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235306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Byrne | Gabriel Byrne | Gabriel James Byrne (born 12 May 1950) is an Irish actor, film director, film producer, screenwriter, audiobook narrator, and author. His acting career began in the Focus Theatre before he joined London's Royal Court Theatre in 1979. Byrne's screen debut came in the Irish drama serial The Riordans and the spin-off show Bracken.
He has starred in more than 70 films for some of cinema's best known directors. For his Broadway work, he has received three Tony nominations for roles in the work of Eugene O'Neill as well as the Outer Critics Circle Award for A Touch of the Poet. For his television work, Byrne has been nominated for three Emmys. For his performance in HBO's American drama In Treatment (2008–2010) in the role of Paul Weston, one of his most identifiable roles, he won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for two Emmy Awards and two Satellite Awards.
He has starred in many films, including: Excalibur (1981), Miller's Crossing (1990), The Usual Suspects (1995), Stigmata (1999), End of Days (1999), Spider (2002), Jindabyne (2006), Vampire Academy (2014), The 33 (2015), and Hereditary (2018), and co-wrote The Last of the High Kings (1996). Byrne has also produced several films, including the Academy Award–nominated In the Name of the Father (1993). Since 2019, he has starred in a TV series adaptation of War of the Worlds.
In 2018, Byrne was awarded the Irish Film and Television Academy Lifetime Achievement Award for his contribution to Irish cinema. In 2020, he was listed at number 17 on The Irish Times list of Ireland's greatest film actors.
Early life
Gabriel Byrne was born in Walkinstown, Dublin, Ireland, the son of devoutly Roman Catholic parents. His father Dan was a soldier and cooper, while his mother Eileen (née Gannon), from Elphin, County Roscommon, was a hospital nurse. He has five younger siblings: Donal, Thomas, Breda, Margaret, and a sister who died at an early age, Marian.
Byrne attended Ardscoil Éanna in Crumlin, where he later taught Spanish and history. About his early training to become a priest, he said in an interview, "I spent five years in the seminary and I suppose it was assumed that one had a vocation. I realised subsequently that I didn't." He attended University College Dublin, where he studied archaeology and linguistics, becoming proficient in Irish.
He played football in Dublin with Stella Maris.
In January 2011, he spoke in an interview on The Meaning of Life about being sexually abused by priests during his childhood.
Career
Byrne worked in archaeology when he left UCD. He maintained his love of his language, later writing the first television drama in Irish, Draíocht, on Ireland's national Irish-language television station, TG4, when it began broadcasting in 1996.
Before becoming an actor, Byrne had many jobs, including archaeologist, cook, and Spanish and history school teacher at Ardscoil Éanna in Crumlin. He started acting at age 29, and began his career on stage with the Focus Theatre and the Abbey Theatre in Dublin. He later joined the Performing Arts Course at Roslyn Park College in Sandymount. He came to prominence on the final season of the Irish television show The Riordans, subsequently starring in his own spin-off series, Bracken. His first play for television was Michael Feeney Callan's Love Is ... (RTÉ). He made his film debut in 1981, as King Uther Pendragon in John Boorman's King Arthur epic, Excalibur.
In 1983, he appeared with Richard Burton in the miniseries Wagner, co-starring Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson. In 1985, he starred in the acclaimed political thriller Defence of the Realm, though he subsequently claimed he had been upstaged by his co-star, veteran actor Denholm Elliott: "I amended the actor's cliché to 'Never work with children, animals or Denholm Elliott'." In the 90s, his production company Plurabelle Films received a first look deal with Phoenix Pictures.
In 2007, he led the jury of the Kerry Film Festival.
Upon his return to theatre in 2008, he appeared as King Arthur in Camelot with the New York Philharmonic from 7 to 10 May, following the footsteps of veteran actors Richard Burton and Richard Harris. Byrne was cast in a film adaptation of Flann O'Brien's metafictional novel At Swim-Two-Birds, alongside Colin Farrell and Cillian Murphy. Actor Brendan Gleeson was set to direct the film. In October 2009, however, Gleeson expressed fear that, should the Irish Film Board be abolished as planned by the Irish State, the production might fall through.
Byrne starred as therapist Paul Weston in the HBO series In Treatment from 2008 to 2010. He was named as TV's "latest Dr. McDreamy" by The New York Times for this role, and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. He also received his first Emmy Award nomination (Best Lead Actor in a Drama Series) for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards that same year.
In 2011, he signed up to appear in a film by director Costa Gavras, Le Capital, an adaptation of Stéphane Osmont's novel of the same name. In 2013, he starred as Earl Haraldson in the first season of Vikings opposite Travis Fimmel and Clive Standen.
In 2017, he appeared in Mad to Be Normal (previously titled Metanoia), a biopic of the Scottish psychiatrist R. D. Laing, produced by Gizmo Films.
Personal life
Byrne had a 12-year relationship with television producer and presenter Aine O'Connor, from 1974 to 1986.
He began a relationship with actress Ellen Barkin, and relocated to Manhattan to be with her. A year later, in 1988, he married Barkin, with whom he has two children, John "Jack" Daniel (born 1989) and Romy Marion (born 1992). The couple separated amicably in 1993, and divorced in 1999.
At the fifth Jameson Dublin International Film Festival in 2007, Byrne was presented with the first of the newly created Volta awards, for lifetime achievement in acting. He received the Honorary Patronage of the University Philosophical Society, of Trinity College Dublin on 20 February 2007. In November 2007, he was awarded an honorary degree by the National University of Ireland, Galway; the president of the university, Iognáid Ó Muircheartaigh, said that the award was in recognition of the actor's "outstanding contribution to Irish and international film".
Although Byrne is noted as a fiercely private person, he released a documentary for the 20th Galway Film Fleadh in the summer of 2008 called Stories from Home, an intimate portrait about his life. It premiered in the United States in September 2009 at the Los Angeles Irish Film Festival.
Byrne mentioned in interviews and his 1994 autobiography, Pictures in My Head that he hates being called "brooding". He has been listed by People as one of the "Sexiest Men Alive". Entertainment Weekly has also dubbed Byrne as one of the hottest celebrities over the age of 50.
He married his partner, Hannah Beth King, on 4 August 2014 at Ballymaloe House in County Cork. Their daughter, Maisie James, was born in February 2017. As of 2021, Byrne lives with his family in Rockport, Maine.
Byrne is an atheist, and has been vocally critical of the Catholic Church, which he described in a 2011 interview with The Guardian as "repressive of women and minorities and repressive of its followers." However, in the same interview, he said that he still reads the Bible "for the fables".
He was cultural ambassador for Ireland until he criticised The Gathering, a tourism initiative to encourage tourists of Irish heritage to visit the country, describing it as "a scam" and adding that the majority of Irish people "don't give a shit about the diaspora except to shake them down for a few quid." Byrne also criticised the marketing strategy employed by Guinness known as Arthur's Day as "a cynical piece of exercise in a country which has a huge drinking problem."
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
Awards and nominations
Honours
In 2007, NUI Galway awarded him an honorary doctorate for his outstanding contribution to Irish and international film, theatre and the arts.
Books
References
Further reading
External links
Gabriel Byrne profile, artforamnesty.org; accessed 11 August 2017
Gabriel Byrne video interview, jewreview.net; accessed 11 August 2017
Gabriel Byrne discusses his role on In Treatment, npr.org, 30 May 2009
Gabriel Byrne tells of childhood sexual abuse, Guardian.co.uk, 19 January 2010
1950 births
Living people
21st-century Irish male actors
20th-century Irish male actors
Association footballers not categorized by position
Audiobook narrators
Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (television) winners
Former Roman Catholics
Irish emigrants to the United States
Irish film producers
Irish male film actors
Irish male soap opera actors
Irish male television actors
Irish male voice actors
Irish male writers
Irish male screenwriters
Jacob's Award winners
Male actors from Dublin (city)
Film people from Dublin (city)
Stella Maris F.C. players
Irish atheists
Irish former Christians
Critics of the Catholic Church
Theatre World Award winners
Association football players not categorized by nationality | [
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235307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia%20Cardinale | Claudia Cardinale | Claude Joséphine Rose "Claudia" Cardinale (; born 15 April 1938) is an Italian film actress. She has starred in several acclaimed European films of the 1960s and 1970s, acting in Italian, French, and English-language films.
Born and raised in La Goulette, a neighbourhood of Tunis, Cardinale won the "Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia" competition in 1957, the prize being a trip to Italy, which quickly led to film contracts, due above all to the involvement of Franco Cristaldi, who acted as her mentor for a number of years and later married her. After making her debut in a minor role with Omar Sharif in Goha (1958), Cardinale became one of the best-known actresses in Italy with roles in films such as Rocco and His Brothers (1960), Girl with a Suitcase (1961), Cartouche (1962), The Leopard (1963), and Fellini's 8½ (1963). From 1963, Cardinale became known in the United States and Britain following her role in The Pink Panther opposite David Niven. For several years, she appeared in Hollywood films such as Blindfold (1965), Lost Command (1966), The Professionals (1966), Don't Make Waves (1967) with Tony Curtis, The Hell with Heroes (1968), and the Sergio Leone epic Western Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), a joint US-Italian production, in which she was praised for her role as a former prostitute opposite Jason Robards, Charles Bronson, and Henry Fonda.
Jaded with the Hollywood film industry and not wanting to become a cliché, Cardinale returned to Italian and French cinema, and garnered the David di Donatello for Best Actress award for her roles in Il giorno della civetta (1968) and as a prostitute alongside Alberto Sordi in A Girl in Australia (1971). In 1974, Cardinale met director Pasquale Squitieri, who would become her partner, and she frequently featured in his films, including I guappi (1974), Corleone (1978) and Claretta (1984), the last of which won her the Nastro d'Argento Award for Best Actress. In 1982, she starred in Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo as the love interest of Klaus Kinski, who raises the funds to buy a steamship in Peru. In 2010, Cardinale received the Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya "Golden Orange" International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica.
Outspoken on women's rights causes over the years, Cardinale has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defense of Women's Rights since March 2000. In February 2011, the Los Angeles Times Magazine named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history.
Early life
Claudia Cardinale was born Claude Joséphine Rose Cardinale in La Goulette, a neighbourhood of Tunis, French Tunisia, on 15 April 1938. Her mother, Yolande Greco, was born in Tunisia to Sicilian emigrants from Trapani. Her maternal grandparents had a small shipbuilding firm in Trapani, but later settled in La Goulette, where a large Italian community existed. Her father, Francesco Cardinale, was a railway worker, born in Gela, Sicily. Her native languages were French, Tunisian Arabic, and the Sicilian language of her parents. She did not learn to speak Italian until she had already begun to be cast for Italian films.
Cardinale was educated at the Saint-Joseph-de-l'Apparition school of Carthage, which she attended along with her younger sister Blanche. She then studied at the Paul Cambon School, where she graduated with the intention of becoming a teacher. As a teenager, she was described as "silent, weird, and wild", and like other girls of her generation, was fascinated by Brigitte Bardot, who came to prominence in the 1956 film And God Created Woman, directed by Roger Vadim.
Career
1950s
Cardinale's first film work was participating, along with classmates, in a short film by French director René Vautier, Anneaux d'or, successfully presented at the Berlin Film Festival. The film made her a minor local celebrity, and led to her being spotted by Jacques Baratier, who offered her a minor role in Goha. She accepted it reluctantly after Baratier explained he wanted a Tunisian actress rather than an Italian to star in the main role opposite the Egyptian actor Omar Sharif. The appearance nonetheless marked her feature-film debut. The turning point came in 1957 during the Italian Cinema Week in Tunis, when she won a competition for the "Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia", with a trip to the Venice Film Festival as first prize. After being spotted by several film producers at the event, she was invited to study at the Experimental Cinematography Center in Rome under Tina Lattanzi. She attended briefly as, despite her extremely photogenic looks, she had trouble with her acting assignments (partly owing to her difficulties with the Italian language). She left at the end of her first term and decided to return home, earning herself a cover story in the popular weekly Epoca triggered by her unexpected decision to turn her back on a career as a film star.
Back in Tunis, however, Cardinale discovered unexpectedly that she was pregnant, the result of what she later described as a "terrible" relationship with a Frenchman, some 10 years her senior, which began when she was only 17 and lasted for about a year. On this discovery, he wanted her to have an abortion, but she decided to keep the child. She solved her problems by signing a seven-year exclusive contract with Franco Cristaldi's production company Vides. Cristaldi largely managed her early career, and she was married to him from 1966 until 1975.
Under the new contract, in 1958, Cardinale was given a minor role with leading Italian actors Vittorio Gassman, Totò, Marcello Mastroianni, and Renato Salvatori in Mario Monicelli's internationally successful criminal comedy Big Deal on Madonna Street (I soliti ignoti). She portrayed Carmelita, a Sicilian girl virtually imprisoned in her home by her overpowering brother. The comedy was a huge success, making Cardinale instantly recognizable. Some newspapers were already referring to her as "la fidanzata d'Italia" (Italy's sweetheart). Later that year, she had a leading role opposite Yvonne Monlaur in Claudio Gora's romantic comedy Three Strangers in Rome.
Although she worked well into her seventh month, Cardinale's pregnancy was kept a tight secret. Tormented by thoughts of suicide, she fell into a state of depression. When she thought she could no longer hide her condition, she asked Cristaldi to terminate her contract. Understanding her predicament, he sent her to London for the birth, far away from the press. He simply explained that she had gone to England to learn English for a film. Cristaldi told Cardinale not to reveal her condition as she would be betraying the public and it would put an end to her career. So as to maintain the secret, he drew up a detailed American-style contract covering every little detail of her life, depriving her of any possibility of acting on her own behalf. Cardinale explained: "I was no longer master of my own body or thoughts. Even talking with a friend about anything that could make me look different from my public image was risky, as if it had been publicized, I would have been in trouble. Everything was in the hands of Vides". For seven years, Cardinale kept her secret, not only from the public but also from her own son, Patrick, who grew up in the family with her parents and sister more or less as a brother until the day Enzo Biagi, a journalist, discovered the truth. After Cardinale decided to tell him everything, he published her story in Oggi and L'Europeo.
In 1959, she appeared opposite Salvatori in the mafia film Vento del sud, and played the wife of Maurizio Arena in Luigi Zampa's Il magistrato. Cardinale also starred opposite Pietro Germi in his crime film The Facts of Murder, an important assignment for her in mastering the craft of acting while learning to feel at ease in front of the camera. Cardinale considered it to have been her first real test as an actress. She then played the role of Maria in Ralph Thomas's British film Upstairs and Downstairs, which starred Michael Craig and Anne Heywood. In her early roles, she was usually dubbed, as producers considered her voice too hoarse.
1960s
In 1960, Cardinale starred opposite Marcello Mastroianni in Mauro Bolognini's Golden Leopard-winning drama film Il bell'Antonio. The film marked the start of a fruitful partnership. Cardinale stated that her films with Bolognini were among the most joyful of her career, considering him to be "a great director, a man of rare professional capability, great taste and culture. Beyond that, for me personally, a sensitive and sincere friend."
In Bolognini's films, thanks to her aesthetic femininity, Cardinale took roles of manipulative women who lead men to perdition. During the filming of Il bell'Antonio, her co-star Marcello Mastroianni fell in love with her, but she rejected him, as she did not take his love seriously, considering him to be one of those actors who cannot help but fall in love with their co-stars. Mastroianni insisted that his feelings were genuine, even after many years. The genuine empathy between the two actors proved to be ideal for reproducing the tension between the characters in the film. Cardinale next portrayed Pauline Bonaparte in Abel Gance's French film Napoleone ad Austerlitz, and after appearing opposite Gassman and Salvatori in the sequel to Big Deal on Madonna Street, Audace colpo dei soliti ignoti, she portrayed Ginetta, the fiancée of Spiros Focás, alongside Salvatori and Alain Delon in Luchino Visconti's critically acclaimed Rocco and His Brothers. However, her leading performance in Francesco Maselli's Silver Spoon Set gained her most attention during this period. Francesco Freda felt the film paved her way "to great success", noting the "sweetness of her smile" which struck a chord with the public.
In 1961, Cardinale portrayed a sultry nightclub singer and young mother in Valerio Zurlini's Girl with a Suitcase. As a result of her own experience of early motherhood, Cardinale naturally conveyed the concerns of a teenaged mother, identifying fully with the character of Aida. Such was her psychological involvement that she needed several months to overcome her apprehensions and prepare for the part. Zurlini chose her for such a difficult role against everyone's advice, as she was not yet considered a "real" actress, nor was she (yet) one of the most celebrated Italian beauties. However, he was very close and supportive of Cardinale during the production, and a true friendship developed between the two, based on a deep mutual understanding. Cardinale remarked: "Zurlini was one of those who really love women: he had an almost feminine sensitivity. He could understand me at a glance. He taught me everything, without ever making demands on me. ... He was really very fond of me." Cardinale was warmly praised by the critics for her performance in Girl with a Suitcase, Dennis Schwartz considering her to have been at her "charming best". Later in 1961, Cardinale starred as a prostitute opposite Jean-Paul Belmondo in Bolognini's La Viaccia. Both Girl with a Suitcase and La Viaccia were presented at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival. At the time, Cardinale was not considered comparable to the two divas of Italian cinema, Sophia Loren and Gina Lollobrigida, but several newspapers and magazines including Paris Match began to consider her to be a credible young rival to Brigitte Bardot. Cardinale's 1961 appearances also included Henri Verneuil's French comedy Les Lions sont lâchés, and Auguste in which she had a cameo role.
The following year, Cardinale starred opposite Jean-Paul Belmondo as Vénus in the 18th-century set adventure Cartouche, which made her a major star in France. She also played Angiolina, the romantic interest of Anthony Franciosa in Bolognini's Senilità, a character which film writer Jacek Klinowski describes as "a spirited and strikingly beautiful twenty-year-old". In 1962, Cardinale was interviewed by the writer Alberto Moravia, who focused exclusively on her sexuality and body image in films, treating her as an object. Cardinale remarked to him: "I used my body as a mask, as a representation of myself". The interview was published in Esquire under the title "The Next Goddess of Love". Cardinale was amused to discover that the interview had inspired the writer to publish La dea dell'amore ("Goddess of Love") the following year, in which one of the characters, with her fine physical appearance and natural curves, closely resembled Cardinale. Just a few years later, she played a similar character in a film based on another novel by Moravia, Time of Indifference.
The finest and most prolific year of her career was 1963, when she appeared in a number of leading productions. She starred alongside Burt Lancaster in Visconti's The Leopard (1963) (Il Gattopardo), portraying a village girl who married a progressive young aristocrat (Alain Delon), and played a film actress cast by a director (Marcello Mastroianni) in Federico Fellini's 8½. Both films were critically acclaimed and are often cited by critics and scholars as among the greatest films ever made. She participated in the two films during exactly the same period, frequently moving from one to the other and experiencing the strictly planned approach of Visconti which contrasted strongly with Fellini's much more relaxed style and his almost total reliance on improvisation. Cardinale remembered Visconti's set as having an almost religious atmosphere, everything focused on the film, far removed the outside world. Visconti needed silence for his work while Fellini preferred noise and confusion.
Prior to this period, Cardinale's own voice had not been used in her Italian films, as it was considered too hoarse, and owing to her French accent, insufficiently Italian. Not until 8½ was she allowed to use her own voice. Cardinale explained: "When I arrived for my first movie, I couldn't speak a word. I thought I was on the moon. I couldn't understand what they were talking about. And I was speaking in French; in fact I was dubbed. And Federico Fellini was the first one who used my voice. I think I had a very strange voice." With her portrayal of Angelica in The Leopard and her brief appearance as herself in 8½, Cardinale achieved the definitive status of a top-ranking star.
The same year, Cardinale starred as Mara in La ragazza di Bube or Bebo's Girl, in which she also used her own voice. For her performance in the film, she received her first Nastro d'Argento for Best Actress in 1965. Cardinale acted in her first American film (although it was produced in Italy) when she played Princess Dala, a wealthy aristocratic woman who is the love and jewellery interest of David Niven in the Cortina d'Ampezzo-set The Pink Panther. Cardinale's voice in the film was dubbed by Gale Garnett, who went uncredited. Niven raved about working with the actress, telling her, "After spaghetti, you're Italy's happiest invention."
In 1964, Cardinale starred alongside Rod Steiger and Shelley Winters in Francesco Maselli's Italian-made Time of Indifference. Thereafter, she spent three years in the United States, where she starred in several Hollywood films. She told of how she benefited from the arrangement, explaining it was an American initiative at a time when they invited all the successful European actresses to perform in their pictures, hoping to create a monopoly. Many suffered from the experience, but she was able to hold her own: "I took care of my own interests, blankly refusing to sign an exclusive contract with Universal Studios. I only signed for individual films. In the end, everything worked out fine for me.
She first starred in the Henry Hathaway's Hollywood picture Circus World (1964) opposite John Wayne and Rita Hayworth, playing the daughter of Hayworth, who performs with her as a mother-daughter circus act. By the end of the decade, she had returned to making films primarily in Italy, accepting a pay cut, turning her back on Hollywood stardom. Cardinale has further said, "I don't like the star system. I'm a normal person. I like to live in Europe. I mean, I've been going to Hollywood many, many times, but I didn't want to sign a contract." Film writer David Simpson notes that as a result, "Cardinale never achieved the same level of fame as Loren and Gina Lollobrigida", although she appeared in a higher number of decent films.
In 1964, she also played the lead role in The Magnificent Cuckold, based on the Belgian play Le Cocu magnifique. She was at the height of her sensuality at the time, but later the film only brought back unpleasant memories for her as she experienced little empathy with the director Antonio Pietrangeli, while the male star Ugo Tognazzi tried to seduce her. In 1965, Cardinale appeared in Visconti's Vaghe stelle dell'Orsa, known as Sandra (Of a Thousand Delights) in the US and Of These Thousand Pleasures in the UK, playing a Holocaust survivor who may have had an incestuous relationship with her brother. Later that year, she starred opposite Rock Hudson in Universal Pictures's Blindfold, the last film to be directed by Philip Dunne. Filming began on 22 February 1965 on location in Ocala, Florida. Diane Bond doubled for Cardinale in the film. Cardinale became good friends with Hudson, who proved to be very protective of her, knowing her discomfort outside of Italy. While in Hollywood, Cardinale also became friends with Barbra Streisand, Elliott Gould, and Steve McQueen, but she never managed to feel at home there.
By 1966, Cardinale was being cited as the most popular film star in Italy, even more than Mastroianni and Loren. Life stated that "the Cardinale appeal is a blend of solid simplicity and radiant sensuality. It moves men all over the world to imagine her both as an exciting mistress and wife." However, following her success in Hollywood, she began to express concerns about the direction of her career. In a July 1966 interview with Life, she confessed her fear of being over-glamourized and exploited, like Sophia Loren, and although she had several further U.S. films lined up, stated: "If I have to give up the money, I give it up. I do not want to become a cliché."
In 1966, a photograph of Cardinale was featured in the original gatefold artwork to Bob Dylan's album Blonde on Blonde (1966), but it was used without Cardinale's permission and removed from later pressings. That year, she starred in Mark Robson's war picture Lost Command for Columbia Pictures opposite Anthony Quinn, Alain Delon, and George Segal. Quinn expressed his love of working with Cardinale, stating that although he adored Cardinale and Loren equally, "I relate easier to Claudia, Sophia creates an impression of something larger than life, something unobtainable. But Claudia – she's not easy, still she's within reach". She also played a Mexican marquessa in Richard Brooks' Western The Professionals, uniting her on screen once again with Burt Lancaster in what she considered to be her best American film. The following year, she appeared in Una rosa per tutti (A Rose for Everyone) and in Alexander Mackendrick's sex farce Don't Make Waves opposite Tony Curtis. Although occasional funny moments were noted, Don't Make Waves was generally panned by the critics and the lack of chemistry with co-star Curtis was highlighted. Leonard Maltin, though, described the film as "a gem".
At the beginning of 1967, Cristaldi joined her in the United States. While the two were staying in Atlanta, he surprised her by taking her to their wedding ceremony which he had arranged without her knowledge. She went ahead with the ceremony but was concerned about sacrificing the rights she had to her child Patrick. She also realized she was increasingly unable to make decisions about her own life. The marriage was never made official in Italy.
In 1968, Cardinale featured opposite Franco Nero in The Day of the Owl, in a David di Donatello for Best Actress-winning performance. She reunited with Rock Hudson in the Italian-made criminal comedy A Fine Pair under director Francesco Maselli. She also appeared alongside Rod Taylor in The Hell with Heroes and starred in one of her best-known roles as former prostitute Jill McBain in Sergio Leone's epic Western Once Upon a Time in the West. Such was the power of her performance as the whore that Leone's biographer Robert C. Cumbow described her as "permanently engraved in cinematic history" and noted how suited to the role she was: "Her sex-goddess appearance combines with her more mystical iconographic associations to ease the progress of Jill from tart to town builder, from harlot to earth mother, from sinner to symbol of America—the apotheosis of the harlot with a heart of gold." In 1969, Cardinale starred opposite Nino Manfredi in Luigi Magni's Nell'anno del Signore, based on the actual story of the capital execution of two carbonari in papal Rome. This was followed by a role as a telephone operator in Certo certissimo ... anzi probabile, and as a nurse opposite Sean Connery and Peter Finch in Mikhail Kalatozov's The Red Tent, based on the story of the mission to rescue Umberto Nobile and the other survivors of the crash of the Airship Italia.
1970s
In 1970, Cardinale starred opposite Peter McEnery and Eli Wallach in Jerzy Skolimowski's comedy film The Adventures of Gerard, based on The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard by Arthur Conan Doyle. In 1971, she formed a duo with Brigitte Bardot in the French Western-comedy The Legend of Frenchie King, and appeared as a prostitute opposite Alberto Sordi in Luigi Zampa's comedy A Girl in Australia. The film, shot on location in February and March 1971, earned Cardinale a Best Actress award at the David di Donatello Awards the following year. In 1972, Cardinale appeared in Marco Ferreri's L'udienza, which was screened at the 22nd Berlin International Film Festival. She also featured in La Scoumoune with Jean-Paul Belmondo and Michel Constantin. After a role as a Russian aristocrat opposite Oliver Reed in One Russian Summer (1973), set in prerevolutionary Russia, Cardinale starred opposite Franco Nero in I guappi (1974), a historical drama film with "poliziotteschi" and "noir" elements. Cardinale and the director Pasquale Squitieri met for the first time on set, and he soon became her husband.
In 1975, Cardinale played the daughter of a political exile (Adolfo Celi) in Mauro Bolognini's Libera, My Love, a character who becomes "increasingly incensed by the fascist government of Italy and makes a number of bold and very personal gestures against it". Later that year she appeared in the comedies The Immortal Bachelor with Vittorio Gassman and Qui comincia l'avventura with Monica Vitti. Vitti's biographer noted how Cardinale and Vitti stood out as the female duo in a predominantly masculine cast.
In 1976, Cardinale appeared in the sex comedy Il comune senso del pudore, which was directed and written by Alberto Sordi, who also co-starred. The following year, she had a biblical role as the adulteress in the Jesus of Nazareth miniseries, which featured Robert Powell as Jesus, Anne Bancroft as Mary Magdalene, and Ernest Borgnine as Cornelius the Centurion. Cardinale starred in her husband's Il prefetto di ferro, which tells the story of Cesare Mori (Giuliano Gemma), an Italian prefect that before and during the Fascist period was best known as "the Iron Prefect". The film shared the 1978 David di Donatello for Best Film award with In nome del Papa Re. In 1978, Cardinale appeared in Damiano Damiani's political thriller, Goodbye & Amen – L'uomo della CIA, and again featured alongside Gemma in her husband's gangster picture, Corleone, set in 1950s Sicily.
After a role in another Squitieri film in 1978, L'arma, Cardinale portrayed Eleana, a Greek "gutsy brothel madame" and the girlfriend of Telly Savalas in George P. Cosmatos's adventure war film, Escape to Athena (1979). The film, shot on location in Rhodes, was poorly received; it holds a 32% "rotten" rating on Rotten Tomatoes .
1980s
After a role in Si salvi chi vuole (1980), and a smaller part in Peter Zinner's The Salamander opposite Franco Nero, Anthony Quinn, and Christopher Lee, Cardinale played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in Liliana Cavani's war picture The Skin, a film which also reunited her with Burt Lancaster. The Skin was entered into the 1981 Cannes Film Festival. In 1982, Cardinale appeared in Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo, playing a successful brothel owner who funds Klaus Kinski's purchase of an old steamship in South America. The film, inspired by the story of Peruvian rubber baron Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald, was shot on location in Brazil and Peru. The film was critically acclaimed, with Vincent Canby of The New York Times calling it "a fine, quirky, fascinating movie" and a "stunning spectacle", comparing the dynamic between Kinski and Cardinale to Katharine Hepburn and Humphrey Bogart in John Huston's The African Queen. He pointed out that although Cardinale's screen time in the film was unfortunately not substantial, she set its comic tone; he praised the way she managed to turn Kinski, renowned for his volatile temperament and portrayals of megalomaniacs and criminals, into a "genuinely charming screen presence", adding a new dimension to his acting career. Later that year, Cardinale played opposite Pierre Mondy in the sex farce Le Cadeau, a role which biographers Lancia and Minelli say was played with a "mature charm and expressiveness".
In 1983, Cardinale had a role in the Waris Hussein miniseries Princess Daisy, and featured alongside Lino Ventura and Bernard Giraudeau in the French-Canadian film Le Ruffian. In 1984, she played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in a Marco Bellocchio production of Henry IV, based on the Luigi Pirandello play of the same name. It was entered into the 1984 Cannes Film Festival. Squitieri's Claretta (1984), featuring Cardinale and Gemma, was entered into the competition at the 41st Venice International Film Festival. Cardinale's powerful performance as Claretta Petacci garnered her the Nastro d'Argento for Best Actress. In 1985, Cardinale starred opposite Ben Gazzara and Lina Sastri in Alberto Bevilacqua's La donna delle meraviglie. It entered the competition at the 1985 Venice International Film Festival.
In 1986, Cardinale was involved in the making of two films for television. In Comencini's La storia (from Elsa Morante's novel), Cardinale portrayed a widow raising a son during World War II. In her husband's Naso di Cane, a miniseries, Enrico Lancia and Roberto Poppi praised her for her "light comic touch". In 1987, Cardinale starred opposite Peter Coyote, Greta Scacchi, and Jamie Lee Curtis in Diane Kurys's film A Man in Love (Un homme amoureux), Kurys's first English-language feature. It was entered into the 1987 Cannes Film Festival. Cardinale's performance as Scacchi's cancer-stricken mother was praised by critics, with Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighting the "warm and radiant" elements that she brought to the role, and Hal Hinson, also of The Post, comparing Scacchi to having "the same kind of sensuality that Cardinale brought to her earlier roles". After a role in the comedy, Blu elettrico (1988), Cardinale portrayed Yolande de Polastron, a favourite of Marie Antoinette's, in the two-part film La Révolution française in 1989. Made to celebrate the bicentennial anniversary of the French Revolution, the 360-minute Robert Enrico and Richard T. Heffron film was an international production, boasting a cast which included Klaus Maria Brandauer, Jane Seymour and Peter Ustinov.
1990s
In 1990, Cardinale starred opposite Bruno Cremer in Squitieri's Atto di dolore, and appeared in the Morocco-set Soviet-Italian production, La battaglia dei tre tamburi di fuoco.
In 1991, Cardinale featured alongside Richard Berry and Omar Sharif in Henri Verneuil's Mayrig (meaning "mother"), a film about the struggles of an Armenian family that emigrates to Marseilles in France from Turkey after the Armenian genocide of 1915. Such was the success of the film that Verneuil made a sequel the following year, 588, rue Paradis, also featuring the cast. Cardinale was praised by critics for her role as the mother; the Armenian General Benevolent Union of America noted the "flawless performance of these intrepid actors, especially of Claudia Cardinale". In 1993, Cardinale won the Leone d'oro alla carriera award at the Venice Film Festival, in which she was honoured along with Roman Polanski, Robert De Niro, and Steven Spielberg. Cardinale agreed to reunite with Blake Edwards, Herbert Lom, and Burt Kwouk to celebrate the 30th anniversary of The Pink Panther by making Son of the Pink Panther. It was Edward's last film, but was a critical and commercial failure, with critics despairing at the "painfully unfunny script" and the performance of Roberto Benigni as Clouseau, which earned him the Razzie Award for Worst New Star. , it has a rating of just 6% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews.
In 1994, Cardinale had a role in Charlotte Dubreuil's Elles ne pensent qu'à ça..., and the following year appeared in the French TV serial 10-07: L'affaire Zeus.
In 1997, Cardinale featured in the British-Italian television drama miniseries Nostromo, directed by Alastair Reid and produced by Fernando Ghia of Pixit Productions, a co-production with Radiotelevisione Italiana, Televisión Española, and WGBH Boston. It is described as "an adaptation of Joseph Conrad's epic story Nostromo of political upheaval, greed, and romance in turn-of-the-20th-century South America." Cardinale and the cast were nominated for an ALMA Award for Outstanding Latino/a Cast in a Made-for-Television Movie or Mini-Series. Later in 1997, Cardinale appeared in the films Sous les pieds des femmes and her husband's Stupor Mundi, in which she portrayed Constance of Aragon. In 1998, Cardinale portrayed the mother of Lola Naymark in the French picture Riches, belles, etc., a wealthy baroness who leaves her hotel to her daughter to care for during her absence. The following year, Cardinale played the peasant mother of two children who are members of Carmine Crocco's (Enrico Lo Verso's) army during the Garibaldi era, in Cristaldi's historical film Li chiamarono... briganti!. Poorly received, the film was boycotted, and the producers have since refused to assign the broadcasting rights.
2000s
In 2000, Cardinale embarked on her stage career, starring in Maurizio Scaparro's stage production of La Venexiana, adapted by René de Ceccatty, at the Théâtre du Rond-Point in Paris.
She also appeared in her husband's television film, Élisabeth - Ils sont tous nos enfants. Two years later, Cardinale went on a theatrical tour of Italy, performing in Luigi Pirandello's Come tu mi vuoi, which Squitieri directed. She appeared as what Roger Ebert described as a "faded countess" opposite Jeremy Irons in Claude Lelouch's thriller film And Now... Ladies and Gentlemen, portraying a character who spends her time in Fez, Morocco, with handsome gigolos. The film was screened out of competition at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival. And Now... Ladies and Gentlemen received mixed reviews; A. O. Scott of The New York Times dismissed it as "sublimely silly", but praised the "impeccable CinemaScope compositions" and the "lush, suave score" by Michel Legrand.
In 2005, Cardinale appeared in a Philippe Adrien stage production of Tennessee Williams's Sweet Bird of Youth, and in the 2006/2007 season also featured in another Williams play, The Glass Menagerie, directed by Andrea Liberovici, in which she played the character of Amanda. In 2007, Cardinale appeared in the Aline Issermann comedy film Cherche fiancé tous frais payés, opposite Alexandra Lamy and Bruno Salomone, in a role which Patrick Besson described as "atrocious". After a role in the TV movie Hold-up à l'italienne (2008), the following year Cardinale starred in the critically acclaimed The String, playing a Tunisian mother who has a tempestuous relationship with her French-educated gay son. Michael D. Klemm of cinemaqueer.com reflected on how the film broke many of the taboos with interracial sexuality and homosexuality. He praised Cardinale's "terrific" acting and portrayal of the "overbearing" mother, likening one scene, where she "brings home a nice girl for Malik (Antonin Stahly) to meet", to Harold and Maude (1971).
2010s
In 2010, Cardinale received the Golden Orange Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya "Golden Orange" International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica. The Turkish-Italian co-production was shot in locations in Istanbul and Rimini.
In 2012, Cardinale featured opposite Jeanne Moreau and Michael Lonsdale in the final feature film to be directed by Portuguese director Manoel de Oliveira, Gebo and the Shadow. Critically acclaimed, it has a rare 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, and was shown at the 69th Venice International Film Festival. The Hollywood Reporter described it as the "ensemble of superb older performers who comprise the remainder of the dramatis personae". Another excellent film in which Ms. Cardinale acted, released in 2012, was The Artist and the Model. In this, she starred along with Jean Rochefort. In 2013, Cardinale starred alongside supporting actresses Patricia Black and Chloé Cunha in Nadia Szold's Joy de V., and had a role in Ernst Gossner's war drama The Silent Mountain, a love story set in the Dolomite Mountains at the outbreak of World War I between Italy and Austria-Hungary in 1915. Gossner described her as "a terrific spirit on the set", and noted that Cardinale told the production team "legendary stories" about Marcello Mastroianni. In 2014, Cardinale portrayed a "sympathetic Italian chaperone" viscountess in the British period drama film Effie Gray, which was written by Emma Thompson and featured Dakota Fanning in the lead role. While promoting Effie Gray, in an interview Cardinale said: "I still continue to work, it's 142 movies now. Usually when you are old you don't work any more, but I still work, which is good.... I've been very lucky because I've had many fantastic directors with me, Fellini, Visconti, Blake Edwards, lots and lots...".
On 11 October 2018 she received the Tabernas de Cine award in the Almería Western Film Festival.
2020s
In 2020, Cardinale headlined the Swiss miniseries Bulle. Later that year, she had a role in the Netflix film Rogue City. In its debut weekend, it was the second most-streamed film on the site.
Personal life
Claudia Cardinale met the Italian film producer Franco Cristaldi in 1958. According to Cardinale, the couple had a marriage party but did not marry, and they became increasingly detached. Cristaldi later married Zeudi Araya and had no further contractual relationships with Cardinale.
Cardinale lived with Pasquale Squitieri, an Italian film director, for 42 years, from 1975 until Squitieri died on 18 February 2017, aged 78.
Cardinale has two children: Patrick, who was born illegitimately when she was 19 and later adopted by Cristaldi, and Claudia, whom she had with Squitieri. Cardinale is fluent in Arabic, French, Italian, English, and Spanish. Her niece Francesca is also an actress.
Cardinale is a political liberal who has supported feminist and gay causes over the years. Although she lives in Paris, Cardinale is fiercely outspoken about being identified as an Italian. She has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defence of Women's Rights since March 2000, and was a goodwill ambassador for the UNESCO World Water Day for 2006.
Cardinale published an autobiography with Anne Mori, Io Claudia, Tu Claudia, in 1995. She has been a regular attendee of the Academy Awards. Her awards have included an honorary Golden Lion at the 1993 Venice Film Festival, and an Honorary Golden Bear at the 2002 Berlin Film Festival. The Los Angeles Times Magazine, in a February 2011 online feature, named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history. Cardinale said of her acting, "I never felt scandal and confession were necessary to be an actress. I've never revealed myself or even my body in films. Mystery is very important." In a 2014 interview, she revealed her secret of success: "If you want to practice this craft, you have to have inner strength. Otherwise, you'll lose your idea of who you are. Every film I make entails becoming a different woman. And in front of a camera, no less! But when I'm finished, I'm me again."
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1938 births
20th-century Italian actresses
21st-century Italian actresses
Best Actress Golden Orange Award winners
Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia alumni
David di Donatello Career Award winners
David di Donatello winners
Honorary Golden Bear recipients
Italian film actresses
Italian women writers
Italian writers
Kristián Award winners
Living people
Nastro d'Argento winners
People from Tunis
People of Sicilian descent
Pieds-Noirs
Spaghetti Western actresses
Tunisian people of Italian descent
Tunisian people of Sicilian descent
UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors
Western (genre) film actresses | [
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235309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maureen%20O%27Hara | Maureen O'Hara | Maureen O'Hara (born Maureen FitzSimons; 17 August 1920 – 24 October 2015) was an Irish actress and singer, who became successful in Hollywood throughout the 1940s to '60s. She was a natural redhead who was known for playing passionate but sensible heroines, often in Westerns and adventure films. She worked with director John Ford and longtime friend John Wayne on numerous occasions.
O'Hara was born and raised in Dublin, Ireland, in a Catholic family, and aspired to become an actress from a very young age. She trained with the Rathmines Theatre Company from the age of 10 and at the Abbey Theatre from the age of 14. She was given a screen test, which was deemed unsatisfactory, but Charles Laughton saw potential in her, and arranged for her to co-star with him in Alfred Hitchcock's Jamaica Inn in 1939. She moved to Hollywood the same year to appear with him in the production of The Hunchback of Notre Dame, and was given a contract by RKO Pictures. From there, she went on to enjoy a long and highly successful career, and acquired the nickname "the Queen of Technicolor".
She appeared in films such as How Green Was My Valley (1941) (her first collaboration with John Ford), The Black Swan with Tyrone Power (1942), The Spanish Main (1945), Sinbad the Sailor (1947), the Christmas classic Miracle on 34th Street (1947) with John Payne and Natalie Wood, and Comanche Territory (1950). O'Hara made her first film with John Wayne, the actor with whom she is most closely associated, in Rio Grande (1950); this was followed by The Quiet Man (1952), The Wings of Eagles (1957), McLintock! (1963), and Big Jake (1971). Such was her strong chemistry with Wayne that many assumed they were married or in a relationship. In the 1960s, O'Hara increasingly turned to more motherly roles as she aged, appearing in films such as The Deadly Companions (1961), The Parent Trap (1961), and The Rare Breed (1966). She retired from the industry in 1971, but returned 20 years later to appear with John Candy in Only the Lonely (1991).
In the late 1970s, O'Hara helped run her third husband Charles F. Blair Jr.'s flying business in Saint Croix in the United States Virgin Islands, and edited a magazine, but later sold them to spend more time in Glengarriff in Ireland. She was married three times, and had one daughter, Bronwyn, with her second husband. Her autobiography, 'Tis Herself, published in 2004, became a New York Times bestseller. In November 2014, she was presented with an Honorary Academy Award with the inscription "To Maureen O'Hara, one of Hollywood's brightest stars, whose inspiring performances glowed with passion, warmth and strength". In 2020, she was ranked number one on The Irish Times list of Ireland's greatest film actors.
Early life and education
Born on 17 August 1920, O'Hara began life as Maureen FitzSimons on Beechwood Avenue in the Dublin suburb of Ranelagh. She stated that she was "born into the most remarkable and eccentric family I could have possibly hoped for". O'Hara was the second-eldest of six children of Charles and Marguerite (née Lilburn) FitzSimons, and the only red-headed child in the family. Her father was in the clothing business and bought into Shamrock Rovers Football Club, a team O'Hara supported from childhood.
She inherited her singing voice from her mother, a former operatic contralto and successful women's clothier, who in her younger years was widely considered to have been one of Ireland's most beautiful women. O'Hara noted that whenever her mother left the house, men would leave their houses just so they could catch a glimpse of her in the street. O'Hara's siblings were Peggy, the eldest, and younger Charles, Florrie, Margot, and Jimmy. Peggy dedicated her life to a religious order, becoming a Sister of Charity.
O'Hara earned the nickname "Baby Elephant" for being a pudgy infant. A tomboy, she enjoyed fishing in the River Dodder, riding horses, swimming, and soccer, and would play boys' games and climb trees.
O'Hara was so keen on soccer that at one point, she pressed her father to found a women's team, and professed that Glenmalure Park, the home ground of Shamrock Rovers F.C., became "like a second home". She enjoyed fighting, and trained in judo as a teenager. She later admitted that she was jealous of boys in her youth and the freedom they had, and that they could steal apples from orchards and not get into trouble.
O'Hara first attended the John Street West Girls' School near Thomas Street in Dublin's Liberties Area. She began dancing at the age of 5, when a fortune teller predicted that she would become rich and famous, and she would boast to friends as they sat in her back garden that she would "become the most famous actress in the world". Her enthusiastic family fully supported the idea. When she recited a poem on stage in school at the age of six, O'Hara immediately felt an attraction to performing in front of an audience. From that age she trained in drama, music, and dance along with her siblings at the Ena Mary Burke School of Drama and Elocution in Dublin. Their affinity with the arts prompted O'Hara to refer to the family as the "Irish von Trapp family".
At the age of 10, O'Hara joined the Rathmines Theatre Company and began working in amateur theatre in the evenings after her lessons. One of her earliest roles was Robin Hood in a Christmas pantomime. O'Hara's dream at this time was to be a stage actress. By the age of 12, O'Hara had reached the height of , and it worried her mother for a while that she would become "the tallest girl" in Ireland as Maureen's father was . She expressed relief when O'Hara only grew another two inches.
At the age of 14, O'Hara joined the Abbey Theatre. Though she was mentored by playwright Lennox Robinson, she found her time at the theatre disappointing. In 1934, at the age of 15, she won the first Dramatic Prize of the national competition of the performing arts, the Dublin Feis Award, for her performance as Portia in The Merchant of Venice. She trained as a shorthand typist, working for Crumlin Laundry before joining Eveready Battery Company, where she worked as a typist and bookkeeper. She later put her skills to use when she typed the script of The Quiet Man for John Ford.
In 1936, she became the youngest pupil to graduate from the Guildhall School of Music at the time, and the following year, she won the Dawn Beauty Competition, winning £50. As she matured into a young woman, O'Hara, like many actresses, became increasingly self-conscious, which affected her for a while. In one performance, which was watched by her father from the back of the theatre, O'Hara "sensed there was someone out front watching me, perhaps critically. My arms felt like lead. I gave a rotten show that night. I grew up with the terrible feeling that I was being laughed at".
Film career
Early career (1937–1940)
At the age of 17, O'Hara was offered her first major role at the Abbey Theatre, but was distracted by the attentions of actor-singer Harry Richman. Richman arranged with the manager of the Gresham Hotel in Dublin to meet her at the hotel while she was dining with her family. He proposed that she go to Elstree Studios for a screen test and become a film actress. O'Hara arrived in London shortly afterwards with her mother. During the screen test, the studio adorned her in a "gold lamé dress with flapping sleeves like wings" and heavy makeup with an ornate hair style, which was deemed to be far from satisfactory. O'Hara detested the audition, during which she had to walk in and pick up a telephone. She recalled thinking to herself, "My God, get me back to the Abbey". Charles Laughton later saw the test and, despite the overdone makeup and costume, was intrigued, paying particular notice to her large and expressive eyes. After seeking the approval of his business partner Erich Pommer, they arranged to meet O'Hara through a talent agency run by Connie Chapman and Vere Barker. Laughton was impressed with O'Hara, particularly by her lack of nerves and refusal to read an extract upon his request unprepared, during which she said: "I am very sorry but absolutely no". She was offered an initial seven-year contract with their new company, Mayflower Pictures. Though her family were shocked at her being given a contract so young, they accepted, and O'Hara traveled across Ireland in celebration before arriving back in London to commence her film career. O'Hara later stated that "I owe my whole career to Mr. Pommer".
O'Hara made her screen debut in Walter Forde's Kicking the Moon Around (1938), although she did not consider it a part of her filmography. Richman had introduced her to Forde at Elstree Studios, but as she was not cast in the film in a notable role, she agreed to deliver one line in it as a favor to Richman for helping with her screen test. Laughton arranged for her to appear in the low-budget musical My Irish Molly (1938), the only film she made under her real name, Maureen FitzSimons. In the film, she plays a woman named Eiléen O'Shea, who rescues an orphan girl named Molly. Biographer Aubrey Malone stated of it: "One could argue that O'Hara never looked as enticing as she does in Little Miss Molly, even if she isn't 'Maureen O'Hara' quite yet. She wears no makeup, and there's no Hollywood glamour, but despite (or because of?) that, she is rapturously beautiful. Her accent is thick, which is perhaps why she didn't mention the film much. It also looks as if it were made in the 1920s rather than the 1930s, so primitive are the sets and characters". Malone added that though the lot was "ham-fisted", it is a "quaint film which O'Hara scholars should view if only to see early evidence of her natural instinct for dramatic timing and scene interpretation".
O'Hara's first major film role was that of Mary Yellen in Jamaica Inn (1939), directed by Alfred Hitchcock and co-starring Laughton. O'Hara portrayed the innkeeper's niece, an orphan who goes to live with her aunt and uncle at a Cornish tavern, a heroine which she describes as "torn between the love of her family and her love for a lawman in disguise". Laughton insisted that she change her name to the shorter "O'Mara" or "O'Hara", and she eventually decided on the latter after expressing contempt at both. When she said "I like Maureen FitzSimons and I want to keep it", Laughton replied with, "Very well, you're Maureen O'Hara." (O'Hara would later say that "nobody would ever get [FitzSimons] straight.") O'Hara noted that Laughton had always wanted a daughter of his own, and treated her as such, and she later stated that Laughton's death in 1962 was like losing a parent. She worked well under Hitchcock, professing to have "never experienced the strange feeling of detachment with Hitchcock that many other actors claimed to have felt while working with him." On the contrary, Laughton was engaged in a bitter battle with Hitchcock throughout the production and resented many of Hitchcock's ideas, including changing the nature of the villain from the novel. Though Jamaica Inn is generally seen by critics and the director himself as one of his weakest films, O'Hara was praised, with one critic stating "the newcomer, Maureen O'Hara is charming to look at and distinct promise as an actress". Seeing the film was an eyeopener for O'Hara and change in self-perception, having always seen herself as a tomboy and realizing that on screen she was a woman of great beauty to others. When she returned to Ireland briefly after the film was completed it dawned on her that life would never be the same again, and she was hurt when she attempted to make pleasant conversation to some local girls and they rejected her advances, considering her to be very arrogant.
Laughton was so pleased with O'Hara's performance in Jamaica Inn that she was cast opposite him in The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939) for RKO in Hollywood. She boarded the RMS Queen Mary with him and her mother to New York, and then traveled by train to Hollywood. O'Hara's agent, Lew Wasserman, arranged for a pay increase from $80 a week to $700 a week. As the new face of RKO, she garnered much attention from the Hollywood press and society before the film was even released, something that made her uncomfortable, as she felt that she was being viewed as a "novelty" and "people were making a fuss over me because of something I hadn't yet done, something they just thought I might do". O'Hara portrayed Esmeralda, a gypsy dancer who is imprisoned and later sentenced to death by the Parisian authorities. Director William Dieterle initially showed concern that O'Hara was too tall and disliked her wavy hair, asking for her to step under a shower to straighten it out. Filming commenced in the San Fernando Valley, at a time when the city was experiencing its hottest summer in its history. O'Hara described it as a "physically demanding shoot", due to the heavy makeup and costume requirements, and recalls that she gasped at Laughton in makeup as Quasimodo, remarking, "Good God, Charles. Is that really you?". O'Hara insisted on doing her own stunts from the outset, and for the scene in which the hangman places a noose around her neck, no safety nets were used. The film was a commercial success, taking $3 million at the box office. O'Hara was generally praised for her performance though some critics thought that Laughton stole the show. One critic thought that was the strength of the film, writing: "The contrast between Laughton as the pathetic hunchback and O'Hara as the fresh-faced, tenderly solicitous gypsy girl is Hollywood teaming at its most inspired".
After the completion of The Hunchback of Notre Dame, World War II began, and Laughton, realizing his company could no longer film in London, sold O'Hara's contract to RKO. O'Hara later professed that this "broke my heart, I felt completely abandoned in a strange and faraway place". She next featured in John Farrow's A Bill of Divorcement (1940), a remake of George Cukor's 1932 film. O'Hara portrayed Sydney Fairchild, who was played by Katharine Hepburn in the original, in a film which she considered to have had a "screenplay [which] was mediocre at best". The production became difficult for O'Hara after Farrow reportedly made "suggestive comments" to her and began stalking her at home; once he realized that O'Hara was not interested in him sexually, he began bullying her on set. Then, O'Hara punched him in the jaw one day, which put an end to the mistreatment. O'Hara's performance was criticized by reviewers, with the critic from The New York Sun writing that she "lacked the intensity and desperation it must have; nor does she seem to have a sparkle of humor". She next found a role as an aspiring ballerina who performs with a dance troupe in Dance, Girl, Dance (1940). She considered it to have been a physically demanding film, and felt intimidated by Lucille Ball during the production as she had been a former Ziegfeld and Goldwyn girl and was a superior dancer. The two remained friends for many years after the film was completed.
Hollywood success (1941–1943)
O'Hara began 1941 by appearing in They Met in Argentina, RKO's answer to Down Argentine Way (1940). O'Hara later declared that she "knew it was going to be a stinker; terrible script, bad director, preposterous plot, forgettable music". She grew increasingly frustrated with the direction of her career at this time. Ida Zeitlin wrote that O'Hara had "reached a pitch of despair where she was about ready to throw in the towel, to break her contract, to collapse against the stone wall of indifference and howl like a baby wolf". She pleaded with her agent for a role, however small, in John Ford's upcoming film How Green Was My Valley (1941), at 20th Century Fox, a film about a close, hard-working Welsh mining family living in the heart of the South Wales Valleys in the 19th century. The film, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture, began an artistic collaboration with Ford that would span 20 years and five feature films.
Her substantial role as Angharad, which she was given without a full-screen test, beating Katharine Hepburn and Gene Tierney to the part, proved to be her breakthrough role. It was made possible by a change to her contract with RKO, in which Fox bought the rights to feature O'Hara in one film each year. Ford developed a nickname for her, "Rosebud", and the two developed a long but turbulent friendship, with O'Hara often visiting Ford and his wife Mary in social visits and spending time aboard his yacht Araner. Despite this, Ford was an unpredictable character with a mean streak, and in one instance he punched O'Hara in the jaw for some unknown reason, and she only took it from him because she wanted to show him she could take a punch like a man. The production of How Green Was My Valley was originally intended to be shot in the Rhondda Valley, but due to the war it had to be filmed in the San Fernando Valley, on a $1.25 million set, which took 150 builders six months to complete.
O'Hara recalled that Ford would allow her to improvise extensively during the filming, but was very much the boss, commenting that "nobody dared step out of line, which gave the performers a sense of security". O'Hara became such good friends with Anna Lee during the shooting that she later named her daughter Bronwyn after Lee's character. The film was lauded by the critics, and was nominated for 10 Academy Awards, winning three, including Best Picture. Both O'Hara and co-star Walter Pidgeon, who played the minister, were praised for their performances, with Variety writing that "Maureen O'Hara splendid as the object of his unrequited love, who marries the mine owner's son out of pique".
Film historian Joseph McBride considered O'Hara's performance to have been the most emotionally powerful he'd seen since Katharine Hepburn in Mary of Scotland (1936). O'Hara stated that her favorite scene in the film took place outside the church after her character gets married, remarking, "I make my way down the steps to the carriage waiting below, the wind catches my veil and fans it out in a perfect circle all the way around my face. Then it floats straight up above my head and points to the heavens. It's breathtaking."
Malone notes that when the United States entered World War II in 1941, many of the better actors became involved in the war effort and O'Hara struggled to find good co-stars. He points out that she increasingly starred in adventure pictures, which allowed her to develop her acting and keep her profile high in Hollywood. O'Hara had next intended appearing opposite Tyrone Power in Son of Fury: The Story of Benjamin Blake, but was hospitalized in early 1942, during which she had her appendix and two ovarian cysts removed at Reno Hospital. Producer Zanuck scoffed at the operation, thinking it was an excuse for a break. He passed it off as "probably a fragment left over from an abortion", which deeply offended her, as a devout Catholic.
O'Hara instead starred in the Technicolor war picture, To the Shores of Tripoli, her first Technicolor picture and first on-screen partnership with John Payne, in which she portrayed Navy nurse Lieutenant Mary Carter. Though the film was a considerable commercial success, becoming a benchmark for "service pictures" of the era, O'Hara later commented that she "couldn't understand why the quality of his (Bruce Humberstone's) pictures never seemed to match their impressive box-office receipts". Malone wrote that "nobody in the film seemed to have lived life. The character's emotions, like their uniforms, seem too streamlined".
O'Hara next played an unconventional role as a timid socialite who joins the army as a cook in Henry Hathaway's Ten Gentlemen from West Point (1942), which tells the fictional story of the first class of the United States Military Academy in the early 19th century. The film was disagreeable to O'Hara because Payne dropped out and was replaced by George Montgomery, whom she found "positively loathsome". Montgomery attempted to make a pass at her during the production, prolonging his kiss with her after the director had yelled "cut". Later that year, O'Hara starred opposite Tyrone Power, Laird Cregar and Anthony Quinn in Henry King's swashbuckler The Black Swan. O'Hara recalled that it was "everything you could want in a lavish pirate picture: a magnificent ship with thundering cannons; a dashing hero battling menacing villains ... sword fights; fabulous costumes ...". She found it exhilarating working with Power, who was renowned for his "wicked sense of humor". O'Hara grew very concerned about one scene in the picture in which she is thrown overboard in her underwear by Power, and sent a warning letter home to Ireland in advance. She refused to take her wedding ring off in one scene which resulted in screen adjustments to make it look like a dinner ring. Though the film was praised by critics and is seen as one of the period's most enjoyable adventure films, the critic from The New York Times thought O'Hara's character lacked depth, commenting that "Maureen O'Hara is brunette and beautiful—which is all the part requires".
O'Hara played the love interest of Henry Fonda in the 1943 war picture Immortal Sergeant. O'Hara noted that Fonda was studying for his service entry exams at the time and had his head in books between takes, and that 20th Century Fox publicized one of the last love scenes between them in the film as Fonda's last screen kiss before entering the war. She next portrayed a European school teacher opposite George Sanders and Charles Laughton, in their last film together, in Jean Renoir's This Land Is Mine for RKO. At the end of a court case in the film, during a hearty speech by Laughton, O'Hara is shown teary-eyed on screen for a prolonged period. Malone thought her performance was effective, both crying and smiling, though considered Renoir to have overdone the film and confusing the audience as a result.
Later, she had a role in Richard Wallace's The Fallen Sparrow opposite John Garfield, whom she described as "my shortest leading man, an outspoken Communist and a real sweetheart". Malone notes though that despite them getting on very well, Garfield did not rate her as an actress. He considers This Land is Mine and The Fallen Sparrow to have been two important pictures in O'Hara's career, "adding to her growing prestige in the film industry", helping her "crawl out from the gimcrack melodrama of adventure films".
The Queen of Technicolor (1944–1949)
Although O'Hara became known as the "Queen of Technicolor" (like Rhonda Fleming), she professed to dislike the process because it required special cameras and intense light that burned her eyes and gave her klieg eye. She believed that the term negatively affected her career, as most people viewed her solely as a beauty who looked good on film, rather than as a talented actress. In 1944 O'Hara was cast opposite Joel McCrea in William A. Wellman's biographical western Buffalo Bill. Though O'Hara did not think that McCrea was rugged enough for the part of William F. "Buffalo Bill" Cody, and according to Malone gave her "little to work off", it did well at the box office. Contrary to O'Hara's opinion, Variety was highly praising of the film, describing it as a "super-western and often a tear-jerker", and thought that McCrea was convincing in the part and that O'Hara's own performance was "satisfactory".
In 1945, O'Hara starred opposite Paul Henreid in The Spanish Main as feisty noblewoman Contessa Francesca, the daughter of a Mexican viceroy. O'Hara described it as "one of my more decorative roles", as her character is a particularly aggressive one among the men on a ship, and during the course of the film her face is smothered in chimney soot. O'Hara almost did not win the role when another actress falsely told RKO executive Joe Nolan that she was "as big as a horse" after giving birth to a daughter in 1944. Around this time "an actress named Kathryn" also falsely accused O'Hara of making sexual advances towards her in an elevator, which she believed was a way for the actress to gain attention at the start of her career. During the production of The Spanish Main, O'Hara was visited by John Ford, who was initially turned away for being shabbily dressed, but was later admitted to informing her about the project that would become The Quiet Man (1952). Malone notes that in the film O'Hara "shows her determination not to leave her sexuality at the birthing stool", commenting that she looks "deliciously fragrant in the splashy histrionics on view here, in RKO's first film in the three-color Technicolor process" O'Hara became a naturalized citizen of the United States on 24 January 1946, and held dual citizenship with the United States and her native Ireland.
In the same year, she portrayed an actress with a fatal heart condition in Walter Lang's Sentimental Journey. A commercially successful production, O'Hara described it as a "rip-your-heart-out tearjerker that reduced my agents and the toughest brass at Fox to mush when they saw it". It was poorly received by critics, and was later declared by Harvard as the worst film of all time. One critic attacked O'Hara as "just another one of those precious Hollywood juvenile products who in workday life would benefit from a good hiding", while Bosley Crowther dismissed the film as a "compound of hackneyed situations, maudlin dialogue and preposterously bad acting". In Gregory Ratoff's musical Do You Love Me, O'Hara portrayed a prim, bespectacled music school dean who transforms herself into a desirable, sophisticated lady in the big city. She commented that it was "one of the worst pictures I ever made". It frustrated her that she could not put her talents to good use, to not even sing in it.
O'Hara was offered roles in The Razor's Edge (1946), which went to Tierney, John Wayne's film Tycoon (1947), which went to Laraine Day, and Bob Hope's The Paleface, which went to Jane Russell. She turned down the role in The Paleface as she was going through a turbulent period in her personal life and "didn't think I would be able to laugh every day and have fun". She later deeply regretted turning it down and confessed that she'd made a "terrible mistake". In 1947, O'Hara starred opposite Douglas Fairbanks Jr. as Shireen in the adventure film Sinbad the Sailor. O'Hara plays a glamorous adventuress who assists Sinbad (Fairbanks) locate the hidden treasure of Alexander the Great. She found the scenario to be "ridiculous", but stated that it made a "pot of money for RKO — action-adventures almost always did". Malone wrote: "O'Hara looks splendid and gets to wear some of the most stunning costumes of her career — a different one in almost every scene — but her dialogue is floridly empty. She exudes potential in early scenes, where her air of sybaritic slyness seems promise she'll be something more than window dressing", but thought the film "totally lacked drama". The critic from The New York Times thought that O'Hara excessive costume changes made watching her an "exhausting" experience".
After a role as the Bostonian love interest of Cornel Wilde in Humberstone's The Homestretch (1947), O'Hara had grown frustrated with Hollywood and took a considerable break to return to her native Ireland, where people thought she did not look well, having lost a lot of weight. While there she received a call from 20th Century Fox to portray the role of Doris Walker, the mother of Susan Walker (played by a young Natalie Wood) in the Christmas film, Miracle on 34th Street (1947). It became a perennial Christmas classic, with a traditional network television airing every Thanksgiving Day on NBC. On Natalie Wood, O'Hara said: "I have been mother to almost forty children in movies, but I always had a special place in my heart for little Natalie. She always called me Mamma Maureen and I called her Natasha ... when Natalie and I shot the scenes in Macy's, we had to do them at night because the store was full of people doing their Christmas shopping during the day. Natalie loved this because it meant she was allowed to stay up late. I really enjoyed this time with Natalie. We loved to walk through the quiet, closed store and look at all the toys and girls' dresses and shoes. The day she died, I cried shamelessly". The film garnered several awards, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture.
In O'Hara's last film of 1947, she played a Creole woman opposite Rex Harrison in John M. Stahl's The Foxes of Harrow; the film was set in pre-Civil War New Orleans. TCM state that O'Hara had been "angling" to star in Forever Amber (1947), Fox's big historical romance at the time, but believe that due to a contractual clause, neither of her joint contract owners, Fox and RKO, would accept her appearing in a "major star vehicle" at the time. During the production O'Hara and Harrison intensely disliked each other from the outset, and she found him to be "rude, vulgar, and arrogant". Harrison had thought that she disliked him simply because he was British. He reportedly belched in her face during dance sequences and accused her of anti-Semitism, being married to a Jewish woman (Lilli Palmer) at the time, which she vehemently denied. Variety, while acknowledging the length, thought that O'Hara and Harrison carried off their dramatic scenes with "surprising skill". The following year, O'Hara starred opposite Robert Young in the commercially successful comedy film, Sitting Pretty. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised O'Hara and Young as husband and wife, remarking that they were "delightfully clever", acting with "elaborate indignation, alternating with good-natured despair".
In 1949, O'Hara played what she described as a "frustrated talent manager who shoots her star client in a jealous rage" opposite Melvyn Douglas in A Woman's Secret. She only agreed to appear in the production to meet the one-picture-a-year contractual obligation to RKO. It was a box office flop and at the time not well received critically—director Nicholas Ray himself was dissatisfied with it. She next had a role as a wealthy widow who falls in love with an alcoholic artist (Dana Andrews) in the Victorian melodrama The Forbidden Street, which was shot at Shepperton Studios in London. O'Hara felt that her performance was poor and admitted that she did not have her heart set on the film. After the poorly received comedy Father Was a Fullback, dismissed by Picturegoer magazine as an "unhappy mixture of Freud and football", she starred in her first film with Universal Pictures, the escapist adventure, Bagdad, portraying Princess Marjan. The film was shot on location in the Alabama Hills of Lone Pine, California. O'Hara noted that the film earned a tremendous amount of money for Universal, and its success led to Universal buying into her RKO contract. Malone wrote that she sings, dances, fights, and loves in a tale of derring-do that ticks all the requisite boxes for an opulent history lesson", adding that "when it came to dexterity in action, O'Hara was a nonpareil".
Work with John Ford, Westerns and adventure films (1950–1957)
In the 1950 Technicolor Western, Comanche Territory, O'Hara played an unusual role as the lead character of Katie Howards, a fiery saloon owner who dresses, behaves, and fights like a man, with hair tied back. She "mastered the American bullwhip" during the filming, in a role which Crowther believed was "more significant than a setting sun" in that she "tackles her assignment with so much relish that the rest of the cast, even the Indians, are completely subdued." She received first billing above co-star Macdonald Carey. O'Hara then appeared as Countess D'Arneau opposite John Payne in Tripoli, directed by O'Hara's second husband, William Houston Price. She was next cast by John Ford in the Western Rio Grande, the final installment of his cavalry trilogy. It was the first of five films to be made over 22 years with John Wayne, including The Quiet Man (1952), The Wings of Eagles (1957), McLintock! (1963), and Big Jake (1971), the first three of which were directed by Ford. O'Hara declared that "from our very first scenes together, working with John Wayne was comfortable for me". Her chemistry with Wayne was so powerful that over the years many people assumed that they were married, and newspapers occasionally published sensationalist stories from people claiming to be their love child. In April 1951, she received a call from Universal Pictures that she was cast as a Tunisian princess named Tanya in the swashbuckler film, Flame of Araby (1951). O'Hara "despised" the film and everything it stood for, but had no choice but to make the film or be suspended. By that time, she began to grow tired of the roles she was offered and wanted to perform roles that had more depth than the ones she had done thus far.
In 1952, O'Hara played Claire, the daughter of the musketeer, Athos, in At Sword's Point, which according to her showed the "new Maureen O'Hara". The film had actually been made in 1949 but was not released until 1952. The role was the most physically demanding of her career, doing her own stunts and training in the art of fencing for six weeks under Belgian-born fencing master Fred Cavens. She disliked director Lewis Allen and producer Howard Hughes, whom she thought was "cold as ice". The critic from The New York Times appreciated O'Hara's swordsmanship in the film, stating that she was "snarling like a Fury, impales her opponents as though she were threading a needle." O'Hara next played Irish immigrant Australian-based cowgirl, Dell McGuire, in Lewis Milestone's drama Kangaroo (1952), set during the drought of 1900. Kangaroo is noted for being the first Technicolor film to be shot on location in Australia, mostly shot in the desert near Port Augusta. Although O'Hara disliked the production, she found the Australians extremely welcoming. The Australian government offered her a plot of land during the production to own permanently, but she turned it down for political reasons, only to later discover that significant oil reserves were on the land.
In 1952, O'Hara starred opposite John Wayne again in Ford's romantic comedy-drama, The Quiet Man. Shot on location in Cong, County Mayo, Ireland, O'Hara described the film as her "personal favourite of all the pictures I have made. It is the one I am most proud of, and I tend to be very protective of it. I loved Mary Kate Danaher. I loved the hell and fire in her." Malone notes that she rarely appeared in an interview without mentioning this fact. O'Hara was disconcerted with Ford's harsh treatment of Wayne during the production and constant ribbing. Though Ford generally treated her very well, on one occasion when filming a cart scene in which the wind in her eyes made it difficult to see, Ford yelled "Open your damn eyes" and O'Hara flipped, responding with "What would a bald-headed son of a bitch like you know about hair lashing across his eyeballs?"
The Quiet Man was both a critical and commercial success, grossing $3.8 million domestically in its first year of release against a budget of $1.75 million. Film critic James Berardinelli called O'Hara "the perfect match for Wayne" and that "she never allows him to steal a scene without a fight, and occasionally snatches one away from him on her own", while film critic and sports writer Danny Peary praised their chemistry, "exhibiting strength" through "love, vulnerability and tenderness". According to Harry Carey Jr., who noted that O'Hara held a strong gaze with Wayne in all of the films they made together, director Ford was uncomfortable with the romantic scenes in the film and refused to shoot the scene until the last day. The film was nominated for six Academy Awards including Best Picture, though O'Hara was devastated at not even being nominated for an award. Film director Martin Scorsese called The Quiet Man "one of the greatest movies of all time", and in 1996 it topped a poll of the greatest films in the Irish Times.
O'Hara's last release of 1952 was Against All Flags opposite Errol Flynn, marking her only collaboration with the actor. O'Hara, knowing Flynn's reputation as a womanizer, was on close guard during the production. Though she "respected him professionally and was quite fond of him personally" she found Flynn's alcoholism a problem and remarked that "if the director prohibited alcohol on the set, then Errol would inject oranges with booze and eat them during breaks". According to Steve Jacques, O'Hara outdid Flynn in the combat scenes, many of which had to be cut from the final version to protect Flynn's heroic image. The film was a commercially successful venture.
The following year she appeared in The Redhead from Wyoming, which she dismissed as "another western stinkeroo for Universal", and appeared in another western with Jeff Chandler, War Arrow. O'Hara noted that "Jeff was a real sweetheart, but acting with him was like acting with a broomstick".
In 1954, O'Hara starred in Malaga, also known as Fire over Africa, which was shot on location in Spain. O'Hara played a Mata Hari-like character, a secret agent who attempts to find the ringleader of a smuggling ring in Tangiers. Malone compares the relationship in the film between O'Hara as Joanne and Macdonald Carey as agent Van Logan to that of Bogart and Bacall, with frequent verbal sparring. The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote: "Maureen O'Hara looks very handsome in Technicolor but her expressions are limited—mostly to disgust at shooting smugglers or pulling knives from dying men".
In 1955, O'Hara made her fourth picture with Ford, The Long Gray Line, which she considered being "by far the most difficult" due to declining relations with John Ford. John Wayne had originally intended co-starring, but due to a conflicting schedule O'Hara recommended Tyrone Power in replacement. Malone notes that the Irish accents by O'Hara and Power are overdone, and that there is little trace of a Donegal accent in it. The film production marked the lowest point of O'Hara's relationship with Ford, and each day he would greet her with "Well, did Herself have a good shit this morning?". He would ask the crew if she was in a good mood, and if that was the case, he would say "then we're going to have a horrible day" and vice versa. He would provoke her by telling her to "move her fat Irish ass". Their relationship deteriorated further when O'Hara reportedly saw him kissing an actor on set; Ford knew that she thought he was a closeted homosexual. In The Magnificent Matador, O'Hara played a spoiled, wealthy American who falls in love with a brooding, tormented, about-to-retire matador (Anthony Quinn) in Mexico. Ava Gardner, who was dating a bullfighter in real life, Luis Miguel Dominguín, and Lana Turner were considered for O'Hara's part of Karen Harrison. The film was panned by the critics. One of her best-known roles came later year, playing Lady Godiva in Lady Godiva of Coventry. Contrary to what Universal claimed to the press, O'Hara was not nude in the film, wearing a "full-length body leotard and underwear that was concealed by my long tresses".
In December 1955, O'Hara negotiated a new five-picture contract with Columbia Pictures boss Harry Cohn, with $85,000 per picture.
The following year, she starred in the Portuguese-set melodramatic mystery film Lisbon for Republic Pictures. For the first time in her career she played a villain, and remarked that "Bette Davis was right – bitches are fun to play". In the film, the first Hollywood production to be shot in Portugal, she is caught in a love triangle with Ray Milland and Claude Rains, who according to Malone both attempted to "outsuave each other" during the whole production. Later that year she made Everything But the Truth for Universal, at a time in her career when she was trying to distance herself from adventure films. O'Hara thought the film was so bad that neither she nor her family saw it, though she enjoyed working with John Forsythe.
In 1957, O'Hara marked the end of her collaboration with John Ford with The Wings of Eagles, which was based on the true story of an old friend of Ford's, Frank "Spig" Wead, a naval aviator who became a screenwriter in Hollywood. Malone wrote that "Wayne and O'Hara interact well in these early scenes, giving effortless performances and exhibiting a strong chemistry. One can sense the offscreen friendship in little nuances between them". Though not a major commercial success, it fared better in the eyes of the critics. The relationship between O'Hara and Ford grew increasingly bitter, and that year he referred to her as a "greedy bitch" to director Joseph McBride, who had shown an interest in casting her for The Rising of the Moon. O'Hara later referred to him as an "instant conman" who would say the opposite of what he felt and said of his bitterness: "He wanted to be born in Ireland and he wanted to be an Irish rebel. The fact that he wasn't left him very bitter".
Later career (1959–1991)
Though O'Hara was consciously moving away from adventure films, an ongoing court case against Confidential magazine in 1957 and 1958 and an operation for a slipped disk, after which she had to wear a full body brace for four months, effectively ruled out any further action films for her. During this period away from film she took lessons in singing to improve her abilities. O'Hara had a soprano voice and described singing as her first love, which she was able to channel through television. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, she was a guest on musical variety shows with Perry Como, Andy Williams, Betty Grable and Tennessee Ernie Ford. In 1960, O'Hara starred on Broadway in the musical Christine which ran for 12 performances. It was a problematic production, and the director, Jerome Chodorov, was so displeased with it that he requested that his name be removed from the credits. She found her Broadway failure to be a "major disappointment" and returned to Hollywood. That year she released two recordings, Love Letters from Maureen O'Hara and Maureen O'Hara Sings her Favorite Irish Songs. She described Love Letters from Maureen O'Hara, a moderate success, as an act of revenge, given that Hollywood would not let her appear in a musical.
