 10 minutes, stirring the mixture as it boils. of cold water are rapidly added to the hot brew and, after the mixture has cooled, it is strained through a cloth. It is then cooled for 24 hours, during which time it becomes gelatinous.
, global sales of carrageenan were estimated at $640 million. The largest producer of industrial carrageenan was the Philippines, where cultivated seaweed produces about 80% of the world supply, while China is the main exporter to global markets in the US and Europe. The most commonly used sources are E. cottonii (Kappaphycus alvarezii, K. striatum) and E. spinosum (Eucheuma denticulatum), which together provide about three-quarters of the world production. These grow from the sea surface to a depth of about 2 metres. The seaweed is normally grown on nylon lines strung between bamboo floats, and it is harvested after three months or so, when each plant weighs approximately 1 kg.
The E. cottonii variety has been reclassified as Kappaphycus cottonii by Maxwell Doty (1988), thereby introducing the genus Kappaphycus, on the basis of the phycocolloids produced (namely kappa carrageenan).
After harvest, the seaweed is dried, baled, and sent to the carrageenan manufacturer. There the seaweed is ground, sifted to remove impurities such as sand, and washed thoroughly. After treatment with hot alkali solution (e.g., 5–8% potassium hydroxide), the cellulose is removed from the carrageenan by centrifugation and filtration. The resulting carrageenan solution is then concentrated by evaporation. It is dried and ground to specification.
There are three types of industrial processing:
Semi-refined
This is only produced from E. cottonii or E. spinosum. The raw weed is first sorted and crude contaminants are removed by hand. The weed is then washed to remove salt and sand, and then cooked in hot alkali to increase the gel strength. The cooked weed is washed, dried, and milled. E. spinosum undergoes a much milder cooking cycle, as it dissolves quite readily. The product is called semi-refined carrageenan, Philippines natural grade, or, in the U.S., it simply falls under the common carrageenan specification.
cleaned and washed seaweed
↓
extraction
↓
coarse filtration → seaweed residue
↓
fine filtration → used filter aids
↓
↓-------------- concentration --------------↓
preparation with KCl preparation with alcohol
↓ ↓
gel pressing alcohol recovery
↓ ↓
drying drying
↓ ↓
milling milling
↓ ↓
blending blending
↓ ↓
gel refined carrageenan refined carrageenan
Refined
The essential difference in the refining process is that the carrageenan is first dissolved and filtered to remove cell wall debris. The carrageenan is then precipitated from the clear solution, either by isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol) or by potassium chloride.
Mixed processing
A hybrid technology in which seaweed is treated heterogeneously as in the semirefined process exists, but alcohol or high salt levels are used to inhibit dissolution. This process is often used on South American seaweeds and gives some of the cost benefits of semirefined processing, while allowing a wider range of seaweeds to be processed, however, the naturally low cellulose levels in some South American seaweeds allow them to be heterogeneously processed and still be sold under the EU refined specification.
Grades
There are two basic grades of carrageenan, refined (RC) and semi-refined (SRC). In the United States, both grades are labeled as carrageenan. In the European Union, refined carrageenan is designated by the E number E-407 and semi-refined carrageenan as E-407a. Refined carrageenan has a 2% maximum for acid-insoluble material and is produced by alcohol precipitation or potassium chloride gel press process. Semi-refined carrageenan has a much higher cellulose content and is produced in a less complex process. Indonesia, the Philippines, and Chile are three main sources of raw material and extracted carrageenan.
Uses and applications
Food and other domestic uses
Desserts, carrageen, ice cream, cream, milkshakes, yogurts, salad dressings, sweetened condensed milks
Sauces: to increase viscosity
Beer: clarifier to remove haze-causing proteins
Pâtés and processed meats (e.g., ham): substitute for fat, increase water retention, increase volume, or improve slicing
Toothpaste: stabilizer to prevent constituents separating
Fruit Gushers: ingredient in the encapsulated gel
Fire fighting foam: thickener to cause foam to become sticky
Shampoo and cosmetic creams: thickener
Air freshener gels
Marbling: the ancient art of paper and fabric marbling uses a carrageenan mixture on which to float paints or inks; the paper or fabric is then laid on it, absorbing the colours
Shoe polish: to increase viscosity
Biotechnology: to immobilize cells and enzymes
Pharmaceuticals: used as an inactive excipient in pills and tablets
Soy milk and other plant milks: to thicken
Diet sodas: to enhance texture and suspend flavours
Pet food
Personal lubricants
Vegetarian hot dogs
Regulatory status
In the U.S., carrageenan is allowed under FDA regulations as a direct food additive and is considered safe when used in the amount necessary as an emulsifier, stabilizer, or thickener in foods, except those standardized foods that do not provide for such use. FDA also reviewed carrageenan safety for infant formula. The European Food Safety Authority concluded "there is no evidence of any adverse effects in humans from exposure to food-grade carrageenan, or that exposure to degraded carrageenan from use of food-grade carrageenan is occurring", Furthermore, the Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives stated in a July 2014 review of carrageenan "that the use of carrageenan in infant formula or formula for special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1000 mg/L is not of concern".
Although the National Organic Program (NOP) had added carrageenan to its National List of additives allowed to be included in organic foods in 2003, and reviewed and reauthorized it in 2008, noting it as "critical to organic production and handling operations", on November 18, 2016, the NOP's National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) voted to recommend carrageenan be removed from the National List of additives allowed in organic food production.
On April 4, 2018, the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) (USDA) published a document to announce the renewal of carrageenan on the National List, allowing its continued use in food products. The document states, “The NOSB recommended removing carrageenan because they determined that alternative materials, such as gellan gum, guar gum, or xanthan gum, are available for use in organic products” continuing, “AMS found sufficient evidence in public comments to the NOSB that carrageenan continues to be necessary for handling agricultural products because of the unavailability of wholly natural substitutes (§ 6517(c)(1)(ii)). Carrageenan has specific uses in an array of agricultural products, and public comments reported that potential substitutes do not adequately replicate the functions of carrageenan across the broad scope of use. Therefore, carrageenan continues to meet the OFPA criteria for inclusion on the National List.” The rule went into effect May 29, 2018.
In a 2015 review, the Joint Expert Committee of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization on Food Additives released a technical report in 2015 on the use of carrageenan in infant formula and found that the additive was "not of concern" in infant formula as food for special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1000 milligrams per litre. The use of carrageenan in infant formula, organic or otherwise, is prohibited in the EU for precautionary reasons, but is permitted in other food items. In 2018, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reported that safety of carrageenan in food products is based on an ADI of 75 mg/kg body weight per day.
In the UK, the Food Standards Agency issued a product recall for sweets containing carrageenan, stating that carrageenan “is not permitted as an ingredient in jelly confectionery products as it presents a choking hazard”.
Toxicity research
As of 2018, carrageenan was deemed non-toxic under certain consumption levels (75 mg/kg bw per day), although further research was recommended, mainly focused on the fate of carrageenan during and after digestion, and on any subsequent metabolites.
See also
Agar
List of food additives
Pectin
References
Further reading
McHugh, Dennis J. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 288 - Production and Utilization of Products from Commercial Seaweeds, Chapter 3 - Production, Properties and Uses of Carrageenan, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1987
Guiry, Michael D.R. Carrageenans, The Seaweed Site: information on marine algae.
External links
Edible thickening agents
Polysaccharides
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
Personal lubricants
Algal food ingredients
Microbicides
Food stabilizers
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235952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20II%2C%20Prince%20of%20Monaco | Albert II, Prince of Monaco | Albert II (Albert Alexandre Louis Pierre Grimaldi; born 14 March 1958) is the sovereign prince of Monaco and head of the House of Grimaldi. He is the son of Prince Rainier III and Grace Kelly.
He was born at the Prince's Palace of Monaco, and attended the Lycée Albert Premier before studying political science at Amherst College. In his youth, he competed in bobsleigh during Winter Olympic finals before retiring in 2002. Albert was appointed regent in March 2005 after his father fell ill, and became sovereign prince upon his passing a week later. Since his ascension, he has been outspoken in the field of environmentalism and an advocate of ocean conservation, and adoption of renewable energy sources to tackle global climate change, and founded The Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation in 2006, to directly raise funds and initiate action for such causes and greater ecological preservation.
With assets valued at more than $1 billion, Albert owns shares in the Société des Bains de Mer, which operates Monaco's casino and other entertainment properties in the principality.
In July 2011, Prince Albert married South African Olympic swimmer Charlene Wittstock. They have two children, the twins Princess Gabriella and Hereditary Prince Jacques. Prince Albert is also father to two children born prior to his marriage, American-born Jazmin Grace Grimaldi and French-born Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste.
Early life and military service
Prince Albert was born in the Prince's Palace of Monaco on 14 March 1958, as the second child of the Prince and Princess of Monaco. At the time of his birth, he was heir apparent to the throne. He has Irish, German, and Monegasque ancestry. The Prince was a dual citizen of both the Principality of Monaco and the United States of America by birth, before renouncing his American citizenship in his early adulthood. He was baptized on 20 April 1958, by Monsignor Jean Delay, Archbishop of Marseille, in the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception of Monaco. His godparents were Prince Louis de Polignac and Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain.
Albert graduated with distinction from the Lycée Albert Premier, in 1976. He was a camper, and later a counselor for six summers at Camp Tecumseh, on Lake Winnipesaukee, Moultonborough, New Hampshire, in the 1970s. He spent a year training in princely duties before enrolling at Amherst College, in Massachusetts, in 1977 as Albert Grimaldi. He later joined Chi Psi fraternity. Albert spent mid-1979 touring Europe and the Middle East with the Amherst College Glee Club, and also undertook an exchange program with the University of Bristol, at the Alfred Marshall School of Economics and Management, in 1979. He graduated in 1981 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science. He speaks French, English, German, and Italian. From September 1981 to April 1982, Albert trained onboard the French Navy's helicopter carrier Jeanne d'Arc, attaining the rank of Ship-of-the-Line Ensign (2nd class), and is currently a reserve Lieutenant Commander. From 1983 to 1985, he took training courses with companies J.P. Morgan & Co, LVMH, Rogers & Wells, and Wells, Rich and Greene in the United States and Europe, studying financial management, communication, and marketing. Since May 1993, the Prince has led the Monegasque delegation to the General Assembly of the United Nations. In 2004, the Prince presided over the delegation of Monaco in Strasbourg, France, for the official accession of the Principality onto the Council of Europe.
Prince Albert's mother, Princess Grace died as a result of injuries sustained in a car accident in 1982. She was aged 52. In 2017, the Prince stated during an interview that his mother's death was a traumatic event for him and his family, revealing that his father was "never the same man" after the loss.
Sports career
Albert was an enthusiastic sportsman, participating in cross country, javelin throwing, handball, judo, swimming, tennis, rowing, sailing, skiing, squash and fencing. He became a judo black belt in 1985.
Albert competed in the bobsleigh at five consecutive Winter Olympics for Monaco, taking part in both the two-man and four-man events. In the two-man bobsleigh Albert finished 25th at the 1988 games in Calgary, 43rd at the 1992 games in Albertville, and 31st at the 1994 games. In the four-man bobsleigh Albert finished 27th in 1992, 26th at the 1994 games in Lillehammer, and 28th at both the 1998 games in Nagano and the 2002 games in Salt Lake City. Albert was Monaco's flag bearer at the 1988, 1994, and 1998 Winter Olympics. He also took part in the 1985 Paris–Dakar Rally, but did not complete it. Albert has been a member of the International Olympic Committee since 1985, and his maternal grandfather, John B. Kelly Sr., and maternal uncle, John B. Kelly Jr., were both Olympic medalists in rowing. In 2017 Albert gained OLY post-nominal status under his competition name of Albert Grimaldi.
Accession
On 31 March 2005, following consultation with the Crown Council of Monaco, the Palais Princier announced that Albert would take over the duties of his father as regent since Rainier was no longer able to exercise his princely functions. On 6 April 2005, Rainier died and Albert succeeded him as Albert II.
The first part of Prince Albert II's enthronement as ruler of the Principality was on 12 July 2005, after the end of the three-month mourning period for his father. A morning Mass at Saint Nicholas Cathedral presided over by the Archbishop of Monaco, the Most Reverend Bernard Barsi, formally marked the beginning of his reign. Afterward, Albert returned to the Palace to host a garden party for 7,000 Monégasques born in the principality. In the courtyard, the Prince was presented with two keys of the city as a symbol of his investiture, and subsequently gave a speech. The evening ended with a fireworks display on the waterfront.
The second part of his investiture took place on 19 November 2005. Albert was enthroned at Saint Nicholas Cathedral. The Princely family was in attendance, including his elder sister, Princess Caroline with her husband Ernst, Prince of Hanover and three of her four children, Andrea, Pierre and Charlotte; as well as his younger sister Princess Stéphanie, his paternal aunt Princess Antoinette, Baroness of Massy, his godson, Jean-Léonard Taubert-Natta de Massy, and his cousin Elisabeth-Anne de Massy. Royalty from 16 delegations were present for the festivities throughout the country. The evening ended with a dedicated performance at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo.
Reign
In the early years of his reign, Prince Albert oversaw multiple judicial and legal reforms, including the regulation of custody, protections of the privacy of the individual in the face of technological growth, freedom of the press, legislative gender equality, and the protection of children's rights and handicapped students. In July 2005, in echo of Albert I, his great-great-grandfather, he travelled to Spitsbergen, Norway. During this trip, he visited the glaciers Lilliehöökbreen and Monacobreen. Prince Albert also engaged in a Russian Arctic expedition, reaching the North Pole on Easter, 16 April 2006. He is the first incumbent head of state to have reached the North Pole.
Since his ascension, the Prince has overseen the construction of various community facilities, including social housing, railway infrastructure, educational institutes for the hospitality industry, and secondary education. He currently heads an initiative to promote ethical economic activity, criminal liability, the adopting of systems to combat money laundering and organized crime, and the introduction of tax fraud into Monegasque criminal law. In 2006, Prince Albert created the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation, which continues Monaco's commitment to supporting sustainable and ethical projects around the world. The foundation's focus has three main objectives: climate change and renewable energy development, combating the loss of biodiversity, and improving universal access to clean water.
On 27 August 2015, Prince Albert apologized for Monaco's role in facilitating the deportation of a total of 90 Jews and resistance fighters to the Nazis in 1942, of whom only nine survived. "We committed the irreparable in handing over to the neighboring authorities women, men, and a child who had taken refuge with us to escape the persecutions they had suffered in France," Albert said at a ceremony in which a monument to the victims was unveiled at the Monaco cemetery. "In distress, they came specifically to take shelter with us, thinking they would find neutrality."
Personal life
In 2016, Albert purchased Princess Grace's childhood home in East Falls, Philadelphia, which was originally built by her grandfather, Jack Kelly. Upon acquiring his mother's childhood property, he stated the house might be used as a museum space or as offices for the Princess Grace Foundation. Prince Albert does not possess direct ownership of the Prince's Palace, but does possess personal homes in both La Turbie and Marchais.
Albert, a well-known automotive enthusiast, owns vehicles like the BMW Hydrogen 7, the Lexus LS 600h, the Lexus RX 400h, and the Toyota Prius PHV. He also owns a Dassault Aviation Falcon 7X, a 14-passenger leisure jet, currently stationed at Nice Côte d'Azur Airport.
Albert is close friends with the artist Nall and owns some of his works.
On 19 March 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, it was announced that Albert II had tested positive for COVID-19, making him the first monarch and head of state to have contracted COVID-19. It was reported that he had begun to self-quarantine from within his apartment, performing his work and duties from there. On 31 March, it was announced that he had made a full recovery.
In 2021, Raphaël Domjan became the first pilot of an electric plane flight with a head of state. On September 14, 2021, they took off with a Pipistrel Velis128 operated by Elektropostal from Nice airport in France with Albert II and they flew over Monaco. The plane flew for 30 minutes at a maximum altitude of 900 feet.
Bachelorhood
In October 2005, the German magazine Bunte reported that Albert was dating Telma Ortiz Rocasolano, a sister-in-law of the Prince of Asturias (who is now the King of Spain). However, in November 2005, the Prince instructed his lawyer, Thierry Lacoste, to commence legal proceedings against the French newspaper France Dimanche for violation of privacy and false information regarding the story.
List of claimants with illegitimate children
Tamara Rotolo — In 1992, an American national filed a paternity suit against the Prince, claiming that he was the father of her daughter, Jazmin Grace. Prince Albert was reportedly listed as the child's father on her birth certificate, registered in Riverside County, California, United States of America. The case went to trial in 1993 and was eventually dismissed by Superior Court Judge Graham Anderson Cribbs, who refused jurisdiction and found that there was "insufficient connection between [Prince Hereditary] Albert and the State of California to justify hearing a suit [in California]", justifying the statements of the Prince's lawyer. On 31 May 2006, after a DNA test confirmed the child's parentage, Albert admitted, via statement from his lawyer, that he is Jazmin's father. He subsequently provided support and extended an invitation for her to study and live in Monaco.