In 1959, O'Hara returned to film, starring as a secretary who is sent from London to Havana to investigate the activities of a British secret agent (Alec Guinness) in the commercially successful Our Man in Havana. O'Hara beat Lauren Bacall to the role as she was busy with other engagements. Though the film was critically acclaimed, Crowther of The New York Times felt that the characters of O'Hara and the daughter could have been made "more humorous and spirited than they are". The following year, O'Hara appeared in the CBS television film, Mrs. Miniver, but despite some critics approving her performance, most thought that the remake was ill-timed and that she could not top Greer Garson's performance in the 1942 Oscar-winning film.
In 1961, O'Hara portrayed Kit Tilden in the western The Deadly Companions, Sam Peckinpah's feature-film debut. Playing against stereotype as the strong, aggressive redhead, she plays a character who is vulnerable to rape and violence from men. The plot involves her traveling across Apache territory with an ex-Sergeant (Keith) to bury her young son next to his father in the desert. Malone considered her character in the film to be "radically underdeveloped". While O'Hara acknowledged that Peckinpah later "reached icon status as a great director of westerns", she thought he was "just awful" and "one of the strangest and most objectionable people I had ever worked with". Later that year she starred in The Parent Trap, one of her most popular films, opposite a young Hayley Mills. O'Hara credits Mills for the success of the film, remarking that "she really did bring two different girls to life in the movie" and wrote that "Sharon and Susan were so believable that I'd sometimes forget myself and look for the other one when Hayley and I were standing around the set". Malone notes that this was the film that she "made a transition from comely maiden to trendy mother", one which received some of the best critical plaudits of her career. O'Hara was subsequently involved in a legal dispute with Walt Disney, backed by the Screen Actors Guild, over billing for the film. She never worked for Disney again.
The following year, O'Hara appeared opposite James Stewart in Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation, about a family vacation in a dilapidated house on the beach. She played Peggy, the token wife of Hobbs (Stewart), a character who is very family-oriented and talkative. Though the two became friends, O'Hara confessed that she was not happy with the dynamic between her and Stewart onscreen, commenting that "every scene revolves around Jimmy Stewart. I was never allowed to really play out a single scene in the picture. He was a remarkable actor, but not a generous one". With the success of The Parent Trap and Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation, O'Hara felt that her career had been given a new lease of life. She united with Henry Fonda after 20 years to appear in Spencer's Mountain (1963), roughly based on the novel by Earl Hamner Jr. The film was shot on location in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, the same place that the classic 1953 western Shane was shot. O'Hara played Olivia Spencer, the devout Christian wife of Fonda's atheist character, who during the course of the film sings a hymn at an outdoor funeral. Though Malone considers her to have given a "commendable performance", he thought she lacked chemistry with Fonda and notes that the film came at a difficult period in his life, with the breakdown of his third marriage. It was poorly received by the critics at the time, but fared well at the box office. Later in 1963 she starred with John Wayne in Andrew V. McLaglen's Technicolor comedic western, McLintock!. O'Hara performed many of her own stunts in the film, including one scene where she falls backwards off a ladder into a trough.
In late 1964, O'Hara went to Italy to shoot The Battle of the Villa Fiorita (1965) with Rossano Brazzi. O'Hara played a British woman who leaves her diplomat husband in England for an Italian pianist (Brazzi). She had high expectations for the film but soon realized that Brazzi was miscast. She was so frustrated with the finished film, which was a box office flop, that she cried. O'Hara made her last picture with James Stewart the following year in the comedic western, The Rare Breed. Malone thought that she modeled her performance on Julie Andrews, "adopting a schoolmarmish voice and demeanor that ill befit her", and coming out with pious statements like "cleanliness is next to godliness".
In 1970, O'Hara starred opposite Jackie Gleason in How Do I Love Thee?. During filming in the summer of 1969, O'Hara was involved in an accident on set with Gleason when he tripped on a Cyclone wire fence, falling heavily on her hand which was resting on it. She later required orthopedic surgery to correct the injury. Though she got on well with Gleason, O'Hara remarked that it was a "terrible film. The script was awful, and the director couldn't fix it". The film was poorly received critically, with The Guardian calling it "the most mawkish film of the year/decade/era". In October of that year she made her last film with Wayne in Big Jake (1971), shot on location in Durango, Mexico. Director Budd Boetticher cast O'Hara as he believed that she and Wayne had chemistry which was "head and shoulders" over those of other leading actresses at the time. After Big Jake, O'Hara retired from the industry. In 1972 she professed to strongly disapprove of the way Hollywood was going, "making dirty pictures", and she wanted no part of it. That year she was asked to give a speech at the Lifetime Achievement Award ceremony for John Ford, which was the last occasion she saw him before his death.
After a 20-year retirement from the film industry, O'Hara returned to the screen in 1991 to star opposite John Candy in the romantic comedy-drama Only the Lonely. She played Rose Muldoon, the domineering Irish mother of a Chicago cop (Candy), who has an indifference to Sicilians. The film reunited her with Anthony Quinn who plays her brief love interest, Nick the Greek. O'Hara stated of her return: "Twenty years is a long time, but it was surprising how little changed. The equipment is lighter now, and they work a bit faster, but I hardly felt like I'd been away". She described Candy as "one of my all-time favorite leading men", and was surprised by the extent of his talent, remarking that he was a "comedic genius but an actor with an extraordinary dramatic talent" who very much reminded her of Charles Laughton. In the following years, she continued to work, starring in several made-for-TV films, including The Christmas Box, Cab for Canada and The Last Dance, the latter her last film in which she played a retired teacher who suffers a heart attack, released on television in 2000.
Reception and character
Malone states that as "Ireland's first Hollywood superstar", O'Hara "paved the way for a future generation of actresses seeking their own voice ... With her mahogany hair, her hoydenish ways, and her whip-smart delivery of lines, she created a character prototype that seemed to define her country of origin as much as Ireland defined her". He notes though that O'Hara was "loved for her naturalness" and her "lack of a diva quality". She dismissed method acting as "tommyrot", believing that acting should be acting, and placed great emphasis on work ethic and punctuality. Insisting on doing her own stunts, O'Hara became so prone to injuries during her productions that her colleagues remarked that she "should have been awarded a Purple Heart". Her closest rival in the 1950s was Rhonda Fleming, the two both being prolific in westerns and action films.
John Ford reportedly once commented in a letter that O'Hara was the finest actress in Hollywood, but he rarely praised her in person. In an interview with Bertrand Tavernier, on the other hand, Ford professed that O'Hara was one of the actresses he most detested. Though she was quite proud of her own versatility as an actress, saying "I played every kind of role. I was never petite or cute so there was never anything about me which would go out of style", critics found fault with her range. Malone wrote that she "seemed to struggle in comedic roles but proved her mettle in films that called on her to take charge of situations or find courage in the face of adversity". One critic remarked that it took a director like John Ford to bring out a good performance from her. The Irish critic Philip Moloy thought the opposite, saying "It is not something that she would accept herself, but Maureen O'Hara's career probably suffered from its long-term association with John Ford. John Ford's view of Ireland, and things Irish, tended to be broad, sentimental and sociologically distorted, and his characters were often clichéd representatives of their nationality". In the 1960s, O'Hara ventured into maturer roles as she aged.
O'Hara had a reputation in Hollywood for bossiness, and John Wayne once referred to her as "the greatest guy I ever met". Rick Kogan of The Chicago Tribune quotes her in saying that she and Wayne shared many similarities, and took "no nonsense from anybody".
She was friends with Zanuck and Harry Cohn, the boss of Columbia Pictures, who was notorious for being the "nastiest man in Hollywood", Film executives respected the fact that she was bold and completely honest towards them. O'Hara declared that she had "never had a temperamental fit in my life", but did admit to walking off the set in disgust at George Montgomery nearly choking her to death with a kiss during the filming of Ten Gentleman from West Point.
Teetotal and a non-smoker, O'Hara rejected the Hollywood party lifestyle, and was relatively moderate in her personal grooming. In her earlier career she refused to appear to smoke and drink on screen, and it was only later that she relented to avoid being out of a job. O'Hara was considered to be prudish in Hollywood. Malone wrote that "her attitude towards sex bordered on puritanical at times, which wasn't what one expected from a sex symbol". When asked why she would not pose for scantily clad photographs O'Hara remarked: "I come from a very strict family, and I can't do some of the things other actresses can because my folks in Dublin would think I turned out bad", and in 1948 she stated that she wouldn't be photographed in a bathing suit "Because I don't think I looked like Lana Turner in a bathing suit, frankly. O'Hara later commented that "I'm not prudish but my training was strict". She believed that her fastidious lifestyle took its toll on her career. She once said, "I'm a helpless victim of a Hollywood whispering campaign. Because I don't let the producer and director kiss me every morning or let them paw me they have spread around town that I am not a woman, that I am a cold piece of marble statuary" and "I wouldn't throw myself on the casting couch, and I know that cost me parts. I wasn't going to play the whore. That wasn't me". She vented her frustration on not being given edgier roles in an interview with the Los Angeles Times, saying "Producers look at a pretty face and think: 'She must have got this far on her looks'. Then comes along a girl with a plain face and they think, 'She must be a great actress, she isn't pretty'. So they give her the glamour treatment and the pretty girl gets left behind". O'Hara believed that she missed out on a number of roles in some of the classic black-and-white films, because her looks were shown to great advantage in Technicolor productions. Such was her natural beauty that she was one of the few actresses in Hollywood during her career to not undergo cosmetic surgery, though she had one crooked tooth with which she refused to part.
Personal life and death
In 1939, at the age of 19, O'Hara secretly married Englishman George H. Brown, a film producer, production assistant and occasional scriptwriter whom she had met on the set of Jamaica Inn. They married at St Paul's Church in Station Road, Harrow on 13 June, shortly before she left for Hollywood. Brown stayed behind in England to shoot a film with Paul Robeson. Brown announced that he and O’Hara had kept the marriage a secret and that they would have a full marriage ceremony in October 1939, but O'Hara never returned. The marriage was annulled in 1941. O'Hara became a naturalised American citizen on January 25, 1946.
In December 1941, O'Hara married American film director William Houston Price, who was the dialogue director in The Hunchback of Notre Dame. She lost her virginity to Price on her wedding night and immediately regretted it, recalling thinking to herself, "What the hell have I done now". Soon after the honeymoon, O'Hara realized Price was an alcoholic. The couple had one child, a daughter, Bronwyn Bridget Price, born 30 June 1944. O'Hara's marriage to Price steadily declined throughout the 1940s due to his alcohol abuse, and she often wanted to file for divorce but felt guilty due to her Catholic beliefs. Price eventually realized the marriage was over and filed for divorce in July 1951 on the grounds of "incompatibility". Price left the house they shared in Bel Air, Los Angeles on 29 December 1951, on their 10th wedding anniversary.
O'Hara always denied having any extramarital affairs, but in his autobiography, frequent collaborator Anthony Quinn claimed to have fallen in love with her on the set of Sinbad the Sailor. He commented that she was "dazzling, and the most understanding woman on this earth" who "brought out the Gaelic in him", being half Irish. Quinn implied that they had been involved in an affair, adding that "after a while we both tired of the deceit".
From 1953 to 1967, O'Hara had a relationship with Enrique Parra, a wealthy Mexican politician and banker. She met him at a restaurant during a trip to Mexico in 1951. O'Hara stated that Parra "saved me from the darkness of an abusive marriage and brought me back into the warm light of life again. Leaving him was one of the most painful things I have ever had to do." As her relationship with Parra progressed, she began to learn Spanish and even enrolled her daughter in a Mexican school. She moved in 1953 to a smaller property at 10677 Somma Way in Bel Air, amid frequent visits to Mexico City, where she and Parra were very well-known celebrities. She hired a detective to follow Parra in Mexico and found that he was being fully honest about the relationship with his ex-wife and that she could trust him. John Ford intensely disliked Parra, and it affected her relationship with Ford in the 1950s as he often interfered in her affairs and frowned upon the demise of her marriage to Price, being a devout Catholic like O'Hara. Price also continued to harass O'Hara for dating Parra and filed a case against her on 20 June 1955, seeking custody of Bronwyn and accusing her of immorality. O'Hara filed a countersuit, charging him with contempt of court for refusing to pay $50 a month in child support and a $7 a month alimony. During the publicity stage of The Long Gray Line in 1955, Ford insulted O'Hara and her brother Charles when he remarked to Charles, "if that whore sister of yours can pull herself away from that Mexican long enough to do a little publicity for us, the film might have a chance at some decent returns".
On 9 July 1957, O'Hara filed a $5 million lawsuit against Confidential magazine over allegations it made over her being engaged in sexual activity with Parra during a screening of a film at the Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. One of the allegations was "Maureen had entered Grauman's wearing a white silk blouse neatly buttoned. Now it wasn't", and that when the usher shone a flashlight towards them she was forced to sit up and play innocent. O'Hara proved her innocence by presenting a passport showing that she was in Spain shooting Fire Over Africa at the time. She claimed in her autobiography that she became the first actress to win a case against an industry tabloid when Confidential were apparently found guilty of libel and conspiring to publish obscenity, but Malone notes that the trial dragged on for six weeks and the case was actually eventually settled out of court in July 1958.
O'Hara married her third husband, Charles F. Blair Jr., 11 years her senior, on 12 March 1968. Blair, an immensely popular figure, was a pioneer of transatlantic aviation, a former brigadier general of the United States Air Force, a former chief pilot at Pan Am, and founder and head of the United States Virgin Islands airline Antilles Air Boats. A few years after her marriage to Blair, O'Hara, for the most part, retired from acting. In the special features section to the DVD release of The Quiet Man, a story is recounted that O'Hara retired after longtime collaborators John Wayne and John Ford teased her about being married but not being a good, stay-at-home housewife, though Blair himself wanted her to retire from acting and help run his business. Blair died in 1978 while flying a Grumman Goose for his airline from Saint Croix to St. Thomas, crashing after an engine failure. O'Hara was elected CEO and president of the airline, with the added distinction of becoming the first woman president of a scheduled airline in the United States
In 1978, O'Hara was diagnosed with uterine cancer, which had to be removed with an operation. She was greatly affected by John Wayne's cancer during this period, and Wayne reportedly wept on the phone when she informed him that her own cancer had been given the all clear. O'Hara was instrumental in Wayne being given a special medal shortly before his death the following year. She argued that "John Wayne is not just an actor. John Wayne is the United States of America" and personally selected the portrait of him to go on it. After Wayne's death in June 1979 she fell into deep depression and took several years to recover.
In 1976, Blair bought O'Hara a travel magazine, the Virgin Islander, which she began to edit from their home for many years in Saint Croix. She sold it in 1980 to USA Today to spend more time with her daughter and grandson Conor (born 1970). She passed on the airline business the following year, which by this time was chartering 120 flights a day with a fleet of 27 planes. O'Hara had had considerable prior experience with business as from the 1940s she ran a clothing store in Tarzana, Los Angeles, operating under her name, specializing in dresses for women. O'Hara increasingly spent time in Glengarriff on the southwest coast of Ireland, and established a golf tournament there in 1984 in her husband's memory. A hurricane in 1989 destroyed her home in Saint Croix. While in New York, inquiring about the costs of rebuilding, she suffered six successive heart attacks and underwent an angioplasty. She moved permanently to Glengariff after suffering a stroke in 2005.
In May 2012, O'Hara's family contacted social workers regarding claims that O'Hara, who had short-term memory loss, was a victim of elder abuse. In September 2012, O'Hara flew to the United States after receiving doctor's permission to fly, and moved in with her grandson in Idaho. In her last years she suffered from type 2 diabetes and short-term memory loss.
On 24–25 May 2013, O'Hara made a public appearance at the 2013 John Wayne Birthday "Tribute to Maureen O'Hara" celebration in Winterset, Iowa. The occasion was groundbreaking for the new John Wayne Birthplace Museum; the festivities included an official proclamation from Iowa Governor Terry Branstad declaring 25 May 2013, as "Maureen O'Hara Day" in Iowa. The appearance included a performance by the Shannon Rovers Irish Pipe Band, who travelled from Chicago for the event.
On 24 October 2015, O'Hara died in her sleep at her home in Boise, Idaho from natural causes. She was 95 years old. O'Hara's remains were buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia next to her late husband Charles Blair.
As a staunch conservative Republican O'Hara supported the presidential elections of Dwight D. Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush.
Achievements and activities
O'Hara was honored on This Is Your Life, which was aired on 27 March 1957. In 1982 she was the first person to receive the American Ireland Fund Lifetime Achievement Award in Los Angeles. In 1988 she was awarded an honorary degree by the National University of Ireland, Galway. She further received the Heritage Award from the Ireland-American Fund in 1991.
In 1985 she was awarded the Career Achievement Award from the American Cinema Foundation. O'Hara also became the first woman to win the John F. Kennedy Memorial Award for "Outstanding American of Irish Descent for Service to God and Country". For her contributions to the motion picture industry, O'Hara has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7004 Hollywood Blvd. In 1993, she was inducted into the Western Performers Hall of Fame at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. She was awarded the Golden Boot Award.
In March 1999, O'Hara was selected to be Grand Marshal of New York City's St. Patrick's Day Parade. In 2004, she was honored with a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Irish Film and Television Academy in her native Dublin. The same year, O'Hara released her autobiography Tis Herself, co-authored with Johnny Nicoletti and published by Simon & Schuster. She wrote the foreword for the cookbook At Home in Ireland, and in 2007 she penned the foreword to the biography of her friend and film co-star, the late actress Anna Lee.
O'Hara was named Irish Americas "Irish American of the Year" in 2005, with festivities held at the Plaza Hotel in New York. In 2006, O'Hara attended the Grand Reopening and Expansion of the Flying Boats Museum in Foynes, County Limerick as a patron of the museum. A significant portion of the museum is dedicated to her late husband Charles. O'Hara donated her late husband's seaplane, the Excambian (a Sikorsky VS-44A), to the New England Air Museum. The restoration of the plane took eight years and time was donated by former pilots and mechanics in honor of Charles Blair. It is the only surviving example of this type of early trans-Atlantic plane.
In 2011, O'Hara was formally inducted into the Irish America Hall of Fame at an event in New Ross, County Wexford. She was also named the president of the Universal Film & Festival Organization (UFFO), which promotes a code of conduct for film festivals and the film industry.
In 2012, O'Hara received the Freedom of the Town of Kells, County Meath, Ireland, her father's home, and a sculpture in her honour was unveiled.
In 2014, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences selected O'Hara to receive the academy's Honorary Oscar, which was presented at the annual Governor's Awards in November that year. O'Hara became only the second actress, after Myrna Loy in 1991, to receive an Honorary Oscar without having previously been nominated for an Oscar in a competitive category.
References
Sources
External links
Interview November, 2014, about Oscar Award and career at Irish Central
1920 births
2015 deaths
20th-century American actresses
20th Century Fox contract players
20th-century Irish actresses
Academy Honorary Award recipients
American women singers
American film actresses
American memoirists
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Death in Idaho
Idaho Republicans
Irish emigrants to the United States
Irish women singers
Irish film actresses
Irish memoirists
Irish stage actresses
Irish television actresses
People from Ranelagh
RKO Pictures contract players
Western (genre) film actresses
American women memoirists | [
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235312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anjelica%20Huston | Anjelica Huston | Anjelica Huston ( ; born July 8, 1951) is an American actress, author, director, producer and former fashion model. She is the daughter of director John Huston and granddaughter of actor Walter Huston. After reluctantly making her big screen debut in her father's A Walk with Love and Death (1969), Huston moved from London to New York City, where she worked as a model throughout the 1970s. She decided to actively pursue acting in the early 1980s, and, subsequently, had her breakthrough with her performance in Prizzi's Honor (1985), also directed by her father, for which she became the third generation of her family to receive an Academy Award, when she won Best Supporting Actress, joining both John and Walter Huston in this recognition.
Huston received Academy Award nominations for Enemies, A Love Story (1989) and The Grifters (1990), for Best Supporting Actress and Best Actress, respectively, BAFTA nominations for Best Supporting Actress for the Woody Allen films Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989) and Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993), and Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical for starring as Morticia Addams in The Addams Family (1991) and its sequel Addams Family Values (1993). She also received acclaim for her portrayal of the Grand High Witch in Roald Dahl's film adaptation The Witches (1990). Huston has frequently worked with director Wes Anderson, starring in The Royal Tenenbaums (2001), The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004) and The Darjeeling Limited (2007). Other credits of hers include This Is Spinal Tap (1984), The Dead (1987), Ever After (1998), Buffalo '66 (1998), Daddy Day Care (2003), 50/50 (2011) and John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019). She has lent her voice to several animated films, mainly the Tinker Bell franchise (2008–2015).
On television, Huston has had recurring roles on Huff (2006), Medium (2008–2009), and Transparent (2015–2016). She won a Gracie Award for her portrayal of Eileen Rand on Smash (2012–2013). Huston made her directorial debut with the film Bastard Out of Carolina (1996). This was followed by Agnes Browne (1999), in which she also starred. She has written the memoirs A Story Lately Told (2013) and Watch Me (2014).
Early life
Huston was born at 6:29 P.M. on July 8, 1951, at the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital, in Los Angeles, to director and actor John Huston and prima ballerina and model Enrica Soma. According to Huston, "the news of my arrival was cabled promptly to the post office in the township of Butiaba, in Western Uganda [and two] days later, a barefoot runner bearing a telegram finally arrived at Murchison Falls", where her father was filming The African Queen (1951). Huston's paternal grandfather was Canadian-born actor Walter Huston. Huston has Scottish, Scotch-Irish, English and Welsh ancestry from her father, and Italian from her mother. When she was 2 years old, her family relocated to Ireland, where she spent much of her childhood and which she still considers home. Her parents rented what Huston called the "Courtown House" —a tall stone Victorian manor in County Kildare— for three years, before John Huston bought St. Clerans, a 110-acre estate in County Galway, in 1954. She attended school at Kylemore Abbey, and later attended Holland Park School after relocating to England.
Huston has a complex family because of her parents' multiple marriages and extramarital affairs. She has an older brother, Tony, and an adopted older brother, Pablo. She has a younger maternal half-sister named Allegra, whom she called "Legs"; and a younger paternal half-brother, actor Danny Huston. She is the aunt of actor Jack Huston. She once described herself as a "lonely child", explaining: "My brother Tony and I were never very close, neither as children nor as adults, but I was tightly bound to him. We were forced to be together because we were really quite alone. We were in the middle of the Irish countryside ... and we didn’t see many other kids. We were tutored. Our father was mostly away [for filming]".
Career
Work as a model and transition to film (1968–1984)
Her father's film A Walk with Love and Death (1969), where Huston played the 16-year-old French noblewoman Claudia opposite Assi Dayan, marked her screen debut. She had been in the running to play Juliet in director Franco Zeffirelli's adaptation of Romeo and Juliet (1968), but Huston withdrew her from consideration when he decided to cast her as Claudia in A Walk With Love and Death. Huston felt that she was wrong for the role, and has commented on the experience that her father "miscast me first time out and I think he realized that. I was ready to act, but I wasn’t ready to act for him ... I was difficult, I didn't want to act with no makeup, although I'd have done it for Franco." Father and daughter had a fractious relationship on set, with the young Anjelica having difficulty learning her lines and focusing, while her father grew more impatient and angry at directing her. Critics derided her performance.
Huston and her mother were photographed by Arnaud De Rosnay —whom she met at age 16 in Switzerland— in October 1968 for Vogue.
Shortly afterwards, her mother died in a car accident, and the young Huston relocated to New York City as she "sort of fled London because of the memories; I didn’t really know what to do with myself, and I wasn’t quite sure what my father’s intentions were for me —whether he was going to put me in a convent or launch me as an actress. Well, he’d already tried to do that, and we’d had a hard time on the making of that first film we did together". Inspired by models Jean Shrimpton and Twiggy, Huston decided to pursue modelling, and through photographer Richard Avedon, a friend of her parents, she met Diana Vreeland who proposed to Huston her first American Vogue photoshoot, which took place in Ireland. She described it as "very innovative because they presaged the whole sort of Gypsy look".
Huston became a frequent subject of Bob Richardson, whom she lived with until 1973. She was signed to Ford Models and in the early 1970s, worked in Europe "for a couple of years". She walked the runway for brands such as Zandra Rhodes, Yamamoto, Armani and Valentino. Along with Pat Cleveland, Pat Ast, Elsa Peretti, Karen Bjornson and Alva Chinn, she became one of fashion designer Halston's favored troupe of models, nicknamed the Halstonettes. After breaking up with Richardson, Huston met actor Jack Nicholson and moved to California, to focus on acting. While she "didn’t do much there for three years", she filmed a small role in The Last Tycoon (1976), based on F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel of the same name.
Bob Rafelson's remake The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981), based on the novel by James M. Cain, featured Huston as the fling of a Depression-era drifter, played by Nicholson. She briefly appeared in the drama Frances (1982) and the mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap (1984) before obtaining a larger role in the science fiction film The Ice Pirates (1984).
Critical and popular acclaim (1985–1994)
Her father cast Huston as Maerose, the daughter of a New York Mafia clan head whose love is scorned by a hit man, in the film adaptation Prizzi's Honor (1985), which also starred Nicholson. She was paid the SAG-AFTRA scale rate of US$14,000 for her role. When her agent called up the movie's producer to request if she could be paid more, she was told "Go to hell. Be my guest — ask for more money. We don’t even want her in this movie.” Huston, who was not only John Huston's daughter but also Jack Nicholson's girlfriend at the time, wrote in her 2014 memoir Watch Me that she later overheard a production worker saying: "Her father is the director, her boyfriend’s the star, and she has no talent.” Nevertheless, Huston garnered positive notices for her performance. The New York Times described her part as a "wonderful character, far darker and more complex than is indicated by her self-deprecating wisecracks (I'm a family scandal. I gotta reputation to keep up). She's a riveting presence and if Miss Huston, the daughter of the director, doesn't get an Oscar nomination for this performance, I'll be very surprised." Indeed, she won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, making her the third generation of her family to win an Oscar.
Huston starred opposite Michael Jackson in the 17-minute $30 million 3D film Captain EO, written by George Lucas and directed by Francis Ford Coppola, which ran from 1986 at Disneyland and Epcot, and later at Tokyo Disneyland and Euro Disneyland. Coppola next cast her as the girlfriend of an army platoon sergeant in Gardens of Stone (1987), a movie that dealt with the effect of the Vietnam War on the United States homefront. She starred as the wife of an academic in her father's The Dead (1987), which was his last film as director. According to Anjelica Huston, her father remained a filmmaking virtuoso despite his ill health: "He was so sick, but he could literally do it with his eyes closed. He knew when we were going to get a take way long before the camera rolled. I mean the timing was so precise that he could tell everything, exactly how it was going to go." The pressures of filming and watching her father's health deteriorate had an adverse effect on Anjelica Huston's own health, developing Epstein-Barr syndrome during production.
In 1988, Huston played the love interest of an engaging, multi-talented, middle-class Yale University graduate in Mr. North, which was more of a family project, directed by half-brother Danny Huston, and made a cameo appearance in the film adaptation A Handful of Dust. Despite her limited screen time, Vincent Canby of The New York Times praised her portrayal in the latter as the "single most stunning performance" but called the film "both too literal and devoid of real point." Woody Allen cast Huston as a flight attendant having an affair with a respected family guy in the dramedy Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989), earning a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actress. The drama Enemies, A Love Story (also 1989) featured Huston as the long-vanished wife of a Holocaust survivor. In a positive review for the film, Roger Ebert asserted: "Parts, especially the scenes with Huston, are heartwarming in a strange way, because they show one human being accepting the weaknesses of another". For her role, she received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.
In The Witches (1990), based on the 1983 book of the same name by Roald Dahl, Huston starred as the Grand High Witch, the all-powerful leader of the world's witches. She and the costume designer Marit Allen originally brought a different dress for the role, but the director Nicolas Roeg rejected it as "not sexy". Huston recalled: "That was the first time I'd imagined that this horrible creature in a children's movie should have sex appeal. It simply had not occurred to me. But of course, Nic was absolutely right. His vision was diabolical and dark and brilliantly funny. If a witch was to be at the center of this plot, she needed to be sexy to hold the eye." The character's monstrous version was prepared by Jim Henson's Creature Shop: "The prosthetics for Miss Ernst's transformation to The Grand High Witch were extensive. The various features—contact lenses, full facial mask, hump, withered collarbone, and hands—took over six hours to apply and almost as much time to remove at the end of the day." Despite a lackluster box office response, the film was applauded by critics and has obtained a cult following over the years; it has also remained one of Huston's favorite roles.
Huston next portrayed a veteran con artist in the neo-noir thriller The Grifters (also 1990). Director Stephen Frears first contacted her about playing Lilly in 1989 while she was filming Crimes and Misdemeanors, but after reading the script, she was unsure. Although she was "transfixed" by the story and the character, a scene in the script where Lilly is beaten so violently by another character with a sack of oranges that she defecates alarmed her with its explicitness. A few months later, Frears contacted Huston again to see if she was still interested. Still wavering, Huston's talent agent Sue Mengers told her bluntly "Anjelica, if Stephen Frears tells you he wants you to shit in the corner, then that's what you must do." The next day Huston auditioned for the role in front of Frears at the Chateau Marmont. Frears' initial reluctance to cast Huston because she looked too much like "a lady", was resolved with the decision to cheapen her look with a bleached blond wig and "vulgar clothes." To research her part, she studied women dealers at card parlors in Los Angeles County, California. Her performance earned her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress.
Huston obtained the part of Morticia Addams, the stern, aloof matriarch of the titular family, in The Addams Family (1991). She based aspects of her performance on her friend Jerry Hall to give the character more warmth, and in her 2014 memoir Watch Me, she described the filming as "long and arduous." It was decided that the character of Morticia should have eyes which slanted upwards at the sides, an effect which was achieved by attaching an elastic strap to the back of Huston's head via fabric tabs glued at her temples, which pulled the corners of her eyes upwards. A second strap was added to balance the appearance of the lower part of her face with the upper. The bands caused extended discomfort to Huston, and, unless she removed them at lunchtime, she would suffer severe headaches and rashes later in the day. Removing the bands for a break entailed hours of extra work in both removing and then re-applying her makeup and wig. On top of this, the bands would snap at the slightest turn of Huston's head, causing yet more grueling repair time. Eventually, she learned to pivot and turn on her feet without moving her upper body or head. According to Huston, actress Judith Malina's way of enduring being "embedded in latex for over twelve hours a day" was to "smoke an endless series of joints in her trailer throughout filming." The Addams Family was a commercial success, grossing over US$191 million worldwide, and prompted a sequel, Addams Family Values (1993). For both installments, Huston garnered Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical. In 1993, she also portrayed a mother struggling to parent her autistic child, in the ABC miniseries Family Pictures, for which she received a nomination for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film at the 51st Golden Globe Awards.
Following a small role in the satire The Player (1992), Huston reunited with Woody Allen on Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993), in which she played the friend of a married couple investigating the death of their neighbor's wife. As with Crimes and Misdemeanors, she received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actress.
Directing and films with Wes Anderson (1995–2007)
Her next films and were not widely seen, but the miniseries Buffalo Girls —which featured her as frontierswoman Calamity Jane– earned Huston an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Special. Following in her father's footsteps, her directorial debut came with the drama Bastard Out of Carolina (1996), based on a novel by Dorothy Allison about a poor, physically abused and sexually molested girl. She was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries or a Special.
In Ever After: A Cinderella Story (1998), a modern, post-feminist interpretation of the Cinderella story alongside Drew Barrymore and Melanie Lynskey, Huston appeared as Baroness Rodmilla De Ghent, the new wife of Auguste de Barbarac, a wealthy widower. The film was acclaimed by critics and made a respectable US$98 million globally. Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly praised her performance as a cruel stepmother: "Huston does a lot of eye narrowing and eyebrow raising while toddling around in an extraordinary selection of extreme headgear, accompanied by her two less-than-self-actualized daughters—the snooty, social-climbing, nasty Marguerite, and the dim, lumpy, secretly nice Jacqueline. "Nothing is final until you're dead", Mama instructs her girls at the dinner table, "and even then I'm sure God negotiates."
Her next directorial effort, the Irish dramedy Agnes Browne (1999) —in which she also starred as the title character— was released to mixed reviews. The New York Times reviewer Stephen Holden found it "nothing more than a series of homey skits loosely woven into a portrait of a working-class saint."
In The Royal Tenenbaums (2001), her first collaboration with director Wes Anderson, Huston took on the role the soft-spoken matriarch of an estranged family of former child prodigies, alongside Gene Hackman, Gwyneth Paltrow, Ben Stiller and Luke Wilson. During production, Anderson gave Huston photographs of his mother who, like Etheline, was an archaeologist. Huston said, "Wes would send pictures of his mother in aviator jackets or on archaeological digs, and he very specifically wanted me to wear a certain locket. Finally, I asked him, 'Wes, am I playing your mother?'" Anderson replied this was not the case. Anderson and Huston had a tense relationship with Hackman, who was not always amiable on set. On the first day Hackman and Huston appeared in a scene together, Huston had to slap him, and later said the slap was real and "I hit him a really good one. I saw the imprint of my hand on his cheek and I thought, he's going to kill me." During young Margot's birthday scene in the opening scenes, Huston's hair caught fire from a birthday candle. Anderson credited Kumar Pallana with extinguishing the blaze before Huston was seriously injured. A positive critical response greeted The Royal Tenenbaums, which made US$71.4 million worldwide. Around that time, she had supporting roles in the film adaptations The Golden Bowl (2000), Blood Work (2002) and the drama The Man from Elysian Fields (2001).
Daddy Day Care (2003), co-starring Eddie Murphy, featured Huston as the ruthless head of an expensive and over-academic preschool. Slant, in a critical review of the film, noted that Huston "brings embarrassing conviction to the role of stuffy day care proprietress ... Daddy Day Care seems to exist solely to sedate a theater-going public's offspring. And while the film's sense of sobriety should do the job, don't expect The Witches". Nevertheless, the release was a commercial success, grossing over US$160 million worldwide.
In The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004), her second film with Wes Anderson, Huston portrayed the estranged wife of an eccentric oceanographer. Between 2005 and 2006, she starred in several critically and commercially unsuccessful films, during which her most widely seen film was the critically derided Material Girls, alongside Hilary and Haylie Duff. This changed with her third Wes Anderson film, The Darjeeling Limited (2007), in which Huston starred as the mother of three brothers who becomes a nun and moves to a Christian convent in the Himalayas. Peter Travers, for Rolling Stone found her to be a "dynamite" in the film, which he deemed "the fullest blossoming yet of Anderson's talents as a total filmmaker".
Voice-over and television roles (2008–2016)
Choke (2008), a black comedy directed by Clark Gregg and based on the 2001 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk, featured Huston as the hospitalized mother of a sex addict in Colonial America. Reviews for the film were mixed, but Empire critic Philip Wilding wrote: "Huston is magnetic as [the] ailing mother Ida, both as a fading invalid or vibrant and deranged in flashback. She is the hook on which her son hangs his hopes and anxieties". Meanwhile, Roger Ebert felt that her role "resembled the criminal character" she played in The Grifters (1990). In 2008, Huston also voiced Queen Clarion in Tinker Bell, which was released on DVD to outstanding commercial results. She reprised the role in four sequels, a television special and a short film, all released between 2009 and 2015.
Huston took on significant roles in three 2011 live-action films. The first was that of Miss Battle-Axe, a strict, sadistic schoolteacher who talks with a Scottish accent, in the 3D children's musical adventure comedy Horrid Henry: The Movie, directed by Nick Moore. She found her character to be "irresistible", explaining to The Guardian: "It's very British material to me, and I've always been strangely attracted to these extreme characters". The film was panned by critics but was a commercial success in the UK. Her second performance of 2011 was that of a mother of a man suffering from a malignant cancerous tumor in the drama 50/50, directed by Jonathan Levine and co-starring Joseph Gordon-Levitt and Seth Rogen. The film was a critical and commercial darling upon its release. David Schmader, writing in the Stranger, praised the "stellar" cast and felt that Huston "roars back to prominence with a twisty performance as Adam's barely contained mess of a mom". The unsuccessful The Big Year, Huston's last live-action film of 2011, featured her as an "avid birder", who "captains ocean-going expeditions".
Huston starred in the NBC television series Smash (2012–2013), as Broadway producer Eileen Rand. After her husband's death in 2008, Huston credited Smash —her first regular venture into series television— with coming at a "vital time" and finally filling a void in her life. The series aired for two seasons and was the subject of critical acclaim. Huston subsequently appeared in the second and third seasons of the Amazon Video series Transparent, as Vic, a cisgender woman who forms a connection with Maura, a retired college professor of political science at UCLA. In the horror comedy The Cleanse (2016), Huston played the director of a secretive self-help program, alongside Johnny Galecki, Anna Friel and Oliver Platt.
Recent works (2017–present)
In 2017, Huston narrated the black comedy Thirst Street, and starred with Bill Pullman as siblings feuding over possession of their father's estate in the comedy Trouble. John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter praised the latter film, on which Huston was an executive producer, writing that "the cast goes a long way here, turning Trouble at times into the kind of small-town hangout film that will please fest auds." Huston played the Director, a heavily bejeweled Russian ballet instructor, and what Vulture described as a "small but memorable role", in John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019), which made US$326 million worldwide and received positive reviews from critics.
Personal life
Huston was a close friend of actor Gregory Peck, whom her father directed in Moby Dick (1956). The two first met on the set of the film when she was four years old while Peck was in costume as Captain Ahab. Decades later, after her father's death, Huston reunited with Peck and maintained a friendship that lasted until his death.
Huston was an inadvertent witness in the Roman Polanski sexual abuse case in March 1977, when she encountered Polanski and his 13-year old victim by chance in the home of her boyfriend Jack Nicholson. When authorities searched the house in connection to the accusations against Polanski, Huston was arrested for cocaine possession, but she was never charged because the search and seizure of her handbag had been illegal. Although she had witnessed no abuse, Huston was subsequently embroiled in the publicity surrounding Polanski's trial as a rumored witness for the prosecution, though she was not ultimately called.
Relationships
In 1969, at age 17, Huston began dating photographer Bob Richardson, who was 23 years her senior. Their relationship lasted four years. She met Jack Nicholson in 1973 and they lived together, on and off, from that year until 1990, when the media reported he had fathered a child with Rebecca Broussard. During a split with Nicholson in the late 1970s, Huston dated Ryan O'Neal, who allegedly assaulted her.
On May 23, 1992, Huston married sculptor Robert Graham. The couple lived in a three-story house, designed by Graham, at 69 Windward Avenue in Venice, California, until his death on December 27, 2008. She does not have any children.
Activism
Huston led a letter campaign organized by the U.S. Campaign for Burma and Human Rights Action Center in November 2007. The letter, signed by over twenty five high-profile individuals from the entertainment business, was addressed to the United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and urged him to "personally intervene" to secure the release of Nobel Peace Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma.
Huston currently sits on the advisory council of Save the Chimps, the largest chimp sanctuary and rescue in history. Huston has narrated the educational video Save the Chimps History exposing the cruelty of chimpanzee abuse by laboratories, entertainment and the NASA program Monkeys and apes in space, which sent primates into space often resulting in death by impact and explosion.
In 1995, Huston donated $500 to the Irish republican political party Sinn Féin. She has also attended Sinn Féin events and supported Martin McGuinness in his bid for the Presidency of Ireland in 2011.
In December 2012, Huston recorded a public service announcement for PETA urging her colleagues in Hollywood to refrain from using great apes in television, films, and advertisements. The animal rights organization subsequently named her their Person of the Year 2012. In 2018, she donated her fur coats to the homeless and animal shelters. She was the executive producer for Breaking the Chain, a 2020 documentary about the PETA fieldworkers who try to help neglected animals.
Filmography
Film
Television
Bibliography
Books
Also published in London by Simon & Schuster.
Critical studies, reviews and biography
Review of A Story Lately Told.
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1951 births
Living people
Actresses from County Galway
Actresses from Santa Monica, California
American expatriates in Ireland
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American film actresses
21st-century American memoirists
American people of Canadian descent
American people of English descent
American people of Italian descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Welsh descent
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American women film directors
American women non-fiction writers
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Female models from California
Film directors from California
Film festival founders
Anjelica
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female winners
People educated at Holland Park School
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American women writers
Writers from Santa Monica, California
American film directors of Italian descent | [
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235314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytechnique%20Montr%C3%A9al | Polytechnique Montréal | Polytechnique Montréal () (previously École polytechnique de Montréal; ) is an engineering school affiliated with the Université de Montréal in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It ranks first in Canada for the scope of its engineering research. It is occasionally referred to as Montreal Polytechnic, although in Quebec English its French name is more commonly used. The school offers graduate and postgraduate training, and is very active in research. Following tradition, new Bachelors of Engineering (B.Eng) graduating from Polytechnique Montréal receive an Iron Ring, during the Canadian Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer ceremony.
History
Polytechnique Montréal was founded in 1873 in order to teach technical drawing and other useful arts. At first, it was set in a converted residence. It later moved to a larger building on Saint-Denis street. In 1958, it moved to its current location on the Université de Montréal campus. The original building was enlarged in 1975 and then in 1989. In 2002, the Computer and Electrical Engineering Department (they were later separated) began to occupy the fifth and sixth floor of the old École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Montréal building. In 2003, the construction of three new buildings started.
Until the 1960s, the main purpose of the school was to train engineers. However, from 1959 on, the focus went to research. Nowadays, it is a leading research institution in applied sciences in Canada.
In 1977, a SLOWPOKE reactor, named SLOWPOKE-2, was installed at Polytechnique Montréal. The non-power reactor operating licence was renewed and is valid from July 1, 2013, until June 30, 2023. The reactor has been in operation for 36 years and is used for research, teaching, neutron generation and isotope production.
1989 massacre
On December 6, 1989, 25-year-old Canadian Marc Lépine entered the campus of Polytechnique Montréal and fatally shot 14 women, wounding 10 other women and four men before killing himself on campus. For more than 30 years, the massacre was the deadliest shooting incident in modern Canadian history, until April 2020, when a gunman slew 22 people in the Nova Scotia rampage.
The Polytechnique massacre is commemorated by the Canadian government as the National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women.
Campus
The school's campus is located on the northern face of Mount Royal. Its main building is the highest building on the main campus of the Université de Montréal. The J.-Armand-Bombardier building sits beside the main building and mainly serves for research activities and as an emergence centre for spin-off companies, designed to support the pre-startup of technology-based businesses. The building is named for Joseph-Armand Bombardier, the inventor of the snowmobile.
The Pierre-Lassonde et Claudette MacKay-Lassonde building, home to the Electrical Engineering Department and Computer and Software Engineering Department, was inaugurated in September 2005. This new building won an "Award of Merit" from Canadian Architect magazine in 2003, received a Gold certification from the U.S. Green Building Council and scored 46 on the LEED points scale which was, at inauguration, the highest score ever obtained in Canada. The energy performance of the Lassonde buildings is 60% better than the standard set by the Model National Energy Code of Canada for Buildings.
Organization
Polytechnique is one of the three largest engineering schools in Canada, and the largest one in the province of Quebec. Since its foundation in 1873, this French language educational establishment trains engineers and specialists. The school contributes to the scientific and economic expansion of the region. Its graduates were part of most of Quebec's major engineering works of the 20th century such as the construction of hydroelectric dams. Polytechnique Montréal is in the forefront of engineering in many fields such as aeronautics, computer engineering, telecommunications, biotechnology, nanotechnology, environmental science, artificial intelligence, and many other high-end domains.
Polytechnique offers 12 undergraduate programs, managed by seven departments. Students can choose to specialize in the following disciplines:
Chemical Engineering Department
Chemical Engineering
Civil, geological, mining Engineering Department
Civil Engineering
Geological Engineering
Mining Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
Biomedical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Computer and Software Engineering Department
Computer Engineering
Software Engineering
Mathematics and Industrial Engineering Department
Industrial Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
Aerospace Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Physics Department
Engineering Physics
Biomedical Engineering Institute
Research
Polytechnique is known for its dynamic research, which represented over 40 percent of its budget for the year 2008-2009 (60.5 million CAD research funding). Among the engineering faculties/schools in the U15, Polytechnique Montréal leads the way in many areas of research: number of Canada Research Chairs (No. 1), total NSERC grants (No. 1), number of publications in engineering faculties in Canada (No. 5) and NSERC research grants in partnership with industry (No.1). Forty research units receive more than 20 percent of the funding and contracts for research in the area of applied science given to Quebec's universities.
Students and faculty
Enrolment for 2007 was 3,929 undergraduate and 1,615 graduate students. During the 2003 winter semester there were 5713 students enrolled, of them, 1198 were women and 4515 were men. There were 3997 undergraduates and 1716 graduate students.
220 teachers and 150 researchers are part of the school's community. Well known for the quality of the teaching, approximately 600 diplomas, 200 masters, and 50 doctorates are awarded each year.
Notable alumni of the school include:
Jean-Jacques Archambault, Hydro-Québec engineer who pioneered 735 kV electric transmission lines.
Micheline Bouchard, former Hydro-Québec engineer
Pierre Dufour, Senior Executive Vice-president of Air Liquide
Marc Grégoire, Commissioner of the Canadian Coast Guard
Bernard Lamarre, civil engineer and former CEO of Lavalin and later President of Polytechnique Montréal
Pierre Lassonde, businessman and philanthropist
Marc Parent, CEO of CAE Inc.
Fernand Préfontaine, architect and co-founder of the arts journal Le Nigog
David Saint-Jacques, Canadian astronaut
Paul-Aimé Sauriol, civil engineer and founder of Dessau
Michèle Thibodeau-DeGuire, civil engineer, CEO of Centraide Montreal (1991–2012), Chair of Polytechnique Montréal (2013–2020)
Thierry Vandal, former president and CEO of Hydro-Québec
Former students who have not completed their studies include :
Justin Trudeau, current Prime Minister of Canada
Student life
The school is well known for its vivid student life, including its theatre group Poly-Théâtre and photo club Poly-Photo. Many other groups are present, such as Allo-Poly (humor), Poly-TV, Polyrad, etc. The student newspaper, Le Polyscope was founded in 1967. It publishes weekly during the Quebec school year. It is known around the campus of the Université de Montréal for its irreverent humour, crosswords puzzles, Arts & Entertainment section and "you submit it, we'll publish it" policy.
Polytechnique is also home to various extracurricular technical societies. These student organizations are practical projects aiming to design various technological devices, and include:
Archimède, human-powered submarine;
Avion Cargo, remote controlled cargo plane;
Canoe de béton, canoe exclusively made of concrete;
Élikos, automated drone;
PolySTAR, Robotics Workshops/RoboMaster Competition/Robotics Mentoring;
Esteban, solar-powered electric car ;
Formule Électrique, electric race car;
Formule SAE;
La Machine EPM;
Mini-Baja, dune buggy;
Polybroue, beer brewing;
Poly Games, video games development;
Polyproject, various high technology electronic devices;
PolyCortex, neurotechnologies;
Pont d'acier, small scale steel bridge;
Oronos, small scale rocket;
SAE Robotique;
Smart Bird;
PolyOrbite, small scale satellite;
Polytechnique is famous around Montreal for its beach party, organised by a delegation of students known as Poly-Party. It takes place once every two years during winter (generally in January). Students build a complete "artificial beach" in the cafeteria, by putting loads of sand on the floor and assembling an interior water park with a large swimming pool.
Also, each year, the Poly-World student delegation goes to another country to learn and compare foreign engineering practices. This extracurricular activity helps participating students learn different cultural visions and helps them appreciate the different factors of global competitiveness in the engineering field.
See also
Higher education in Quebec
List of universities in Quebec
Canadian Interuniversity Sport
Canadian government scientific research organizations
Canadian university scientific research organizations
Canadian industrial research and development organizations
References
External links
Official website
The photo club Polyphoto home page
The undergraduate newspaper "Le Polyscope" home page
Poly Party
Poly-Théâtre
Univalor – Technology Transfer company of Ecole polytechnique de Montréal
The Poly-World mission home page
Educational institutions established in 1873
Université de Montréal
Universities and colleges in Montreal
Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce
Engineering universities and colleges in Canada
1873 establishments in Quebec | [
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235315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barro%20Colorado%20Island | Barro Colorado Island | Barro Colorado Island is located in the man-made Gatun Lake in the middle of the Panama Canal. The island was formed when the waters of the Chagres River were dammed to form the lake in 1913. When the waters rose, they covered a significant part of the existing tropical forest, but certain hilltops remained as islands in the middle of the lake. It has an area of .
The island was set aside as a nature reserve on April 17, 1923 by the U.S. Government. Initially administered by the Panama Canal Company under the direction of James Zetek, since 1946 Barro Colorado Island has been administered by the Smithsonian, together with five adjacent peninsulas, as the Barro Colorado Nature Monument. This Monument has an area of 54 km2. It is among the most-studied areas of tropical forest in the world. The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) has a permanent research center on the island, dedicated to studying tropical forest ecosystems. Because the Island's diverse ecosystem has been very little altered by humans, Barro Colorado has been studied for over eighty years within a great variety of biological disciplines. Only the larger fauna disappeared from Barro Colorado after the lake was flooded in 1914. Many scientific studies have been conducted to document the changes in the species composition of the island.
Hundreds of scientists conduct research projects on Barro Colorado Island every year.
In 1978, Thomas Croat published his Flora of Barro Colorado Island documenting the plant species on the island. In 1999, Egbert Giles Leigh, who first visited the island in 1966, and now spends half his week there, published Tropical Forest Ecology : A View from Barro Colorado Island. In 2002 The Tapir's Morning Bath by Elizabeth Royte was published, chronicling the lives and work of scientists working on the island.
National Geographic produced a documentary featuring the Barro Colorado Island titled World's Last Great Places: Rain Forests released in 2007. The first selection, titled Panama Wild: Rain Forest of Life features scientists from the Smithsonian's Tropical Research Institute and also highlights the battles for survival and partnerships among species within this rich ecosystem.
Forest dynamics plot
In 1980, a 50-ha forest dynamics plot was established on Barro Colorado Island by researchers from STRI and Princeton University. The first census was conducted in 1982 and recorded every free-standing tree and shrub in the plot of more than 1-cm dbh, totalling approximately 240,000 stems of 303 different species. It has been recensused every 5 years since 1985, allowing scientists to study the normal dynamics of the forest, as well as extreme events, such as El Niño. Another 50 ha plot was later established in the Pasoh forest reserve, Malaysia in 1987, allowing the dynamics of two distinct tropical forests to be compared.
Visiting
Visitors are allowed on Barro Colorado Island. Access is, however, regulated by STRI. To visit the island, people must make a reservation with the staff and arrange for a tour. Tours generally include transportation to and from the island (often by boat from Gamboa), a 2–3 hour guided hike, lunch, and a visit to the museum. Hikes through the island offer the opportunity to spot several animals including monkeys, anteaters, birds and insects.
National Emergency
U.S. federal law states that the natural features of the island shall "be left in their natural state for scientific observation and investigation", "except in event of declared national emergency."
References
External links
Biological research institutes
Nature reserves
Lake islands of Panama | [
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235319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiona%20Shaw | Fiona Shaw | Fiona Shaw (born Fiona Mary Wilson; 10 July 1958) is an Irish actress and theatre and opera director. She is known for her roles as Petunia Dursley in the Harry Potter film series (2001–2010), Marnie Stonebrook in the fourth season of the HBO series True Blood (2011), and Carolyn Martens in the BBC series Killing Eve (2018–present).
For her performance in Killing Eve, Shaw won the 2019 BAFTA TV Award for Best Supporting Actress. For her performances in the second seasons of Killing Eve and Fleabag, she received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series and Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series respectively. For the third season of Killing Eve, she was again nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
Shaw has worked extensively with the Royal Shakespeare Company and the National Theatre. She won the 1990 Olivier Award for Best Actress for various roles, including Electra, the 1994 Olivier Award for Best Actress for Machinal, and the 1997 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Solo Performance for The Waste Land. Her other stage work includes playing the title role in Medea in the West End and on Broadway (2001–2002). She was awarded an Honorary CBE in 2001. In 2020, she was listed at No. 29 on The Irish Times list of Ireland's greatest film actors.
Early life
Shaw was born Fiona Mary Wilson on 10 July 1958 in Cobh, County Cork, the daughter of physicist Mary T. (Flynn) Wilson and ophthalmic surgeon Denis Joseph Wilson (1922–2011), who wed in 1952. They maintained a home in Montenotte. She attended secondary school at Scoil Mhuire in Cork, and received her degree in philosophy at University College Cork.
Shaw's father, Denis Wilson, studied medicine at University College Cork where he played rugby. He worked for a short time as a GP in London before training to be an ophthalmologist as the Manchester Royal Infirmary in 1960. On his return to Cork he was appointed to the Eye, Ear and Throat Hospital, where he worked until his retirement, which coincided with the transfer of the eye unit to Cork University Hospital. He taught at UCC and the RCSI. After retiring he wrote De Iron Trote, a history of the Eye, Ear and Throat Hospital and continued his interest in the arts by studying for a Diploma in Art History at UCC.
Career
Acting
Shaw trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in London and was part of a "new wave" of actors to emerge from RADA. She received much acclaim as Julia in the National Theatre production of Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The Rivals (1983). Her theatrical roles include Celia in As You Like It (1984), Madame de Volanges in Les Liaisons Dangereuses (1985), Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew (1987), Lady Franjul in The New Inn (1987), Young Woman in Machinal (1993), for which she won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress, Winnie in Happy Days (2007), and the title roles in Electra (1988), The Good Person of Sechuan (1989), Hedda Gabler (1991), The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1998) and Medea (2000). She performed T. S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land as a one-person show at the Liberty Theatre in New York to great acclaim in 1996, winning the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding One-Person Show for her performance. She played Miss Morrison in the 1984 The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes episode "The Adventure of the Crooked Man" and Catherine Greenshaw in Agatha Christie's Marple episode "Greenshaw's Folly" in 2013.
Shaw notably played the male lead in Richard II, directed by Deborah Warner in 1995. Shaw has collaborated with Warner on a number of occasions, on both stage and screen. Shaw has also worked in film and television, including My Left Foot (1989), Mountains of the Moon (1990), Three Men and a Little Lady (1990), Super Mario Bros. (1993), Undercover Blues (1993), Persuasion (1995), Jane Eyre (1996), The Butcher Boy (1997), The Avengers (1998), Gormenghast (2000), and five of the Harry Potter films in which she played Harry Potter's aunt. Shaw had a brief but key role in Brian DePalma's The Black Dahlia (2006).
In 2009, Shaw collaborated with Deborah Warner again, taking the lead role in Tony Kushner's translation of Bertolt Brecht's Mother Courage and Her Children. In a 2002 article for The Daily Telegraph, Rupert Christiansen described their professional relationship as "surely one of the most richly creative partnerships in theatrical history." Other collaborations between the two women include productions of Brecht's The Good Woman of Szechuan and Ibsen's Hedda Gabler, the latter was adapted for television.
Shaw appeared in The Waste Land at Wilton's Music Hall in January 2010 and in a National Theatre revival of London Assurance in March 2010. In November 2010, Shaw starred in Ibsen's John Gabriel Borkman at the Abbey Theatre, Dublin alongside Alan Rickman and Lindsay Duncan. The play was also staged in New York's Brooklyn Academy of Music in 2011. In 2012, Shaw appeared in the National Theatre revival of Scenes from an Execution by Howard Barker. The world's largest solo theatre festival, United Solo, recognized her performance in The Testament of Mary on Broadway with the 2013 United Solo Special Award.
Shaw appeared in season four of American TV show True Blood. Shaw's character, Marnie Stonebrook, has been described as an underachieving palm reader who is spiritually possessed by an actual witch. Her character leads a coven of necromancer witches who threaten the status quo in Bon Temps, erasing most of Eric Northman's memories and leaving him almost helpless when he tries to kill her and break up their coven. In 2018, Shaw began portraying Carolyn Martens, the head of MI6's Russia-focused branch, in BBC America's Killing Eve. For her performance, she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Television Series. Later the same year, she played a senior MI6 officer in Mrs Wilson.
Personal life
Shaw is gay, although she had dated men for many years before realising her sexual orientation, stating “It was a shock. I was full of self-hatred and thought I would come back into the fold shortly. But I just didn’t.”
A Catholic, from 2002 to 2005, Shaw was the partner of English-born American actress Saffron Burrows. She met Sri Lankan economist Sonali Deraniyagala after reading Deraniyagala's memoir, and they married in 2018.
Filmography
Film
Television
Other projects
When Love Speaks (2002, EMI Classics): "It is thy will thy image should keep open"
Simon Schama's John Donne: 2009
Awards and nominations
References
External links
World Theatre – Working in the Theatre Seminar video at American Theatre Wing.org, January 2002
Fiona Shaw interviewed by Sophie Elmhirst on New Statesman, September 2009
Fiona Shaw (director) on Operabase
1958 births
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
Alumni of University College Cork
Lesbian actresses
Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners
Drama Desk Award winners
Honorary Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Irish film actresses
Irish stage actresses
Irish television actresses
Irish theatre directors
Irish voice actresses
Audiobook narrators
Irish Shakespearean actresses
Living people
Irish opera directors
Laurence Olivier Award winners
People from County Cork
Royal Shakespeare Company members
20th-century Irish actresses
21st-century Irish actresses
LGBT entertainers from Ireland
LGBT Roman Catholics
Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award (television) winners
Theatre World Award winners | [
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235321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick%20Nielsen | Rick Nielsen | Richard Alan Nielsen (born December 22, 1948) is an American musician, singer-songwriter, best known as the lead guitarist, primary songwriter, and leader of the American rock band Cheap Trick. He is well-known for his numerous custom-made guitars from Hamer Guitars, including his famous five-neck guitar.
Career
Nielsen was born into a musical family, with both parents being opera singers. His father, Ralph Nielsen, also directed symphonies, choirs and recorded over forty solo albums. During Rick's teens, the family owned a music store in Rockford, Illinois, and he learned to play a number of instruments. After playing drums for six years, Rick changed direction, learning how to play guitar and keyboards.
His first school band was The Phaetons, which mutated into The Grim Reapers (which later included Tom Petersson in its line up). The Grim Reapers became Fuse which released one poorly received studio album before disbanding in 1970. Nielsen joined Nazz for a short time (replacing Todd Rundgren) before forming the short-lived Sick Man of Europe in Philadelphia in 1972 with Tom Petersson, and drummer Bun E. Carlos joining soon after. In 1973, Nielsen, together with Carlos, formed Cheap Trick. Petersson joined later that year, and Robin Zander joined in the fall of 1974. Nielsen wrote almost all of the songs for Cheap Trick's first few albums.
Nielsen has enjoyed many highlights with Cheap Trick, including having a #1 US single, "The Flame." Nielsen and Carlos were invited to record a session on August 12, 1980, with John Lennon for his upcoming Double Fantasy album. Their contributions did not appear on the released album, only becoming officially available in 1998.
Appearance
Nielsen's on-stage appearance is influenced by Huntz Hall of The Bowery Boys; he wears a flipped up old style ball cap, his face resembles Hall's, and some of Nielsen's on-stage antics have been compared to Hall's. Nielsen is also well known for wearing a bowtie.
Nielsen's image moved away from the cartoonish look of the ‘70s in the mid 1990s, when he sported a mustache, goatee beard (often with a long braid) and dark glasses which gave him a mildly sinister look. That image changed again on March 9, 2001, when he shaved the beard and mustache off during the encore break at a show at hometown Rockford's Coronado Theater. Since then, Nielsen has retained the clean shaven look, together with designer suits. In the late 2000s, he started wearing bowties again on stage.
TV and movie appearances and radio broadcasts
Nielsen has made countless TV appearances and radio broadcasts over the years with Cheap Trick, on music shows around the world, as well as American late night shows with Conan O'Brien, Jay Leno and David Letterman.
Outside of Cheap Trick, Nielsen's credits include appearing as a hijacked car driver in the 1987 movie Disorderlies. He and his wife appeared on HGTV's "Homes of Note" in the early 1990s. In 1997, he appeared in Michael Moore's documentary The Big One. Nielsen appeared on an episode of The History Channel's show American Pickers Season 8, Episode 9, that originally aired on March 11, 2013. The show followed the standard format with the show's two stars, Mike Wolfe and Frank Fritz, picking Nielsen's various storage units full of items he has acquired through his years on tour.
On April 6, 2013 Nielsen appeared on an episode of NPR's Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me! show as a guest on the segment called "Not My Job".
In 2013, Nielsen appeared in Dave Grohl's documentary Sound City. In 2014, he appeared on the first episode of Foo Fighters: Sonic Highways, which focused on the city of Chicago. On October 17, 2014, Nielsen appeared on CBS's Late Show with David Letterman, playing with the Foo Fighters.
In 2016, Nielsen made an appearance on the 75th episode of Live from Daryl's House with Robin Zander, and Tom Petersson. The episode aired May 5 on MTV Live and May 15 on LFDH.com.
Work with other artists
Rick has guested on albums by artists such as Glen Campbell, Buck Satan and The 666 Shooters, The Yardbirds, John Lennon, Hall & Oates ('Alley Katz' from the 'Along the Red Ledge' LP), Mötley Crüe, Foo Fighters, Miles Nielsen & the Rusted Hearts, Alice Cooper, Gene Simmons, Material Issue, House of Lords, Hanson and others, while Nielsen-written songs have been recorded by artists such as Rick Derringer, and House of Lords.
Other
Rick displayed 34 of his guitars at a free exhibition "Customised Culture – Cars, Guitars, and Lowbrow Art" at the Rockford Art Museum, in Rockford, Illinois in February and April 2002.
On April 23, 2012, Nielsen and the Board of the Burpee Museum of Natural History in Rockford unveiled plans for "Rick's Picks: A Lifelong Affair with Guitars and Music”, an ambitious exhibit displaying Nielsen's passions for guitars, music and rock & roll. The exhibit ran from August 11, 2012 to April 14, 2013, attracting people from all over the world. Visitors were able to see a huge collection of Nielsen's guitars, personal items, stage clothing and Cheap Trick memorabilia, and listen to rare audio material.
Nielsen involves himself widely in the local community in hometown Rockford, for example, being involved with the Rockford Icehogs charitable foundation. In addition, he was a major supporter of the renovation of the Coronado Theater, and one balcony seat is covered in black and white checkerboard in his honour.
Nielsen is co-owner of Chicago's Piece brewery and gourmet pizzeria.
Rick Nielsen is a celebrity spokesperson for ROCK'N Vodka. ROCK'N Vodka also partnered with Rick Nielson, Josh Bilicki and Insurance King at the Daytona International Speedway on August 15, 2020 where Bilicki drove the Insurance King and ROCK'N Vodka car during the Daytona Road Course and placed 12th.
Equipment
Nielsen has owned about two thousand guitars over the years and as of 2018 had about 500 instruments.
Guitars
Fender Custom
Gibson Explorers
Gibson Les Pauls
Gretsch Malcolm Young Signature Guitar
Hamer Guitars
Gretsch White Penguin
Guild Merle Travis
Amplifiers
Fender Deluxe Reverb
Fender Blues Deville
Gibson isolation cab (for stage use)
Effects & Misc.
Crybaby Rack Mount Wah
Shure Wireless Units
Audiotech Guitar Products Source Selector 1X6 Rack Mount Audio Switcher used for switching between guitars.
Discography
References
Hayes, Mike, with Ken Sharp, (1998) Reputation is a Fragile Thing, Poptastic,
Further reading
External links
Official website
Rick Nielsen Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2017)
Living people
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
Songwriters from Illinois
Musicians from Rockford, Illinois
Cheap Trick members
Lead guitarists
1948 births
Power pop musicians
American people of Danish descent
People from Elmhurst, Illinois
Guitarists from Illinois
20th-century American guitarists | [
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235323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Keaton | Michael Keaton | Michael John Douglas (born September 5, 1951), known professionally as Michael Keaton, is an American actor. He is best known for portraying the DC Comics superhero Bruce Wayne / Batman in the films Batman (1989), Batman Returns (1992), and the upcoming The Flash and Batgirl (both 2022), as well as Jack Butler in Mr. Mom (1983), Betelgeuse in Beetlejuice (1988), and Adrian Toomes / Vulture in Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017) and the upcoming Morbius (2022).
His breakout role was as fast-talking schemer Bill "Blaze" Blazejowski in the 1982 film Night Shift (which was also Ron Howard's second job as a director). He later appeared in a variety of films ranging from dramas and romantic comedies to thriller and action films, such as Clean and Sober (1989), Much Ado About Nothing (1993), The Paper (1994), Multiplicity (1996), Jackie Brown (1997), Herbie: Fully Loaded (2005), The Other Guys (2010), Spotlight (2015), The Founder (2016), Dumbo (2019), The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020) and Worth (2021). He has also provided voices for characters in animated films such as Porco Rosso (1992), Cars (2006), Toy Story 3 (2010), and Minions (2015). In 2021, he starred in the limited series Dopesick on Hulu.
In 2014, Keaton garnered critical acclaim for his performance in Alejandro González Iñárritu's black comedy film Birdman, winning a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor—Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and receiving a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. He had previously received a Golden Globe Award nomination for his performance in Live from Baghdad (2002) and five Screen Actors Guild Award nominations, which ultimately yielded three wins for his performances in Birdman (2014), Spotlight (2015), and The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020).
Keaton was honored with a Career Achievement Award from the Hollywood Film Festival. On January 18, 2016, he was named Officer of Order of Arts and Letters in France. He is also a visiting scholar at Carnegie Mellon University.
Early life
Michael John Douglas, the youngest of seven children, was born at Ohio Valley Hospital in Kennedy Township, Pennsylvania, on September 5, 1951. He was raised between McKees Rocks, Coraopolis and Robinson Township, Pennsylvania. His father, George A. Douglas (1905–1977), worked as a civil engineer and surveyor, and his mother, Leona Elizabeth (née Loftus; 1909–2002), was a homemaker, and came from McKees Rocks. Keaton was raised in a Catholic family. His mother was of Irish descent, while his father was of Scottish, Scotch-Irish, German and English ancestry, and was originally from a Protestant family. Keaton attended Montour High School in Robinson Township, Pennsylvania. He graduated with a Class of 1969, and studied Speech for two years at Kent State University, where he appeared in plays, and returned to Pennsylvania to pursue his career.
Career
1975–1982: Early work
Keaton first appeared on TV in the Pittsburgh public television programs Where the Heart Is and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1975). For Mister Rogers he played one of the "Flying Zookeeni Brothers" and served as a full-time production assistant. (In 2004, after Fred Rogers' death, Keaton hosted a PBS memorial tribute, Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor.) Keaton also worked as an actor in Pittsburgh theatre; he played the role of Rick in the Pittsburgh premiere of David Rabe's Sticks and Bones with the Pittsburgh Poor Players. He also performed stand-up comedy during his early years to supplement his income.
Keaton left Pittsburgh and moved to Los Angeles to begin auditioning for various TV parts. He popped up in various popular TV shows including Maude and The Mary Tyler Moore Hour. He decided to use a stage name to satisfy SAG rules, as there was already an actor (Michael Douglas) and daytime host (Mike Douglas) with the same or similar names. In response to questions as to whether he selected his new surname due to an attraction to actress Diane Keaton, or in homage to silent film actor Buster Keaton, he has responded by saying "it had nothing to do with that." Keaton has said in several interviews that he searched a phone book under "K," saw "Keaton" and decided to stop looking. Keaton's film debut came in a small non-speaking role in the Joan Rivers film Rabbit Test.
His next big break was working alongside Jim Belushi in the short-lived comedy series Working Stiffs, which showcased his comedic talent and led to a co-starring role in the comedy Night Shift directed by Ron Howard. This was his breakout role as the fast-talking schemer Bill "Blaze" Blazejowski and earned Keaton some critical acclaim.
1983–1988: Stardom as a comic lead
Night Shift led to Keaton becoming a leading man in the landmark comedy hit Mr. Mom, which was met with universal acclaim. Keaton was pigeonholed as a comic lead during this time with films like Johnny Dangerously, Gung Ho, The Squeeze, and The Dream Team, though Keaton tried to transition to dramatic leads as early as 1984, playing a hockey player in Touch and Go, which was shelved until 1986. Woody Allen cast Keaton as the lead in The Purple Rose of Cairo the following year, but after filming began Allen felt Keaton was "too modern" and reshot his scenes with Jeff Daniels in the final film, further delaying his transition to drama in the public eye. When Touch and Go was finally released in 1986 the studio was still unsure of how to market the film, making the poster, trailer and tv spots similar to Mr. Mom, which resulted the film not finding its target audience.
1988 was the seminal year in Keaton's career where he landed two major unconventional roles, forever changing his image to audiences. He played the title character in Tim Burton's horror-comedy Beetlejuice, earning Keaton widespread acclaim and boosting him to Hollywood's A list. That same year, he also gave an acclaimed dramatic performance as a drug-addicted realtor in Glenn Gordon Caron's Clean and Sober.
1989–1999: Breakthrough as a dramatic lead
Keaton's career was given another major boost when he was again cast by Tim Burton, this time as the title comic book superhero of 1989's Batman. Warner Bros. received thousands of letters of complaint by fans who believed Keaton was the wrong choice to portray Batman. However, Keaton's performance in the role ultimately earned widespread acclaim from both critics and audiences, and Batman became one of the most successful films of 1989.
According to Les Daniels's reference book Batman: The Complete History, Keaton was not surprised when he was first considered as Batman as he initially believed the film would be similar to the 1960s television series starring Adam West. It was only after he was introduced to Frank Miller's comic book miniseries, The Dark Knight Returns, that Keaton really understood the dark and brooding side of Batman that he portrayed to much fan approval. Keaton later reprised the role for the sequel Batman Returns (1992), which was another critically acclaimed success. He was initially set to reprise the role again for a third Batman film, even going as far as to show up for costume fitting. However, when Burton was dropped as director of the film, Keaton left the franchise as well. He was reportedly dissatisfied with the screenplay approved by the new director, Joel Schumacher. According to the A&E Biography episode on Keaton, after he had refused the first time (after meetings with Schumacher), Warner Bros. offered him $15 million, but Keaton steadfastly refused and was replaced by Val Kilmer in Batman Forever (1995).
Keaton remained active during the 1990s, appearing in a wide range of films, including Pacific Heights, One Good Cop, My Life and the star-studded Shakespearean story Much Ado About Nothing. He starred in The Paper and Multiplicity, and twice in the same role, that of Elmore Leonard character Agent Ray Nicolette, in the films Jackie Brown and Out of Sight. He made the family holiday movie Jack Frost and the thriller Desperate Measures. Keaton starred as a political candidate's speechwriter in 1994's Speechless.
2000–2014: Later work
In the early 2000s, Keaton appeared in several films with mixed success, including Live From Baghdad (for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe award), First Daughter (playing the President of the United States), White Noise and Herbie: Fully Loaded. While he continued to receive good notices from the critics (particularly for Jackie Brown), he was not able to re-approach the box-office success of Batman until the release of Disney/Pixar's Cars (2006), in which he voiced Chick Hicks, a green race car with a mustache, who frequently loses his patience with losing to his longtime rival, Strip Weathers, a.k.a The King, voiced by Richard Petty. On New Year's Day of 2004, he hosted the PBS TV special Mr. Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor. It was released by Triumph Marketing LLC on DVD September 28, 2004. In 2006, he starred in Game 6, about the 1986 World Series bid by the Boston Red Sox. He had a cameo in the Tenacious D short film Time Fixers, an iTunes exclusive. The 9-minute film was released to coincide with Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny. Keaton reportedly was cast as Jack Shephard in the series Lost, with the understanding that the role of Jack would be a brief one. Once the role was retooled to be a long-running series regular, Keaton withdrew. The part was then given to actor Matthew Fox. The show ran for six seasons, with the Shephard role continuing throughout.
Keaton starred in the 2007 TV miniseries The Company, set during the Cold War, in which he portrayed the real-life CIA counterintelligence chief James Jesus Angleton. The role garnered Keaton a 2008 Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries. Keaton provided the voice of Ken in Toy Story 3 (2010). The film received overwhelmingly positive acclaim and grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it one of the most financially successful films ever. He announced in June 2010 his interest in returning for a Beetlejuice sequel. He played Captain Gene Mauch in the comedy The Other Guys. In 2014 he played the OmniCorp CEO Raymond Sellars in the RoboCop remake as a more active antagonist, taking RoboCop's wife and child hostage, forcing Joel Kinnaman's character to struggle to overcome the 4th directive.
2014–present: Career resurgence
Keaton starred alongside Zach Galifianakis, Edward Norton, Emma Stone, and Naomi Watts in Alejandro González Iñárritu's Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014), playing Riggan Thomson, a screen actor, famous for playing the iconic titular superhero, who puts on a Broadway play based on a Raymond Carver short story to regain his former glory. He won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy for his portrayal of Thomson and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. In 2015, Keaton appeared as Walter V. Robinson in Tom McCarthy's Academy Award-winning film Spotlight, and in 2016, he starred as businessman Ray Kroc in the biopic The Founder. On July 28, 2016, Keaton was honored with the 2,585th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to film. The star is located at 6931 Hollywood, Blvd.
In 2017, Keaton played the supervillain The Vulture in Spider-Man: Homecoming; while making this film, Keaton was unable to reprise his role as Chick Hicks for Disney/Pixar's Cars 3 and was replaced by Bob Peterson. Keaton later portrayed Stan Hurley in American Assassin. In 2019, he played the villain in Disney's live-action adaptation of Dumbo directed by Tim Burton, co-starring with Colin Farrell and Eva Green. In 2020, Keaton played U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark in The Trial of the Chicago 7, a legal drama directed by Aaron Sorkin about seven anti-Vietnam protesters charged with inciting riots in 1968. In 2021, Keaton starred as American lawyer Kenneth Feinberg in the Netflix biographical drama film Worth.
On 27 February 2022, Keaton won the award for outstanding performance by a male actor in a television movie or limited series onstage at the Barker Hangar in Santa Monica, California, at the 28th Annual Screen Actors Guild (SAG) Awards, for Hulu's Dopesick.
Upcoming
It has been reported that Keaton will star in Goodrich, a film about a man whose second wife suddenly leaves him, forcing him to take sole care of their nine-year-old twins. Directed by Hallie Meyers-Shyer, filming was set to commence on October 1, 2019. He will also appear in the film Morbius, scheduled to be released on January 28, 2022. In June 2020, Keaton entered talks to reprise his role as Batman/Bruce Wayne in the DC Extended Universe's upcoming superhero film, The Flash, which is scheduled to be released on November 4, 2022, after last playing the role in 1992. In August 2020, it was reported that Keaton would be reprising his role as Bruce Wayne/Batman, though Keaton disputed these claims on October 21 and again on March 22, 2021, stating that it was not confirmed. However, on April 19, 2021, Keaton's talent agency, ICM Partners, officially confirmed his involvement with the film when production had officially begun. He will also reprise the character in Batgirl film starring Leslie Grace set for a release on HBO Max.
Personal life
Keaton was married to Caroline McWilliams from 1982 to 1990. They have a son, Sean, born in 1983. He had a relationship with actress Courteney Cox from 1989 to 1995.
Keaton, a longtime Pittsburgh resident and fan of its sports teams, negotiated a break in his Batman movie contract in case the Pittsburgh Pirates made the playoffs that year, although they ultimately did not. He also wrote an ESPN blog on the Pirates during the final months of their 2013 season.
In the 1980s, Keaton bought a ranch near Big Timber, Montana, where he spends much of his time. An avid fisherman, he is often seen on the saltwater fishing series Buccaneers & Bones on Outdoor Channel, along with Tom Brokaw, Zach Gilford, Thomas McGuane and Yvon Chouinard, among others.
Keaton endorsed Hillary Clinton for President in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election.
In 2019, he appeared in a PETA ad campaign, asking tourists not to visit operations that exploit animals, such as roadside zoos which sometimes offer the opportunity to get selfies with wild animals.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Honorary degrees
Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Kent State University in 2018
Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Carnegie Mellon University in 2017
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1951 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
Best Actor AACTA International Award winners
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners
Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead winners
Kent State University alumni
Male actors from Pittsburgh
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from Coraopolis, Pennsylvania
People from Sweet Grass County, Montana | [
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235324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonny%20Lee%20Miller | Jonny Lee Miller | Jonathan Lee Miller (born 15 November 1972) is an English film, television and theatre actor. He achieved early success for his portrayal of Simon "Sick Boy" Williamson in the dark comedy drama film Trainspotting (1996) and as Dade Murphy in Hackers (1995) before earning further critical recognition for his performances in Afterglow (1997), Mansfield Park (1999), The Flying Scotsman (2006), Endgame (2009) and T2 Trainspotting (2017); for The Flying Scotsman he received a London Film Critics' Circle nomination for Actor of the Year. He was also part of the principal cast in the films Melinda and Melinda (2004), Dark Shadows (2012) and Byzantium (2013). He has appeared in several theatrical productions, most notably After Miss Julie and Frankenstein, the latter of which earned him an Olivier Award for Best Actor.
Miller starred as the title character in the ABC comedy-drama Eli Stone, for which he received a Satellite Award nomination for Best Actor. This was followed by another starring role in the BBC costume drama Emma and a supporting role as Jordan Chase in the fifth season of the Showtime drama Dexter. From 2012 to 2019 he starred as a modern-day version of Sherlock Holmes in the CBS crime drama Elementary, which earned him his second Satellite Award nomination for Best Actor.
Early life
Miller was born on 15 November 1972 in Kingston-upon-Thames and was raised in south west London. The son of Anna (Lee) and Alan Miller, he was inspired by his parents to go into acting. Both were theatre actors. His grandfather was actor Bernard Lee, who played M in the first eleven James Bond films.
Miller attended Tiffin School as a child. He appeared in several school plays such as The Ragged Child and performed as part of the Tiffin Swing Band. He joined the National Youth Music Theatre, where he met fellow actor Jude Law. He left school, aged 16 after taking his GCSEs, to pursue an acting career.
Career
Television
Miller made his television debut with an uncredited appearance in the BBC series Doctor Who at the age of nine in the 1982 episode Kinda. The following year he appeared in Jemima Shore and had a role as Charles Price in the serial drama Mansfield Park. In 1991, he costarred, with Alexei Sayle in "'Itch", which was broadcast on Channel 4 as part of the 4 Play strand, a platform for a series of one-off plays that ran from 1989 to 1991. The play was written by Alexei Sayle and David Stafford. Miller played "Dennis Turnbull", the teenaged son of Gordon and Susan Turnbull. He then appeared in various television shows throughout the 1990s. These included Keeping Up Appearances in 1990, followed by Inspector Morse and Minder in 1991. He appeared in two separate guest roles in the ITV police drama The Bill, one in 1991 and another in 1993, as well as single-episode roles in the BBC drama Between the Lines and the medical drama Casualty, both of which were broadcast in 1992.
In 1993's third instalment of Prime Suspect, Miller played a young man victimised as a child by a paedophile. His first notable acting role that year was in the soap opera EastEnders wherein he played Jonathan Hewitt. Miller later revealed he had been offered a contract to remain on the show but declined: "It was five weeks' work and I made more money there than I ever had in my life. Then they offered me a year's contract. I said no, thank God. I thought I should get out of there while I still could."
In 2003, Miller appeared in the BBC modernisation of The Canterbury Tales in the episode The Pardoner's Tale and had a starring role as Lord Byron in the television film Byron. He then starred alongside Ray Liotta in the CBS drama Smith. However, the show was canceled after only seven episodes. Miller was then cast as the eponymous character in the legal comedy-drama Eli Stone. The show ran for two seasons on ABC and he received a Satellite Award nomination for Best Actor. He then starred in the BBC costume drama Emma as George Knightley.
Miller appeared in a guest role as Jordan Chase in the fifth season of the Showtime drama Dexter, for which he received a nomination for Screen Actors Guild Award for being part of the main cast in the category of Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. In early 2010, it was reported he was set to portray Rick Grimes in the television adaptation of the comic The Walking Dead. It was later revealed that Andrew Lincoln had been cast. In 2011, Miller auditioned for the role of Sherlock Holmes in the CBS adaption based on the works of Arthur Conan Doyle. He originally turned down the part, as he feared it would be too similar to the BBC version Sherlock. However, after receiving the script he accepted the part, and it was officially announced he would star in Elementary, alongside Lucy Liu. This earned him his second Satellite Award nomination for Best Actor.
In 2021, it was announced that he was to star in season five of The Crown, as former British Prime Minister, John Major.
Film
He first starred in the film Hackers (1995), with Angelina Jolie, whom he married in 1996. Shortly after Hackers, Miller was cast as Sick Boy in Trainspotting. He was suggested for the role by Ewan McGregor. The accent he used in the film was regarded as convincing, leading some people to incorrectly believe that he was Scottish. Miller has stated: "I had to do a lot of work. I read and re-read the book and I pretended to be Scottish all the time I was in Glasgow, hanging around with Scots, picking up bits and pieces on the street and in bars. Everyone's been very encouraging and Danny thinks that I've got it about right. Of course, the others are from all over Scotland and have different accents themselves, so I've tried to just pick up a general, composite accent."
In 1997, he played Billy Prior in the film adaptation of Pat Barker's World War I novel Regeneration. In 2000, he played Cameron Colley in Complicity, based on the book by Iain Banks. He costarred in the film Love, Honour and Obey as Johnny, a London street kid getting mixed up with a notorious British gangster. Also in 2000, he appeared as Simon Sheppard in Wes Craven's Dracula 2000. In 2006 Miller portrayed cyclist Graeme Obree in The Flying Scotsman.
He was considered as the third teammate to join Ben Fogle and James Cracknell in Team QinetiQ for the Amundsen Omega 3 South Pole Race in January 2009. He participated in training for the event in Norway, which was televised for a BBC2 documentary series On Thin Ice. He was not able to attend the race because of filming commitments, after Eli Stone was extended for a second season.
In 1997, he was involved with the creation and operation of the production company Natural Nylon with friend Jude Law. Natural Nylon folded in 2003.
Theatre
In November 1999, he played Brito in Paul Corcoran's Four Nights in Knaresborough at the Tricycle Theatre, London. In March 2011, at the Royal National Theatre, he played both Victor Frankenstein and Frankenstein's Monster on alternate nights, opposite Benedict Cumberbatch, in a stage adaptation of Frankenstein. Directed by Danny Boyle, the play was broadcast to cinemas worldwide as part of National Theatre Live on 17 March 2011 and additional dates throughout March and April. He also appeared on Broadway in a production of After Miss Julie, with his performance receiving very positive reviews. In March 2004, he played Christian in Festen by David Eldridge at The Almeida Theatre in London.
Awards and honours
Laurence Olivier Award (2012)
Satellite Award (2008, 2012)
IQ Award (2014)
Initially Edward Snowden had been nominated by Mensa members, and the IQ commission had approved his nomination, the managing board of Mensa revoked Snowden's nomination because "Mensa is not allowed to comment on political issues." In protest, Miller was then proposed by one member, for his portrayal of Sherlock Holmes. He won the most votes to take the award.
Personal life
Miller married actress Angelina Jolie on 28 March 1996. They separated 18 months later and were divorced in 2000; however, they remain close friends. He began dating actress and model Michele Hicks in 2006. They married in July 2008 in Malibu, California. The couple have one son, Buster Timothy Miller, born in December 2008. They divorced in 2018.
He is a marathon runner, often supporting the charity Mencap. Miller was signed up to run the 2006 Marathon des Sables, but had to drop out due to shooting a film. He ran the 2008 London Marathon in 3:01:40. Miller is an advocate to finding treatment for the disease Sanfilippo syndrome, following a case with five-year-old Jonah Weishaar. In 2014, he addressed the Congressional caucus in Washington, D.C., on behalf of rare disease organisations, in the hope of securing funding for treatment research.
In November 2014, he became an American citizen.
Muay Thai
Miller has trained in both Muay Thai and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu at Evolution Muay Thai in New York City. In May 2018, he took part in an exhibition Muay Thai bout held at Chok Sabai Gym in New York City, which followed a five-week training camp leading up to the event.
On 1 February 2019, Miller made his Muay Thai debut at "Friday Night Fights" held at Broad Street Ballroom in New York City, where he took on Robert Bermudez in the scheduled-for-three-rounds 145-pound bout. Miller won the fight by knockout in the third round with a right cross – left hook combination.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
Awards and nominations
Kickboxing record
Legend:
See also
List of actors who have played Sherlock Holmes
List of British actors
List of people from Kingston upon Thames
References
External links
1972 births
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Male actors from London
English expatriates in the United States
English male film actors
English male soap opera actors
English male stage actors
English male child actors
Laurence Olivier Award winners
British expatriate male actors in the United States
Living people
People educated at Tiffin School
People from Kingston upon Thames | [
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235325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2010 | U.S. Route 10 | U.S. Route 10 or U.S. Highway 10 (US 10) is an east–west United States highway located in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions of the United States. Unlike most U.S. routes with "0" as the last digit of its route number, US 10 is not a cross-country highway. US 10 was one of the original long-haul highways, running from Detroit, Michigan, to Seattle, Washington, but then lost much of its length when new Interstate Highways were built on top of its right-of-way. In 2010, its length was .
US 10 used to be broken into two segments by Lake Michigan. In 2015, the ferry SS Badger between Ludington, Michigan, and Manitowoc, Wisconsin, was officially designated as part of the highway. The ferry operates only between May and October.
The eastern terminus of US 10 is in Bay City, Michigan, at its interchange with Interstate 75 (I-75) (near US 10's milepost 139 and I-75's milepost 162). The western terminus of US 10 is in the city of West Fargo, North Dakota, at its interchange with I-94.
Route description
North Dakota
In the state of North Dakota, US 10 runs for about , from I-94/US 52 at Exit 343 to the Red River of the North. It is one of the primary east–west streets in West Fargo and Fargo, and is called Main Avenue for its entire length in North Dakota. At the Red River, US 10 crosses over a bridge to Moorhead, Minnesota.
Minnesota
US 10 is a major divided highway for almost all of its length in Minnesota. The road enters Minnesota in Moorhead and travels through Detroit Lakes, Wadena, Staples, Little Falls, St. Cloud, Elk River. It becomes a freeway in Anoka and passes through the northern suburbs of Minneapolis and St. Paul, It enters St. Paul paired with I-35E and exits St. Paul paired with US 61. It leaves US 61 just north of Hastings, shortly before entering into Wisconsin.
Wisconsin
US 10 enters Wisconsin at Prescott and travels southeastward passing Durand, Neillsville, Marshfield, Stevens Point, and Appleton before reaching its eastern terminus near the Lake Michigan shore in Manitowoc. Ferry service between the western and eastern portions of US 10 is provided between May and October by the ferry S.S. Badger. US 10 is now a 4 lane divided highway from State Trunk Highway 80 (STH 80) south of Marshfield to I-39. This allows travelers to bypass Auburndale, Blenker, Milladore, Junction City, and downtown Stevens Point. This completes the plan to upgrade US 10 to a freeway or expressway status from Marshfield to Menasha. US 10 is an expressway between Stevens Point and Waupaca. It has been upgraded to a freeway in the Waupaca area and is also a freeway between Fremont and Appleton.
Michigan
The western terminus of US 10 in Michigan is Ludington. US 10 runs concurrently with US 31 from the east side of Ludington to Scottville before US 31 turns northward. The road then heads easterly through Baldwin and Reed City before it becomes a freeway west of US 127 near the junction with highway M-115. US 127 and US 10 overlap for a short distance near Clare. US 10 bypasses Midland and terminates at I-75 in Bay City.
Related routes
US 10 has had alternate routes designated in the past, but none are active as of 2017. A multi-state alternate route between Washington and Montana was largely replaced in 1947 by the western extension of U.S. Route 2 and later decommissioned entirely in 1967.
Between 1926 and 1934, there was a pair of suffixed routes between St. Cloud, Minnesota, and Moorhead, Minnesota. US 10N, the northern half of the pairing, connected St. Cloud, Little Falls, Motley, and Detroit Lakes before reaching Moorhead. US 10S ran from St. Cloud through Alexandria and Fergus Falls before rejoining US 10N at Moorhead. In the mid-1930s, US 52 was extended into Minnesota, and US 10S was renamed to US 52 (now I-94). US 10N was renamed to US 10.
History
Originally, US 10 also passed through Montana (including a segment of what is now Montana Highway 2), the Idaho Panhandle, and Washington, terminating in Seattle. The completion of I-90 and I-94 replaced US 10 along this route, although some sections of the old US 10 road still exist in such cities as Bismarck, Missoula, Spokane, and between Cle Elum and Ellensburg as State Route 10 (SR 10). The last section of Interstate 90 to be completed was between Coeur d'Alene and Wallace in the early 1990s. Much of this route was co-numbered as both I-90 and US 10 until the final completion of I-90 through Idaho. Some decommissioned sections of US 10 are designated Interstate 90 Business or Interstate 94 Business routes. At least two US 10 Alternate routes were used, including one from Spokane to Missoula from 1941 to 1967 via Sandpoint, Idaho (represented today by US 2, Idaho State Highway 200, Montana Highway 200 and US 93), and the Pintler Scenic Route through Philipsburg, Montana, and Anaconda, Montana, renamed Montana Highway 1 when Montana's US 10 was decommissioned in 1986.
At the eastern end, US 10 originally went south from Midland to Saginaw, Michigan, on what is now highway M-47. It then joined up with US 23 in Saginaw, and continued south until it split from US 23 near Flint. It then continued southeast as the Dixie Highway to Pontiac, where it followed Woodward Avenue, now designated M-1. From there, US 10 continued on an almost straight line to downtown Detroit, where it intersected US 16, US 25, and US 12. It then took a two-block jog, then ended at the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel to Canada.
In the 1970s, US 10 was rerouted off Woodward Avenue in the Detroit area and onto the John C. Lodge Freeway (formerly Business Spur 696, now M-10) and Telegraph Road. US 10 was truncated to Bay City, Michigan, in 1986 at which point the Lodge Freeway was changed to M-10.
In 1925, US 10 was originally proposed to run from Detroit through Chicago, and northwesterly into Wisconsin on what later became US 12.
In 2015, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials officially designated the SS Badger car ferry as part of the highway's official route, joining US 9 as the only two routes with a ferry connection.
Major intersections
North Dakota
in West Fargo
in Fargo
Minnesota
in Moorhead. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
in Detroit Lakes
in Wadena
in Elk River. The highways travel concurrently to Anoka.
on the Mounds View–Shoreview city line. The highways travel concurrently to the Mounds View–Arden Hills city line.
in Arden Hills. The highways travel concurrently to Little Canada.
in Little Canada. I-35E/US 10 travel concurrently to Saint Paul.
in Saint Paul. I-94/US 10 travel concurrently through the city.
in Saint Paul. The highways travel concurrently to Denmark Township.
in Newport
Wisconsin
west of Ellsworth. The highways travel concurrently to east of Ellsworth.
west of Osseo. The highways travel concurrently to Osseo.
in Osseo
south of Fairchild. The highways travel concurrently to east-southeast of Fairchild.
north-northwest of Stevens Point. The highways travel concurrently to Stevens Point.
east-southeast of Fremont. The highways travel concurrently for approximately .
north of Neenah
northwest of Manitowoc. The highways travel concurrently to west of Manitowoc.
in Manitowoc
SS Badger in Manitowoc. US 10 utilizes the ship as a car ferry across Lake Michigan to Ludington, Michigan.
Michigan
SS Badger in Ludington.
in Amber Township. The highways travel concurrently through the township.
in Richmond Township
in Grant Township. The highways travel concurrently to Clare.
in Monitor Township
See also
U.S. Route 110
U.S. Route 210
U.S. Route 310
U.S. Route 410
References
External links
Endpoints of US 10
10
10
10
10
10 | [
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235331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Beard | Red Beard | is a 1965 Japanese film directed by Akira Kurosawa about the relationship between a town doctor and his new trainee. It takes place in Koishikawa, a district of Edo, towards the end of the Tokugawa period. The film was based on Shūgorō Yamamoto's 1959 short story collection, . Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel Humiliated and Insulted provided the source for a subplot about a young girl, Otoyo (Terumi Niki), who is rescued from a brothel.
The film looks at the problem of social injustice and explores two of Kurosawa's favorite topics: humanism and existentialism. A few critics have noted the film to be reminiscent in some ways of Ikiru. Red Beard is the last black and white film of Kurosawa. The film was a major box office success in Japan but is known for having caused a rift between Mifune and Kurosawa, with this being the final collaboration between them after working on 16 films together. The film was screened in competition at the 26th Venice International Film Festival. Toshiro Mifune won a Volpi Cup for Best Actor for his performance in the film. It was also nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Foreign Language Film.
Plot
Trained in a Dutch medical school in Nagasaki, the young and arrogant doctor Noboru Yasumoto aspires to the status of personal physician of the Shogunate, a position currently held by a close relative, and expects to progress through the privileged and insulated army structure of medical education. However, for Yasumoto's post-graduate medical training, he is assigned to a rural clinic under the guidance of Akahige ("Red Beard"), Dr Kyojō Niide. Under a gruff exterior, Dr Niide is a compassionate clinic director.
Yasumoto is initially livid at his posting, believing that he has little to gain from working under Red Beard. He assumes that Red Beard is only interested in seeing Yasumoto's medical notes from Nagasaki, and he rebels against the clinic director. He refuses to see patients or to wear his uniform, disdains the food and spartan environment, and enters a forbidden garden where he meets "The Mantis", a mysterious patient that only Dr. Niide can treat.
Yasumoto's former fiancée, Chigusa, had been unfaithful to him, ending their engagement, generating a disdain in him against relationships. As Yasumoto struggles to come to terms with his situation, the film tells the story of a few of the clinic's patients. One of them is Rokusuke, a dying man whom Dr. Niide discerns is troubled by a secret misery that is only revealed when his desperately unhappy daughter shows up. Another is Sahachi, a well-loved man of the town known for his generosity to his neighbours, who has a tragic connection to a woman whose corpse is discovered after a landslide. Dr Niide brings Yasumoto along to rescue a sick twelve-year-old girl, Otoyo, from a brothel (fighting off a local gang of thugs to do so) and then assigns the girl to Yasumoto as his first patient. Through his efforts to heal the traumatized girl, Yasumoto begins to understand the magnitude of cruelty and suffering around him, as well as his power to ease that suffering, and learns to regret his vanity and selfishness.
When Yasumoto himself falls ill, Dr Niide asks Otoyo to nurse him back to health, knowing that caring for Yasumoto will also be part of her own continued healing. Chigusa's younger sister, Masae, visits the clinic to check in on Yasumoto, telling him that his mother wants him to visit. Through his mother, Yasumoto learns that Chigusa now has a child with her new lover. Masae later makes a kimono for Otoyo, showing compassion that suggests she might be a good match for Yasumoto. Yasumoto's mother likes Masae and suggests marriage. Later, when a local boy, Chôji, is caught stealing food from the clinic, Otoyo shows him compassion and befriends him, passing on the compassion she received from Niide and Yasumoto. When the brothel's madam comes to the clinic to claim Otoyo and take her back to the brothel, the doctors and clinic staff refuse to let Otoyo go and chase the madam away. When Chôji and his destitute family try to escape their misery by taking poison together, the clinic doctors work to save them.
Yasumoto is offered the position of personal physician to the Shogunate he had so coveted. He agrees to marry Masae, but at the wedding announces that he will not accept the new position, but will stay at the clinic, turning down a comfortable and prestigious place in society to continue serving the poor alongside Dr. Niide.
Cast
Toshiro Mifune as also known as "Red Beard" (Akahige), a rough-tempered yet charitable town doctor and martial artist.
Yūzō Kayama as
Tsutomu Yamazaki as , a wheelwright.
Reiko Dan as , a servant.
Miyuki Kuwano as
Kyōko Kagawa as "The Mantis", a madwoman.
Tatsuyoshi Ehara as
Terumi Niki as
Akemi Negishi as
Yoshitaka Zushi as
Yoshio Tsuchiya as
Eijirō Tōno – Goheiji
Takashi Shimura – Tokubei Izumiya
Chishū Ryū – Mr. Yasumoto
Kinuyo Tanaka – Mrs. Yasumoto
Kōji Mitsui – Heikichi
Haruko Sugimura – Kin, the madam of a local brothel.
Production
The Criterion Collection DVD liner notes include an excerpt on Red Beard from Donald Richie's 1999 book The Films of Akira Kurosawa. It quotes Kurosawa as saying, while looking for something to do after finishing High and Low, he accidentally picked up Shūgorō Yamamoto's Red Beard. Although initially thinking it would make a good script for fellow director Horikawa, Kurosawa became so interested in it as he wrote, that he knew he would have to direct it himself. The director called the script quite different from the novel, specifically mentioning how the young girl main character is not even in the book. With this character, Kurosawa tried to show what Fyodor Dostoevsky showed using the character Nellie in Humiliated and Insulted.
Filming took two years, longer than any other Japanese film. Kurosawa got sick twice during filming, while Mifune and Kayama fell ill once each. The set was intended to be as realistic and historically accurate as possible. Richie wrote that the main set was an entire town with back alleys and side streets, some of which were never even filmed. The materials used were actually about as old as they were supposed to be, with the tiled roofs taken from buildings more than a century old and all of the lumber taken from the oldest available farmhouses. Costumes and props were "aged" for months before being used; the bedding (made in Tokugawa-period patterns) was actually slept in for up to half a year before shooting. The wood used for the main gate was over a hundred years old, and after filming, it was re-erected at the entrance to the theater that hosted Red Beards premiere.
Richie wrote that one could argue that Kurosawa "completely wasted his million yen set," as the main street is seen for only one minute (although its destruction was incorporated into the earthquake scene). Likewise, the scenes with the bridges and those in the elaborately constructed paddy are also rather brief. However, tourist bus companies did run tours through the set during the two years it took to make Red Beard.
According to Stephen Prince's audio commentary on the Criterion Collection DVD, Red Beard was shot at an aspect ratio of 2.35:1. It was Kurosawa's first film to make use of a magnetic 4-track stereo soundtrack and principal photography took two years.
Reception
The film opened to highly positive reviews in Japan, with many calling it Kurosawa's magnum opus, and winning the Best Film award by the Japanese film magazine Kinema Junpo. However, the film received a mixed response from Western audiences; while it was a box office success in Japan, it failed commercially abroad.
The film has an aggregate of 73% on rotten tomatoes based on 15 critic reviews.
Roger Ebert gave the film four stars in a review dated 26 December 1969, saying, "Akira Kurosawa's Red Beard is assembled with the complexity and depth of a good 19th–century novel, and it's a pleasure, in a time of stylishly fragmented films, to watch a director taking the time to fully develop his characters." Michael Sragow of The New Yorker wrote, "This 1965 film, the last of Akira Kurosawa's collaboration with Toshiro Mifune, is often derided as a soap opera. But the story of a grizzled nineteenth-century doctor nicknamed Red Beard (Mifune) and his green physician (Yuzo Kayama) who learns human medical values from him — is actually a masterpiece."
References
External links
Red Beard at the Japanese Movie Database
1965 drama films
1965 films
Best Film Kinema Junpo Award winners
Existentialist works
Films about physicians
Films directed by Akira Kurosawa
Films produced by Ryuzo Kikushima
Films produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka
Films scored by Masaru Sato
Films set in Edo
Films with screenplays by Akira Kurosawa
Films with screenplays by Hideo Oguni
Films with screenplays by Ryuzo Kikushima
Japanese black-and-white films
Japanese films
Japanese-language films
Jidaigeki films
Medical-themed films
Toho films | [
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235334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summoning%20%28band%29 | Summoning (band) | Summoning is an Austrian black metal band based in Vienna. Since their formation in 1993 they have released eight albums and two EPs on Napalm Records. Their lyrics make extensive use of J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth writings and mythology. Since 1995, their lineup has had a consistent lineup of musicians Silenius and Protector. The band has never performed live and has consistently maintained that they have no interest in ever doing so. Their latest album "With Doom We Come" was released on 5 January 2018.
History
Early years (1993–1995)
Summoning was formed sometime in 1993 by Silenius (Michael Gregor), Protector (Richard Lederer) and Trifixion (Alexander Trondl). Before creating Summoning, Protector was playing drums in a thrash/death metal band called Marlignom and had embarked on a four-year study of drums in music school. Silenius was in a doom metal band Shadow Vale (at 16 years old) and had a few years in music school studying piano. Before Summoning, Silenius was making music, together with Pazuzu (Ray Wells) in a band Cromm. Trifixion played in the band Pervertum.
Summoning recorded two demos (Upon the Viking's Stallion and Anno Mortiri Domini), as well as a split with the Austrian band Pazuzu (The Urilia Text) and a five-track promo tape for Lugburz. Nearly all songs from the demos were never released after or took place on CDs in a very different version.
The demos sold quite well in a record shop in Vienna called "Why not". Some time later Silenius got in contact with T.T. (Thomas Tannenberger), eventually leading to the birth of Abigor. Silenius ended up doing all vocals for Abigor releases (except the demos) as a permanent member until 1999. The first Abigor album was recorded for the young Napalm Records label, which led to Silenius managing to get a deal from Napalm for Summoning's debut Lugburz in 1995. At that time the members of Summoning were: Silenius (vocals, keyboards, bass), Protector (vocals, keyboards, guitar), Trifixion (drums); Pazuzu lent some additional vocals and wrote some of the lyrics. It was Trifixion's last release with band. Lugburz was more traditional black metal and very different from the band's later releases that would follow.
Active years (1995–2003)
The band continued as a duo after the departure of Trifixion, releasing Minas Morgul in 1995. This was the band's first release in their new style, an epic and atmospheric style utilizing guitar purely as a background instrument and synth almost as a lead, using re-recorded early songs. Dol Guldur, in 1997, continued this style and saw an influence from Protector's darkwave project Ice Ages. It also credits J.R.R. Tolkien for lyrics. Later in 1997, the Nightshade Forests EP was released, and has since been included on the recent Dol Guldur pressings. After this, the band ceased all work for nearly two years, and also stopped work with many of their other music projects. But in 1999, Summoning returned with Stronghold which, while still in the classic Summoning style, focused more on guitar work to create melodic lines rather than keyboards and synthesizers than in previous releases.
In the year 2001 the follow-up Let Mortal Heroes Sing Your Fame was released. This release was a kind of combination between the old and new style of Summoning, with the keyboard lines being more epic and polyphonic while the guitars bore a similarity with the more complex and rock-esque guitar-style from Stronghold. This time the band used more spoken-word samples to bring a more dramatic style to the songs and for the first time the band works with clear vocal choirs on the song "Farewell". The lyrical concept again was totally based on Tolkien's Middle-earth, but for the first time it was combined with some inspiration from Michael Moorcock's fantasy writings. In 2003, they released the Lost Tales EP, which consisted of leftovers from the Dol Guldur sessions.
Oath Bound and inactivity (2006–2011)
2006 saw the release of Oath Bound, which consisted of all new material. The long break between Let Mortal Heroes Sing Your Fame and Oath Bound was due to struggles in the band members' personal lives, along with lack of ideas. Oath Bound featured a "relaxed arpeggio style" guitar sound, which gave a more epic feeling to the sound of the album. The band also had higher-quality equipment available to them for the recording of the album and were able to create greater choir vocals than they had done before. A 4-song mini CD was suggested for release in 2007 containing at least one song which did not make it onto Oath Bound due to size issues, however, this idea was abandoned and Protector instead began work on music for a full-length release while waiting for Silenius to finish recording the next Kreuzweg Ost album.
Following the release of Oath Bound, Summoning entered a period of inactivity. Silenius experienced a creative block and lacked inspiration for creating new music for Summoning. He also suffered a heart-attack which "knocked me out for another half a year, but somehow all this brought me to a point where I got hungry again and since then I concentrated again on making riffs. Everything started in small steps. but after a while I knew in which direction the music was going and the more I knew this, the easier it was to compose and the result is what you hear now."
Old Mornings Dawn (2012–2017)
In February 2012, the band announced on their website that they were in the process of writing new songs, and were hoping to have most of the songs complete by the end of the year. In December 2012 it was announced that all the guitars and Protector's vocal parts for the new album were complete and that the upcoming album would be entitled Old Mornings Dawn. Old Mornings Dawn was released in June 2013 on Napalm Records and lyrically focuses mostly on nature themes, as well as J.R.R. Tolkien's Valinor.
In 2015 the band confirmed that they had already begun working on creating a new album, and were focused on rewriting some of the leftover material from Old Mornings Dawn.
On 15 December 2016, a compilation tribute album titled In Mordor Where The Shadows Are - Homage to Summoning was released by Wolfspell Records. The album features covers of 21 different Summoning songs by artists such as Caladan Brood and Emyn Muil.
With Doom We Come (2018)
On 12 August 2017, Summoning posted an update on their official Facebook page noting that despite troubles, setbacks and disputes, the band's new album will be released in January 2018 through Napalm Records. The band posted a teaser of the new music, although they did not disclose the name of the forthcoming album.
On 1 October 2017, Summoning posted an update on their Facebook page announcing the title of the album as With Doom We Come. The album was subsequently released on 5 January 2018.
Musical style and influences
The band's debut album Lugburz was a traditional black metal album, with a raw, lo-fi production style. On their following album Minas Morgul the band's sound changed significantly, and has been characterised as "a departure from straight black metal in favor of bold atmospheric experimentation which retains a definite blackened feel." The band's sound has remained relatively consistent since then. The band's sound is frequently described as 'epic, 'hypnotic', and 'atmospheric', and makes extensive use of keyboards, choir vocals, clean singing, synthesized instruments, and programmed drums. Though the drums are programmed, they are played using a keyboard rather than with a drum machine. Their sound has been described as "a particularly widescreen version of progressive black metal, a style that more recently has been infused with an almost medieval strain of twiddly folk music of the lutes 'n' flutes variety." The band's music is deeply influenced by the literature of J. R. R. Tolkien, particularly The Lord of the Rings. Most of the band's lyrics are derived from Tolkien's own works. Silenius has claimed to be influenced by dark wave and ritualistic music as well as fantasy literature.
The band has said that they consider themselves to be composers rather than musicians and do not practice together before recording. Guitarist Protector does not own a guitar and has used a different borrowed guitar for every recording since Dol Guldur.
Discography
Studio albums
Lugburz (1995)
Minas Morgul (1995)
Dol Guldur (1997)
Stronghold (1999)
Let Mortal Heroes Sing Your Fame (2001)
Oath Bound (2006)
Old Mornings Dawn (2013)
With Doom We Come (2018)
EPs
Nightshade Forests (1997)
Lost Tales (2003)
Of Pale White Morns and Darkened Eves (2013)
As Echoes from the World of Old (2018)
Singles
With Doom I Come (2017)
Compilation albums
Sounds of Middle-Earth (2007)
Split albums
The Urilia Text (1994, with Pazuzu)
Creation of a Dark Age (1994, with Abigor, Pazuzu and Cromm)
Demos
Upon the Viking Stallion (1993)
Anno Mortiri Domini (1994)
Promo Tape (1994)
Members
Current members
Protector – guitars, vocals, keyboards
Silenius – bass, vocals, keyboards
Past members
Trifixion – drums, vocals (1993-1995)
Pazuzu – vocals (1993-1995)
Related bands
Protector (Richard Lederer) is engaged in other projects
Die Verbannten Kinder Evas: Dark wave project
Ice Ages: A melodic kind of EBM
Silenius (Michael Gregor) is the creator and sole member of Kreuzweg Ost. Silenius also served as the vocalist for the Austrian black metal band Abigor between 1994 and 1999. Silenius is also an active member in Amestigon, a pagan black metal band, as well as Shadow Vale, and Mirkwood, both of which are darkwave ambient projects.
References
External links
Official website (defunct)
Summoning at Napalm Records
Summoning at Metal-Archives
Summoning Interview in Horror Garage
Austrian heavy metal musical groups
Symphonic black metal musical groups
Austrian black metal musical groups
Middle-earth music
Musical groups established in 1993
Napalm Records artists
Heavy metal duos | [
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235335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facelift%20%28album%29 | Facelift (album) | Facelift is the debut studio album by the American rock band Alice in Chains, released by Columbia Records on August 21, 1990. The tracks "We Die Young", "Man in the Box", "Sea of Sorrow" and "Bleed the Freak" were released as singles. "Man In The Box" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal in 1992. Facelift became the first album from the grunge movement to be certified gold on September 11, 1991. The album peaked at No. 42 on the Billboard 200 chart, was certified platinum and has gone on to be certified double-platinum by the RIAA for shipments of two million copies in the United States.
Background and recording
Local promoter Randy Hauser became aware of Alice in Chains at a concert, and offered to pay for demo recordings. However, one day before the band was due to record at the Music Bank studio in Washington, police shut down the studio during the biggest marijuana raid in the state's history. The final demo – dubbed The Treehouse Tapes – found its way to managers Kelly Curtis and Susan Silver, who also managed the Seattle-based Soundgarden. Curtis and Silver passed the demo to Columbia Records' A&R representative Nick Terzo, who set up an appointment with label president Don Ienner. Based on The Treehouse Tapes (sold by the band at shows), Ienner signed Alice in Chains to Columbia in 1989.
Alice in Chains became a top priority for the label, who released the band's first official recording in July 1990: the promotional EP We Die Young. Its lead single and title song became a hit on metal radio. After its success, the label rushed Alice in Chains' debut album into production with producer Dave Jerden. "I told Jerry Cantrell, ‘Metallica took Tony Iommi and sped him up. What you've done is you've slowed him down again,’" Jerden recalled. "He looked at me and said, ‘You got it.’ That's how I got the gig."
Drummer Sean Kinney claims to have played this album with a broken hand:
Facelift was recorded at London Bridge Studio in Seattle and at Capitol Studios in Hollywood from December 1989 to April 1990. Footage from the Facelift sessions can be found on Alice in Chains' Music Bank: The Videos DVD.
Music and lyrics
Guitarist Jerry Cantrell stated the album was intended to have a "moody aura" that was a "direct result of the brooding atmosphere and feel of Seattle." Regarding the music for "Man in the Box", Cantrell said in the 1999 Music Bank box set, "That whole beat and grind of that is when we started to find ourselves; it helped Alice become what it was." The idea of using a voice box in the song came from producer Dave Jerden, who was driving to the studio one day when Bon Jovi's "Livin' on a Prayer" started playing on the radio.
Cantrell also credited "I Can't Remember" for helping the band find its sound. "It Ain't Like That" came out of a riff that Cantrell cited as a mistake, however he called it "a cool mistake."
Cantrell called "Love, Hate, Love" the "masterpiece of that record," adding about the song that Staley's vocals are "amazing" and that it features one of his favorite guitar solos he ever performed.
Regarding the lyrical content, Cantrell said he wrote "We Die Young" after "riding the bus to rehearsal and [seeing] all these 9, 10, 11 year old kids with beepers dealing drugs. The sight of a 10 year old kid with a beeper and a cell phone dealing drugs equaled "We Die Young" to me." In a recorded interview with MuchMusic USA, vocalist Layne Staley stated that the lyrics for "Man in the Box" are about censorship in the mass media, and "I was really stoned when I wrote it."
Discussing "Bleed the Freak", Cantrell stated that the lyrics represent "us against the world, those people who put you down."
Cantrell wrote "Sunshine" about his mother's death. Facelift was dedicated to her memory.
Staley's "Sexual chocolate, baby!" scream at the end of "Real Thing" was a reference to the film Coming to America starring Eddie Murphy, whose character was the singer of a band called Sexual Chocolate.
Packaging and title
In an interview with Video Metal Sheet in 1991, Jerry Cantrell said that the original idea for the album cover was "an embryonic-type thing" representing the birth of the band. But it ended up taking more of a scary overtone and fitting quite well with the music.
The band discussed several ideas for the album art with photographer Rocky Schenck. One of those ideas was making it appear as if they were emerging from an eyeball. Columbia Records did not give the band a large budget for the photoshoot, but Schenck liked them so much that he was willing to make it work. The budget was barely enough for a one-day shoot, but Schenck stretched it out for over three days. The first day of shoot took place on May 2, 1990, at the swimming pool of the Oakwood Apartments in Burbank, California. The pool was covered with a thin piece of plastic to give the idea that the band was emerging from an eyeball. They had to swim under the plastic, rise to the surface and breathe in as they emerged, so the plastic distorted their faces. One of the photos from that session included a shot of Layne Staley wrapped in plastic with the other members holding him, which was used as the cover for the "We Die Young" single.
Schenck was experimenting with in-camera multiple exposures, where he would create a distorted image by exposing different parts of a single frame of film one exposure at a time, a technique that he had been using for years in his videos and art photography. The band had seen Schenck's portfolio of black and white portraits of haunted, distorted faces, and asked him to duplicate the technique. Schenck did not want to duplicate the original black and white photo, so he tried the same technique in color using photos of each band member's face. A photo of bassist Mike Starr was chosen as the album cover. After seeing the photo, the band decided to name the album Facelift. The original concept for the cover was to have all four members' faces superimposed into one startling expression, which appeared years later in the Music Bank box set.
Release and reception
Facelift was released on August 21, 1990, peaking at number 42 in the summer of 1991 on the Billboard 200 chart. It was the first album from the grunge movement to reach the top 50 in America on the Billboard 200, and the first to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on September 11, 1991, followed by Nirvana's Nevermind on November 27, 1991.
Facelift included the singles "We Die Young", "Man in the Box", and "Sea of Sorrow", all of which had accompanying music videos. The album was a critical success, with "Hollywood" Steve Huey of AllMusic citing Facelift as "one of the most important records in establishing an audience for grunge and alternative rock among hard rock and heavy metal listeners."
Facelift was not an instant success, selling under 40,000 copies in the first six months of release, until MTV added "Man in the Box" to regular daytime rotation.
"Man in the Box" hit number 18 on the Mainstream Rock charts, with the album's follow up single, "Sea of Sorrow", reaching number 27, and in six weeks Facelift sold 400,000 copies in the US.
Alice in Chains was nominated for a Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal Grammy Award in 1992 for "Man in the Box", but lost to Van Halen for their 1991 album For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge. The music video for "Man in the Box" was nominated for Best Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Video at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards. The album won Best Debut Album at the 1991 Foundations Forum.
In June 2017, Ozzy Osbourne listed Facelift as one of his "10 Favorite Metal Albums".
In April 2019, the album was ranked No. 14 on Rolling Stone's "50 Greatest Grunge Albums" list. Soundgarden lead guitarist Kim Thayil also picked Facelift as one of his favorite Grunge albums.
Tour
The band continued to hone its audience, opening for such artists as Iggy Pop, Van Halen, Poison, and Extreme. In early 1991, Alice in Chains landed the opening slot for the Clash of the Titans with Anthrax, Megadeth, and Slayer, exposing the band to a wide metal audience. During the tour the band found themselves subject to some hostile audiences; however, Anthrax bassist Frank Bello recalls them earning the respect of others by standing up for themselves: "If there was a guy starting shit, Layne would jump into the audience and beat the FUCK outta that guy!" Michael Christopher of PopMatters observed "With 1990's Facelift, before Nirvana blew the scene wide open, Seattle’s Alice in Chains were getting a metal push, thrown on tour with the likes of Slayer and Megadeth, repeatedly booed off stage in a genre where they didn’t belong." The band later released the video compilation Live Facelift, which was filmed at the Moore Theatre in 1990.
Track listing
All songs written by Jerry Cantrell, except where noted
Outtakes and non-album tracks
"Killing Yourself", recorded during the Facelift sessions, was featured as the B-side to the 1990 "We Die Young" vinyl single. It has never been issued on CD.
Demos for the songs "I Can't Have You Blues", "Whatcha Gonna Do", "Social Parasite", "Bleed the Freak", "Sea of Sorrow", and "Killing Yourself" were featured on Alice in Chains' 1988 demo tape. Remixes of these recordings were later included on the band's 1999 box set, Music Bank. A demo of "We Die Young" from the same sessions was released exclusively on the 1999 Nothing Safe: Best of the Box compilation.
Further 1988 demos of the songs "Chemical Addiction", "Fairytale Love Story", "Queen of the Rodeo", "Bite the Bullet", "King of the Kats", "I Can't Remember", "Sunshine", "The Real Thing", and a cover of David Bowie's "Suffragette City" circulate on various bootlegs in poor quality. A live version of "Queen of the Rodeo" features on the 2000 live album Live as well as the Music Bank box set. Regarding the songs featured on the 1988 demo tape, Cantrell said, "I guess with all those songs we were 'discovering' ourselves."
Personnel
Alice in Chains
Layne Staley – lead vocals
Jerry Cantrell – guitar, backing vocals, talkbox on "Man in the Box"
Mike Starr – bass, backing vocals on "Confusion"
Sean Kinney – drums, percussion, additional backing vocals, piano on "Sea of Sorrow"
Additional personnel
Kevin Shuss - Additional backing vocals
Production and management
Produced, recorded, and mixed by Dave Jerden
Additional engineering by Ron Champagne
Assistant engineering by Leslie Ann Jones
Assistant mix engineering by Bob Lacivita
Mastered by Eddy Schreyer
Management – Kelly Curtis, Susan Silver
A&R – Nick Terzo
Product manager – Peter Fletcher
Chart positions
Album
Original release
30th anniversary release
Singles
Certifications
References
External links
Official website
1990 debut albums
Albums produced by Dave Jerden
Alice in Chains albums
Columbia Records albums
Alternative metal albums by American artists
Albums recorded at Capitol Studios | [
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235338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliozoa | Heliozoa | Heliozoa, commonly known as sun-animalcules, are microbial eukaryotes (protists) with stiff arms (axopodia) radiating from their spherical bodies, which are responsible for their common name. The axopodia are microtubule-supported projections from the amoeboid cell body, and are variously used for capturing food, sensation, movement, and attachment. They are similar to Radiolaria, but they are distinguished from them by lacking central capsules and other complex skeletal elements, although some produce simple scales and spines. They may be found in both freshwater and marine environments.
Classification
Originally the heliozoa were treated together as a formal taxon Heliozoa or Heliozoea, with the rank of class or phylum, but it has been realised that they are polyphyletic, as the various orders show notable differences and are no longer believed to be descended from a single common ancestor. Instead, "heliozoa" is regarded as a descriptive term applying to various lines of protists.
The primary groups include:
Actinophryida, Pedinellida and Ciliophryida (currently in Stramenopiles)
Centrohelida (some support for Hacrobia)
Desmothoracida, Heliomonadida/Dimorphida and Gymnosphaerida (currently in Rhizaria > Cercozoa)
Taxopodida/Sticholonche (currently in Rhizaria > Radiolaria)
Rotosphaerida (currently in Opisthokonta > Nucleariida and in Rhizaria)
Several nucleariids were once considered heliozoa, but they do not have microtubule-supported axopods and so are now considered filose amoeboids instead.
References
External links
Actinosphaerium (single-celled) is an example of a heliozoa. For an image see http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/index.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/ponddip/
Obsolete eukaryote taxa
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235340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%20Zia-ul-Haq | Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq | General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (12 August 1924 – 17 August 1988) was a four-star general who became the sixth President of Pakistan after declaring martial law in 1977. He served as the head of state from 1978 until his death in a plane crash in 1988. He remains the country's longest-serving head of state and Chief of Army Staff.
Educated at St. Stephen's College, Delhi and the Indian Military Academy at Dehradun, Zia saw action in World War II as a British Indian Army officer in Burma and Malaya, before opting for Pakistan in 1947 and fighting as a tank commander in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. In 1970, he led a military training mission to Jordan, proving instrumental to defeating the Black September insurgency against King Hussein. In recognition, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto appointed Zia Chief of Army Staff in 1976 and awarded him the Hilal-i-Imtiaz medal.
Following civil disorder, Zia deposed Bhutto in a military coup and declared martial law on 5 July 1977. Bhutto was controversially tried by the Supreme Court and executed less than two years later for allegedly authorizing the murder of Nawab Muhammad Ahmed Khan Kasuri, a political opponent. Assuming the presidency in 1978, Zia played a major role in the Soviet–Afghan War. Backed by the United States and Saudi Arabia, Zia systematically coordinated the Afghan mujahideen against the Soviet occupation throughout the 1980s. This culminated in the Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1989, but also led to the proliferation of millions of refugees, with heroin and weaponry into Pakistan's frontier province.
Internationally Zia bolstered ties with China and the United States, and emphasized Pakistan's role in the Islamic world, while relations with India worsened amid the Siachen conflict and accusations that Pakistan was aiding the Khalistan movement. Domestically, Zia passed broad-ranging legislation as part of Pakistan's Islamization, curbed civil liberties, and heightened press censorship. He also escalated Pakistan's atomic bomb project, and instituted industrialization and deregulation, helping Pakistan's economy become the fastest-growing in South Asia, overseeing the highest GDP growth in the country's history. After lifting martial law and holding non-partisan elections in 1985, Zia appointed Muhammad Khan Junejo Prime Minister but accumulated more presidential powers via the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution. After Junejo signed the Geneva Accords in 1988 against Zia's wishes, and called for an inquiry into the Ojhri Camp disaster, Zia dismissed Junejo's government and announced fresh elections in November 1988. Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq was killed along with several of his top military officials and two American diplomats in a mysterious plane crash near Bahawalpur on 17 August 1988.
To this day, Zia remains a polarizing figure in Pakistan's history, credited with preventing wider Soviet incursions into the region as well as economic prosperity, but decried for weakening democratic institutions and passing laws encouraging religious intolerance. He is also cited for promoting the early political career of Nawaz Sharif, who would be thrice elected Prime Minister.
Zia is credited with stopping an expected Soviet invasion of Pakistan. Former Saudi intelligence chief Prince Turki Al-Faisal, who worked with Zia during the 1980s against the Soviets, described Zia in the following words: "He was a very steady and smart person with a geo-strategic mind, particularly after the invasion by Soviets. He was very dedicated in preventing the Soviet invasion of Pakistan."
Early life and family
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq was born into a Punjabi Arain family in Jullundar, Punjab Province of British India, on 12 August 1924. Zia-ul-Haq was the second child of Muhammad Akbar Ali, who worked in the administrative corps of the Army GHQ of India Command of British Armed Forces in Delhi and Simla, prior to the independence of India from British colonial rule in 1947. Zia's father was noted for his religiosity, and insisted that his seven children offer their daily morning prayers and learn the Qur’an. Due to his father's role in the civil service, Zia spent his childhood between the hill station of Simla and Jalandhar as Akbar Ali followed the British administration north during the summers.
After completing his initial education in Simla, Zia attended Delhi's prestigious St. Stephen's College, an Anglican missionary school, for his BA degree in History, from which he graduated with distinction in 1943. He was admitted to the Indian Military Academy at Dehradun, graduating in May 1945 among the last group of officers to be commissioned before the independence of India. During his collegiate years, he was noted as an extraordinary talent. In 1947, while his family was in a refugee camp, Captain Zia was the escort officer for the last train of refugees to leave Babina, an armoured corps training center in Uttar Pradesh, a difficult journey that took seven days, during which the passengers were under constant fire as communal violence broke out in the aftermath of Partition.
In 1950, he married Shafiq Jahan, a relative, and the daughter of a Ugandan-Indian doctor from Kampala. Begum Shafiq Zia died on 6 January 1996. Zia is survived by his sons, Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq, (born 1953), who went into politics and became a cabinet minister in the government of Nawaz Sharif, and Anwar-ul-Haq (born 1960) and his daughters, Zain (born 1972), a special needs child, Rubina Saleem, who is married to a Pakistani banker and has been living in the United States since 1980, and Quratulain Zia who currently lives in London, and is married to Pakistani doctor, Adnan Majid.
Military service
Zia was commissioned in the British Indian Army in the Guides Cavalry on 12 May 1943 after graduating from the Officer Training School Mhow and fought against Japanese forces in Burma in World War II. After Pakistan was created following the Partition of India in 1947, Zia joined the newly formed Pakistan Army as a Major in the Guides Cavalry Frontier Force Regiment. He also served in 13th Lancers and 6 Lancers. He was trained in the United States during 1962–1964 at the US Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. After that, he returned to take over as Directing Staff (DS) at Command and Staff College, Quetta. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Zia is said to have been the Assistant Quartermaster of the 101st Infantry Brigade.
Role in Black September and protection by Gul Hasan
Brigadier Zia was stationed in Jordan from 1967 to 1970 as the head of a Pakistani training mission to Jordan. Zia-ul-Haq became involved on the Jordanian side of the military conflict against Palestinians known as Black September. Zia had been stationed in Amman for three years prior to Black September. During the events, according to CIA official Jack O'Connell, Zia was dispatched north by King Hussein to assess Syria's military capabilities. The Pakistani commander reported back to Hussein, recommending the deployment of a RJAF squadron to the region. Zia-ul-Haq then went on to plan the Jordanian offensive against the Palestianians and commanded an armoured division against them. O'Connell also reported that Zia personally led Jordanian troops during battles.
According to the testimonies provided by Major-General A.O. Mitha, it was the Army Chief of General Staff, Lieutenant
General Gul Hasan's lobbying at the Army GHQ which also saved then Brigadier Zia-ul-Haq from being terminated. Brigadier Zia had been recommended to be court-martialled by Major-General Nawazish in his submission to President Yahya Khan for disobeying GHQ orders by commanding a Jordanian armoured division against the Palestinians, as part of actions during Black September in which thousands were killed. It was Gul Hasan who interceded for Zia after which Army Chief General Yahya Khan let Zia off the hook.
Ascent to Chief of Army Staff
He was then promoted as Lieutenant General and was appointed commander of the II Strike Corps at Multan in 1975. On 1 March 1976, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto approved then-three star rank general Lieutenant-General Zia as Chief of Army Staff and to be elevated to four-star rank.
At the time of his nominating the successor to the outgoing Chief of Army Staff General Tikka Khan, the Lieutenant Generals in order of seniority were: Muhammad Shariff, Akbar Khan, Aftab Ahmed, Azmat Baksh Awan, Ibrahim Akram, Abdul Majeed Malik, Ghulam Jilani Khan, and Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. But, Bhutto chose the most junior, superseding seven more senior lieutenant-generals. However, the senior most at that time, Lieutenant-General Mohammad Shariff, though promoted to General, was made the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, a constitutional post akin to President Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry.
Husain Haqqani argues that Bhutto chose Zia ahead of many senior officers for ethnic and caste reasons, thinking than an Arain would not make alliance with the predominantly Pashtun and Rajput military officers in order to overthrow him, and this is also the reason why he let Zia push for more Islam in the armed forces, like when he changed the army's credo to “Iman, Taqwa, Jihad fi Sabil Allah” or when he offered books of Mawdudi to his officers as prizes during various competitions, despite the strong ideological antagonism between Bhutto and the Islamist thinker.
Planning of coup
Prime Minister Bhutto began facing considerable criticism and increasing unpopularity as his term progressed; the democratic socialists alliance who had previously allied with Bhutto began to diminish as time progressed. Initially targeting leader of the opposition Vali Khan and his opposition National Awami Party (NAP), also a socialist party. Despite the ideological similarity of the two parties, the clash of egos both inside and outside the National Assembly became increasingly fierce, starting with the Federal governments decision to oust the NAP provincial government in Balochistan Province for alleged secessionist activities and culminating in the banning of the party and arrest of much of its leadership after the death of a close lieutenant of Bhutto's, Hayat Sherpao, in a bomb blast in the frontier town of Peshawar.
Civil disorders against Bhutto
Dissidence also increased within the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and the murder of leading dissident Ahmed Raza Kasuri's father led to public outrage and intra-party hostility as Bhutto was accused of masterminding the crime. PPP leaders such as Ghulam Mustafa Khar openly condemned Bhutto and called for protests against his regime. The political crisis in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and Balochistan intensified as civil liberties remained suspended, and an estimated 100,000 troops deployed there were accused of abusing human rights and killing large numbers of civilians.
1977 parliamentary elections
On 8 January 1977, a large number of opposition political parties grouped to form the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). Bhutto called fresh elections, and PNA participated fully in those elections. They managed to contest the elections jointly even though there were grave splits on opinions and views within the party. The PNA faced defeat but did not accept the results, alleging that the election was rigged. They proceeded to boycott the provincial elections. Despite this, there was a high voter turnout in the national elections; however, as provincial elections were held amidst low voter turnout and an opposition boycott, the PNA declared the newly elected Bhutto government as illegitimate.
Coup d'état
Soon, all the opposition leaders called for the overthrow of Bhutto's regime. Political and civil disorder intensified, which led to more unrest. On 21 April 1977, Bhutto imposed martial law in the major cities of Karachi, Lahore and Hyderabad. However, a compromise agreement between Bhutto and opposition was ultimately reported. Zia planned the Coup d'état carefully, as he knew Bhutto had integral intelligence in the Pakistan Armed Forces, and many officers, including Chief of Air Staff Air Marshal Zulfiqar Ali Khan and Major-General Tajammul Hussain Malik, GOC of 23rd Mountain Division, Major-General Naseerullah Babar, DG of Directorate-General for the Military Intelligence (DGMI) and Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, were loyal to Bhutto.
The coup, (called "Operation Fair Play") transpired in the small hours of 5 July 1977. Before the announcement of any agreement, Bhutto and members of his cabinet were arrested by troops of Military Police under the order of Zia. Bhutto tried to call Zia but all telephone lines were disconnected. When Zia spoke to him later, he reportedly told Bhutto that he was sorry that he had been forced to perform such an "unpleasant task".
Zia and his military government portrayed the coup as a "spontaneous response to a difficult situation", but his response was a complete contradiction. Soon after the coup, Zia told the British journalist Edward Behr of Newsweek:
However, Zia's Chief of Army Staff General Khalid Mahmud Arif contradicted Zia's statement when Arif noted that the coup had already been planned, and the senior leadership of Pakistan Armed Forces had solid information. Therefore, Arif met with Bhutto on an emergency basis, stressing and urging Bhutto to "rush negotiations with the opposition". By Arif's and independent expert's accounts, the talks had not broken down even though the coup was very much in the offing. Zia further argued that Fair Play against Bhutto had been necessitated by the prospect of a civil war that Bhutto had been planning, by distributing weapons to his supporters. However, Arif strongly rejected Zia's remarks on Bhutto, and citing no evidence that weapons were found or recovered at any of the party's election offices, the military junta did not prosecute Bhutto on the charge of planning civil war.
Immediately, the Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Mohammad Shariff announced his and the navy's strong support for Zia and his military government. But, the Chief of Air Staff General Zulfikar Ali Khan remains unsupported while the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee General Muhammad Shariff remains neutral, while he silently expressed his support to Prime minister Zulfikar Bhutto. In 1978, Zia pressured President Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry to appoint General Anwar Shamim as Chief of Air Staff; and Admiral Karamat Rahman Niazi as Chief of Naval Staff in 1979. On Zia's recommendation, President Illahi appointed Admiral Mohammad Shariff as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, hence making the Admiral the highest-ranking officer and principal military adviser overlooking all of the inter-services, including the Chiefs of Staff of the respected forces. In 1979, the Chiefs of Army, Navy, and the Air Force, including the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff validated the coup as constitutional and legal under the war-torn circumstances, pledging their support to Zia as well.
United States sponsorship
The United States, notably the Reagan Administration, was an ardent supporter of Zia's military regime and a close ally of Pakistan's conservative-leaning ruling military establishment. The Reagan administration declared Zia's regime as the "front line" ally of the United States in the fight against the threat of Communism. American legislators and senior officials most notable were Zbigniew Brzezinski, Henry Kissinger, Charlie Wilson, Joanne Herring, and the civilian intelligence officers Michael Pillsbury and Gust Avrakotos, and senior US military officials General John William Vessey, and General Herbert M. Wassom, had been long associated with the Zia military regime where they had made frequent trips to Pakistan advising on expanding the idea of establishment in the political circle of Pakistan. Nominally, the American conservatism of Ronald Reagan's Republican Party influenced Zia to adopt his idea of Islamic conservatism as the primary line of his military government, forcefully enforcing the Islamic and other religious practices in the country.
The socialist orientation had greatly alarmed the capitalist forces in Pakistan and as well as brought a clinging bell tolls alarm to the United States who feared the loss of Pakistan as an ally in the cold war. Many of Pakistan's political scientists and historians widely suspected that the riots and coup against Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was orchestrated with help of the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the United States Government because United States growing fear of Bhutto's socialist policies which were seen as sympathetic towards the Soviet Union and had built a bridge that allowed Soviet Union to be involved in Pakistan, and had access through Pakistan's warm water port; something that the United States was unable to gain access since the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. Former US Attorney General Ramsey Clark widely suspected the United States' involvement in bringing down the Bhutto's government, and publicly accused the United States' Government after attending the trial. On the other hand, the United States refused any involvement in Bhutto's fall, and argued that it was Bhutto who had alienated himself over the five years. While witnessing the dramatic fall of Bhutto, one US diplomat in American Embassy in Islamabad wrote that:
Postponement of elections and call for accountability
After assuming power as Chief Martial Law Administrator, Zia shortly appeared on national television, PTV promising to hold new and neutral parliamentary elections within the next 90 days
My sole aim is to organize free and fair elections which would be held in October this year. Soon after the polls, power will be transferred to the elected representatives of the people. I give a solemn assurance that I will not deviate from this schedule.
He also stated that the Constitution of Pakistan had not been abrogated, but temporarily suspended. Zia did not trust the civilian institutions and legislators to ensure the country's integrity and sovereignty therefore, in October 1977, he announced the postponement of the electoral plan and decided to start an accountability process for the politicians. On television, Zia strongly defended his decision for postponing the elections and demanded that "scrutiny of political leaders who had engaged in malpractice in the past". Thus, the PNA adopted its policy of "retribution first, elections later". Zia's policy severely tainted his credibility as many saw the broken promise as malicious. Another motive was that Zia widely suspected that once out of power the size of the Pakistan Peoples Party rallies would swell and better performance in elections was possible. This led to request for postponement of elections by the right-wing Islamists as well as left-wing socialists, formerly allied with Bhutto, which displaced Bhutto in the first place. Zia dispatched an intelligence unit, known as ISI's Political Wing, sending Brigadier-General Taffazul Hussain Siddiqiui, to Bhutto's native Province, Sindh, to assess whether people would accept martial law. The Political Wing also contacted the several right-wing Islamists and conservatives, promising an election, with PNA power-sharing the government with Zia. Zia successfully divided and separated the secular forces from right-wing Islamists and conservatives, and later purged each member of the secular front.
A Disqualification Tribunal was formed, and several individuals who had been members of parliament were charged with malpractice and disqualified from participating in politics at any level for the next seven years. A white paper document was issued, incriminating the deposed Bhutto government on several counts.
It is reported by senior officers that when Zia met federal secretaries for the first time as leader of the country after martial law, he said that "He does not possess the charisma of Bhutto, personality of Ayub Khan or the legitimacy of Liaquat Ali Khan" thereby implying how can he be marketed.
Tenure as Chief Martial Law Administrator
After deposing Prime Minister Bhutto on 5 July 1977, Zia-ul-Haq declared martial law, and appointed himself Chief Martial Law Administrator, which he remained until becoming president on 16 September 1978.
The doctrine of necessity
Nusrat Bhutto, the wife of the deposed Prime Minister, filed a suit against Zia's military regime, challenging the validity of the July 1977 military coup. The Supreme Court of Pakistan ruled, in what would later be known as the Doctrine of Necessity (not to be confused with the 1954 doctrine of necessity) that, given the dangerously unstable political situation of the time, Zia's overthrowing of the Bhutto government was legal on the grounds of necessity. The judgement tightened the general's hold on the government. When Bhutto appeared personally to argue his appeal in the supreme court, he almost affirmed his concurrence with the judges present for not letting off a judgement without imposing some conditions on ruling military government.
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto trial
Former elected Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was arrested during the coup but released shortly afterwards. Upon his release, Bhutto travelled the country amid adulatory crowds of PPP supporters. On 3 September 1977, he was arrested again by the Army on charges of authorising the murder of a political opponent in March 1974. The trial proceedings began 24 October 1977 and lasted five months.
On 18 March 1978, Bhutto was declared guilty of murder and was sentenced to death.
In the words of Aftab Kazie and Roedad Khan, Zia hated Bhutto and had used inappropriate language and insults to describe Bhutto and his colleagues. The Supreme Court ruled four to three in favour of execution. The High Court had given him the death sentence on charges of the murder of the father of Ahmed Raza Kasuri, a dissident PPP politician. Despite many clemency appeals from foreign leaders requesting Zia to commute Bhutto's death sentence, Zia dismissed the appeals and upheld the death sentence.
On 4 April 1979, Bhutto was hanged, after the Supreme Court upheld the death sentence as passed by the Lahore High Court.
The hanging of an elected prime minister by a military dictator was condemned by the international community and by lawyers and jurists across Pakistan. Bhutto's trial was highly controversial.
Bhutto's last personal appearance and utterances in the supreme court were not merely a long defence of his conduct; he also made some matters clear. He mentioned the words of "heir" for his son "Mir Murtaza Bhutto". He made some remark which indicated that he has views similar to a Sunni, though he was Shia albeit a non-practicing one. He also effectively cast doubt on the reliability of star witnesses against him i.e. Masood Mahmood who was a UK-trained lawyer and not merely a police officer and FSF chief. He mentioned repeatedly Lahori Ahmedi connection of Masood Mahmood in his testimony. He repeatedly brought the subject of his maltreatment in the death cell. Bhutto made it abundantly clear, even though indirectly that he wanted either freedom or death, not some thing in between, and appreciated Khar and his lawyer Yahya Bakhtiar.
Appointment of martial law administrators
Martial law judges
The Ad hoc appointments of senior justices at the Supreme Court of Pakistan was one of the earliest and major steps were taken out by the military government under General Zia-ul-Haq. Zia had recognised the fact that since, Bhutto had good equations with the governments of the Soviet Union, China, and all the important western countries, excluding the United States. Still, it was a formidable array of sovereigns, presidents and prime ministers and the PPP can be forgiven for making a massive political miscalculations.
After calling for martial law, Zia pressured President Fazal Illahi to appoint Justice Sheikh Anwarul Haq to Chief Justice of Pakistan on 23 September 1977. Immediately, chief justice Yaqub Ali was forcefully removed from the office after the latter agreed to re-hear the petition filed at the supreme court by the peoples party's chairwoman Nusrat Bhutto on 20 September 1977. After Justice Yaqub Ali's removal, Bhutto objected to the inclusion of the new Chief Justice, Sheikh Anwar-ul-Haq, as a chief justice of the Bench on the grounds that by accepting the office of acting president during the absence of Zia-ul-Haq from the country, he had compromised his impartial status. Bhutto also stated that the Chief Justice in his public statements had been critical of his government in the recent past.
The objection was over-ruled by the Chief Justice Anwarul Haq, and the case of Bhutto was again heard by the Chief Justice Anwar-ul-Haq as the bench's lead judge, and presided the whole case of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto while forcing the martial law throughout Pakistan. Shortly, after Zia's return, another judge Mushtak Ahmad also gained Zia and Anwar-ul-Haq's support and elevated as the ad hoc Chief Justice of Lahore High Court; he was too part of the bench who retained the death sentence of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto even though Bhutto was not declared guilty of the murder of the political opponent. In 1979, when Zia departed for Saudi Arabia, Justice Haq served as interim president of Pakistan.
Martial law governors
The Zia regime largely made use of installing high-profile military generals to carte blanche provincial administration under martial law. Zia's Guides Cavalry comrade Lieutenant-General Fazhle Haque was appointed Martial Law Administrator of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province. Lieutenant-General Fazle Haque was considered a strong vocal General and a strong man. General Haque was the commander of the XI Corps, and commanding-general officer of the Army elements responsible for fighting a secret war against Soviet Union.
The second appointment was of Lieutenant-General S.M. Abbasi who was appointed Martial Law Administrator of Sindh Province; his tenure too saw civil disorder amid student riots. By contrast, third martial law administrator appointment of Lieutenant-General Ghulam Jilani Khan to the Punjab Province made much headway in beautifying Lahore extending infrastructure, and muting political opposition. The ascent of Nawaz Sharif to Chief Minister of Punjab was largely due to General Jilani's sponsorship. Perhaps most crucially, final and fourth martial law administrator appointment was then-Lieutenant-General Rahimuddin Khan. Lieutenant-General Rahimuddin Khan was appointed to the post of Martial Law Administrator of Balochistan Province saw the disbanding of the Baloch insurgency, the containment of Afghan Mujahideen, as well as the construction of nuclear test sites in the Chagai District.
Zia's tenure saw the influx of heroin, sophisticated weaponry, and countless refugees in from neighbouring Afghanistan. Law and order deterioration was worse after he appointed Mr. Junejo as Prime minister in 1985. The government did not locate evidence of Zia having a relationship in the heroin trade, but has been considered.
Zia benefited from the extremely capable martial law administrators who previously had worked with the military governments of former president Yahya Khan and Ayub Khan in the 1960s. One of the notable officers that had worked with him were General Khalid Arief, Chief of Army Staff, and Admiral Mohammad Shariff, Chairman Joint Chiefs. Both were noted by Western governments as highly capable and had wide experience from the military government of the East-Pakistan and remained General Zia' confidential members.
Both Admiral Sharif and General Arif handled the matters efficiently if the matters were out of control by Zia. In 1979, Zia influenced the Navy's Promotion Board several times after he succeeded first in the appointment of Admiral Caramatt Nazi as Chief of Naval Staff in 1979, and Admiral Tarik Kamal Khan, also chief of naval staff, in 1983. On his request, then-President Fazal Illahi approved the appointment of General Anwar Shamim as Chief of Air Staff and following President's resignation, Zia appointed Shamim as the Deputy Chief Martial Law Administrator. In the matters of serious national security, General Zia had taken the chief of air staff and chief of naval staff in confidence after he discussed the matters with the respected chiefs of Staff. Zia's appointment in inter-services were highly crucial for his military government and pre-emptive measure to ensure the continuous loyalty of Navy and Air Force to himself and his new military government.
Tenure as President of Pakistan
Assumption of the post of President of Pakistan
Despite the dismissal of most of the Bhutto government, President Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was persuaded to continue in office as a figurehead. After completing his term, and despite Zia's insistence to accept an extension as President, Chaudhry resigned, and Zia took the office of President of Pakistan on 16 September 1978.
Political structural changes
Formation of Majlis-e-Shoora
Although ostensibly only holding office until free elections could be held, General Zia, like the previous military governments, disapproved of the lack of discipline and orderliness that often accompanies multiparty "parliamentary democracy." He preferred a "presidential" form of government and a system of decision making by technical experts, or "technocracy". His first replacement for the parliament or National Assembly was a Majlis-e-Shoora, or "consultative council." After banning all political parties in 1979 he disbanded Parliament and at the end of 1981 set up the majlis, which was to act as a sort of board of advisors to the President and assist with the process of Islamization. The 350 members of the Shoora were to be nominated by the President and possessed only the power to consult with him, and in reality served only to endorse decisions already taken by the government. Most members of the Shoora were intellectuals, scholars, ulema, journalists, economists, and professionals in different fields.
Zia's parliament and his military government reflect the idea of "military-bureaucratic technocracy" (MBT) where professionals, engineers, and high-profile military officers were initially part of his military government. His antipathy for the politicians led the promotion of bureaucratic-technocracy which was seen a strong weapon of countering the politicians and their political strongholds. Senior statesman and technocrats were included physicist-turned diplomat Agha Shahi, jurist Sharifuddin Perzada, corporate leader Nawaz Sharif, economist Mahbub ul Haq, and senior statesman Aftab Kazie, Roedad Khan, and chemist-turned diplomat Ghulam Ishaq Khan were a few of the leading technocratic figures in his military government.
Referendum of 1984
After Bhutto's execution, momentum to hold elections began to mount both internationally and within Pakistan. But before handing over power to elected representatives, Zia-ul-Haq attempted to secure his position as the head of state. A referendum was held on 19 December 1984 with the option being to elect or reject the General as the future President, the wording of the referendum making a vote against Zia appear to be a vote against Islam. According to official figures 97.8% of votes were cast in favour of Zia, however only 20% of the electorate participated in the referendum.
1985 elections and constitutional amendments
After holding the 1984 referendum, Zia succumbed to international pressure and gave permission to election commission to hold national wide general elections but without political parties in February 1985. Most of the major opposing political parties decided to boycott the elections but election results showed that many victors belonged to one party or the other. Critics complained that ethnic and sectarian mobilisation filled the void left by banning political parties (or making elections "non-partisan"), to the detriment of national integration.
The General worked to give himself the power to dismiss the Prime Minister dissolve the National Assembly, appoint provincial governors and the chief of the armed forces. His prime minister Muhammad Khan Junejo was known as a unassuming and soft-spoken Sindhi.
Before handing over the power to the new government and lifting the martial law, Zia got the new legislature to retroactively accept all of Zia's actions of the past eight years, including his coup of 1977. He also managed to get several amendments passed, most notably the Eighth Amendment, which granted "reserve powers" to the president to dissolve the Parliament. However, this amendment considerably reduced the power he'd previously granted himself to dissolve the legislature, at least on paper. The text of the amendment permitted Zia to dissolve the Parliament only if the government had been toppled by a vote of no confidence and it was obvious that no one could form a government or the government could not function in a constitutional manner.
Economic policy
In general Zia gave economic development and policy a fairly low priority (aside from Islamization) and delegating its management to technocrats such as Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Aftab Qazi and Vaseem Jaffrey.
However, between 1977 and 1986, the country experienced an average annual growth in the GNP of 6.8%—the highest in the world at that time—thanks in large part to remittances from the overseas workers, rather than government policy. The first year of Zia's government coincided with a dramatic rise in remittances, which totalled $3.2 billion/year for most of the 1980s, accounted for 10 percent of Pakistans's GDP; 45 percent of its current account receipts, and 40 percent of total foreign exchange earnings.
By the time General Zia had initiated the coup against Prime Minister Zulfikar Bhutto, the economic cycle process of nationalisation program was completed. The socialist orientation and nationalisation program was slowly reversed; the idea of corporatisation was heavily favoured by President Zia-ul-Haq to direct the authoritarianism in the nationalised industries. One of his well-known and earliest initiatives were aimed to Islamize the national economy which featured the Interest-free economic cycle. No actions towards privatising the industries were ordered by President Zia; only three steel mill industries were returned to its previous owners.
By the end of 1987, the finance ministry had begun studying the process of engaging the gradual privatisation and economic liberalisation.
Soviet-Afghan War and strategic initiatives
Soviet invasion and Soviet–Afghan War
On 25 December 1979, the Soviet Union (USSR) intervened in Afghanistan. Following this invasion, Zia chaired a meeting and was asked by several cabinet members to refrain from interfering in the war, owing to the vastly superior military power of the USSR. Zia, however, was ideologically opposed to the idea of communism taking over a neighbouring country, supported by the fear of Soviet advancement into Pakistan, particularly Balochistan, in search of warm waters, and made no secret about his intentions of monetarily and militarily aiding the Afghan resistance (the Mujahideen) with major assistance from the United States.
During this meeting, the Director-General of the Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) then-Lieutenant-General Akhtar Abdur Rahman advocated for a covert operation in Afghanistan by arming Islamic Extremists. After this meeting, Zia authorised this operation under General Rahman, and it was later merged with Operation Cyclone, a programme funded by the United States and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
In November 1982, Zia travelled to Moscow to attend the funeral of Leonid Brezhnev, the late General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko and new Secretary General Yuri Andropov met with Zia there. Andropov expressed indignation over Pakistan's support of the Afghan resistance against the Soviet Union and its satellite state, Socialist Afghanistan. Zia took his hand and assured him, "General Secretary, believe me, Pakistan wants nothing but very good relations with the Soviet Union". According to Gromyko, Zia's sincerity convinced them, but Zia's actions didn't live up to his words.
Zia reversed many of Bhutto's foreign policy initiatives by first establishing stronger links with the United States, Japan, and the Western world. Zia broken off relations with the Socialist state and State capitalism became his major economic policy. US politician Charlie Wilson claims that he worked with Zia and the CIA to channel Soviet weapons that Israel captured from the PLO in Lebanon to fighters in Afghanistan. Wilson claims that Zia remarked to him: "Just don't put any stars of David on the boxes".