Nicole Coste — In May 2005, a former Air France flight attendant from Togo claimed that her youngest son, whom she named Alexandre Coste, was Prince Albert's child, and stated that his parentage had been proven by DNA tests requested by the Monegasque government. She further declared that the Prince had signed a notarised certificate confirming paternity, which she had not received a copy of. The Paris Match published a ten-page interview with Coste, including photographs of Albert holding and feeding the child. Coste also told the publication that she was living in the Prince's Paris apartment, and receiving an allowance from him, while pretending to be the girlfriend of one of his friends in order to maintain discretion. She also stated that the prince had previously last seen the boy in February 2005. The prince's lawyer, Thierry Lacoste, announced that as a result of the international publicity over these revelations, Prince Albert was suing the Daily Mail, Bunte, and Paris Match for privacy violations. On 6 July 2005, a few days before he was enthroned on 12 July, the Prince officially confirmed via his lawyer Lacoste that Alexandre was his biological son.
Bea Fiedler — In an earlier paternity suit, a German topless model whom The Daily Telegraph described as a "sex-film star", claimed her son Daniel was the prince's son. A judge reportedly dismissed the suit, despite the fact that Prince Albert had submitted a DNA sample to be tested, as the genetic sample had not been rendered in front of a witness. Fiedler rejected the DNA blood sample as truly belonging to the prince.
Marriage
Prince Albert met South African swimmer Charlene Wittstock in 2000 at the Mare Nostrum swimming meet in Monaco. They made their public debut as a couple at the opening ceremony of the 2006 Winter Olympics. She accompanied him to the weddings of the Crown Princess of Sweden in 2010 and of the Duke of Cambridge in 2011.
Their engagement was announced by the palace on June 10, 2010. The wedding was originally scheduled for 8 and 9 July 2011, but was moved forward to prevent a conflict with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) meeting in Durban on 5–9 July, which they both attended. The couple had invited members of the IOC, including president Jacques Rogge, to their wedding.
The couple were married in a civil ceremony on 1 July 2011 in the Throne Room of the Prince's Palace. Wittstock was reported to be in tears during the wedding. The religious ceremony took place in the courtyard of the palace on 2 July, and was presided over by Archbishop Bernard Barsi. The couple honeymooned in Mozambique.
Prince Albert and Princess Charlene had twins, Princess Gabriella, Countess of Carladès, and Jacques, Hereditary Prince of Monaco, on 10 December 2014. Jacques is the heir apparent to the throne.
Charity work and patronages
Albert holds affiliations and patronages within numerous philanthropic organizations. He is the Vice-Chairman of the Princess Grace Foundation-USA, an American charity founded in 1982, after his mother's death, which supports emerging artists in theatre, dance, and film, as Princess Grace did in her lifetime. Albert holds patronages with AS Monaco., the World Olympians Association, the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, the Peace and Sport Organization, and Junior Chamber International. He holds official and honorary presidencies within the Monaco Red Cross, Comité Olympique Monégasque, Association Mondiale des Amis de l'Enfance, The Automobile Club de Monaco, The Festival de Télévision de Monte-Carlo, and Jumping International de Monte Carlo. Albert is affiliated with International Paralympic Committee, Junior Chamber International, and Art of the Olympians. Albert is also a global adviser to Orphans International.
Environmental Interests
In 2001, at the 25th Mediterranean Science Commission hosted in the Principality, the member states unanimously elected Monaco head of the Commission, with the Prince chairing the Commission.
The year 2007 was declared as (International) Year of the Dolphin by the United Nations and United Nations Environment Programme. Prince Albert served as the International Patron of the "Year of the Dolphin", saying "The Year of the Dolphin gives me the opportunity to renew my firm commitment towards protecting marine biodiversity. With this strong initiative we can make a difference to save these fascinating marine mammals from the brink of extinction."
The Zoological Garden of Monaco (Jardin Animalier) was founded by Prince Rainier in 1954. Rainier was petitioned unsuccessfully for many years by Virginia McKenna, founder of the Born Free Foundation, to release a pair of leopards at the zoo. Prince Albert met McKenna after his accession to the throne, and agreed to release the leopards as well the zoo's hippo and camel. He intends to convert the Jardin into a zoo for children.
In January 2009, Prince Albert left for a month-long expedition to Antarctica, where he visited 26 scientific outposts and met with climate-change experts in an attempt to learn more about the impact of global warming on the continent. During the trip, he stopped at the South Pole, making him the only incumbent head of state to have visited both poles.
In June 2009, Prince Albert co-authored an op-ed published in The Wall Street Journal with Charles Clover, the author of The End of the Line, a book about overfishing and ocean conservation issues that had recently been made into a documentary by Rupert Murray. In the piece, Prince Albert and Clover note that bluefin tuna have been severely overfished in the Mediterranean, and decry the common European Union practice of awarding inflated quotas to bluefin fleets. Albert also announced that Monaco would seek to award endangered species status to the Mediterranean bluefin, Thunnus thynnus, (also called the Northern bluefin) under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). This was the first time a nation had called for the inclusion of Mediterranean bluefin under CITES since Sweden at the 1992 CITES Conference, which was vehemently opposed by Japan who eventually threatened retaliation through trade barriers. Sweden withdrew its proposal.
On 16 July 2009, France declared that it too would seek to have Mediterranean bluefin listed as an endangered species. Only hours later, the United Kingdom followed suit.
On 19 September 2017, Prince Albert expressed his great interest for the preliminary draft of the Global Pact for the Environment presented by French President Emmanuel Macron in the context of the 72nd session of the United Nations General Assembly. He added that he will be very attentive to the future of this Pact, which he qualified as a "universal, legally binding agreement, which recognises the right of future generations to sustainable development."
After having met Torres Strait Islander artist and activist Alick Tipoti in 2016, Prince Albert went to stay with his family on Badu Island, and collaborated with him on the film Alick and Albert (2021), a feature-length documentary film about the future of the oceans, and how climate change affects people in the Torres Strait Islands as well as Monaco. The film had its world premiere at the Brisbane International Film Festival in October 2021.
On 12 February 2020, Albert and Victor Vescovo reached the bottom of Calypso Deep, a depth of 16,762 ft, in a submarine. They were only the second team to do so after a French group in 1965.
Honours
Military appointments
Monaco: Colonel of the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince (11 November 1986 – 6 April 2005)
France: Capitaine de frégate de la Marine Nationale (2 April 1992 – present)
Honours
National orders
:
Grand Master and Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles (Grand Cross, 13 March 1979; Grand Master since 6 April 2005)
Grand Master of the Order of the Crown (since 6 April 2005)
Grand Master and Grand Cross of the Order of Grimaldi (Grand Cross, 18 April 1958; Grand Master since 6 April 2005)
Grand Master of the Order of Cultural Merit (since 6 April 2005)
Foreign orders
: National Flag Order (16 October 2018)
: First Class Decoration of the Order of Stara Planina (26 November 2004)
: Grand Officer of the National Order of Burkina Faso (17 February 2012)
: Grand Cross with Gold Star of the National Order Juan Mora Fernández (2003)
: Knight Grand Cross of the Grand Order of King Tomislav (7 April 2009)
: Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator of the Slaves José Simeón Cañas (2002)
:
Grand Cross of the Order of Legion of Honour (2006)
Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (25 July 1997)
Commander of the Order of Academic Palms (19 June 2009)
: Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (9 July 2012)
:
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre (27 January 1983)
Knight of Collar of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre (4 October 2021)
: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (12 December 2005)
: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance (before 07/2011)
: Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit (before 07/2011)
: Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (15 October 2012)
: Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali (12 February 2012)
: Recipient of the King Willem-Alexander Inauguration Medal
: Grand Cross of the National Order of Niger (March 1998)
: Grand Cross of the Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa (2002)
: Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun (2003)
:Member 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland (2012)
: Collar of the Order of the Star of Romania (2009)
:
Collar of the Order of San Marino (2015)
Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Agatha (2010)
:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Lion (2012)
Grand Officer of the Order of the Lion (May 1977)
: Grand Cross of Order of the Republic of Serbia (7 October 2020)
: First Class of the Order of the White Double Cross (2017)
:
Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion (31 July 2011)
Collar of the Order pro merito Melitensi (15 October 2009)
Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion (15 October 1997)
: Grand Cordon of the Order of 7 November (September 2006)
:
Recipient of the 50th Birthday Medal of King Carl XVI Gustaf (30 April 1996)
Recipient of the 70th Birthday Badge Medal of King Carl XVI Gustaf (30 April 2016)
Dynastic orders
: Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (1 March 2003)
House of Petrović-Njegoš: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I
Two Sicilian Royal Family:
Knight of the Order of Saint Januarius (7 November 2017)
Bailiff Knight Grand Cross with Collar of Justice of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George (7 November 2017)
Other awards
FIODS: Medal of the International Merit of Blood (12 March 1994)
: College of Darjah Kerabat Diraja Pahang (7 November 1997)
: Grand Prix Humanitaire de France (6 March 2007)
University of Plymouth: Doctor of Science (D.Sc) (2013)
Pierre and Marie Curie University: Doctor Honoris Causa (23 March 2017)
Tel Aviv University: Doctor Honoris Causa (12 June 2018)
University of Lapland: Doctor Honoris Causa (19 February 2019)
Zayed International Prize for the Environment (1 February 2014)
In 1996, Prince Albert received the Eagle Award from the United States Sports Academy. The Eagle Award is the Academy's highest international honor and was awarded to Prince Albert for his significant contributions in promoting international harmony, peace and goodwill through the effective use of sport.
On 23 October 2009, Prince Albert was awarded the Roger Revelle Prize for his efforts to protect the environment and to promote scientific research. This award was given to Prince Albert by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California. Prince Albert is the second recipient of this prize.
In October 2017, Prince Albert received the Lowell Thomas Award from The Explorers Club, a non-profit group that promotes scientific exploration. The award is presented by the president of the Club on special occasions to groups of outstanding explorers. The Club cited Prince Albert's dedication to the protection of the environment, commemorating his status as the first head of state to reach both the North and South poles.
On 14 October 2019 at the Comenius University in Bratislava, he received the honorary title "doctor honoris causa" for activities in the field of protection of natural and cultural heritage within his efforts to combat climate change.
Commemorative coins
As Monaco's head of state, Prince Albert II is depicted both standard-issue and collector's coins, such as the €5 silver Prince Albert II commemorative coin, the first commemorative coin with his effigy, minted in 2008. On the obverse, the prince is depicted in profile with his name on the top of the coin. On the reverse, the Grimaldi coat of arms appears; around it, the words "Principauté de Monaco" (Principality of Monaco) also appear along with the nominal monetary value of the coin.
Succession issues
As Rainier III's health declined, his son's lack of legitimate children became a matter of public and political concern owing to the legal and international consequences. Had Prince Albert succeeded his father and died without lawful heirs, it would have triggered Article 3 of the 1918 Franco-Monegasque Treaty, according to which the Principality of Monaco would become a protectorate of the French Republic. Prior to 2002, Monaco's constitution stipulated that only the last reigning prince's "direct and legitimate" descendants could inherit the crown.
On 2 April 2002, Monaco promulgated Princely Law 1.249, which provides that if a reigning prince dies without surviving legitimate issue, the throne passes to his legitimate siblings and their legitimate descendants of both sexes, according to the principle of male-preference primogeniture. Following Albert's accession, this law took full effect in 2005 when ratified by France, pursuant to the Franco-Monégasque Treaty regulating relations between the Principality and its neighbour. Prince Albert's sisters and their legitimate children thereby retained the right to inherit the Monegasque throne, which they would have otherwise lost upon the death of Prince Rainier.
Under the current constitution, neither Jazmin nor Alexandre are in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne as they are not Prince Albert's legitimate children, and he emphasised their ineligibility to inherit the throne in statements confirming his paternity. Monegasque law stipulates that any non-adulterine illegitimate child is legitimised by the eventual marriage of his/her parents, thereupon obtaining the rights to which that child would have been entitled if born in lawful marriage. Thus Alexandre would have become Monaco's heir apparent under current law if Albert were to marry his son's mother. But in a 2005 exchange with American reporter Larry King, Albert stated that this would not happen.
Prior to the birth of Princess Gabriella and Prince Jacques, Prince Albert's elder sister, Caroline, Princess of Hanover, was heir presumptive and, according to the Grimaldi house law, bore the traditional title of Hereditary Princess of Monaco. Following their birth, she is now third in line.
Ancestry
References
External links
Princely House of Monaco
Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation
Princess Grace Foundation (USA website)
|-
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|-
1958 births
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century Roman Catholics
21st-century Princes of Monaco
21st-century viceregal rulers
Amherst College alumni
Bobsledders at the 1988 Winter Olympics
Bobsledders at the 1992 Winter Olympics
Bobsledders at the 1994 Winter Olympics
Bobsledders at the 1998 Winter Olympics
Bobsledders at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Dakar Rally drivers
Hereditary Princes of Monaco
House of Grimaldi
International Olympic Committee members
Kelly family
Living people
Marquesses of Baux
Members of Leander Club
Monegasque male bobsledders
Monegasque people of American descent
Monegasque people of English descent
Monegasque people of German descent
Monegasque people of Irish descent
Monegasque people of Italian descent
Monegasque people of Mexican descent
Monegasque people of Scottish descent
Monegasque princes
Monegasque rally drivers
Monegasque Roman Catholics
Olympic bobsledders of Monaco
People of Ligurian descent
Princes of Monaco
Regents of Monaco
Royal Olympic participants
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (France)
Recipients of the Order of Saint-Charles
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Grand Masters of the Order of Saint-Charles
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Grimaldi
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Sun of Peru
Grand Crosses of the National Order of Mali
Grand Crosses of the Order of Vytautas the Great
Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Knights of the Holy Sepulchre
Monegasque billionaires
First Class of the Order of the Star of Romania | [
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235954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thurston%20elliptization%20conjecture | Thurston elliptization conjecture | William Thurston's elliptization conjecture states that a closed 3-manifold with finite fundamental group is spherical, i.e. has a Riemannian metric of constant positive sectional curvature.
Relation to other conjectures
A 3-manifold with a Riemannian metric of constant positive sectional curvature is covered by the 3-sphere, moreover the group of covering transformations are isometries of the 3-sphere.
If the original 3-manifold had in fact a trivial fundamental group, then it is homeomorphic to the 3-sphere (via the covering map). Thus, proving the elliptization conjecture would prove the Poincaré conjecture as a corollary. In fact, the elliptization conjecture is logically equivalent to two simpler conjectures: the Poincaré conjecture and the spherical space form conjecture.
The elliptization conjecture is a special case of Thurston's geometrization conjecture, which was proved in 2003 by G. Perelman.
References
For the proof of the conjectures, see the references in the articles on geometrization conjecture or Poincaré conjecture.
William Thurston. Three-dimensional geometry and topology. Vol. 1. Edited by Silvio Levy. Princeton Mathematical Series, 35. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1997. x+311 pp. .
William Thurston. The Geometry and Topology of Three-Manifolds, 1980 Princeton lecture notes on geometric structures on 3-manifolds, that states his elliptization conjecture near the beginning of section 3.
Riemannian geometry
3-manifolds
Conjectures that have been proved | [
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235955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk%20density | Disk density | Disk density is a capacity designation on magnetic storage, usually floppy disks. Each designation describes a set of characteristics that can affect the areal density of a disk or the efficiency of the encoded data. Such characteristics include modulation method, track width, coercivity, and magnetic field direction.
8-inch media
Single density (SD or 1D) describes the first generation of floppy disks that use an iron oxide coating. Floppy drives utilize 300-oersted write heads, FM encoding, and a track width of for a density of 48 tracks-per-inch (tpi) and 5876 bits-per-inch (bpi).
Double density (DD or 2D) doubles capacity over SD by replacing FM encoding with an improved line code, such as modified frequency modulation (MFM), modified modified frequency modulation (M²FM), FM/MFM or group coded recording (GCR).
5¼-inch media
SD (1D) and DD (2D) designations were generally identical to those of 8-inch disks.
Quad density (QD or 4D) doubles capacity over DD by narrowing the width of tracks to for a density of 96 tpi. Some manufacturers (Micropolis, Tandon, Micro Peripherals (MPI), Teac) used a track density of 100 tpi for quad-density drives, which were incompatible with 96 tpi models.
High density (HD) improves capacity by utilizing a 96 tpi track density in conjunction with improved cobalt disk coating and stronger 600-oersted write heads, allowing 9646 bpi to be written.
3½-inch media
Double density (DD) 3½-inch disks use an iron oxide coating, just as with 5¼-inch DD/QD disks. However, drives utilize stronger 670-oersted write heads and a narrower track width of for a density of 135 tpi and 8717 bpi.