Consolidation of atomic bomb program
One of the earliest initiatives taken by Zia in 1977, was to militarize the integrated atomic energy program which was founded by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in 1972. During the first stages, the program was under the control of Bhutto and the Directorate for Science, under Science Advisor Dr. Mubashir Hassan, who was heading the civilian committee that supervised the construction of the facilities and laboratories. This atomic bomb project had no boundaries with Munir Ahmad Khan and Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan leading their efforts separately and reported to Bhutto and his science adviser Dr. Hassan who had little interest in the atomic bomb project. Major-General Zahid Ali Akbar, an engineering officer, had little role in the atomic project; Zia responded by taking over the program under military control and disbanded the civilian directorate when he ordered the arrest of Hassan. This whole giant nuclear energy project was transferred into the administrative hands of Major-General Akbar who was soon made the Lieutenant-General and Engineer-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers to deal with the authorities whose co-operation was required. Akbar consolidated the entire project by placing the scientific research under military control, setting boundaries and goals. Akbar proved to be an extremely capable officer in the matters of science and technology when he aggressively led the development of nuclear weapons under Munir Ahmad Khan and Abdul Qadeer Khan in a matter of five years.
By the time, Zia assumed control, the research facilities became fully functional and 90% of the work on atom bomb project was completed. Both the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) and the Khan Research Laboratories (KRL) had built the extensive research infrastructure started by Bhutto. Akbar's office was shifted to Army's General Headquarters (GHQ) and Akbar guided Zia on key matters of nuclear science and atomic bomb production. He became the first engineering officer to have acknowledge Zia about the success of this energy project into a fully matured program. On the recommendation of Akbar, Zia approved the appointment of Munir Ahmad Khan as the scientific director of the atomic bomb project, as Zia was convinced by Akbar that civilian scientists under Munir Khan's directorship were at their best to counter international pressure.
This was proved when the PAEC conducted the cold-fission test of a fission device, codename Kirana-I on 11 March 1983 at the Weapon-Testing Laboratories-I, under the leadership of weapon-testing laboratory's director Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad. Lieutenant-General Zahid Akbar went to GHQ and notified Zia about the success of this test. The PAEC responded by conducting several cold-tests throughout the 1980s, a policy also continued by Benazir Bhutto in the 1990s. According to the reference in the book, "Eating Grass", Zia was so deeply convinced of the infiltration of Western and American moles and spies into the project, that he extended his role in the atomic bomb, which reflected extreme "paranoia", in both his personal and professional life. He virtually had PAEC and KRL separated from each other and made critical administrative decisions rather than putting scientists in charge of the aspects of the atomic programs. His actions spurred innovation in the atomic bomb project and an intense secrecy and security culture permeated PAEC and KRL.
Nuclear diplomacy
Unlike Bhutto, who faced rogue criticism and a heated diplomatic war with the United States throughout the 1970s, Zia took different diplomatic approaches to counter the international pressure. From 1979 to 1983, the country was made a subject of attack by international organization for not signing the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT); Zia deftly neutralized international pressure by tagging Pakistan's nuclear weapons program to the nuclear designs of the neighboring Indian nuclear program. Zia, with the help of Munir Ahmad Khan and Agha Shahi, Foreign Minister, drew a five-point proposal as a practical rejoinder to world pressure on Pakistan to sign the NPT; the points including the renouncing of the use of nuclear weapons.
Following the success of Operation Opera – in which an Israeli Air Force strike took place to destroy the Iraqi nuclear program in 1981 – suspicion grew in Pakistan that the Indian Air Force had similar plans for Pakistan. In a private meeting with General Anwar Shamim, then-Chief of Air Staff, Zia had notified General Shamim that the Indian Air Force had plans to infiltrate Pakistan's nuclear energy project, citing solid evidence. Shamim felt that the Air Force was unable to divert such attacks, therefore, he advised Zia to use diplomacy through Munir Ahmad Khan to divert the attacks. At Vienna, Munir Ahmad Khan met with Indian physicist Raja Ramanna and notified him that such an attack would provoke a nuclear war between the two countries. In the meantime, Shamim decided to start the program to acquire the F-16 Falcons and A-5 Fanton jets for the Pakistan Air Force. Shamim launched Operation Sentinel- a counter operation that thwarted the Israeli Air Force attempt to sabotage Pakistan's nuclear energy project—forced Indian Premier Indira Gandhi to hold talks with Pakistan on nuclear issues and directed a high delegation to Pakistan where both countries pledged not to assist or attack each other's facilities. In 1985, following the induction of the F-16 Falcons and A-5 Fantons, Shamim commissioned the Air Force Strategic Command to protect and battle the weapons of mass destruction.
In 1977, Zia ultimately adopted the policy of "nuclear opacity" to deliberately deny the atomic bomb programs. This policy of nuclear ambiguity was adopted after witnessing the success of Israel's nuclear program and on multiple occasions Zia broke his words and promises concerning the nature of the country's atomic bomb project. On nuclear policy issues, Zia deliberately misguided the United States and concealed classified information from the outside world. The United States trusted Zia's sincerity and his promises made to the United States; Zia gave assurances to the United States not to produce weapons-grade plutonium and highly enriched uranium (HEU) above a 5% level. However, the Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, Vernon Walter, confronted Zia on his secret trip to Pakistan in October 1981. Confronted with the evidence, Zia acknowledged that the information "must be true," but then denied everything, leading Walters to conclude that: "either Zia "did not know the facts" or was the "most superb and patriotic liar I have ever met...".
Nuclear proliferation
Soon after the coup, the clandestine nuclear energy project was no longer a secret to the outside world. Part of his strategy was the promotion of nuclear proliferation in anti-western states (such as North Korea, Iran, and communist China) to aid their own nuclear ambitions, to divert international attention which was difficult. In 1981, Zia contracted with China when he sent weapon-grade uranium to China and also built the centrifuge laboratory which increasingly enhanced the Chinese nuclear program. This act encouraged Abdul Qadeer Khan, who allegedly tried to aid the Libyan nuclear programme but because Libya–Pakistan relations were strained, Khan was warned of serious consequences. This policy envisaged that this would deflect international pressure onto these countries, and Pakistan would be spared the international community's wrath.
After Zia's death, his successor General Mirza Aslam Beg, as Chief of Army Staff, encouraged Abdul Qadeer Khan and gave him a free hand to work with some like-minded nations such as North Korea, Iran and Libya which also wanted to pursue their nuclear ambitions for a variety of reasons. In 2004, Abdul Khan's dismissal from the nuclear weapons program was considered a face saving exercise by the Pakistan Armed Forces and political establishment under the then Chief of Army Staff and President General Pervez Musharraf. Zia's nuclear proliferation policy had a deep impact on the world, especially anti-western states, most nominally North Korea and Iran. In the 2000s (decade), North Korea would soon follow the same suit after it was targeted by the international community for its on-going nuclear program. In the 2000s (decade), North Korea attempted to aid the Syrian and Iranian nuclear program in the 1990s. The North Korean connection to the Syrian nuclear program was exposed in 2007 by Israel in its successful strategic operation, Orchard, which resulted in them sabotaging the Syrian nuclear program as well as the deaths of 10 senior North Korean scientists who were aiding the nuclear program.
Expansion
Even though Zia had removed the Bhutto sentiment in the nuclear energy project, Zia did not completely disband Bhutto's policy on nuclear weapons. After the retirement of Zahid Ali Akbar, Zia transferred control of the nuclear weapons program to Bhutto's close aide Munir Ahmad Khan, Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Soon, Zia promoted Khan as the technical director of the entire program as well as appointing Khan as his Science Adviser. With the support of handpicked civilian Prime Minister Muhammad Juneijo, Zia sanctioned the launch of the 50 Megawatt (MW) heavy water plutonium production reactor, known as Khushab-I, at Khushab in 1985. Zia also took initiatives to launched the space projects as spin-off to nuclear project. Zia appointed nuclear engineer Salim Mehmud as the Administrator of the Space Research Commission. Zia also launched the work on the country's first satellite, Badr-1, a military satellite. In 1987, Zia launched the clandestine aerospace project, the Integrated Missile Research Program under General Anwar Shamim in 1985, and later under Lieutenant-General Talat Masood in 1987.
The war legacy
The rise of the illicit drug trade and its spread through Pakistan to the rest of the world increased tremendously during the Soviet-Afghan war. Afghanistan's drug industry began to take off after the Soviet invasion in 1979. Desperate for cash with which to buy weapons, various elements in the anti-Communist resistance turned to the drug trade. This was tolerated if not condoned by their American sponsors such as the CIA.
'Sharization' of Pakistan
The "primary" policy or "centerpiece" of Zia's government was "Sharization" or "Islamization".
In 1977, prior to the coup, the drinking and selling of wine by Muslims, along with nightclubs, and horse racing was banned by Prime Minister Bhutto in an effort to stem the tide of street Islamization.
Zia went much further, committing himself to enforce Nizam-e-Mustafa ("Rule of the prophet" or Islamic System, i.e. establishing an Islamic state and sharia law), a significant turn from Pakistan's predominantly secular law, inherited from the British.
In his first televised speech to the country as head of state Zia declared that
Pakistan which was created in the name of Islam will continue to survive only if it sticks to Islam. That is why I consider the introduction of [an] Islamic system as an essential prerequisite for the country.
In the past he complained, "Many a ruler did what they pleased in the name of Islam."
Zia established "Sharia Benches" in each High Court (later the Federal Sharia Court) to judge legal cases using the teachings of the Quran and the Sunna, and to bring Pakistan's legal statutes into alignment with Islamic doctrine.
Zia bolstered the influence of the ulama (Islamic clergy) and the Islamic parties. 10,000s of activists from the Jamaat-e-Islami party were appointed to government posts to ensure the continuation of his agenda after his passing. Conservative ulama (Islamic scholars) were added to the Council of Islamic Ideology.
Islamization was a sharp change from Bhutto's original philosophical rationale captured in the slogan, "Food, clothing, and shelter". In Zia's view, socialist economics and a secular-socialist orientation served only to upset Pakistan's natural order and weaken its moral fiber. General Zia defended his policies in an interview in 1979 given to British journalist Ian Stephens:
How much of Zia's motivation came from piety and how much from political calculation is disputed. One author points out that Zia was conspicuously silent on the dispute between the heterodox Zikri and the 'Ulama in Balochistan where he needed stability. Secular and leftist forces accused Zia of manipulating Islam for political ends. According to Nusrat Bhutto, former First Lady of Pakistan:
How much success Zia had using state-sponsored Islamization to strengthen national cohesion is also disputed. Religious riots broke out in 1983 and 1984. Sectarian divisions between Sunnis and Shia worsened over the issue of the 1979 Zakat ordinance, but differences in Fiqh jurisprudence also arose in marriage and divorce, inheritance and wills and imposition of hadd punishments.
Among Sunni Muslims, Deobandis and Barelvis also had disputes. Zia favoured the Deobandi doctrine and so the Sufi pirs of Sindh (who were Barelvis) joined the anti-Zia Movement for the Restoration of Democracy.
Hudood Ordinance
In one of his first and most controversial measures to Islamize Pakistani society was the replacement of parts of the Pakistan Penal Code (PPC) with the 1979 "Hudood Ordinance." (Hudood meaning limits or restrictions, as in limits of acceptable behavior in Islamic law.) The Ordinance added new criminal offences of adultery and fornication to Pakistani law, and new punishments of whipping, amputation, and stoning to death.
For theft or robbery, the PPC punishments of imprisonment or fine, or both, were replaced by amputation of the right hand of the offender for theft, and amputation of the right hand and left foot for robbery. For Zina (extramarital sex) the provisions relating to adultery were replaced by the Ordinance with punishments of flogged 100 lashes for those unmarried offenders, and stoning to death for married offenders.
All these punishments were dependent on proof required for hadd being met. In practice the Hudd requirement—four Muslim men of good repute testifying as witness to the crime—was seldom met. As of 2014, no offenders have been stoned or had limbs amputated by the Pakistani judicial system. To be found guilty of theft, zina, or drinking alcohol by less strict tazir standards—where the punishment was flogging and/or imprisonment—was common, and there have been many floggings.
More worrisome for human rights and women's rights advocates, lawyers and politicians was the incarceration of thousands of rape victims on charges of zina. The onus of providing proof in a rape case rests with the woman herself. Uncorroborated testimony by women was inadmissible in hudood crimes. If the victim/accuser was unable to prove her allegation, bringing the case to court was considered equivalent to a confession of sexual intercourse outside of lawful marriage. Despite this the ordinance remained in force until the Women's Protection Bill was passed in 2006.
Although the Sharia punishments were imposed, the due process, witnesses, law of evidence, and prosecution system remained Anglo-Saxon.
The hybridization of Pakistan penal code with Islamic laws was difficult because of the difference in the underlying logic of the two legal systems. PPC was kingly law, Haddood is a religious and community-based law.
Other sharia laws
Under Zia, the order for women to cover their heads while in public was implemented in public schools, colleges and state television. Women's participation in sports and the performing arts was severely restricted. Following Sharia law, women's legal testimony was given half the weight of a man's, .
In 1980 the "Zakat and Ushr Ordinance, 1980" was implemented. The measure called for a 2.5% annual deduction from personal bank accounts on the first day of Ramadan, with Zia stating that the revenues would be used for poverty relief. Zakat committees were established to oversee distribution of the funds.
In 1981 interest payments were replaced by "profit and loss" accounts (though profit was thought to be simply interest by another name). Textbooks were overhauled to remove un-Islamic material, and un-Islamic books were removed from libraries.
Eating and drinking during Ramadan was outlawed, attempts were made to enforce praying of salat five times a day.
Blasphemy ordinances
To outlaw blasphemy, the Pakistan Penal Code (PPC) and the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) were amended through ordinances in 1980, 1982 and 1986. The 1980 law prohibited derogatory remarks against Islamic personages, and carried a three-year prison sentence. In 1982 the small Ahmadiyya religious minority were prohibited from saying or implying they were Muslims. In 1986 declaring anything implying disrespect to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Ahl al-Bayt (family members of Muhammad), Sahabah (companions of Muhammad) or Sha'ar-i-Islam (Islamic symbols) was made a cognisable offence, punishable with imprisonment or fine, or both.
Madrassa expansions
Traditional religious madrassass in Pakistan received state sponsorship for the first time, under the General Zia-ul-Haq's administration, their number grew from 893 to 2,801. Most were Deobandi in doctrinal orientation, while one quarter of them were Barelvi. They received funding from Zakat councils and provided free religious training, room and board to impoverished Pakistanis. The schools, which banned televisions and radios, have been criticised by authors for stoking sectarian hatred both between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.
Cultural policies
In a 1979 address to the nation, Zia decried the Western culture and music in the country. Soon afterwards, PTV, the national television network ceased playing music videos and only patriotic songs were broadcast. New taxes were levied on the film industry and most of the cinemas in Lahore were shut down. New tax rates were introduced, further decreasing cinema attendances.
It was under Zia and the economic prosperity of his era that the country's urban middle and lower-middle-classes expanded and Western 1980s fashion wear and hairstyle spread in popularity, and rock music bands gained momentum, according to leftist cultural critic Nadeem F. Paracha.
Welfare of the people with disabilities
During his tenure, he oversaw passing of an ordinance for the welfare of people with disabilities. The ordinance is called "The Disabled Persons (Employment and Rehabilitation) Ordinance, 1981" and it was passed into law on 29 December 1981. It provides the measures for the employment, rehabilitation and welfare of the people with disabilities.
Dismissal of the Junejo government and call for new elections
As time passed, the legislature wanted to have more freedom and power and by the beginning of 1988, rumours about the differences between Prime Minister Muhammad Khan Junejo and Zia were rife.
It is said by some that Zia-Junejo rift was encouraged by late Mahboob-ul-Haq and Junejo's insistence on signing Geneva pact without deciding the composition of next government of Afghanistan before Soviet withdrawal. Junejo also gave Benazir a seat next to him in parleys before that. Junejo did not strengthen the Islamization drive and rather weakened it. His era led to serious disturbances in Karachi and ultimately Karachi went into the secular control of MQM from the clutches of Sunnis Jamaat-e-Islami.
Ojhri Camp blast had irreversibly weakened Zia. Junejo was committed to make an investigation into the Ojhri camp disaster. This couldn't be digested by President as it would expose the involvement of ISI and Zia co- fellow Generals. After defeat of Soviet army, America wanted to audit the ammunition and missiles supplied to Pakistan for Mujahideen, most of which has been stored by Pakistan for future targets against India or other enemies. So Zia planned this event in a very cruel manner, having sacrificed the lives of people of Pakistan for fulfillment of their own agenda.
On 29 May 1988, Zia dissolved the National Assembly and removed the Prime Minister under article 58(2)b of the amended Constitution. Apart from many other reasons, Prime Minister Junejo's decision to sign the Geneva Accord against the wishes of Zia, and his open declarations of removing any military personnel found responsible for an explosion at a munitions dump at Ojhri Camp, on the outskirts of army headquarters in Rawalpindi, earlier in the year, proved to be some of the major factors responsible for his removal.
Zia promised to hold elections in 1988 after the dismissal of Junejo government. He said that he would hold elections within the next 90 days. The late Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's daughter Benazir Bhutto had returned from exile earlier in 1986, and had announced that she would be contesting the elections. With Bhutto's popularity somewhat growing, and a decrease in international aid following the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, Zia was in an increasingly difficult political situation.
Death
Zia died in a plane crash on 17 August 1988. After witnessing a US M1 Abrams tank demonstration in Bahawalpur, Zia had left the city in the Punjab province by C-130B Hercules aircraft. The aircraft departed from Bahawalpur Airport and was expected to reach Islamabad International Airport. Shortly after a smooth takeoff, the control tower lost contact with the aircraft. Witnesses who saw the plane in the air afterward claim it was flying erratically, then nosedived and exploded on impact. In addition to Zia, 31 others died in the plane crash, including chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee General Akhtar Abdur Rahman, close associate of Zia, Brigadier Siddique Salik, the American ambassador to Pakistan Arnold Lewis Raphel and General Herbert M. Wassom, the head of the US military aid mission to Pakistan. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, the Senate chairman announced Zia's death on radio and TV. Conditions surrounding his death have given rise to many conspiracy theories. There is speculation that the United States, India, the Soviet Union (in retaliation for Pakistani support of the mujahideen in Afghanistan) or an alliance of them and internal groups within Zia's military were behind the incident.
A board of inquiry was set up to investigate the crash. It concluded 'the most probable cause of the crash was a criminal act of sabotage perpetrated in the aircraft'. It also suggested that poisonous gases were released which incapacitated the passengers and crew, which would explain why no Mayday signal was given. There was also speculation into other facts involving the details of the investigation. A flight recorder (black box) was not located after the crash even though previous C-130 aircraft did have them installed.
Maj. Gen. (retd) Mahmud Ali Durrani, who was suspected by many circles within Pakistan and also by then United States ambassador to India, John Gunther Dean, for being "extraordinarily insistent" with President Zia to visit the demonstration, is considered to be the prime suspect in the incident. He claimed later that reports of Israeli and Indian involvement in Zia's plane crash were only speculations and he rejected the statement that was given by former president Ghulam Ishaq Khan that the presidential plane was blown up in the air. Durrani stated that Zia's plane was destroyed while landing.
Lt. General Hameed Gul, the head of Pakistan's Inter Services Intelligence agency at the time, suggested that the United States might be responsible, even though the U.S. ambassador and military attaché were also killed. He told The Times that the Pakistani President was killed in a conspiracy involving a "foreign power".
Legacy
Funeral and aftermath
His funeral was held on 19 August 1988 near Islamabad. As a 21-gun salute of light artillery resounded off the lush Margalla Hills, nearly one million mourners joined in chants of "Zia ul-Haq, you will live as long as the sun and moon remain above." His remains were laid to rest in a 4-by-10-foot dirt grave in front of the huge, modern Faisal Mosque that Zia had built as a symbol of Pakistani-Saudi friendship. Also in attendance was his successor President Ghulam Ishaq Khan, chiefs of staff of armed forces, chairman joint chiefs, and other high military and civil officials. Former US Secretary of State George P. Shultz also laid a floral wreath at Zia's grave.
Public image
Even after his death, Zia-ul-Haq remained a highly polarizing and widely discussed figure in the country's intellectual and political circles. Out of the country's short history, Zia-ul-Haq's legacy remains a most toxic, enduring, and tamper-proof legacy, according to the editorial written in Dawn. He is also praised for defeating the Soviets. Indian journalist Kallol Bhattacherjee, an author of a book on Afghanistan, said:"There will not be another Zia in South Asia. He was unique and multidimensional like all complex characters of South Asian history. I admire Zia's guts, though not his methods, especially in regards to Islam. He successfully took on nuclear India and changed the balance of power that Indira Gandhi created in the 1971 war and broke all rules to acquire nuclear weapons for Pakistan."Historians and political scientists widely discussed and studied his policy making skills, some authors noting him as "The Ringmaster", "Master of Illusion" and "Master Tactician". However, his most remembered and enduring legacy was his indirect involvement and military strategies, by proxy supporting the Mujahideen, against the USSR's war in Afghanistan. His reign also helped the conservatives to rise at the national politics against Benazir Bhutto. He is also noted as being one of Pakistan's most successful generals, placing the armed forces in charge of the country's affairs. During his regime, western styles in hair, clothing, and music flooded the country. The 1980s gave birth to Pakistani rock music, which expressed Pakistani nationalism in the country.
Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan
With the passing of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan (2010), the executive powers General Zia had legislated were permanently deleted from the Constitution of Pakistan.
Foreign honours
: Order of the Star of Jordan
: Knight of the Order of the Rajamitrabhorn
: Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali
Portrayals in popular culture
Zia has been portrayed in English language popular culture a number of times including:
In the comic Shattered Visage, it is implied that Zia's death was orchestrated by the same intelligence agency that ran The Village from the show The Prisoner.
Zia was portrayed by Indian actor Om Puri in the 2007 film Charlie Wilson's War.
Zia is caricatured as one of the main protagonists in Mohammed Hanif's 2008 satirical novel A Case of Exploding Mangoes which is loosely based around the events of his death.
Zia is the basis for the character General Hyder in Salman Rushdie's novel Shame (1983), which describes Zia's long-lasting relationship with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (here known as Iskander Harrapa), the president whom he would later overthrow and "put to death".
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's takeover of Pakistan and circumstances of his death were referenced in the Star Trek novel The Rise and Fall of Khan Noonien Singh, Volume One. In a prelude to the fictional Eugenics Wars, it is implied that genetically engineered "superman" Khan Noonien Singh arranged the crash.
The oppressive regime of Zia-ul-Haq and the execution of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was referenced in the book Songs of Blood and Sword, a non-fiction memoir by Murtaza Bhutto's daughter Fatima Bhutto.
See also
Joanne Herring
Human Rights in Pakistan under General Zia-ul-Haq
Politics of Pakistan
Line of succession to the President of Pakistan
List of presidents of Pakistan
Military dictatorship
Oppression under the regime of General Zia-ul-Haq
Corporate capitalisation
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An Army, its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947–1999. Pittsburgh: RoseDog Books. .
External links
Biography video 'Shaheed e Islam
Annotated Bibliography for Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
"Who Killed Zia?" by Edward Jay Epstein for Vanity Fair, September 1989
Official profile at Pakistan Army website
The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
General Zia-ul-Haq's plane crash due to mechanical problem (Times of London)
Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq President of Pakistan on Encyclopedia Britannica
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1924 births
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State leaders killed in aviation accidents or incidents
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235341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street%2C%20Somerset | Street, Somerset | Street is a large village and civil parish in Somerset, England, with a population of 11,805 in 2011. On a dry spot in the Somerset Levels, at the end of the Polden Hills, it is south-west of Glastonbury. There is evidence of Roman occupation. Much of the history of the village is dominated by Glastonbury Abbey, and a 12th-century causeway from Glastonbury built to transport local Blue Lias stone to it.
The Society of Friends was established there by the mid-17th century. One Quaker family, the Clarks, started a business in sheepskin rugs, woollen slippers and, later, boots and shoes. This became C&J Clark which still has its headquarters in Street. In 1993, redundant factory buildings were converted to form Clarks Village, the first purpose-built factory outlet in the United Kingdom. The Shoe Museum provides information about the history of Clarks and footwear manufacture in general.
The Clark family's former mansion and its estate at the edge of the village are now owned by Millfield School, an independent co-educational boarding school. Street is also home to Crispin School and Strode College.
To the north of Street is the River Brue, which marks the boundary with Glastonbury. South of Street are the Walton and Ivythorn Hills and East Polden Grasslands biological Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Strode Theatre provides a venue for films, exhibitions and live performances. The Anglican Parish Church of The Holy Trinity dates from the 14th century and has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building.
History
The settlement's earliest known name is Lantokay, meaning the sacred enclosure of Kea, a Celtic saint. The place-name 'Street' is first attested in Anglo-Saxon charters from 725 and 971, where it appears as Stret. It appears as Strete juxta Glastone in a charter from 1330 formerly in the British Museum. The word is the Old English straet meaning 'Roman road'.
The centre of Street is where Lower Leigh hamlet was, and the road called Middle Leigh and the community called Overleigh are to the south of the village. In the 12th century, a causeway from Glastonbury was built to transport stone from what is now Street for rebuilding Glastonbury Abbey after a major fire in 1184. The causeway is about north of a Roman road running north from Ilchester. It will be seen that the name of the village predates the building of the causeway by more than four hundred years, and so the village is named after the Roman road and not the causeway.
The parish of Street was part of the Whitley Hundred.
Quarries of the local blue lias stone were worked from as early as the 12th century to the end of the 19th century. It is a geological formation in southern England, part of the Lias Group. The Blue Lias consists of a sequence of limestone and shale layers, laid down in latest Triassic and early Jurassic times, between 195 and 200 million years ago. Its age corresponds to the Rhaetian to lower Sinemurian stages of the geologic timescale, thus fully including the Hettangian stage. It is the lowest of the three divisions of the Lower Jurassic period and, as such, is also given the name Lower Lias. It consists of thin blue argillaceous, or clay-like, limestone. The Blue Lias contains many fossils, especially ammonites. Fossils discovered in the lias include many ichthyosaurs, one of which has been adopted as the badge of Street. There is a display of Street fossils in the Natural History Museum in London.
The churchyard of the Parish Church has yielded one Iron Age coin, however the origin and significance is unclear, although the Dobunni were known to have produced coins in the area. A number of Roman pottery fragments, now in the Museum of Somerset. Remains of Roman villas exist on the south edge of Street near Marshalls Elm and Ivythorn. Buried remains of a Roman road were excavated in the early 20th century on the flood-plain of the river Brue between Glastonbury and Street. The parish churchyard is on the first flood-free ground near the river Brue and was probably the first land to be inhabited. The form of the large churchyard suggests a lan, a sacred area of a kind that was built in the first half of the 6th century. Llan or Lan is a common place name element in Brythonic languages such as Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Cumbric, and possibly Pictish. The original meaning of llan in Welsh is "an enclosed piece of land", but it later evolved to mean the parish surrounding a church.
One biography of St Gildas has the saint spending some time in Glastonbury Abbey, and moving to a site by the river, where he built a chapel to the Holy Trinity and there died. The Parish Church, now Holy Trinity, has at times been known as St Gildas' church. Glastonbury Abbey controlled Street until the Dissolution.
Sharpham Park is a historic park, approximately west of Street, which dates back to the Bronze Age. The first known reference is a grant by King Edwy to the then Aethelwold in 957. In 1191 Sharpham Park was conferred by the soon-to-be King John to the Abbots of Glastonbury, who remained in possession of the park and house until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539. From 1539 to 1707 the park was owned by the Duke of Somerset, Sir Edward Seymour, brother of Queen Jane; the Thynne family of Longleat, and the family of Sir Henry Gould. Sir Edward Dyer the Elizabethan poet and courtier (died 1607) was born here in 1543. The house is now a private residence and Grade II* listed building. Sharpham was also the birthplace of the novelist and dramatist Henry Fielding (1707–54), and the cleric William Gould.
Ivythorn Manor on Pages Hill was a medieval monastic house. It was rebuilt in 1488 for Abbot John Selwood of Glastonbury Abbey. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries it became a manor house owned by the Marshall and Sydenham families. Sir John Sydenham added a wing 1578 which was later demolished. By 1834 the house was largely ruined until its restoration around 1904, and a west wing was added in 1938. It is a Grade II* listed building.
Governance
The parish council is responsible for some local issues, and sets an annual precept (local rate) to cover its council's operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council also initiates projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, and consults with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council. Having previously been part of Street Urban District, the village now falls within the non-metropolitan district of Mendip, which was formed on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, and is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism. There are currently three electoral wards of the Mendip Council in Street which elect councillors every four years. As of 2010 the two councillors for Street North are both Liberal Democrats, Street West has one Liberal Democrat councillor and Street South is represented by two councillors one of which is a Liberal Democrat and the other is independent of any political party.
Somerset County Council is responsible for the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.
The total population equates to that shown above.
Street is in the Wells parliamentary constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system. The current MP is James Heappey, elected in 2015, of the Conservative Party. Street is twinned with Isny im Allgäu, a town in south-eastern Baden-Württemberg, (Germany), and Notre Dame de Gravenchon in Normandy, France. Both twinnings are announced on the signs that welcome visitors to Street.
Geography
The River Brue marks the boundary with Glastonbury, to the north of Street. At the time of King Arthur, the Brue formed a lake just south of the hilly ground on which Glastonbury stands. This lake is one of the locations suggested by Arthurian legend as the home of the Lady of the Lake. Pomparles Bridge stood at the western end of this lake, guarding Glastonbury from the south, and it was here that Sir Bedivere is thought to have thrown the sword Excalibur into the waters after King Arthur fell at the Battle of Camlann. The old bridge was replaced by a reinforced concrete arch bridge in 1911.
Before the 13th century, the direct route to the sea at Highbridge was blocked by gravel banks and peat near Westhay. The course of the river partially encircled Glastonbury from the south, around the western side (through Beckery), and then north through the Panborough-Bleadney gap in the Wedmore-Wookey Hills, to join the River Axe just north of Bleadney. This route made it difficult for the officials of Glastonbury Abbey to transport produce from their outlying estates to the Abbey, and when the valley of the river Axe was in flood it backed up to flood Glastonbury itself. Sometime between 1230 and 1250, a new channel was constructed westwards into Meare Pool north of Meare, and further westwards to Mark Moor. The Brue Valley Living Landscape is a conservation project based on the Somerset Levels and Moors and managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust.
The Walton and Ivythorn Hills biological Site of Special Scientific Interest south of the village lies at the end of the Polden Hills. This site is owned and managed by the National Trust. Walton and Ivythorn Hills support a complex mosaic of semi-natural habitats which includes unimproved calcareous grassland, dense and scattered scrub and broadleaved woodland. Structural diversity within the habitats, together with the extensive areas of sheltered wood-edge and scrub-edge margins provide ideal conditions for many species of invertebrate. Butterflies, leafhoppers, spiders and soldier flies are particularly well represented. The great green bush cricket
(Tettigonia viridissima) is also of interest. It is adjacent to the East Polden Grasslands which has typical examples of species-rich, unimproved, calcareous grassland with scrub and amongst the many plant species found in this habitat is the early gentian (Gentianella anglica), which is endemic to Britain. Its other main interest lies in its suitability as a habitat for the large blue butterfly (Phengaris arion), which has been successfully reintroduced onto the site. There are two nationally scarce grasshopper species present; rufous grasshopper (Gomphocerippus rufus) and woodland grasshopper (Omocestus rufipes). Several nationally scarce species of moth, beetle, bee and ant also occur.
Street Heath is a nature reserve, managed by Somerset Wildlife Trust, and has outstanding examples of communities which were once common on the Somerset Levels. The vegetation consists of wet and dry heath, species-rich bog and carr woodland, with transitions between all these habitats. Rare ferns present include marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris) and royal fern (Osmunda regalis). Old peat workings and rhynes have a wetland community which includes bulrush (Typha latifolia), yellow flag iris (pseudacorus), cyperus-like sedge (Carex pseudocyperus) and lesser bur-reed (Sparganium natans). Insects recorded include 33 species of butterflies, 200 moths and 12 grasshoppers and crickets, with several notable rarities. Birds breeding in the carr woodland include the local willow tit
Merriman Park is named after Nathaniel James Merriman (1809-1882). He was Curate then Vicar of Street, until he emigrated to South Africa. He rose to become Archdeacon of Grahamstown then Dean of Cape Town before being elevated the Episcopate.
Climate
Along with the rest of South West England, Street has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is approximately . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately . In winter mean minimum temperatures of or are common. In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, however convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection. Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions, which is when they are most active. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is around . About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west.
C. and J. Clark Ltd
The Society of Friends established itself here in the mid-17th century, and among the close-knit group of Quaker families were the Clarks: Cyrus Clark started a business in sheepskin rugs, later joined by his brother James, who introduced the production of woollen slippers and then boots and shoes. Under James's son, William, the business flourished, and most of the profits were ploughed back into employee welfare, housing and education.
C&J Clark still has its headquarters in Street, behind a frontage that includes the clock tower and water tower, but shoes are no longer manufactured there. Instead, in 1993, redundant factory buildings were converted to form Clarks Village, the first purpose-built factory outlet in the United Kingdom. Despite strong concerns being voiced by local retailers at the time, the retail outlets have not led to a demise of the existing shops. The Shoe Museum provides information about the history of Clarks and footwear manufacture in general, and a selection of shop display showcards from the 1930s, the 1950s and the 1960s, and television advertisements.
The Clark family mansion and its estate at the edge of the village are now owned by Millfield School. The company, through the Society of Friends, also had its own small sanatorium and convalescent home on Ivythorn Hill overlooking the village. In 1931, the chalet-style building was leased to the Youth Hostel Association and became the first youth hostel in Somerset. It is still used for this purpose.
Transport
In Roman times Street was close to the route of the Fosse Way and is now on the route of the modern A39 road which runs from Bath to Cornwall, and the A361.
Glastonbury and Street railway station was the biggest station on the original Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway main line from Highbridge to Evercreech Junction until closed in 1966 under the Beeching axe. Opened in 1854 as Glastonbury, and renamed in 1886, it had three platforms, two for Evercreech to Highbridge services and one for the branch service to Wells. The station had a large goods yard controlled from a signal box. The nearest stations are now around 9 miles away, at Castle Cary and Bridgwater. Replica level crossing gates have been placed at the old station entrance.
A number of bus services serve Street including route 376 to Bristol via Wells which is operated by First West of England and runs every 20 minutes Mon-Sat. It is also served by Berrys Coaches daily 'Superfast' service to and from London.
Education
Primary infant/junior schools include Avalon, Brookside, Hindhayes, and Elmhurst.
Crispin School is a secondary school teaching 11- to 16-year-old students from Street and many local villages. It has 1084 students between the ages of 11 and 16 years enrolled. In 1997 it became the first Beacon School in Somerset. It is a Technology College and has a second specialism as a Language College. The school shares its campus with Strode College, a tertiary institution and further education college which provides education for 16+ students after they leave secondary school, these courses are usually A-levels or Business and Technology Education Councils (BTECs). The college also provides education for older/mature students, and provides some university level courses. The college is part of The University of Plymouth Colleges network.
At the edge of village is Millfield School, an independent co-educational boarding school which currently caters for 1,260 pupils, of which 910 are boarders. It was founded in 1935 by Boss Meyer, in the house and grounds originally owned by the Clark family, who owned and ran the major shoe manufacturer Clarks.
Sport and leisure
Street has a Non-League football club Street F.C. who play at The Tannery.
Street has two public swimming pools, one indoor and one outdoor. The indoor pool forms part of the Strode complex. The outdoor pool, Greenbank, is open daily from early May until mid September each year.
The only single use cinema in Street was closed down and converted into a nightclub in the 1990s. Strode Theatre, linked to the Crispin School and Strode College complex, is now the only place to see films, exhibitions and live performances. It opened on 5 October 1963 with a performance by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra. In 1999 the theatre was expanded with a new foyer, bar and box office along with improved rehearsal space and stage access, at a cost of £750,000 by the Steel, Coleman Davis partnership who received an award for the design. The expansion was funded by the Arts Council England.
The village is on the route of the Samaritans Way South West.
Religious sites
The Anglican Parish Church of The Holy Trinity dates from the 14th century but underwent extensive restoration in the 19th century. It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building. The chancel pre dates the rest of the building, having been built about 1270. The first recorded Rector was John de Hancle in 1304. The parish is linked with Street Mission Church in Vestry Road and the church in Walton. There is also a Baptist church on Glaston Road. The Quaker Friends Meeting House was built in 1850, by J. Francis Cottrell of Bath. The United Reformed Church was built on High Street in 1854–55 and Street Methodist Church built on Leigh Road in 1893.
Notable people
Helen Chamberlain, an English television presenter, was born in Street in 1967.
Alice Clark, historian and suffragist, author of Working Life of Women, was born and died in Street.
Edwin Edwards (organist), organist, composer, Director of Music at Rugby College, was born in Street in 1830.
John Hinde was born in Street before going on to become a photographer whose idealistic and nostalgic style influenced the art of postcard photography and was widely known for his meticulously planned shoots.
Clemence Housman, an author, illustrator and suffragette, lived with her brother Laurence in Street.
Laurence Housman, an English playwright, writer and illustrator, lived in Street for 35 years before his death in 1959. He was a younger brother of the poet A.E. Housman.
Catherine Impey, the founder, editor, and publisher of an antirace journal Anti-Caste (1888–1895) was born in Street in 1847. Catherine rejected race, caste, and gender violence. She was friends with Frederick Douglass, Ida B. Wells and other African Americans with whom she continued a global movement against racism, casteism, and gender problems. She died in 1923.
Jaye Jacobs, actress
John X. Merriman was born in Street in 1841, His parents were Nathaniel James Merriman, curate of the parish of Street and later third Bishop of Grahamstown, and the former Julia Potter. He emigrated to the Cape Colony with his parents in 1849, aged 8. He was the last prime minister of the Cape Colony before the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910.
Henry John "Harry" Patch (1898-2009), the last surviving 'Tommy' from the First World War, moved to Street in the early 1940s, and ran a plumbing company in the town until his retirement at age 65.
Freedom of the Parish
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Parish of Street.
WO 1 Matthew Tomlinson : 16 October 2010.
References
External links
Villages in Mendip District
Civil parishes in Somerset | [
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235342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Ponce%20%28LPD-15%29 | USS Ponce (LPD-15) | USS Ponce (AFSB(I)-15) (formerly LPD-15) ( ), is an , formerly in service with the United States Navy.
She has been the only ship of the Navy named for Ponce in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, which in turn was named after the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, the first governor of Puerto Rico and the European discoverer of Florida. Her keel was laid down on 31 October 1966 by the Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company of Seattle, Washington. She was launched on 20 May 1970 sponsored by Florence W. Hyland, the wife of Admiral John J. Hyland, and commissioned on 10 July 1971. She spent most of her career based on the East Coast and operating in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, serving in Operation Desert Shield and supporting US operations in the 2011 Libyan Civil War.
It was intended that the ship would be decommissioned in 2012, but she gained a reprieve to be converted at short notice into a testbed for the Afloat Forward Staging Base (AFSB) concept, in which she would act as a base for mine-sweeping MH-53E Sea Dragon helicopters in the Persian Gulf. Following the conversion, Ponce had been used to test other initiatives and technologies, such as the Laser Weapon System and operating US Army attack helicopters at sea. After the arrival of as a permanent AFSB (now designated as Expeditionary Mobile Base (ESB)), Ponce was decommissioned in October 2017 after 46 years of service and 27 deployments.
Ship history
1980s
On 2 February 1982, during a towing exercise while en route to Portsmouth, England, Ponce collided with , causing minor damage to Ponces port side, mainly to the accommodation ladder and flight deck catwalk.
On 14 February 1984, while attempting to bring an assault craft into the welldeck, near Morehead City, North Carolina, Ponce suffered major damage when her stern gate was damaged and eventually lost. She was later repaired in Philadelphia. Following the stern gate repairs, Ponce resumed her deployment, successfully loading the Marines and equipment off North Carolina's shores and heading for the Mediterranean, where she served as part of a multinational peacekeeping force, patrolling the shore off Beirut, Lebanon in the wake of the attack on the Marine barracks the previous October.
1990s
On 5 August 1990, as part of Operation Sharp Edge to remove US citizens caught up in the civil war in Liberia, Ponce, together with , , and , inserted a United States Marine Corps reinforced rifle company into the U.S. Embassy compound in Monrovia for increased security.
From June to December 1991, Ponce completed a six-month deployment to the Mediterranean Sea, and was part of Operation Desert Shield and supported Operation Desert Storm.
In the first half of 1992, Ponce completed a four-month maintenance availability in Norfolk, Virginia. In June, she took on midshipmen for a training cruise off the Virginia Capes, which earned her the "CORTRAMID '92 Surface Warrior of the Week". In September, she arrived in Miami for Hurricane Andrew relief efforts. In October, she commenced counter drug operations in the Caribbean with a United States Coast Guard Law Enforcement Detachment on board.
On 17 March 1993, Ponce departed on a six-month deployment to the Mediterranean Sea with the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit in support of Operations "Deny Flight" and "Provide Promise". She was accompanied by USS Saipan and . During the deployment, she operated bilaterally with Greek units in exercise "Alexandros '93" and conducted amphibious landing exercises with the Tunisians in "Phiblex '93".
2000s
On 27 April 2001, Ponce commenced a six-month deployment to the Mediterranean, returning to Norfolk on 15 October. On 29 August 2001, Ponce crewmembers boarded two derelict Italian boats, a motorboat and a sailboat, in the Straits of Messina between Sicily and Calabria. The civilian vessels were adrift, creating a navigational hazard. A boarding party in a rigid hull inflatable boat found both derelicts unmanned, though the motorboat was well stocked. They towed both boats back to Ponce, which flooded her welldeck, brought the boats aboard, carried them into Catania, and turned them over to the Guardia Costiera (Italian Coast Guard).
On 10 January 2003, Ponce received orders to depart Norfolk, Virginia and take on Marines from Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. That duty kept Ponce at sea through February. At the end of February, she became the flagship of the Commander of Mine Countermeasure Squadron Three, designated as Commander, Task Group 55.4. The Task Group included a US Navy special clearance team, two explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) units, a detachment of MH-53E Sea Dragon helicopters from Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron Fourteen (HM-14), a British unit and an Australian team. The ships involved included the coastal mine hunters and , mine countermeasure ships and , and dock landing ship .
After breaking the Squadron's pennant at her yardarm, the crews of Ponce and Gunston Hall enjoyed liberty ashore in Manama, Bahrain, from 28 February to 5 March. She then served as Task Group flagship for a weeks-long minesweeping operation in Iraq, as humanitarian aid was being blocked by naval mines in the Khawr Abd Allah river and the port of Umm Qasr. The Group used a variety of methods, including MH-53E Sea Dragon helicopters towing magnetic minesweeping sleds, trained marine mammals, unmanned underwater vehicles and EOD divers. On 28 March 2003, a -wide channel was declared safe, and the British auxiliary vessel docked at Umm Qasr Port and began offloading hundreds of tons of food and water. Work continued for weeks after that, widening the channel.
On 25 March 2005, Ponce again departed Norfolk, deploying with the Expeditionary Strike Group (ESG) for six months. Following a port visit to Augusta Bay, Sicily, Ponce spent three months in the Persian Gulf conducting operations in support of the global War on Terrorism. While in the Persian Gulf, she made port visits to Bahrain and Jebel Ali in the United Arab Emirates. Ponce departed the Persian Gulf in August 2005. On 19 August, Ponce was in the Gulf of Aqaba awaiting the underway movement of to allow Ponce to dock pier side. While Ashland was in the process, the Katyusha rocket attack occurred on USS Kearsarge and Ashland. Ponce remained in the Gulf of Aqaba for over a week in response to the attack. She then conducted port visits to Malta and Rota, Spain, before returning to Norfolk on 27 September.
2010s
On 2 March 2011, Ponce, along with Kearsarge, traveled through the Suez Canal in response to the 2011 Libyan civil war.
On 23 April 2011, Commander, U.S. Sixth Fleet (C6F) relieved Ponces commanding and executive officers, as a result of a hazing inquiry. Vice Admiral Harry B. Harris Jr., relieved commanding officer (CO) Commander Etta Jones, due to a demonstration of poor leadership and failure to appropriately investigate, report, and hold accountable sailors found involved in hazing incidents. Additionally, she failed to properly handle a loaded weapon during a security alert, which endangered some of her ship's crew. The relief of the executive officer (XO), Lieutenant Commander Kurt Boenisch, was attributed to his failure to provide support to the command and to his commanding officer.
On 26 October 2011, Ponce began a three-week tour that would take her to Port Canaveral, Florida, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and her namesake city of Ponce, Puerto Rico. On her return to Norfolk, in December 2011, she was to begin the process of decommissioning. On 2 December 2011, Ponce came home to await decommissioning, scheduled for 30 March 2012, when she would be towed to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, and put in reserve status. In January 2012, in response to requests from United States Central Command, it was decided that she would be retrofitted and re-deployed as the first of a planned series of mine-countermeasures warships for use in keeping open strategic sea lanes.
Afloat Forward Staging Base, Interim (AFSB-I)
On 24 January 2012, Military Sealift Command (MSC) posted a bid request to retrofit USS Ponce on a rush-order basis. MSC issued requests for proposal to upgrade and refit the ship. The work included upgrading the ship's navigation systems, bringing habitability up to MSC standards and general refurbishment. The ship was expected to be completely transformed in an estimated four to five months, and the target date for re-deployment to her new role was met.
Ponce was re-designated from LPD-15 to AFSB(I)-15 (Afloat Forward Staging Base and "I" for "interim", until purpose-built vessels came on line in 2015), and she was modified to support mine-sweeping MH-53 Sea Dragon helicopters and small mine-clearance vessels.
The ship was operated jointly by active-duty Navy officers and sailors, as well as being crewed by government civilian mariners from Military Sealift Command, some of whom were more than 60 years old.
The ship served in the Persian Gulf as the Pentagon's first floating staging base for military operations or humanitarian assistance. It was later reported that, despite the capability to do so, Ponce would not be a mothership for special operations, but rather a "lilypad" for MH-53E helicopters in a mine-clearance role, as well as for patrol and mine-clearance craft. As Admiral John Harvey stated, "The topic was a hot one, and people read these [documents] we generate very closely. I think they put two and two together and got 22."
On 1 June 2012, Ponce, in her new role as AFSB, deployed to the Fifth Fleet area in the Middle East, and on 22 June 2012 she passed through the Suez Canal on her way to Bahrain, arriving there on 5 July. She then participated in International Mine Countermeasures Exercise 2012 (IMCMEX 2012) between 16 and 27 September 2012, demonstrating the capabilities her "stop-gap" role was intended to fill.
On 29 October 2012, Ponce rescued seven Bahraini fishermen whose vessel was foundering in a hailstorm.
In 2013, Ponce functioned as the operational center and HQ for the International Mine Countermeasures Exercise in the Persian Gulf, using the berthing designed for transporting marines in order to function as a floating "hotel" for the operation.
In October 2016, Ponce was subjected to missile fire ostensibly launched from Yemen by Houthi rebels.
In August 2017, Ponce was replaced in the AFSB role by Lewis B. Puller (ESB-3), and in mid-2017, both ships briefly operated together. With the role of AFSB permanently taken over, the ship returned to port at Norfolk, Virginia on 27 September 2017.
Laser weapon tests
Ponce became the testbed platform for the Laser Weapon System (LaWS), with installation of a prototype weapon system for field testing in August 2014. In December 2014 the Navy reported the LaWS system worked perfectly, and that the commander of Ponce was authorized to use the system as a defensive weapon. On 9 December 2014, the Navy released video footage of the LaWS in operation, and while the operating power is unknown, it is estimated to be in the range of 15–50 kW for engaging drones, small aircraft and high-speed boats.
Ponce was deployed to the Persian Gulf with the laser in late August 2014, and the LaWS remained in use until 2017; at which point, Ponce was decommissioned and the LaWS was moved to .
Possible sale to Argentina
In 2017, it was reported that Argentina was interested in acquiring Ponce as an addition to their Navy. It was reported that talks of purchase began while US Vice President Mike Pence was on a state visit to Argentina and met with Argentine President, Mauricio Macri. Such a purchase would restore amphibious assault capability to the Argentine Navy, which it has not had since 1997, with the decommissioning of tank landing ship, . In response to these reports, the United Kingdom has expressed concern that said purchase would give Argentina a way to invade the Falkland Islands once again, and if purchased, the Royal Navy would have to increase its presence in the Falkland Islands. The Navy has since announced that Ponce will be dismantled following her decommissioning, likely negating any possibility of a sale.
Decommissioning
Ponce was decommissioned at Naval Station Norfolk on 14 October 2017. The ship joined the inactive fleet and will be dismantled. As of September 2021, she is at NISMF Philadelphia, along with two other mothballed Austin-class vessels, and .
References
External links
Austin-class amphibious transport docks
Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Experimental ships of the United States
United States Navy Puerto Rico-related ships
Ships built by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company
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235343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20hydroxide | Potassium hydroxide | Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, and is commonly called caustic potash.
Along with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), KOH is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which exploit its caustic nature and its reactivity toward acids. An estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced in 2005. KOH is noteworthy as the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps, as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals. It is a white solid that is dangerously corrosive.
Properties and structure
KOH exhibits high thermal stability. Because of its high stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that have low surface area and convenient handling properties. These pellets become tacky in air because KOH is hygroscopic. Most commercial samples are ca. 90% pure, the remainder being water and carbonates. Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic. Concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily.
Structure
At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure. The OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å (between and in size). At room temperature, the groups are ordered and the environment about the centers is distorted, with distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate , the dihydrate and the tetrahydrate .
Reactions
Solubility and desiccating properties
About 121 g of KOH dissolve in 100 mL water at room temperature, which contrasts with 100 g/100 mL for NaOH. Thus on a molar basis, NaOH is slightly more soluble than KOH. Lower molecular-weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also excellent solvents. They participate in an acid-base equilibrium. In the case of methanol the potassium methoxide (methylate) forms:
Because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines.
As a nucleophile in organic chemistry
KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of , a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in both inorganic and organic materials. Aqueous KOH saponifies esters:
When R is a long chain, the product is called a potassium soap. This reaction is manifested by the "greasy" feel that KOH gives when touched — fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap and glycerol.
Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups. The reaction is especially useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols.
Reactions with inorganic compounds
Complementary to its reactivity toward acids, KOH attacks oxides. Thus, SiO2 is attacked by KOH to give soluble potassium silicates. KOH reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium bicarbonate:
Manufacture
Historically, KOH was made by adding potassium carbonate to a strong solution of calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). The salt metathesis reaction results in precipitation of solid calcium carbonate, leaving potassium hydroxide in solution:
Filtering off the precipitated calcium carbonate and boiling down the solution gives potassium hydroxide ("calcinated or caustic potash"). This method of producing potassium hydroxide remained dominant until the late 19th century, when it was largely replaced by the current method of electrolysis of potassium chloride solutions. The method is analogous to the manufacture of sodium hydroxide (see chloralkali process):
Hydrogen gas forms as a byproduct on the cathode; concurrently, an anodic oxidation of the chloride ion takes place, forming chlorine gas as a byproduct. Separation of the anodic and cathodic spaces in the electrolysis cell is essential for this process.
Uses
KOH and NaOH can be used interchangeably for a number of applications, although in industry, NaOH is preferred because of its lower cost.
Precursor to other potassium compounds
Many potassium salts are prepared by neutralization reactions involving KOH. The potassium salts of carbonate, cyanide, permanganate, phosphate, and various silicates are prepared by treating either the oxides or the acids with KOH. The high solubility of potassium phosphate is desirable in fertilizers.
Manufacture of soft soaps
The saponification of fats with KOH is used to prepare the corresponding "potassium soaps", which are softer than the more common sodium hydroxide-derived soaps. Because of their softness and greater solubility, potassium soaps require less water to liquefy, and can thus contain more cleaning agent than liquefied sodium soaps.
As an electrolyte
Aqueous potassium hydroxide is employed as the electrolyte in alkaline batteries based on nickel-cadmium, nickel-hydrogen, and manganese dioxide-zinc. Potassium hydroxide is preferred over sodium hydroxide because its solutions are more conductive. The nickel–metal hydride batteries in the Toyota Prius use a mixture of potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide. Nickel–iron batteries also use potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
Food industry
In food products, potassium hydroxide acts as a food thickener, pH control agent and food stabilizer. The FDA considers it generally safe as a direct food ingredient when used in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practices. It is known in the E number system as E525.
Niche applications
Like sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide attracts numerous specialized applications, virtually all of which rely on its properties as a strong chemical base with its consequent ability to degrade many materials. For example, in a process commonly referred to as "chemical cremation" or "resomation", potassium hydroxide hastens the decomposition of soft tissues, both animal and human, to leave behind only the bones and other hard tissues. Entomologists wishing to study the fine structure of insect anatomy may use a 10% aqueous solution of KOH to apply this process.
In chemical synthesis, the choice between the use of KOH and the use of NaOH is guided by the solubility or keeping quality of the resulting salt.
The corrosive properties of potassium hydroxide make it a useful ingredient in agents and preparations that clean and disinfect surfaces and materials that can themselves resist corrosion by KOH.
KOH is also used for semiconductor chip fabrication (for example anisotropic wet etching).
Potassium hydroxide is often the main active ingredient in chemical "cuticle removers" used in manicure treatments.
Because aggressive bases like KOH damage the cuticle of the hair shaft, potassium hydroxide is used to chemically assist the removal of hair from animal hides. The hides are soaked for several hours in a solution of KOH and water to prepare them for the unhairing stage of the tanning process. This same effect is also used to weaken human hair in preparation for shaving. Preshave products and some shave creams contain potassium hydroxide to force open the hair cuticle and to act as a hygroscopic agent to attract and force water into the hair shaft, causing further damage to the hair. In this weakened state, the hair is more easily cut by a razor blade.
Potassium hydroxide is used to identify some species of fungi. A 3–5% aqueous solution of KOH is applied to the flesh of a mushroom and the researcher notes whether or not the color of the flesh changes. Certain species of gilled mushrooms, boletes, polypores, and lichens are identifiable based on this color-change reaction.
Safety
Potassium hydroxide and its solutions are severe irritants to skin and other tissue.
See also
Potash
Soda lime
Saltwater soap – sailors' soap
References
External links
Newscientist article dn10104
MSDS from JTBaker
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Deliquescent substances
Desiccants
E-number additives
Hydroxides
Photographic chemicals
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235359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulita | Tulita | Tulita, which in Slavey means "where the rivers or waters meet," is a hamlet in the Sahtu Region of the Northwest Territories, Canada. It was formerly known as Fort Norman, until 1 January 1996. It is located at the junction of the Great Bear River and the Mackenzie River; the Bear originates at Great Bear Lake adjacent to Deline.
Tulita is in an area that is forested and well south of the tree line. Permafrost underlays the area, more or less continuous in distribution. Tulita is surrounded by mountains, the latter renowned for Dall sheep, and faces the Mackenzie Mountains to the west, which has mountain goats.
History
Fort Norman originated as a Hudson's Bay Company trading post in the 19th century and has occupied a number of geographical locations prior to the settling of the modern community. A post by the name of Fort Norman occupied several locations, on the Mackenzie River, on the islands within it, on Bear River, and on the shore of Great Bear Lake near the present location of Deline. Who the name 'Norman' commemorates is unclear, but it may have been either Alexander Norman McLeod or Archibald Norman McLeod, both of whom were prominent in the northwest in the early 19th century.
Between 1863 and 1869, Fort Norman was located on Great Bear Lake, a short distance west of what later became Deline (Fort Franklin), and was an HBC post commanded by Nichol Taylor. Roman Catholic missionary Émile Petitot operated a small mission here during that period. In 1869, Nichol Taylor moved Fort Norman to its present position at the confluence of the Mackenzie and Bear Rivers.
Fort Norman rose to importance during the 1920s oil staking rush along the Mackenzie River, downstream of the community, where oil was developed and marketed at what became known as Norman Wells. It has also become a permanent settlement for predominately Sahtu Dene people on whose traditional land the original trading post was built. In 1996, the name of Fort Norman was officially changed to Tulita, which translates in Dene to "where the rivers or waters meet."
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Tulita recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
In 2016, the majority of the population was Indigenous being First Nations and Métis. The main languages are North Slavey and English with some Dene.
Transport and tourism
Tulita may be reached via air year-round, and is served by Tulita Airport; Norman Wells is the regional centre and the site of origin of the majority of flights in. A winter road links Tulita to Wrigley and thence the Mackenzie Highway, and is only open in mid- to late winter. Summer access is available by barge or by canoe, from Hay River along the Mackenzie River. The NWT government is seeking federal funding to extend the Mackenzie Highway from Wrigley through Tulita to Tsiigehtchic.
Amenities consist of a hotel, Northern Store, Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachment, and a nursing station. Chief Albert Wright School teaches grades K-12 while the hamlet has a library, arena, recreation hall, and fitness centre.
First Nations
The Dene First Nations people of Tulita are represented by the Tulita Dene First Nation, a band government operating within the community. The TDFN is a member of the Sahtu Dene Council, joining the Behdzi Ahda' First Nation, Délı̨nę First Nation, and Fort Good Hope First Nation.
Treaty Indians from the community are party to the Sahtu Agreement, which gives them shared title to 41,437 square kilometers of land in the Sahtu Region. Under the Sahtu Agreement, self-government negotiations are ongoing in all five of the region's communities, but as of 2019 only Délı̨nę has successfully reached a Final Agreement.
Notable people
Leslie Nielsen lived here while his father was stationed with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Gallery
Climate
Tulita experiences a subarctic climate (Koppen: Dfc) with generally mild to warm summers and cold winters with highs often well-below zero. Peak snowfall occurs in the months of October and November, while rainfall is limited to the warmer months.
See also
List of municipalities in the Northwest Territories
References
Communities in the Sahtu Region
Dene communities
Hudson's Bay Company trading posts
Hamlets in the Northwest Territories
Populated places on the Mackenzie River
Road-inaccessible communities of the Northwest Territories | [
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235363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tent | Tent | A tent () is a shelter consisting of sheets of fabric or other material draped over, attached to a frame of poles or attached to a supporting rope. While smaller tents may be free-standing or attached to the ground, large tents are usually anchored using guy ropes tied to stakes or tent pegs. First used as portable homes by nomads, tents are now more often used for recreational camping and as temporary shelters.
A form of tent called a teepee or tipi, noted for its cone shape and peak smoke-hole, was also used by Native American tribes and Aboriginal Canadians of the Plains Indians since ancient times, variously estimated from 10,000 years BC to 4,000 BC.
Tents range in size from "bivouac" structures, just big enough for one person to sleep in, up to huge circus tents capable of seating thousands of people.
Tents for recreational camping fall into two categories. Tents intended to be carried by backpackers are the smallest and lightest type. Small tents may be sufficiently light that they can be carried for long distances on a touring bicycle, a boat, or when backpacking.
The second type are larger, heavier tents which are usually carried in a car or other vehicle. Depending on tent size and the experience of the person or people involved, such tents can usually be assembled (pitched) in between 5 and 25 minutes; disassembly (striking) takes a similar length of time. Some very specialised tents have spring-loaded poles and can be pitched in seconds, but take somewhat longer to strike (take down and pack).
Over the past decade, tents have also been increasingly linked with the homelessness crisis in the U.S., Canada, and other countries and places experiencing issues with homelessness. Places of multiple homeless people living in tents closely pitched or plotted near each other are often referred to as tent cities.
History
Tents were used at least as far back as the early Iron Age. They are mentioned in the Bible; for example, in Genesis 4:20 Jabal is described as 'the first to live in tents and raise sheep and goats'. The Roman Army used leather tents, copies of which have been used successfully by modern re-enactors. Various styles developed over time, some derived from traditional nomadic tents, such as the yurt.
Most military tents throughout history were of a simple ridge design. The major technological advance was the use of linen or hemp canvas for the canopy versus leather for the Romans. The primary use of tents was still to provide portable shelter for a small number of men in the field.
By World War I larger designs were being deployed in rear areas to provide shelter for support activities and supplies.
Use
Tents are used as habitation by nomads, recreational campers, soldiers, and disaster victims. Tents are also typically used as overhead shelter for festivals, weddings, backyard parties, major corporate events, excavation (construction) covers, and industrial shelters.
Traditional
Tents have traditionally been used by nomadic people all over the world, such as Native Americans, Mongolian, Turkic and Tibetan Nomads, and the Bedouin.
Military
Armies all over the world have long used tents as part of their working life. Tents are preferred by the military for their relatively quick setup and take down times, compared to more traditional shelters. One of the world's largest users of tents is the U.S. Department of Defense. The U.S. Department of Defense has strict rules on tent quality and tent specifications. The most common tent uses for the military are temporary barracks (sleeping quarters), DFAC buildings (dining facilities), field headquarters, Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR) facilities, and security checkpoints. One of the most popular military designs currently fielded by the U.S. DoD is the TEMPER Tent. TEMPER is an acronym for Tent Expandable Modular PERsonnel. The U.S. military is beginning to use a more modern tent called the deployable rapid assembly shelter or DRASH. It is a collapsible tent with provisions for air conditioning and heating.
Recreational
Camping is a popular form of recreation which often involves the use of tents. A tent is economical and practical because of its portability and low environmental impact. These qualities are necessary when used in the wilderness or backcountry.
Emergency
Tents are often used in humanitarian emergencies, such as war, earthquakes and fire. The primary choice of tents in humanitarian emergencies are canvas tents, because a cotton canvas tent allows functional breathability while serving the purpose of temporary shelter. Tents distributed by organisations such as UNHCR are made by various manufacturers, depending on the region where the tents are deployed, as well as depending on the purpose.
At times, however, these temporary shelters become a permanent or semi-permanent home, especially for displaced people living in refugee camps or shanty towns who can't return to their former home and for whom no replacement homes are made available.
Homelessness
Tents have been increasingly used as shelter for homeless people in the U.S., especially for those in California, Oregon, and Washington. Encampments have spiked in usage and living in the mid-to-late 2010s. Tent cities, places of high number of tents inhabited by homeless and travelers/vagabonds have also, are also commonly found in major cities in the South, including Austin, Texas, which had passed a restriction on homeless encampments in May 2021.
Protest movements
Tents are also often used as sites and symbols of protest over time. In 1968 Resurrection City saw hundreds of tents set up by anti-poverty campaigners in Washington D.C. In the 1970s and 1980s anti-nuclear peace camps spread across Europe and North America, with the largest women's-only camp to date set up at the Greenham Common United States RAF base in Newbury, England to protest cruise missiles during the Cold War. The 1990s saw environmental protest camps as part of the campaign for the Clayoquot Sound in Canada and the roads protests in the UK. The first No Border Network camp was held in Strasbourg in 2002, becoming the first in a series of international camps that continue to be organised today. Other international camps of the 2000s include summit counter-mobilisations like Horizone at the Gleneagles G8 gathering in 2005 and the start of Camp for Climate Action in 2006. Since September 2011, the tent has been used as a symbol of the Occupy movement, an international protest movement which is primarily directed against economic and social inequality. Occupy protesters use tents to create camps in public places wherein they can form communities of open discussion and democratic action.
General considerations
Tent fabric may be made of many materials including cotton (canvas), nylon, felt and polyester. Cotton absorbs water, so it can become very heavy when wet, but the associated swelling tends to block any minute holes so that wet cotton is more waterproof than dry cotton. Cotton tents were often treated with paraffin to enhance water resistance. Nylon and polyester are much lighter than cotton and do not absorb much water; with suitable coatings they can be very waterproof, but they tend to deteriorate over time due to a slow chemical breakdown caused by ultraviolet light. The most common treatments to make fabric waterproof are silicone impregnation or polyurethane coating. Since stitching makes tiny holes in a fabric seams are often sealed or taped to block these holes and maintain waterproofness, though in practice a carefully sewn seam can be waterproof.
Rain resistance is measured and expressed as hydrostatic head in millimetres (mm). This indicates the pressure of water needed to penetrate a fabric. Heavy or wind-driven rain has a higher pressure than light rain. Standing on a groundsheet increases the pressure on any water underneath. Fabric with a hydrostatic head rating of 1000 mm or less is best regarded as shower resistant, with 1500 mm being usually suitable for summer camping. Tents for year-round use generally have at least 2000 mm; expedition tents intended for extreme conditions are often rated at 3000 mm. Where quoted, groundsheets may be rated for 5000 mm or more.
Many tent manufacturers indicate capacity by such phrases as "3 berth" or "2 person". These numbers indicate how many people the manufacturer thinks can use the tent, though these numbers do not always allow for any personal belongings, such as luggage, inflatable mattresses, camp beds, cots, etc., nor do they always allow for people who are of above average height. Checking the quoted sizes of sleeping areas reveals that several manufacturers consider that a width of is enough for three people — snug is the operative word. Experience indicates that camping may be more comfortable if the actual number of occupants is one or even two less than the manufacturer's suggestion, though different manufacturers have different standards for space requirement and there is no accepted standard.
Tent used in areas with biting insects often have their vent and door openings covered with fine-mesh netting.
Tents can be improvised using waterproof fabric, string, and sticks.
List of traditional types
Bell tent
Berliner, an emergency Alpine bivouac
Chum, a Siberian tent similar to North American tipi and the Nordic goahte and lavvu
Dome tent
Fly
Gazebo, a soft shelter with a roof but typically without walls
Gotthard, a Swiss tent used at high altitudes
Goahti and Lavvu, two related kinds of Sami tents
Kohte, a German Scout tent derived from the above Sami style
Loue
Nomadic tents
Pandal
Pavilion (tent), typically a very large tent
Ridge tent or Wall Tent, blanket terms for the inverted V-frame design dating from prehistory to the present day
Sarrasani, a large gathering tent reminiscent of the Sarrasani
Sibley tent
Tarp tent
Tipi, a conical design of North America
Tupiq, a conical design used by the Inuit
Wigwam and wikiup, an often bowed conical and dome tent of North America
Yurt, a larger cousin of conical designs, with vertical walls and smaller pitch
Parts
There are three basic configurations of tents, each of which may appear with many variations:
Single skin (USA: single wall): Only one waterproof layer of fabric is used, comprising at least roof and walls. To minimize condensation on the inside of the tent, some expedition tents use waterproof/breathable fabrics.
Single skin with flysheet: A waterproof flysheet or rain fly is suspended over and clear of the roof of the tent; it often overlaps the tent roof slightly, but does not extend down the sides or ends of the tent.
Double skin (USA: double wall): The outer tent is a waterproof layer which extends down to the ground all round. One or more 'inner tents' provide sleeping areas. The outer tent may be just a little larger than the inner tent, or it may be a lot larger and provide a covered living area separate from the sleeping area(s). An inner tent is not waterproof, but allows water vapour to pass through so that condensation occurs only on the exterior side. The double layer may also provide some thermal insulation. Either the outer skin or the inner skin may be the structural component, carrying the poles; the structural skin is always pitched first, though some tents are built with the outer and inner linked so that they are both pitched at the same time.
Components:
A flysheet or rain fly (found only in double skin tents) is used to protect the actual tent from water. A flysheet is waterproof on the outside and also provides a surface to collect condensation on the inside, which then runs down to the ground. When a flysheet is used, it is important that there be no contact with the inner tent it is protecting; this keeps the inner dry. 'Expedition' tents often have extra poles to help ensure that wind does not blow the two layers into contact.
The inner tent comprises the main living and sleeping area of the tent. For double skin tents, the inner tent (often mesh) is not waterproof since it is protected by the rain fly. For single skin tents, the inner tent is often made of waterproof-breathable material that prevents liquid water from penetrating the inside of the tent, but still allows water vapour to be transported out.
The vestibule (they can be plural) is a floorless covered section located outside a tent entrance that is typically used for the storage of boots, packs, and other small equipment. Vestibules are often used for activities that are preferably not performed within the tent itself, such as cooking or equipment cleaning. Vestibules may be included as a removable attachment or integrated into the tent itself. Vestibule size varies considerably, ranging from extended areas with more surface than the inner tent down to practically nothing.
A groundsheet is used to provide a waterproof barrier between the ground and a sleeping bag. With double skin tents, the inner tents normally have a sewn-in groundsheet, but a separate flat groundsheet may be provided for any living area. With single skin tents, the groundsheet may be sewn in or separate. Normal practice with sewn-in groundsheets is for the groundsheet to extend some up the lower part of the walls (sometimes called a 'bathtub' arrangement); this copes with a situation where water seeps under the side walls of the tent. Separate groundsheets allow load-sharing when backpacking, and may make it easier to pitch and strike a tent, but they provide less protection against insects etc. getting into the sleeping area; also, if any part of a separate groundsheet protrudes from under the side walls, then it provides a ready path for moisture to flow into the tent.
The poles provide structural support. They may be collapsible for easier transport and storage. Some designs use rigid poles, typically made of metal, or sometimes wood. Other designs use semi-rigid poles, typically made of fiberglass, or sometimes of special metal alloys. Another pole type uses inflatable beams as the structural support. Some tents, particularly very lightweight models, actually use hiking poles as their structural supports.
Stakes (or tent pegs) or screws may be used to fasten the tent to the ground. Some are attached to guy ropes that pull outward on the poles and/or fabric to help shape the tent or give it additional stability. Others are used to anchor the bottom edge of the fabric to the ground. Pegs may be made of wood, plastic, or metal. A mallet may be needed to drive thicker pegs into the ground. Skewer metal pegs consisting essentially of a length of thick wire with a hook on one end can usually be inserted by hand, except if the ground is very hard, but may not be as strong as more substantial pegs. Pegs used for guy ropes should not be driven vertically into the ground; instead for maximum strength they should be driven in at an angle so that the peg is at right angles to the guy rope attached to it. Lighter free standing tents may need some guy ropes and pegs to prevent them from being blown away.
Air vents help reduce the effects of condensation. When people breathe, they expel quite a lot of water vapour. If the outside of the tent is colder than the inside (the usual case), then this vapour will condense on the inside of the tent, on any clothing lying about, on the outside of a sleeping bag, etc. Hence ventilation helps to remove the vapour, although this may let in cold air.
An optional tent footprint or groundsheet protector may be used. This is a separate flat groundsheet (tarp) which goes underneath the main groundsheet, and is slightly smaller than that groundsheet. The intention is to protect the main groundsheet, especially when camping on rough terrain, since it is much cheaper to replace a separate footprint groundsheet than it is to replace a sewn-in groundsheet.
Design factors
Many factors affect tent design, including:
Financial cost
The least expensive tents tend to be heavier, less durable and less waterproof. The most expensive tents, used by serious backpackers and professional adventurers, are usually lighter in weight, more durable and more waterproof.
Intended use
Backpacking, lengthy duration for carrying the tent. Weight and size are the most crucial factors.
Touring, high frequency of pitching and striking the tent. Ease of pitching/striking the tent is important.
Static, staying at one campsite for a week or two at a time. A comfortable camping experience is the target.
Camping season
A tent required only for summer use may be very different from one to be used in the depths of winter. Manufacturers label tents as one-season, two/three-season, three/four season, four season, etc. A one-season tent is generally for summer use only, and may only be capable of coping with light showers. A three-season tent is for spring/summer/autumn and should be capable of withstanding fairly heavy rain, or very light snow. A four-season tent should be suitable for winter camping in all but the most extreme conditions; an expedition tent (for mountain conditions) should be strong enough to cope with heavy snow, strong winds, as well as heavy rain. Some tents are sold, quite cheaply, as festival tents; these may be suitable only for camping in dry weather, and may not even be showerproof.
Size of tent
The number and age of people who will be camping determines how big and what features the sleeping area(s) must have.
To allow for inclement weather, some covered living space separate from the sleeping area(s) may be desirable. Alternatively, cyclists on a camping trip may wish for enough covered space to keep their bicycles out of the weather.
To allow for sunshine, an awning to provide shade may not go amiss. Some tents have additional poles so that the fabric doorways can be used as awnings.
Internal height. Manufacturers quote the maximum internal height, but the usable internal height may be a little lower, depending on the tent style. Ridge tents have a steeply sloping roof so the whole height is rarely usable. Dome tents slope gently in all directions from the peak enabling nearly the entire height to be usable for a large portion of the tent. Tunnel tents have a good usable height along the center line. Frame and cabin tents have gently sloping roofs and near vertical walls. To fully evaluate the usable space in a tent, both the maximum wall height and slope must be considered. There are four useful heights used to evaluate appropriate tent height: lie down only, sit, kneel, stand. The exact heights at which these apply depend on the heights of the campers involved; those over are likely to have less choice of tents than those who are somewhat shorter. As a starting point, sitting height is often between , and kneeling height may be between . These different heights are useful for evaluating whether certain tasks, such as changing clothes, can be accomplished in the tent.
Number of sleeping areas
Larger tents sometimes are partitioned into separate sleeping areas or rooms. A tent described as viz-a-viz (cabin tent) usually has two separate sleeping areas with a living area in between.
Tent color
In some areas there is a move toward reducing the visual impact of campsites. The best colors for low visibility are green, brown, tan or khaki.
An opposing consideration is of safety and calls for visible unnatural colors, such as bright yellow-orange or red. Bright-colored tents can be easily spotted from the air in cases of an emergency. They are important in places where vehicles may not notice a low-visibility tent and run over its unsuspecting occupiers. Campers wandering away from camp will find their way back more easily if their tent is highly visible. Additionally, lost hikers may find rescue by spotting a visible camp site from afar. Some people have a personal preference for various colors and some manufacturers see the colors as part of their product branding.
Setup effort
Some styles of camping and living outdoors entails quick setup of tents. As a general rule, the more robust the tent, the more time and effort needed to set up and dismantle, though specific design attention on quick setup (possibly in exchange for cost and/or weight) can alter that (for example, the Swedish manufacturer Hilleberg specify a design goal that their toughest tents should be easily pitched by a single camper in inclement weather while wearing mittens, but the implementation of that adds to their price). The style of the tent also has a great impact on its ease of use.
Weather conditions
A tent can be more or less able to cope with cold weather or rainy conditions. The amount of water resistance is sometimes measured in the unit millimeters, water gauge. Tents can be defined by the number of season that they can be used. There are two-season, three-season and four-season tents. Two-season tents are ideal for warm/hot temperatures but do not cope well with rainy and windy conditions. Three-season tents can handle most weather conditions including rain and wind but will struggle in heavy snow. Four-season tents can withstand any weather conditions. Design and material vary depending on the number of seasons the tent can withstand.
Shelters
Shelters are not normally used for sleeping. Instead they may act as a store or provide shelter from sun, rain, or dew.
A fly (or flysheet) consists of a single rectangular sheet of material. Two opposite sides are held up in the middle by poles, or sometimes just a rope between conveniently placed trees. The tops of the poles are attached via guy ropes to pegs, in order to keep the poles upright. Additional guy ropes are attached to the lower edges to pull them outwards away from the poles.
A gazebo uses a framework of metal poles to support a roof. This structure provides a lot more usable space than does a flysheet, since the gently sloping roof allows for a reasonable amount of headroom even at the edges (like a frame tent). Because a gazebo is free-standing, it is often used as a shelter for a temporary shop at a fair or street market.
A beach tent is often a simplified form of dome tent and provide a useful (relatively sand-free) place to temporarily store beach equipment, but is at most showerproof. Some beach tents use specially treated fabric which is opaque to ultra-violet light, and so provide some protection against sunburn. Maximum height is typically about , and they are usually not large enough for an adult to lie down in.
A fishermen's tent is also a modified dome tent, often with a projecting awning high enough to sit under, but sometimes with no closable doorway.
Modern styles
With modern materials, tent manufacturers have great freedom to vary types and styles and shapes of tents.
The poles effectively hold the tent in the required shape.
Poles which dismantle for ease of transport are either colour-coded or linked by chain or cord, so there is little doubt as to which poles connect where.
Relatively few guy ropes are needed (sometimes none).
The exact positioning of any guy ropes is not too critical.
Rigid poles
Many tents which use rigid steel poles are free-standing and do not require guy ropes, though they may require pegs around the bottom edge of the fabric. These tents are usually so heavy (25 to 80 kg) that it takes a rather strong wind to blow them away.
Frame tents are double-skin tents. They have a living area and one or more cotton/nylon/polyester inner tents. The outer tent is draped over a free-standing steel frame, and may be made of canvas or polyester (the latter often has a hydrostatic head of 3000 mm, i.e. three season camping). The living area is generally at least as large as the sleeping area, and there may be a specific section with a window and extra air vents for use as a kitchen. The walls are nearly vertical and are typically about high. The center of the gently sloping roof is often high or more and provides reasonable headroom throughout. The smaller two-person models were less than 3 metres square (10 ft), but these have largely been replaced by dome or tunnel tents. The larger eight-person models may exceed in length and/or width.
Cabin tents are single-skin tents used mainly in the USA. They often have nylon walls, polyester roof, and a polyethylene floor, plus an awning at one or both ends. With a hydrostatic head of only 1000 mm, they may best be considered as summer tents. Removable internal dividers allow the cabin to be split into 'rooms'. Sizes may range from 13 ft by 8 ft (two rooms) up to 25 ft by 10 ft (four rooms), with wall and roof heights similar to those of frame tents. There are three separate pole units, with each unit consisting of two uprights and a connecting ridge. These pole units support the centre and ends of the roof, and are usually outside the tent.
Pop Up tents, sometimes appearing hyphenated as pop-up tents, are very easy to use and to carry. Perfect for professional campers who want to spend the smallest time in pitching the tent.
Wall tents are the largest and most accommodating canvas tents available. They are very popular with hunters and backcountry campers. Wall tents provide much room space, as well as more than enough head space which allows people to move about freely inside the tent without crouching or bending over. This type of set up is great for those who spend a lot of time in their tents, as well as for those who need extra space for cots, tables, stoves, etc. Also known as outfitter tents.
Spike tents are smaller and lighter than wall tents and so they are easier to pack and lighter to haul, they are a good choice if weight is the main concern for you and if you do not have a lot of people sleeping in one tent. Spike tent frames vary in size and style but are almost always lighter than wall tent frames. Also known as wigwam tents.
Range tents are similar to spike tents in their shape and size, except range tents usually do not have side walls at all. They resemble a pyramid type shape and are often referred to as pyramid tents. Range tents can either be set up with a bi-pole system that goes on the outside of the tent, or they can be set up using a single frame pole which goes in the middle of the tent on the inside, and they can also be set up by tying the top of the tent to a hanging tree branch. Also known as teepee tents.
Flexible poles
Flexible poles used for tents in this section are typically between long. Cheap poles are made of tubes of fibreglass with an external diameter less than , whereas more expensive aluminium alloys are the material of choice for added strength and durability. For ease of transportation, these poles are made in sections some long, with one end of each section having a socket into which the next section can fit. For ease of assembly, the sections for each pole are often connected by an internal elastic cord running the entire length of the pole.
Dome tents have a very simple structure and are available in a wide variety of sizes ranging from lightweight two-person tents with limited headroom up to six or nine-person tents with headroom exceeding . These may be single wall, or single-wall with partial flysheet, or double wall. Depending on the pole arrangement, some models pitch outer-tent first, while others pitch inner-tent first. The former helps keep the inner tent dry, but the latter is easier to pitch.
The basic dome has a rectangular floor and two poles which cross at the peak; each pole runs in a smooth curve from one bottom corner, up to the peak, and then down to the diagonally opposite bottom corner. There are usually special fittings at each corner which fit into sockets at the ends of each pole – pole tension keeps everything in shape. The poles can run on either the inside or outside of the tent fabric. When located on the interior, poles are held in place by a variety of means including hook and loop style straps, clips, and other fastening hardware. Poles that are located on the outside of the tent fabric are attached via fabric pole sleeves or plastic clips. Dome tents do not require guy ropes and pegs for structural integrity as they are considered free-standing, but must be pegged down in high winds.
The basic dome design has been modified extensively, producing tents with three poles, tents with irregularly-shaped bases, and other unusual types. A common variation is to add a third pole between two adjacent corners; this is angled away from the tent and supports an extension of the flysheet, to give a porch/storage area.
Tunnel tents may offer more usable internal space than a dome tent with the same ground area, but almost always need guy ropes and pegs to stay upright. These are almost always double wall tents. Sizes range from one-person tents with very limited headroom up to eight or ten-person tents with headroom exceeding .
A basic tunnel tent uses two or more flexible poles, arranged as parallel hoops, with tent fabric attached to form a half-cylinder or tapering tunnel. The most common designs have a sleeping area at one end and a vestibule area at the other, though vestibules (possibly extended) at each end are not uncommon, or vis-a-vis sleeping at either end and a central opening to a common vestibule area are made too.
Hybrid dome/tunnel tents are now common. One variation is to use a basic dome as the sleeping area; one or two hooped poles to one side are linked by a tunnel to the dome to provide a porch. Another variation is to use a large dome as the living area, with up to four tunnel extensions to provide sleeping areas.
Geodesic tents are essentially dome tents with two or more extra poles which criss-cross the normal two poles to help support the basic shape and minimise the amount of unsupported fabric. This makes them more suitable for use in snowy conditions and in strong winds. To help withstand strong winds they are rarely more than high.
Single-hoop tents use just one flexible pole and are often sold as light-weight one or two-person tents. These are the modern equivalent of older style pup tents, and have the same feature of somewhat limited headroom. Different styles may have the pole going either along or across the tent.
The pop-up tent is a recent innovation. This type of tent is equipped with built-in very flexible hoops so that when the tent is unpacked, it springs into shape immediately, and so is extremely easy to set up. Such tents are usually single-skinned and are generally aimed at the one-season or children's end of the market; their high flexibility makes them unsuitable for use in windy situations. After use the tent is packed down into a thick disc shape.
Inflatable airbeams
Inflatable pole supports, also known as airbeams, serve as rigid structural supports when inflated but are soft and pliable when deflated. Tents using such technology are neither commonly used nor widely accepted and are available from a very limited number of suppliers.
Much like a bicycle tube and tire, airbeams are often composed of a highly dimensionally stable (i.e. no stretch) fabric sleeve and an air-holding inner bladder. However, other airbeam constructions consist of coated fabrics that are cut and manufactured to its intended shape by a method such as thermal welding. Depending on the desired tent size, airbeams can be anywhere from 2-40 inches in diameter, inflated to different pressures. High pressure airbeams (40-80 psi) that are filled by compressors are most often used in larger shelters, whereas low pressure beams (5-7 psi) are preferred for recreational use. The relatively low pressure enables the use of a manual pump to inflate the airbeam to the desired level. Airbeams have the unique quality of bending, rather than breaking, when overloaded. Tents that use inflatable airbeams are structured almost identically to those that use flexible poles.
Dome tents that use inflatable airbeam support are available in a variety of sizes ranging from lightweight 2-person to larger 6+ person shelters, and are virtually identical to the arrangement of flexible-pole supported dome tents. Beams are usually integrated into the tent shell such that they do not have to be reinserted every time setup occurs. Airbeams can be located on either the inside or outside of the tent shell. Similar to the pole-supported construction, airbeam supported dome tents are free standing but should be staked out with pegs and guyout lines to increase stability and strength.
Tunnel tents are a common form of airbeam supported tents because their size can be easily modified by adding additional hoops. Military applications use this style of tent for a range of purposes including medical shelters, helicopter enclosures, and airplane hangars. In these constructions, hoops are generally identical in size. In commercial airbeam supported tents, the hoops can be different sizes. Tunnel tents tend to withstand high winds well because of their low profile shape. However, the tents are not freestanding and must be anchored and guyed out securely.
Older tent styles
Most of these tent styles are no longer generally available. Most of these are single-skin designs, with optional fly sheets for the ridge tents.
All the tents listed here had a canvas fabric and most used a substantial number of guy ropes (8 to 18). The guys had to be positioned and tensioned fairly precisely in order to pitch the tent correctly, so some training and experience were needed. Pup tents might use wooden or metal poles, but all the other styles mentioned here used wooden poles.
A pup tent is a small version of a ridge tent intended for 1 to 3 people. It usually has a rectangular floor of size ranging from 4 ft by 6 ft up to 6 ft by 8 ft, and ridge heights ranging from 3 ft up to 5 ft. Larger versions have side walls, usually about 1 ft high. There are guy ropes for each pole. Versions with sides add guys at each corner and in the centre of each side. These guy ropes help to maintain the required shape. Earlier versions had a single upright pole at each end, while later versions often have two poles at each end, arranged rather like an 'A' shape, in order to make access easier. Some models have a horizontal ridge pole joining the tops of the end poles to support the centre of the tent. Many armies issue pup tents as shelter halves, with each soldier carrying half a tent in his field gear, so two soldiers together can pitch a tent and share it.
A ridge tent or wall tent can sleep 5 to 8 people or more. They usually have a rectangular floor of size ranging from 8 ft by 10 ft up to 16 ft by 20 ft, and ridge heights around 6 ft to 9 ft. The side walls are usually about 3 ft high. They normally have a single upright pole at each end with the tops joined by a horizontal ridge pole. Longer models might have an additional upright pole in the centre to help support the ridge pole. They often have two guy ropes at each corner, and guy ropes every 2 ft along the sides. If strong winds are expected then two additional storm guy ropes are attached to the top of each pole. Ridge tents are often used by hunters and outfitters as they will accommodate several persons, their equipment and related gear. Many can be equipped with wood stoves for heating and cooking. There are several manufacturers in the U.S. and Canada that make wall tents that have foot prints of greater than 220 square feet. The canvas of wall tents may be treated for water, mildew and fire retardancy.
A square centre-pole tent was often used for family camping in the first half of the 20th century. Despite the use of 9 poles and 12 guy ropes, such a tent could be pitched by an experienced family of four in some 10 to 15 minutes. These tents had a square floor of size ranging from 8 by 8 ft up to 15 by 15 ft. There were poles about 5 ft high at each corner and in the middle of each side, and a 10 ft or 12 ft pole in the centre – the walls were vertical and the roof was pyramid-shaped, so there was plenty of headroom over most of the tent.
A Sibley tent (bell tent) had a circular floor plan some 10 ft to 15 ft across, a single central pole some 10 ft high, and walls about 3 ft high. Guy ropes were connected every 2 ft around the top of the walls – these had to carefully tensioned to hold the pole upright and keep the tent in shape.
Marquees and larger tents
These larger tents are seldom used for sleeping.
A marquee is a large tent used as a temporary building. They have long been used for circus or other performances, fairs, banquets, large weddings, religious tent revival events or, more recently corporate entertainment events. Traditionally made of canvas, modern "party tents" are more likely to use PE (polythene) or, for higher quality, PVC. 'DIY' marquees are available up to wide. widths are very expensive and require specialized equipment and skill to erect, so they must usually be rented. Many corporations own large (9 m to 45 m wide) marquee tents but have them installed and maintained by qualified professionals. Party tents are held down with tensioned ratchets and/or stakes. Sizes range from .
A pole marquee consists of canvas and more recently PVC, under tension by means of centre poles, side poles and guy ropes which are attached to ground stakes hammered into soft surfaces only such as a lawn or field. Hand made of white cotton canvas, traditional poled marquees are more attractive but much less practical and versatile than aluminium frame marquees. The modern PVC traditional pole marquee was introduced due to the material being easier to clean than woven canvas and giving them a longer hire life span.
A tension tent is a newer variation of the pole marquee. The general design is similar to the pole marquee. However, it usually has fewer poles, and the integrity of the structure is maintained by the tension of the fabric. It also is very similar to a tensile structure It is often used for outdoor weddings, parties and other events. It has been adapted and updated in various other tent types including the High Peak Frame Tent and Freeform / Stretch / Flex Tent styles developed in South Africa
Freeform / Stretch / Flex Tents have developed since 2000 driven predominantly by companies in South Africa and in Australia. The composition of the fabric differs slightly between those from South Africa and those in Australia. Stretch Tent Fabrics have been produced using Nylon and Polyester. Since 2007 Stretch Tents have been introduced into Europe by some of the South African companies such as Intent. Stretch Tents utilize aluminum, wooden and bamboo poles capped by molded polypropylene or rubber domes that push through the stretched fabric, creating tension between the ground and the fabric. The fabric can be sculpted into various organic and curvaceous forms to provide shade and rain cover for events. The tensioned fabric must be made rigid and the tent form allow water run-off and resistance to wind load before erection is complete.
Aluminium frame marquees – Aluminium frame tents have no centre poles or guy ropes. This kind of marquee can be erected on almost any surface and adjacent to buildings or annexe tents. The Aluminium frame tent is much more stable and can span a much wider area over pools, flower beds or trees. In the UK this design is the most commonly used style for most retail rentals and can be found being used as temporary structures for storage in retail and military applications.
A newer category of the Marquee/Party tents is the High Peak Frame Tents (known by several brand names like "frame & cable", "vista", "pinnacle", "Century" etc.). These tents have the advantage of the pole tents with the high top, ease of installation, cleaner look, and fewer parts. They also have the advantage of the Frame Tents as they do not have support pole(s) on the inside of the tent that touches the ground. The high top look is accomplished by using a "floating pole", which is a pole that sits on cables that run across the tent interior from the top of the sides. Most tent manufactures are now making these tents and they come in a variety of sizes and shapes that can be joined together to meet the needs of unique space requirements.
Marquee tents typically have interchangeable parts, which allow for a rental company to easily expand to larger sizes. Tents can be ordered in a variety of colours. However, white is by far the most popular colour. Skylights can also be built into the fabric, which allow a greater amount of light to enter and is useful if walls are being used. Walls can also be ordered with clear vinyl windows in them.
Shamiana is a popular Indian ethnic tent shelter, which is commonly used for outdoor parties, marriages, restaurants etc. Its side walls are detachable. The external fabric can be multicolored or can hold exquisite designs. The history of Shamiana, dates back to the Mughal era. As per Government of India service tax rules under Finance Act 1997, the definition of Shamiana is given under the clause (77A) of section 65, that is: "pandal or shamiana means a place specially prepared or arranged for organizing an official, social or business function".
"Bail Ring Tents" are usually tents that are wide and expandable to any length. They can be made from either vinyl or canvas. The purpose of the bail ring style is to raise an enormous amount of material "the tent" off the ground without using heavy machinery. Initially, the center poles are raised and guyed out to stakes after which the tent is spread out and connected to the bail ring using shackles. Once the outside of the tent is raised a crew of men can go under the tent and start raising the bail ring up the center pole using a system of pulleys. This style of tent is not as popular as it was in the past due to the advancement of forklifts and skidsteers. There was a time when even smaller tents were often raised and set using a bail ring.
The four Major golf tournaments have tents set up. They are usually .
Tents or marquees are often hired from specialist companies.
A "Rubb Hall" is a large tent used primarily as emergency warehousing.
A circus tent usually has one or more oval or circular arenas surrounded by tiered seating which might accommodate thousands of people. Nowadays such large tents are made of some artificial fibre (polyester or vinyl) and are often erected with the help of cranes. In earlier times it was common for the circus elephants to be used as a source of power for pulling ropes to haul the canvas into position.
Spiegeltent, a Belgian tent constructed in wood and canvas and decorated with mirrors and stained glass, intended as an entertainment venue
Influence on building design
Tent design has influenced many large modern buildings. These buildings have in turn influenced the next generation of tent design. Tent-style tensile structures are used to cover large public areas such as entertainment venues, arenas and retail areas (example: The O2) or sports stadiums (example: Munich Olympic Stadium) and airports (example: Denver International Airport). The Sami Parliament of Norway is inspired by the lavvu, a tent traditionally used by the Sami people.
See also
Hammock camping
List of house types
Tent revival
Tension fabric building
Salembaree
Bivy sack
Swag
Truck tent
Rooftop tent
Pole marquee
References
External links
Camping equipment
Portable buildings and shelters
Survival skills | [
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235364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Scott%20Harrison | John Scott Harrison | John Scott Harrison (October 4, 1804 – May 25, 1878) was an American farmer and politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio. He was a son of U.S. president William Henry Harrison and First Lady Anna Harrison as well as the father of U.S. president Benjamin Harrison. He is the only person to be both a child and a parent of U.S. presidents.
Early life and family
Harrison was born in Vincennes, Indiana, to future President William Henry Harrison and Anna Tuthill Symmes. He was also a grandson of Declaration of Independence signer, Benjamin Harrison V. Harrison completed preparatory studies and studied medicine. He later abandoned this to become a farmer.
In 1824, he married Lucretia Knapp Johnson (1804–1830). They had three children:
Elizabeth Short Harrison (1825–1904)
William Henry Harrison (1827–1829)
Sarah Lucretia Harrison (1829–1917)
On August 12, 1831, in Cincinnati, Ohio, he married Elizabeth Ramsey Irwin (1810–1850). He and Elizabeth had 10 children:
Lt Col Archibald Harrison (1832–1870); Commander, 27th Indiana Infantry Regiment
Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901); became president
Mary Jane Harrison (1835–1867)
Anna Symmes Harrison (1837–1838)
John Irwin Harrison (1839)
Carter Bassett Harrison (1840–1905); Captain, 51st Ohio Infantry Regiment
Anna Symmes Harrison (1842–1926)
John Scott Harrison Jr. (1844–1926)
James Findlay Harrison (1847–1848)
James Irwin Harrison (1849–1850)
After his father's death, in 1841, his mother moved in with his family to help raise the children.
Political career
He was elected a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1852, reelected an Oppositionist in 1854 and served from 1853 to 1857. After being defeated for a third term in 1856, Harrison retired to his estate "Point Farm" in North Bend, Ohio where he died on May 25, 1878, aged 73. He was the last surviving child of William Henry Harrison. He was interred in the family tomb in North Bend, today the William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial, with his parents and other family members. Harrison's body was stolen by grave robbers until it was eventually returned to its final place of rest.
Body snatching
At that time it was common practice for graves to be robbed for recently deceased bodies for use in teaching dissection and anatomy at medical colleges. As a result, many precautions were taken to secure Harrison's grave, including building a cemented brick vault, filling the grave with earth mixed with heavy stones, and employing a watchman to check the grave each hour of every night for a week.
The day of Harrison's funeral it was discovered that the body of Augustus Devin, which had been buried the previous week in an adjoining grave, had been stolen. The following day, one of John Harrison's sons, together with a friend of Devin, traveled to Cincinnati to look for his body. With search warrants in hand they went to the Ohio Medical College, where they discovered not Devin's body but the naked body of John Scott Harrison hanging from a rope in a chute. Devin's body was later found preserved in a vat of brine at the medical college of the University of Michigan.
The outrage over the act, amid changing sensibilities regarding death, contributed materially to passage of the Ohio Anatomy Law of 1881, a landmark statute, whereby medical schools were provided with unclaimed bodies, which in turn discouraged grave robbers by removing their primary market. As to the personal results, suits were brought against the Ohio Medical College; the Harrison estate was entered in a separate damage suit, in the amount of $10,000. The end result and decision in the three civil suits brought, has been lost in the passage of time, and no documentation is known to exist with this specific information.
References
External links
1804 births
1878 deaths
People from Vincennes, Indiana
John Scott
American people of English descent
Ohio Oppositionists
Ohio Whigs
Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio
Opposition Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio
Farmers from Ohio
Children of presidents of the United States
People from Hamilton County, Ohio
Fathers of presidents of the United States
19th-century American politicians | [
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235393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenorrhea | Amenorrhea | Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age. Physiological states of amenorrhoea are seen, most commonly, during pregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding). Outside the reproductive years, there is absence of menses during childhood and after menopause.
Amenorrhoea is a symptom with many potential causes. Primary amenorrhea is defined as an absence of secondary sexual characteristics by age 13 with no menarche or normal secondary sexual characteristics but no menarche by 15 years of age. It may be caused by developmental problems, such as the congenital absence of the uterus, failure of the ovary to receive or maintain egg cells, or delay in pubertal development. Secondary amenorrhoea, ceasing of menstrual cycles after menarche, is defined as the absence of menses for three months in a woman with previously normal menstruation, or six months for women with a history of oligomenorrhoea. It is often caused by hormonal disturbances from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, premature menopause, intrauterine scar formation, or eating disorders.
Pathophysiology
Although amenorrhea has multiple potential causes, ultimately, it is the result of hormonal imbalance or an anatomical abnormality.
Physiologically, menstruation is controlled by the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. GnRH acts on the pituitary to stimulate the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH and LH then act on the ovaries to stimulate the production of estrogen and progesterone which, respectively, control the proliferative and secretary phases of the menstrual cycle. Prolactin also influences the menstrual cycle as it suppresses the release of LH and FSH form the pituitary. Similarly, thyroid hormone also affects the menstrual cycle. Low levels of thyroid hormone stimulate the release of TRH from the hypothalamus, which in turn increases both TSH and prolactin release. This increase in prolactin suppresses the release of LH and FSH through a negative feedback mechanism. Amenorrhea can be caused by any mechanism that disrupts this hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, whether that it be by hormonal imbalance or by disruption of feedback mechanisms.
Classification
Amenorrhea is classified as either primary or secondary.
Primary Amenorrhea
Primary amenorrhoea is the absence of menstruation in a woman by the age of 16. Females who have not reached menarche at 14 and who have no signs of secondary sexual characteristics (thelarche or pubarche) are also considered to have primary amenorrhea. Examples of amenorrhea include constitutional delay of puberty, Turner's syndrome, and Mayer–Rokitansky–Küster–Hauser (MRKH) syndrome.
Secondary Amenorrhea
Secondary amenorrhoea is when defined as the absence of menstruation for three months in a woman with a history of regular cyclic bleeding or six months in a woman with a history of irregular menstrual periods. Examples of secondary amenorrhea include hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, hyperprolactinemia, polycystic ovarian syndrome, primary ovarian insufficiency, and functional hypothalamic amenorrhea.
Causes
Primary Amenorrhea
Turner's Syndrome
Turner's Syndrome, monosomy 45XO, is a genetic disorder characterized by a missing, or partially missing, X chromosome. Turner's syndrome is associated with a wide spectrum of features that vary with each case. However, one common feature of this syndrome is ovarian insufficiency due to gonadal dysgenesis. Most people with Turner's syndrome experience ovarian insufficiency within the first few years of life, prior to menarche. Therefore, most patients with Turner's syndrome will have primary amenorrhea. However, the incidence of spontaneous puberty varies between 8-40% depending on whether or not there is a complete or partial absence of the X chromosome.
MRKH
MRKH (Mayer–Rokitansky–Küster–Hauser) syndrome is the second-most common cause of primary amenorrhoea. The syndrome is characterized by Müllerian agenesis. In MRKH Syndrome, the Müllerian ducts develop abnormally and result in the absence of a uterus and cervix. Even though patient's with MRKH have functioning ovaries, and therefore have secondary sexual characteristics, they experience primary amenorrhea since there is no functioning uterus.
Constitutional Delay of Puberty
Constitutional delay of puberty is a diagnosis of exclusion that is made when the workup for primary amenorrhea does not reveal another cause. Constitutional delay of puberty is not due to a pathologic cause. It is considered a variant of the timeline of puberty. Although more common in boys, girls with delayed puberty present with onset of secondary sexual characteristics after the age of 14, as well as menarche after the age of 16. This may be due to genetics, as some cases of constitutional delay of puberty are familial.
Secondary Amenorrhea
Breastfeeding
Physiologic amenorrhea is present before menarche, during pregnancy and breastfeeding, and after menopause.
Breastfeeding or lactational amenorrhea is also a common cause of secondary amenorrhoea. Lactational amenorrhea is due to the presence of elevated prolactin and low levels of LH, which suppress ovarian hormone secretion. Breastfeeding typically prolongs postpartum lactational amenorrhoea, and the duration of amenorrhoea varies depending on how often a woman breastfeeds. Due to this reason, breastfeeding has been advocated as a method of family planning, especially in developing countries where access to other methods of contraception may be limited.
Diseases of the Thyroid
Disturbances in thyroid hormone regulation has been a known cause of menstrual irregularities, including secondary amenorrhea.
Patients with hypothyroidism frequently present with changes in their menstrual cycle. It is hypothesized that this is due to increased TRH, which goes on to stimulate the release of both TSH and prolactin. Increased prolactin inhibits the release of LH and FSH which are needed for ovulation to occur.
Patients with hyperthyroidism may also present with oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea. Sex hormone binding globulin is increased in hyperthyroid states. This, in turn, increases the total levels of testosterone and estradiol. Increased levels of LH and FSH have also been reported in patients with hyperthyroidism.
Hypothalamic and Pituitary Causes
Changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis is a common cause of secondary amenorrhea. GnRH is released form the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH, which in turn stimulate the ovaries to release estrogen and progesterone. Any pathology in the hypothalamus or pituitary can alter the way this feedback mechanism works and can cause secondary amenorrhea.
Pituitary adenomas are a common cause of amenorrhea. Prolactin secreting pituitary adenomas cause amenorrhea due to the hyper-secretion of prolactin which inhibits FSH and LH release. Other space occupying pituitary lesions can also cause amenorrhea due to the inhibition of dopamine, an inhibitor of prolactin, due to compression of the pituitary gland.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder affecting 4-8% of women worldwide. It is characterized my multiple cysts on the ovary, amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea, and increased androgens. Although the exact cause remains unknown, it is hypothesized that increased levels of circulating androgens is what results in secondary amenorrhea. PCOS may also be a cause of primary amenorrhea if androgen access is present prior to menarche. Although multiple cysts on the ovary are characteristic of the syndrome, this has not been noted to be a cause of the disease.
Low body weight
Women who perform extraneous exercise on a regular basis or lose a significant amount of weight are at risk of developing hypothalamic amenorrhoea. Functional Hypothalamic Amenorrhoea (FHA) can be caused by stress, weight loss, or excessive exercise. Many women who diet or who exercise at a high level do not take in enough calories to maintain their normal menstrual cycles. The threshold of developing amenorrhoea appears to be dependent on low energy availability rather than absolute weight because a critical minimum amount of stored, easily mobilized energy is necessary to maintain regular menstrual cycles. Amenorrhoea is often associated with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. The female athlete triad is when a woman experiences amenorrhoea, disordered eating, and osteoporosis.
Energy imbalance and weight loss can disrupt menstrual cycles through several hormonal mechanisms. Weight loss can cause elevations in the hormone ghrelin which inhibits the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarial axis. Elevated concentrations of ghrelin alter the amplitude of GnRH pulses, which causes diminished pituitary release of LH and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Low levels of the hormone leptin are also seen in females with low body weight. Like ghrelin, leptin signals energy balance and fat stores to the reproductive axis. Decreased levels of leptin are closely related to low levels of body fat, and correlate with a slowing of GnRH pulsing.
Drug-induced
Certain medications, particularly contraceptive medications, can induce amenorrhoea in a healthy woman. The lack of menstruation usually begins shortly after beginning the medication and can take up to a year to resume after stopping its use. Hormonal contraceptives that contain only progestogen, like the oral contraceptive Micronor, and especially higher-dose formulations, such as the injectable Depo Provera, commonly induce this side effect. Extended cycle use of combined hormonal contraceptives also allow suppression of menstruation. Patients who stop using combined oral contraceptive pills (COCP) may experience secondary amenorrhoea as a withdrawal symptom. The link is not well understood, as studies have found no difference in hormone levels between women who develop amenorrhoea as a withdrawal symptom following the cessation of COCP use and women who experience secondary amenorrhoea because of other reasons. New contraceptive pills which do not have the normal 7 days of placebo pills in each cycle, have been shown to increase rates of amenorrhoea in women. Studies show that women are most likely to experience amenorrhoea after 1 year of treatment with continuous OCP use.
The use of opiates (such as heroin) on a regular basis has also been known to cause amenorrhoea in longer term users.
Anti-psychotic drugs, which are commonly used to treat schizophrenia, have been known to cause amenorrhoea as well. Research suggests that anti-psychotic medications effect levels of prolactin, insulin, FSH, LH, and testosterone. Recent research suggests that adding a dosage of Metformin to an anti-psychotic drug regimen can restore menstruation. Metformin has been shown to decrease resistance to the hormone insulin, as well as levels of prolactin, testosterone, and luteinizing hormone (LH).
Primary Ovarian Insufficiency
Primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) affects 1% of females and is defined as the loss of ovarian function before the age of 40. Although the cause of POI can vary, it has been linked to chromosomal abnormalities, chemotherapy, and autoimmune conditions. Hormone levels in POI are similar to menopause and are categorized by low estradiol and high levels of gonadotropins. Since the pathogenesis of POI involves the depletion of ovarian reserve, restoration of menstrual cycles typically does not occur in this form of secondary amenorrhea.
Diagnosis
Primary amenorrhoea
Primary amenorrhoea can be diagnosed in female children by age 14 if no secondary sex characteristics, such as enlarged breasts and body hair, are present. In the absence of secondary sex characteristics, the most common cause of amenorrhoea is low levels of FSH and LH caused by a delay in puberty. Gonadal dysgenesis, often associated with Turner's Syndrome, or premature ovarian failure may also be to blame. If secondary sex characteristics are present, but menstruation is not, primary amenorrhoea can be diagnosed by age 16.
Evaluation of primary amenorrhea begins with a pregnancy test, prolactin, FSH, LH, and TSH levels. Abnormal TSH levels prompt evaluation for hyper- and hypo-thyroidism with additional thyroid function tests. Elevated prolactin levels prompt evaluation of the pituitary with an MRI to assess for any masses or malignancies. A pelvic ultrasound can also be obtained in the initial evaluation. If a uterus is not present on ultrasound, karyotype analysis and testosterone levels are obtained to assess for MRKH or androgen insensitivity syndrome. If a uterus is present, LH and FSH levels are used to make a diagnosis. Low levels of LH and FSH suggest delayed puberty or functional hypothalamic amenorrhea. Elevated levels of FSH and LH suggest primary ovarian insufficiency, typically due to Turner's syndrome. Normal levels of FSH and LH can suggest an anatomical outflow obstruction.
Secondary amenorrhea
Secondary amenorrhea's most common and most easily diagnosable causes are pregnancy, thyroid disease, and hyperprolactinemia. A pregnancy test is a common first step for diagnosis.
Similar to primary amenorrhea, evaluation of secondary amenorrhea also begins with a pregnancy test, prolactin, FSH, LH, and TSH levels. A pelvic ultrasound is also obtained. Abnormal TSH should prompt a thyroid workup with a full thyroid function test panel. Elevated prolactin should be followed with an MRI to look for masses. If LH and FSH are elevated, menopause or primary ovarian insufficiency should be considered. Normal or low levels of FSH and LH prompts further evaluation with patient history and the physical exam. Testosterone, DHEA-S, and 17-hydroxyprogesterone levels should be obtained if there is evidence of excess androgens, such as hirsutism or acne. 17-hydroxyprogesterone is elevated in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Elevated testosterone and amenorrhea can suggest PCOS. Elevated androgens can also be present in ovarian or adrenal tumors, so additional imaging may also be needed. History of disordered eating or excessive exercise should raise concern for hypothalamic amenorrhea. Headache, vomiting, and vision changes can be signs of a tumor and needs evaluation with MRI. Finally, a history of gynecologic procedures should lead to evaluation of Asherman syndrome with a hysteroscopy or progesterone withdrawal bleeding test.
Treatment
Treatment for amenorrhea varies based on the underlying condition. Treatment not only focuses on restoring menstruation, if possible, but also preventing additional complications associated with the underlying cause of amenorrhea.
Primary Amenorrhea
In primary amenorrhea, the goal is to continue pubertal development, if possible. For example, most patients with Turner's syndrome will be infertile due to gonadal dysgenesis. However, patients are frequently prescribed growth hormone therapy and estrogen supplementation to achieve taller stature and prevent osteoporosis. In other cases, such as MRKH, hormones do not need to be prescribed since the ovaries are able to function normally. Patients with constitutional delay of puberty may be monitored by an endocrinologist, but definitive treatment may not be needed as there will eventually be progression to normal puberty.
Secondary Amenorrhea
Treatment for secondary amenorrhea varies greatly based on the root cause. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea is typically treated by weight gain through increased calorie intake and decreased expenditure. Multidisciplinary treatment with monitoring from a physician, dietitian, and mental health counselor is recommended, along with support from family, friends, and coaches. Although oral contraceptives can cause menses to return, oral contraceptives should not be the initial treatment as they can mask the underlying problem and allow other effects of the eating disorder, like osteoporosis, continue to develop.
Patients with hyperprolactinemia are often treated with dopamine agonists to reduce the levels of prolactin and restore menstruation. Surgery and radiation may also be considered if dopamine agonists, such as cabergoline and bromocriptine are ineffective. Once prolactin levels are lowered, the resulting secondary amenorrhea is typically resolved. Similarly, treatment of thyroid abnormalities often resolves the associated amenorrhea. For example, administration of thyroxine in patients with low thyroid levels restored normal menstruation in a majority of patients.
Although there is currently no definitive treatment for PCOS, various interventions are used to restore more frequent ovulation in patients. Weight loss and exercise have been associated with a return of ovulation in patients with PCOS due to normalization of androgen levels. Metformin has also been recently studied to regularize menstrual cycles in patients with PCOS. Although the exact mechanism still remains unknown, it is hypothesized that this is due to metformin's ability to increase the body's sensitivity to insulin. Anti-androgen medications, such as spironolactone, can also be used to lower body androgen levels and restore menstruation. Oral contraceptive pills are also often prescribed to patients with secondary amenorrhea due to PCOS in order to regularize the menstrual cycle, although this is due to the suppression of ovulation.
References
External links
Disability Online's amenorrhoea page
Disability Online's athletic amenorrhoea page
Amenorrhea
Menstrual disorders
Reproduction | [
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235401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mafia%20%28party%20game%29 | Mafia (party game) | Mafia, also known as Werewolf, is a social deduction game, created by Dimitry Davidoff in 1986. The game models a conflict between two groups: an informed minority (the mafiosi or the werewolves), and an uninformed majority (the villagers). At the start of the game, each player is secretly assigned a role affiliated with one of these teams. The game has two alternating phases: first, a night role, during which those with night killing powers may covertly kill other players, and second, a day role, in which surviving players debate the identities of players and vote to eliminate a suspect. The game continues until a faction achieves its win condition; for the village, this usually means eliminating the evil minority, while for the minority this usually means reaching numerical parity with the village and eliminating any rival evil groups.
History
Dimitry Davidoff (, Dmitry Davydov) is generally acknowledged as the game's creator. He dates the first game of Mafia to spring 1987 at the Psychology Department of Moscow State University, from where it spread to the classrooms, dorms, and summer camps of Moscow University. Wired attributes the creation to Davidoff and also dates the first game to 1987. He developed the game to combine psychology research with his duties teaching high school students. It became popular in other Soviet colleges and schools, often associated with hugely popular TV series La Piovra, which first ran in 1986. In the 1990s it began to be played in other parts of Europe and then the United States. By the mid 1990s a version of the game became a Latvian television series (with a parliamentary setting, and played by Latvian celebrities).
Andrew Plotkin gave the rules a werewolf theme in 1997, arguing that the mafia were not that big a cultural reference, and that the werewolf concept fit the idea of a hidden enemy who looked normal during the daytime. Mafia and a variant called Thing have been played at science fiction writers' workshops since 1998, and have become an integral part of the annual Clarion and Viable Paradise workshops. The Werewolf variant of Mafia became widespread at major tech events, including the Game Developers Conference, ETech, Foo Camps, and South By Southwest. In 1998 the Kaliningrad Higher school of the Internal Affairs Ministry published the methodical textbook Nonverbal communications. Developing role-playing games 'Mafia' and 'Murderer''' for a course on Visual psychodiagnostics, to teach reading body language and nonverbal signals. In September 1998 Mafia was introduced to the Graduate College at Princeton University, where a number of variants were developed. The werewolf theme was also incorporated in the French adaption of Mafia, The Werewolves of Millers Hollow.
In August 2000, a user under the alias "mithrandir" of The Grey Labyrinth, a website devoted to puzzles and puzzle solving, ran a game of Mafia adapted for play on a forum board. Both The Grey Labyrinth and sister site MafiaScum claim that this was the first game of Mafia run on a forum board. From there, Mafia has spread to numerous online communities.
In March 2006 Ernest Fedorov was running a Mafia Club in Kyiv, using his own patented variation of the rules. The club organizes games, rates players, and awards prizes (including a Sicily trip for their tournament-series champion).
In June 2006 a Rockingham school inquiry was launched after parents complained of the traumatic effects classroom Mafia was having on their fifth-grade children. Davidoff responded to the reports, saying that as a parent who had studied child psychology for 25 years, he felt that the game could "teach kids to distinguish right from wrong", and that the positive message of being honest could overcome the negative effects of an "evil narrator" moderating the game as if it were a scary story.
Mafia is one of the 50 most historically and culturally significant tabletop games since 1800 according to about.com.
Gameplay
In its simplest form, Werewolf is played by two teams: the werewolves and the villagers. Live games require a moderator who does not participate as a player, and identities are assigned by handing out cards, or by other non-verbal methods such as physically tapping players. At the start of the game, every werewolf is given the identities of their teammates, whereas the innocents only receive the number of werewolves in the game, and do not know which players are werewolves and which are villagers.
In an open setup, the numbers of each power role (e.g. militia) present in the game is known to the players, while in a closed setup, this information is not revealed, and in a semi-open setup, only limited or tentative information about the power roles is revealed. Thus, in an open or semi-open setup, if it is revealed that no militia are present in the game, it will not be possible for a werewolf to plausibly claim a militia role.
There are two phases: night and day. At night, certain players secretly perform special actions; during day, players discuss and vote to eliminate one player. These phases alternate with each other until all werewolves have been eliminated or they reach numerical parity with the innocents.
Some players may be given roles with special abilities. Common special roles include:
seer — a villager who may learn the team of one player every night;
protector — a villager who may protect a player from being killed every night, but can only do so once in each game;
masons — village-aligned players who can recognize each other
Andrew Plotkin recommends having exactly two mafiosi, whereas the original Davidoff rules suggest a third of the players (rounding to the nearest whole number) be mafiosi. Davidoff's original game does not include roles with special abilities. In his rules for "Werewolf", Plotkin recommends that the first phase be night and that there be an odd number of players (including the moderator). These specifications avoid a tie votes for eliminations and ensure that the game will end dramatically on an elimination rather than anticlimactically with murder as a foregone conclusion.
Night
All players close their eyes. The moderator then instructs all werewolves to open their eyes and acknowledge their accomplices. The werewolves pick a "victim" by silently gesturing to indicate their target and to show unanimity then close their eyes again.
A similar process occurs for other roles with nightly actions. In the case of the seer, the moderator may indicate the target's innocence or guilt by using gestures such as nodding or head shaking.
Night may be accompanied by players tapping gently to mask sounds made by gesturing.
Day
The moderator instructs players to open their eyes and announces who "died" the previous night. Discussion ensues among the living players. At any point, a player may accuse someone of being a werewolf and prompt others to vote to eliminate them. If over half of the players do so, the accused person is eliminated and night begins. Otherwise, the phase continues until an elimination occurs.
According to some rules, the role of dead players should not be revealed; according to others, for example, if the protector dies, nobody should know that. In both cases, dead players are not permitted to attempt to influence the remainder of the game.
Because players have more freedom to deliberate, days tend to be longer than nights.
Game theory
Mathematical study
Mafia is a complicated game to model, so most analyses of optimal play have assumed both (a) that there are only townsfolk and Mafiosi and (b) that the townsfolk never have a probability of identifying the Mafia that is better than chance. Early treatment of the game concentrated on simulation, while more recent studies have tried to derive closed-form equilibrium solutions for perfect play.
In 2006, the computer scientists Braverman, Etesami and Mossel proved that without detectives and with perfect players the randomized strategy is optimal for both citizens and mafia. When there is a large enough number of players to give both groups similar probability of winning, they showed that the initial number of mafiosi m needs to be proportional to the square root of the total number of players P, that is . With a simulation, they confirmed that 50 mafiosi would have almost a 50% chance to win among 10,000. The Mafia's chance of victory is
which is a good approximation when the right hand side is below 40%. If any detectives are added to the game, Braverman et al. proved that the number of Mafiosi must remain at a fixed proportion of the total number of players for their chance of winning to remain constant.
In 2008, Erlin Yao derived specific analytical bounds for the mafia's win probability when there are no detectives.
In a paper from 2010, the exact formula for the probability that the mafia wins was found. Moreover, it was shown that the parity of the initial number of players plays an important role. In particular, when the number of mafiosi is fixed and an odd player is added to the game (and ties are resolved by coin flips), the mafia-winning chance do not drop but rise by a factor of approx. (equality in the limit of the infinite number of players).
Results in live play
In live (or videoconference) real-time play, the innocents typically win more often than game theory suggests. Several reasons for this have been advanced:
The physiological stress of sustained lying degrades the initial ability of mafioso to deceive the innocents, much more than a model of perfect play would predict, especially if the innocents can get the town emotionally involved in the game's outcome:
The information revealed by the mafiosi voting patterns tells against them later in the game. One of the game's fans Max Ventilla, has said that "If the villagers are allowed to keep a pencil and paper, they always win."
As players get more experienced, their strategic sophistication and ability to spot and use deception increases. They will typically get better at the skills needed for playing innocents faster, being villagers more often than mafiosi.
The Metagame aspect: Dimma Davidoff has said past connections will always lose to future collaborations. When playing several Mafia games with the same people, it's more helpful to be known for honesty than for deceit. Davidoff considers that so important that he thinks the advantages of playing the mafioso role honestly, outweigh the disadvantages.
But, the Mafia can win in live play; their best chance of winning occurs when mafioso bond with their innocent neighbours and convince those neighbours to value that bond over dispassionate analysis. The game designers Salen and Zimmerman have written that the deep emergent social game play in Mafia (combined with the fear of elimination) create ideal conditions for this.
Optional roles
These additional roles are named differently in the many versions of Mafia, for thematic flavor, or historical reasons. Also, the same role-name can have differing functions across different versions of the game. What follows is a general list of role types found in Mafia variants; since the specific names vary by milieu it must be non-exhaustive.
Investigative roles
Players with these roles use their own night-phase to discover something about other players. Though the standard game now includes the basic Detective, these roles are optional, and games can exclude them entirely (such as the stool pigeon variant, or Davidoff's original rules).
Investigative roles (standard)
—Detective, Seer, Commandant, Sheriff, Police, etc.
Allied with the Innocents, the Detective can detect whether a player is a mafioso. They will typically wake up, and point at one person; the Narrator will silently indicate to the Detective whether that player is Mafia or Innocent. In some versions of the game, the Detective's investigation result is announced publicly by the Narrator, for example the Detective found a Mafioso!. More commonly, no announcement is made. As with other roles, which player is the detective is not generally known, leaving anyone the option of pretending to be the Detective.
A Detective is usually included in modern games. For example, somebody is always assigned this role in all commercial card game versions, and almost all internet-based, and most face-to-face games start with at least one detective. Multiple detectives either act in separate night phases (unaware of the identities of other detectives) or work together as the police (an association role).
Investigative roles (less common)
—Psychic, Wizard, Fortune Teller, Oracle, Tracker, Watcher, etc.
Psychic, Psychologist, or Sorcerer-type investigators can determine other players' roles, rather than their alignments. Roles which detect other roles are usually implemented in the same way as the Detective's ability to determine alignment. For example: the Psychologist points to a player (at night) for a Thumbs-up from the moderator if the Vigilante is pointed to. A Tracker may see what someone's night action was, or the target of their action, while a Watcher may see all those who visited someone at night.
Information revealed to investigators is fallible (in more complicated variants). Online versions can give information with a confidence level, and in other variants the Narrator deceives the Detective by showing all players as Innocent, all as Guilty, giving reversed results, or random information (these can be termed as Naive, Paranoid, Insane, or Random respectively). Additionally, some Alignment roles give immunity to successful investigation.
In some games, there are Mafia Detectives, who have the power of a normal detective but are on the Mafia side. The Super Commandant has the standard power of a Detective, while also protecting the investigated from night-time attack.
Omniscient roles
—Witness, Child, Little Girl, etc.
Instead of having to investigate, some innocent roles give complete information on the entire mafia: The witness is told who the mafia are during the first night, while the mafia are not told the witness's identity (differing from the stool pigeon in not being a part of the mafia).
The Little Girl in Werewolf and Werewolves of Miller's Hollow is allowed to secretly peek and watch as the werewolves choose their victim; if discovered doing so by the Werewolves, she dies of fright.
Protective roles
—Guardian Angel, Doctor, Bodyguard, Hero, Jailer, etc.
Allied with the Innocents, the Doctor-type role defends others at night. Typically, they will awaken at night after the Mafia have gone back to sleep and point at one person to protect; that person will survive any night-time attack. They are typically allowed to protect themselves, and are commonly barred from protecting the same target on successive nights. A Guardian Angel can only protect others. The Nurse gains the Doctor's abilities if the Doctor dies. The Jailer protects innocents just like the doctor, but also simultaneously blocks their night action. The Firefighter, or the Herbalist can protect from some night-time attacks but not others (in Werewolf, for example, they choose one person to protect with wolfsbane, but that person may still be killed by the Serial Killer). Other games limit this ability to a certain number of times.
Killing roles
—Vigilante, Veteran, Hunter, Bomb, Woodcutter, etc.
Aside from Mafia, Werewolves, and Serial Killers (solitary guilty parties), the Innocents may have some roles with the ability to kill at night. The Vigilante is an innocent who kills every night, in their own night-time phase sometimes. In some variations, the Vigilante has limited ammunition. Some variations introduce a time limit of two nights before the player in the Killing Role can kill again. Other variations add the trait that if the Vigilante kills an innocent they either lose the ability to kill or die from guilt the next night. The Veteran has a finite-use ability (usually 3); if activated, anyone who targets them (friend or foe) will be killed. The Bomb may only trigger if targeted at night (not necessarily for death) by another role. Variants exist where this person can kill during the daytime cycle (e.g., the Terrorist / Gravedigger), sometimes only if executed during the daytime. The Woodcutter or Hunter can take one other person with them whenever they die.
Alignment roles
—Miller, Godfather, Alpha Wolf, Wildcard, etc.
Some roles can fool investigations to determine their alignments: the Miller is an Innocent who appears guilty (usually because they are an outsider); the Godfather, on the other hand, appears innocent despite being the Mafia leader. The Alpha Wolf or Master Werewolf have the same role as the Godfather in Werewolf settings.
Double-agent roles
—Traitor, Possessed, Undercover Cop, Godfather, etc.
The Traitor is not a mafioso (in that he does not awake at night and is not revealed as a mafioso by Detective type roles), but works to protect them and hamper the town during the day cycle, and wins only with a Mafia victory. Conversely, the Undercover Cop is a mole within the Mafia group who acts with the Mafia but wins with the innocents. The stool pigeon may be the only optional role in play, and makes up one of the few modern game forms to be played without an investigative role.
Distinct from the alignment-role Godfather, the double-agent Godfather behaves as a standard mafioso, but wakes again (after the Mafia sleep) to perform an extra kill. This Godfather-role wins only if he survives.
Role manipulators
—Role-blocker, Bus Driver, Thief, Barman, Witch, etc.
These roles can stop or alter the night actions of others; for instance, they may prevent a protection or investigation from occurring, or they may change the target. The Role-blocker can block the Vigilante for a night, while the Thief, Prostitute or Hypnotizer might be able to disable the powers of any selected target.
When the thief is used in Werewolves, an additional townsfolk card is added before dealing, and the Thief may choose on the first night to steal the role of another player or to take the unused role card. The player whose role was stolen gets the unused role card and the Thief card is discarded.
Recruitment roles
—Godfather, Psychiatrist, Piper, Cult Leader, etc.
The Mafia Godfather may be able to recruit innocent players into their faction under certain circumstances. The Yakuza is a regular mafia player with an extra power: they may sacrifice themselves from the second night (during the night) and choose an innocent to join the mafia.
Each night, the scientist selects a player to cure; if a mafioso is cured, they awaken as an innocent. The Psychiatrist is an innocent with the ability to convert the Serial Killer into a normal innocent.
Cult Leaders recruit followers at night instead of kill; they act as an independent faction, usually with the ability to talk at night.
The Piper wins by charming every surviving player; she charms players at night, who then know each other (but not the piper) but are otherwise unaffected.
Association roles
—Freemasons (Masons), Siblings, Lovers, Police, etc.
Possessors of these roles know one another and what their roles are. On the innocent's side, a Mason usually has no special abilities, but knows the identity of all other Masons and that all Masons are also innocent. Every member of the detectives or the police knows all the rest, because they collaborate at night to investigate someone (sharing the powers of the Detective role between them).
Sibling pairs typically consist of one Mafia and one Innocent; in most versions, if one is killed, the other also dies. Cupid in Werewolf chooses a pair of Lovers on the first night. In this variant, the Lovers can also win the game (regardless of whether they are Mafia, Innocents, or both) by being the last two standing. Like Siblings, however, if one of the pair dies, the other dies as well.
Election roles
—Doublevoter, Priest, Rabble Rouser, Lawyer, etc.
Until the Rabble Rouser dies there are two eliminations per day.
In some games there are players who can change the vote count. Some players have 2 votes (Doublevoter); some players can only cast the final vote to kill a player (Actor); cannot vote to eliminate (Voteless Innocent); must delegate someone else to vote for them (Fool), or require one fewer vote to eliminate (Hated Innocent). The Priest cannot place the final vote (this role is not necessarily the same as the Reanimation-role priest). The lawyer selects someone during the night, and if that person tops the elimination vote the next day, saves them (a different lawyer role releases the wills written by players killed up to that point, when she dies).
Public roles
—Mayor, Judge, Sheriff, President, etc.
This role is taken in addition to the assigned role, and it endows the player with additional, overt, powers (particularly during the daytime). Empowerment can be random, but is usually made by vote. For instance, the Mayor or Sheriff can be elected each morning, and gain two elimination votes, or a Judge could moderate discussion in parliamentary fashion (to the advantage of their team). The elected President has the sole elimination vote. In the popular online Mafia variant Town of Salem, the Sheriff is a role which can interrogate people at night to discover their role. The Godfather and the Arsonist are undetectable by a Sheriff, and the Framer can frame a player (to appear as a mafioso to the Sheriff).
Handicapped roles
—Murr, Drunk, Village Idiot, Teenage Werewolf, etc.
This may be a secondary role, taken in addition to the assigned role. However, it has the opposite effect, giving the bearer a handicap, like speaking only gibberish in the case of the Village Drunk, etc.
Alternatively, it may be a standard role with a particular constraint, such as the teenage werewolf who must say the word werewolf at least once each day.
Handicapper roles
—Silencer, Dentist, Prostitute, Fog, etc.
The Dentist may select any other player at night, and prevent them speaking during the following day. The Silencer is a mafioso with the identical power, except that they may not silence the same player on successive days. The silenced individual wakes in the morning and is immediately instructed not to talk until the end of the day. They can still raise their hand to vote in live games (although, if they were silenced by a prostitute, they are not allowed to vote).
Post-mortem roles
—Dark Background, Priest, Medium, Coroner, etc.
The dark background roles are standard (mafia or innocent) except for revealing a deceptive alignment when killed. The M.E. gathers information from the killings that can help the innocents, while the Priest learns about the alignment of the dead in the same way that the Detective learns about the living. The Medium can interrogate dead players. While the coroner survives, the narrator will explain the means of death in all night kills.
Reanimation roles
—Reviver, Governor, Martyr, Witch, etc.
Revivers and Master Revivers are able to resurrect dead players, Master Revivers can bring the revived into their association (e.g., the Masons: see Association roles). The players resurrected by a Necromancer are converted to the Necromancer's alignment; those revived by the voodooist join a separate zombie group. The Governor can reprieve those killed during the daytime, as can the Martyr if he sacrifices himself. The Witch has a (single-use) revival potion. At night, she's shown who will die in the morning, and can choose to save them.
Rule-immune Roles
—Bulletproof, Oracle, Elder, etc.
The Bulletproof innocent is invulnerable at night, though usually with limits; for example, the Elder will survive the first night attack, but not the second.
The Oracle has an investigative role similar to a Seer but also has the power to talk when inactive (talking in a sleep phase is usually a rule infraction).
Special roles
—Baker, Chef, Village Idiot, Cobbler, etc.
The baker is on the side of the innocents. During the night, the baker gives one player a loaf of bread, potentially revealing their identity. If the baker dies, the innocents have just three nights to dispose of the mafia, or the innocents starve, and the mafia win. The Cobbler, Villager, or Jester has the objective of convincing the town to kill them, or is required to vote in favor of all proposed eliminations. Sometimes, successful elimination of the Village Idiot results in the mafia being able to kill two people that night.
Complicated roles
Additional variations exist, sometimes with even more specialized or complicated abilities. There are many special roles, and many moderators design novel roles for each game. Some commercial variants ship with blank cards to allow this customization. For example, neutral factions such as the serial killer could exist (the serial killer would have to kill everyone, innocent or mafia, to win).
Variations
The naming of various roles, factions, and other elements of play is theme-dependent and has limitless variation. Common alternative themes restyle the mafia as werewolves, cultists, assassins, or witches, with other roles being renamed appropriately.
Over the years, players have created Mafia variants that include additional rules. Some of these are listed here.
Variations on the win conditions
If there are as many mafiosi as innocents in the day-phase then a mafia victory is declared immediately, under the original Mafia rules. With the ability to deny a majority at an elimination vote, remaining mafiosi cannot be eliminated unless innocent/neutral killing roles exist. Other variants suspend this rule, and only declare the game after every member of one faction has been eliminated: this makes the game easier to explain, and to run.
Election variants
Nominees for elimination may be allowed to make a speech in their own defense. Usually, each player must vote, can only vote once and cannot vote for themselves. But some variants have a more complicated process of selecting players to be executed. Davidoff's original 'Mafia' allowed multiple day-time executions (per day), each needing only a plurality to action.
Voting variants abound, but any elimination usually requires an absolute majority of the electorate, or votes cast. So the voting is usually not by secret ballot for multiple candidates with the highest vote count eliminated; it is more usual for the voting to be openly resolved either by:
A nomination or series of elections structured to ultimately offer a choice between two candidates, or
An option to eliminate (or not eliminate) one suspect (with a new suspect produced if the last one survives the vote).
Tied votes
Deadlocked elections can be resolved by lot or by killing the player with the scapegoat special role.
The special case of one mafioso and one innocent remaining can be decided randomly or be ruled a Mafia win—this is more usual in live play.
Optional elimination variant
The Innocents can choose not to kill anybody during the day. Although commonly unsure of Mafia identities, the Innocents are more likely to randomly kill a mafioso than are the Mafia (at night). Therefore, not eliminating anyone (even at random) will typically favor the Mafia.
However, when the number of survivors is even, No Kill may help the Innocents; for example, when three Innocents and one mafioso remain – voting for No elimination gives a 1/3 chance of killing the mafioso the next day, rather than a 1/4 chance today (assuming random elimination).
Mafia killing methods
Some variants require all Mafia members to choose the same victim independently for a kill to succeed. This can be achieved in the following ways:
By waking the Mafia members up separately.
By calling out the names of all surviving players and requiring surviving mafiosi to raise their hands when the name of the victim is called out. In this variant, the mafiosi only "wake up" (open their eyes) at the very beginning of the game when they identify each other. This variant also allows other roles to take their actions by simply raising their hands when their target's name is called out.
By having them write their kills. Under this variant, Innocent players write the word 'honest' on a piece of paper; Mafia members write the name of a player for elimination. If all the mafia notes have the same name on them, that player is considered killed by the Mafia.
In some online versions of the game, a particular player (the Godfather or a designated mafioso) must send in the kill.
Another variant requires the night-time vote to be secret and unanimous, but allows multiple players to be added to the execution queue to ensure unanimity.
Multiple families
Multiple, independent groups of mafia or werewolves act and win independently, giving faster game-play and the potential for cross-fire between the factions.
Attributes
In this variant, players are given two cards: the first contains their role, the second an attribute. Attributes were originally derived from roles that could apply to both Mafia and Innocent alignments such as Bulletproof (cannot be killed at night), Mayor (has two votes in the elimination), and Siamese Twins (more commonly known as Siblings or Lovers).
Quantum Werewolf
This variant was developed by Steven Irrgang and used for a puzzle in the 2008 CISRA Puzzle Competition. The difference from a standard game of Mafia is that players are not initially assigned roles, but rather on each day are given the probabilities describing the game's current quantum state. Each player with a non-zero probability of being a seer or a werewolf performs the appropriate night actions (which may not be effective if it is later determined that the player did not have that role). When a player is killed, the wave function collapses and the players are given updated probabilities.
Train Mafia
Traditional Mafia re-envisioned and heavily modified by the Copenhagen Game Collective to be played in a subway metro. In this variation, players who are eliminated are kicked off the train (at the next stop), and must wait in shame for the following train – a kind of 'afterlife' train – to join a second, interwoven game.
Invisible City: Rebels vs. Spies
A location-based mobile gaming variant for Android, designed for city center play. The two factions are: the Rebels, the majority; and the Spies, the informed minority. The rule-set replaces expulsions with scoring by round. Each player is assigned an individual mission each round. Some missions are critical and if one of those fails, the round goes to the Spies, but only one player knows which missions are critical.
Ultimate Werewolf
In this version of Mafia, the main enemies are the werewolves, as opposed to the mafia. The werewolves wake at night to kill a player, who is usually a Villager. Other helpful roles such as the Seer, Bodyguard, and Witch exist to help purge the village of werewolves, but other neutral roles exist such as the Tanner, lovers (if Cupid is in the game and the lovers are from different teams), and a third major faction: Vampires.
One Night variant
In this standalone game published by Bezier Games, players only "sleep" and close their eyes for a single night at the beginning of the game. They then have a single day of discussion, with a single elimination. No players are eliminated as the game progresses. There is no moderator, so everyone gets to participate as a member of the town or village. When playing this game, three more role cards are used than the number of players; when everyone is randomly dealt out their card the three extra ones placed in the middle of the table. To begin the game one of the players, with eyes closed, will act as the "caller" on the single starting night, going through the nighttime roles once: Werewolves and Minions (if in play) will identify each other, the Seer will examine one player's card or two of the middle cards, the Robber will steal another player's role card and replace it with their own, the Troublemaker will blindly swap two players' role cards, the Insomniac wakes up to check if their role card has been swapped, etc. The game ends on a single elimination vote, with the villagers winning if a single werewolf is caught, and the werewolves winning if no werewolves are killed. This game can be played with as few as three players. Play time can be as quick as five minutes per game.
Town of SalemTown of Salem is an advanced online version of Mafia that takes place during the Salem witch trials. It involves several different roles from multiple factions. The game was updated on June 6, 2017, to add a new faction: the Coven, which mainly consists of witches and is similar in function and goal to the more traditional Mafia.
Online play
Mafia can also be played online. Games can be played on IRC channels, where a bot assumes the role of a game moderator and the interaction of players is conducted via textual communication.
Playing mafia-like games online opens the possibility of long lasting games, such as the ones on forums. In such games, one day in real life usually corresponds to one day within the game, so players log in each morning to see who was killed during the night phase.
Online games have several advantages. There is no need to gather many people in the same room, so organizing and playing a game of Mafia is faster and more convenient. Removing the human moderator and the need for players to close their eyes removes the possibility of accidental revelation of information. Online play also allows role mechanics which would be too cumbersome to use in a physical version of the game.
A drawback of online play is the lack of direct face-to-face communication, which many consider the most important aspect of Mafia. Some sites organize Mafia games with web cams, so that face-to-face communication is preserved. The long lasting online mafia games that are usually played via online forums do not necessarily have this drawback. People who communicate via forums usually do not know each other in real life.
In a traditional Mafia game, all of the players are in one room. There is no way to communicate with another player in private. With online games, this is not the case. Many Mafia game forums and game sites have rules that mandate that only one channel of communication must be used for all game related discussion.
Artificial intelligence
Werewolf is a subject of artificial intelligence research due to its unique features such as persuasion and deception. The game requires several AI technologies such as multi-agent coordination, intentional reading, and understanding of the theory of mind.
Deep learning has been used in an attempt to develop agents that can win the game as werewolves or as villagers. Regular expressions have been used to parse utterance logs for divulgence (or "coming-out" as a role) and decision information, although one difficulty has been that a statement such as "Player A is a werewolf" could be based on either the player's ability (e.g. as seer) or just speculation.
See also
Among Us Assassin (game)
Gnosia
Bang! (card game)
The Resistance (game)
Town of Salem
Secret Hitler Wink murder
Werewolves Within''
Notes
References
External links
The original Mafia ruleset
Hungarian Mensa Society – first Mafia-related page on the Internet
Werewolf at BoardGameGeek
The Princeton ruleset
Soviet inventions
Live-action role-playing games
Games and sports introduced in 1986
Works about organized crime
Mafia (party game)
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235406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother%20India | Mother India | Mother India is a 1957 Indian Hindi-language epic drama film, directed by Mehboob Khan and starring Nargis, Raaj Kumar, Rajendra Kumar and Sunil Dutt. A remake of Khan's earlier film Aurat (1940), it is the story of a poverty-stricken village woman named Radha (Nargis), who in the absence of her husband, struggles to raise her sons and survive against a cunning money-lender amidst many troubles.
The title of the film was chosen to counter American author Katherine Mayo's 1927 polemical book Mother India, which vilified Indian culture. Allusions to Hindu mythology are abundant in the film, and its lead character has been seen as a metonymic representation of a Hindu woman who reflects high moral values and the concept of what it means to be a mother to society through self-sacrifice. Mother India metaphorically represents India as a nation in the aftermath of its independence in 1947, and alludes to a strong sense of nationalism and nation-building. While some authors treat Radha as the symbol of women empowerment, others see her cast in female stereotypes. The film was shot in Mumbai's Mehboob Studios and in the villages of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh. The music by Naushad introduced global music, including Western classical music and orchestra, to Hindi cinema.
The film was among the most expensive Hindi cinema (Bollywood) productions and earned the highest revenue for any Indian film at that time. Adjusted for inflation, Mother India still ranks among the all-time Indian box office hits. It was released in India amid fanfare in October 1957 and had several high-profile screenings, including one at the capital, New Delhi, attended by the country's president and prime minister. Mother India became a definitive cultural classic and is regarded as one of the best films in Indian cinema. The film won the All India Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film, the Filmfare Best Film Award for 1957, and Nargis and Khan won the Best Actress and Best Director awards respectively. It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film, becoming the first Indian film to be ever nominated.
Plot
The film opens in the year 1957, the present day at the time of filming. When construction of an irrigation canal to the village is completed, Radha (Nargis), considered to be the "mother" of the village, is asked to inaugurate the canal. She remembers her past when she was newly married.
The wedding between Radha and Shamu (Raaj Kumar) is paid for by Radha's mother-in-law, who borrows the money from the moneylender Sukhilala (Kanhaiyalal). The conditions of the loan are disputed, but the village elders decide in favour of the moneylender, after which Shamu and Radha are forced to pay three-quarters of their crop as interest on the loan of 500 (valued at about US$105 in 1957). While Shamu works to bring more of their rocky land into use, his arms are crushed by a boulder. Ashamed of his helplessness (being without arms), and humiliated by Sukhilala for living on the earnings of his wife, Shamu decides that he is of no use to his family and permanently leaves Radha and their three sons, walking to his own probable death by starvation. Soon after, Radha's youngest son and her mother-in-law die. A severe storm and the resulting flood destroys houses in the village and ruins the harvest. Sukhilala offers to save Radha and her sons if she trades her body to him for food. Radha vehemently refuses his offer but has to also lose her infant (her fourth son) to the atrocities of the storm. Although the villagers begin initially to evacuate the village, they decide to stay and rebuild it, persuaded by Radha.
Several years later, Radha's two surviving children, Birju (Sunil Dutt) and Ramu (Rajendra Kumar) are young men. Birju, embittered since childhood by the demands of Sukhilala, takes out his frustrations by pestering the village girls, especially Sukhilala's daughter, Rupa. Ramu, by contrast, has a calmer temperament and is married soon after. Birju's anger finally becomes dangerous and, after being provoked, he attacks Sukhilala and his daughter and steals Radha's kangan (marriage bracelets) that were pawned with Sukhilala. He is chased out of the village and becomes a bandit. Radha promises Sukhilala that she will not let Birju cause harm to Sukhilala's family. On Rupa's wedding day, Birju returns with his gang of bandits to exact his revenge. He kills Sukhilala and kidnaps Rupa. When he tries to flee the village on his horse, Radha, his mother, shoots him. He dies in her arms. The film returns to 1957, the present day; Radha opens the gate of the canal and its reddish water flows into the fields.
Cast
Nargis as Radha Singh, the heroine and an archetypal Indian woman
Raaj Kumar as Shamu Singh, Radha's husband
Rajendra Kumar as Ramu Singh, Radha's elder son, who follows his mother's path of virtuousness
Master Surendra as Junior Ramu
Sunil Dutt as Birju Singh, Radha's rebellious younger son, who turns into a bandit
Master Sajid as Junior Birju
Kanhaiya Lal as Sukhilala "Lala" Yadav, a cunning money-lender
Jilloo Maa as Sundar Chachi, the mother-in-law of Radha
Kumkum as Champa Singh, Ramu's wife
Chanchal as Roopa Yadav, Sukhilala's daughter
Sheela Naik as Kamla, a family friend
Muqri as Shambu Jaiswal, a family friend and Kamala's husband
Sitaradevi as Holi Dancer
Azra as Chandra Shekhar, daughter of a schoolmaster of the village
Supported by
Siddiqui, Ram Shastri, Faqir Mohomed, Geeta, Hameeda, Mastan, Nawab Khan and Master Alec
Production
Title
The title Mother India was inspired by American author Katherine Mayo's 1927 polemical book of the same name, in which she attacked Indian society, religion and culture. Written against the Indian demands for self-rule and independence from British rule, the book pointed to the treatment of India's women, the untouchables, animals, dirt, and the character of its nationalistic politicians. Mayo singled out what she thought to be the rampant and fatally weakening sexuality of its males to be at the core of all problems, allegedly leading to masturbation, rape, homosexuality, prostitution, venereal diseases, and, particularly, premature sexual intercourse and maternity. The book created an outrage across India, and it was burned along with her effigy. It was criticised by Mahatma Gandhi as a "report of a drain inspector sent out with the one purpose of opening and examining the drains of the country to be reported upon". The book prompted over fifty angry books and pamphlets to be published to highlight Mayo's errors and false perception of Indian society, which had become a powerful influence on the American people's view of India.
Mehboob Khan had the idea for the film and the title as early as 1952, five years after India's independence; in October that year, he approached the import authorities of the Indian government to seek permission for importing raw stocks for the film. In 1955, the ministries of External Affairs and Information-and-Broadcasting learned of the title of the forthcoming film and demanded that the director send them the script for review, suspicious that it was based on the book and thus a possible threat to the national interest. The film team dispatched the script along with a two-page letter on 17 September 1955 saying:
Script
Khan was inspired by American author Pearl S. Buck and her books The Good Earth (1931) and The Mother (1934); he also saw the film The Good Earth (1937), directed by Sidney Franklin. The Mother chronicled the life of a Chinese woman, including her married life and lonely struggle after being abandoned by her husband. Aspects of Mother India, such as moneylenders, toiling on land, and rearing children through hardship were part of the story. Khan originally drew upon these influences in making his 1940 film Aurat, the original version of Mother India. Khan bought the rights of Aurat from the production company National Studios for 35,000 (valued at about US$7,350 in 1957). Stylistic elements of Mother India show similarities with Vsevolod Pudovkin's Soviet silent film Mother (1926); Our Daily Bread (1934), directed by King Vidor; and films of Alexander Dovzhenko. Certain imagery in the film, such as "happy farmers, sickles in their hand, smiling from behind ripening crops", resemble posters by Soviet constructivist artists.
The script of Aurat was devised by Wajahat Mirza, based upon a story by Babubhai Mehta. For Mother India, it was reworked by Mirza and the young screenwriter S. Ali Raza. Apart from Mehboob Khan, Mirza and Raza, prominent screenwriters Aghajani Kashmeri, Zia Sarhadi, Akhtar Mirza, music director Naushad, assistant director Chimankant Desai and many others were consulted. The dialogue, reworked by Mirza and Raza, is a blend of Urdu, vernacular Hindi, and its literary counterpart. As Mirza and Raza were from the Urdu literary tradition, they wrote the dialogues in Urdu script.
The script was intentionally written in a way that promoted the empowerment of women in Indian society (including the power to resist sexual advances) and the maintenance of a sense of moral dignity and purpose as individuals; this was contrary to what Mayo had claimed in her book. These themes, present in Aurat, were further developed with a strong sense of nationalism and nation-building, using characters personifying abstract qualities such as "beauty and goodness, wealth and power, poverty and exploitation, and community spirit".
Casting
Nargis was the director's first choice for the role of Radha, and despite only being aged 26 at the time, she played the new wife, young single mother and an aged mother of two sons. Nargis—the reigning queen of Hindi cinema at the time—had started her career in a leading role with Khan's Taqdeer (1943) and acted under his direction in Humayun (1945) and Andaz (1949). Mother India is generally regarded as Nargis's best performance and was her last major film before retirement after marriage.
Khan had wanted to cast Sabu Dastagir, a Hollywood star of Indian origin, as Birju. Dastagir travelled to India from Los Angeles, stayed in a hotel in Mumbai (then known as Bombay) and received a retainer. However, delays and obstacles in beginning shooting and getting a work permit for Dastagir led to his dismissal from the project. Dilip Kumar, an established actor in the Hindi film industry, had originally expressed an interest in playing Birju, which Khan found agreeable; Dilip Kumar agreed to play Shamu as well. However, Nargis objected that the public would not accept their casting as mother and son because she had done several romantic films alongside him. Sunil Dutt—with the experience of just one film—was finally cast, after Mukri, a comedian in the film, introduced him to Khan. Sajid Khan, the actor who portrayed the young Birju, was unknown at the time and was from a poor family from the Mumbai slums. Sajid's salary in the film was 750. He was later adopted by Mehboob Khan. Subsequently, Raaj Kumar was cast as Shamu and Rajendra Kumar as Ramu. Mother India was the first successful film and a turning point in the careers of Dutt, Raaj Kumar and Rajendra Kumar.
Before principal photography began, Nargis and Raaj Kumar familiarised themselves with farming practices such as ploughing the fields, reaping and sowing, and cotton picking. The extras in the song and dance sequences of the film were from local dance groups in villages where the shooting took place instead of the usual ones from Mumbai.
Filming
The initial filming for Mother India began unexpectedly, even before the script and cast were finalised. In 1955, parts of Uttar Pradesh suffered from major flooding. Cinematographer Faredoon Irani travelled to flood-afflicted districts to shoot generic flood scenes. The scheduled principal photography started in 1955 with a budget of (approximately $525,000 in 1957). However, the budget increased by to (approximately in 1957) by the end of the filming because of the outdoor sessions and cast and crew's salaries.
Several indoor scenes for the film were shot in 1956 at Mehboob Studios in Bandra, Mumbai. Khan and Irani attempted to shoot frequently on location to make the film as realistic as possible. Locations included various villages in Maharashtra, Gujarat (Maharashtra and Gujarat together formed Bombay State then) and Uttar Pradesh. The film was shot in 35mm. Contemporary cinematographer Anil Mehta has noted the mastery of Irani's cinematic techniques in shooting the film, including his "intricate tracks and pans, the detailed mise en scène patterns Irani conceived, even for brief shots—in the studios as well as on location". The film took about three years to make, from early organisation, planning, and scripting to completion of filming. In a November 1956 interview, Nargis described the film shoot and her role as the most demanding of her career. Mother India was shot in Gevacolor, later converted to Technicolor. It was shot mostly using the sync sound technique, which was common at the time; some scenes were dubbed.