High density (HD) 3½-inch disks switch to a cobalt disk coating, just as with 5¼-inch HD disks. Drives use 700-oersted write heads for a density of 17434 bpi.
Extra-high density (ED) doubles the capacity over HD by using a barium ferrite coating and a special write head that allows the use of perpendicular recording.
Triple density (TD) triples the capacity over ED by tripling the track density and improving other parameters. The drives used longitudinal recording.
Overview
See also
List of floppy disk formats
References
External links
Floppy disk computer storage | [
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235956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius%20Salmasius | Claudius Salmasius | Claude Saumaise (15 April 1588 – 3 September 1653), also known by the Latin name Claudius Salmasius, was a French classical scholar.
Life
Salmasius was born at Semur-en-Auxois in Burgundy. His father, a counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, sent him, at the age of sixteen, to Paris, where he became intimate with Isaac Casaubon (1559–1614). In 1606 he went to the University of Heidelberg, where he studied under the jurist Denis Godefroy, and devoted himself to the classics, influenced by the librarian Jan Gruter. Here he embraced Protestantism, the religion of his mother.
Returning to Burgundy, Salmasius qualified for the succession to his father's post, which he eventually lost on account of his religion. In 1623 he married Anne Mercier, a Protestant lady of a distinguished family. After declining overtures from Oxford, Padua and Bologna, in 1631 he accepted the professorship formerly held by Joseph Scaliger at Leiden. Although the appointment in many ways suited him, he found the climate trying. He became involved in a vicious controversy, over the Greek of the New Testament, with Daniel Heinsius. The quarrel became both highly personal and widely known, and Heinsius as university librarian refused him access to the books he wished to consult. Salmasius had an ally in Gerardus Vossius, on religious grounds.
Following his polemical Defensio Regis of 1649, a flattering invitation from Queen Christina induced him to visit Sweden in 1650. Christina loaded him with gifts and distinctions. Salmasius had enemies there: Nikolaes Heinsius, son of his foe Daniel, but also Isaac Vossius (son of Gerardus) with whom he had fallen out. They circulated gossip about him.
Salmasius withdrew from Sweden in 1651; Christina sent warm letters and pressed him to return.
Salmasius died on 3 September 1653, at Spa.
Work
He was a prolific author and textual critic. He first published (1608) an edition of a work by Nilus Cabasilas, (archbishop of Thessalonica in the 14th century) against the primacy of the pope (De primatu Papae), and an edition of a similar tract by the Calabrian monk Barlaam of Seminara (ca. 1290-1348). In 1609 he brought out an edition of Florus; a later edition (1638) included also the editio princeps of the Liber Memorialis of Lucius Ampelius.
In 1606 or 1607 Salmasius had discovered in the library of the Counts Palatine in Heidelberg the only surviving copy of Cephalas's 10th-century unexpurgated copy of the Greek Anthology, including the 258-poem anthology of homoerotic poems by Straton of Sardis that would eventually become known as the notorious Book 12 of the Greek Anthology. Salmasius made copies of the newly discovered poems in the Palatine version and began to circulate clandestine manuscript copies of them as the Anthologia Inedita. His copy later appeared in print: first in 1776 when Richard François Philippe Brunck included it in his Analecta; and also when Friedrich Jacobs published the full Palatine Anthology as the Anthologia Graeca (13 vols. 1794-1803; revised 1813-1817). The remains of Straton's anthology became Book 12 in Jacob's standard critical Anthologia Graeca edition. Only in 2001 did a full Greek-to-English translation of Book 12 appear (from Princeton University Press).
In 1620 Salmasius published Casaubon's notes on the Augustan History, with copious additions of his own. In 1629 he produced his magnum opus as a critic, his commentary on Gaius Julius Solinus's Polyhistor, or rather on Pliny the Elder, to whom Solinus is indebted for the most important part of his work. Greatly as his contemporaries may have overrated this commentary, it stands as a monument of learning and industry. Salmasius learned Arabic to qualify himself for the botanical part of his task.
Shortly after his removal to the Netherlands, Salmasius composed (at the request of Prince Frederick Henry of Nassau) his treatise on the military system of the Romans (De re militari Romanorum), which remained unpublished until 1657. Other works followed, mostly philological, but including a denunciation of wigs and hair-powder.
The De usuris liber (1630) and subsequent writing was a vindication of moderate and lawful interest for money. Although it was opposed by lawyers and theologians, the Dutch Reformed Church began to admit money-lenders to the sacrament. His treatise De primatu Papae (1645), accompanying a republication of the tract of Nilus Cabasilas, excited controversy in France, but the government declined to suppress it.
In 1643 he published De Hellenistica Commentarius, including linguistic theories of Johann Elichmann on the origins of the Greek language. In 1649, in November, appeared the work for which many remember Salmasius best: his royalist tract Defensio regia pro Carolo I provoked by the execution of Charles I.
His advice had already been sought on English and Scottish affairs, and, inclining to Presbyterianism or to a modified episcopacy, he had written against the English religious Independents. It remains unknown whose influence induced him to undertake the Defensio regia, but Charles II defrayed the expense of printing, and presented the author with £100. The first edition appeared anonymously, but the author was universally known. A French translation (which speedily appeared under the name of "Claude Le Gros") was the work of Salmasius himself. This celebrated work provoked from John Milton the Defensio pro Populo Anglicano, including attacks on Salmasius's wife along with much other vituperation. Milton also claimed that Salmasius's withdrawal from Sweden in 1651 was due to the attack, but Christina's continued warmth in letters to him argue against that cause. His reply to Milton remained unfinished at his death: his son published it in 1660.
He is the author of Simplicii Verini, sive Claudii Salmasii, de Transsubstantiatione liber, ad justum pacium, contra H. Grotium..
Legacy
Philibert de La Mare, counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, inherited Salmasius' manuscripts from his son and wrote a very lengthy life of Salmasius. Papillon says that this biography left nothing to desire, but no printed edition has ever appeared. However, Papillon himself used de la Mare's work for his account of Salmasius in his Bibliothèque des auteurs de Bourgogne — by far the best extant. Papillon included an exhaustive list of Salmasius' works, both printed and in manuscript.
Antoine Clément prefixed a eulogy to his edition of Salmasius's Letters (Leiden, 1656), and C. B. Morisot inserted another into his own Letters (Dijon, 1656). See also Eugène Haag, La France protestante, (ix. 149-x73); and, for the Defensio regia, David Masson's Life of Milton.
Works
De primatu Papae, 1645.
De cruce, Leiden, Joannes Maire, 1646.
Defensio regia pro Carolo I, 1649.
Epistolae, Leiden, 1656.
De re militari Romanorum, 1657.
Notes
References
Christopher Baker, Absolutism and the Scientific Revolution, 1600-1720: A Biographical Dictionary (2002), biography pp. 336–7.
External links
1588 births
1653 deaths
17th-century Latin-language writers
French classical scholars
People from Côte-d'Or
Heidelberg University alumni
Leiden University faculty
Classical philologists | [
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235957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fr%C3%A4schen | Großräschen | Großräschen (Sorbian: Rań) is a town in Lower Lusatia, in Germany. Administratively, it is part of the district of Oberspreewald-Lausitz, in the state of Brandenburg.
Geographical position
Großräschen is south of the Niederlausitzer Landrücken, a sandy stretch of land with pine forests in the centre of Lusatia. The source of the small river Rainitza used to be in meadows north of the town centre. South of the town, Lake Grossraschen (formerly an open-cast lignite mine) was completed in 2018. The town proper comprises the historical core, Kleinräschen, and Großräschen. The southernmost quarter, Bückgen, was pulled down due to mining. Outside the town proper are the villages of Freienhufen (historically Dobristroh), Bulldorf, Dörrwalde, Wormlage, Saalhausen, Woschkow, and Schmogro (Großräschen-Ost).
History
Both Großräschen and Kleinräschen were first mentioned in an official document in 1370. The form of settlement and the name suggest that Kleinräschen is older than Großräschen. The villages developed slowly; the Wendish population depended almost entirely on agriculture. From the middle of the 19th century onwards, heavy industry developed, and the villages grew rapidly. In 1965, they were granted the status of a town, having been incorporated into one community in 1925. The 1980s brought the destruction of Bückgen, whose 4000 inhabitants had to leave their homes and were moved into blocks of flats. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the industrial decline (glass manufacturing, brick production, mining and agriculture used to appear in the town's coat of arms) caused heavy unemployment. The completion of the Grossraschen lake instigated a tourism industry with lakeside hotels, town marina harbor, rental holiday homes, and a lakeside winery.
Mayors
Thomas Zenker (SPD) was elected in November 2009 with 93.9% of the votes for a term of eight years. (Turnout 35.3%). He was re-elected in September 2017 with 85.6% for a second term of eight years.
Demography
Sights
Protestant Church
Catholic Church with interior decoration by Friedrich Preß
Medieval village church in Freienhufen
open-cast mine lookout
Historic village structures in Kleinräschen, Dörrwalde, Wormlage, Saalhausen (farm type of Senftenberger Vierseitenhof)
Infrastructure
Rail links to Berlin, Senftenberg, Stralsund (slow trains)
Federal road B 96
Motorway A 13/E 66
Partner cities
Trzebiatów (Treptow), Poland, since 2006
Sprockhövel, Germany
Hattingen, Germany
People
Herbert Scurla (1905–1981)
Bernhard Lehmann (born 1948)
Hans-Joachim Hartnick (born 1955)
References
External links
Localities in Oberspreewald-Lausitz
Localities in Lower Lusatia
Province of Brandenburg
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235958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical%20sight-singing | Numerical sight-singing | Numerical sight-singing, an alternative to the solfege system of sight-singing, is a musical notation system that numbers the diatonic scale with the numbers one through eight (or, alternately, one to seven, with the octave again being one).
In this system, 1 is always the root or origin, but the scale being represented may be major, minor, or any of the diatonic mode. Accidentals (sharps and flats outside the key signature) are noted with a + or - when the numbers are written, but are often skipped when they are spoken or sung.
In some pedagogies involving numerical sight-singing notation students are not taught to modify vowels to represent sharp or flat notes. In these cases the students usually name the note and whether it is flat or sharp. For example, an augmented unison ("ouey") might be called "one sharp," and in some other pedagogies this same pitch may also simply be called "one."
Comparison with other systems
There is a continual debate about the merits of this system as compared to solfege: it holds the advantage that when dealing with abstract concepts such as interval distance a student may easily recognize that the distance between 1 and 5 is larger than the distance between 1 and 4 because of the numerical values assigned (as compared to Solfege, where comparing Do to Sol and Do to Fa remain completely abstract until sung or played). A drawback often pointed out is that numerical numbers are not always "singable," for example, scale degree 7 (ti, in solfege) contains vowels that are hard to tune.
Numerical sight singing is not the same as integer notation derived from musical set theory and used primarily for sight singing atonal music. Nor is it the same as "count singing", a technique popularized by Robert Shaw in which the numbers sung represent the rhythms of a piece in accordance with the beat of a measure.
References
Musical notation
Ear training
Music education
Singing | [
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235959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrah%20Fawcett | Farrah Fawcett | Farrah Leni Fawcett (born Ferrah Leni Fawcett; February 2, 1947 – June 25, 2009) was an American actress, fashion model, and visual artist. A four-time Primetime Emmy Award nominee and six-time Golden Globe Award nominee, Fawcett rose to international fame when she played a starring role in the first season of the television series Charlie's Angels (1976–1977).
Fawcett began her career in the 1960s appearing in commercials and guest roles on television. During the 1970s, she appeared in numerous television series, including recurring roles on Harry O (1974–1976), and The Six Million Dollar Man (1974–1978) with her then-husband, film and television star Lee Majors. Her iconic red swimsuit poster sold six million copies in its first year of print. Fawcett's breakthrough role was the role of private investigator Jill Munroe in Charlie's Angels, which co-starred Kate Jackson and Jaclyn Smith. The show propelled all three actresses to stardom. After appearing in the show's first season in 1976, Fawcett decided to leave Charlie's Angels. She later returned as a guest star in six episodes during the show's third and fourth seasons (1978–1980). For her work in Charlie's Angels, Fawcett received her first Golden Globe nomination.
In 1983, Fawcett received positive reviews for her performance in the Off-Broadway play Extremities. She was subsequently cast in the 1986 film version and received a Golden Globe nomination. She received Emmy Award nominations for her role as a battered wife in The Burning Bed (1984) and for her portrayal of real-life murderer Diane Downs in Small Sacrifices (1989). Her 1980s work in TV movies earned her four additional Golden Globe nominations. Although Fawcett weathered some negative press for a rambling appearance on The Late Show with David Letterman in 1997, she garnered strong reviews that year for her role in the film The Apostle with Robert Duvall. In the 21st century, she continued acting on television, holding recurring roles on the sitcom Spin City (2001) and the drama The Guardian (2002–2003). For the latter, she received her third Emmy nomination. Fawcett's film credits include Love Is a Funny Thing (1969), Myra Breckinridge (1970), Logan's Run (1976), Sunburn (1979), Saturn 3 (1980), The Cannonball Run (1981), Extremities (1986), The Apostle (1997), and Dr. T & the Women (2000).
Fawcett was diagnosed with anal cancer in 2006 and died three years later at age 62. The 2009 NBC documentary Farrah's Story chronicled her battle with the disease. She posthumously earned her fourth Emmy nomination for her work as a producer on Farrah's Story.
Early life
Fawcett was born on February 2, 1947, in Corpus Christi, Texas, and was the younger of two daughters. Her mother, Pauline Alice Fawcett (née Evans; 1914–2005), was a homemaker and her father, James William Fawcett (1917–2010), was an oil field contractor. Her older sister, Diane Fawcett Walls (1938–2001), was a graphic artist. She was of Irish, French, English and Choctaw Native American ancestry. Fawcett once said the name "Farrah" was "made up" by her mother, because it went well with their last name.
A Roman Catholic, Fawcett began her early education at the parish school of the church her family attended, St. Patrick's Roman Catholic Church in Corpus Christi. She graduated from W. B. Ray High School in Corpus Christi, where she was voted "most beautiful" by her classmates in her freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years of high school. Between 1965 and 1968, she attended the University of Texas, where she studied microbiology before switching her major to art. She lived at the Mayfair House on 22nd Street, west of the campus, and was a member of Delta Delta Delta sorority.
In her freshman year of college, she was named one of the "ten most beautiful coeds on campus", and it was the first time that a freshman had been chosen for the honor. Her photos were sent to various agencies in Hollywood. David Mirisch, a Hollywood agent, called her and urged her to come to Los Angeles. She turned him down, but he continued for the next two years. Finally, in the summer of 1968, Fawcett moved to Los Angeles, initially staying at the Hollywood Studio Club, with her parents' permission to "try her luck" in the entertainment industry.
Career
Early career
When Fawcett arrived in Hollywood at age 21 in 1968, Screen Gems signed her to a $350-a-week contract. She began to appear in commercials for such products as Ultra Brite toothpaste, Noxzema skin cream, Max Factor cosmetics, Mercury Cougar automobiles, and Beautyrest mattresses, among others. Her earliest acting appearances were guest spots on The Flying Nun (1969) and I Dream of Jeannie (1969–70). She made numerous other television appearances, including Getting Together, Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law, Mayberry R.F.D., and The Partridge Family. She appeared in four episodes of The Six Million Dollar Man with husband Lee Majors, on The Dating Game and S.W.A.T, and had a recurring role on Harry O alongside David Janssen as the title character's girlfriend, Sue. She had a sizable part in the 1969 French romantic-drama Love Is a Funny Thing. She played the role of Mary Ann Pringle in Myra Breckinridge (1970).
Rise to stardom
In 1976, Pro Arts Inc. pitched the idea of a poster of Fawcett to her agent. A photo shoot was then arranged with photographer Bruce McBroom, who was hired by the poster company. According to friend Nels Van Patten, Fawcett styled her own hair and did her makeup without the aid of a mirror. Her blonde highlights were further heightened by a squeeze of lemon juice. Fawcett selected her six favorite pictures from 40 rolls of film, and the choice was eventually narrowed to the one that made her famous. The resulting image of Fawcett in a one-piece red bathing suit is the best-selling poster in history.
Fawcett earned a supporting role in Michael Anderson's science-fiction film Logan's Run (1976) with Michael York. She and her husband, television star Lee Majors, were frequent tennis partners with producer Aaron Spelling. Spelling and his business partner eventually chose Fawcett to play Jill Munroe in their upcoming made-for-TV movie, Charlie's Angels, a movie of the week which aired on March 21, 1976, on ABC. The movie starred Fawcett (then billed as Farrah Fawcett-Majors), Kate Jackson, and Jaclyn Smith as private investigators for Townsend Associates, a detective agency run by a reclusive multimillionaire whom the women had never met. Voiced by John Forsythe, the Charles Townsend character presented cases and dispensed advice via a speakerphone to his core team of three female employees, whom he referred to as "Angels". They were aided in the office and occasionally in the field by two male associates, played by character actors David Doyle and David Ogden Stiers. The program quickly earned a huge following, leading the network to air it a second time and approve production for a series, with the pilot's principal cast minus Ogden Stiers.