For shooting the flood scene, a farmer agreed to flood of his land. In the exodus scene following the flood, 300 bullock carts, 200 farmers and many horses, tractors and ploughs were used. Gayatri Chatterjee writes about the popular belief that all these were made available by villagers without reimbursement, in her book. However, account ledgers of the production revealed that the villagers were paid. There was a protracted scene in the film in which Radha runs between burning haystacks in search for her son Birju, a renegade bandit, who was hiding there. The fire scene was shot in the Umra area of Surat, Gujarat, by burning bales of hay. Nargis and Dutt acted in the fire scene without doubles. On 1 March 1957, an accident occurred during the fire scene when the wind direction changed and the fire grew out of control, trapping Nargis. She was saved by Dutt, who quickly grabbed a blanket, plunged inside, and rescued her. Shooting halted temporarily as both had sustained injuries. Dutt was hospitalised for the burns and Nargis helped nurse him, at Khan's place in Billimora. Nargis—a popular actress at the time—fell in love with Dutt, who was in early stages of his film career and played her son in the film; they married on 11 March 1958. Nargis wished to marry soon after the film, but Khan protested that real-life marriage of the onscreen mother-son would be disastrous for the film. Owing to their relationship, Nargis also found it difficult to perform a scene where she beat Dutt with a lathi.
Themes
Various authors identify the character of Radha with Hindu mythological goddesses and characters, such as Radha (the lover of the god Krishna, personifying love and romance), Sita (the divine heroine of the Hindu epic Ramayana, personifying high moral value), Savitri (representing great morality and loyalty to husband), Draupadi (personifying duty and morality), Dharti-mata (earth-mother goddess) and Lakshmi (Hindu goddess of prosperity). Besides these gentle goddesses, the character of Radha has shades of more ferocious warrior goddesses such as Durga and Kali. Film scholars have compared the mild-mannered, obedient son Ramu with the god Rama of the epic Ramayana, and the romantic outlaw Birju—a name of Krishna—with the god Krishna, known for his transgressions. Shamu (another name of Krishna), Radha's husband who leaves her, is also equated with Krishna, who left his lover Radha in mythological accounts. The title Mother India and Radha's character are described to be allusions not only to the Hindu Mother Goddess, but also to Bharat Mata (literally "Mother India"), the national personification of India, generally represented as a Hindu goddess.
According to professor Nalini Natarajan of the University of Puerto Rico, Nargis's Mother India is a metonymic representation of a Hindu woman, reflecting high Hindu values, with virtuous morality and motherly self-sacrifice. Film scholar Jyotika Virdi wrote that Mother India could also be seen as a metaphor of the trinity of mother, God, and a dynamic nation. Vijay Mishra, in his 2002 book Bollywood Cinema: Temples of Desire, opined that the Mother India figure is an icon in several respects—being associated with a goddess, her function as a wife, as a lover, and even compromising her femininity at the end of the film by playing Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the Destroyer, masculine gods.
According to Indian film scholars Gokulsing and Dissanayake, while aspiring to traditional Hindu values, the character of Mother India also represents the changing role of the mother in Indian cinema and society in that the mother is not always subservient or dependent on her husband, refining the relationship to the male gender or patriarchal social structures. The New Internationalist said in a 1999 review that Radha transforms from a submissive wife to an independent mother, thereby breaking female stereotypes in Hindi film. In contrast, in a 2012 article in the newspaper The Hindu, author Tarini Sridharan has pointed out themes such as upholding female chastity, wifely devotion and saintly motherhood that reinforce gender stereotypes. While the action of sacrificing motherhood to uphold a woman's dignity is termed as feminist by some, other authors see it as an attempt of a community woman to protect the patriarchal village structure, that esteems izzat (honour) of women. A promotional pamphlet to introduce the social context of the film to western audiences described Indian women as being "an altar in India", and that Indians "measure the virtue of their race by the chastity of their women", and that "Indian mothers are the nucleus around which revolve the tradition and culture of ages."
In a 2002 review in The New York Times, film critic Dave Kehr compares the film with Stella Dallas (1937) for the thematic similarity of the series of sacrifices made by the female lead, and with Gone with the Wind (1939) as an epic mirroring social upheavals. Film critic Mark Cousins and author Tejaswini Ganti agree that the film is the Gone with the Wind of Indian cinema.
The term "Mother India" has been defined as "a common icon for the emergent Indian nation in the early 20th century in both colonialist and nationalist discourse". Many authors, including Gayatri Chatterjee, author of Mother India (2002), interpret the film as an allegory signifying patriotism and the changing situation in the newly independent nation, and how India was functioning without British authority. It echoes the tale of a modern India, liberating itself from "feudal and colonial oppression". The film, an archetypal nationalistic picture, is symbolic in that it demonstrated the euphoria of "Mother India" in a nation that had only been independent for 10 years, and it had a long-lasting cultural impact upon the Indian people. Film scholar Saibal Chatterjee considers Mother India a "mirror of independent India", highlighting problems of a nascent nation, including rural exploitation of farmers by money-lenders, in a dramatic fashion understandable to the common viewer. It also represents the agrarian poverty and hardship of the people at the time. The red water that flows from the canal irrigating the green fields at the end of the film is seen by Chatterjee as a metaphor to represent the blood of Indians in the struggle for independence, flowing to nourish a new free India. The canal is described by Virdi to signal the imminent end of the feudal order. However, despite Radha's struggle against feudal oppression depicted in the film, her action of stopping the rebellious Birju and upholding status quo—the feudal and patriarchal order—is seen as "regressive" by various authors.
In a study of media and popular culture in South Asia, author Mahasveta Barua draws a parallel between the film's metaphorical representation of the mother as a nation, and the metonymic identification with India that Indira Gandhi, India's only woman prime minister, sought and tried for during her tenure (1966–77, and 1980–84). In his book Terrorism, Media, Liberation, John David Slocum argues that like Satyajit Ray's classic masterpiece Pather Panchali (1955), Khan's Mother India has "vied for alternative definitions of Indianness". However, he emphasises that the film is an overt mythologising and feminising of the nation in which Indian audiences have used their imagination to define it in the nationalistic context, given that in reality, the storyline is about a poverty-stricken peasant from northern India, rather than a true idea of a modernising, powerful nation.
The Radha–Birju relationship is described to have "Oedipal elements" by many authors; Virdi has argued that in her chastity, Radha channels her sexual desires into maternal love for her sons who effectively become "substitute erotic subjects". Mishra opines that the crushing of the arms of Radha's husband and the mellowness of the older son symbolise castration, which is in contrast with the rebellion of Birju, identified with sexual potency. Birju's obsession with his mother's bracelets is an expression of his oedipal longings, according to Chakravarty. Rachel Dwyer, Professor of Indian Cultures and Cinema at SOAS, describes how "suspiciously smoothly" the Oedipal elements fit into the film and the off-screen romance between Nargis and Dutt, playing mother and son in the film. Radha's actions at the end of the film in shooting her own son was a breaking of traditional mother-son relationship to safeguard morality, according to author William Van der Heide. Virdi points out that this brought ambiguity to the mother figure who acts as a sacrificing provider and also as a destroyer, annihilating her own son, something rare in Hindi cinema. She interprets Birju's sexual advances on a village girl (which is incest in north Indian village culture) as being a substitute in the plot for the incestuous mother-son relationship and his death at the end as a punishment for violation of the taboo.
Authors such as Eshun and Woods state that Radha and Ramu are the archetypal champions of virtue in battling hardship and injustice, while Birju is a mischievous child who becomes the anarchist whose uncontrollable rebellion destroys order. Mishra has noted that although Radha upholds Dharma (the natural law or order) in the film, it is Birju who achieves identification from the spectators; in his rebellion lies the agenda of political action that will usher social change. Mishra notes that due to such conflicting ideas, the film is very much conforming, and yet "defiantly subversive".
Film scholar Vijay Mishra has pointed out the presence of the "highly syncretic hyphenated Hindu–Muslim nature" of Bollywood in the film. Parama Roy has interpreted that Nargis's legendary status as the titular Mother India is due to Hinduisation of the role and her real-life marriage with a Hindu; she is, according to Roy, scripted as a renouncer of Muslim separatism in the film. Mishra has found metacritical value in Salman Rushdie's commentary on the film in his novel The Moor's Last Sigh (1995) in which Rushdie describes:
Reception
Release and box office
The production team had planned to release Mother India to commemorate the tenth anniversary of India's independence on 15 August 1957, but the film was released over two months later. It premiered at the Liberty Cinema in Mumbai on 25 October 1957, during Diwali; it ran continuously at Liberty for over a year. It was released in Kolkata (then called Calcutta) the same day and in Delhi a week later. It had reached all regions of India by the end of November. Government ministers and other officials were invited to the premieres, and a special screening was held in Rashtrapati Bhavan (the presidential quarter) in New Delhi on 23 October 1957; the event was attended by President Rajendra Prasad, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter Indira Gandhi. Chief Minister of West Bengal Bidhan Chandra Roy and Governor Padmaja Naidu attended a screening in Kolkata. Impressed with the film's nationalistic message, Chief Minister of Bombay State Morarji Desai granted it an exemption from the entertainment tax in the state.
No reliable data is available on the box office earnings of Mother India. It was in continuous distribution in theatres in India until the mid-1990s. There was a renewed interest in the film in the 1970s causing an upsurge in ticket sales. According to Chatterjee, it did exceptionally good business in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka (then called Mysore State) and Maharashtra. Film trade websites provide estimates of its business. Box Office India gave the film's net collection as and its gross as , the highest for an Indian film up until Mughal-e-Azam (1960), while estimating that Mother Indias inflation-adjusted net would be equivalent to in January 2008. Box Office India later estimated in 2017 that Mother India had over 100million footfalls at the domestic box office, making it one of the highest-grossing Indian films of all time when adjusted for inflation. The film's success led Khan to name his next film Son of India. Released in 1962, it was not well received.
Mother India was dubbed in several European languages including Spanish, French and Russian; it did substantial business in Greece, Spain and Russia and was released in the Eastern Bloc countries. Technicolor arranged one screening of the film in Paris on 30 June 1958, under the name Les bracelets d'or ("The Gold Bracelets"). It did minimal business in Paris, but fared better in French colonies. It was successful in the Latin American countries of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. Mother India was also acclaimed across the Arab world, in the Middle East, parts of Southeast Asia, and North Africa and continued to be shown in countries such as Algeria at least ten years after its release. It was released in the US on 9 July 1959 to lukewarm response, and the UK release in 1961 was also a commercial failure. The initial international version with English subtitles was 40 minutes shorter than the Indian release.
As of 2013, Mother India is available on DVD in all regions NTSC format, distributed by the Eros Entertainment.
Reviews
A contemporary review in Filmfare praised the cast's enthusiastic performances and said that the film "will be remembered for a long time to come". Baburao Patel of Filmindia (December 1957) described Mother India after its release as "the greatest picture produced in India" and wrote that no other actress would have been able to perform the role as well as Nargis. A review in a British magazine Monthly Film Bulletin in 1958 remarked that audiences in UK should be grateful that the international version was shortened by 40 minutes, and termed it a "rag-bag pantomime". After its US release in 1959, Irene Thirer reviewed the film in the New York Post in which she praised its "striking dramatic appeal", but feared it might not be accepted by American audiences due to cultural differences. In a 1976 article in the journal Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, author Michael Gallagher found the film "an amazing mixture of political allegory and cheap musical, a cross between the impressiveness of Eisenstein and the banality of Show Boat". The New Internationalist in 1999 found Nargis's acting "exemplary", and noted "a clever interplay—artistically and politically—between the traditional and the radical" evident in Mother India.
In a 2002 article in The Village Voice, film critic J. Hoberman described the film as "an outrageous masala of apparently discordant elements." He characterised it as a mixture of "indigenous versions of Soviet-style tractor-opera, Italian neo-realism, Hollywood kiddie-cuteness, a dozen Technicolor musical numbers, and, most significantly, a metaphoric overlay of pop Hinduism." Hoberman criticised the acting as "broad", and also wrote about the "vaguely left-wing" nationalist overtone of the film. Phill Hall, writing for Film Threat in 2002, described the film as exceptionally sluggish and one-dimensional, and lampooned it saying "it takes the strongest of constitutions to endure this film without entertaining notions of matricide." Jonathan Romney of The Independent observed the earth-mother Radha as "India's answer to Anna Magnani" and the film as "an all-out exercise in ideological myth-making." Women's Feature Service, in a 2007 article, noted Mother India as "one of the most outstanding films of the post-Independence era." Ziya Us Salam of The Hindu wrote in 2010: "Mehboob was able to blend the individual with the universal, thereby enhancing the film's appeal without compromising on its sensitivity."
Awards
Mother India, Nargis, and Mehboob Khan received many awards and nominations. Nargis won the Filmfare Best Actress Award in 1958 and became the first Indian to receive the Best Actress award at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in present-day Czech Republic. Mother India won the Filmfare Award for Best Film and scooped several other Filmfare awards including Best Director for Khan, Best Cinematographer for Faredoon Irani, and Best Sound for R. Kaushik. In 1958, the film became India's first submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and was chosen as one of the five nominations for the category. The international version, 120 minutes long, was sent for the Oscars. Additionally, this version had English subtitles, and dropped Mehboob Productions' logo, which featured the Communist hammer and sickle, to appease the Academy. The 120-minute version was later distributed in the US and UK by Columbia Pictures. The film came close to winning the Academy Award but lost to Federico Fellini's Nights of Cabiria by a single vote. Khan was utterly disappointed at not winning the award. "He had seen the other films in the fray and believed Mother India was far superior to them" recalled Sunil Dutt decades later. It also won two awards at the 5th National Film Awards in 1957: an All India Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film and Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film in Hindi.
Music
The score and soundtrack for Mother India were composed by Naushad. Mehboob Khan had worked on eight films with Naushad and developed a rapport with him. The lyrics were by Shakeel Badayuni. The soundtrack consists of 12 songs and features vocals by Mohammed Rafi, Shamshad Begum, Lata Mangeshkar, and Manna Dey. It was not particularly well-received upon release, and critics said it did not match the high pitch and quality of the film. However, its later reception has been more positive: the soundtrack made Planet Bollywood's list of "100 Greatest Bollywood Soundtracks Ever", compiled in the 2000s. The review gave the album 7.5 stars out of 10.
Mother India is the earliest example of a Hindi film containing Western classical music and Hollywood-style orchestra. An example is a coda during the scene in which Birju runs away from his mother and rejects her. It features a powerful symphonic orchestra with strings, woodwinds and trumpets. This orchestral music contains extensive chromaticism, diminished sevenths, and augmented scales. It also features violin tremolos. Anne Morcom writes in Hindi Film Songs and the Cinema that the piece is unmelodic and "profoundly disturbing". This use of a western-style orchestra in Indian cinema influenced many later films, such as Mughal-e-Azam (1960), which features similar dissonant orchestral music to create the atmosphere at tense moments. The song "Holi Aayi Re Kanhai", sung by Shamshad Begum, and dance by Sitaradevi has been cited as a typical Hindi film song which is written for and sung by a female singer, with an emotional charge that appeals to a mass audience.
Legacy
Mother India has been described as "perhaps India's most revered film", a "cinematic epic", a "flag-bearer of Hindi cinema and a legend in its own right", Mehboob Khan's magnum opus and an "all-time blockbuster", which ranks highly among India's most successful films. It was in continuous distribution, being played in theatres for more than three decades; the record ended in the mid-1990s with the advent of satellite television and a change in Indian film-viewing habits. Mother India belongs to only a small collection of films, including Kismet (1943), Mughal-e-Azam (1960), Sholay (1975) Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994), and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995) which are repeatedly watched throughout India and are viewed as definitive Hindi films with cultural significance. It is also among the only three Indian films to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film (the others being Salaam Bombay! and Lagaan). The Hindustan Times (in 2007) identifies the "film's pungent social references" which are "too harsh to be sold at a profit today. But this heartrending tale filled Indians with hope and pride then." The film was remade in the Telugu language as Bangaru Talli in 1971, and in Tamil as Punniya Boomi in 1978.
Mother India is ranked No. 80 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema" in 2010. It is listed among the only three Hindi films in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die (the others being Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge and Deewaar). Film critic Anupama Chopra included it in her list of top 100 films in world cinema. In 2005, Indiatimes Movies ranked the film amongst the "Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films". It was ranked third in the British Film Institute's 2002 poll of "Top 10 Indian Films". It was also included in TIMEs list of the best Bollywood classics in 2010, and in CNN-IBN's list of the "100 greatest Indian films of all time" in 2013. The film was premiered in the Cannes Classics section of the 2004 Cannes Film Festival.
Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN notes that Mother India "didn't just put India on the world map, it also defined Hindi cinema for decades that followed." Film critic Dave Kehr agrees that it influenced Indian films for the next 50 years. A 1983 Channel 4 documentary on Hindi cinema describes the film as setting a benchmark in Indian cinema. The shooting stance of Nargis at the end of the film is one of the all-time iconic images of Hindi cinema. Other iconic scenes include Radha pulling the plough through the field (see film poster at the top) and feeding chapatis to her two sons as they pull the plough. The Hindustan Times states that Nargis symbolised mothers in "which all the mothers [in later films] had the same clichéd roles to play. Representing both motherhood and Mother Earth, who also nurtures and occasionally punishes, Nargis immortalised the Indian mother on celluloid." The film pioneered the portrayal of two morally opposed brothers personifying good and evil, which became a repeated motif in Hindi films, including Gunga Jumna (1961) and Deewaar (1975). The rebellious Birju also inspired the "angry young man" stock character that arose in 1970s Hindi cinema. According to scholar Brigitte Schulze, Mother India played a key role in shaping the young Republic of India's national identity in its early years following independence from the British Raj, due to how the film was able to successfully convey a sense of Indian nationalism to the urban and rural masses.
See also
List of Indian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
List of submissions to the 30th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
Explanatory notes
References
Bibliography
On this website, click "view list" under 1001 movies. Then in the search box, search for Mother India.
External links
Mother India at Bollywood Hungama
1957 films
Films about women in India
Films directed by Mehboob Khan
1950s Hindi-language films
Hindi-language films
Films scored by Naushad
Indian epic films
Indian films
Remakes of Indian films
Hindi films remade in other languages
Films shot in Maharashtra
Films shot in Uttar Pradesh
Films shot in Gujarat
Filicide in fiction
Films about dysfunctional families
Indian nonlinear narrative films
Urdu-language films
Films about the working class | [
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235411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studs%20Terkel | Studs Terkel | Louis "Studs" Terkel (May 16, 1912 – October 31, 2008) was an American writer, historian, actor, and broadcaster. He received the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction in 1985 for The Good War and is best remembered for his oral histories of common Americans, and for hosting a long-running radio show in Chicago.
Early life
Terkel was born to Russian Jewish immigrants, Samuel Terkel, a tailor, and Anna (Annie) Finkel, a seamstress, in New York City. At the age of eight, he moved with his family to Chicago, Illinois, where he spent most of his life. He had two brothers, Meyer (1905–1958) and Ben (1907–1965). He attended McKinley High School.
From 1926 to 1936, his parents ran a rooming house that also served as a meeting place for people from all walks of life. Terkel credited his understanding of humanity and social interaction to the tenants and visitors who gathered in the lobby there and the people who congregated in nearby Bughouse Square.
In 1939, he married Ida Goldberg (1912–1999), and the couple had one son. Although he received his undergraduate degree in 1932 and a J.D. degree from the University of Chicago in 1934 (and was admitted to the Illinois Bar the following year), he decided that, instead of practicing law, he wanted to be a concierge at a hotel, and he soon joined a theater group.
Career
A political leftist, Terkel joined the Works Progress Administration's Federal Writers' Project, working in radio, doing work that varied from voicing soap opera productions and announcing news and sports to presenting shows of recorded music and writing radio scripts and advertisements. His well-known radio program, titled The Studs Terkel Program, aired on 98.7 WFMT Chicago between 1952 and 1997. The one-hour program was broadcast each weekday during those forty-five years. On this program, he interviewed guests as diverse as Martin Luther King Jr., Leonard Bernstein, Mort Sahl, Bob Dylan, Alexander Frey, Dorothy Parker, Tennessee Williams, Jean Shepherd, Frank Zappa, and Big Bill Broonzy.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Terkel was also the central character of Studs' Place, an unscripted television drama about the owner of a greasy-spoon diner in Chicago through which many famous people and interesting characters passed. This show, Marlin Perkins's Zoo Parade, Garroway at Large, and the children's show Kukla, Fran, and Ollie are widely considered canonical examples of the Chicago School of Television.
Terkel published his first book, Giants of Jazz, in 1956. He followed it in 1967 with his first collection of oral histories, Division Street America, with 70 people talking about the effect on the human spirit of living in an American metropolis.
He also served as a distinguished scholar-in-residence at the Chicago History Museum. He appeared in the film Eight Men Out, based on the Black Sox Scandal, in which he played newspaper reporter Hugh Fullerton, who tries to uncover the White Sox players' plans to throw the 1919 World Series. Terkel found it particularly amusing to play this role, as he was a big fan of the Chicago White Sox (as well as a vocal critic of major league baseball during the 1994 baseball strike), and gave a moving congratulatory speech to the White Sox organization after their 2005 World Series championship during a television interview.
Terkel received his nickname while he was acting in a play with another person named Louis. To keep the two straight, the director of the production gave Terkel the nickname Studs after the fictional character about whom Terkel was reading at the time—Studs Lonigan, of James T. Farrell's trilogy.
Terkel was acclaimed for his efforts to preserve American oral history. His 1985 book "The Good War": An Oral History of World War Two, which detailed ordinary peoples' accounts of the country's involvement in World War II, won the Pulitzer Prize. For Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression, Terkel assembled recollections of the Great Depression that spanned the socioeconomic spectrum, from Okies, through prison inmates, to the wealthy. His 1974 book, Working, in which (as reflected by its subtitle) People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do, also was highly acclaimed. Working was made into a short-lived Broadway show of the same title in 1978 and was telecast on PBS in 1982. In 1995, he received the Chicago History Museum "Making History Award" for Distinction in Journalism and Communications. In 1997, Terkel was elected a member of The American Academy of Arts and Letters. Two years later, he received the George Polk Career Award in 1999.
Later life
In 2004, Terkel received the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award as well as an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Colby College. In August 2005, Terkel underwent successful open-heart surgery. At the age of ninety-three, he was one of the oldest people to undergo this form of surgery and doctors reported his recovery to be remarkable for someone of that advanced age. Terkel smoked two cigars a day until 2004.
On May 22, 2006, Terkel, along with other plaintiffs, including Quentin Young, filed suit in federal district court against AT&T Inc., to stop the telecommunications carrier from giving customer telephone records to the National Security Agency without a court order.
The lawsuit was dismissed by Judge Matthew F. Kennelly on July 26, 2006. Judge Kennelly cited a "state secrets privilege" designed to protect national security from being harmed by lawsuits.
In an interview in The Guardian celebrating his 95th birthday, Terkel discussed his own "diverse and idiosyncratic taste in music, from Bob Dylan to Alexander Frey, Louis Armstrong to Woody Guthrie".
Terkel published a new personal memoir entitled Touch and Go in fall 2007.
Terkel was a self-described agnostic, which he jokingly defined as "a cowardly atheist" during a 2004 interview with Krista Tippett on American Public Media's Speaking of Faith.
One of his last interviews was for the documentary Soul of a People on Smithsonian Channel. He spoke about his participation in the Works Progress Administration.
At his last public appearance, in 2007, Terkel said he was "still in touch—but ready to go". He gave one of his last interviews on the BBC Hardtalk program on February 4, 2008. He spoke of the imminent election of Barack Obama as President of the United States, and offered him some advice, in October 2008.
Terkel died in his Chicago home on Friday, October 31, 2008, at the age of 96. He had been suffering since a fall in his home earlier that month.
Legacy and audio recordings
In 1998, Terkel and WFMT, the radio station which broadcast Terkel's long-running program, donated approximately 7,000 tape recordings of Terkel's interviews and broadcasts to the Chicago History Museum.
In 2010, the Chicago History Museum and the Library of Congress announced a multi-year joint collaboration to digitally preserve and make available at both institutions these recordings, which the Library of Congress called, "a remarkably rich history of the ideas and perspectives of both common and influential people living in the second half of the 20th century." "For Studs, there was not a voice that should not be heard, a story that could not be told," said Gary T. Johnson, Museum president. "He believed that everyone had the right to be heard and had something important to say. He was there to listen, to chronicle, and to make sure their stories are remembered."
In 2014 WFMT and the Chicago History Museum announced the creation of the website, Studsterkel.org (see studsterkel.wfmt.com), which will house the entire archive of Studs Terkel interviews.
On Sept. 5, 2019, podcast The Radio Diaries, produced by Radiotopia on PRX, released an episode called "The Working Tapes of Studs Terkel." In it, Terkel's taped interviews with working people are played and examined.
Awards and honors
In 1982, Terkel was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Illinois at Chicago.
In 1985, Terkel received the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for his book The Good War.
President Clinton awarded Terkel the National Humanities Medal in 1997.
The National Book Foundation awarded Terkel the 1997 Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters.
In 2001, Terkel was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame as a Friend of the Community.
In 2004, Terkel was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the State's highest honor) by the Governor of Illinois in the area of Communications.
In 2006, Terkel received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Dayton Literary Peace Prize, the first and only annual U.S. literary award recognizing the power of the written word to promote peace.
In 2010, Terkel was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.
Terkel was a recipient of a George Polk Career Award and the National Book Critics Circle 2003 Ivan Sandrof Lifetime Achievement Award.
Terkel, despite not being black, was inducted into the Hall of Fame of Black Writers at the insistence of Haki Madhubuti.
Selected works
Articles
"Servants of the State: Speaking truth to power: an interview with Daniel Ellsberg, Tony Russo and Eqbab Ahmed." Harper's Magazine, vol. 244, no. 1461 (Feb. 1972), pp. 52+.
"Women at Work." Ramparts Magazine (Apr. 1974), pp. 38-44.
Books
Giants of Jazz (1957).
Division Street: America (1967)
Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression (1970)
Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (1974).
Talking to Myself: A Memoir of My Times (1973, reprinted 1977)
American Dreams: Lost and Found (1983)
The Good War (1984)
Chicago (1986)
The Great Divide: Second Thoughts on the American Dream (1988)
Race: What Blacks and Whites Think and Feel About the American Obsession (1992).
Coming of Age: The Story of Our Century by Those Who've Lived It (1995)
My American Century (1997)
The Spectator: Talk About Movies and Plays With Those Who Make Them (1999)
Will the Circle Be Unbroken: Reflections on Death, Rebirth and Hunger for a Faith (2001)
Hope Dies Last: Keeping the Faith in Difficult Times (2003)
And They All Sang: Adventures of an Eclectic Disc Jockey (2005)
Touch and Go (2007)
P.S. Further Thoughts from a Lifetime of Listening (2008)
References
External links
in 1985
Portrait of Louis "Studs" Terkel seated at a restaurant table in Los Angeles, California, 1970. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
1912 births
2008 deaths
American agnostics
American male journalists
20th-century American memoirists
American radio journalists
Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients
Culture of Chicago
Accidental deaths from falls
Historians of the United States
Jewish American male actors
Jewish agnostics
Jewish American writers
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Oral historians
Pulitzer Prize winners
Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction winners
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Radio personalities from Chicago
Writers from Chicago
University of Chicago Law School alumni
Works Progress Administration workers
People of the New Deal arts projects
National Humanities Medal recipients
Jazz writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Vaudeville performers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers | [
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235412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20anthem%20of%20Guatemala | National anthem of Guatemala | The national anthem of Guatemala was written by Cuban poet José Joaquín Palma and composed by in 1897, on the occasion of the Exposición Centroamericana by the government of General José María Reina Barrios.
The lyrics and score were printed for the first time in La Ilustración Guatemalteca, a culture magazine, where the author of the lyrics appeared as "Anonymous". It was not until 1910, shortly before his death, that Cuban poet and diplomat José Joaquín Palma confessed that he was the author.
BY order of President General Jorge Ubico, in 1934, some changes were made by pedagogue José María Bonilla Ruano to the lyrics of the anthem, since it was particularly warmongering and reflected more the Cuban War of Independence, in which Palma had actively participated, than the independence of Central America.
It is often erroneously titled "Guatemala Feliz!" from its opening lyrics, but it has no official name and is only referred to in the country as "Himno Nacional".
History
Origins
In 1879, the El Porvenir Literary Society unsuccessfully attempted to create a national anthem for Guatemala. In 1887, the president of Guatemala, General Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián, called for a competition to choose music that would complement the lyrics of the "" written by poet Ramón P. Molina. Distinguished composers took part in this competition, and the triumph was awarded to music presented by .
Competition organised by Reina Barrios
In 1896, the government of General José María Reina Barrios called for a new competition, "considering that Guatemala lacks a National Anthem, since the one known to this day by that name not only suffers from notable defects, but also has not been officially declared as such; and that it is convenient to provide the country with an anthem that, through its lyrics and music, responds to the lofty purposes for which all educated people lend this kind of composition." In this new competition, Rafael Álvarez Ovalle's work was chosen again, this time musicalising a poem written under the pseudonym "Anonymous".
The victory granted again to the teacher Álvarez Ovalle cost him the most bitter moments of his existence, as there was discontent among those who did not win, who even sent their complaint to the president. Reina Barrios, in the presence of the members of his cabinet, other figures and teachers of musical art, listened again to all the compositions that competed in the competition, and Álvarez Ovalle's was unanimously selected again.
With respect to the lyrics, the qualifying jury determined the following:
As can be seen, Cuban poet José Joaquín Palma was a member of the qualifying jury.
Palma's lyrics were officially adopted on 28 October 1896, while Álvarez Ovalle's music was officially adopted on 19 February 1897. The premiere of the National Anthem took place in the literary lyrical act held at the Colón Theatre on the night of Sunday, 14 March 1897, as one of the main points of the programme of celebrations of the Exposición Centroamericana, with Álvarez Ovalle being decorated with a medal of gold and diploma of honour.
Palma confesses to being the author
The author of the lyrics of the National Anthem of Guatemala remained a deep mystery until 1910, when it was discovered that its author was Cuban poet José Joaquín Palma, since he revealed on his deathbed that he was the author of the lyrics of the anthem. The government of Manuel Estrada Cabrera awarded both him and Rafael Álvarez Ovalle with gold laurel wreaths at the that year.
Lyrics
Original lyrics (1897–1934)
The original lyrics of the Guatemalan anthem written by José Joaquín Palma were warlike, since Palma was inspired more by the political situation his native Cuba was going through than that Guatemala experienced during its independence: while Central America separated from Spanish Empire peacefully, Cuba was waging a fierce war against Spain at the time Palma wrote the anthem.
Current lyrics (1934–present)
For not reflecting Guatemalan reality, Palma's lyrics were modified by Guatemalan poet and pedagogue José María Bonilla Ruano in 1934, according to the Government Decree of 26 July 1934 by the government of General Jorge Ubico Castañeda. These are the lyrics sung today.
Certifications
The National Anthem of Guatemala has been considered by Carlos Labin, a member of the Americanist Society of Paris and the Musicology Society of France, as the "most original" of all the anthems of the American continent.
Notes
References
External links
Guatemala: Himno Nacional de Guatemala - Audio of the national anthem of Guatemala, with information and lyrics (archive link)
vocal
Guatemala
Guatemalan music
National symbols of Guatemala
Spanish-language songs
National anthems
National anthem compositions in F major | [
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235414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beretta | Beretta | Fabbrica d'Armi Pietro Beretta (; "Pietro Beretta Weapon Factory") is a privately held Italian firearms manufacturing company operating in several countries. Its firearms are used worldwide for a variety of civilian, law enforcement, and military purposes. Sporting arms account for three-quarters of sales; Beretta is also known for marketing shooting clothes and accessories. Founded in the 16th century, Beretta is the oldest active manufacturer of firearm components in the world. In 1526 its inaugural product was arquebus barrels; by all accounts Beretta-made barrels equipped the Venetian fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Beretta has supplied weapons for every major European war since 1650.
History
Val Trompia, a northern Italian river valley in the Province of Brescia, Lombardy, has been mined for iron ore since the time of the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, Val Trompia was known for its ironworks; after the Renaissance it came to be a center for the manufacture of weapons. By the mid 16th century Val Trompia had forty ironworks, supplied by fifty mines and eight smelters. The birthplace of Beretta is in the village of Gardone located on the banks of the Mella river, in the middle of Val Trompia (i.e., between the upper valley and lower valley).
The Beretta forge was in operation from about 1500, although the first documented transaction is a contract dated October 3, 1526 for 185 arquebus barrels, for which the Republic of Venice was to pay 296 ducats to Maestro di Canne (master gun-barrel maker) Bartolomeo Beretta . The original account document for the order of those barrels is now stored in the Archivio di Stato di Venezia in Venice. By the end of the 17th century, Beretta had become the second largest gun barrel maker in Gardone.
Under the guild system, the knowledge of gun barrel fabrication that was bequeathed to Jacopo (1520/25 – …) from his father Bartolomeo (1490 – 1565/68) was then passed on to his own son Giovannino (1550 – post 1577), and to his grandson Giovan Antonio (1577 – post 1649) and so on until guilds were abolished by Napoleon after his conquest of Venetian Republic in 1797.
Beretta has been owned by the same family for almost five hundred years and is a founding member of Les Henokiens, an association of bicentenary companies that are family owned and operated.
In 1918, the Beretta Model 1918, one of the first submachine guns in the world, was fielded by the Italian army. Beretta manufactured rifles and pistols for the Italian military until the 1943 Armistice between Italy and the Allied forces during World War II. With the Wehrmacht's control of northern Italy, the Germans seized Beretta and continued producing arms until the 1945 German surrender in Italy. During that time, the quality of the exterior finish of the weapons diminished, with late-war examples being much inferior to both the pre-war and mid-war weapons, but their operation remained excellent. The last shipment of Type I Rifles left Venice for Japan in a U-boat in 1942.
After World War II, Beretta was actively involved in repairing the American M1 Garands given to Italy by the U.S. Beretta modified the M1 into the Beretta BM-59 rifle, which is similar to the M14 battle rifle; armourers consider the BM-59 rifle to be superior to the M14 rifle in some ways, because it is more accurate under certain conditions.
After the war, Beretta continued to develop firearms for the Italian Army and police, as well as the civilian market.
In the 1980s, Beretta enjoyed a renewal of popularity in North America after its Beretta 92 pistol was selected as the service handgun for the United States Army under the designation of "M9 pistol".
In the 1970s, Beretta also started a manufacturing plant in São Paulo, Brazil. A contract between Beretta and the Brazilian government was signed, under which Beretta produced Beretta 92s for the Brazilian Army until 1980. Later this plant was sold to Taurus, who continues to manufacture the Beretta 92 under the name of PT92 using the same tools and labour which Beretta used, without the need for a license from Beretta, since the design is based on the original Beretta 92, for which the patents are expired.
Beretta acquired several domestic competitors (notably Benelli and Franchi) and some foreign companies (notably in Finland) in the late 1980s.
Overview
Today, Fabbrica d'Armi Pietro Beretta (Beretta S.p.A.) is run by Franco Gussalli Beretta, President and CEO.
The traditional father-to-son Beretta dynasty was interrupted when Ugo Gussalli Beretta assumed the firm's control; uncles Carlo and Giuseppe Beretta were childless; Ugo married into the Beretta family and adopted the last name Beretta. His sons are now direct descendants through their mother's side of the family.
Beretta is known for its broad range of firearms: side-by-side shotguns, over-and-under shotguns, semi-automatic shotguns, hunting rifles, express rifles, assault rifles, submachine guns, lever- and bolt-action rifles, single- and double-action revolvers and semi-automatic pistols. The parent company, Beretta Holding, also owns Beretta USA, Benelli, Franchi, SAKO, Stoeger, Tikka, Uberti, and the Burris Optics company.
The model Beretta 92FS was the primary side arm of the United States Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Air Force, designated the M9 pistol. In 1985, Beretta was chosen after a controversial competition to produce the M9, winning a contract for 500,000 pistols. A condition of the original agreement was domestic manufacturer of the M9. In 2019, the 9mm version of the SIG Sauer P320 was selected to replace the M9 throughout the US Armed Forces.
Product lines
Semi-automatic pistols
Beretta Model 1915
Beretta M1923
Beretta 418
Beretta M1934 / Beretta M1935
Beretta M1951
Beretta 70 series
Beretta 70
Beretta 71 Jaguar
Beretta 72 Jaguar
Beretta 73, 74, 75
Beretta 76
Beretta 100, 101, 102
Beretta Cheetah
Beretta 81
Beretta 84
Beretta 85
Beretta 86
Beretta 87
Beretta 89
Beretta 8000
Beretta 8000 Cougar
Beretta 8045 Cougar
Beretta Cougar Inox
Beretta Mini Cougar
Beretta 90
Beretta 9000
Beretta 9000S
Beretta 92
Beretta 90two
Beretta 92F
Beretta 92F/FS
Beretta 92FS Inox
Beretta 92FS Compact
Beretta 92FS Centurion
Beretta 92FS Brigadier
Beretta 92FS Brigadier Inox
Beretta 92G Elite 1A
Beretta 92G Elite II
Beretta 92S
Beretta 92SB
Beretta 92SB-C
Beretta 92A1
M9 pistol
Beretta 92X
Beretta 96
Beretta 96A1
Beretta Px4 Storm
Beretta Px4 Storm Compact
Beretta Px4 Storm Subcompact
Beretta U22 Neos
Beretta APX
Beretta 21 Bobcat
Beretta 21A Bobcat
Beretta 3032 Tomcat
Beretta 950 Jetfire
Beretta Nano
Beretta Pico
Revolvers
Beretta Stampede
Beretta Laramie
Shotguns
Beretta 1200
Beretta 1200 FP
Beretta 1201
Beretta 1201FP
Beretta AL390
Beretta AL391 Urika and Teknys
Beretta Tx4
Beretta Tx4 Storm
Beretta 1301
Beretta 1301 Comp
Beretta 1301 Tactical
Beretta A400
Beretta A400 Xcel
Beretta A400 Xtreme Unico
Beretta A400 Xtreme Plus
Beretta A400 Xplor Action
Beretta A 300 Outlander
Beretta A 350 Outlander
Beretta SO4, SO5 and SO6
Beretta Xtrema
Beretta Xtrema 2
Beretta Model A series
Beretta UGB25 Xcel
Beretta Folder
Beretta Urika
Beretta Urika 2
Beretta RS 202-M2
Beretta LTLX7000
Beretta 470 Silver Hawk
Beretta 682
Berreta 692
Beretta DT-10
Beretta DT-11
Beretta Silver Pigeon
Beretta bellmonte due
Rifles and carbines
Beretta BM-59
Beretta 501 (sporting rifle)
Beretta Rx4 Storm
Beretta Cx4 Storm
Beretta BRX1 straight-pull bolt-action rifle
Assault Rifles
Beretta AR70/90
Beretta AS70/90
Beretta AR-70/223
Beretta ARX 160
Beretta ARX 200
Submachine guns
Beretta Model 1918
Beretta Model 38
Beretta Model 38A
Beretta Model 38/42
Beretta Model 38/44
Beretta Model 3 – a postwar modification of the 38/42
Beretta M12 series
Beretta PMX
Beretta Mx4 Storm
Machine pistols
Beretta M951R
Beretta 93R
Grenade launchers
Beretta GLX-160 (underbarrel grenade launcher for the Beretta ARX160)
See also
Beretta Holding
List of modern armament manufacturers
List of oldest companies
References
Further reading
External links
1526 establishments in Italy
Companies established in the 16th century
Defence companies of Italy
Firearm manufacturers of Italy
Henokiens companies
Italian brands
Multinational companies headquartered in Italy
Organizations established in the 1520s | [
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235418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethal%20Weapon | Lethal Weapon | Lethal Weapon is a 1987 American buddy cop action film directed and co-produced by Richard Donner, written by Shane Black, and co-produced by Joel Silver. It stars Mel Gibson and Danny Glover alongside Gary Busey, Tom Atkins, Darlene Love, and Mitchell Ryan. In Lethal Weapon, a pair of mismatched LAPD detectives – Martin Riggs (Gibson), a former Green Beret who has become suicidal following the death of his wife, and veteran officer Roger Murtaugh (Glover) – work together as partners.
The film was released on March 6, 1987. Upon its release, Lethal Weapon grossed over $120 million (against a production budget of $15 million) and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Sound. It spawned a franchise that includes three sequels and a television series.
Plot
Following the recent death of his wife, Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) narcotics Sergeant Martin Riggs, a former Special Forces soldier, has become suicidal and erratic. Despite the protests of the police psychiatrist, the captain believes Riggs is faking his psychosis to be forcibly retired with a generous pension and partners him with fellow war veteran and Homicide Sergeant Roger Murtaugh. Riggs and Murtaugh do not get along as Murtaugh is equally dismissive of Riggs's mental state, but is eventually convinced Riggs is truly suicidal.
Murtaugh is contacted by a former Vietnam War friend, Michael Hunsaker, ostensibly to help his daughter Amanda escape her life of prostitution and pornography, but Amanda kills herself by jumping from an apartment balcony before she and Murtaugh meet. Her autopsy shows she was fatally poisoned with tainted drugs, indicating she was potentially murdered. Riggs and Murtaugh attempt to question her pimp, but are assaulted after finding drugs on the premises, forcing Riggs to kill the pimp to save Murtaugh's life. Their final lead is Dixie, a prostitute who witnessed Amanda's death, and whom the pair believe may have poisoned her. Dixie's home explodes as they arrive and her corpse is later recovered. Riggs locates components of a mercury switch explosive among the debris, a specialty explosive he recalls being used by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) mercenaries in Vietnam. The suspect is detailed by neighborhood children, who noticed he had an elite special forces tattoo similar to Riggs's. Murtaugh suspects Hunsaker is withholding information.
Riggs and Murtaugh visit Hunsaker during Amanda's funeral, where he reveals he worked for "Shadow Company", a defunct CIA paramilitary unit which secretly ran the Vietnam War out of Laos and took over the substantial heroin trade in the area from the natives. After the war, the ex-CIA agents, mercenaries, and soldiers involved reformed Shadow Company and began shipping large quantities of heroin from Asia to the United States, under the leadership of retired General Peter McAllister and his right-hand man Mr. Joshua. Hunsaker's role as a banker allowed him to make the illicit funds seem legitimate. He initially called Murtaugh to confess and turn witness against Shadow Company, and McAllister had Amanda killed in retaliation. Joshua arrives in a helicopter and shoots Hunsaker to death before escaping. Joshua later attempts to kill Riggs in a drive-by shooting, but the latter is saved by his bulletproof vest; Riggs's death is faked to give the pair an advantage.
Concerned Murtaugh knows too much, Shadow Company kidnaps his daughter Rianne and forces Murtaugh to meet them at El Mirage Lake. Riggs provides sniper support to help Murtaugh and Rianne escape, but all three are captured and recovered to a nightclub basement, a Shadow Company front. Riggs and Murtaugh are tortured for information until Riggs escapes, kills several Shadow Company members, and frees Murtaugh and Rianne. Although Joshua escapes, Murtaugh kills McAllister. Deducing Joshua will seek revenge at Murtaugh's home, Riggs and Murtaugh ambush him. Riggs defeats Joshua in a brawl but decides not to kill him. Police officers take Joshua into custody, but he breaks free, takes an officer's gun, and attempts to shoot Riggs and Murtaugh; the pair return fire, killing Joshua.
A short time later, after visiting his wife's grave, Riggs shares a Christmas Day meal with Murtaugh and his family. Riggs gifts Murtaugh a hollow-point bullet he has been saving to commit suicide, as he no longer needs it.
Cast
Production
Development
Recent UCLA graduate Shane Black wrote the screenplay in mid-1985. Black stated that his intention was to do an "urban western" inspired by Dirty Harry where a violent character "reviled for what he did, what he is capable of, the things he believed in" is eventually recruited for being the one that could solve the problem. The protagonists would be everymen policemen, "guys shuffling in a town like Los Angeles searching for something noble as justice when they're just guys in washed and worn suits seeking a paycheck".
According to Black, his original first draft of the script was very different and much darker than the final film. It was 140 pages long and both the plot and characters were different, and action scenes were also much bigger. The ending of the script contained a chase scene with helicopters and a trailer truck full of cocaine exploding over Hollywood Hills with cocaine snowing over the Hollywood sign. Black hated this first draft and initially discarded it but later picked it up again and re-wrote it into the new drafts that were eventually used for filming.
His agent sent the Lethal Weapon script to various studios, being rejected before Warner Bros. executive Mark Canton took a liking to it. Canton brought along producer Joel Silver, who loved the story and worked with Black to further develop the script. Director Richard Donner also brought in writer Jeffrey Boam to do some uncredited re-writes on Black's script after he found parts of it to be too dark. Boam mostly added some more humor into the script, and later did a complete re-write of Shane Black and Warren Murphy's rejected script for the second film. He also wrote the script for the third film and an unused draft for the fourth film.
After the script was purchased for $250,000, studio production executives offered it to director Richard Donner, who also loved it. Leonard Nimoy was one of the choices considered for directing, but he did not feel comfortable doing action films, and he was working on Three Men and a Baby at the time. With those key elements in place, the search began for the right combination of actors to play Riggs and Murtaugh.
Casting
Mel Gibson was invited by Richard Donner as he was interested in working with the actor after Ladyhawke. Casting director Marion Dougherty first suggested teaming Gibson with Danny Glover, given Murtaugh had no set ethnicity in the script. She arranged for Gibson to fly in from his home in Sydney while Glover was flown in from Chicago, where he was appearing in a play, to read through the script. According to a June 2007 Vanity Fair magazine article, Bruce Willis was considered for the Riggs role. This is referenced in the spoof of the Lethal Weapon films, Loaded Weapon 1. Bruce (as John McClane) appears after the villains attack the wrong beach residence, looking for the protagonist.
According to Donner, "It took about two hours and by the time we were done, I was in seventh heaven. They found innuendoes; they found laughter where I never saw it; they found tears where they didn't exist before; and, most importantly, they found a relationship — all in just one reading. So if you ask about casting... it was magical, just total dynamite."
Explains Gibson, "This particular story was a cut above others I had passed on, because the action is really a sideline which heightens the story of these two great characters. I picture Riggs as an almost Chaplinesque figure, a guy who doesn't expect anything from life and even toys with the idea of taking his own. He's not like these stalwarts who come down from Mt. Olympus and wreak havoc and go away. He's somebody who doesn't look like he's set to go off until he actually does."
The draw for Glover was equally strong. Fresh from his success as Mister in The Color Purple, he felt the role of Roger Murtaugh offered a whole new range of character expression and experience. "Aside from the chance to work with Mel, which turned out to be pure pleasure, one of the reasons I jumped at this project was the family aspect. The chance to play intricate relationships and subtle humor that exist in every close family group was an intriguing challenge, as was playing a guy turning 50. Murtaugh's a little cranky about his age until everything he loves is threatened. His reawakening parallels Riggs'."
Both actors were signed by early spring 1986. Gibson and Glover then flew home to pack, and, returning to Los Angeles, began an intensive two months of physical training and preparation. Meanwhile, the crucial role of Joshua was settled when Gary Busey asked for a chance to read for the part. An established star since his Academy Award-nominated performance in The Buddy Holly Story, Busey had not auditioned for a film in years. "I had butterflies," he said. "I'd never played a bad guy. And no one had seen me since I'd lost 60 pounds and got back into shape. But I decided to take the initiative in order to have the opportunity to work with Dick, Joel, Mel, and Danny. I'm constantly looking for someone to pull the best performance out of me and any of those guys could. They even talked me into dyeing my hair!" In his E! True Hollywood Story biography, Busey says he was hired to play Joshua because they were looking for someone big and menacing enough to be a believable foe for Mel Gibson. Busey also credits the film for reviving his failing film career.
Pre-production
Stunt coordinator Bobby Bass planned and supervised all phases of Gibson's and Glover's intense pre-production training; physical conditioning, weight workouts, and weapons handling and safety. Bass also used his own military experiences to bring a greater depth of understanding to the Riggs character. To familiarize the actors with the specialized skills and sensibilities acquired by undercover cops, arrangements were made for Gibson and Glover to spend time in the field accompanying working L.A.P.D. officers. Throughout filming, technical advisers from the L.A.P.D. as well as the L.A. County Sheriff's Department worked closely with Donner and the actors to ensure authenticity.
Cedric Adams was the first technical adviser brought in. "Adams thought the best possible way to show just how lethal Riggs really is — is to show his mastery of a form of martial arts never before seen onscreen," said Donner. Donner wanted Riggs's style of fighting to be unique with the second assistant director Willie Simmons, who was interested in unusual forms of martial arts, choosing three martial arts styles. Gibson and Busey were instructed in Capoeira by Adams, Jailhouse rock by Dennis Newsome and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu by Rorion Gracie. Bobby Bass, the stunt coordinator, a former US Army Special Forces instructor and judo champion, also provided training in various techniques. At one point, the actors trained in between filming, for four hours a day for six weeks and did months of choreography.
Music
Michael Kamen, who just completed work on Highlander, composed the score for Lethal Weapon. Editor Stuart Baird had used Edge of Darkness heavily as a temp score for the film, resulting in Kamen being brought on to create the score. The guitar part of Riggs's theme was performed by Eric Clapton. Kamen and Clapton had worked together on the music for the 1985 BBC TV series Edge of Darkness (the feature adaptation of which would later, by coincidence, star Mel Gibson). The saxophone part of Murtaugh's theme was performed by David Sanborn. The Christmas song "Jingle Bell Rock", performed by Bobby Helms, is played during the film's opening credits. Honeymoon Suite's song, "Lethal Weapon," is played during the film's end credits without being credited.
Release
Awards
Released on March 6, 1987, Lethal Weapon was 1 at the box office for three weeks before Blind Date supplanted it. It grossed $120.2 million worldwide and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing (Les Fresholtz, Dick Alexander, Vern Poore and Bill Nelson) (losing to The Last Emperor). It is widely considered to be one of the best buddy cop films of all time, influencing numerous "buddy cop" films such as Hot Fuzz, Tango & Cash, Bad Boys and the Rush Hour series.
Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 80% based on 56 reviews, with an average rating of 6.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The most successful installment in a phenomenally successful franchise, Lethal Weapon helped redefine action movies for the 1980s and 1990s." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Variety wrote, "Lethal Weapon is a film teetering on the brink of absurdity when it gets serious, but thanks to its unrelenting energy and insistent drive, it never quite falls." Richard Schickel of Time called it "Mad Max meets The Cosby Show", saying that it works better than expected. Richard Harrington of The Washington Post described it as "a vivid, visceral reminder of just how exciting an action film can be". At The New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote, "The film is all fast action, noisy stunts and huge, often unflattering close-ups, but it packs an undeniable wallop." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four out of four stars, saying Donner "tops himself".
Home media
Lethal Weapon has been released on Betamax, VHS and DVD numerous times, along with a single Blu-ray Disc release. The first DVD was released in 1997 and featured the film's theatrical version. The Director's Cut was released in 2000. Since then, numerous sets have been released that contain all four films in the series (featuring the same DVDs). The theatrical version was also released on Blu-ray in 2006.
Alternate versions
An alternate opening and ending were both filmed and can be seen on the Lethal Weapon 4 DVD. The alternate opening featured Martin Riggs drinking alone in a bar where he is accosted by a couple of thugs who attack him for his money, but are easily subdued by Riggs. Director Richard Donner felt the film should open with a brighter look at Riggs, and replaced the bar scene with the scene in which Riggs awakens in his trailer. The alternate ending featured Riggs telling Murtaugh not to retire. Without even thinking about the possibility of sequels, Donner decided that Riggs and Murtaugh's relationship is one of friendship, and filmed the ending that appears in the completed film.
In addition to the film's theatrical release, an extended Director's Cut version was released later on DVD. The Director's Cut version is longer (117 minutes) than the original theatrical release version (110 minutes), and features additional scenes. One extended scene depicts Riggs dispatching a sniper who had been firing at children in a playground. In another scene, Riggs picks up a street-walking prostitute, but instead of having sex with her, he takes her home to watch The Three Stooges on TV, thus illustrating his loneliness following the death of his wife.
Reboot
On January 19, 2011, Warner Bros. announced plans to reboot the Lethal Weapon franchise without Gibson and Glover. The new franchise was set to feature the same characters but a brand new cast. Will Beall was hired to write the script, but it was eventually cancelled. A television version premiered in September 2016 on Fox starring Clayne Crawford as Martin Riggs, Damon Wayans as Roger Murtaugh, and Thomas Lennon as Leo Getz.
References
External links
1980s buddy cop films
1987 films
American buddy cop films
American police detective films
1980s English-language films
Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department
Films about United States Army Special Forces
Films directed by Richard Donner
Films produced by Joel Silver
Films scored by Eric Clapton
Films scored by Michael Kamen
Films set in Los Angeles
Films with screenplays by Shane Black
Silver Pictures films
Warner Bros. films | [
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235419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutropenia | Neutropenia | Neutropenia is an abnormally low concentration of neutrophils (a type of white blood cell) in the blood. Neutrophils make up the majority of circulating white blood cells and serve as the primary defense against infections by destroying bacteria, bacterial fragments and immunoglobulin-bound viruses in the blood. People with neutropenia are more susceptible to bacterial infections and, without prompt medical attention, the condition may become life-threatening (neutropenic sepsis).
Neutropenia can be divided into congenital and acquired, with severe congenital neutropenia (SCN) and cyclic neutropenia (CyN) being autosomal dominant and mostly caused by heterozygous mutations in the ELANE gene (neutrophil elastase). Neutropenia can be acute (temporary) or chronic (long lasting). The term is sometimes used interchangeably with "leukopenia" ("deficit in the number of white blood cells").
Decreased production of neutrophils is associated with deficiencies of vitamin B12 and folic acid, aplastic anemia, tumors, drugs, metabolic disease, nutritional deficiency and immune mechanisms. In general, the most common oral manifestations of neutropenia include ulcer, gingivitis, and periodontitis. Agranulocytosis can be presented as whitish or greyish necrotic ulcer in oral cavity, without any sign of inflammation. Acquired agranulocytosis is much more common than the congenital form. The common causes of acquired agranulocytosis including drugs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antiepileptics, antithyroid and antibiotics) and viral infection. Agranulocytosis has a mortality rate of 7–10%. To manage this, the application of granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) or granulocyte transfusion and the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics to protect against bacterial infections are recommended.
Signs and symptoms
Signs and symptoms of neutropenia include fever, painful swallowing, gingival pain, skin abscesses, and otitis. These symptoms may exist because individuals with neutropenia often have infection.
Children may show signs of irritability and poor feeding. Additionally, hypotension has also been observed in individuals who suffer from this condition.
Causes
The causes of neutropenia can be divided between problems that are transient and those that are chronic. Causes can be divided into these groups:
Severe bacterial infections, especially in people with underlying hematological diseases or alcoholism, can deplete neutrophil reserves and lead to neutropenia. Gram-positive bacteria are present in 60–70% of bacterial infections. There are serious concerns regarding antibiotic-resistant organisms. These would include as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE).
Nutritional deficiencies, such as deficiency in vitamin B12, folate, copper or protein-calorie malnutrition are associated with chronic neutropenia. However, nutritional deficiencies are usually associated with decreases in other cell lines (multiple cytopenia or pancytopenia) rather than isolated neutropenia.
Other causes of congenital neutropenia are Shwachman–Diamond syndrome, Cyclic neutropenia, bone marrow failure syndromes, cartilage–hair hypoplasia, reticular dysgenesis, and Barth syndrome. Viruses that infect neutrophil progenitors can also be the cause of neutropenia. Viruses identified that have an effect on neutrophils are rubella and cytomegalovirus. Though the body can manufacture a normal level of neutrophils, in some cases the destruction of excessive numbers of neutrophils can lead to neutropenia. These are:
Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of neutropenia can be divided into congenital and acquired. The congenital neutropenia (severe and cyclic type) is autosomal dominant, with mutations in the ELA2 gene (neutrophil elastase) as the most common genetic reason for this condition. Acquired neutropenia (immune-associated neutropenia) is due to anti-neutrophil antibodies that target neutrophil-specific antigens, ultimately altering neutrophil function. Furthermore, emerging research suggests neutropenia without an identifiable etiology (idiopathic neutropenia) may be the result of a low-grade, chronic inflammatory process with an abnormal excessive production of myelosuppressive cytokines in a study conducted in the island of Crete.
Neutropenia fever can complicate the treatment of cancers. Observations of children noted that fungal infections are more likely to develop in those with neutropenia. Mortality increases during cancer treatments if neutropenia is also present.
Congenital neutropenia is determined by blood neutrophil counts (absolute neutrophil counts or ANC) < 0.5 × 10/L and recurrent bacterial infections beginning very early in childhood.Congenital neutropenia is related to alloimmunization, sepsis, maternal hypertension, twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome, and Rh hemolytic disease.
Diagnosis
Neutropenia can be the result of a variety of consequences, including from certain types of drugs, environmental toxins, vitamin deficiencies, metabolic abnormalities, as well as cancer or infections. Neutropenia itself is a rare entity, but can be clinically common in oncology and immunocompromised individuals as a result of chemotherapy (drug-induced neutropenia). Additionally, acute neutropenia can be commonly seen from people recovering from a viral infection or in a post-viral state. Meanwhile, several subtypes of neutropenia exist which are rarer and chronic, including acquired (idiopathic) neutropenia, cyclic neutropenia, autoimmune neutropenia, and congenital neutropenia.
Neutropenia that is developed in response to chemotherapy typically becomes evident in seven to fourteen days after treatment, this period is known as the Nadir . Conditions that indicate the presence of neutropenic fever are implanted devices; leukemia induction; the compromise of mucosal, mucociliary and cutaneous barriers; a rapid decline in absolute neutrophil count, duration of neutropenia >7–10 days, and other illnesses that exist in the patient.
Signs of infection can be subtle. Fevers are a common and early observation. Sometimes overlooked is the presence of hypothermia, which can be present in sepsis. Physical examination and accessing the history and physical examination is focused on sites of infection. Indwelling line sites, areas of skin breakdown, sinuses, nasopharynx, bronchi and lungs, alimentary tract, and skin are assessed.
The diagnosis of neutropenia is done via the low neutrophil count detection on a complete blood count. Generally, other investigations are required to arrive at the right diagnosis. When the diagnosis is uncertain, or serious causes are suspected, bone marrow biopsy may be necessary. A bone marrow biopsy can identify abnormalities in myelopoesis contributing to neutropenia such as the stage of arrest in the development of myeloid progenitor cells. Bone marrow biopsies can also be used to monitor the development of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) or acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in patients with chronic neutropenia (especially in those with severe congenital neutropenia (SCN) which carries a higher risk of MDS and AML)). Other investigations commonly performed: serial neutrophil counts for suspected cyclic neutropenia, tests for antineutrophil antibodies, autoantibody screen (and investigations for systemic lupus erythematosus), vitamin B12 and folate assays. Rectal examinations are usually not performed due to the increased risk of introducing bacteria into the blood stream and the possible development of rectal abscesses.
Classification
Generally accepted reference range for absolute neutrophil count (ANC) in adults is 1500 to 8000 cells per microliter (µl) of blood. Three general guidelines are used to classify the severity of neutropenia based on the ANC (expressed below in cells/µl):
Mild neutropenia (1000 <= ANC < 1500): minimal risk of infection
Moderate neutropenia (500 <= ANC < 1000): moderate risk of infection
Severe neutropenia (ANC < 500): severe risk of infection.
Each of these are either derived from laboratory tests or via the formula below:
ANC =
Treatment
A fever, when combined with profound neutropenia (febrile neutropenia), is considered a medical emergency and requires broad spectrum antibiotics. An absolute neutrophil count less than 200 is also considered a medical emergency and almost always requires hospital admission and initiation of broad spectrum antibiotics with selection of specific antibiotics based on local resistance patterns.
Precautions to avoid opportunistic infections in those with chronic neutropenia include maintaining proper soap and water hand hygiene, good dental hygiene and avoiding highly contaminated sources that may contain a large fungal reservoirs such as mulch, construction sites and bird or other animal waste.
Neutropenia can be treated with the hematopoietic growth factor granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF). These are cytokines that are present naturally in the body. The factors promote neutrophil recovery following anticancer therapy or in chronic neutropenia. Recombinant G-CSF factor preparations, such as filgrastim can be effective in people with congenital forms of neutropenia including severe congenital neutropenia and cyclic neutropenia; the amount needed (dosage) to stabilize the neutrophil count varies considerably (depending on the individual's condition). Guidelines for neutropenia regarding diet are currently being studied. Those who have chronic neutropenia and fail to respond to G-CSF or who have an increased risk of developing MDS or AML (due to increased dosage requirements of G-CSF or having abnormal precursor cells in the bone marrow) often require hematopoietic stem cell transplantation as a treatment.
Most cases of neonatal neutropenia are temporary. Antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended because of the possibility of encouraging the development of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains.
These are cytokines that are present naturally in the body. The factors promote neutrophil recovery following anticancer therapy.
The administration of intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIGs) has had some success in treating neutropenias of alloimmune and autoimmune origins with a response rate of about 50%. Blood transfusions have not been effective.
Patients with neutropenia caused by cancer treatment can be given antifungal drugs. A Cochrane review found that lipid formulations of amphotericin B had fewer side effects than conventional amphotericin B, though it is not clear whether there are particular advantages over conventional amphotericin B if given under optimal circumstances. Another Cochrane review was not able to detect a difference in effect between amphotericin B and fluconazole because available trial data analysed results in a way that disfavoured amphotericin B.
Trilaciclib, a CDK4/6 inhibitor, administered approximately thirty minutes before chemotherapy, has been shown in three clinical trials to significantly reduce the occurrence of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia and the associated need for interventions such as the administration of G-CSF’s. The drug is currently under review by the FDA for use in small cell lung cancer with a decision expected by February 15, 2021.
Prognosis
If left untreated, people with fever and absolute neutrophil count <500 have a mortality of up to 70% within 24 hours. The prognosis of neutropenia depends on the cause. Antibiotic agents have improved the prognosis for individuals with severe neutropenia. Neutropenic fever in individuals treated for cancer has a mortality of 4–30%.
Epidemiology
Neutropenia is usually detected shortly after birth, affecting 6% to 8% of all newborns in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Out of the approximately 600,000 neonates annually treated in NICUs in the United States, 48,000 may be diagnosed as neutropenic. The incidence of neutropenia is greater in premature infants. Six to fifty-eight percent of preterm neonates are diagnosed with this auto-immune disease. The incidence of neutropenia correlates with decreasing birth weight. The disorder is seen up to 38% in infants that weigh less than 1000g, 13% in infants weighing less than 2500g, and 3% of term infants weighing more than 2500 g. Neutropenia is often temporary, affecting most newborns in only first few days after birth. In others, it becomes more severe and chronic indicating a deficiency in innate immunity.
Furthermore, the prevalence of chronic neutropenia in the general public is rare. In a study conducted in Denmark, over 370,000 people were assessed for the presence of neutropenia. Results published demonstrated only 1% of those evaluated were neutropenic, and were commonly seen in those suffering from HIV, viral infections, acute leukemias, and myelodysplastic syndromes. The study concluded the presence of neutropenia is an ominous sign that warrants further investigation and follow-up.
See also
Pancytopenia
Thrombocytopenia
References
External links
Monocyte and granulocyte disorders
Blood
Blood disorders
Leukocytes
Autoimmune diseases | [
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235423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Torch | Human Torch | The Human Torch (Jonathan "Johnny" Storm) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a founding member of the Fantastic Four. He is writer Stan Lee's and artist Jack Kirby's reinvention of a similar, previous character, the android Human Torch of the same name and powers who was created in 1939 by writer-artist Carl Burgos for Marvel Comics' predecessor company, Timely Comics.
Like the rest of the Fantastic Four, Johnny gained his powers on a spacecraft bombarded by cosmic rays. He can engulf his entire body in flames, fly, absorb fire harmlessly into his own body, and control any nearby fire by sheer force of will. "Flame on!", which the Torch customarily shouts when activating his full-body flame effect, has become his catchphrase. The youngest of the group, he is brash and impetuous in comparison to his reticent, overprotective and compassionate older sister, Susan Storm, his sensible brother-in-law, Reed Richards, and the grumbling Ben Grimm. In the early 1960s, he starred in a series of solo adventures, published in Strange Tales. The Human Torch is also a friend and frequent ally of the superhero Spider-Man, who is approximately the same age.
In films, the Human Torch has been portrayed by Jay Underwood in the unreleased 1994 film The Fantastic Four; Chris Evans in the 2005 film Fantastic Four, and its 2007 sequel Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer; and Michael B. Jordan in the 2015 film Fantastic Four.
Publication history
Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby, Johnny Storm is a renovation of Carl Burgos's original character, the android Human Torch, created for Timely Comics in 1939. Storm first appeared in The Fantastic Four #1 (cover-dated Nov. 1961), establishing him as a member of the titular superhero team. In his plot summary for this first issue, Lee passed on to Kirby that the recently formed Comics Code Authority had told him that the Human Torch was only permitted to burn objects, never people. Over the course of the series, Johnny being the little brother of teammate Susan Storm a.k.a. the Invisible Girl was one of several sources of tension within the group.
Additionally, he starred in a solo feature in Strange Tales #101-134 (Oct. 1962 – July 1965). An eight-issue series, The Human Torch (Sept. 1974 – Nov. 1975), reprinted stories from that solo feature, along with stories featuring the original android Human Torch. Later years also saw a 12-issue series, Human Torch (June 2003 - June 2004) by writer Karl Kesel and penciler Skottie Young, and the five-issue team-up miniseries Spider-Man / Human Torch (March–July 2005) by writer Dan Slott and penciler Ty Templeton.
The Human Torch was originally the permanent co-star of Marvel Team-Up, but was dropped after three issues because the creators found this format too restrictive. He co-starred in two one-shot comics, Spider-Man & the Human Torch in... Bahia De Los Muertos! #1 (May 2009), by writer Tom Beland and artist Juan Doe,<ref>[http://www.comics.org/series/40949/ Spider-Man & the Human Torch in... Bahia De Los Muertos!'] at the Grand Comics Database.</ref> and Incredible Hulk & the Human Torch: From the Marvel Vault #1, a previously unpublished story from 1984, originally intended for Marvel Team-Up by plotter Jack C. Harris, scriptwriter and artist Kesel, and breakdown artist Steve Ditko.
Fictional character biography
Early life
Growing up in Glenville, New York, a fictional Long Island suburban town, Johnny Storm lost his mother due to a car accident from which his father, surgeon Franklin Storm, escaped unharmed. Franklin Storm spiraled into alcoholism and financial ruin, and was imprisoned after killing a loan shark in self-defense. Johnny Storm was then raised by his older sister, Sue Storm.
At 16, Storm joined his sister and her fiancé, Reed Richards, in a space flight in which cosmic radiation transformed those three and spacecraft pilot Ben Grimm into superpowered beings who would become the celebrated superhero team the Fantastic Four. Storm, with the ability to become a flaming human with the power of flight and the ability to project fire, dubs himself the Human Torch, in tribute to the World War II-era hero of that name. In The Fantastic Four #4, it is Storm who discovers an amnesiac hobo whom he helps regain his memory as the antihero Namor the Sub-Mariner, one of the three most popular heroes of Marvel Comics' 1940s forerunner, Timely Comics, returning him to modern continuity.
Though a member of a world-famous team, Storm still lived primarily in Glenville and attended Glenville High School. Here he thought he maintained a secret identity, although his fellow townsfolk were well aware of his being a member of the Fantastic Four and simply humored him. This series introduced what would become the recurring Fantastic Four foes the Wizard and Paste-Pot Pete, later known as the Trapster. In Storm's home life, Mike Snow, a member of the high-school wrestling squad, bullied Storm until an accidental flare-up of the Torch's powers scarred Snow's face. Storm dated fellow student Dorrie Evans, although she eventually grew tired of his constant disappearances and broke off their relationship.
College
After graduating high school, Storm enrolled at New York City's Metro College. There he befriended his roommate Wyatt Wingfoot. He also met the original Human Torch of the 1930s and 1940s. Around this time, Storm met and fell in love with Crystal, a member of the superpowered race the Inhumans. After their relationship ended, Crystal returned to her native city of Attilan and eventually married the superhero Quicksilver, Storm, crushed, attempted to move on, finding that his high-school girlfriend, Dorrie Evans, had married and had two children. Storm dropped out of college but remained friends with Wingfoot, who often participated in the Fantastic Four's adventures.
Storm eventually began a romance with who he thought was Alicia Masters but was eventually revealed to be an alien from the shapeshifting Skrull race, Lyja, posing as Masters. In the interim, they married. Storm later discovers "Alicia's" true identity, and that Lyja is pregnant with his child. He then witnessed Lyja's apparent death and rescued the real Alicia from the Skrulls.
Storm briefly joined his nephew Franklin Richards' Fantastic Force team, where he battled his otherdimensional counterpart, Vangaard (formerly Gaard). Lyja posed as student Laura Green and dated Storm to stay close to him; Storm recognized her when they kissed, though he did not reveal this to her until later.
Outside career and anti-registration movement
Seeking an acting career, Storm was cast as the Old West hero the Rawhide Kid, but producers reconsidered and gave the role to Lon Zelig (actually the alien Super-Skrull). After working mostly in some television shows, Storm also spent some time as a firefighter at the behest of his former classmate, Mike Snow, but when Snow moved away after his wife turned out to be a psychopathic arsonist and seemingly died, Storm left the job. He later returned to the profession during a period when the Fantastic Four was short on cash. Frustrated with her brother's directionless life and near-disastrous pranksterism, his sister compelled him to become chief financial officer for the Fantastic Four, Inc. Infighting and betrayal resulted in a near-catastrophe, ending Storm's position.
After a major battle with the supervillain and dictator Doctor Doom, Fantastic Four leader Reed Richards attempted to claim Doom's Latveria for the Fantastic Four, an act that alienated the United States government and his own team. This led to team-member Ben Grimm's apparent death and the Fantastic Four's subsequent dispersal. Storm took to fixing cars for a living. Grimm later was revealed to be alive. Over the Internet, Storm meets a young woman, Cole, whom he learns is the daughter of one of the Fantastic Four's oldest enemies, the Wizard; after a confrontation with that supervillain, who escaped with Cole, Storm remained hopeful of meeting her again. For a time, Storm became the Herald of the powerful cosmic being Galactus, becoming the Invisible Boy after switching powers with his sister and teammate, Susan Richards, the Invisible Woman.
During the 2006–2007 "Civil War" company-wide crossover, in which the superpowered community is split over the Superhuman Registration Act, which required them to register with, and become agents of, the US government, Storm and his sister allied with the underground rebels, the Secret Avengers. Shortly afterward, during the "Secret Invasion" company-wide crossover, the shape-shifting extraterrestrial Skrulls intensified their clandestine infiltration of Earth. Storm was briefly reunited with his former Skrull girlfriend, Lyja. Though part of the invading force, she finds she still has some feelings for him, and does not carry out her mission of sabotage. She returns to her people, unsure of herself and of any future relationship.
Death and return
In the conclusion of the 2011 "Three" storyline, in Fantastic Four #587 (March 2011), the Human Torch appears to die fighting a horde of aliens from the otherdimensional Negative Zone. The series ended with the following issue, #588, and relaunched in March 2011 as simply FF.Ching, Albert. "Hickman Details FANTASTIC FOUR #587's Big Character Death", Newsarama, 25 January 2011 Spider-Man, one of Storm's friends, took his place on the team, as requested in the Torch's will.
It is later revealed that the Human Torch was revived by a species of insect-like creatures that were implanted in his body by Annihilus in an attempt to force Storm to help open the Negative Zone portal. Storm eventually escapes, and Richards determines Storm was on the other side of the portal for two years from his perspective.
Human Torch becomes an ambassador within Inhuman society and joins Steve Rogers's Avengers Unity Squad and helps Rogue in incinerating the telepathic portions of Professor Xavier's brains, thus unknowingly preventing Hydra from using it for their secret empire.Uncanny Avengers, vol. 3, #22 He becomes a multi-billionaire when he inherits Reed Richards' and Sue Storms' wealth and uses the money for rebuilding the Avengers Mansion and philanthropy. He is seemingly annihilated when he grabs a cosmic object called Pyramoids during the fight between the Lethal Legion and the Black Order in Peru, but is restored after Living Lightning wins a high stakes poker game versus the Grandmaster.
To help Thing cope with Mister Fantastic and Invisible Woman's disappearance, Human Torch takes him on a journey through the Multiverse using the Multisect in order to find them. They have not been able to find Mister Fantastic and Invisible Woman as they return to Earth-616 empty-handed. Human Torch and Thing were reunited with Mister Fantastic and Invisible Woman to help alongside other superheroes who were part of Fantastic Four (including surprisingly X-Men's Iceman) fight the Griever at the End of All Things after Mister Fantastic persuaded the Griever to let him summon Thing and Human Torch. As Thing and his teammates finally return to 616, while Future Foundation stays behind to keep learning multiverse, Thing reveals to them that he proposed to Alicia and are about to get married soon. Although the Baxter Building is now owned by a new superhero team Fantastix, Thing allows his teammates to use his hometown Yancy Street as their current operation base.
Romance
The Human Torch has been involved in several romantic relationships throughout the years, including, but not limited to, the Inhuman Crystal, member-in-training and future Galactus herald Frankie Raye, the Skrull agent Lyja disguised as Alicia Masters, the Atlantean Namorita, Inhuman Medusa, and X-Men member Rogue.
Crystal dissolved her relationship with him due to the adverse effects of pollution within population centers of Homo sapiens. Frankie Raye ended her relationship with him when she accepted Galactus' offer to become his newest herald.
Lyja, while in the disguise of the Thing's former girlfriend Alicia Masters, carried on a long-term relationship including marriage with the Torch, until it was revealed that her true nature was as a Skrull double agent. Although the two attempted reconciliation after it was learned that their "child" was actually an implanted weapon to be used against the Fantastic Four, they ultimately parted on less than favorable terms.
Torch's brief relationship with Namorita lasted until he pursued a career in Hollywood. It is suggested that he had a short relationship with his Uncanny Avengers/Unity Squad leader Rogue, following which he had a rebound relationship with Medusa (Crystal's sister). At first it seemed as if he and Rogue resumed their relationship, which was considered as an open secret, however this relationship came to an end after his apparent death and when Rogue rekindled her relationship with Gambit. He has also had relationships with civilian women.