The Charlie's Angels series proper formally debuted on September 22, 1976. Each of the three actresses was propelled to stardom, but Fawcett dominated popularity polls. She subsequently won a People's Choice Award for Favorite Performer in a New TV Program. In a 1977 interview with TV Guide, she said, "When the show was number three, I thought it was our acting. When we got to be number one, I decided it could only be because none of us wears a bra." Fawcett's appearance in the television show boosted sales of her poster, and she earned far more in royalties from poster sales than from her salary for appearing in Charlie's Angels. Her hairstyle went on to become an international trend, with women sporting a "Farrah-do", a "Farrah-flip", or simply "Farrah hair". Iterations of her hair style predominated among American women's hairstyles well into the 1980s.
In the spring of 1977, Fawcett left Charlie's Angels after only one season. After a series of legal battles over her contract with ABC, Cheryl Ladd replaced her on the show, portraying Jill Munroe's younger sister Kris Munroe. Over the years, numerous explanations were offered for Fawcett's precipitous withdrawal from the show. Because her husband, Lee Majors, was the star of an established television show as well (ABC's Six Million Dollar Man, which aired from 1974 to 1978), the strain on her marriage due to filming schedules that kept them apart for long periods was frequently cited, but her ambition to broaden her acting abilities in films has also been given as an explanation. She never officially signed her series contract with Spelling, owing to protracted negotiations over royalties from her image's use in peripheral products, which led to an even more protracted lawsuit filed by Spelling and his company when she left the show. As a result of leaving her contract four years early, she reluctantly signed a new contract with ABC, stating that she would make six guest appearances on the series over a two-year period (1978–1980).
Charlie's Angels was a global success, maintaining its appeal in syndication and spawning, particularly in the show's first three seasons, a cottage industry of peripheral products, including several series of bubble gum cards, two sets of fashion dolls, numerous posters, puzzles, and school supplies, novelizations of episodes, toy vans, and a board game, all featuring Fawcett's likeness. The "Angels" also appeared on the covers of magazines around the world, from countless fan magazines to TV Guide (four times) to Time.
In 2004, the television film Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Charlie's Angels dramatized the events from the show, with supermodel and actress Tricia Helfer portraying Fawcett and Ben Browder portraying Lee Majors, Fawcett's then-husband.
Post-Angels film roles
In 1978, Fawcett's first post-Angels movie, Somebody Killed Her Husband, was released to adverse reviews (some critics referred to the film as Somebody Killed Her Career) and a poor box-office. The 1979 release of Sunburn, co-starring Charles Grodin and Art Carney, was met by equally unfavorable reviews. In 1980, Fawcett starred with Kirk Douglas in Stanley Donen's science-fiction film Saturn 3; the film earned unfavorable reviews from critics and experienced poor box office sales. The following year she starred alongside an ensemble cast, which included Burt Reynolds, Dean Martin, and Sammy Davis Jr. in the comedy The Cannonball Run (1981). Later that year, she co-starred with Katharine Ross, Sam Elliott, and Andy Griffith in the television movie Murder in Texas.
In 1983, Fawcett won critical acclaim for her role in the Off-Broadway stage production of the controversial play Extremities, written by William Mastrosimone. Replacing Susan Sarandon, she played the role of an attempted rape victim who turns the tables on her attacker. She described the role as "the most grueling, the most intense, the most physically demanding and emotionally exhausting" of her career. During one performance, a stalker in the audience disrupted the show by asking Fawcett if she had received the photos and letters he had mailed her. Police removed the man and were able to issue him a summons only for disorderly conduct.
The following year, her role as battered wife Francine Hughes in the fact-based television movie The Burning Bed (1984) earned her the first of her four Emmy Award nominations. The project is noted as being the first television movie to provide a nationwide 800 number that offered help for others in the situation, in this case victims of domestic abuse. It was the highest-rated television movie of the season.
In 1986, Fawcett appeared in the movie version of Extremities, which performed well financially. For her performance she received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama. She appeared in Jon Avnet's Between Two Women with Colleen Dewhurst, and took several more dramatic roles as either infamous or renowned women. She was nominated for Golden Globe awards for roles as Beate Klarsfeld in Nazi Hunter: The Beate Klarsfeld Story and troubled Woolworth heiress Barbara Hutton in Poor Little Rich Girl: The Barbara Hutton Story, and won a CableACE Award for her 1989 portrayal of groundbreaking LIFE magazine photojournalist Margaret Bourke-White in Double Exposure: The Story of Margaret Bourke-White.
Her 1989 portrayal of convicted murderer Diane Downs in the miniseries Small Sacrifices earned her a second Emmy nomination and her sixth Golden Globe Award nomination. The miniseries won a Peabody Award for excellence in television, with Fawcett's performance singled out by the organization, which stated "Ms. Fawcett brings a sense of realism rarely seen in television miniseries (to) a drama of unusual power".
Art meets life
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Fawcett had steadfastly resisted signing a release for nude photographs of her to be published in magazines, even though she had briefly appeared topless in the 1980 film Saturn 3. She caused a major stir by posing semi-nude in the December 1995 issue of Playboy. At the age of 50, she appeared in a pictorial for the July 1997 issue of Playboy, which also became a top seller. The issue and its accompanying video featured Fawcett actually using her own body to paint on canvas; for years, this had been one of her ambitions.
On June 5, 1997, Fawcett received negative commentary after she gave a rambling interview and appeared distracted on Late Show with David Letterman. Months later, she told the host of The Howard Stern Show that her behavior was just her way of joking around with the television host, partly in the guise of promoting her Playboy pictorial and video. She explained that what appeared to be random looks across the theater was just her looking and reacting to fans in the audience. Though the Letterman appearance spawned speculation and several jokes at her expense, she returned to the show in 1999. Several years later in February 2009, Letterman ended an incoherent and largely unresponsive interview with Joaquin Phoenix by saying, "We owe an apology to Farrah Fawcett."
That same year, Robert Duvall chose Fawcett to play the role of his wife in The Apostle, which was an independent feature film that he was producing. She received an Independent Spirit Award nomination as Best Actress for the film. In 2000, she worked with director Robert Altman in the feature film Dr. T & the Women, as the wife of Richard Gere. (Her character has a mental breakdown, leading to Fawcett's first fully nude appearance.)
At around this time, Madonna's brother Christopher Ciccone described befriending Fawcett and giving her a studio visit for her abstract paintings and sculpture. In 2000, Fawcett's collaboration with sculptor Keith Edmier was exhibited at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art; the exhibit was later displayed at The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The sculpture was also presented in a series of photographs and a book by Rizzoli.
In November 2003, Fawcett prepared for her Broadway debut in a production of Bobbi Boland, the tragicomic tale of a former Miss Florida. However, the show never officially opened when it closed during preview performances. Fawcett was described as "vibrating with frustration" at the producer's extraordinary decision to cancel the production; just days earlier, the same producer closed an Off-Broadway show she had been backing.
Fawcett continued to work in television, and appeared in the made-for-television movies and on popular television series that included Ally McBeal, four episodes of Spin City, and four episodes of The Guardian. Her work on the latter show earned her a third Emmy nomination in 2004.
Personal life
Relationships
Fawcett began dating Lee Majors in the late 1960s. She was married to Majors from 1973 to 1982, although the couple separated in 1979. They had no children. Throughout her marriage (and despite the separation) she used the name Farrah Fawcett-Majors in her screen credits.
In 1979, Fawcett became romantically involved with actor Ryan O'Neal, and they had a son named Redmond James Fawcett O'Neal, who was born in 1985. In 1994, Fawcett told TV Guide that their relationship had some troubles. "Sometimes Ryan breaks my heart, but he's also responsible for giving me confidence in myself", she said. Fawcett ended the relationship after she caught him in bed with actress Leslie Stefanson in 1997. After their split, O'Neal's daughter Tatum O'Neal alleged that he physically abused Fawcett. "He had a terrible temper and was very violent. He beat her up", she said. Fawcett and O'Neal rekindled their relationship in 2001. On June 22, 2009, The Los Angeles Times and Reuters reported that Ryan O'Neal had said that Fawcett had agreed to marry him as soon as she felt strong enough.
From 1997 to 1998, Fawcett was in a relationship with Canadian filmmaker James Orr, who was the writer and producer of Man of the House, the Disney feature film in which she co-starred with Chevy Chase and Jonathan Taylor Thomas. The relationship ended when Orr was arrested, charged, and later convicted of beating Fawcett during a 1998 fight.
Fawcett dated Longhorn football star Greg Lott while they were undergrads at the University of Texas. Lott said they rekindled their romance in 1998 and had a “a loving, consensual, one-on-one relationship" until she died in 2009. He claimed Ryan O'Neal kept him from seeing Fawcett in her final days. "He kept me from seeing the love of my life before she died", he told ABC News. In Fawcett's living trust she left nothing for O'Neal, but she left $100,000 for Lott. Lott insisted Fawcett's relationship with O'Neal was just for show. "Everything she did with Ryan, including all of those so-called reality shows they made together, was just Hollywood fantasy, something she had to do to keep up her image", he said.
Family
Fawcett's older sister Diane Fawcett Walls died of lung cancer just before her 63rd birthday on October 16, 2001. The fifth episode of her 2005 Chasing Farrah series followed the actress home to Texas to visit her father, James, and mother, Pauline. Pauline Fawcett died on March 4, 2005, at the age of 91.
Fawcett's only child, Redmond James Fawcett-O'Neal, was fathered by Ryan O'Neal and was born on January 30, 1985. He has struggled with drug addiction for most of his adult life. In 2008, Redmond and his father were arrested for drug possession in their Malibu home. In April 2009, Redmond was on probation for driving under the influence when he was arrested for possession of narcotics; Fawcett was in the hospital at the time. In 2014, his half-sister Tatum O'Neal told People, "I love him, but I have never seen a more scary side of addiction," and urged him to go to 12-step meetings with her, but he refused. In 2015, his probation was revoked and he was sentenced to three years in the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation. In 2018, he was arrested and charged with attempted murder, robbery, assault and drug possession after he allegedly tried to rob a convenience store in Santa Monica. From jail he blamed his struggles on his parents, adding that it was "not drugs that have been a problem, it's the psychological trauma of my entire life — my whole life experiences have affected me the most." Subsequently, he was found incompetent to stand trial having been diagnosed with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and antisocial personality disorder along with drug and alcohol abuse. His trial was put on hold and he was transferred to a state mental hospital with a maximum commitment date until Oct. 4, 2021. If eventually convicted, he faces a possible maximum sentence of 22 years in state prison.
Cancer
Fawcett was diagnosed with anal cancer in 2006, and began treatment that included chemotherapy and surgery. Four months later, on February 2, 2007, her 60th birthday, the Associated Press reported that Fawcett was at that point cancer-free. In May 2007, Fawcett experienced a recurrence and was diagnosed with stage IV cancer that had metastasized to her liver (which has a 5-year survival rate of less than 20%); a malignant polyp was found where she had been treated for the initial cancer. Doctors contemplated whether to implant a radiation seeder (which differs from conventional radiation and is used to treat other types of cancer). Fawcett's U.S. doctors told her that she would require a colostomy.
Not wanting to proceed with a colostomy for treatment of her stage IV cancer, she traveled to Germany for treatments described variously in the press as "aggressive" and "alternative". There, Dr. Ursula Jacob prescribed a treatment including surgery to remove the anal tumor, a course of perfusion and embolization for her liver cancer by Doctors Claus Kiehling and Thomas Vogl in Germany, and chemotherapy back in Los Angeles. Although initially the tumors were regressing, their reappearance a few months later necessitated a new course, this time including laser ablation therapy and chemoembolization. Aided by friend Alana Stewart, Fawcett documented her battle with the disease.
In early April 2009, Fawcett was back in the United States and hospitalized. Media reports declared her unconscious and in critical condition, although subsequent reports indicated her condition was not so dire. On April 6, the Associated Press reported that the cancer had metastasized to her liver. This was a development that Fawcett had learned of in May 2007 and which her subsequent treatments in Germany had targeted. The report denied that she was unconscious and explained that the hospitalization was not due to her cancer, but instead due to a painful abdominal hematoma that had been the result of a minor procedure. Her spokesperson emphasized she was not "at death's door", adding "She remains in good spirits with her usual sense of humor ... She's been in great shape her whole life and has an incredible resolve and an incredible resilience." Fawcett was released from the hospital on April 9. She was accompanied by longtime companion O'Neal, and according to her doctor, was "walking and in great spirits and looking forward to celebrating Easter at home."
A month later on May 7, Fawcett was reported as being critically ill, with Ryan O'Neal quoted as saying she was spending her days at home on an IV and often asleep. The Los Angeles Times reported that she was in the last stages of terminal cancer and had the chance to see her son Redmond in April 2009, although he was shackled and under supervision, because he was then incarcerated. Her 91-year-old father, James, flew to Los Angeles to visit.
Cancer specialist Dr. Lawrence Piro was treating Fawcett in Los Angeles. He and Fawcett's friend — Angels co-star Kate Jackson, a breast cancer survivor — appeared together on The Today Show. They dispelled tabloid-fueled rumors, including suggestions that Fawcett had ever been in a coma, had ever dropped to , and had ever given up her fight against the disease or lost the will to live. Jackson decried such fabrications, saying they "really do hurt a human being and a person like Farrah." Piro recalled when it became necessary for Fawcett to undergo treatments that would cause her to lose her hair, acknowledging "Farrah probably has the most famous hair in the world", but also that it is not a trivial matter for any cancer patient, whose hair "affects [one's] whole sense of who [they] are". Of the documentary, Jackson averred Fawcett "didn't do this to show that 'she' is unique, she did it to show that we are all unique ... (T)his was ... meant to be a gift to others to help and inspire them."
The two-hour documentary, Farrah's Story, which was filmed by Fawcett and friend Alana Stewart, aired on NBC on May 15, 2009. At its premiere airing, the documentary was watched by nearly nine million people, and it was re-aired on the broadcast network's cable stations MSNBC, Bravo and Oxygen. On July 16, 2009, Fawcett, who had died on June 25, posthumously earned her fourth Emmy nomination as the producer of Farrah's Story. Controversy surrounded the aired version of the documentary. Her initial producing partner—who had worked with her four years earlier on her reality series, Chasing Farrah—alleged that the editing of the program by O'Neal and Stewart was not in keeping with her wishes to more thoroughly explore alternative methods of treatment of rare types of cancers such as her own.
Death
Fawcett died of anal cancer at 2:28 a.m. PDT on June 25, 2009, at age 62 at Saint John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California with O'Neal and Alana Stewart by her side.
Funeral
A private funeral was held in Los Angeles on June 30, 2009. Farrah's son Redmond was permitted to leave his California detention center in order to attend the service, where he gave the first reading. Fawcett was interred at the Westwood Village Memorial Park in Los Angeles, next to Rodney Dangerfield.
Trust and dispute over Warhol portrait
Fawcett did not name long-time lover Ryan O'Neal in her living trust, which she amended in 2007. She left most of her fortune, $4.5 million, to their son Redmond in a trust overseen by her business manager, Richard Francis, under its terms the principal being available only for matters relating to Redmond's health care, while he could collect the interest. She also left $500,000 to her nephew, Gregory Walls; $500,000 to her father, James Fawcett; and $100,000 to her college boyfriend Gregory Lott. Fawcett left all of her artwork to the University of Texas. When the university received her art collection, one of her Warhol portraits was missing. In 2011, after discovering that O'Neal had retained the portrait, the University of Texas filed suit. O'Neal claimed that Fawcett had given it to him. Lott maintained that Fawcett never gave up ownership of the portrait and that it was her wish to bequeath all her artwork to her alma mater. In December 2013, a Los Angeles court ruled that the portrait belonged to O'Neal.
Media coverage
News of Fawcett's death was largely overshadowed by media coverage of the death of music icon Michael Jackson, which occurred eleven hours later on the same day. On the night of her death, ABC aired an hour-long special episode of 20/20 featuring clips from several of Barbara Walters' past interviews with Fawcett, as well as new interviews with Ryan O'Neal, Jaclyn Smith, Alana Stewart, and Dr. Lawrence Piro. Walters followed up on the story on Friday's episode of 20/20. CNN's Larry King Live planned a show exclusively about Fawcett that evening until Jackson's death caused the program to shift to cover both stories. Cher, a longtime friend of Fawcett, and Suzanne de Passe, executive producer of Fawcett's Small Sacrifices mini-series, both paid tribute to Fawcett on the program. Coincidentally, de Passe had worked for Motown Records in the 1960s and 70s, and she had also played a major part in the development of the Jackson 5 which included Michael Jackson. NBC aired a Dateline NBC special "Farrah Fawcett: The Life and Death of an Angel" the following evening, June 26, preceded by a rebroadcast of Farrah's Story in prime time.
That weekend and the following week, television tributes continued. MSNBC aired back-to-back episodes of its Headliners and Legends episodes featuring Fawcett and Jackson. TV Land aired a mini-marathon of Charlie's Angels and Chasing Farrah episodes. E! aired Michael & Farrah: Lost Icons and The Biography Channel aired Bio Remembers: Farrah Fawcett. The documentary Farrah's Story re-aired on the Oxygen Network and MSNBC. BET aired the 2004 movie The Cookout, in which Fawcett had appeared.
Larry King said of the Fawcett phenomenon:
Playboy founder Hugh Hefner said: "Farrah was one of the iconic beauties of our time. Her girl-next-door charm combined with stunning looks made her a star on film, TV, and the printed page."
Kate Jackson said of her former castmate:
Academy Awards' omission
In March 2010, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences upset family and friends of Fawcett when she was excluded from the "In Memoriam" montage at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony. The inclusion of Michael Jackson in the montage, though he was not primarily known for his film roles, only added to the controversy. Friends and colleagues of Fawcett, including Ryan and Tatum O'Neal, Jane Fonda and film critic Roger Ebert, publicly expressed their outrage at the oversight. AMPAS executive director Bruce Davis noted that Fawcett had been recognized for her "remarkable television work" at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards in September 2009. On the exclusion, he said: "There's nothing you can say to people, particularly to family members, within a day or two of the show that helps at all. They tend to be surprised and hurt, and we understand that and we're sorry for it."
Cultural impact
The red one-piece bathing suit she wore in her famous 1976 poster was donated to the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History (NMAH) on February 2, 2011. Designed by CFDA Award-winning fashion designer Norma Kamali, it was donated to the Smithsonian by her executors and was formally presented to NMAH in Washington, D.C., by her longtime companion Ryan O'Neal. The iconic image of Farrah in a red swimsuit has been recreated in a limited edition Barbie doll with a gold chain and the girl-next-door locks.
In 2011, Men's Health named Fawcett in its list of the "100 Hottest Women of All-Time", ranking her at No. 31.
The song "Midnight Train to Georgia" had initially been inspired by Fawcett and Lee Majors. Songwriter James Dawn "Jim" Weatherly phoned Majors, who was one of his friends, but it was Fawcett who actually answered the call. Weatherly and Fawcett chatted briefly and she told him she was going to visit her mother and was taking "the midnight plane to Houston". Although Majors and Fawcett were both successful by that time, Weatherly used them as "characters" in his song, about a failed actress who leaves Los Angeles and is followed by her boyfriend who cannot live without her. Eventually the genders were swapped to a failed actor who leaves Los Angeles and is followed by his girlfriend who cannot live without him, a train replaced the plane, and Houston was changed to Georgia. The recording by Gladys Knight & the Pips attained the number 1 position on the Billboard chart in 1973.
In 1980, O'Neal facilitated a meeting between Fawcett and artist Andy Warhol, who created two portraits of Fawcett during their time together. Fawcett later loaned the portraits to The Andy Warhol Museum. Following a 2013 court case between O'Neal and the University of Texas, which had been named by Fawcett as the recipient of all of her artwork, one of the portraits was deemed the property of O'Neal. The portrait was valued at between $800,000 and $12 million during the court case.
Filmography
Film
Television
Plays
See also
References
External links
Farrah Fawcett – Daily Telegraph obituary
Farrah Fawcett at TV Guide
Farrah Fawcett at Emmys.com
Farrah Fawcett Online Memorial
Farrah Fawcett sculpture exhibit in Austin, Texas
1947 births
2009 deaths
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Houston
Actresses from Texas
American female models
American film actresses
American people of Choctaw descent
American people of English descent
American people of French descent
American people of Irish descent
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
Catholics from Texas
Deaths from anal cancer
Deaths from cancer in California
Female models from Texas
People from Corpus Christi, Texas
University of Texas at Austin College of Fine Arts alumni | [
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235961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe%20de%20Mornay | Philippe de Mornay | Philippe de Mornay (5 November 1549 – 11 November 1623), seigneur du Plessis Marly, usually known as Du-Plessis-Mornay or Mornay Du Plessis, was a French Protestant writer and member of the anti-monarchist Monarchomaques.
Biography
He was born in Buhy, now situated in Val-d'Oise. His mother had leanings toward Protestantism, but his father tried to counteract her influence by sending him to the of the University of Paris. On his father's death in 1559, however, the family formally adopted the reformed faith. Mornay studied law and jurisprudence at the University of Heidelberg in 1565 and the following year Hebrew and German at the University of Padua. During the French Wars of Religion in 1567, he joined the army of Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé, but a fall from his horse prevented him from taking an active part in the campaign. His career as Huguenot apologist began in 1571 with the work Dissertation sur l'Église visible, and, as a diplomat in 1572, he undertook a confidential mission for Admiral de Coligny to William the Silent, Prince of Orange.
He escaped the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre by the aid of a Catholic friend, taking refuge in England. Returning to France towards the end of 1573, he participated during the next two years with various success in the campaigns of the future Henry IV of France, then only King of Navarre. He was taken prisoner by the Duke of Guise on 10 October 1575 was but ransomed for a small sum, which was paid by Charlotte Arbaleste, whom he married shortly afterwards at Sedan.
Mornay was gradually recognized as Henry's right-hand man, representing him in England from 1577 to 1578 and again in 1580, and in the Low Countries 1581-1582. With the death of the Duke of Alençon-Anjou in 1584, by which Henry was brought within sight of the throne of France, the period of Mornay's greatest political activity began, and after the death of Henry I, Prince of Condé, in 1588, his influence became so great that he was popularly styled the "Huguenot pope". He was present at the siege of Dieppe, fought at Ivry, and was at the siege of Rouen in 1591-92 until he sent on a mission to the court of Queen Elizabeth. Both he and his wife befriended English Protestants like Francis Walsingham, Mary Sidney, and her brother Philip Sydney.
He was bitterly disappointed by Henry IV's abjuration of Protestantism in 1593 and gradually withdrew from the court, devoting himself to the Academy of Saumur, which had a distinguished history until its suppression by Louis XIV in 1683.
His last years were saddened by the loss of his only son in 1605 and that of his devoted wife in 1606, but he spent them in perfecting the Huguenot organization. He was chosen a deputy in 1618 to represent the French Protestants at the Synod of Dort. He was prohibited from attending by Louis XIII but contributed materially to its deliberations by written communications. He lost the governorship of Saumur at the time of the Huguenot insurrection in 1621 as Saumur was captured by French royal forces, and died in retirement on his estate of La Forêt-sur-Sèvre, Deux-Sèvres.
Works
In 1598 he published a work on which he had long been engaged, entitled De L'institution, usage et doctrine du saint sacrement de l'eucharistie en l'église ancienne, containing about 5000 citations from the scriptures, fathers and schoolmen. Jacques Davy Du Perron, bishop of Évreux (who later became cardinal and archbishop of Sens), accused Mornay of misquoting at least 500, and a public disputation was held at Fontainebleau on 4 May 1600. Decision was awarded to Du Perron on nine points presented, when the disputation was interrupted by the illness of Mornay. The Duke of Sully reported that Mornay "had defended himself so poorly that he made some laugh, made others angry, and inspired pity in still others." Mornay was also instrumental in the drafting of the Edict of Nantes (1598) which established political rights and some religious freedom for the Huguenots.
His principal works, in addition to those mentioned above, are Excellent discours de la vie et de la mort (London, 1577), a bridal present to Charlotte Arbaleste; Traité de l'Église où l'on traite des principales questions qui ont été mues sur ce point en nostre temps (London, 1578); Traité de la vérité de la religion chrétienne contre les athées, épicuriens, payens, juifs, mahométans et autres infidèles (Antwerp, 1581); Le mystère d'iniquité, c'est à dire, l'histoire de la papauté (Geneva, 1611). Two volumes of Mémoires, from 1572 to 1589, appeared at La Forêt (1624–1625), and a continuation in 2 vols. at Amsterdam (1652); a more complete but very inaccurate edition () in 12 vols. was published at Paris in 1624-1625. He is also one—many consider the most likely—candidate for being author of the Vindiciae contra tyrannos (1579), a pamphlet advocating resistance to the French crown.
Notes
Bibliography
Life of Mornay written by his wife for the instruction of their son, Mémoires de Mme Duplessis-Mornay, vol.1 in the ed. of Mémoires et correspondences de Duplessis-Mornay (Paris, 1824–1825);
E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, article "Mornay";
J. Ambert, Du Plessis-Mornay (Paris, 1847);
Philippe Bobichon, "La polémique contre les juifs dans les travaux des hébraïsants chrétiens de France", in G. Dahan and Annie Noblesse-Rocher (dir.), Les hébraïsants chrétiens en France, au XVIe siècle, Genève, Droz, 2018, pp. 187–215 online
Pitts, Vincent J. (2009). Henri IV of France: His Reign and Age. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. .
E. Stahelin, Der Übertritt K. Heinrichs IV. von Frankreich zur katholischen Kirche (Basel, 1856);
Weiss, Du Plessis Mornay comme théologien (Strassburg, 1867).
Article "Du Plessis-Mornay" by T. Schott in Hauck's Realencyklopädie
Article by Grube in Kirchenlexikon.
External links
1549 births
1623 deaths
People from Val-d'Oise
Huguenots
Participants in the Synod of Dort
Monarchomachs
16th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
French Calvinist and Reformed theologians
16th-century French theologians | [
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235965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus%20Terentius%20Varro | Marcus Terentius Varro | Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Vergil and Cicero). He is sometimes called Varro Reatinus to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus.
Biography
Varro was born in or near Reate (now Rieti) to a family thought to be of equestrian rank, and always remained close to his roots in the area, owning a large farm in the Reatine plain, reported as near Lago di Ripa Sottile, until his old age. He supported Pompey, reaching the office of praetor, after having been tribune of the people, quaestor and curule aedile. He was one of the commission of twenty that carried out the great agrarian scheme of Caesar for the resettlement of Capua and Campania (59 BC).
During Caesar's civil war he commanded one of Pompey's armies in the Ilerda campaign. He escaped the penalties of being on the losing side in the civil war through two pardons granted by Julius Caesar, before and after the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar later appointed him to oversee the public library of Rome in 47 BC, but following Caesar's death Mark Antony proscribed him, resulting in the loss of much of his property, including his library. As the Republic gave way to Empire, Varro gained the favour of Augustus, under whose protection he found the security and quiet to devote himself to study and writing.
Varro studied under the Roman philologist Lucius Aelius Stilo, and later at Athens under the Academic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon. Varro proved to be a highly productive writer and turned out more than 74 Latin works on a variety of topics. Among his many works, two stand out for historians; Nine Books of Disciplines and his compilation of the Varronian chronology. His Nine Books of Disciplines became a model for later encyclopedists, especially Pliny the Elder. The most noteworthy portion of the Nine Books of Disciplines is its use of the liberal arts as organizing principles. Varro decided to focus on identifying nine of these arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. Using Varro's list, subsequent writers defined the seven classical "liberal arts of the medieval schools".
In 37 BC, in his old age, he also wrote on agriculture for his wife Fundania, writing a "voluminous" work De re rustica (also called Res rusticae)—similar to Cato the Elder's similar work De agri cultura—on the management of large slave-run estates.
Calendars
The compilation of the Varronian chronology was an attempt to determine an exact year-by-year timeline of Roman history up to his time. It is based on the traditional sequence of the consuls of the Roman Republic—supplemented, where necessary, by inserting "dictatorial" and "anarchic" years. It has been demonstrated to be somewhat erroneous but has become the widely accepted standard chronology, in large part because it was inscribed on the arch of Augustus in Rome; though that arch no longer stands, a large portion of the chronology has survived under the name of Fasti Capitolini.
Works
Varro's literary output was prolific; Ritschl estimated it at 74 works in some 620 books, of which only one work survives complete, although we possess many fragments of the others, mostly in Gellius' Attic Nights. He was called "the most learned of the Romans" by Quintilian, and also recognized by Plutarch as "a man deeply read in Roman history".
Varro was recognized as an important source by many other ancient authors, among them Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Virgil in the Georgics, Columella, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, Augustine, and Vitruvius, who credits him (VII.Intr.14) with a book on architecture.
His only complete work extant, Rerum rusticarum libri tres (Three Books on Agriculture), has been described as "the well digested system of an experienced and successful farmer who has seen and practised all that he records."
One noteworthy aspect of the work is his anticipation of microbiology and epidemiology. Varro warned his contemporaries to avoid swamps and marshland, since in such areas
...there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious diseases.
Extant works
De lingua latina libri XXV (or On the Latin Language in 25 Books, of which six books (V–X) survive, partly mutilated)
Rerum rusticarum libri III (or Agricultural Topics in Three Books)
Known lost works
Saturarum Menippearum libri CL or Menippean Satires in 150 books
Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum libri XLI (Antiquities of Human and Divine Things)
Logistoricon libri LXXVI
Hebdomades vel de imaginibus
Disciplinarum libri IX (An encyclopedia on the liberal arts, of which the first book dealt with grammar)
De rebus urbanis libri III (or On Urban Topics in Three Books)
De gente populi Romani libri IIII (cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xxi. 8.)
De sua vita libri III (or On His Own Life in Three Books)
De familiis troianis (or On the Families of Troy)
De Antiquitate Litterarum libri II (addressed to the tragic poet Lucius Accius; it is therefore one of his earliest writings)
De Origine Linguae Latinae libri III (addressed to Pompey; cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xxii. 28.)
Περί Χαρακτήρων (in at least three books, on the formation of words)
Quaestiones Plautinae libri V (containing interpretations of rare words found in the comedies of Plautus)
De Similitudine Verborum libri III (on regularity in forms and words)
De Utilitate Sermonis libri IIII (on the principle of anomaly or irregularity)
libri V (?) (addressed to Marcellus, on orthography and the metres of poetry)
De philosophia (cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xix. 1.)
Most of the extant fragments of these works (mostly the grammatical works) can be found in the Goetz–Schoell edition of De Lingua Latina, pp. 199–242; in the collection of Wilmanns, pp. 170–223; and in that of Funaioli, pp. 179–371.
References
Further reading
Cardauns, B. Marcus Terentius Varro: Einführung in sein Werk. Heidelberger Studienhefte zur Altertumswissenschaft. Heidelberg, Germany: C. Winter, 2001.
d’Alessandro, P. “Varrone e la tradizione metrica antica”. Spudasmata, volume 143. Hildesheim; Zürich; New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 2012.
Dahlmann, H.M. “Terentius Varro. Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft”. Supplement 6, Abretten bis Thunudromon. Edited by Wilhelm Kroll, 1172–1277. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1935.
Ferriss-Hill, J. “Varro’s Intuition of Cognate Relationships.” Illinois Classical Studies, volume 39, 2014, pp. 81–108.
Freudenburg, K. "The Afterlife of Varro in Horace's Sermones: Generic Issues in Roman Satire." Generic Interfaces in Latin Literature: Encounters, Interactions and Transformations, edited by Stavros Frangoulidis, De Gruyter, 2013, pp. 297–336.
Kronenberg, L. Allegories of Farming from Greece and Rome: Philosophical Satire in Xenophon, Varro and Virgil. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Nelsestuen, G. Varro the Agronomist: Political Philosophy, Satire, and Agriculture in the Late Republic. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2015.
Richardson, J.S. “The Triumph of Metellus Scipio and the Dramatic Date of Varro, RR 3.” The Classical Quarterly, volume 33, no. 2, 1983, pp. 456–463.
Taylor, D.J.. Declinatio : A Study of the Linguistic Theory of Marcus Terentius Varro. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1974.
Van Nuffelen, P. “Varro’s Divine Antiquities: Roman Religion as an Image of Truth.” Classical Philology, volume 105, no. 2, 2010, pp. 162–188.
External links
de Re Rustica (Latin and English at LacusCurtius)
Links to translation of De Linga Latina by R.G.Kent
Livius.org: Varronian chronology
thelatinlibrary.com: Latin works of Varro
Oxford Classical Dictionary
Oxford Bibliographies
116 BC births
27 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Romans
1st-century BC Roman praetors
1st-century BC writers
Ancient linguists
Ancient Roman antiquarians
Ancient Roman scholars of religion
Ancient Roman soldiers
Ancient Roman writers
Encyclopedias in classical antiquity
Encyclopedists
Geoponici
Golden Age Latin writers
Latin-language writers
People from Rieti
Recipients of ancient Roman pardons
Roman-era students in Athens
Varro, Marcus
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235966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viljandi | Viljandi | Viljandi (, ) is a town and municipality in southern Estonia with a population of 17,407 in 2019. It is the capital of Viljandi County and is geographically located between two major Estonian cities, Pärnu and Tartu. The town was first mentioned in 1283, upon being granted its town charter by Wilhelm von Endorpe. The town became a member of the Hanseatic League at the beginning of the 14th century, and is one of five Estonian towns and cities in the league.