Powers and abilities
Johnny Storm gained a number of superhuman powers as a result of the mutagenic effects of the cosmic radiation he was exposed to, all of which are related to fire. His primary ability to envelop his body in fiery plasma without harm to himself, in which form he is able to fly by providing thrust behind himself with his own flame, and to generate powerful streams and/or balls of flame. He can also manipulate his flame in such a way as to shape it into rings and other forms, such as a fiery duplicate of himself that he can remotely control. Even when not engulfed in flame himself, Storm has the ability to control any fire within his immediate range of vision, causing it to increase or decrease in intensity or to move in a pattern directed by his thoughts. Additionally, he is able to absorb fire/plasma into his body with no detrimental effects.
The plasma field immediately surrounding his body is hot enough to vaporize projectiles that approach him, including bullets. He does not generally extend this flame-aura beyond a few inches from his skin, so as not to ignite nearby objects. Storm refers to his maximum flame output as his "nova flame", which he can release omnidirectionally. Flame of any temperature lower than this cannot burn or harm the Torch. This "nova" effect can occur spontaneously when he absorbs an excessive amount of heat, although he can momentarily suppress the release when necessary, with considerable effort.
Storm has demonstrated enough control with fire that he can safely shave another's hair, or hold a person while in his flame form without his passenger feeling discomforting heat. His knowledge extends to general information about fire as well, supported by regular visits to fire-safety lectures at various firehouses in New York. In one instance when poisoned, Storm superheated his blood to burn the toxin out.
Storm's ability to ignite himself is limited by the quantity of oxygen in his environment, and his personal flame has been extinguished by sufficient quantities of water, flame retardant foam, and vacuum environments. He can reignite instantly once oxygen is returned, with no ill effects. In early stories he could only remain aflame for up to five minutes at a time, after which he would need five minutes to recharge before igniting himself again.
Storm was depicted as transmuting his body itself into living flame in the first two issues of The Fantastic Four. In all subsequent appearances, his power consists in the generation of a flaming aura.
Other versions
1602
In the Marvel 1602 universe, Jon Storm is a young hothead who has to leave London following a duel. Along with his sister, who is escaping a man she does not love, he joins Sir Richard Reed on his explorations, and is caught in the radiation of the Anomaly, turning him into a Human Torch. The Four continue their explorations until they are captured by Otto von Doom prior to the original 1602 miniseries.
At the start of the miniseries 1602: Fantastick Four, Jon has rejoined high society, and once more finds himself embroiled in a duel, this time with Lord Wingfoot, who is betrothed to the 1602 version of Doris Evans. When he is called upon to battle Otto von Doom, he kidnaps Doris and takes her with them, believing this is for her own good.
Age of Apocalypse
In the Age of Apocalypse, Johnny never becomes the Human Torch. Instead, he is among Reed Richards' crew, along with Ben Grimm as pilot and Johnny's sister Susan. Reed Richards attempts to evacuate a full contingent of refugees in his own experimental tran-ship, but a mutant saboteur interferes with the launch. Johnny and Reed sacrifice themselves to save the others from the forces of Apocalypse.
Earth-98
In Earth-98 universe, Johnny married Crystal and has a daughter named Luna and a son named Ray. He is also the leader of the Fantastic Four. He first appeared in Fantastic Four/Fantastic 4 Annual (1998).
Earth-65
In Ghost-Spider's universe, Susan and Johnny Storm went missing on a trip to Latveria. When they return to New York, they are shown twisted to evil and murderers of their own mother.
Earth-A
The Earth-A version of Johnny does not join Reed and Ben in their trip to space. He serves in the Vietnam War, where he is believed to have been killed. However, Johnny is found and saved by Arkon, who gives him superpowers and the new identity of Gaard.
Heroes Reborn
In the Heroes Reborn history of the Marvel Universe, created after a battle with Onslaught, Johnny is an owner of a popular casino and part financial backer of Reed Richards' plan to go into space. His handprint is one of two — the other being his sister's — needed for launch. His rivalry with Ben Grimm now extends into much more dangerous areas, such as a potentially deadly game of 'chicken' without thought to the life of the woman in his passenger seat.
After being attacked by agents of Doctor Doom, Johnny ends up going up into space on Reed's spacecraft prototype as he really had nowhere else to go. The entire launch base had been overtaken by enemy forces and it was miles to civilization. It is during the flight a cosmic anomaly imbues him and the others with their powers. After the crash of the prototype, Johnny would prove more reliable, recovering Reed Richards and rescuing his own sister.
House Of M
In the House of M: Iron Man limited series, Johnny Storm is a contestant on a reality game show called Sapien Death Match. He has no inherent superpowers, but wears a suit of powered armor that has a 'flame on' ability.
Marvel Mangaverse
In the Marvel Mangaverse comics, the Human Torch is portrayed by two separate characters spanning two very different continuities. The first character is a member of the Megascale Metatalent Response Team Fantastic Four on Earth-2301a and the mirror opposite of Earth-616's Johnny Storm in terms of personality. The team uses power-packs to boost their talents to manifest at mecha-sized levels in order to combat Godzilla-sized monsters that seem to constantly attack Earth. In volume two of Mangaverse, which takes place on Earth-2301b, the character of Johnny Storm has been replaced with a young woman named Jonatha Storm, who is the half-sister of Sioux Storm. Jonatha is quite hotheaded; sometimes riding into battle singing "I am the Goddess of Hellfire." She denies being impulsive, saying she can only be described that way in comparison to her "neurotic" teammates. In New Mangaverse Jonatha is slightly redesigned to look a few years younger than she did in volume one of Mangaverse, and no longer wears her hair in multiple braids, instead sporting two pigtails on each side of her head. After witnessing the murder of the other Fantastic 4 members by supernatural assassins, she joins Spider-Man, Spider-Woman (Mary Jane Watson), Black Cat, Wolverine, and Iron Man, in hopes of getting revenge.
Marvel Zombies
In this alternative universe crazed Reed Richards recently infects Johnny Storm, Sue Storm, and Ben Grimm with the zombie virus. The three then turn Reed into a zombie and the four of them go on a rampage with the other zombies. Eventually Reed contacts the Ultimate Reed and gets him to come to the infected universe. Johnny travels with the three others to the Ultimate Universe. They attack the Fantastic Four there but are thwarted, and are locked up in a containment cell. Johnny eats live animals and loathes the Ultimate version of himself, remarking that he especially hates his hair. When they escape the four attack the Baxter Building, Ultimate Reed switches bodies with Ultimate Doom and takes on all four zombies. Johnny is last seen being torn apart and extinguished by Reed in Dr. Doom's body.
MC2
In the MC2 alternative future Johnny leads the Fantastic Five. He is married to Lyja and they have a son Torus Storm (who calls himself "Super-Storm" when role-playing as a hero). Torus has inherited both his father's flame powers and his mother's stretching / shapeshifting powers.
Spider-Gwen
In this universe starring Gwen Stacy as Spider-Woman, Johnny and Susan's family are stars of a television series and they are still children. Silk picks up a magazine that says they are entering their fourth season.
Spider-Verse
In the Amazing Spider-man comic's event Spider-Verse, Scarlet Spider (Kaine) and Spider-Man (Ben Reily) met and fought Johnny Storm (Earth-802) who is the Head of Security of Baxter Building and serving one of the Inheritors, Jennix.
Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel Universe, Johnny Storm is the youngest child of Franklin Storm, but is not as intelligent as his sister and father. He spent time at the Baxter Building, but his rebellious nature meant that he learned little from his time spent there. Although he is portrayed as being very vain, narcissistic, and displays some misogynistic tendencies, he is also shown to have a deep devotion to his friends and family. He is good friends with Spider-Man, and has a friendship/friendly rivalry with Bobby Drake due to each other's respective powers.
He is present at Reed Richards' test of the N-Zone Teleportation Device in the Nevada Desert. After a malfunction in the device, he wakes up in France in a hospital bed. He uncontrollably bursts into flames until he learns to control his powers by saying "Flame On" and "Flame Off.". When Mole Man's creatures attacks, Johnny finds out he can fly while on fire. It is explained by Reed that Johnny's combustion makes him lighter than air. Johnny's body is covered with a microscopically thin film of transparent plates that make him impervious to flame. When he activates his powers, fat cells beneath his skin create clean nuclear fusion and jet out between the plates as plasma which then ignites on contact with air. Periodically, Johnny enters a hibernation where his old layer of skin peels off as ash while a new layer forms underneath. Unlike the mainstream Human Torch, Ultimate Johnny's power sometimes have detrimental effects on his health, specifically causing unhealthy levels of weight loss and exhaustion.
In issues #68 and 69 of Ultimate Spider-Man, Johnny meets Spider-Man when his sister says he has to finish high school. Johnny picks a school in Queens which happens to be Midtown High. He quickly meets and becomes friends with Peter Parker, Mary Jane and Liz Allan. At a bonfire, he catches fire and scares off Liz Allan. He arranges to meet Liz, but she does not show up.
Encouraged by Mary Jane, Spider-Man shows up instead and gives Johnny a heart-to-heart talk about great power and great responsibility. Together, they save people from a burning building when Johnny absorbs the flames. Spider-Man shows Johnny that they will not always be appreciated by the public.
In issue #98 of Ultimate Spider-Man, the Fantastic Four learn Spider-Man's identity, and Johnny recognizes Peter. In issue #101, Nick Fury and a regiment of Spider Slayers try to arrest Peter but are stopped by Johnny and the rest of the Fantastic Four.
In the "Spider-Man and his Amazing Friends" story arc (beginning with issue #118 and concluding in issue #120) Johnny returns to Midtown High wanting to spend time with real friends after becoming frustrated on a date with a popular pop-star who only came for publicity. After some prodding, Johnny arranges for a group consisting of himself, Peter, Mary Jane, Kitty Pryde, Kong, Bobby Drake and Liz Allan (Johnny's apparent romantic interest) to have a somewhat normal day at the beach. During the evening bonfire, mirror his last visit, Liz Allan bursts into flame, exposing herself as a mutant. At the end of the arc, Liz returns to the Xaiver Institute with Iceman.
In Issue #129 of Ultimate Spider-Man, Johnny attends another unsuccessful date with the same pop-star as before and after again becoming frustrated calls Peter Parker to give him an excuse to leave. Johnny laments that he does not know any nice girls and has no real way of meeting any, and wants Peter to set him up. After flying off, he encounters The Vulture mid-robbery. Johnny attempts to stop him, but is thwarted several times before being assisted by Spider-Woman (a female clone of Peter Parker who is still mentally Peter up to the point of her "birth" in the Clone Saga story arc, a fact not disclosed to Johnny). Johnny proceeds to follow her around asking her for details about who she is, going as far to flirt with her. The very embarrassed Spider-Woman swings off.
Throughout the first story arc of Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man (the continuation of Ultimate Spider-Man), Johnny Storm appears at Peter Parker's door and passes out in his arms. When he wakes up he informs Aunt May that he does not wish to return to the Baxter Building. Aunt May decides to let him live with her, Peter and Gwen (later also adding Bobby Drake to the household as well). As to not raise suspicion and to not reveal Peters' secret identity, Aunt May comes up with the idea of coloring Johnny's hair black and changing his name to Johnny Parker, Peter's cousin. She then enrolls him and Bobby at Midtown High along with Peter and Gwen. The school is then attacked by a Spider-Slayer, created by Mysterio, to hunt down Spider-Man. Johnny runs away from the school before "Flaming On", as to not reveal his new secret identity, then returns to aid Peter in the fight, only to discover that the Shroud has already taken care of it. Johnny decides to melt the remains of the Spider-Slayer anyway.
Later when Norman Osborn escapes alongside The Vulture, Kraven the Hunter, Electro, Doctor Octopus, and The Sandman, Johnny and Bobby find them at Peters home and Johnny manages to knock Osborn unconscious before sandman does the same to him. Spider-Man then wakes him up to fight Osborn again but Johnny only succeeds in adding to Osborn's power before being knocked out yet again. Afterwards Spider-Man is killed after defeating Osborn and the other supervillains and Johnny is the one who checks to see if he truly is dead.
Ultimate Johnny appears briefly in issue one of Ultimate Fallout. In this issue, distressed by Peter's death he screams and releases most of his energy above the city.
Johnny eventually joins Kitty Pryde's team of mutants in the pages of Ultimate Comics: X-Men. He elects to stay behind and defend a group of younger mutants in the Morlock tunnels while Kitty, Iceman, Jimmy Hudson, and Rogue decide to head to the Southwest to fight off the Sentinels. He is later rescued wandering the streets of New York, having been severely tortured. The only clue to the fate of the children is a garbled phone call to Kitty by one of the children lamenting Johnny's disappearance.
Johnny also makes an appearance in the Ultimate Spider-Man video game, in which he challenges Spider-Man to a series of races.
Counter-Earth
On Counter Earth, counterparts of the Fantastic Four hijack an experimental spaceship in order to be the first humans in space. Man-Beast negates the effects of the cosmic radiation for all of them except Reed Richards who succumbs to the effects a decade later. Johnny Storm's counterpart is revealed to have been killed by the cosmic radiation.
What If? Vol. II #11
In What If? vol. 2 #11 (March 1990), the origins of the Fantastic Four are retold, showing how the heroes lives would have changed if all four had gained the same powers as the individual members of the original Fantastic Four. In "Pyros", all have the power of the Human Torch; after the team sets fire to what they believe to be an uninhabited area in order to battle a monster, they inadvertently kill the daughter of a woman squatting one of those buildings; the guilt causes them to disband, after which Reed Richards returns to his research, Storm becomes a race car driver and Grimm adopts the Human Torch moniker and joins the Avengers. Susan Storm, who could never forgive herself for the child's death, took monastic vows and spent the rest of her life as a nun in penance. In "Team Elastics", all have the power of Mister Fantastic, but Grimm, Sue Storm and Reed Richards all believe their powers to be silly; which also causes Sue Storm to leave Reed. Reed Richards returns to his research, only using his powers to aid him in his work, such as handling dangerous chemicals at far range, and Sue marries Ben Grimm, where they live a quiet domestic life free of superpowers. Johnny is the only member to go public, where he becomes a performer called "Mr. Fabulous", using his powers to gain fame, fortune and women. In "Monstrous", all become monsters, and relocate to Monster Isle. In "The Phantoms", each gain one aspect of the invisibility power, with Johnny able to become intangible. The story focuses on the four becoming a special secret unit of S.H.I.E.L.D. which defends against an attack by, and ultimately captures and places in custody, Doom.
In other media
Television
The Human Torch was a regular character in the 1967 Fantastic Four animated series, voiced by Jack Flounders.
The Human Torch did not appear in the 1978 Fantastic Four animated series and was replaced with a robot called H.E.R.B.I.E. The television rights to the Human Torch had been separately licensed, although never actually used, for a television pilot movie by Universal Studios and this prevented the use of the Torch in the series. For the same reason, the Human Torch was supposed to be one of the main characters on Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends, but Firestar was created in his place.
The Human Torch appears in the 1994–95 Fantastic Four animated TV series, voiced by Brian Austin Green in the first season and by Quinton Flynn in the second season.
The Human Torch and the rest of the Fantastic Four appeared in the "Secret Wars" episodes of the mid-1990s Spider-Man animated series voiced again by Quinton Flynn.
The Human Torch appears in the 2006 Fantastic Four animated TV series, voiced by Christopher Jacot.
The Human Torch appears in the animated series The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Travis Willingham.
The Human Torch appears in the animated TV series The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by David Kaufman.
The Human Torch appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Monsters No More", voiced by James Arnold Taylor. He teamed up with the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. to stop the Tribbitites invasion.
Film
Jay Underwood played Johnny Storm in the unreleased Fantastic Four film produced by Roger Corman.
Chris Evans played The Human Torch/Johnny Storm in the big budget 2005 movie Fantastic Four. In the film, he is an intelligent, yet arrogant, young man in his early twenties who loves extreme sports. He is the younger brother of Susan Storm, who works within Von Doom Industries as Victor von Doom's chief of the Science Department. He reprised his role as Johnny Storm in Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer. When his older sister's wedding is interrupted by the Silver Surfer, Johnny pursues the Surfer and loses the subsequent confrontation. Due to his contact with the Surfer, Johnny is thereafter able to switch powers with any of his teammates through physical contact. This change thwarts their attempt to trap the Silver Surfer when he accidentally switches powers with Reed. However, when Doom steals the Surfer's board and powers, Johnny uses his change to absorb the powers of the entire team, using Sue's invisibility and his own flame powers to sneak up on Doom before overpowering him with the Thing's strength and Reed's elasticity. He loses the ability to switch powers when he makes contact with the Surfer for a second time.
Simon Rex portrayed the Human Torch in the spoof film Superhero Movie (2008).
Michael B. Jordan portrayed Johnny Storm in the 2015 film Fantastic Four. While Johnny Storm is still the biological son of Franklin Storm, Susan Storm is his adoptive sister. He gains his powers following a visit to Planet Zero. Since the incident, the scientists working with Franklin Storm designed a special suit that helped Johnny to master his powers. After Victor von Doom returned from Planet Zero and was making his way back to the Quantum Gate to further his goals, Johnny was devastated when Victor killed Franklin Storm. Johnny later helped Reed, Susan and Ben fight Victor.
Video games
The Human Torch makes a guest appearance in The Amazing Spider-Man 2 for the Game Boy and PlayStation 2.
The Human Torch is one of the Fantastic Four members who make an appearance in Spider-Man for the SNES.
The Human Torch featured prominently in the 2000 Spider-Man video game, voiced by Daran Norris. He first appears in a cutscene, encouraging Spider-Man to find his wife Mary Jane, who was kidnapped by Venom. At the end of the game, he is seen dancing with the Black Cat, while Spider-Man and the other heroes featured in the game play cards.
The Human Torch appears in his own game for the Game Boy Advance titled Fantastic 4: Flame On.
The Human Torch is a playable character in the Fantastic Four video game based on the 2005 movie, voiced by Chris Evans with his classic version reprised by Quinton Flynn in bonus levels.
The Ultimate Marvel version of the Human Torch appeared in the 2005 Ultimate Spider-Man game, voiced by David Kaufman. The player, as Spider-Man, had to race the Torch through New York.
The Human Torch appears in the 2007 Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer video game, voiced by Michael Broderick.
The Human Torch also appeared as a playable character in the Electronic Arts-produced title Marvel Nemesis: Rise of the Imperfects, voiced by Kirby Morrow.
The Human Torch appears as a playable character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Josh Keaton. His classic, Ultimate, original, and modern costumes are available. A simulation disk has Human Torch fighting Paibok. He has special dialogue with Black Widow, Hank Pym, Thing, Crystal, Uatu, Karnak, Wyatt Wingfoot, Black Bolt, and Shocker.
The Human Torch appears as a playable character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced again by David Kaufman.
The Human Torch is a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced by Antony Del Rio.
The Human Torch is available as downloadable content for the game LittleBigPlanet, as part of "Marvel Costume Kit 2".
The Human Torch appeared in the virtual pinball game Fantastic Four for Pinball FX 2, voiced by Travis Willingham.
The Human Torch is a playable character in the mobile game Marvel: Future Fight.
The Human Torch is a playable character in the Facebook game Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
The Human Torch appears as a playable character in the 2012 fighting game Marvel Avengers: Battle for Earth, voiced by Roger Craig Smith.
The Human Torch is a playable character in the MMORPG Marvel Heroes, voiced by Matthew Yang King. However, due to legal reasons, he was removed from the game on July 1, 2017.
The Human Torch appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced again by Roger Craig Smith.
The Human Torch is a playable character in the mobile game Marvel Puzzle Quest.
The Human Torch appears in the "Shadow of Doom" DLC of Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Matthew Yang King.
Radio
In 1975, Bill Murray played Johnny Storm in a daily radio adaptation of the early issues of Fantastic Four. The show lasted for 13 weeks.
Toys
Human Torch appeared as an 8-inch action figure in Mego's World's Greatest Super Heroes toy line in the 1970s.
Human Torch has appeared in the Marvel Legends toy line, in series 2, in the three version of the Fantastic Four box set (the ordinary, variant and the Wal-Mart special).
Though it is a different character, the Inhuman Torch (Kristoff Vernard) appeared in the "House of M" box set.
The Human Torch is the eighteenth figurine in The Classic Marvel Figurine Collection.
Reception
The Human Torch was ranked as the 90th greatest comic book character by Wizard'' magazine. IGN ranked the Human Torch as the 46th greatest comic book hero, stating that even though the youngest member of the Fantastic Four routinely basked in the glory of his celebrity status, he also proved himself in his many adventures with both the Fantastic Four and Spider-Man.
References
External links
The Human Torch on the Marvel Universe Character Bio
MDP: Human Torch (Marvel Database Project) (wiki)
The Religion of the Human Torch
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by Jack Kirby
Characters created by Stan Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1961
Fantastic Four characters
Fictional actors
Fictional astronauts
Fictional characters from New York City
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities
Fictional firefighters
Fictional racing drivers
Marvel Comics American superheroes
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics mutates
Marvel Comics superheroes | [
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235428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Isaac%20Guion | John Isaac Guion | John Isaac Guion (November 18, 1802 – June 6, 1855) was an American politician from Mississippi who served as Governor in 1851.
Biography
Guion was born in Adams County in the Mississippi Territory. He studied law in Lebanon, Tennessee, was admitted to the bar, and established a successful practice in Vicksburg, Mississippi. He practiced in partnership with William L. Sharkey, and later with Seargent Smith Prentiss.
A Democrat in politics, Guion was first elected to the Mississippi State Senate in 1842. He later moved to Jackson, and continued to serve in the State Senate.
Guion supported slavery and states' rights. As a result, he played a prominent role in the Jackson convention of 1849, which was called to discuss how the Southern states should respond to the possibility of California being admitted to the union as a free state.
In 1850 Guion was chosen to serve as the Senate's President pro tempore. In February 1851, Governor John A. Quitman resigned to defend himself against charges of aiding in filibustering expeditions against Spanish rule in Cuba. Guion became acting governor and served until November, when his Senate term expired. He had not run for reelection, and the Speaker of the Mississippi House had also not run for reelection. Since no one in the line of succession could assume the governorship, the legislature subsequently chose James Whitfield as an interim replacement, and he served until the term of the new governor started in 1852.
Guion had not run for reelection to the State Senate because he had run for judge of the Mississippi District Circuit Court in Jackson. He began his term as scheduled, and served until his death. He died on June 6, 1855 and was buried at Greenwood Cemetery in Jackson.
References
John Isaac Guion at National Governors Association
General Tour Information (including burial information for John Isaac Guion) at Greenwood Cemetery
1802 births
1855 deaths
Governors of Mississippi
Mississippi state senators
Mississippi Democrats
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians | [
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235429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Exposure | Northern Exposure | Northern Exposure is an American Northern comedy-drama television series about the eccentric residents of a fictional small town in Alaska that ran on CBS from July 12, 1990, to July 26, 1995, with a total of 110 episodes. It received 57 award nominations during its five-year run and won 27, including the 1992 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series, two additional Primetime Emmy Awards, four Creative Arts Emmy Awards, and two Golden Globes. Critic John Leonard called Northern Exposure "the best of the best television in the past 10 years".
In the show, Rob Morrow played New York City native Joel Fleischman, a recently graduated physician who is sent to practice in Anchorage, Alaska, for several years to repay the state of Alaska for underwriting his medical education. However, much to his chagrin, he is assigned to the much smaller and remote town of Cicely, which is in need of a general practitioner. Originally the show focused on Fleischman's fish-out-of-water experiences in rural Alaska, but as it progressed, it became more of an ensemble show, focusing on various other Cicely residents.
History
The series was created by Joshua Brand and John Falsey, who also created the award-winning shows St. Elsewhere and I'll Fly Away. It started as an mid-season replacement summer series on CBS in 1990 with 8 episodes. It returned for seven more episodes in spring 1991, then became a regular part of the network's schedule in 1991–92. It ranked among the top 10 viewed by 18- to 49-year-olds, and was part of the network's 1992–93 and 1993–94 schedules. Its last season, 1994–95, included a gap during the May 1995 sweeps when CBS broadcast other programming. "The show had a lot of life in it, and the move (Wednesday at 10pm) killed it," said executive producer Andrew Schneider. "This piddling out is sad."
In 1994, writer Sandy Veith won a suit in a jury trial against Universal, alleging that the series was based on his idea, yet he received no credit or compensation. Veith won $10 million in damages and legal fees on appeal in 1997. His suit was against the studio, not Brand and Falsey. In 1994, the Los Angeles Times reported that jurors seemed to believe the studio came to Brand and Falsey with the basic concept for the show rather than that the latter knowingly stole his idea. Some Universal executives had worked with Veith and Brand and Falsey. Veith's script was about an Italian-American doctor who moves to a small town in the South.
Morrow and his representatives spent much of seasons 4 and 5 lobbying for an improved contract, and intermittently threatened to leave the show. The producers responded by reducing Fleischman's role in the storylines, and introducing characters such as Mike Monroe (season 4) and Dr. Phil Capra (season 6) to partially compensate for the absence of Morrow, whose last appearance came midway through the show's final season.
Cast and characters
Joel Fleischman (Rob Morrow) is a neurotic young Jewish physician from New York City. Fresh out of family medicine residency, he is legally contracted to practice medicine for four years in Alaska according to the terms of a student loan underwritten by the state. Expecting to work in a relatively large, modern hospital in Anchorage, he is unexpectedly reassigned to be a general practitioner in the small town of Cicely, where he is a proverbial fish out of water. His struggles to adjust to the very unfamiliar environment drive the plot of many episodes, especially in the early seasons.
Morrow left the show midway through its final season due to a contract dispute. His character's departure was handled by having him "go native", abandoning Cicely for a remote fishing village and embracing the wilderness in a search for spiritual enlightenment.
Maurice Minnifield (Barry Corbin) is a multi-millionaire businessman, former fighter pilot and astronaut who moved to the area after retiring from the military in the 1970s. Maurice owns Cicely's newspaper and radio station (KBHR 570 AM) along with over of land which he hopes to develop into the "Alaskan Riviera". It is Maurice who arranged to bring Joel to the town, which previously did not have a physician. Beneath a thin veneer of gentility, he is pompous, overbearing, and bigoted, leading to conflicts with other residents, such as the gay couple Ron and Eric. Despite his habitual demeanor, Maurice can be generous, and he aids almost every other major character in some way during the show's run. Before the timeline of the series, he had brought the much younger Shelly Tambo to Cicely with the intention of marrying her, but his best friend Holling Vincoeur won her heart and hand in marriage.
Maggie O'Connell (Janine Turner) is a tomboyish debutante turned Alaska bush pilot. Maggie and Joel quickly develop a love-hate relationship, with their opposing views on most subjects coupled with unacknowledged attraction resulting in sexual tension in the early seasons. They become romantically involved later in the show's run, and it is their breakup that is the impetus for Joel to leave Cicely during the last season. A running theme through the series is that all of Maggie's romantic partners die bizarre deaths, leading her to believe that she suffers from an "O'Connell curse".
Holling Vincoeur (John Cullum) is the Canadian-born sexagenarian owner and operator of The Brick, a popular local bar and restaurant, and mayor at the beginning of the show. He and Maurice are old friends, though their relationship was strained at one time by their mutual romantic interest in Shelly Tambo, whom Holling married. Though at least 40 years older than Shelly, he fears that he will outlive her, since the men in his family tend to live well past 100 and spend their final years as heartbroken widowers.
Shelly Tambo (Cynthia Geary) is another Canadian expatriate and former Miss Northwest Passage. She was brought to Cicely by Maurice, who had hoped to marry her. Instead, she chose Holling and became a waitress at The Brick. Though seemingly naive and flighty, she regularly shows flashes of unexpected wisdom. It was planned for the character to be a Native American until Geary was cast.
Chris Stevens (John Corbett) is a philosophical free spirit and ex-convict who works as the disc jockey at KBHR 570 AM. Between songs, Chris offers comments on events in Cicely and on more intellectual and controversial subjects, often leading to conflict with Maurice, who fires and rehires him several times. The first of these conflicts comes when Chris reads Leaves of Grass over the air and Maurice storms the studio, decks Chris and fires him, not over the reading, but for suggesting that Whitman was homosexual. Chris is also a nondenominational clergyman and occasionally officiates at weddings.
Ed Chigliak (Darren E. Burrows) is a mild-mannered, half-native Alaskan foundling raised by local Tlingits. Ed does odd jobs for Maurice and works part-time at the local general store. He is a film buff and would-be movie director.
Ruth-Anne Miller (Peg Phillips) is the elderly, level-headed owner of the local general store and a 30-year resident of Cicely. A widow, Ruth-Anne lives alone until late in the series, when she becomes involved with Walt Kupfer (Moultrie Patten), a fur trapper and retired stockbroker. She too is a film buff and, along with Holling, a keen birder. She has two adult sons, one of whom is a stockbroker. He comes to see her in one episode.
Marilyn Whirlwind (Elaine Miles) is Joel's Native Alaskan receptionist. Her few words and exceptionally calm demeanor are a strong contrast to her employer's loquaciousness and high-strung temperament.
In the show's last season, two new characters were introduced to try to fill the void left by Morrow's departure:
Phil Capra (Paul Provenza), a doctor from Los Angeles who is recruited as Joel's replacement after Joel takes to the wilderness.
Michelle Schowdowski Capra (Teri Polo), Phil's wife. She also works as a reporter for a newspaper owned by Maurice.
Major recurring characters include Apesanahkwat as Lester Haines (a native millionaire), Anthony Edwards as Mike Monroe (an environmental activist with multiple chemical sensitivity), Richard Cummings Jr. as Bernard Stevens (Chris's African American half-brother and "spiritual doppelgänger"), Graham Greene as Leonard (the local shaman), Diane Delano as Officer Barbara Semanski (Maurice's love interest), Adam Arkin as mysterious, obnoxious master chef Adam, and Valerie Mahaffey as his hypochondriac and very wealthy wife Eve. Mahaffey was the only actor from the series to win an Emmy Award.
Production
Although Cicely is widely thought to be based on Talkeetna, Alaska, its main street and the filming location was that of Roslyn, Washington. "Northern Exposure II" (the main production facility) was in Redmond, Washington, in what is now the headquarters of Genie Industries, behind a business park.
According to The Northern Exposure Book, the moose in the opening titles was named Mort and was provided by Washington State University, where he was part of a captive herd. To film the opening sequence, the crew fenced off Roslyn, set Mort loose, and lured him around with food.
Episodes
Notable episodes in the series include the pilot (nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Writing), the third season's last episode, "Cicely" (which won a Peabody Award, three Creative Arts Emmy Awards, and a Directors Guild of America Award), and the fifth-season episode "I Feel the Earth Move", which featured the second same-sex marriage story arc on U.S. prime-time television. (Fox's Roc aired the first U.S. prime-time television episode depicting a same-sex marriage, "Can't Help Loving That Man", on October 20, 1991.)
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of Northern Exposure has a score of 100% based on six reviews, with an average rating of 7.0/10. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted score, the first season is rated 80 based on seven reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews," while the second season has an 83 based on nine, indicating "universal acclaim".
Entertainment Weekly’s Ken Tucker gave the first episode a B+, writing that the show “may well prove to be summer television’s most likably eccentric series”.
Ratings
Season 1 (Thursday 10 pm): 12.4 rating (highest-rated episode: A Kodiak Moment; 10.1 rating) (competed against NBC's Must See TV)
Season 2 (Monday 10 pm): 15.5 rating (highest-rated episode: Goodbye to All That; 13.9 rating)
Season 3: 16.3 rating (highest-rated episode: Wake Up Call; 19.6 rating/26 million viewers)
Season 4: 15.8 rating (highest-rated episode: Northwest Passages; 18.3 rating)
Season 5: 14.5 rating (highest-rated episode: A Bolt from the Blue; 16.2 rating)
Season 6 (Monday at 10 pm; Wednesday at 9 pm): 11.2 rating (highest-rated episode: Eye of the Beholder; 13.7 rating)
Accolades
Emmy Awards
Over the course of Northern Exposure's run, the cast and crew won seven Emmy Awards out of 39 nominations:
Joshua Brand, John Falsey, et al., for Outstanding Drama Series (1992)
Valerie Mahaffey, for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (1992)
Andrew Schneider and Diane Frolov, for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing for a Drama Series for the episode "Seoul Mates" (1992)
Thomas R. Moore, for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Series for the episode "Cicely" (1992)
Woody Crocker, Kenneth Berg and Gene Serdena, for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Art Direction for a Series for "Cicely" (1992)
Frank Prinzi, for Outstanding Cinematography for a Series for "Cicely" (1992)
William H. Angarola et al., for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Editing for a Series for "Fish Story" (1994)
Golden Globe Awards
The series won two Golden Globe awards for Best Drama series, in 1992 and 1993. In addition, Morrow and Turner were each nominated three times consecutively from 1992 to 1994 for Best Actor and Actress, while Corbett was nominated in 1993 for his supporting role.
Peabody Awards
The series won a pair of consecutive Peabody Awards: in 1991–92 for the show's "depict[ion] in a comedic and often poetic way, [of] the cultural clash between a transplanted New York City doctor and the townspeople of fictional Cicely, Alaska" and its stories of "people of different backgrounds and experiences" clashing but who ultimately "strive to accept their differences and co-exist".
Additional awards and nominations
1995
American Cinema Editors – Eddie nomination for Best Edited One-Hour Series for Television – Briana London – for episode "Lovers and Madmen"
Environmental Media Awards, USA – Award for Ongoing Commitment – Josh Brand and John Falsey
Screen Actors Guild Awards – Nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
1994
BMI TV Music Award: Northern Exposure – David Schwartz
Casting Society of America, USA – Artios nomination for Best Casting for TV, Dramatic Episodic – Megan Branman
1993
American Cinema Editors – Eddie nomination for Best Edited One-Hour Series for Television – Thomas R. Moore– for episode "Cicely"
American Society of Cinematographers, USA – ASC Award nomination for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Regular Series – Frank Prinzi
BMI TV Music Award: Northern Exposure – David Schwartz
Casting Society of America, USA – Artios nomination for Best Casting for TV, Dramatic Episodic – Megan Branman
Directors Guild of America Award – Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Dramatic Shows – Night – for episode "Cicely"
Robert Loeser (second assistant director) (plaque)
Patrick McKee (first assistant director) (plaque)
Jack Terry (II) (unit production manager) (plaque)
Robert C. Thompson
Directors Guild Award – Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Dramatic Shows – Night – For episode "Kaddish for Uncle Manny"
Michael Lange
Electronic Media Critics Poll – Best Television Series
Environmental Media Awards, USA – EMA Award TV Drama – for episode "Survival of the Species"
Retirement Research Foundation, USA – Wise Owl Award – Honorable Mention Television and Theatrical Film Fiction – Joshua Brand (executive) John Falsey (executive) – for episode "Three Amigos"
1992
BMI TV Music Award: Northern Exposure – David Schwartz
Casting Society of America, USA – Artios for Best Casting for TV, Dramatic Episodic – Megan Branman and Patricia Carnes Kalles
Electronic Media Critics Poll – Best Television Series
Grammy Award Nomination: Northern Exposure Theme – David Schwartz
Peabody Award – Presented to Falsey-Austin Street Productions for Northern Exposure, for presenting episodic drama on television with intelligence, sensitivity and humor.
PGA Golden Laurel Awards – Television Producer of the Year Award – Joshua Brand and John Falsey
Retirement Research Foundation, USA – Wise Owl Award – Honorable Mention Television and Theatrical Film Fiction – Joshua Brand (executive), John Falsey (executive) – for episode "A Hunting We Will Go"
Television Critics Association – Program of the Year
Viewers for Quality Television – John Cullum, Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Viewers for Quality Television – Adam Arkin, Best Specialty Player
Young Artist Awards – nomination for Best Young Actor Guest-Starring or Recurring Role in a TV Series – Grant Gelt, for episode "Goodbye to All That"
1991
Casting Society of America, USA – Artios win for Best Casting for TV, Dramatic Pilot – Megan Branman, Patricia Carnes Kalles and Lynn Kressel
Casting Society of America, USA – Artios nomination for Best Casting for TV, Dramatic Episodic – Megan Branman and Patricia Carnes Kalles
Electronic Media Critics Poll – Best Television Series
Soundtracks
Northern Exposure: Music from the Television Series (USA, original soundtrack, 1992)MCA Records, Inc. MCAD-10685
"Theme from Northern Exposure" – David Schwartz (Pilot, Kodiak)
"Jolie Louise" – Daniel Lanois (Pilot, The Body in Question, Old Tree)
"Hip Hug-Her" – Booker T. and the MG's (Animals R Us; My Mother, My Sister)
"At Last" – Etta James [Slow Dance]
"Everybody Be Yoself" – Chic Street Man (Spring Break)
"Alaskan Nights" – David Schwartz (It Happened in Juneau, Our Tribe)
"Don Quichotte" – Magazine 60 (Jules et Joel)
"When I Grow Too Old to Dream" – Nat 'King' Cole and His Trio (The Big Kiss)
"Emabhaceni" – Miriam Makeba (Roots)
"Gimme Three Steps" – Lynyrd Skynyrd (My Mother, My Sister)
"Baïlèro" from Chants d'Auvergne – Frederica von Stade, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Antonio de Almeida, conductor (Wake-Up Call)
David Schwartz Medley:
"A Funeral in My Brain" (Things Become Extinct, Our Tribe, Ill Wind,...)
"Woody the Indian" (Sex, Lies, and Ed's Tape)
"The Tellakutans" (Seoul Mates, The Body in Question)
More Music from Northern Exposure (USA, 1994)MCA Records, Inc. MCAD-11077
Ojibway Square Dance (Love Song) – Georgia Wettlin-Larsen
Theme from Northern Exposure – David Schwartz
Stir It Up – Johnny Nash
Mambo Baby – Ruth Brown
Someone Loves You – Simon Bonney
The Ladder – David Schwartz
If You Take Me Back – Big Joe & His Washboard Band
Un Casse (A Broken Marriage) – Basin Brothers
There I Go Again – Vinx
Lay My Love – Brian Eno/John Cale
Wrap Your Troubles in Dreams (and Dream Your Troubles Away) – Les Paul & Mary Ford
Mooseburger Stomp – David Schwartz
I May Want a Man – Joanne Shenandoah
Our Town—played during the closing scene of the last episode (July 26, 1995) – Iris Dement
Ausgerechnet Alaska (German covers, 1992),Distributed by IDEAL Vertrieb, Wichmannstr. 4, 2000 Hamburg 52 (Out of Print)
The Moose – Northern Exposure Theme-Mix
The Kingsmen – Louie Louie
Little Milton – Stand by Me
Lee Dorsey – Ya Ya
Billy Stewart – Summertime
Little Richard – Good Golly Miss Molly
Coasters – Little Egypt
The Drifters – On Broadway
Dolly Parton – It Wasn't God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels
Guy Mitchell – Singing The Blues
Patsy Cline – Crazy
Paul Anka – My Way
The Marcels – Blue Moon
Showaddywaddy – Who Put The Bomp
Trini Lopez – This Is Your Land
Jerry Butler – Moon River
Andy Williams – Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing
Home media
DVD releases
Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released all six seasons on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4. The Region 1 DVD releases have caused controversy among the show's fans due to their high prices and the changes to the soundtrack introduced in order to lower their costs. The release of Season 1 contained the original music, but retailed for $60 due to the cost of music licensing. Subsequent seasons replaced most of the music with generic elevator-style music, resulting in a lower-cost release. The first and second seasons were also rereleased together in packaging that matches the third through sixth seasons. On July 21, 2020, "Northern Exposure" was rereleased by Shout Factory, containing all 110 episodes but not with all original music. The R2 editions released in Germany on DVD contain all the original music.
Blu-ray releases
On March 19, 2018, Fabulous Films released the entire series on Blu-ray in the UK containing all original music.
Potential revival
In 2016, Darren Burrows and his production company, Film Farms, held a crowdfunding campaign to fund a development project with the goal of creating more episodes. The working title for this project is "Northern Exposure: Home Again". Despite not meeting the original $100,000 goal, Darren decided to continue with the project.
On June 17, 2016, Film Farms announced that writer David Assael had been hired to write for the project. He previously wrote several episodes, including "Russian Flu," "Spring Break," and "It Happened in Juneau," among others. The revival was originally envisioned as a two-hour "visit to Cicely," but a 10-episode series was reportedly being pitched to various network, cable, and streaming venues.
On November 20, 2018, it was reported that a revival series was in the early stages of development at CBS, with Brand, Falsey and Morrow executive producing and Morrow again playing Fleischman. Corbett was named as producer but his appearance as a performer was not confirmed.
Falsey died in January 2019, and on May 19, 2019, Josef Adalian, an editor from the New York City-based magazine that CBS had canceled development work on the series. Adalian subsequently tweeted that the rights holder, Universal Studios, could pitch the revival elsewhere, but it was unclear whether Universal was planning to move the project to another outlet. Morrow, who was busy with other commitments, found out about Falsey's death on Twitter.
On November 15, 2019, Morrow revealed in an interview on radio station WGN 720AM in Chicago that he and Brand were continuing revival efforts despite Falsey's death and CBS's decision.
References and footnotes
External links
Northern Exposure DVDs at Universal Studios
1990s American comedy-drama television series
1990 American television series debuts
1995 American television series endings
Best Drama Series Golden Globe winners
CBS original programming
English-language television shows
1990s American medical television series
Television series about Jews and Judaism
Television series by Universal Television
Television shows set in Alaska
Television shows filmed in Washington (state)
Peabody Award-winning television programs
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series winners
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Television series created by Joshua Brand
Television series created by John Falsey | [
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235432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20A.%20Quitman | John A. Quitman | John Anthony Quitman (September 1, 1798 – July 17, 1858) was an American lawyer, politician, and soldier. As President of the Mississippi Senate, he served one month as Acting Governor of Mississippi (from December 3, 1835, to January 7, 1836) as a Whig. He was elected Governor in 1850, as a Democrat, and served from January 10, 1850, until his resignation on February 3, 1851, shortly after his arrest for violating U.S. neutrality laws. He was strongly pro-slavery and a leading Fire-Eater.
According to Quitman's first biographer, John F. H. Claiborne, writing in 1860, "A more ambitious man never lived. ...He was greedy for military fame." "For Quitman, military glory and political ambition had priority over management of his three plantations and numerous slaves."
Early life
Born at Rhinebeck, New York, in 1798, Quitman studied classics at Hartwick Seminary, graduating in 1816. He was an instructor at Mount Airy College, Pennsylvania, but decided to study law.
He was admitted to the bar in 1820, and moved to Chillicothe, Ohio. The following year, he moved south to Natchez, Mississippi. He purchased Monmouth in 1826, and it would remain in his family for the next 100 years. It was an archaeological dig site investigated by Dr. Montroville Dickeson during his 10-year study of the Natchez Indians of the Mississippi River Valley.
Plantation and slave owner
Quitman owned four plantations: Springfield, which he purchased in 1834, on the Mississippi River near Natchez, a cotton plantation and dairy farm; Palmyra (Warren County, Mississippi), which he acquired through marriage (cotton); Live Oaks (Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, sugar and molasses); and Belen (Holmes County, Mississippi, cotton).
He did not personally manage the plantations, a task entrusted to (white) overseers. Not counting house servants, at Palmyra he enslaved 311 people under sixty years of age in 1848; at Live Oaks, 85 in 1850; at Springfield, 39 in 1842; and at Belen 32 in 1858.
One favored enslaved person accompanied him on his expedition to Mexico. Being frequently absent, Quitman was unaware of slave resistance and did not plan for slave revolts. "Neither he nor his family entertained second thoughts about the propriety or morality of their holding blacks in bondage." He "genuinely believed that owner-slave relations were harmonious. ...The Quitmans lived to the very eve of the Civil War virtually oblivious of the dangers of slave rebellion and believing, as Quitman put it, that Southern society was 'based upon a more solid foundation' than Northern society."
Politics
Quitman practiced law in Natchez until 1826, when he was elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives. He became Chancellor of the state in 1828, and served on the state's Constitutional Convention in 1832. He was the protégé of John C. Calhoun during the Nullification Crisis.
In 1835, he was elected to the State Senate, becoming President of the Senate the following year. He also served as Acting Governor of Mississippi during that time. In 1838, he became a judge on the High Court of Errors and Appeal. Quitman was grand master of the Mississippi Masons from 1826 to 1838 and again from 1840 to 1845.
He was initiated to the Scottish Rite Masonry till his elevation to the 33rd and highest degree.
Mexican–American War
On July 1, 1846, during the Mexican–American War, Quitman was made a Brigadier General of Volunteers. He commanded a brigade under Zachary Taylor in northern Mexico.
After the Battle of Monterrey, he was sent to join Winfield Scott's expedition. He led the 2nd Brigade in the Volunteer Division during the Siege of Veracruz and on April 14, 1847, he was promoted to Major General in the Regular Army.
Following the battle of Cerro Gordo, General Robert Patterson returned to the United States with other Volunteer soldiers whose enlistments had expired. Reinforcements from Veracruz, including about 300 U. S. Marines, were organized into a new brigade under Colonel Samuel E. Watson. Shields' and Watson's brigades were designated the 4th Division, with Quitman in overall command.
By this point Quitman had gained a reputation as a competent military commander and enjoyed an affectionate respect from Volunteer and professional soldiers alike.
Quitman led his division to the Valley of Mexico where he was posted to guard the supply depot, hospital and horse teams. Frustrated at his supporting role, Quitman was nevertheless ordered to send reinforcements to the front. At the battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Shields' brigade was actively engaged, though Quitman was not personally involved.
He commanded the southern assault during the battle of Chapultepec. U.S. Marines of Quitman's division spearheaded the attack, and their involvement in this battle is remembered in the opening line of the Marines' Hymn. Quitman received the surrender of the citadel in Mexico City.
After the fall of Mexico City, General Scott named Quitman as the Military Governor of Mexico City for the remainder of the occupation. He was the only American to rule from within the National Palace of Mexico. Quitman was a founding member of the Aztec Club of 1847. He was discharged on July 20, 1848, and served as Governor of Mississippi in 1850 and 1851.
Filibustering
It was in his capacity as governor of Mississippi that Quitman was approached by the Venezuelan filibuster Narciso López to lead his expedition of 1850 to liberate Cuba from Spanish rule. He turned down the offer because of his desire to serve out his term as governor, but did offer assistance to López in obtaining men and material for the expedition. López's effort ended in failure, and the repercussion led to Quitman's being charged with violations of Neutrality Act of 1817 and his resignation from the post of governor so that he could defend himself. The charges were dropped after three hung juries allowed him to avoid conviction.
With the encouragement of President Franklin Pierce, Quitman, with assistance from later Confederate General Mansfield Lovell, began preparations in July 1853 for a filibuster expedition of his own. The preparations to invade Cuba were nearly complete, with several thousand men prepared to go, when in May 1854 the administration reversed course and undertook steps to stop what it had almost put into motion, presumably because it felt that in the wake of the furor over the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act the action to add slaveholding territory such as Cuba would cause irreparable damage to the Democratic Party in the North.
Return to politics
On March 4, 1855, Quitman was elected to the Thirty-fourth Congress for the Democratic Party, and served in that and the ensuing Congress until his death. In Congress, he was Chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs.
Death
John A. Quitman died at his home, "Monmouth," near Natchez, Mississippi, on July 17, 1858, aged 58, apparently from the effects of National Hotel Disease, which he contracted during the inauguration of President James Buchanan. He was buried in the Natchez City Cemetery in Natchez, Mississippi.
Legacy
The towns of Quitman, Texas, county seat of Wood County, Texas, Quitman, Mississippi, county seat of Clarke County, Mississippi, Quitman, Georgia, of Brooks County, Georgia, Quitman, Missouri, of Nodaway County, Missouri; and Quitman County, Georgia & Quitman County, Mississippi, are named after him. The west Texas military installation Fort Quitman was named in his honor. There is a Lodge of Free & Accepted Masons in Ringgold, Georgia, also named after him, Quitman Lodge #106.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)
List of United States Congress members killed or wounded in office
Notes
References
Further reading
American Lutherans
American filibusters (military)
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Governors of Mississippi
Members of the Aztec Club of 1847
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi
Mississippi state senators
Members of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Justices of the Mississippi Supreme Court
Mississippi Democrats
Mississippi lawyers
Politicians from Chillicothe, Ohio
People from Rhinebeck, New York
Politicians from Natchez, Mississippi
United States Army generals
1852 United States vice-presidential candidates
1798 births
1858 deaths
Mississippi Whigs
Quitman County, Georgia
Quitman County, Mississippi
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Whig Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
American slave owners
American proslavery activists
19th-century American judges
Ohio lawyers
American Fire-Eaters
American white supremacists | [
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235433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiph.Org%20Foundation | Xiph.Org Foundation | Xiph.Org Foundation is a nonprofit organization that produces free multimedia formats and software tools. It focuses on the Ogg family of formats, the most successful of which has been Vorbis, an open and freely licensed audio format and codec designed to compete with the patented WMA, MP3 and AAC. As of 2013, development work was focused on Daala, an open and patent-free video format and codec designed to compete with VP9 and the patented High Efficiency Video Coding.
In addition to its in-house development work, the foundation has also brought several already-existing but complementary free software projects under its aegis, most of which have a separate, active group of developers. These include Speex, an audio codec designed for speech, and FLAC, a lossless audio codec.
The Xiph.Org Foundation has criticized Microsoft and the RIAA for their lack of openness. They state that if companies like Microsoft had owned patents on the Internet, then other companies would have tried to compete, and "The Net, as designed by warring corporate entities, would be a battleground of incompatible and expensive 'standards' had it actually survived at all." They also criticize the RIAA for their support of projects such as the Secure Digital Music Initiative.
In 2008, the Free Software Foundation listed the Xiph.Org projects as High Priority Free Software Projects.
History
Chris Montgomery, creator of the Ogg container format, founded the Xiphophorus company and later the Xiph.Org Foundation. The first work that became the Ogg media projects started in 1994. The name "Xiph" abbreviates the original organizational name, "Xiphophorus", named after the common swordtail fish, Xiphophorus hellerii. It was officially incorporated on 15 May 1996 as Xiphophorus, Inc. The name "Xiphophorus company" was used until 2002, when it was renamed to Xiph.Org Foundation.
In 1999, the Xiphophorus company defined itself on its website as "a distributed group of Free and Open Source programmers working to protect the foundations of Internet multimedia from domination by self-serving corporate interests."
In 2002, the Xiph.Org Foundation defined itself on its website as "a non-profit corporation dedicated to protecting the foundations of Internet multimedia from control by private interests."
In March 2003, the Xiph.Org Foundation was recognized by the IRS as a 501(c)(3) Non-Profit Organization, which means that U.S. citizens can deduct donations made to Xiph.Org from their taxes.
Xiph.Org Foundation projects
Ogg – a multimedia container format, a reference implementation, and the native file and stream format for the Xiph.org multimedia codecs
Vorbis – a lossy audio compression format and codec
Theora – a lossy video coding format and codec
FLAC – a lossless audio compression format and software
Speex – a lossy speech encoding format and software (deprecated)
CELT – an ultra-low delay lossy audio compression format that has been merged into Opus, and is now obsolete
Opus – a low delay lossy audio compression format originally intended for VoIP
Tremor – an integer-only implementation of the Vorbis audio decoder for embedded devices (software)
OggPCM – an encapsulation of PCM audio data inside the Ogg container format
Skeleton – a structuring information for multi-track Ogg files (a logical bitstream within an Ogg stream)
RTP payloads – containers for Vorbis, Theora, Speex and Opus.
CMML – an XML-based markup language for time-continuous data (a timed text codec; deprecated)
Ogg Squish – a lossless audio compression format and software (discontinued)
Tarkin – an experimental lossy video coding format; no stable release (discontinued)
Daala – a video coding format and codec
Kate – an overlay codec that can carry animated text and images.
libao – an audio-output library that operates on different platforms
Annodex – an encapsulation format, which interleaves time-continuous data with CMML markup in a streamable manner
Icecast – an open source multi-platform streaming server (software)
Ices – a source client for broadcasting in Ogg Vorbis or MP3 format to an icecast2 server (software)
IceShare – an unfinished peercasting system for Ogg multimedia (no longer maintained)
cdparanoia – an open source CD Audio extraction tool that aims to be bit-perfect (currently unmaintained)
XSPF – an XML Shareable Playlist Format
OpenCodecs
OpenCodecs is a software package for Windows adding DirectShow filters for the Theora and WebM codecs. It adds Theora and WebM support to Windows Media Player and enables HTML5 video in Internet Explorer. It consists of:
dshow, Xiph's DirectShow filters for their suite of Ogg formats, including Theora and Vorbis
webmdshow, the DirectShow filter for WebM maintained by the WebM project
An ActiveX plugin adding HTML5 video capability to Internet Explorer older than version 9
QuickTime Components
Xiph QuickTime Components are implementations of the Ogg container along with the Speex, Theora, FLAC and Vorbis codecs for QuickTime. It allows users to use Ogg files in any application that uses QuickTime for audio and video file support, such as iTunes and QuickTime Player.
Since QuickTime Components does not function in macOS Sierra and above, the project was discontinued in 2016.
References
External links
Free software project foundations in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in Massachusetts | [
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235434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pristigasteridae | Pristigasteridae | Pristigasteridae is a family of ray-finned fish related to the herrings, including the genera Ilisha, Pellona, and Pristigaster. One common name for the taxon is longfin herring. The taxonomic classification of this family is in doubt; it was traditionally divided into two subfamilies, Pelloninae and Pristigasterinae, but molecular data indicates that these are not monophyletic.
References
External links
Fish of the Atlantic Ocean
Fish of the Pacific Ocean
Fish of the Indian Ocean
Ray-finned fish families
Marine fish families | [
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235436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardine | Sardine | "Sardine" and "pilchard" are common names for various small, oily forage fish in the herring family Clupeidae. The term "sardine" was first used in English during the early 15th century, it comes from the Italian island of Sardinia, around which sardines were once abundant.
The terms "sardine" and "pilchard” are not precise, and what is meant depends on the region. The United Kingdom's Sea Fish Industry Authority, for example, classifies sardines as young pilchards. One criterion suggests fish shorter in length than are sardines, and larger fish are pilchards.
The FAO/WHO Codex standard for canned sardines cites 21 species that may be classed as sardines. FishBase, a comprehensive database of information about fish, calls at least six species "pilchard", over a dozen just "sardine", and many more with the two basic names qualified by various adjectives.
Etymology
'Sardine' first appeared in English in the 15th century, a loanword from French sardine, derived from Latin sardina, from Ancient Greek σαρδίνη (sardínē) or σαρδῖνος (sardínos), said to be from the Greek "Sardò" (Σαρδώ), indicating the island of Sardinia. Athenaios quotes a fragmentary passage from Aristotle mentioning the fish sardinos, referring to the sardine or pilchard. However, Sardinia is about distant from Athens; Ernest Klein in his Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (1971) writes, "It is hardly probable that the Greeks would have obtained fish from so far as Sardinia at a time relatively so early as that of Aristotle."
The flesh of some sardines or pilchards is a reddish-brown colour similar to some varieties of red sardonyx or sardine stone; this word derives from σαρδῖον (sardion) with a root meaning 'red' and (according to Pliny) possibly cognate with Sardis, the capital of ancient Lydia (now western Turkey) where it was obtained. However, the name may refer to the reddish-pink colour of the gemstone sard (or carnelian) known to the ancients.
The phrase "packed like sardines" (in a tin) is recorded from 1911. The phrase "...packed up like sardines..." appears in The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction from 1841, and is a translation of "...encaissés comme des sardines" which appears in La Femme, le mari, et l'amant from 1829. Other early appearances of the idiom are "... packed together...like sardines in a tin-box" (1845), and "...packed...like sardines in a can..." (1854).
Genera
Sardines occur in several genera
Genus Dussumieria
Rainbow sardine (Dussumieria acuta)
Slender rainbow sardine (Dussumieria elopsoides)
Genus Escualosa
Slender white sardine (Escualosa elongata)
White sardine (Escualosa thoracata)
Genus Sardina
European pilchard (true sardine) (Sardina pilchardus)
Genus Sardinella
Goldstripe sardinella (Sardinella gibbosa)
Indian oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps)
Round sardinella (Sardinella aurita)
Freshwater sardine (Sardinella tawilis)
Marquesan sardinella (Sardinella marquesensis)
Genus Sardinops
South American pilchard (Sardinops sagax)
Species
Feeding
Sardines feed almost exclusively on zooplankton, "animal plankton", and congregate wherever this is abundant.
Fisheries
Typically, sardines are caught with encircling nets, particularly purse seines. Many modifications of encircling nets are used, including traps or fishing weirs. The latter are stationary enclosures composed of stakes into which schools of sardines are diverted as they swim along the coast. The fish are caught mainly at night, when they approach the surface to feed on plankton. After harvesting, the fish are submerged in brine while they are transported to shore.
Sardines are commercially fished for a variety of uses: for bait; for immediate consumption; for drying, salting, or smoking; and for reduction into fish meal or oil. The chief use of sardines is for human consumption, but fish meal is used as animal feed, while sardine oil has many uses, including the manufacture of paint, varnish, and linoleum.
As food
Sardines are commonly consumed by human beings. Fresh sardines are often grilled, pickled, or smoked, or preserved in cans.
Sardines are rich in vitamins and minerals. A small serving of sardines once a day can provide 13% of vitamin B2; roughly one-quarter of niacin; and about 150% of the recommended daily value of vitamin B12. All B vitamins help to support proper nervous system function and are used for energy metabolism, or converting food into energy. Also, sardines are high in the major minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, and some trace minerals including iron and selenium.
Sardines are also a natural source of marine omega-3 fatty acids, which may reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular disease. Regular consumption of omega-3 fatty acids may reduce the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease. These fatty acids can also lower blood sugar levels. They are also a good source of vitamin D, calcium, vitamin B12, and protein.
Because they are low in the food chain, sardines are very low in contaminants, such as mercury, relative to other fish commonly eaten by humans.
History
History of sardine fishing in the UK
Pilchard fishing and processing became a thriving industry in Cornwall, England from around 1750 to around 1880, after which it went into decline. Catches varied from year to year, and in 1871, the catch was 47,000 hogsheads, while in 1877, only 9,477 hogsheads. A hogshead contained 2,300 to 4,000 pilchards, and when filled with pressed pilchards, weighed 476 lbs. The pilchards were mostly exported to Roman Catholic countries such as Italy and Spain, where they are known as fermades. The chief market for the oil was Bristol, where it was used on machinery.
Since 1997, sardines from Cornwall have been sold as "Cornish sardines", and since March 2010, under EU law, Cornish sardines have Protected Geographical Status. The industry has featured in numerous works of art, particularly by Stanhope Forbes and other Newlyn School artists.
The traditional "Toast to Pilchards" refers to the lucrative export of the fish to Catholic Europe:
Here's health to the Pope, may he live to repent
And add just six months to the term of his Lent
And tell all his vassals from Rome to the Poles,
There's nothing like pilchards for saving their souls!
History of sardine fishing in the United States
In the United States, the sardine canning industry peaked in the 1950s. Since then, the industry has been on the decline. The canneries in Monterey Bay, in what was known as Cannery Row in Monterey County, California (where John Steinbeck's novel of the same name was set), failed in the mid-1950s. The last large sardine cannery in the United States, the Stinson Seafood plant in Prospect Harbor, Maine, closed its doors on 15 April 2010 after 135 years in operation.
In April 2015 the Pacific Fishery Management Council voted to direct NOAA Fisheries Service to halt the current commercial season in Oregon, Washington and California, because of a dramatic collapse in Pacific sardine stocks. The ban affected about 100 fishing boats with sardine permits, although far fewer were actively fishing at the time. The season normally would end June 30. The ban was expected to last for more than a year, and was still in place .
In popular culture
The manner in which sardines can be packed in a can has led to the popular English language saying "packed like sardines", which is used metaphorically to describe situations where people or objects are crowded closely together. The British-Irish poet and comic Spike Milligan satirizes this in his poem "Sardine Submarine", where a sardine's mother describes the unfamiliar sight of a submarine to its offspring as "a tin full of people".
Sardines is also the name of a children's game, where one person hides and each successive person who finds the hidden one packs into the same space until only one is left out, who becomes the next one to hide.
Among the residents of the Mediterranean city of Marseille, the local tendency to exaggerate is linked to a folk tale about a sardine that supposedly blocked the city's port in the 18th century. It was actually blocked by a ship called the "Sartine."
See also
Chasse-marée
Sardine run
References
Further reading
External links
Sardines – Seafood Watch, Monterey Bay Aquarium
Clupeidae
Commercial fish
Oily fish
Fish of Hawaii
Economy of Cornwall
Fish common names
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235441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kala%20namak | Kala namak | Kala namak is a kiln-fired rock salt with a sulphurous, pungent smell used in the Indian subcontinent. It is also known as "Himalayan black salt", Sulemani namak, bire noon, bit loona, bit lobon, kala loon, guma loon, or pada loon, and is manufactured from the salts mined in the regions surrounding the Himalayas.
The condiment is composed largely of sodium chloride, with several other components lending the salt its colour and smell. The smell is mainly due to its sulfur content. Because of the presence of Greigite , Iron(II,III) sulfide) in the mineral, it forms brownish-pink to dark violet translucent crystals when whole. When ground into a powder, its colour ranges from purple to pink.
Kala namak has been praised in Ayurveda and used for its perceived medical qualities.
Production
The raw material for producing Kala Namak was originally obtained from natural halite from mines in Northern India in certain locations of the Himalayas, salt harvested from the North Indian salt lakes of Sambhar or Didwana.
Traditionally, the salt was transformed from its relatively colourless raw natural forms into the dark coloured commercially sold kala namak through a reductive chemical process that transforms some of the naturally occurring sodium sulfate of the raw salt into pungent hydrogen sulfide and sodium sulfide. This involves firing the raw salts in a kiln or furnace for 24 hours while sealed in a ceramic jar with charcoal along with small quantities of harad seeds, amla, bahera, babul bark, or natron. The fired salt melts, the chemical reaction occurs, and the salt is then cooled, stored, and aged prior to sale. Kala namak is prepared in this manner in northern India with production concentrated in Hisar district, Haryana. The salt crystals appear black and are usually ground to a fine powder that is purple.
Although the Kala Namak may have traditionally been chemically produced from impure deposits of salt (sodium chloride) with the required chemicals (small quantities of sodium sulfate, sodium bisulfate and ferric sulfate) and charcoal in a furnace it is now common to simply add the required chemicals to pure salt before firing. Reportedly, it is also possible to create similar products through reductive heat treatment of salt, 5–10% of sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate, and some sugar.
Composition
Kala namak consists primarily of sodium chloride and trace impurities of sodium sulfate, sodium bisulfate, sodium bisulfite, sodium sulfide, iron sulfide and hydrogen sulfide.
Sodium chloride provides kala namak with its salty taste, iron sulfide provides its dark violet hue, and all the sulfur compounds give kala namak its slight savory taste as well as a highly distinctive smell, with hydrogen sulfide being the most prominent contributor to the smell. The acidic bisulfates/bisulfites contribute a mildly sour taste. Although hydrogen sulfide is toxic in high concentrations, the amount present in kala namak used in food is small and thus its effects on health are negligible. Hydrogen sulfide is also one of the components (in trace amounts) of the odor of cooked eggs and cooked, pasteurized, or homogenized milk: its odor is amplified to unpleasant levels in rotten eggs.
Uses
Kala namak is used extensively in South Asian cuisines of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal as a condiment or added to chaats, chutneys, salads, fruit, raitas and many other savory Indian snacks. Chaat masala, an Indian spice blend, is dependent upon black salt for its characteristic sulfurous egg-like aroma. Those who are not accustomed to black salt often describe the smell as resembling flatulence. Black salt is sometimes used sparingly as a topping for fruits or snacks in Pakistan.
Kala Namak is sometimes applied to tofu in vegan egg recipes.
Kala namak is considered a cooling spice in Ayurveda and is used as a laxative and digestive aid. It is also believed to relieve flatulence and heartburn. It is used in Jamu to cure goitres. This salt is also used to treat hysteria and for making toothpastes by combining it with other mineral and plant ingredients. The uses for goitre and hysteria are dubious. Goitre, due to dietary iodine deficiency, would not be remedied unless iodide was present in the natural salt. The very broad term "Hysteria" is now replaced in the DSM with more specific terms such as conversion or histrionic disorders. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration warned a manufacturer of dietary supplements, including one consisting of Himalayan salt, to discontinue marketing the products using unproven claims of health benefits.
See also
Black lava salt
Himalayan salt
Rock salt
References
Edible salt
Ayurvedic medicaments
Indian spices
Spices
Salt industry in India
Pakistani spices
Salt industry in Pakistan | [
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235447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drunkard%27s%20Walk | Drunkard's Walk | Drunkard's Walk may refer to:
Drunkard's Walk (novel), a 1960 science fiction novel by Frederik Pohl
Drunkard's walk, a patchwork pattern made up of squares of fabric with a quarter circle of contrasting fabric in one corner
Drunkard's walk, a type of random walk in which termination conditions lead to a biased ending state
The Drunkard's Walk, a 2008 popular science book by Leonard Mlodinow | [
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235450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine%20Worthies | Nine Worthies | The Nine Worthies are nine historical, scriptural, and legendary personages who personify the ideals of chivalry established in the Middle Ages, whose lives were deemed a valuable study for aspirants to chivalric status. All were commonly referred to as 'Princes', regardless of their historical titles. In French they are called Les Neuf Preux or "Nine Valiants", giving a more specific idea of the moral virtues they exemplified: those of soldierly courage and generalship. In Italy they are i Nove Prodi.
The Nine Worthies include three pagans (Hector, Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar), three Jews (Joshua, David and Judas Maccabeus) and three Christians (King Arthur, Charlemagne and Godfrey of Bouillon).
Origin
They were first described in the early fourteenth century, by Jacques de Longuyon in his Voeux du Paon (1312). Their selection, as Johan Huizinga pointed out, betrays a close connection with the romance genre of chivalry. Neatly divided into a triad of triads, these men were considered to be paragons of chivalry within their particular traditions, whether Pagan, Jewish, or Christian. Longuyon's choices soon became a common theme in the literature and art of the Middle Ages and earned a permanent place in the popular consciousness. The medieval "craving for symmetry" engendered female equivalents, the neuf preuses, who were sometimes added, though the women chosen varied. Eustache Deschamps selected "a group of rather bizarre heroines" selected from fiction and history, among them Penthesilea, Tomyris, Semiramis. Literature and suites of tapestry featured the full complement of eighteen, whose allegorical figures preceded King Henry VI of England in his triumphal royal entry to Paris, 1431. A "tenth worthy" was added by Deschamps, in the figure of Bertrand du Guesclin, the Breton knight to whom France owed recovery from the battles of Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356). Francis I of France still occasionally paraded himself at court dressed in the "antique mode" to identify himself also as one of the Neuf Preux.
The 1459 Ingeram Codex presents the coat of arms of the Nine Worthies among a larger list of attributed arms of exemplary individuals, as the three "better Jews", "best pagans" and "best Christians" alongside the arms attributed to three heroes of King David (glossed as "the first coats of arms"), the Three Magi, the "three mildest princes", the "three worst tyrants" (Nebuchadnezzar, Antiochos Epiphanes and Nero), "three patient ones" (Alphonse the Wise, Job and Saint Eustachius), "three anointed kings" (France, Denmark and Hungary) and "three noble dynasties" (Louis XI of France, called "Louis the Prudent" as Dauphin, Ladislaus I of Hungary, and Otto III, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg of the House of Welf).
Classification
The Nine Worthies comprise a triad of triads as follows:
Pagans
Hector
Alexander the Great
Julius Caesar
Jews
Joshua
David
Judah Maccabee
Christians
King Arthur
Charlemagne
Godfrey of Bouillon
Cultural references
Literature
The Nine Worthies were also a popular subject for masques in Renaissance Europe. In William Shakespeare's play Love's Labour's Lost the comic characters attempt to stage such a masque, but it descends into chaos. The list of Worthies actually named in the play include two not on the original list, Hercules and Pompey the Great. Alexander, Judah Maccabee, and Hector also appear on stage before the show collapses into complete disorder. The worthies are also mentioned in Henry IV, Part 2 in which Doll Tearsheet is so impressed by Falstaff's bravery in fighting Ancient Pistol that she says he is "as valorous as Hector of Troy, worth five of Agamemnon, and ten times better than the Nine Worthies".
Don Quixote evokes the Nine Worthies in Volume I, Chapter 5, telling a peasant (who is trying to get him to admit who he is) "I know that I may be not only those I have named, but all the Twelve Peers of France and even all the Nine Worthies, since my achievements surpass all that they have done all together and each of them on his own account".
Art
The Nine Worthies had not devolved to folk culture even in the seventeenth century, for a frieze of the Nine Worthies, contemporary with Shakespeare's comedy, was painted at the outset of the seventeenth century at North Mymms Place, Hertfordshire, an up-to-date house built by the Coningsby family, 1599.
The Cloisters, in New York City, has important portions of an early 15th-century tapestry series illustrating the surviving five of the Nine Worthies: King Arthur, Joshua, David, Hector, and Julius Caesar.
I Nove Prodi, a fresco by the Maestro del Castello della Manta, an anonymous master, painted c. 1420 in the sala baronale of the Castello della Manta, Saluzzo, Italy. The series also includes depictions of their female counterparts.
Montacute House has sculptures of the Nine Worthies spaced along the upper eastern façade on the exterior of the long gallery piers. These figures are dressed in Roman armour.
Nine Worthy Women
In the late fourteenth century, Lady Worthies began to accompany the Nine Worthies, though usually not individualized and shown as anonymous Amazon-styled warriors. In later years, nine of the "Most Illustrious Ladies of All Ages and Nations" were chosen from scripture, history and legend to be placed alongside their male counterparts, though the choices for the Lady Worthies were not usually standardized and often varied by region, author and artist.
Eustache Deschamps added neuf preuses (women) to the list of neuf preux , including Penthesilea, Tomyris, and Semiramis. Together with their male counterparts, they precede Henry VI as he enters Paris in 1431, and figure in Le Jouvencel (1466). The list of preuses was however less fixed, and not always structured in pagan, Jewish and Christian triads. Thomas III of Saluzzo has: Deiphille, Synoppe, Hippolyte, Menalyppe, Semiramis, Lampetho, Thamarys, Teuta, Penthésilée.
A very fine set of Siennese fifteenth century panel paintings, attributed to the Master of the Griselda Legend and others, now incomplete and widely dispersed, showed male and female worthies - the remaining paintings were reunited in a 2007 exhibition at the National Gallery, London.
In the German Renaissance, Hans Burgkmair made a set of six woodcuts, each showing three of the "Eighteen Worthies". In addition to the usual males, his prints showed the Pagan Lucretia, Veturia and Virginia, the Jewish Esther, Judith and Yael, and the Christian Saints Helena, Bridget of Sweden and Elizabeth of Hungary. Burgkmair was in touch with Augsburg Renaissance Humanist circles, who may have helped choose the group. Apart from Veturia, mother of Coriolanus, who tried to save Rome from defeat by her son, the other pagan two were examples of chastity, responsible for no heroic acts except their defence of their own virtue. In contrast, two of the Jewish women, Judith and Jael, are known for their personal assassination of leaders opposed to Israel. Judith carries a sword in one hand and Holofernes's severed head in the other, and Jael carries the mallet with which she hammered a peg in the head of Sisera. The "Power of Women" and female violence was an interest of German artists at the time, and Lucas van Leyden, Albrecht Altdorfer and others made prints of Jael in the act.
The Christian trio of saints, all very popular in Germany at the time, are all women who had been married - Bridget became an abbess as a widow. In addition, like three of the male worthies, Elizabeth of Hungary was an ancestor of Burgkmair's patron Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Helena was a Roman Empress. Unlike the other two groups, who all face each other, apparently in conversation, these three all look down, and may illustrate the female virtue of silence. Burgkmair's conception was not very widely followed.
Nine Worthies of London
Nine Worthies of London is a book by Richard Johnson, written in 1592, which borrows the theme from the Nine Worthies. The book is subtitled Explaining the Honourable Excise of Armes, the Vertues of the Valiant, and the Memorable Attempts of Magnanimous Minds; Pleasaunt for Gentlemen, not unseemly for Magistrates, and most profitable for Prentises, celebrated the rise of nine famous Londoners through society from the ranks of apprentices or commoners.
The nine were Sir William Walworth, Sir Henry Pritchard, Sir Thomas White, Sir William Sevenoke, Sir John Hawkwood, Sir John Bonham, Christopher Croker, Sir Henry Maleverer of Cornhill, and Sir Hugh Calverley.
The term "Nine Worthies" was later used to refer to nine of the privy councillors of William III: Devonshire, Dorset, Monmouth, Edward Russell, Carmarthen, Pembroke, Nottingham, Marlborough, and Lowther.
See also
Iconography of Charlemagne
Seven Champions of Christendom
Virtuous pagan
References
External links
"The Nine Worthies" presented by Heraldica.org.
Heroes in mythology and legend
Medieval legends
Christian iconography
Cultural lists
Cultural depictions of David
Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar
Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great
Cultural depictions of Charlemagne
Cultural depictions of Godfrey of Bouillon
Arthurian legend
Cultural depictions of the Maccabees
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235451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20walk | Random walk | In mathematics, a random walk is a random process that describes a path that consists of a succession of random steps on some mathematical space.
An elementary example of a random walk is the random walk on the integer number line which starts at 0, and at each step moves +1 or −1 with equal probability. Other examples include the path traced by a molecule as it travels in a liquid or a gas (see Brownian motion), the search path of a foraging animal, or the price of a fluctuating stock and the financial status of a gambler. Random walks have applications to engineering and many scientific fields including ecology, psychology, computer science, physics, chemistry, biology, economics, and sociology. The term random walk was first introduced by Karl Pearson in 1905.
Lattice random walk
A popular random walk model is that of a random walk on a regular lattice, where at each step the location jumps to another site according to some probability distribution. In a simple random walk, the location can only jump to neighboring sites of the lattice, forming a lattice path. In a simple symmetric random walk on a locally finite lattice, the probabilities of the location jumping to each one of its immediate neighbors are the same. The best-studied example is of random walk on the d-dimensional integer lattice (sometimes called the hypercubic lattice) .