The once influential Estonian newspaper Sakala was founded in Viljandi in 1878.
Symbols
The flag of Viljandi is bi-coloured, its upper part light blue and lower part white. The city's shield-shaped coat of arms is light blue, with a white rose in the middle. Viljandi is the white rose city – in midsummer there are 720 white roses flowering in front of the city hall, planted for the town's anniversary in 2003. In summer, the White Rose Day is celebrated in Viljandi.
History
First records of civilization in the surroundings of Viljandi date back to the 5th millennium B.C. The first written record of the earthen stronghold of Viljandi was in the year 1154 in the commentaries to al-Idrisi's world atlas Geography.
In the 12th century, a permanent settlement emerged around the stronghold of Viljandi, which also became the economic centre of the ancient Sakala district.
In 1211 the hillfort of the Estonians in Viljandi was besieged by a joint army of Germans, Latvians, and Livs. The Livonian Sword Brethren (later the Livonian Order) captured the hillfort in August 1223 from a contingent of the people of Ruthenians, who joined forces with the insurgent Estonians.
In place of the Sakala wooden stronghold a powerful Order Centre was started in 1224. The following year the Grand Master Volquin led the construction of the Viljandi Castle at the site of the former hillfort. The Viljandi (Fellin) castle was one of the largest in the Baltic region. It was a major fortification of the Livonian Order and was appointed a commander from 1248. The fortress was continually rebuilt and modernized over the next two-hundred years.
In the 13th century, a medieval town arose on the northern side of the stronghold. The Hamburg-Riga town bylaws, lands and population of it were first recorded in 1283. During the first half of the 14th century, Viljandi joined the influential Hanseatic League – the town had become an important stop for merchants on their way to Russia and back. In 1365, the town council was party when peace between Denmark and Hansa was concluded.
In 1470, Johann Wolthus von Herse, then master of the order, took up residence in the castle. In the Middle Ages, Viljandi was a typical small commercial town, which got its main income from transit trade. The local trade and handicraft played an equally important role. In 1481, Ivan III of Russia laid siege to the castle but could not take it. The decline of Viljandi started during the Livonian War and in 1560, the forces of Knyaz Andrey Kurbsky of Muscovite Russia succeeded in seizing and demolished the town and the stronghold.
During the Polish–Russian War in the first quarter of the 17th century, the town and the stronghold were completely destroyed. Under the Swedish rule in the 17th century the town bylaws of Viljandi were cancelled.
After the Great Northern War, Russians seized the power and Viljandi was without laws until the year 1783, when in the course of the regency reforms of Catherine II Viljandi became a district town. This involved the re-establishment of town bylaws. The economic and political importance of Viljandi started to increase. The population, meanwhile, having decreased to the minimum, started to rise again; handicraft, trading and cultural life were enlivened.
In 2005, Estonian Match, the successor of the 100-year-old Viljandi Match Factory, made a six-metre match, which was registered as the largest match in the world in the Guinness Book of Records.
Geography
The town is situated on the north-western shore of Lake Viljandi, which lies in the primeval valley. Green zones cover 27% of the town area. Public green areas cover about 418 ha, including 92 ha of parks. The largest is the nature-protected Castle Park, but also Valuoja Park, Kiigepark, Uueveski Park are worth mentioning. The main tree species are oak, lime, birch, and pine. The grandest tree-lined avenues are Maramaa (named after August Maramaa, twice the mayor of Viljandi) and Lembitu avenues. Among foreign species, American larch can be found in Köler avenue and Douglas fir in Uus street.
Culture
Viljandi is sometimes called the cultural capital of Estonia, partly due to the Viljandi Culture Academy being located there.
Ugala Theatre since 1920, Viljandi has had the Ugala drama theatre. The tradition of open-air performances dates back to the same year.
Viljandi Puppet Theatre
Sakala Centre
Viljandi Library built in 2002 is also a venue for exhibitions, meetings with famous people, culture seminars, etc.
Kondas Centre is dedicated to Estonian naïve artist Paul Kondas. The center hosts exhibitions of representatives of naïvism and is also a meeting place for artistic people.
Estonian Traditional Music Centre located in the Traditional Music Storehouse, a restored store house on Kirsimägi in the Castle ruins. The mission of the center is to promote and teach traditional music.
Economy
There were 871 businesses in Viljandi on 1 May 2005, 50% of them in service, 45% in trade, and 5% in production areas. The major industries represented are the construction materials industry, textile industry, and food and bakery industry. In 2005, the Investor of the Year title was awarded to the waterworks operator AS Viljandi Veevärk, the Employer award to AS Toom Tekstiil, and the Sponsor of the Year title to AS Viljandi Metall. Unemployment rate among the working-age population in Viljandi was about 3%.
Transport
At the moment, 2 modes of transport can be used – road and rail. One of the most important is the Viljandi railway station, which was opened in 1897, through which the Lelle-Viljandi railway and the Viljandi-Mõisaküla railway pass.
Climate
Education
There are 7 schools and 7 kindergartens in Viljandi, a vocational secondary school and a university college. Special interests are catered for by a variety of institution providing extracurricular studies and activities in such fields as sports, music etc. The Youth Centre of Viljandi County is successful in offering various information and consulting services.
Schools in Viljandi
Primary Schools
Viljandi Jakobsoni Kool
Viljandi Kesklinna Kool
Viljandi Paalalinna Kool
Viljandi Kaare Kool
Viljandi Vaba Waldorfkool
Grammar Schools
Viljandi Gümnaasium
Viljandi Täiskasvanute Gümnaasium
Vocational education
Vocational education can be acquired at Viljandi Joint Vocational Secondary School.
Higher education
Higher and applied higher education can be acquired at Viljandi Culture Academy a college of the University of Tartu.
Extracurricular educational institutions
Viljandi Music School
Viljandi Sports School
Viljandi Art School
Viljandi Youth Hobby Centre
Sports
There are sports events in Viljandi for both top athletes and amateurs. Family sports events, Sunday skiing trips, cycling tours in spring and autumn are very popular. In the city there are 53 sports clubs, a large sports hall and the new sports hall of Maagümnaasium. Also, the country's first artificial speed skating oval was opened in 2014. Soon, the jogging and cycling track around Lake Viljandi will be completed. A new skateboarding and roller-skating area has been built in Männimäe. At the lakeside are tennis courts and the city stadium.
Several races are held in Viljandi – around Lake Viljandi and Lake Paala and up and down the Trepimägi stairs. The longest tradition – the race around Lake Viljandi has been organised since 1928. This race takes place annually on 1 May, with the number of participants being about 1300 in the recent years. The winners' names are cut into stone columns. The legendary Hubert Pärnakivi, whose monument is also a tribute to the race, was an 11-time winner of the race.
Other popular fields of sport in Viljandi are handball, football, volleyball, basketball, wrestling, archery and rowing.
Legends
Boatman of Viljandi
Often the popular song is sung about the Boatman of Viljandi or the legend of him is told. Long-long ago, as a young man he had once taken a young girl across the lake on a summer evening and fallen hopelessly in love with the girl's blue eyes. Nobody knows what happened on the lake, but on the other side, the girl just waved him good-bye and left... However, the Boatman, a grey old man now, is said to row on the lake to this day, longing to see those wonderful blue eyes again.
According to another story, it was a boatman from Gauja who had dedicated a song to his loved one. As the young woman had moved near Viljandi, the song had changed, too.
International relations
Viljandi as historic Hanseatic town is a member of the international City League the Hanse.
Twin towns – sister cities
Viljandi is twinned with:
Ahrensburg, Germany
Cumberland, United States
Eslöv, Sweden
Frostburg, United States
Härnösand, Sweden
Kretinga, Lithuania
Porvoo, Finland
Telavi, Georgia
Ternopil, Ukraine
Valmiera, Latvia
Events
Viljandi Folk Music Festival a music festival with a focus on European folk music. It is traditionally held in the end of July. In the year 2006, over 24,000 people attended the concerts. As such, it is the largest annual music festival in Estonia. Due to this, Viljandi is sometimes called the Estonian Capital of Folk Music.
Early Music Festival
Notafe Festival – originally 'Noore Tantsu (Young Dance) Festival' : Annual experimental theater festival founded in 1993, traditionally held in mid July.
Winter Folk Dance Festival
"Theatre in Suitcase" puppet theatre festival
Rock Ramp Festival
Viljandi Hanseatic Days are traditionally held in June every year. The program covers different activities and events like a Hanseatic fair, where people can buy and sell traditional goods. The Viljandi Hanseatic Days also offer concerts and live performances from local and foreign performers. Different workshops are opened. Medieval sports games take place by the Lake Viljandi.
International Hanseatic Days will be held in Viljandi from 2015.
Grand Race around Lake Viljandi
Notable residents
Ülle Aaskivi (1950–2007), Estonian politician
Liisa Aibel (born 1972), Estonian actress
August Alle (1890–1952), Estonian author
Meelis Atonen (born 1966), Estonian politician
Franz Burchard Dörbeck (1799–1835), Baltic-German caricaturist and painter
August Eller (1907–1990), Estonian chess player
Väino Ilus (born 1929), Estonian writer
Kaido Kama (born 1957), Estonian politician
Triinu Kivilaan (born 1989), former bassist of the band Vanilla Ninja, now soloist
Ragnar Klavan (born 1985), Estonian footballer and captain of the Estonia national team, played for Liverpool and in Cagliari
Mart Laar (born 1960), Estonian politician
Karin Luts (1904–1993), Estonian artist
Mait Malmsten (born 1972), Estonian actor
Karol Mets (born 1993), Estonian footballer
Uno Naissoo (1928–1980), Estonian composer and music pedagogue
Annely Peebo (born 1971), Estonian opera singer (mezzo-soprano)
Eric Pehap (1912–1981), abstract artist
(1832–1907), journalist, teacher, author
Sander Post (born 1984), Estonian football player
Joakim Puhk (1888–1942), Estonian entrepreneur and sports official
Tõnis Rätsep (born 1947), Estonian actor, musician, playwright and educator
Hans Schmidt (1854–1923), German musician (composer and pianist) and poet
Elisabeth Schiemann (1881–1972), German geneticist and crop scientist
Helir-Valdor Seeder (born 1964), Estonian politician
Sirje Tamul (born 1951), Estonian historian
Jaan Tätte (born 1964), Estonian dramatist, actor and singer
Joonas Tamm (born 1992), International Estonian football player of FC Desna Chernihiv and Sampdoria.
Stefan Airapetjan (born 1997), singer who will represent Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022
Gallery
See also
Lake Viljandi
Viljandi castle
University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy
References
Heinrici (ca. 1187–1259) Chronicon Livoniae see also Chronicle of Henry of Livonia
External links
Viljandi Tourist Information Centre
Festival Viljandi Folk Music Festival
Viljandi this week, Nädal Viljandis, all events in Viljandi
Awarded "EDEN - European Destinations of Excellence" non traditional tourist destination 2008
Cities and towns in Estonia
Municipalities of Estonia
Members of the Hanseatic League
Kreis Fellin
Populated places in Viljandi County
Populated places established in the 1280s | [
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235967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquila%20Romanus | Aquila Romanus | Aquila Romanus was a Latin grammarian who flourished in the second half of the 3rd century AD.
Life
He was the author of an extant treatise De Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis, written as an installment of a complete rhetorical handbook for the use of a young and eager correspondent. While recommending Demosthenes and Cicero as models, he takes his own examples almost exclusively from Cicero. His treatise is really adapted from that by Alexander, son of Numenius, as is expressly stated by Julius Rufinianus, who brought out a supplementary treatise, augmented by material from other sources. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Aquila's style is harsh and careless, and the Latin is inferior.
Work
"De Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis", in Karl Halm. . Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1863
P. Rutilii Lupi de figuris sententiarum et elocutions libri duo, accedunt Aquilae Romani et Julii Rufiniani de eodem argumento libri, David Ruhnken (ed.), Lugduni Batavorum, apud Samuelem et Joannem Luchtmans, 1768, pp. 139 ff.
References
Sources
Elice, Romani Aquilae De figuris (Hildesheim : Olms, 2007)
Karl Halm, Rhetores Latini minores (1863)
Wensch, De Aquila Romano (1861).
Grammarians of Latin
Ancient Roman rhetoricians
Post–Silver Age Latin writers
3rd-century Romans
3rd-century Latin writers | [
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235968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenation | Hydrogenation | Hydrogenation is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen (H2) and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum. The process is commonly employed to reduce or saturate organic compounds. Hydrogenation typically constitutes the addition of pairs of hydrogen atoms to a molecule, often an alkene. Catalysts are required for the reaction to be usable; non-catalytic hydrogenation takes place only at very high temperatures. Hydrogenation reduces double and triple bonds in hydrocarbons.
Process
Hydrogenation has three components, the unsaturated substrate, the hydrogen (or hydrogen source) and, invariably, a catalyst. The reduction reaction is carried out at different temperatures and pressures depending upon the substrate and the activity of the catalyst.
Related or competing reactions
The same catalysts and conditions that are used for hydrogenation reactions can also lead to isomerization of the alkenes from cis to trans. This process is of great interest because hydrogenation technology generates most of the trans fat in foods (see below). A reaction where bonds are broken while hydrogen is added is called hydrogenolysis, a reaction that may occur to carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom (oxygen, nitrogen or halogen) bonds. Some hydrogenations of polar bonds are accompanied by hydrogenolysis.
Hydrogen sources
For hydrogenation, the obvious source of hydrogen is H2 gas itself, which is typically available commercially within the storage medium of a pressurized cylinder. The hydrogenation process often uses greater than 1 atmosphere of H2, usually conveyed from the cylinders and sometimes augmented by "booster pumps". Gaseous hydrogen is produced industrially from hydrocarbons by the process known as steam reforming. For many applications, hydrogen is transferred from donor molecules such as formic acid, isopropanol, and dihydroanthracene. These hydrogen donors undergo dehydrogenation to, respectively, carbon dioxide, acetone, and anthracene. These processes are called transfer hydrogenations.
Substrates
An important characteristic of alkene and alkyne hydrogenations, both the homogeneously and heterogeneously catalyzed versions, is that hydrogen addition occurs with "syn addition", with hydrogen entering from the least hindered side. This reaction can be performed on a variety of different functional groups.
Catalysts
With rare exceptions, H2 is unreactive toward organic compounds in the absence of metal catalysts. The unsaturated substrate is chemisorbed onto the catalyst, with most sites covered by the substrate. In heterogeneous catalysts, hydrogen forms surface hydrides (M-H) from which hydrogens can be transferred to the chemisorbed substrate. Platinum, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium form highly active catalysts, which operate at lower temperatures and lower pressures of H2. Non-precious metal catalysts, especially those based on nickel (such as Raney nickel and Urushibara nickel) have also been developed as economical alternatives, but they are often slower or require higher temperatures. The trade-off is activity (speed of reaction) vs. cost of the catalyst and cost of the apparatus required for use of high pressures. Notice that the Raney-nickel catalysed hydrogenations require high pressures:
Catalysts are usually classified into two broad classes: homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts. Homogeneous catalysts dissolve in the solvent that contains the unsaturated substrate. Heterogeneous catalysts are solids that are suspended in the same solvent with the substrate or are treated with gaseous substrate.
Homogeneous catalysts
Some well known homogeneous catalysts are indicated below. These are coordination complexes that activate both the unsaturated substrate and the H2. Most typically, these complexes contain platinum group metals, especially Rh and Ir.
Homogeneous catalysts are also used in asymmetric synthesis by the hydrogenation of prochiral substrates. An early demonstration of this approach was the Rh-catalyzed hydrogenation of enamides as precursors to the drug L-DOPA. To achieve asymmetric reduction, these catalyst are made chiral by use of chiral diphosphine ligands. Rhodium catalyzed hydrogenation has also been used in the herbicide production of S-metolachlor, which uses a Josiphos type ligand (called Xyliphos). In principle asymmetric hydrogenation can be catalyzed by chiral heterogeneous catalysts, but this approach remains more of a curiosity than a useful technology.
Heterogeneous catalysts
Heterogeneous catalysts for hydrogenation are more common industrially. In industry, precious metal hydrogenation catalysts are deposited from solution as a fine powder on the support, which is a cheap, bulky, porous, usually granular material, such as activated carbon, alumina, calcium carbonate or barium sulfate. For example, platinum on carbon is produced by reduction of chloroplatinic acid in situ in carbon. Examples of these catalysts are 5% ruthenium on activated carbon, or 1% platinum on alumina. Base metal catalysts, such as Raney nickel, are typically much cheaper and do not need a support. Also, in the laboratory, unsupported (massive) precious metal catalysts such as platinum black are still used, despite the cost.
As in homogeneous catalysts, the activity is adjusted through changes in the environment around the metal, i.e. the coordination sphere. Different faces of a crystalline heterogeneous catalyst display distinct activities, for example. This can be modified by mixing metals or using different preparation techniques. Similarly, heterogeneous catalysts are affected by their supports.
In many cases, highly empirical modifications involve selective "poisons". Thus, a carefully chosen catalyst can be used to hydrogenate some functional groups without affecting others, such as the hydrogenation of alkenes without touching aromatic rings, or the selective hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes using Lindlar's catalyst. For example, when the catalyst palladium is placed on barium sulfate and then treated with quinoline, the resulting catalyst reduces alkynes only as far as alkenes. The Lindlar catalyst has been applied to the conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene.
Transfer hydrogenation
Transfer hydrogenation uses other hydrogen donor molecules in place of H2 itself. These reactants, which can also serve as solvents for the reaction, include hydrazine, dihydronaphthalene, dihydroanthracene, isopropanol, and formic acid. The reaction involves an outer-sphere mechanism.
In organic synthesis, transfer hydrogenation is useful for the asymmetric reduction of polar unsaturated substrates, such as ketones, aldehydes, and imines. The hydrogenation of polar substrates such as ketones and aldehydes typically requires transfer hydrogenation, at least reactions that use homogeneous catalysts. These catalysts are readily generated in chiral forms, which is the basis of asymmetric hydrogenation of ketones.
Electrolytic hydrogenation
Polar substrates such as nitriles can be hydrogenated electrochemically, using protic solvents and reducing equivalents as the source of hydrogen.
Thermodynamics and mechanism
The addition of hydrogen to double or triple bonds in hydrocarbons is a type of redox reaction that can be thermodynamically favorable. For example, the addition of hydrogen to ethene has a Gibbs free energy change of -101 kJ·mol−1, which is highly exothermic. In the hydrogenation of vegetable oils and fatty acids, for example, the heat released, about 25 kcal per mole (105 kJ/mol), is sufficient to raise the temperature of the oil by 1.6–1.7 °C per iodine number drop.
However, the reaction rate for most hydrogenation reactions is negligible in the absence of catalysts. The mechanism of metal-catalyzed hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes has been extensively studied. First of all isotope labeling using deuterium confirms the regiochemistry of the addition:
RCH=CH2 + D2 → RCHDCH2D
Heterogeneous catalysis
On solids, the accepted mechanism is the Horiuti-Polanyi mechanism:
Binding of the unsaturated bond
Dissociation of H2 on the catalyst
Addition of one atom of hydrogen; this step is reversible
Addition of the second atom; effectively irreversible.
In the third step, the alkyl group can revert to alkene, which can detach from the catalyst. Consequently, contact with a hydrogenation catalyst allows cis-trans-isomerization. The trans-alkene can reassociate to the surface and undergo hydrogenation. These details are revealed in part using D2 (deuterium), because recovered alkenes often contain deuterium.
For aromatic substrates, the first hydrogenation is slowest. The product of this step is a cyclohexadiene, which hydrogenate rapidly and are rarely detected. Similarly, the cyclohexene is ordinarily reduced to cyclohexane.
Homogeneous catalysis
In many homogeneous hydrogenation processes, the metal binds to both components to give an intermediate alkene-metal(H)2 complex. The general sequence of reactions is assumed to be as follows or a related sequence of steps:
binding of the hydrogen to give a dihydride complex via oxidative addition (preceding the oxidative addition of H2 is the formation of a dihydrogen complex):
LnM + H2 → LnMH2
binding of alkene:
LnM(η2H2) + CH2=CHR → Ln-1MH2(CH2=CHR) + L
transfer of one hydrogen atom from the metal to carbon (migratory insertion)
Ln-1MH2(CH2=CHR) → Ln-1M(H)(CH2-CH2R)
transfer of the second hydrogen atom from the metal to the alkyl group with simultaneous dissociation of the alkane ("reductive elimination")
Ln-1M(H)(CH2-CH2R) → Ln-1M + CH3-CH2R
Inorganic substrates
The hydrogenation of nitrogen to give ammonia is conducted on a vast scale by the Haber–Bosch process, consuming an estimated 1% of the world's energy supply.
\underset{nitrogen}{N{\equiv}N} + \underset{hydrogen\atop (200 atm)}{3H2} ->[\ce{Fe\ catalyst}][350-550^\circ\ce C] \underset{ammonia}{2NH3}
Oxygen can be partially hydrogenated to give hydrogen peroxide, although this process has not been commercialized. One difficulty is preventing the catalysts from triggering decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide to form water.
Industrial applications
Catalytic hydrogenation has diverse industrial uses. Most frequently, industrial hydrogenation relies on heterogeneous catalysts.
Food industry
The food industry hydrogenates vegetable oils to convert them into solid or semi-solid fats that can be used in spreads, candies, baked goods, and other products like margarine. Vegetable oils are made from polyunsaturated fatty acids (having more than one carbon-carbon double bond). Hydrogenation eliminates some of these double bonds.
Petrochemical industry
In petrochemical processes, hydrogenation is used to convert alkenes and aromatics into saturated alkanes (paraffins) and cycloalkanes (naphthenes), which are less toxic and less reactive. Relevant to liquid fuels that are stored sometimes for long periods in air, saturated hydrocarbons exhibit superior storage properties. On the other hand, alkenes tend to form hydroperoxides, which can form gums that interfere with fuel handling equipment. For example, mineral turpentine is usually hydrogenated. Hydrocracking of heavy residues into diesel is another application. In isomerization and catalytic reforming processes, some hydrogen pressure is maintained to hydrogenolyze coke formed on the catalyst and prevent its accumulation.
Organic chemistry
Hydrogenation is a useful means for converting unsaturated compounds into saturated derivatives. Substrates include not only alkenes and alkynes, but also aldehydes, imines, and nitriles, which are converted into the corresponding saturated compounds, i.e. alcohols and amines. Thus, alkyl aldehydes, which can be synthesized with the oxo process from carbon monoxide and an alkene, can be converted to alcohols. E.g. 1-propanol is produced from propionaldehyde, produced from ethene and carbon monoxide. Xylitol, a polyol, is produced by hydrogenation of the sugar xylose, an aldehyde. Primary amines can be synthesized by hydrogenation of nitriles, while nitriles are readily synthesized from cyanide and a suitable electrophile. For example, isophorone diamine, a precursor to the polyurethane monomer isophorone diisocyanate, is produced from isophorone nitrile by a tandem nitrile hydrogenation/reductive amination by ammonia, wherein hydrogenation converts both the nitrile into an amine and the imine formed from the aldehyde and ammonia into another amine.
Hydrogenation of coal
History
Heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation
The earliest hydrogenation is that of platinum catalyzed addition of hydrogen to oxygen in the Döbereiner's lamp, a device commercialized as early as 1823. The French chemist Paul Sabatier is considered the father of the hydrogenation process. In 1897, building on the earlier work of James Boyce, an American chemist working in the manufacture of soap products, he discovered that traces of nickel catalyzed the addition of hydrogen to molecules of gaseous hydrocarbons in what is now known as the Sabatier process. For this work, Sabatier shared the 1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Wilhelm Normann was awarded a patent in Germany in 1902 and in Britain in 1903 for the hydrogenation of liquid oils, which was the beginning of what is now a worldwide industry. The commercially important Haber–Bosch process, first described in 1905, involves hydrogenation of nitrogen. In the Fischer–Tropsch process, reported in 1922 carbon monoxide, which is easily derived from coal, is hydrogenated to liquid fuels.
In 1922, Voorhees and Adams described an apparatus for performing hydrogenation under pressures above one atmosphere. The Parr shaker, the first product to allow hydrogenation using elevated pressures and temperatures, was commercialized in 1926 based on Voorhees and Adams' research and remains in widespread use. In 1924 Murray Raney developed a finely powdered form of nickel, which is widely used to catalyze hydrogenation reactions such as conversion of nitriles to amines or the production of margarine.
Homogeneous catalytic hydrogenation
In the 1930s, Calvin discovered that copper(II) complexes oxidized H2. The 1960s witnessed the development of well defined homogeneous catalysts using transition metal complexes, e.g., Wilkinson's catalyst (RhCl(PPh3)3). Soon thereafter cationic Rh and Ir were found to catalyze the hydrogenation of alkenes and carbonyls. In the 1970s, asymmetric hydrogenation was demonstrated in the synthesis of L-DOPA, and the 1990s saw the invention of Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation. The development of homogeneous hydrogenation was influenced by work started in the 1930s and 1940s on the oxo process and Ziegler–Natta polymerization.
Metal-free hydrogenation
For most practical purposes, hydrogenation requires a metal catalyst. Hydrogenation can, however, proceed from some hydrogen donors without catalysts, illustrative hydrogen donors being diimide and aluminium isopropoxide, the latter illustrated by the Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction. Some metal-free catalytic systems have been investigated in academic research. One such system for reduction of ketones consists of tert-butanol and potassium tert-butoxide and very high temperatures. The reaction depicted below describes the hydrogenation of benzophenone:
A chemical kinetics study found this reaction is first-order in all three reactants suggesting a cyclic 6-membered transition state.
Another system for metal-free hydrogenation is based on the phosphine-borane, compound 1, which has been called a frustrated Lewis pair. It reversibly accepts dihydrogen at relatively low temperatures to form the phosphonium borate 2 which can reduce simple hindered imines.
The reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline has been reported to be catalysed by fullerene, its mono-anion, atmospheric hydrogen and UV light.
Equipment used for hydrogenation
Today's bench chemist has three main choices of hydrogenation equipment:
Batch hydrogenation under atmospheric conditions
Batch hydrogenation at elevated temperature and/or pressure
Flow hydrogenation
Batch hydrogenation under atmospheric conditions
The original and still a commonly practised form of hydrogenation in teaching laboratories, this process is usually effected by adding solid catalyst to a round bottom flask of dissolved reactant which has been evacuated using nitrogen or argon gas and sealing the mixture with a penetrable rubber seal. Hydrogen gas is then supplied from a H2-filled balloon. The resulting three phase mixture is agitated to promote mixing. Hydrogen uptake can be monitored, which can be useful for monitoring progress of a hydrogenation. This is achieved by either using a graduated tube containing a coloured liquid, usually aqueous copper sulfate or with gauges for each reaction vessel.
Batch hydrogenation at elevated temperature and/or pressure
Since many hydrogenation reactions such as hydrogenolysis of protecting groups and the reduction of aromatic systems proceed extremely sluggishly at atmospheric temperature and pressure, pressurised systems are popular. In these cases, catalyst is added to a solution of reactant under an inert atmosphere in a pressure vessel. Hydrogen is added directly from a cylinder or built in laboratory hydrogen source, and the pressurized slurry is mechanically rocked to provide agitation, or a spinning basket is used. Recent advances in electrolysis technology have led to the development of high pressure hydrogen generators, which generate hydrogen up to 100 bar (1400 PSI) from water. Heat may also be used, as the pressure compensates for the associated reduction in gas solubility.
Flow hydrogenation
Flow hydrogenation has become a popular technique at the bench and increasingly the process scale. This technique involves continuously flowing a dilute stream of dissolved reactant over a fixed bed catalyst in the presence of hydrogen. Using established HPLC technology, this technique allows the application of pressures from atmospheric to . Elevated temperatures may also be used. At the bench scale, systems use a range of pre-packed catalysts which eliminates the need for weighing and filtering pyrophoric catalysts.
Industrial reactors
Catalytic hydrogenation is done in a tubular plug-flow reactor (PFR) packed with a supported catalyst. The pressures and temperatures are typically high, although this depends on the catalyst. Catalyst loading is typically much lower than in laboratory batch hydrogenation, and various promoters are added to the metal, or mixed metals are used, to improve activity, selectivity and catalyst stability. The use of nickel is common despite its low activity, due to its low cost compared to precious metals.
Gas Liquid Induction Reactors (Hydrogenator) are also used for carrying out catalytic hydrogenation.
See also
Carbon neutral fuel
Dehydrogenation
H-Bio
Hydrogenolysis
Hydrodesulfurization, hydrotreater and oil desulfurization
Josiphos ligands
Timeline of hydrogen technologies
Transfer hydrogenation
Rhodium-catalyzed hydrogenation
Trans fats
References
Further reading
examples of hydrogenation from Organic Syntheses:
Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 7, p.226 (1990).
Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 8, p.609 (1993).
Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 5, p.552 (1973).
Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 3, p.720 (1955).
Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 6, p.371 (1988).
early work on transfer hydrogenation:
External links
"The Magic of Hydro", Popular Mechanics, June 1931, pp. 107–109 – early article for the general public on hydrogenation of oil produced in the 1930s
Addition reactions
Homogeneous catalysis
Industrial processes
Hydrogen
Organic redox reactions
Oil refining
Oil shale technology
Synthetic fuel technologies | [
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235971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristides%20Quintilianus | Aristides Quintilianus | Aristides Quintilianus (Greek: Ἀριστείδης Κοϊντιλιανός) was the Greek author of an ancient musical treatise, Perì musikês (Περὶ Μουσικῆς, i.e. On Music; Latin: De Musica)
According to Theodore Karp, his three-volume work on music "constitutes one of the principal sources of modern knowledge of ancient Greek music and its relationship to other disciplines". According to the 17th-century scholar Marcus Meibomius, in whose collection (Antiq. Musicae Auc. Septem, 52) this work was printed for the first time in 1652, it contains everything on music that is to be found in antiquity.
The dates of Aristides are uncertain. In his book he refers to Cicero (d. 43 BC), and his work was used by Martianus Capella (fl. 410-420). According to Thomas J. Mathiesen, Aristides flourished in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. One piece of evidence for Aristides' date, according to Winnington-Ingram, is that fact in the work he addresses two friends called Eusebius and Florentius; the latter name is unknown before AD 300.
Book 1 of the work deals with the theory of music under the traditional headings of harmonics, rhythm, and metre. It depends heavily on Aristoxenus (4th century BC), but with some "intriguing additions", apparently from a source from the classical period. Book 2 (said by Winnington-Ingram to be "extremely interesting") discusses the importance of music in the education of the young and in the moral life of individuals. Book 3 discusses the arithmetic of music and explores from the point of view of Platonic philosophy the analogies between numbers in music and numbers in the physical world.
Notes
Further reading
Barker, Andrew (1982). "Aristides Quintilianus and Constructions in Early Music Theory". The Classical Quarterly Vol. 32, No. 1 (1982), pp. 184-197.
Borthwick, E. Kerr (1985). Review of "Aristides Quintilianus, On Music by Aristides Quintilianus and Thomas J. Mathiesen". The Classical Review, New Series, Vol. 35, No. 2 (1985), pp. 258-259.
Feaver, Douglas D. (1984). Review of: "Aristides Quintilianus: On Music in Three Books by Thomas J. Mathiesen". The Classical World, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Sep.–Oct., 1984), pp. 61-62.
Wingell, Richard J. (1984). Review of: "On Music, in Three Books by Aristides Quintilianus, Thomas J. Mathiesen". Notes, Second Series, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Sep., 1984), pp. 45-47.
Winnington-Ingram, R.P. (1984). Review of "On Music by Aristides Quintilianus and Thomas J. Mathiesen". Early Music History, Vol. 4 (1984), pp. 375-380.
Ancient Greek musicologists
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235972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Araya | Tom Araya | Tomás Enrique Araya Díaz (; born June 6, 1961) is a Chilean American musician, best known as the vocalist and bassist of American thrash metal band Slayer. Araya is ranked 58th by Hit Parader on their list of the 100 Greatest Metal Vocalists of All Time.
Araya was employed as a respiratory therapist in the early 1980s and used his earnings to finance Slayer's debut album Show No Mercy (1983). Much of Araya's lyrical content is about serial killers, a subject he finds interesting; his first credited lyrical contribution was the vampire-themed track "At Dawn They Sleep" from 1985's Hell Awaits.
Early life and career
Tomás Enrique Araya Diaz was born in Viña del Mar, Chile, but his family moved to the US when he was five. He grew up in Los Angeles. His older brother, Cisco, played guitar. This inspired Araya to pick up bass at age eight. The two played Beatles and Rolling Stones songs, which he would later cite as an influence on his own music.
In the early 1980s, Araya's eldest sister suggested he enroll in a program to become certified as a respiratory therapist. Araya's father insisted he either find a job or enroll in the course. Araya enrolled in a two-year technical course, learning about air mixture ratios, drawing blood, and how to intubate.
In 1981, Araya was approached by Kerry King, who asked Araya to join his band, Slayer. Araya accepted, using his earnings as a respiratory therapist to finance the band's 1983 debut album Show No Mercy. Araya requested time off of work from his employer, the Brotman Medical Center, for Slayer's first European tour in 1984 and was denied; We need you to come in today.' They'd call me at 5:00 in the morning and wake me, 'Someone's not coming in, we need you to come in to work. After a month of sporadic attendance, his employers threatened termination; Araya replied "Well, I guess I'm fired." Along with King, Araya was one of the two original members to remain in Slayer for the entire length of the band's career, from 1981 to 2019.
In 2006, Araya underwent gallbladder surgery, which disrupted The Unholy Alliance tour. Originally set to launch on June 6, the tour was postponed to June 13. Araya was also unable to finish the vocals for a song entitled "Final Six", which was to be included on Slayer's 2006 album Christ Illusion; later released on the special edition of the album. Araya brought his children on the tour stating "it's kind of cool to expose them at such a young age. My first concert, I was, like, 17."
"We [Slayer] have been fortunate- fortunate enough to have lasted as long as we have because a lot of bands don't last that long."
On January 7, 2010, Slayer announced on its official website that back surgery had been scheduled for Araya and that the planned tour would be canceled through April of that year. The site assured fans, "Slayer camp working hard to reschedule dates for later this year." Araya is known for his aggressive headbanging and began experiencing back problems while the band was on tour in Australia/New Zealand/Japan in October 2009. He had an anterior cervical discectomy and fusion. "The surgeon opened up my throat from the front", he explained. "Apparently it's easier that way. They pushed my oesophagus over to one side and did the repair work. It seems to have done the trick but I can't headbang anymore." As a result of his surgery, Araya has significantly tempered his once aggressive on-stage movement and headbanging; now remaining relatively still during performances.
On March 12, 2010, Metal Hammer magazine published an interview with Slayer's Dave Lombardo about Araya's recovery. Lombardo stated, "He's recovering extremely quickly and really well. He is just moving forward and doing all the treatments and post operation stuff that he has to go through. He's doing good."
On May 20, 2010, Slayer confirmed that they would play two songs on TV for Jimmy Kimmel Live!
On June 3, 2011, Araya received the keys to the city of his birth, Viña del Mar.
In 2014, Araya made a cameo in the heavy metal horror film Hairmetal Shotgun Zombie Massacre: The Movie, directed by Joshua Allan Vargas.
From May 2018 to November 2019, with the last show being in their hometown Los Angeles, Slayer embarked on what they called their final world tour and eventually dissolved.
Lyrics
Araya's interest in serial killers serves as inspiration for many of his lyrics, including the songs titled "213" about Jeffrey Dahmer and "Dead Skin Mask" about Ed Gein. "I'm trying to see where these guys are coming from so maybe I'll understand. It's always kind of intrigued me…"
Araya wrote the lyrics for the Grammy Award-winning song "Eyes of the Insane" from Slayer's 2006 album Christ Illusion. The lyrics were inspired by an article in the Texas Monthly about the casualties of war and the experiences of soldiers coping with physical and psychological trauma. Araya stated, "At points in their tour of Iraq, they need help and the military tends to ignore that, they kind of brush it under the mat and hopes it goes away. They try to make everything seem hunky dory and fine and dandy, when in actuality there is a lot of stuff going on that people can't handle. There's a lot of soldiers coming home with mental anguish. And the sad part is, we heard about post-traumatic stress after Vietnam and the first Gulf War and the military seems to want to wipe the slate clean with every new war."
Personal life
Araya has a brother, Juan "Johnny" Araya, who currently plays bass in the melodic death metal band Thine Eyes Bleed. He has also occasionally worked as a roadie for Slayer.
Araya resides in Buffalo, Texas, where he owns a ranch with his wife Sandra Araya and two children, daughter Ariel Asa Araya (b. 1996) and son Tomas Enrique Araya Jr. (b. 1998). He and his wife run a family ranch that includes 60+ head of cattle among other ranch animals. Araya reports that he sings country songs to help keep his "singing chops up". Araya and his wife enjoy horror films such as The Amityville Horror and The Texas Chain Saw Massacre. The two allowed their children to watch horror films, but made it clear to them that it is just a movie when they asked "Is this real?" His children were homeschooled.
Araya suffers from sleep apnea and uses a CPAP machine regularly at home and on tour.
Religion
Araya is a practicing Roman Catholic. In an interview, he expressed his belief that "…Christ came and taught us about love, about doing unto others. That was his preach: Accept each other for who we are. Live peacefully, and love one another." When asked if he believed in God, he replied "I believe in a supreme being, yeah. But He's an all-loving God." Araya explained that he has a "really strong belief system", and Slayer's images and words will "never interfere with what I believe and how I feel… People are not in good shape to where they have to question their own belief system because of a book or a story somebody wrote, or a Slayer song."
Araya commented about the misconception of the band labeled as Satan worshippers, "Yeah, yeah I think that's one of the biggest misconceptions towards the band, but next to that just the fact that we're normal." If guitarist King writes a good song, Araya puts his beliefs aside, "I'm not one that's going to go, 'This sucks because it's contrary to my beliefs.' To me it's more like 'This is really good stuff. You're going to piss people off with this.
In 2016, Araya further explained that the main reason Slayer used satanic imagery was to scare people, in particular, the "Hollywood people", wanting to separate themselves from the "androgynous Sunset Strip metal scene of the 1980s".
Guest appearances
Dirt with Alice in Chains (1992)
Primitive with Soulfly (2000)
Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three with Rollins Band (2002)
Hairmetal Shotgun Zombie Massacre: The Movie (2014)
Equipment
Araya endorses Marshall amplifiers and ESP guitars which are currently marketing Tom Araya signature bass guitars. He was one of the first bassists to have a signature ESP bass series.
ESP – Tom Araya signature bass
B.C. Rich bass guitars
Fender Precision Bass (seen in early photos of Slayer live performances)
EMG pickups
Bartolini pickups
Dunlop strings 50-110 (heavy, stainless steel)
D'Addario Picks and straps (he used his fingers before 1988's South of Heaven)
Marshall VBA400
Marshall 8x10 cabinet
References
External links
1961 births
Living people
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American singers
American heavy metal bass guitarists
American heavy metal singers
American male bass guitarists
American Roman Catholics
American male singer-songwriters
Catholics from California
Catholics from Texas
Chilean emigrants to the United States
Chilean people of Basque descent
Chilean people of Spanish descent
Chilean people of Peruvian descent
Chilean Roman Catholics
Chilean singer-songwriters
Guitarists from Los Angeles
Hispanic and Latino American musicians
Musicians from Los Angeles County, California
People from Buffalo, Texas
People from Maywood, California
People from South Gate, California
People from Viña del Mar
Slayer members
Thrash metal musicians
Singer-songwriters from California
Singer-songwriters from Texas | [
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235980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcopterygii | Sarcopterygii | Sarcopterygii (; ) — sometimes considered synonymous with Crossopterygii () — is a taxon (traditionally a class or subclass) of the bony fishes whose members are known as lobe-finned fishes. The group Tetrapoda, a superclass including amphibians, reptiles (including dinosaurs and therefore birds), and mammals, evolved from certain sarcopterygians; under a cladistic view, tetrapods are themselves considered a group within Sarcopterygii.
The known living non-tetrapod sarcopterygians include two species of coelacanths and six species of lungfishes.
Characteristics
Early lobe-finned fishes are bony fish with fleshy, lobed, paired fins, which are joined to the body by a single bone. The fins of lobe-finned fishes differ from those of all other fish in that each is borne on a fleshy, lobelike, scaly stalk extending from the body. The scales of sarcopterygians are true scaloids, consisting of lamellar bone surrounded by layers of vascular bone, dentine-like cosmine, and external keratin. The morphology of tetrapodomorphs, fish that are similar-looking to tetrapods, give indications of the transition from water to terrestrial life. Pectoral and pelvic fins have articulations resembling those of tetrapod limbs. The first tetrapod land vertebrates, basal amphibian organisms, possessed legs derived from these fins. Sarcopterygians also possess two dorsal fins with separate bases, as opposed to the single dorsal fin of actinopterygians (ray-finned fish). The braincase of sarcopterygians primitively has a hinge line, but this is lost in tetrapods and lungfish. Many early sarcopterygians have a symmetrical tail. All sarcopterygians possess teeth covered with true enamel.
Most species of lobe-finned fishes are extinct. The largest known lobe-finned fish was Rhizodus hibberti from the Carboniferous period of Scotland which may have exceeded 7 meters in length. Among the two groups of extant (living) species, the coelacanths and the lungfishes, the largest species is the West Indian Ocean coelacanth, reaching in length and weighing up . The largest lungfish is the African lungfish which can reach 2 m (6.6 ft) in length and weigh up to .
Classification
Taxonomists who subscribe to the cladistic approach include the grouping Tetrapoda within this group, which in turn consists of all species of four-limbed vertebrates. The fin-limbs of lobe-finned fishes such as the coelacanths show a strong similarity to the expected ancestral form of tetrapod limbs. The lobe-finned fishes apparently followed two different lines of development and are accordingly separated into two subclasses, the Rhipidistia (including the Dipnoi, the lungfish, and the Tetrapodomorpha which include the Tetrapoda) and the Actinistia (coelacanths).
Taxonomy
The classification below follows Benton (2004), and uses a synthesis of rank-based Linnaean taxonomy and also reflects evolutionary relationships. Benton included the Superclass Tetrapoda in the Subclass Sarcopterygii in order to reflect the direct descent of tetrapods from lobe-finned fish, despite the former being assigned a higher taxonomic rank.
Subclass Sarcopterygii
†Order Onychodontida
Order Actinistia
Infraclass Dipnomorpha
†Order Porolepiformes
Subclass Dipnoi
Order Ceratodontiformes
Order Lepidosireniformes
Infraclass Tetrapodomorpha
†Order Rhizodontida
Superorder Osteolepidida
†Order Osteolepiformes
†Family Tristichopteridae
†Order Panderichthyida
Superclass Tetrapoda
Phylogeny
The cladogram presented below is based on studies compiled by Janvier et al. (1997) for the Tree of Life Web Project, Mikko's Phylogeny Archive and Swartz (2012).
Sarcopterygii incertae sedis
†Guiyu oneiros Zhu et al., 2009
†Diabolepis speratus (Chang & Yu, 1984)
†Langdenia campylognatha Janvier & Phuong, 1999
†Ligulalepis Schultze, 1968
†Meemannia eos Zhu, Yu, Wang, Zhao & Jia, 2006
†Psarolepis romeri Yu 1998 sensu Zhu, Yu, Wang, Zhao & Jia, 2006
†Megamastax ambylodus Choo, Zhu, Zhao, Jia, & Zhu, 2014
†Sparalepis tingi Choo, Zhu, Qu, Yu, Jia & Zhaoh, 2017
paraphyletic Osteolepida incertae sedis|
†Bogdanovia orientalis Obrucheva 1955 [has been treated as Coelacanthinimorph sarcopterygian]
†Canningius groenlandicus Säve-Söderbergh, 1937
†Chrysolepis
†Geiserolepis
†Latvius
†L. grewingki (Gross, 1933)
†L. porosus Jarvik, 1948
†L. obrutus Vorobyeva, 1977
†Lohsania utahensis Vaughn, 1962
†Megadonichthys kurikae Vorobyeva, 1962
†Platyethmoidia antarctica Young, Long & Ritchie, 1992
†Shirolepis ananjevi Vorobeva, 1977
†Sterropterygion brandei Thomson, 1972
†Thaumatolepis edelsteini Obruchev, 1941
†Thysanolepis micans Vorobyeva, 1977
†Vorobjevaia dolonodon Young, Long & Ritchie, 1992
paraphyletic Elpistostegalia/Panderichthyida incertae sedis
†Parapanderichthys stolbovi (Vorobyeva, 1960) Vorobyeva, 1992
†Howittichthys warrenae Long & Holland, 2008
†Livoniana multidentata Ahlberg, Luksevic & Mark-Kurik, 2000
Stegocephalia incertae sedis
†Antlerpeton clarkii Thomson, Shubin & Poole, 1998
†Austrobrachyops jenseni Colbert & Cosgriff, 1974
†Broilisaurus raniceps (Goldenberg, 1873) Kuhn, 1938
†Densignathus rowei Daeschler, 2000
†Doragnathus woodi Smithson, 1980
†Jakubsonia livnensis Lebedev, 2004
†Limnerpeton dubium Fritsch, 1901 (nomen dubium)
†Limnosceloides Romer, 1952
†L. dunkardensis Romer, 1952 (Type)
†L. brahycoles Langston, 1966
†Occidens portlocki Clack & Ahlberg, 2004
†Ossinodus puerorum emend Warren & Turner, 2004
†Romeriscus periallus Baird & Carroll, 1968
†Sigournea multidentata Bolt & Lombard, 2006
†Sinostega pani Zhu et al., 2002
†Ymeria denticulata Clack et al., 2012
Evolution
Lobe-finned fishes (sarcopterygians) and their relatives the ray-finned fishes (actinopterygians) comprise the superclass of bony fishes (Osteichthyes) characterized by their bony skeleton rather than cartilage. There are otherwise vast differences in fin, respiratory, and circulatory structures between the Sarcopterygii and the Actinopterygii, such as the presence of cosmoid layers in the scales of sarcopterygians. The earliest fossils of sarcopterygians were found in the uppermost Silurian, about 418 Ma (million years ago). They closely resembled the acanthodians (the "spiny fish", a taxon that became extinct at the end of the Paleozoic). In the early–middle Devonian (416–385 Ma), while the predatory placoderms dominated the seas, some sarcopterygians came into freshwater habitats.
In the Early Devonian (416–397 Ma), the sarcopterygians split into two main lineages: the coelacanths and the rhipidistians. Coelacanths never left the oceans and their heyday was the late Devonian and Carboniferous, from 385 to 299 Ma, as they were more common during those periods than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Coelacanths of the genus Latimeria still live today in the open (pelagic) oceans.
The Rhipidistians, whose ancestors probably lived in the oceans near the river mouths (estuaries), left the ocean world and migrated into freshwater habitats. In turn, they split into two major groups: lungfish and the tetrapodomorphs. Lungfish radiated into their greatest diversity during the Triassic period; today fewer than a dozen genera remain. They evolved the first proto-lungs and proto-limbs, adapting to living outside a submerged water environment by the middle Devonian (397–385 Ma).
Hypotheses for means of pre-adaption
There are three major hypotheses as to how lungfish evolved their stubby fins (proto-limbs).
Shrinking waterhole The first, traditional explanation is the "shrinking waterhole hypothesis", or "desert hypothesis", posited by the American paleontologist Alfred Romer, who believed that limbs and lungs may have evolved from the necessity of having to find new bodies of water as old waterholes dried up.
Inter-tidal adaption Niedźwiedzki, Szrek, Narkiewicz, et al. (2010) proposed a second, the "inter-tidal hypothesis": That sarcopterygians may have first emerged unto land from intertidal zones rather than inland bodies of water, based on the discovery of the 395 million-year-old Zachełmie tracks in Zachełmie, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, Poland, the oldest discovered fossil evidence of tetrapods.
Woodland swamp adaption Retallack (2011) proposed a third hypothesis is dubbed the "woodland hypothesis": Retallack argues that limbs may have developed in shallow bodies of water, in woodlands, as a means of navigating in environments filled with roots and vegetation. He based his conclusions on the evidence that transitional tetrapod fossils are consistently found in habitats that were formerly humid and wooded floodplains.
Habitual escape onto land A fourth, minority hypothesis posits that advancing onto land achieved more safety from predators, less competition for prey, and certain environmental advantages not found in water—such as oxygen concentration, and temperature control — implying that organisms developing limbs were also adapting to spending some of their time out of water. However, studies have found that sarcopterygians developed tetrapod-like limbs suitable for walking well before venturing onto land. This suggests they adapted to walking on the ground-bed under water before they advanced onto dry land.
History through to the end-Permian extinction
The first tetrapodomorphs, which included the gigantic rhizodonts, had the same general anatomy as the lungfish, who were their closest kin, but they appear not to have left their water habitat until the late Devonian epoch (385–359 Ma), with the appearance of tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates). Tetrapods are the only tetrapodomorphs which survived after the Devonian.
Non-tetrapod sarcopterygians continued until towards the end of Paleozoic era, suffering heavy losses during the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251 Ma).
See also
List of sarcopterygian genera
Cladistic Classification of Class Sarcopterygii
Footnotes
References
Fish classes
Silurian bony fish
Extant Silurian first appearances
Pridoli first appearances
Taxa described in 1955
Taxa named by Alfred Romer | [
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