If the state space is limited to finite dimensions, the random walk model is called a simple bordered symmetric random walk, and the transition probabilities depend on the location of the state because on margin and corner states the movement is limited.
One-dimensional random walk
An elementary example of a random walk is the random walk on the integer number line, , which starts at 0 and at each step moves +1 or −1 with equal probability.
This walk can be illustrated as follows. A marker is placed at zero on the number line, and a fair coin is flipped. If it lands on heads, the marker is moved one unit to the right. If it lands on tails, the marker is moved one unit to the left. After five flips, the marker could now be on -5, -3, -1, 1, 3, 5. With five flips, three heads and two tails, in any order, it will land on 1. There are 10 ways of landing on 1 (by flipping three heads and two tails), 10 ways of landing on −1 (by flipping three tails and two heads), 5 ways of landing on 3 (by flipping four heads and one tail), 5 ways of landing on −3 (by flipping four tails and one head), 1 way of landing on 5 (by flipping five heads), and 1 way of landing on −5 (by flipping five tails). See the figure below for an illustration of the possible outcomes of 5 flips.
To define this walk formally, take independent random variables , where each variable is either 1 or −1, with a 50% probability for either value, and set and The series is called the simple random walk on . This series (the sum of the sequence of −1s and 1s) gives the net distance walked, if each part of the walk is of length one.
The expectation of is zero. That is, the mean of all coin flips approaches zero as the number of flips increases. This follows by the finite additivity property of expectation:
A similar calculation, using the independence of the random variables and the fact that , shows that:
This hints that , the expected translation distance after n steps, should be of the order of . In fact,
This result shows that diffusion is ineffective for mixing because of the way the square root behaves for large .
To answer the question of how many times will a random walk cross a boundary line if permitted to continue walking forever, a simple random walk on will cross every point an infinite number of times. This result has many names: the level-crossing phenomenon, recurrence or the gambler's ruin. The reason for the last name is as follows: a gambler with a finite amount of money will eventually lose when playing a fair game against a bank with an infinite amount of money. The gambler's money will perform a random walk, and it will reach zero at some point, and the game will be over.
If a and b are positive integers, then the expected number of steps until a one-dimensional simple random walk starting at 0 first hits b or −a is ab. The probability that this walk will hit b before −a is , which can be derived from the fact that simple random walk is a martingale. And these expectations and hitting probabilities can be computed in in the general one-dimensional random walk Markov chain.
Some of the results mentioned above can be derived from properties of Pascal's triangle. The number of different walks of n steps where each step is +1 or −1 is 2n. For the simple random walk, each of these walks is equally likely.
In order for Sn to be equal to a number k it is necessary and sufficient that the number of +1 in the walk exceeds those of −1 by k. It follows +1 must appear (n + k)/2 times among n steps of a walk, hence the number of walks which satisfy equals the number of ways of choosing (n + k)/2 elements from an n element set, denoted . For this to have meaning, it is necessary that n + k be an even number, which implies n and k are either both even or both odd. Therefore, the probability that is equal to . By representing entries of Pascal's triangle in terms of factorials and using Stirling's formula, one can obtain good estimates for these probabilities for large values of .
If space is confined to + for brevity, the number of ways in which a random walk will land on any given number having five flips can be shown as {0,5,0,4,0,1}.
This relation with Pascal's triangle is demonstrated for small values of n. At zero turns, the only possibility will be to remain at zero. However, at one turn, there is one chance of landing on −1 or one chance of landing on 1. At two turns, a marker at 1 could move to 2 or back to zero. A marker at −1, could move to −2 or back to zero. Therefore, there is one chance of landing on −2, two chances of landing on zero, and one chance of landing on 2.
The central limit theorem and the law of the iterated logarithm describe important aspects of the behavior of simple random walks on . In particular, the former entails that as n increases, the probabilities (proportional to the numbers in each row) approach a normal distribution.
As a direct generalization, one can consider random walks on crystal lattices (infinite-fold abelian covering graphs over finite graphs). Actually it is possible to establish the central limit theorem and large deviation theorem in this setting.
As a Markov chain
A one-dimensional random walk can also be looked at as a Markov chain whose state space is given by the integers For some number p satisfying , the transition probabilities (the probability Pi,j of moving from state i to state j) are given by
Heterogeneous generalization
Higher dimensions
In higher dimensions, the set of randomly walked points has interesting geometric properties. In fact, one gets a discrete fractal, that is, a set which exhibits stochastic self-similarity on large scales. On small scales, one can observe "jaggedness" resulting from the grid on which the walk is performed. The trajectory of a random walk is the collection of points visited, considered as a set with disregard to when the walk arrived at the point. In one dimension, the trajectory is simply all points between the minimum height and the maximum height the walk achieved (both are, on average, on the order of ).
To visualize the two-dimensional case, one can imagine a person walking randomly around a city. The city is effectively infinite and arranged in a square grid of sidewalks. At every intersection, the person randomly chooses one of the four possible routes (including the one originally travelled from). Formally, this is a random walk on the set of all points in the plane with integer coordinates.
To answer the question of the person ever getting back to the original starting point of the walk, this is the 2-dimensional equivalent of the level-crossing problem discussed above. In 1921 George Pólya proved that the person almost surely would in a 2-dimensional random walk, but for 3 dimensions or higher, the probability of returning to the origin decreases as the number of dimensions increases. In 3 dimensions, the probability decreases to roughly 34%. The mathematician Shizuo Kakutani was known to refer to this result with the following quote: "A drunk man will find his way home, but a drunk bird may get lost forever".
Another variation of this question which was also asked by Pólya is: "if two people leave the same starting point, then will they ever meet again?" It can be shown that the difference between their locations (two independent random walks) is also a simple random walk, so they almost surely meet again in a 2-dimensional walk, but for 3 dimensions and higher the probability decreases with the number of the dimensions. Paul Erdős and Samuel James Taylor also showed in 1960 that for dimensions less or equal than 4, two independent random walks starting from any two given points have infinitely many intersections almost surely, but for dimensions higher than 5, they almost surely intersect only finitely often.
The asymptotic function for a two-dimensional random walk as the number of steps increases is given by a Rayleigh distribution. The probability distribution is a function of the radius from the origin and the step length is constant for each step.
Relation to Wiener process
A Wiener process is a stochastic process with similar behavior to Brownian motion, the physical phenomenon of a minute particle diffusing in a fluid. (Sometimes the Wiener process is called "Brownian motion", although this is strictly speaking a confusion of a model with the phenomenon being modeled.)
A Wiener process is the scaling limit of random walk in dimension 1. This means that if there is a random walk with very small steps, there is an approximation to a Wiener process (and, less accurately, to Brownian motion). To be more precise, if the step size is ε, one needs to take a walk of length L/ε2 to approximate a Wiener length of L. As the step size tends to 0 (and the number of steps increases proportionally), random walk converges to a Wiener process in an appropriate sense. Formally, if B is the space of all paths of length L with the maximum topology, and if M is the space of measure over B with the norm topology, then the convergence is in the space M. Similarly, a Wiener process in several dimensions is the scaling limit of random walk in the same number of dimensions.
A random walk is a discrete fractal (a function with integer dimensions; 1, 2, ...), but a Wiener process trajectory is a true fractal, and there is a connection between the two. For example, take a random walk until it hits a circle of radius r times the step length. The average number of steps it performs is r2. This fact is the discrete version of the fact that a Wiener process walk is a fractal of Hausdorff dimension 2.
In two dimensions, the average number of points the same random walk has on the boundary of its trajectory is r4/3. This corresponds to the fact that the boundary of the trajectory of a Wiener process is a fractal of dimension 4/3, a fact predicted by Mandelbrot using simulations but proved only in 2000
by Lawler, Schramm and Werner.
A Wiener process enjoys many symmetries a random walk does not. For example, a Wiener process walk is invariant to rotations, but the random walk is not, since the underlying grid is not (random walk is invariant to rotations by 90 degrees, but Wiener processes are invariant to rotations by, for example, 17 degrees too). This means that in many cases, problems on a random walk are easier to solve by translating them to a Wiener process, solving the problem there, and then translating back. On the other hand, some problems are easier to solve with random walks due to its discrete nature.
Random walk and Wiener process can be coupled, namely manifested on the same probability space in a dependent way that forces them to be quite close. The simplest such coupling is the Skorokhod embedding, but there exist more precise couplings, such as Komlós–Major–Tusnády approximation theorem.
The convergence of a random walk toward the Wiener process is controlled by the central limit theorem, and by Donsker's theorem. For a particle in a known fixed position at t = 0, the central limit theorem tells us that after a large number of independent steps in the random walk, the walker's position is distributed according to a normal distribution of total variance:
where t is the time elapsed since the start of the random walk, is the size of a step of the random walk, and is the time elapsed between two successive steps.
This corresponds to the Green's function of the diffusion equation that controls the Wiener process, which suggests that, after a large number of steps, the random walk converges toward a Wiener process.
In 3D, the variance corresponding to the Green's function of the diffusion equation is:
By equalizing this quantity with the variance associated to the position of the random walker, one obtains the equivalent diffusion coefficient to be considered for the asymptotic Wiener process toward which the random walk converges after a large number of steps:
(valid only in 3D).
The two expressions of the variance above correspond to the distribution associated to the vector that links the two ends of the random walk, in 3D. The variance associated to each component , or is only one third of this value (still in 3D).
For 2D:
For 1D:
Gaussian random walk
A random walk having a step size that varies according to a normal distribution is used as a model for real-world time series data such as financial markets. The Black–Scholes formula for modeling option prices, for example, uses a Gaussian random walk as an underlying assumption.
Here, the step size is the inverse cumulative normal distribution where 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 is a uniformly distributed random number, and μ and σ are the mean and standard deviations of the normal distribution, respectively.
If μ is nonzero, the random walk will vary about a linear trend. If vs is the starting value of the random walk, the expected value after n steps will be vs + nμ.
For the special case where μ is equal to zero, after n steps, the translation distance's probability distribution is given by N(0, nσ2), where N() is the notation for the normal distribution, n is the number of steps, and σ is from the inverse cumulative normal distribution as given above.
Proof: The Gaussian random walk can be thought of as the sum of a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables, Xi from the inverse cumulative normal distribution with mean equal zero and σ of the original inverse cumulative normal distribution:
but we have the distribution for the sum of two independent normally distributed random variables, , is given by
(see here).
In our case, and yield
By induction, for n steps we have
For steps distributed according to any distribution with zero mean and a finite variance (not necessarily just a normal distribution), the root mean square translation distance after n steps is
But for the Gaussian random walk, this is just the standard deviation of the translation distance's distribution after n steps. Hence, if μ is equal to zero, and since the root mean square(RMS) translation distance is one standard deviation, there is 68.27% probability that the RMS translation distance after n steps will fall between . Likewise, there is 50% probability that the translation distance after n steps will fall between .
Anomalous diffusion
In disordered systems such as porous media and fractals may not be proportional to but to . The exponent is called the anomalous diffusion exponent and can be larger or smaller than 2. Anomalous diffusion may also be expressed as σr2 ~ Dtα where α is the anomaly parameter. Some diffusions in random environment are even proportional to a power of the logarithm of the time, see for example Sinai's walk or Brox diffusion.
Number of distinct sites
The number of distinct sites visited by a single random walker has been studied extensively for square and cubic lattices and for fractals. This quantity is useful for the analysis of problems of trapping and kinetic reactions. It is also related to the vibrational density of states, diffusion reactions processes
and spread of populations in ecology.
The generalization of this problem to the number of
distinct sites visited by random walkers, , has recently
been studied for d-dimensional Euclidean lattices. The number of distinct sites visited by N walkers is not simply related to the number of distinct sites visited by each walker.
Information rate
The information rate of a Gaussian random walk with respect to the squared error distance, i.e. its quadratic rate distortion function, is given parametrically by
where . Therefore, it is impossible to encode using a binary code of less than bits and recover it with expected mean squared error less than . On the other hand, for any , there exists an large enough and a binary code of no more than distinct elements such that the expected mean squared error in recovering from this code is at most .
Applications
As mentioned the range of natural phenomena which have been subject to attempts at description by some flavour of random walks is considerable, particularly in physics and chemistry, materials science, and biology. The following are some specific applications of random walks:
In financial economics, the random walk hypothesis is used to model shares prices and other factors. Empirical studies found some deviations from this theoretical model, especially in short term and long term correlations. See share prices.
In population genetics, random walk describes the statistical properties of genetic drift
In physics, random walks are used as simplified models of physical Brownian motion and diffusion such as the random movement of molecules in liquids and gases. See for example diffusion-limited aggregation. Also in physics, random walks and some of the self interacting walks play a role in quantum field theory.
In mathematical ecology, random walks are used to describe individual animal movements, to empirically support processes of biodiffusion, and occasionally to model population dynamics.
In polymer physics, random walk describes an ideal chain. It is the simplest model to study polymers.
In other fields of mathematics, random walk is used to calculate solutions to Laplace's equation, to estimate the harmonic measure, and for various constructions in analysis and combinatorics.
In computer science, random walks are used to estimate the size of the Web.
In image segmentation, random walks are used to determine the labels (i.e., "object" or "background") to associate with each pixel. This algorithm is typically referred to as the random walker segmentation algorithm.
In brain research, random walks and reinforced random walks are used to model cascades of neuron firing in the brain.
In vision science, ocular drift tends to behave like a random walk. According to some authors, fixational eye movements in general are also well described by a random walk.
In psychology, random walks explain accurately the relation between the time needed to make a decision and the probability that a certain decision will be made.
Random walks can be used to sample from a state space which is unknown or very large, for example to pick a random page off the internet. In computer science, this method is known as Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC).
In wireless networking, a random walk is used to model node movement.
Motile bacteria engage in a biased random walks.
In physics, random walks underlie the method of Fermi estimation.
On the web, the Twitter website uses random walks to make suggestions of whom to follow
Dave Bayer and Persi Diaconis have proven that 7 riffle shuffles are enough to mix a pack of cards (see more details under shuffle). This result translates to a statement about random walk on the symmetric group which is what they prove, with a crucial use of the group structure via Fourier analysis.
Variants
A number of types of stochastic processes have been considered that are similar to the pure random walks but where the simple structure is allowed to be more generalized. The pure structure can be characterized by the steps being defined by independent and identically distributed random variables. Random walks can take place on a variety of spaces, such as graphs, the integers, the real line, the plane or higher-dimensional vector spaces, on curved surfaces or higher-dimensional Riemannian manifolds, and on groups. It is also possible to define random walks which take their steps at random times, and in that case, the position has to be defined for all times . Specific cases or limits of random walks include the Lévy flight and diffusion models such as Brownian motion.
On graphs
A random walk of length k on a possibly infinite graph G with a root 0 is a stochastic process with random variables such that and
is a vertex chosen uniformly at random from the neighbors of .
Then the number is the probability that a random walk of length k starting at v ends at w.
In particular, if G is a graph with root 0, is the probability that a -step random walk returns to 0.
Building on the analogy from the earlier section on higher dimensions, assume now that our city is no longer a perfect square grid. When our person reaches a certain junction, he picks between the variously available roads with equal probability. Thus, if the junction has seven exits the person will go to each one with probability one-seventh. This is a random walk on a graph. Will our person reach his home? It turns out that under rather mild conditions, the answer is still yes, but depending on the graph, the answer to the variant question 'Will two persons meet again?' may not be that they meet infinitely often almost surely.
An example of a case where the person will reach his home almost surely is when the lengths of all the blocks are between a and b (where a and b are any two finite positive numbers). Notice that we do not assume that the graph is planar, i.e. the city may contain tunnels and bridges. One way to prove this result is using the connection to electrical networks. Take a map of the city and place a one ohm resistor on every block. Now measure the "resistance between a point and infinity". In other words, choose some number R and take all the points in the electrical network with distance bigger than R from our point and wire them together. This is now a finite electrical network, and we may measure the resistance from our point to the wired points. Take R to infinity. The limit is called the resistance between a point and infinity. It turns out that the following is true (an elementary proof can be found in the book by Doyle and Snell):
Theorem: a graph is transient if and only if the resistance between a point and infinity is finite. It is not important which point is chosen if the graph is connected.
In other words, in a transient system, one only needs to overcome a finite resistance to get to infinity from any point. In a recurrent system, the resistance from any point to infinity is infinite.
This characterization of transience and recurrence is very useful, and specifically it allows us to analyze the case of a city drawn in the plane with the distances bounded.
A random walk on a graph is a very special case of a Markov chain. Unlike a general Markov chain, random walk on a graph enjoys a property called time symmetry or reversibility. Roughly speaking, this property, also called the principle of detailed balance, means that the probabilities to traverse a given path in one direction or the other have a very simple connection between them (if the graph is regular, they are just equal). This property has important consequences.
Starting in the 1980s, much research has gone into connecting properties of the graph to random walks. In addition to the electrical network connection described above, there are important connections to isoperimetric inequalities, see more here, functional inequalities such as Sobolev and Poincaré inequalities and properties of solutions of Laplace's equation. A significant portion of this research was focused on Cayley graphs of finitely generated groups. In many cases these discrete results carry over to, or are derived from manifolds and Lie groups.
In the context of random graphs, particularly that of the Erdős–Rényi model, analytical results to some properties of random walkers have been obtained. These include the distribution of first and last hitting times of the walker, where the first hitting time is given by the first time the walker steps into a previously visited site of the graph, and the last hitting time corresponds the first time the walker cannot perform an additional move without revisiting a previously visited site.
A good reference for random walk on graphs is the online book by Aldous and Fill. For groups see the book of Woess.
If the transition kernel is itself random (based on an environment ) then the random walk is called a "random walk in random environment". When the law of the random walk includes the randomness of , the law is called the annealed law; on the other hand, if is seen as fixed, the law is called a quenched law. See the book of Hughes, the book of Revesz, or the lecture notes of Zeitouni.
We can think about choosing every possible edge with the same probability as maximizing uncertainty (entropy) locally. We could also do it globally – in maximal entropy random walk (MERW) we want all paths to be equally probable, or in other words: for every two vertexes, each path of given length is equally probable. This random walk has much stronger localization properties.
Self-interacting random walks
There are a number of interesting models of random paths in which each step depends on the past in a complicated manner. All are more complex for solving analytically than the usual random walk; still, the behavior of any model of a random walker is obtainable using computers. Examples include:
The self-avoiding walk.
The self-avoiding walk of length n on is the random n-step path which starts at the origin, makes transitions only between adjacent sites in , never revisit a site, and is chosen uniformly among all such paths. In two dimensions, due to self-trapping, a typical self-avoiding walk is very short, while in higher dimension it grows beyond all bounds.
This model has often been used in polymer physics (since the 1960s).
The loop-erased random walk.
The reinforced random walk.
The exploration process.
The multiagent random walk.
Long-range correlated walks
Long-range correlated time series are found in many biological, climatological and economic systems.
Heartbeat records
Non-coding DNA sequences
Volatility time series of stocks
Temperature records around the globe
Biased random walks on graphs
Maximal entropy random walk
Random walk chosen to maximize entropy rate, has much stronger localization properties.
Correlated random walks
Random walks where the direction of movement at one time is correlated with the direction of movement at the next time. It is used to model animal movements.
See also
Branching random walk
Brownian motion
Law of the iterated logarithm
Lévy flight
Lévy flight foraging hypothesis
Loop-erased random walk
Maximal entropy random walk
Self-avoiding walk
Unit root
References
Bibliography
Ben-Avraham D.; Havlin S., Diffusion and Reactions in Fractals and Disordered Systems, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Feller, William (1968), An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications (Volume 1).
Hughes, Barry D. (1996), Random Walks and Random Environments, Oxford University Press.
Norris, James (1998), Markov Chains, Cambridge University Press.
Pólya G.(1921), "Über eine Aufgabe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung betreffend die Irrfahrt im Strassennetz", Mathematische Annalen, 84(1–2):149–160, March 1921.
Révész, Pal (2013), Random Walk in Random and Non-random Environments (Third Edition), World Scientific Pub Co.
Weiss G. Aspects and Applications of the Random Walk, North-Holland, 1994.
Woess, Wolfgang (2000), Random Walks on Infinite Graphs and Groups, Cambridge tracts in mathematics 138, Cambridge University Press.
External links
Pólya's Random Walk Constants
Random walk in Java Applet
Quantum random walk
Gaussian random walk estimator
Electron Conductance Models Using Maximal Entropy Random Walks Wolfram Demonstrations Project
Stochastic processes
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235455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy%20of%20Lancaster | Duchy of Lancaster | The Duchy of Lancaster is the private estate of the British sovereign as Duke of Lancaster. The principal purpose of the estate is to provide a source of independent income to the sovereign. The estate consists of a portfolio of lands, properties and assets held in trust for the sovereign and is administered separately from the Crown Estate. The duchy consists of of land holdings (including rural estates and farmland), urban developments, historic buildings and some commercial properties across England and Wales, particularly in Cheshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Lancashire and the Savoy Estate in London. The Duchy of Lancaster is one of two royal duchies: the other is the Duchy of Cornwall, which provides income to the Duke of Cornwall, which is traditionally held by the Prince of Wales.
In the financial year ending 31 March 2018, the estate was valued at about £534 million. The net income of the Duchy is paid to the reigning sovereign as Duke of Lancaster: it amounts to about £20 million per year. As the Duchy is an inalienable asset of the Crown held in trust for future sovereigns, the sovereign is not entitled to the portfolio's capital or capital profits. The Duchy of Lancaster is not subject to tax, although the Sovereign has voluntarily paid both income and capital gains tax since 1993. As such, the income received by the Privy Purse, of which income from the Duchy forms a significant part, is taxed once official expenditures have been deducted.
The Duchy is administered on behalf of the sovereign by the chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a government minister appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the prime minister, and by the clerk of the Council. Day-to-day management of the estate's properties and investments is delegated to officers of the Duchy Council, while the Chancellor is answerable to Parliament for the effective running of the estate.
The Duchy exercises some powers and ceremonial duties of the Crown in the historic county of Lancashire, which includes the current Lancashire ceremonial county, Greater Manchester and Merseyside as well as the Furness area of Cumbria. Since the Local Government Act 1972, The Queen in Right of the Duchy appoints the High Sheriffs and Lords Lieutenant in Greater Manchester, Merseyside and Lancashire.
History
As the Lancaster inheritance, the estate dates to 1265, when Henry III granted his younger son, Edmund Crouchback, lands forfeited by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. In 1266, the estates of Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby, another protagonist in the Second Barons' War, were added. In 1267 the estate was granted as the County, Honour and Castle of Lancaster. In 1284 Edmund was given the Manor of Savoy by his mother, Eleanor of Provence, the niece of the original grantee, Peter II, Count of Savoy. Edward III raised Lancashire into a county palatine in 1351, and the holder, Henry of Grosmont, Edmund's grandson, was created Duke of Lancaster. After his death a charter of 1362 conferred the dukedom on his son-in-law John of Gaunt, Earl of Lancaster, and the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten for ever.
In 1399 the Duchy of Lancaster, held by John of Gaunt's son Henry of Bolingbroke, merged with the crown on his appropriation of the throne (after the dispossession from Richard II). His first act as Henry IV was to declare that the Lancastrian inheritance be held separately from the other possessions of the Crown, and should descend to male heirs. This separation of identities was confirmed in 1461 by Edward IV when he incorporated the inheritance and the palatinate responsibilities under the title of the Duchy of Lancaster, and stipulated that it be held separate from other inheritances by him and his heirs, but would however be inherited with the Crown, to which it was forfeited on the attainder of Henry VI. The Duchy thereafter passed to the reigning monarch, and in 1760 its separate identity preserved it from being surrendered with the Crown Estates in exchange for the civil list. It is primarily a landed inheritance belonging to the reigning sovereign (now Elizabeth II).
In 2011, the Duchy established a rebalancing asset plan and sold most of the Winmarleigh estates farms in Lancashire, and donated a plot of land to the Winmarleigh Village Hall committee by June 2012.
In 2017, the Paradise Papers revealed that the Duchy held investments in two offshore financial centres, the Cayman Islands and Bermuda. Both are British Overseas Territories of which Queen Elizabeth II is monarch, and nominally appoints governors. Britain handles foreign policy for both islands to a large extent, but Bermuda has been self-governing since 1620. The Duchy's investments included First Quench Retailing off-licences and rent-to-own retailer BrightHouse. Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn posited whether the Queen should apologise, saying anyone with money offshore for tax avoidance should "not just apologise for it, [but] recognise what it does to our society". A spokesman for the Duchy said that all of their investments are audited and legitimate and that the Queen voluntarily pays taxes on income she receives from Duchy investments.
Role
The chief officer is the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a position sometimes held by a cabinet minister but always a ministerial post. For at least the last two centuries the estate has been run by a deputy; its chancellor has rarely had any significant duties pertaining to its management but is available as a minister without portfolio.
The monarch derives the privy purse from the revenues of the Duchy. The surplus for the year ended 31 March 2015 was £16 million and the Duchy was valued at just over £472 million. Its land holdings are not to be confused with the Crown Estate, whose revenues have been handed to the Treasury since the 18th century in exchange for the receipt of a yearly payment.
The Duchy Council's primary officers carrying out the estate's day-to-day duties are the Clerk of the Council (the Chief Executive Officer), the Chairman of the Council, and the Chief Finance Officer. The chancellor is responsible for the appointment of the steward and the barmaster of the barmote courts on behalf of the Queen in right of Her Duchy.
Royal prerogative
Both the Duchy of Lancaster and the Duchy of Cornwall have special legal rights not available to other estates held by peers or counties palatine, for example, bona vacantia operates to the advantage of the Duke rather than the Crown throughout the Duchy. Proceeds from bona vacantia in the Duchy are divided between two registered charities. Bona vacantia arises, in origin, by virtue of the Royal Prerogative and in some respects remains the position although the right to bona vacantia of the two major categories is now based on statute: Administration of Estates Act 1925 and the Companies Act 2006.
There are separate attorneys general for the estates. Generally the exemptions tend to follow the same line: any rights pertaining to the Crown in most areas of the country instead pertain to the Duke in the Duchy. Generally, any Act of Parliament relating to rights of this kind will specifically set out special exemptions for the two Duchies and specify the extent to which they apply. They are subject to strict regulation, especially with respect to auditing and alienation of land.
Holdings
The holdings of the Duchy are divided into six units called surveys, five rural and one urban. The rural surveys make up most of the assets and area but the urban survey generates a greater income. The holdings were accrued over time through marriage, inheritance, gift and confiscation, and in modern times by purchase and sale.
The holdings include the Lancashire foreshore from Barrow in Furness in the north to the midpoint of the River Mersey in the south.
Minerals
Lancaster Castle
The Lancashire Survey is made up of five rural estates comprising a total of 3,900 hectares (15 sq. mi.)
Myerscough Estate – held since the 13th century.
Salwick Estate
Wyreside Estate
Whitewell Estate – 2,400 hectares (9¼ sq. mi.) in the Forest of Bowland
The Cheshire Survey
Crewe principal estate – now 1,380 hectares (5¼ sq. mi.)
Crewe Hall Farm offices
The Southern Survey – located mainly in Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire, 3,382 hectares (13 sq. mi.) of farm land
Higham Ferrers estate, Northamptonshire – acquired in 1266 plus 2 additional farms, contains a Vocational Skills Academy, a venture with Moulton College and an 18-hole golf course. In November 2018, an agreement between the Duchy and the AFC Rushden & Diamonds football club resulted in land set aside for the purpose of creating a football field and facilities for the club.
Ogmore Estate – 1,500 hectares (5¾ sq. mi.) & has an active limestone quarry, a Castle and a golf course
Castleton estate – 114 hectares (282 acres) of grazing land
Peveril Castle, Derbyshire
Peak Cavern tourist attraction
historic mineral rights
Bolingbroke Castle, Lincolnshire
Park Farm
Donington
Quadring Fen Farm
Quadring
Drayton House Farm, Swineshead
The Staffordshire Survey – 3,000 hectares (11½ sq. mi.) in Staffordshire, 60 let houses, including a saw mill, equestrian centres, offices and a private airfield, 600 acres of forest
Tutbury Castle, Staffordshire
The Yorkshire Survey – 6,800 hectares (26¼ sq. mi.)
Goathland estate – 4,100 hectares (15¾ sq. mi.)
heather moorland, managed as grouse moors, most of which are a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
Cloughton estate – 1,000 hectares (3¾ sq. mi.) of Arable land on the Yorkshire coast
Scalby Lodge
Pickering estate – mix of arable and livestock farming
Pickering Castle, North Yorkshire
Pontefract estate – a single large farm and several commercial properties
Pontefract Castle
Urban Survey
The Savoy Estate, London
Savoy Chapel
Wellington House
Harrogate Estate – a care home, hotel and a school
Harrogate Ladies College
The Stray, 103 hectares (255 acres) of open space
Granville and Villiers House, residential complex
Revenue surplus/income
Revenue surplus or income from the Duchy of Lancaster has increased considerably over time. In 1952, the surplus was £100,000 a year. Almost 50 years later in 2000, the revenue surplus had increased to £5.8M. In 2010, the revenue surplus stood at £13.2M and by 2017, the surplus had grown to £19.2M.
See also
Clerk of the Council of the Duchy of Lancaster
References
Further reading
Somerville, R. (1936). "The Cowcher Books of the Duchy of Lancaster". English Historical Review. 51: 598–615.
Somerville, R. (1941). "The Duchy of Lancaster Council and Court of Duchy Chamber". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 4th Ser., 23: 159–77.
Somerville, R. (1946). The Duchy of Lancaster. London.
Somerville, R. (1947). "Duchy of Lancaster Records". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 4th Ser., 29: 1–17.
Somerville, R. (1951). "Duchy and County Palatine of Lancaster". Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. 103: 59–67.
Somerville, R. (1953–70). History of the Duchy of Lancaster. 2 vols, London.
Somerville, R. (1972). Office-Holders in the Duchy and County Palatine of Lancaster from 1603. Chichester.
Somerville, R. (1975). "Ordinances for the Duchy of Lancaster". Camden Miscellany XXVI. Camden, 4th Ser., 14: 1–29.
External links
Duchy of Lancaster – official website
The Privy Purse and the Duchy of Lancaster
UK Parliamentary Archives, Duchy of Lancaster Plans
1351 establishments in England
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
History of Lancashire
Lancashire
Royal duchies of England
British landowners
Monarchy and money | [
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235457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor%20of%20the%20Duchy%20of%20Lancaster | Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster | The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster is a ministerial office in the Government of the United Kingdom. The position is currently the second highest ranking minister in the Cabinet Office, immediately after the Prime Minister, and senior to the Minister for the Cabinet Office. The role includes as part of its duties the administration of the estates and rents of the Duchy of Lancaster.
Formally, the chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster is appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the prime minister, and is answerable to Parliament for the governance of the Duchy. In modern times, however, the involvement of the chancellor in the running of the day-to-day affairs of the Duchy is slight, and the office is held by a senior politician whose main role is usually quite different. In practical terms, it is a sinecure, allowing the prime minister to appoint an additional minister without portfolio to the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. In September 2021 the role was endowed with responsibility for advising the prime minister on policy development and implementation, particularly around Brexit.
The corresponding shadow minister is the shadow chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
History
Originally, the chancellor was the chief officer in the daily management of the Duchy of Lancaster and the County Palatine of Lancaster (a county palatine merged into the Crown in 1399), but that estate is now run by a deputy, leaving the chancellor as a member of the Cabinet with little obligation in regard to the chancellorship. The position has often been given to a junior Cabinet minister with responsibilities in a particular area of policy for which there is no department with an appropriate portfolio.
In 1491 the office of Vice-Chancellor of the County Palatine of Lancaster was created. The position is now held by a judge of the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice, who sits in the north west of England, and is no longer appointed to that position as legal officer of the Duchy.
Modern times
Under the Promissory Oaths Act 1868, the chancellor is required to take the oath of allegiance and the Official Oath. The holder of the sinecure is a minister without portfolio; Sir Oswald Mosley, for example, focused on unemployment after being appointed to the position in 1929 during the second MacDonald ministry.
After the Dardanelles campaign, Winston Churchill was in 1915 appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a humiliating loss of the trappings of power.
The chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster is entitled to a salary under the Ministerial and other Salaries Act 1975, but section 3 of the Act provides that the salary "shall be reduced by the amount of the salary payable to him otherwise than out of moneys so provided in respect of his office". The Office of the chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster is part of the Cabinet Office.
From 1997 until 2009, the holder of the title also served as the Minister for the Cabinet Office. This applied in the case of Alan Milburn, who was given the title by Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2004 and at the same time rejoined the Cabinet. However, in the reshuffle of 5 June 2009, the chancellorship went to the Leader of the House of Lords, the Baroness Royall. In David Cameron's first cabinet, the chancellorship remained with the leader of the House of Lords until 2014.
Steve Barclay took over the post from Michael Gove in the 2021 reshuffle. He had previously been the last Secretary of State for the Department for Exiting the European Union. Prior to Michael Gove the position was most recently held by David Lidington following a Cabinet reshuffle on 8 January 2018. The holder of the post prior to him was Patrick McLoughlin who was given the post following Theresa May's appointment as Prime Minister. Before this the holder of the post was Oliver Letwin, who was appointed in July 2014 when he was also Minister for Government Policy (2010–2015); following the 2015 general election, he was also given overall responsibility for the Cabinet Office and made a full member of the Cabinet.
Gove, as CDL, was given responsibility over the Cabinet Office, but did not initially hold the ministerial position of Minister for the Cabinet Office (which is on no statutory footing), though he was later granted that title in the 2020 Cabinet reshuffle.
Barclay was appointed to the post on 15 September 2021.
Responsibilities
In addition to administering the estates and rents of the Duchy of Lancaster, the chancellor is also a member of the cabinet and advises the prime minister on the development and implementation of government policy. In addition, the Chancellor is presently responsible for:
Chairing and deputy chairing Cabinet committees
Implementing government business
Overseeing committees and implementation taskforces, devolution consequences of the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, and constitutional affairs
Providing oversight to all Cabinet Office policies
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
See also
Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal
Minister without portfolio
County Palatine of Lancaster
Notes
This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under the Open Government Licence v3.0. © Crown copyright.
Ceremonial officers in the United Kingdom
Executive ministers
Lists of government ministers of the United Kingdom
Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom | [
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235459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathay%20Dragon | Cathay Dragon | Hong Kong Dragon Airlines Limited (), also known as Cathay Dragon () and Dragonair, was a Hong Kong-based international regional airline, with its corporate headquarters and main hub at Hong Kong International Airport. In the final year before ceased flying, the airline operated a scheduled passenger network to around 50 destinations in 14 countries and territories across Asia. Additionally, the airline had three codeshares on routes served by partner airlines. It had an all Airbus fleet of 35 aircraft, consisting of A320s, A321s, and A330s.
Cathay Dragon was a wholly owned subsidiary of Hong Kong's flag carrier, Cathay Pacific, and was an affiliate member of the Oneworld airline alliance. The airline was founded on 24 May 1985, by Chao Kuang Piu, who was most recently the airline's honorary chairman. Its maiden flight departed Hong Kong for Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia after being granted an air operator's certificate (AOC) by the Hong Kong Government in July 1985. In 2010, Dragonair, together with its parent, Cathay Pacific, operated over 138,000 flights, carried nearly 27 million passengers and over 1.80 billion kg of cargo and mail.
History
Early beginning
The airline was established in Hong Kong on 24 May 1985 on the initiative of Kuang-Piu Chao, the airline's present honorary chairman, as a subsidiary of Hong Kong Macau International Investment Co. It started operations in July 1985 with a Boeing 737-200 service from Kai Tak International Airport to Kota Kinabalu International Airport in Malaysia, after receiving an Air Operator's Certificate (AOC) from the Hong Kong Government. The airline began services to Phuket, Thailand, as well as six secondary cities in mainland China on a regular charter basis in 1986. In 1987, the airline became the first Hong Kong-based airline to join as an active member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA).
Dragonair was the first local competitor for Hong Kong's largest airline, Cathay Pacific, in forty years; and since the airline's inception, Cathay Pacific fought vigorously to block the airline's flight-slot applications. In January 1987, the airline announced its expansion by the order of two long-range McDonnell Douglas MD-11 aircraft. However, after a heated hearing before Hong Kong's Air Transport Licensing Authority, the Hong Kong Government adopted a one route-one airline policy, which lasted until 2001. The airline was not able to gain the scheduled routes it needed to compete effectively. The airline was disadvantaged in that Hong Kong's financial secretary back then, Sir John Bremridge, was a former Cathay Pacific chairman.
Stephen Miller, Dragonair's first CEO, said: Our arrival on the scene was not hailed very enthusiastically by the then Hong Kong government...we got a lot of opposition from Cathay (Pacific). It was later discovered that Cathay Pacific was concentrating on a boom in travel elsewhere in the 1980s, and left the undeveloped mainland China market to Dragonair. Forced into accepting less-desirable routes, the young airline focused on the mainland.
1990s
In January 1990, Cathay Pacific, Swire Group and CITIC Pacific acquired an 89 per cent stake in the airline, with CITIC Pacific holding 38 per cent; while the family of the airline's chairman Kuang-Piu Chao reduced their holding from 22 per cent to 6 per cent, with the remainder held by minor shareholders. The change of ownership saw Cathay Pacific transferring its Beijing and Shanghai routes to Dragonair, along with a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar on a lease basis. The first Airbus A320 joined the airline's fleet in March 1993 and by December, there was a total of six A320 aircraft. This was followed by the introduction of the Airbus A330 into the Dragonair's fleet in July 1995.
A further redistribution of shares took place in April 1996, when China National Aviation Corporation purchased 35.86 per cent of Dragonair and became the largest shareholder, with Cathay Pacific and Swire retaining 25.50 per cent, CITIC Pacific retaining 28.50 per cent and the Chao family retaining 5.02 per cent. CNAC's holding was further increased to 43 per cent when it was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on 17 December 1997. On 5 July 1998, Dragonair Flight 841 from Chongqing was the last scheduled arrival at Kai Tak Airport, landed runway 13 at 15:38 GMT (23:38 Hong Kong time).
Operational expansion
In 2000, the airline commenced an all-cargo service to Shanghai, Europe and the Middle East using a leased Boeing 747-200 freighter and a service to Osaka was added in May 2001. The airline purchased two Boeing 747-300 freighters in 2001 and extended freight operations to Xiamen and Taipei in 2002. The airline's net profits rose 60 per cent to HK$540 million in 2002, with cargo operations accounting for 30 per cent of revenues; and freight volume increasing nearly 50 per cent to 20,095 tonnes.
All regular flights were converted to scheduled services in March 2000, with passenger service to Taipei, Bangkok and Tokyo commenced in July 2002, November 2003 and April 2004, respectively. Dragonair Cargo continued to see steady growth and the airline began a Hong Kong–Shanghai freight route on behalf of DHL in June 2003 and leased an Airbus A300 freighter to start a cargo service to Nanjing in June 2004. A second daily European loop to Frankfurt and London, in addition to Manchester and Amsterdam, followed and by mid-2004 the airline had five Boeing 747 freighters and 26 Airbus passenger aircraft. In a bitter Air Transport Licensing Authority (ATLA) hearings in 2004, Cathay Pacific applied to fly to three mainland cities to which Dragonair filed an objection, saying the move would have an effect on its very survival.
A new passenger service to Sydney was scheduled to open in the second half of 2005, along with Manila and Seoul as the other anticipated destinations. The airline also planned services to the United States in 2005, at first with cargo flights. It was the airline's intention to more than double its freighter fleet to nine Boeing 747s by 2008.
Cathay Pacific takeover
By 2005, Cathay Pacific owned 18 per cent of the airline, with its parent, Swire Pacific owned 7.71 per cent; China National Aviation Holding owned 43 per cent and CITIC Pacific owned 28.5 per cent. South China Morning Post reported that Swire Pacific was in advanced negotiations that would see Cathay Pacific taking over Dragonair. This was dismissed outright by Tony Tyler, then chief operating officer of Cathay Pacific who said "We have no plans to change that structure right now... we are happy with the structure of the shareholding in Dragonair at the moment. " Peter Hilton, transport analyst at CSFB, said Tyler's remarks were a "cut and dried" dismissal of the takeover talk.
On 28 September 2006, Dragonair became a wholly owned subsidiary of Cathay Pacific after completion of a major shareholding realignment involving Cathay Pacific, Air China, China National Aviation Corporation Group, CITIC Pacific and Swire Pacific. Cathay Pacific claimed that Dragonair would continue to operate as a separate airline within the Cathay Pacific group, maintaining its own Air Operator's Certificate and with the brand unchanged, with 2,976 employees worldwide. However, the airline would be downsized with five percent of the airline staff retrenched or transferred into Cathay Pacific. No Cathay Pacific staff were to be affected by this announcement.
By 2009, services to Bangkok and Tokyo, and the expansion plans to introduce services to Sydney, Seoul and the United States, had been cancelled and terminated. In addition, the planned nine-aircraft freight operation had also been eliminated, with three Boeing 747-400BCF freighters transferred to its parent fleet and the remaining two parked at Southern California Logistics Airport in Victorville, California.
On 7 June 2010, Dragonair received its first second-hand Airbus A330-300 from Cathay Pacific to replace their leased A330s.
Service integration with Cathay Pacific
Dragonair's own loyalty program, The Elite, that was launched on 12 February 2001, was merged into Cathay Pacific's The Marco Polo Club from 1 January 2007. Existing Elite members were offered similar membership by The Marco Polo Club. On 1 August 2007, the airline opened a joint regional office with Cathay Pacific in Beijing, that featured a dedicated area for the airline and its parent, and joined the Oneworld alliance as an affiliated member on 1 November, of which its parent is a founding member. In addition, they opened the first airline-branded arrival lounge, The Arrival, at Hong Kong International Airport on 1 October 2008. The airline's ground handling services subsidiary, Hong Kong International Airport Services Ltd (HIAS), was merged with Hong Kong Airport Services Ltd (HAS) on 1 November 2008 and became a wholly owned subsidiary of Cathay Pacific on 1 December 2008.
In January 2016, Cathay Pacific announced it was rebranding Dragonair as Cathay Dragon. The Cathay Dragon brand became active on 21 November 2016.
Demise
On 21 October 2020, it was announced by Cathay Pacific that as part of the restructuring due to the COVID-19, Cathay Dragon would cease operations with immediate effect. Almost all 2000 cabin crew and 550 pilots, along with the vast majority of the staff at the regional subsidiary were laid off.
Destinations
Before ceasing operations, the airline operated its own aircraft to 47 destinations including 22 destinations in mainland China from its home base Hong Kong.
Codeshare agreements
Cathay Dragon had codeshare agreements with the following partner airlines:
Air Canada
Air China
American Airlines
Bangkok Airways
Cathay Pacific
Finnair
Malaysia Airlines
Qantas
S7 Airlines
Shenzhen Airlines
Final Fleet
Pre-merger fleet
Cathay Dragon operated an all–Airbus fleet in a mix of single-aisle and twin-aisle aircraft. The fleet consisted of the following aircraft prior to folding into Cathay Pacific:
Former fleet
Livery
The airline's original livery consists of a thick red-coloured horizontal strip along a white-coloured fuselage with a red-coloured vertical stabiliser. The airline's traditional Chinese and English name and its logo are in gold colour and are painted on the forward fuselage above the red horizontal strip and on the vertical stabiliser, respectively.
The previous livery is in white colour with a red dragon on the cowling and on the vertical stabiliser; and the airline's name written in Chinese red lettering and in English black lettering above and below the front passenger windows, respectively. In addition, there is a 30 cm Oneworld logo next to the first left door and a Swire Group logo on the aft of the aircraft.
On 5 May 2005, Dragonair celebrated its 20th Anniversary with a new Airbus A330-300 (B-HWG) painted in a special livery. The work of art took 14 months to create, from design tender to completed image. The special livery featured a waterside view with a junk and fishes leaping out of the water at the front of the aircraft; a red dragon spread across the fuselage in the daylight; and children playing with traditional Chinese lanterns by the waterside of an ancient village on the left side of the aircraft, representing the past. It also featured a waterside view with a Star Ferry at front of the aircraft; and a red dragon spread across the fuselage in the Hong Kong night sky, representing the present. Stanley Hui, Dragonair's CEO at the time, described the special livery "embodies the spirit of the Chinese dragons of old – a spirit that aspires to excellence". The aircraft was removed from service in February 2013, at the expiration of its lease.
On 1 June 2010, Dragonair celebrated its 25th Anniversary, with a special livery painted on an Airbus A330-300 (B-HYF). The livery also bears the slogan, "Serving you for 25 years" on the right side on the aircraft, and its Chinese slogan is on the left side of the aircraft. It also has a golden dragon spreading across the fuselage along with several grey Chinese letters on it. It was repainted to the standard livery in March 2014.
In 2016, Cathay Pacific, Dragonair's parent company, announced that they would be re-branding Dragonair to Cathay Dragon. It now uses the logo of its parent company, using light maroon color. For this change, a new hybrid livery has been adopted. The new livery is similar to Cathay Pacific's new livery in the tail logo and font. The major difference is instead of the Cathay Pacific green theme, it has a light maroon theme. The titles reads "Cathay Dragon" along with Chinese lettering reading the name. The airline's previous logo has been retained and appears next to the cockpit windows. The new livery first appeared on an Airbus A330-300 (B-HYQ).
On 1 June 2017, In the celebration of the 20th year of independence in Hong Kong, Cathay Dragon received its special The Spirit of Hong Kong livery. It is painted on an Airbus A330-300 (B-HYB), and it is the sister aircraft to Cathay Pacific's Boeing 777-300 (B-HNK), and was retired on 24 September 2020, after its last flight from Shanghai to Hong Kong as KA877.
Loyalty programmes
Cathay Dragon shared two loyalty programmes with its parent company, Cathay Pacific: The Marco Polo Club (The Club), a loyalty programme, and Asia Miles, a travel reward programme. Members of The Club are automatically enrolled as Asia Miles members.
Services
Food and beverages served on flights from Hong Kong are provided by LSG Lufthansa Services Hong Kong Ltd, a Cathay Dragon associate.
A variety of regional dishes, such as dim sum, Fokkien fried rice, barbecue pork with fried rice and chicken with Thai sweet chilli, is served on flights into mainland China. However, only beverages and pastries will be served in Economy Class for flights between Hong Kong and Changsha, Clark, Guangzhou, Haikou and Sanya.
In addition, the airline provides a range different newspapers and magazines from around the world, including the airline's in-flight magazine Emporium.
Beginning in March 2013, the majority of the airline's fleet is retrofitted with new Business and Economy Class seats. The seats are nearly identical to the new Regional Business Class and new Long-haul Economy Class products offered by parent company Cathay Pacific.
The new design features a Cathay Pacific-like ambience infused with traditional Chinese art designs. Seats in both classes will be fitted with StudioKA (a rebranded version of the StudioCX inflight entertainment system on board Cathay Pacific aircraft), which features a 12.1-inch (Business Class) or 9-inch (Economy Class) touchscreen display, a multipurpose controller Audio/Video on Demand (AVOD), support for iOS devices, and a USB port for connectivity to other devices. Worldwide in-seat power outlets will be available to all passengers. The new Business Class features a 21-inch wide recliner seat with 45 inches (narrowbody aircraft) or 47 inches (widebody aircraft) of pitch, while the new Economy Class will be 18.1 inches wide with 30 inches (narrowbody aircraft) or 32 inches (widebody aircraft) of pitch. The retrofitting process is completed by the end of 2014.
Awards
Subsidiaries and associates
Since its founding in 1985, the airline has been investing into airline-related servicing companies, including inflight catering, ground handling and service equipment companies.
The following are Cathay Dragon's major subsidiaries and associates: ()
LSG Lufthansa Service Hong Kong Ltd – 31.94% owned
Dah-Chong Hong-Dragonair Airport GSE Service Ltd (DAS) – 30%
HAS GSE Solutions Ltd – 30%
Hong Kong Airport Services Ltd
Hong Kong Airport Services Ltd (HAS), a former wholly owned subsidiary, provides ground handling services to the airline at Hong Kong International Airport. Their services include airside/landside operations, airport lounge, baggage services, cargo services, ramp services, ticketing & Information, station control and flight operations. On 1 November 2008, HIAS was integrated into Hong Kong Airport Services Ltd (HAS), a joint venture between Dragonair and Cathay Pacific, to become one of the Asia's largest airport services providers. On 1 December 2008, HAS became a wholly owned subsidiary of Cathay Pacific.
See also
List of airlines of Hong Kong
List of airports in Hong Kong
List of companies of Hong Kong
Transport in Hong Kong
References
External links
Cathay Pacific
Swire Group
Hong Kong Airport Services
Airlines established in 1985
Airlines disestablished in 2020
1985 establishments in Hong Kong
2020 disestablishments in Hong Kong
Airlines of Hong Kong
Association of Asia Pacific Airlines
Cathay Pacific
Hong Kong brands
Former Oneworld affiliate members
Swire Group | [
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235460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sertab%20Erener | Sertab Erener | Sertab Erener (born 4 December 1964) is a Turkish singer, songwriter and composer. With her coloratura soprano voice, she started working as a backing vocalist for Sezen Aksu, and with Aksu's help she released her first studio album in the 1990s. Because of her education in classical music, she initially had difficulties in performing pop music. Although she did experimental works from time to time, she eventually preferred to focus on making pop music instead of making avant-garde works, in order to make her music heard by a larger audience. In some of her works, she combined Western music and Eastern music, and benefited from operas as well as classical Turkish music together with ethnic elements. With her entrance to Europe's market in the early 2000s, many of her works were also sold in Turkey as well as European countries.
With Sezen Aksu's help, she made her debut in 1992 with the album Sakin Ol!, and made herself known as a Turkish pop music artist in the 1990s by releasing the albums Lâ'l (1994), Sertab Gibi (1997) and Sertab Erener (1999). From these albums, the songs "Sakin Ol!", "Aldırma Deli Gönlüm", "Ateşle Barut", "Sevdam Ağlıyor", "Aslolan Aşktır", "Yanarım", "Zor Kadın" and "Vur Yüreğim" became number-one hits in Turkey. In the early 2000s, she continued her work by releasing the songs "Kumsalda" and "Kendime Yeni Bir Ben Lazım". She won the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 with the song "Everyway That I Can", marking Turkey's first victory in the competition. In 2004, she released the album No Boundaries, followed by Aşk Ölmez in 2005. After five years, she released another Turkish studio album Rengârenk in 2010, and the hit songs "Bu Böyle", "Açık Adres" and "Koparılan Çiçekler" made the album a successful work, and marked her return to the music market. After Rengârenk, she released the album Ey Şuh-i Sertab (2012), which was dedicated to her father. At the same year, she received the Best Female TSM Soloist award at the Golden Butterfly Awards. In 2013, her new album Sade was released. The songs "İyileşiyorum", "Öyle de Güzel" and "Söz" all became hits in Turkey. In 2016, with the release of Kırık Kalpler Albümü, Erener stated that she was returning to her 90s style. The album received favorable reviews, and "Kime Diyorum" and "Olsun" both became hit songs inside Turkey.
Erener has been praised for her music style and is one of the most successful artists who were discovered by Sezen Aksu. Due to her championship in Eurovision, she received the State Medal of Distinguished Service. In 2014, Hürriyet named her in its list of "91 Symbols of the 91st Anniversary of the Republic". Aside from her career as a singer, she also taught music at Müjdat Gezen Art Center for one year. Erener has been married three times, the second of which was to Levent Yüksel during 1990-96. She married Emre Kula in 2015. Throughout her career she has won seven Kral TV Video Music Awards as well as two Golden Butterfly Awards, and has received various other nominations.
Life and career
1964–91: Early life and career beginnings
Sertab Erener was born on 4 December 1964 in Istanbul as the second child of Nizamettin and Yücel Erener. She spent her childhood in Eyüp, Istanbul. Her mother's family is from Yugoslavia but moved to Ayvalık, Balıkesir, due to the war in Eastern Europe. Her mother Yücel, had studied painting at Istanbul State Fine Arts Academy and graduated in 1957, but did not continue her career after marriage. Her paternal family were from Eastern Anatolia Region. Her paternal grandfather was from Muş, while her paternal grandmother was from Siirt. Her father Nizamettin, was born in Diyarbakır. He took music lessons form Şerif İçli and worked as a soloist on Istanbul Radio for one month. Despite his interest in music, he eventually preferred to become a lawyer. Sertab's elder brother is Serdar, who had a great influence on her during her childhood. Sertab Erener grew up with her father's passion for Turkish classical music. Due to his fondness of the song "Ey Şûh-i Sertab", her father decided to name her Sertab, meaning the "main light (radiance)". After finishing her primary school, she got the permission to enroll in Liceo Italiano di Istanbul, but her father sent her to Işık High School instead. During those years, she suffered from jaundice and at the age of 11 was diagnosed with ulcerative colitis, for which she was hospitalized numerous times during her high school years. While she was at the second grade of high school, she became immensely interested in music and due to her fondness of opera music, she enrolled in Istanbul University State Conservatory to study opera. After taking singing lessons for a while, she continued her studies at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University. She studied at Mimar Sinan University, Opera Major Arts and Concert Singing Department, but left the school before completing her studies. Although she was taking classical music lessons at the time, she decided to continue her career with opera, however, since she was not able to obtain what she expected from opera in her student years, she started to work as a stage soloist. At the age of 21, she got married and this marriage lasted for three years.
Sertab joined Sezen Aksu's birthday party in 1987 at Memduh Paşa Mansion as a soloist. She was chosen by the organizer of the party to perform at the event. Sezen Aksu noted Erener's drabness during their first meeting but she liked her voice and offered her a job as a backing vocalist. Erener initially did not want to accept the offer and later said: "She [Sezen Aksu] asked me to become her backing vocalist. I didn't accept it. Because I was already a soloist. It sounded like taking a step backwards. I thought I shouldn't be a vocalist because of my position." Later, due to her friend Levent Yüksel's closeness with Aksu, Erener accepted the offer and became her backing vocalist. She later participated in the 1987 Kuşadası Golden Pigeon Music Competition under her married name, Sertab Altın, and performed the song "Akdeniz". In 1989, she joined Klips ve Onlar and performed the song "Hasret" in the competition to represent Turkey in the Eurovision Song Contest 1989. They were placed third and lost the chance to represent the country in the contest. In 1990, she again joined the first-stage competitions and performed the song "Sen Benimlesin" and ranked 6th. In the same year, she married Levent Yüksel. She later described her second marriage in an interview: "Levent was one of my close friends; we were pals. He had girlfriends, I had boyfriends. We worked in the same orchestra. After divorce, I didn't even realize how it happened, I can't explain it but it was a kind of affection or something like that. I had a lot of friends but Levent was always special for me, and had a separate place. I think I was feeling something special about him. It happened spontaneously without even pushing."
1992–98: Sakin Ol!, Lâ'l and Sertab Gibi
Erener's name began to be heard in the early 1990s with Sezen Aksu's help. She prepared her first studio album with the help of Aksu, Uzay Heparı, Aysel Gürel and Garo Mafyan. Aksu spent a lot of money and time to help Erener in her album's preparations. Erener later talked about her experience: "I learned this country and land's music with Sezen's help. It was after meeting her that I became truly interested in the music that I was making here [in Turkey]. That is why Sezen had a lot of trouble when she was making that cassette for me, thinking about where in this [music industry] I belong to. Because people were saying 'Sertab sings well in English, but not in Turkish.' Those words had divided her mind in two parts." The album, titled Sakin Ol!, was released in 1992. Sertab Erener made a huge debut with the album's lead single, also titled "Sakin Ol!". To assist Erener, both Aksu and Uzay Heparı appeared on the song's music video. Milliyet later wrote that thanks to Sakin Ol! Erener was brought suddenly to the top. With Sakin Ol!, she made her position solid in the market, and brought a breath of fresh air to Turkish pop music. Within 25 days of its release, it sold 300,000 copies. The number later rose to 750,000 copies. Alongside "Sakin Ol!", separate music videos were released for the songs "Aldırma Deli Gönlüm", "Ateşle Barut", "Vurulduk", "Oyun Bitti", "O, Ye" and "Suçluyum". In December 1992, Erener performed at TRT 1 and Kanal 6's New Year programs.
On 13 March 1993, she gave a concert during the national selection in Turkey to choose the artist for the Eurovision Song Contest 1993. In June, Hey Girl magazine named her the Promising Singer of the Year. In July, she performed at Rumelihisarı. In 1993 and 1994, she went to the US and underwent three surgeries for ulcerative colitis from which she had been suffering since the age of 11. She later described her illness with these words: "There was a wound in my bowel which didn't heal for years. Hospitals, diets, resting, beds... I used to go to the bathroom 35 times a day. My intestines could not hold anything." All of her large intestine was taken out during the surgery and, as a result, she had to walk with a bag in her hand for a year. She began to question her own existence as she thought she was going to die from the disease, and in her head she started asking questions such as "Why am I here? Why me?". Thus she started studying philosophy books and began meditation.
In between her surgeries Erener began preparations for her second studio album Lâ'l, which was released on 14 October 1994. Most of the songs in the album were written by Sezen Aksu and it sold 640,000 copies. The album's lead single was prepared for the documentary 12 Mart: İhtilalin Pençesinde Demokrasi and dedicated to Deniz Gezmiş. It was later included in Sony Music's Sony Music 100 Years: Soundtrack for a Century millennium set. Sertab Erener shot music videos for the songs "Sevdam Ağlıyor" and "Rüya" from this album. Sezen Aksu wrote the song "Rüya", inspired by Erener's illness and the sufferings that she endured following her surgeries. To promote Lâ'l, Erener gave a concert at the Bostancı Show Center, during which she performed "Der Hölle Rache" from Mozart's The Magic Flute. Later, she said that she wanted to turn opera into a popular genre among the people. In March 1995, she won the Best Female Artist award at the 1st Kral TV Video Music Awards. In April, she performed at the Miss Turkey competition. In September, she joined the campaign "We Go To the East with 1000 Artists", which was organized by Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and gave concerts in Eastern parts of Turkey.
In 1996, Kim magazine ranked Erener 6th on its list of the Frumpish Dressed Women. On 18 June 1996, Erener and her husband Levent Yüksel divorced. The couple later said that the reason behind their divorce was that "Our 13-year love turned into sibling or parental feelings. We decided to obtain a divorce because we thought that marriage wouldn't work out without love." In the same year, Erener voiced the character of Esmeralda in the Turkish version of The Hunchback of Notre Dame. She also started working with Mezarkabul's guitarist Demir Demirkan. At the end of the year, preparations for her third studio album began. For the first time, she included songs that were written by herself in the album. She later talked about how she started songwriting: "I've tried to tell you what I live and feel as well as I can. Even if I didn't write it myself, I gave it to other songwriters to turn it into lyrics. I just acted as a commentator in my previous albums. This time, I work as a composer and songwriter." For her third studio album Erener signed a $100,000 contract with Sony Music and released Sertab Gibi in February 1997 under the labels of İmaj and Sony. Demir Demirkan also worked on the album. Hürriyets Lale Barçın İmer wrote that with Sertab Gibi Erener had taken an important step in her career. The songs "Aslolan Aşktır", "Seyrüsefer", "İncelikler Yüzünden", "Aaa" and "Yara" were turned into music videos and Sertab Gibi sold 147,000 copies by August 1997.
Sertab Erener later joined the campaign "Come on Southeast", and gave a concert on 26 August 1996 as a part of "Southeast Education Mobilization Concerts". In the same month, it was reported that Melih Ayraçman of Sony Music Turkey was planning on introducing Sertab Erener to the European audience with new projects. In December, Erener assisted Our Children with Leukemia Foundation and joined José Carreras in performing at a fundraising concert for the foundation. Alongside her own music projects, she taught music at the Müjdat Gezen Art Center for one year.
1999–2004: Sertab Erener, Turuncu, Eurovision and No Boundaries
Sony and Columbia released Erener's self-titled album in March 1999, which included works such as the poem "Makber" by Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan and Mozart's "Der Hölle Rache". The album rose to the top of D&R's List of Best-Selling Albums in Turkey and sold 427,000 copies. "Yanarım", "Zor Kadın", "Vur Yüreğim" and "Yolun Başında" were the songs from Sertab Erener that were turned into music videos. "Vur Yüreğim" won the Best Lyrics award at the Kral TV Video Music Awards. "Zor Kadın" also became a number-one hit and was played on radios regularly. It was later re-released as a duet with Voice Male. In the same year Erener was featured on the song "Private Emotion" by Ricky Martin. Erener was scheduled to perform at Efes Pilsen's 13th establishment anniversary on 16 August, which was set to be followed by a tour inside Turkey, but the concert was cancelled due to the 1999 İzmit earthquake. In September she continued her tour and donated her proceeds from the concerts to the earthquake survivors. In accordance with her plans, in 2000 she released the compilation album Sertab and gave a number of concerts in Europe. In April, for the National Sovereignty and Children's Day, she gave a concert at Ephesus in front of 20,000 people. To make herself more known in Europe, she released the EP "Bu Yaz" in July. Greek singer Mando was featured on the Turkish-Greek song "Aşk / Fos", which was included in the EP. Hürriyet wrote that with this duet Erener successfully earned a reputation in Greece.
In May 2001, Erener's fifth studio album Turuncu was released. She later talked about her name choice for the album: "Turuncu [Orange] represents positive energy besides being a color. My album also carries a cheerful, warm, positive energy. I made this album trying to link people to life. Because I had major health problems, even in times of sadness, I always preferred to stay positive." The album ranked number-one on D&R's List of Best-Selling Albums and sold 260,000 copies. The songs "Kumsalda" and "Söz Bitti" from Turuncu were later turned into music videos. In December, Erener won the Best Turkish Pop Music Female Soloist award at the Golden Butterfly Awards, and her new single "Kendime Yeni Bir Ben Lazım" was published.
In January 2003, TRT announced that Erener would represent Turkey at the Eurovision Song Contest 2003. In February the name of the song was announced as "Everyway That I Can" and it was stated that the lyrics were in English. Turkish Language Association called for using a Turkish song instead to properly represent Turkish culture. Erener responded to the criticism by saying: "It has to be in English to comply with world standards. Half of the world listens to English music, why should they not listen to a Turkish artist who sings in English? [...] People do not understand Turkish. If we find it difficult [to sing a suitable song] in our own language, why should we? When TRT asked me to write a song, I gave them my conditions. I said 'I want to sing the song in English'." The song was released on 8 March, and on 24 May in Riga, it earned 167 points earning Turkey its first victory in the contest and making it the host for the 2004 competition. "Everyway That I Can" entered the music charts of many European countries. In Sweden and Greece, it topped the official lists. Due to the song's commercial success in these two countries, it received a gold and platinum certification from the two of them respectively.
After returning to Turkey, Erener received various awards due to her victory in Eurovision. She met with President Ahmet Necdet Sezer and Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, and a reception was organized to celebrate her victory. She was also given the State Medal of Distinguished Service. She also received two Honorary Awards at the 1st MÜ-YAP Music Awards and 10th Kral TV Video Music Awards. She later performed Bob Dylan's song "One More Cup of Coffee" for the film Masked and Anonymous which was released in July 2003. In August, she played in one of the films prepared by UNICEF and Ministry of National Education for the campaign "Come On Girls! Let's Go To School". Sertab was re-released in Europe with new additions and sold 500,000 copies as of August 2003. On 26 September, she performed with a number of artists at the Royal Albert Hall in a fundraising event to help Iraqi children with leukemia.
In January 2004, Erener's first English studio album No Boundaries was released in Europe. The album ranked number-one on Turkey's List of Best-Selling Albums, and was followed by the singles "Here I Am", "Leave" and "I Believe (That I See Love in You)". Out of these songs, "Here I Am" was used in the teasers for the movie A Tale of Two Sisters. In March, Erener's house was robbed and 15,000 of her properties were stolen. On 15 May, she opened the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 by performing the songs "Everyway That I Can" and "Leave". Despite the debate over the format of the ceremony, Erener used sama dancers for her performance. In the same year, due to the emergence of problems "in terms of singer-company relationship", she ended her contract with Sony Music and together with Demir Demirkan found the label Simya Müzik.
2005–09: Aşk Ölmez and Painted on Water
In January 2005, Erener performed at a fundraising concert for people who lost their homes at the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. The proceeds from this concert, which were estimated to be around 126,000, were used to provide medical aid for the injured. Erener herself took the proceeds to Sri Lanka in February and described the experience as "the biggest disaster I've seen since the day I was born". In May, after eight months of preparations, her seventh studio album Aşk Ölmez was released by the label Simya Müzik. It topped D&R's List of Best-Selling Albums and sold 160,000 copies, with the songs "Aşk Ölmez, Biz Ölürüz", "Satılık Kalpler Şehri" and "Kim Haklıysa" turned into music videos. Music critics found the album intimate and unpretentious. In August, Erener performed the Independence March at the Turkish Grand Prix. In October, she performed at the Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest to commemorate the Eurovision Song Contest's fiftieth anniversary. Her song "Everyway That I Can" was determined to be the Contest's ninth most popular entrant of its fifty years. In the same year, the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Turkey, released the textbook "They succeeded" for the fourth grade social studies and Erener was named in the book as the person who "won the first place for our country at the Eurovision contest for the first time".
In May 2006, Sertab Erener's outfit for Eurovision was sold at an auction for 4,500. The proceeds were donated to the campaign "Daddy Take Me To School". In the same month, Erener performed the song "Çocuklar Gibi" for Ali Kocatepe's tribute album 41 Kere Maşallah. In June, she won the Best Pop Artist award at the Kemal Sunal Culture and Arts Awards. Later that month she went on stage at the 4th International Turkish Olympics and performed "Güneş Gibi Doğuyor Türkçe". In December, Erener went to Azerbaijan to perform at a concert, but pianist Burak Bedikyan from the orchestra, who was a Turkish citizen of Armenian descent, was kept in the airport and eventually deported to Turkey, urging Turkey to send a warning note to Azerbaijan.
In January 2007, it was announced that Erener would perform at a jazz concert on 1 February 2007, but the event was cancelled as she fell ill with pneumonia . She performed at the next concert on 18 February together with Sabri Tuluğ Tırpan Later they voiced the song "Sen Ağlama" for Onno Tunç's tribute album Onno Tunç Şarkıları, which was released in May. In April, she released the album The Best of Sertab Erener - En İyiler, which contained her greatest hits. Alongside her own songs, Isolina Carrillo's "Dos Gardenias" which she performed for the movie When Luck Breaks the Door (2005) and Madonna's "Music" which she performed for the documentary Crossing the Bridge: The Sound of Istanbul (2005) were also included in the album. In May, her first remix album Sertab Goes to the Club was released. In July, she released the single "I Remember Now" as a part of project DRUM, which aimed to increase tolerance and respect among different cultures. In September, to celebrate her 15th year of career, she gave a concert at Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theater together with Sezen Aksu, Levent Yüksel, Nil Karaibrahimgil, Fahir Atakoğlu, Özge Fışkın and Demir Demirkan. The concert included three parts "Death and Life", "Rebirth" and "Love", during which she told her own life's story in songs. In "Death and Life", she performed songs in relation to how she dealt with ulcerative colitis, followed by "Rebirth", which focused on the part of her life during which she got rid of her disease and took advantage of her life by rising to fame. In the final part, "Love", she displayed how she found happiness thanks to Demir Demirkan's love. In December 2008, footage of her concert were released in the live album Sertab Erener Otobiyografi: 15. Sanat Yılı Konseri. Hürriyets Onur Baştürk named the album the best work of 2008 praising how she told "her life's story in songs and expressed her philosophy".
In January 2008, Erener and a number of artists took photographs with street animals. These photographs were made into a calendar, and the proceeds from selling it were used to make shelters for these animals. In the same year, she played in the commercials for Elidor, for which she performed her song "Hayat Beklemez". In July-August 2008, she went on a tour with Emre Aydın for the Fanta Youth Festival and gave 18 concerts across Turkey. In order to promote Turkey's culture in the Netherlands, she performed at the Turkey Now festival in October. She later performed the song "Bu Gece Son" for Uzay Heparı's tribute album Uzay Heparı - Sonsuza, which was released in December. In 2007-08 she discussed working on a new album, which she later recorded in Los Angeles together with Demir Demirkan and released it in June 2009 under the title Painted on Water. Erener and Demirkan gave their group's name to the album. The two turned a number of türküs into English and released them in the form of jazz. Demirkan described the album as "Anatolian music and jazz and blues mixed with Western instruments". At the end of 2009, Erener played in the commercials for Turkish Derivatives Exchange.
2010–15: Rengârenk, Ey Şûh-i Sertab and Sade
In June 2010, Erener's eighth studio album Rengârenk was released by DMC. The songs "Açık Adres" and "Rengârenk" both were turned into msic videos and ranked number-one on Türkçe Top 20. Other songs for which music videos were released included "Bu Böyle", "Koparılan Çiçekler" and "İstanbul", all of which placed second on the music charts. Besides these five songs, separate music videos were also released for the songs "Bir Damla Gözlerimde" and "Bir Çaresi Bulunur". Cansel Elçin appeared alongside Erener in the music video for "Bir Damla Gözlerimde".
"Açık Adres" won the Best Melody award at the Kral TV Video Music Awards. The album became one of the best-selling albums of the year and Erener won the Best Female Pop Artist award at the Kral TV Video Music Awards. In 2010, Erener's name appeared in the textbooks for Contemporary Turkish and World History courses at the fourth grades of high schools. In the book, it was written that Erener's victory in the Eurovision Song Contest was the first major success of Turkish pop music in the international arena.
In April 2012, she released the classical Turkish album Ey Şûh-i Sertab, which was dedicated to her father Nizamettin Erener, after one year of preparations. Thanks to the album, which included 15 old classical Turkish songs, Erener won the "Best Female Classical Turkish Music Soloist" award at the Golden Butterfly Awards. She later performed the song "Dım Dım" for Ozan Çolakoğlu's first album which was released in June 2012. The music video for the song came out in July 2012. In April 2013, she released her new album Sade.
In July 2015, Erener married her boyfriend Emre Kula in Seferihisar, İzmir, after 6 months of dating.
2016–present: Kırık Kalpler Albümü and Ben Yaşarım
In June 2016, Erener's eleventh studio album Kırık Kalpler Albümü was published by GNL. The album's first music video was made for the song "Kime Diyorum" and directed by Can Saban. The album's production and arrangement was done by Erener's husband Emre Kula.
In 2015, together with her husband guitarist Emre Kula, bassist Eser Ünsalan, keyboardist Ozan Yılmaz and drummer Alpar Lu she found the group Oceans of Noise and they started to make English rock music. In 2017, the group's first EP was released. At the same time, they did the soundtrack for the movie Ayla: The Daughter of War. Beginning in late 2017, Erener started to perform on a musical titled Sertab'ın Müzikali to mark the 25th year of her career. During the musical, which consisted of two separate sections, Erener performed her hit songs from 1990s and 2000s and was accompanied by professional dancers. The preparations for the musical began in 2015 and Beyhan Murphy served as the show's choreographer. The show also continued in 2018 and 2019. Eda Ünsün of Milliyet praised Erener and her band's performance together the show's visuals adding that "a musical spree started in Turkey under the leadership of Erener".
In 2018, Oceans of Noise released their second EP Not Safe. In the same year, Erener released the singles "Bastırın Kızlar" and "Belki de Dönerim" in July and December respectively. The songs were both produced by Emre Kula and written by Can Bonomo.
On 5 June 2020, the song "Bu Dünya" was released as a promotional single for Erener's new studio album. Her twelfth studio album, Ben Yaşarım, was released on 12 June 2020. Musicians such as Emre Kula, Ersel Serdarlı, Doğan Duru, Can Bonomo and Sezen Aksu contributed to this album. Writing for Hürriyet, Hikmet Demirkol praised the songs, mentioning that "Sertab Erener is with us again with a dynamic album, full of detail and depth."
Artistry
Music style and voice
Erener's voice possesses a 3-octave vocal range and is of coloratura soprano type. She is a pop music artist. Her songs are in "a range of Middle Eastern melodies to club songs". In the 1980s, she was involved in opera when she was first introduced to music, but when she couldn't find the success she was expecting in the opera, she decided to make pop music instead. She later talked about the experience: "It didn't turn out the way I thought or imagined. Maybe it was another [type of] opera that I created within myself. How can I know? There was no such scholarship to go abroad, it didn't exist. Later I said to myself that I'll sing jingle. That way I make money. It's best to do something on my own." She had a lot of difficulties with changing her style from opera to pop music. Semih Günver of Milliyet wrote about Erener in her article in 1994: "What a colorful, sweet voice. This young woman is a great singer. A real soprano performer." Tolga Akyıldız also wrote about her in an article for Hürriyet: "Sertab is one of the first brands of Turkish popular music with the power of both sound and song selection." Before becoming famous she performed in English for years, and as a result, in some parts of her first album Sakin Ol! she sang "things she didn't know the meaning of", and got tired with the efforts to figure out how to say and pronounce some words. In her second album, Lâ'l, she realized this problem and worked on the songs with more interest and stopped dealing with only the technical part of the project. With her third album, Sertab Gibi, she started songwriting and composing. Although she was more focused on the musical aspect of her works, her voice still stood out on the foreground. She later described Sertab Gibi as an experiment and said: "It [the album] might have failed commercially at the time, but in terms of my career I came to the point where everyone said 'Wow, look at this woman!' With this experience, I realized that I have to say what I want through music, and Turkish people's appreciation can be won little by little, and I have to walk with them step by step and make the music. Otherwise, I have the capacity to produce completely avant-garde things, but it is something that only my friends would listen to. Yet I want to appeal to a wider audience. In this case, I believe that pop music is the right language to send the message and go one step further together."
Her fourth album Sertab Erener was found "far from experimental works and more settled" compared to her previous three albums. Her fifth album, Turuncu, was released with the purpose to connect people with life through a positive energy. She also demolished the image she had created with the song "Zor Kadın (Difficult Woman)" in the previous album with "Güle Güle Şekerim (Bye Bye Sweetie)" in the new one. "Everyway That I Can", with which she joined Eurovision in 2003, was decorated with ethnic motifs and was a mixture of classical pop and Turkish music. Her seventh album, Aşk Ölmez, was prepared in a very unpretentious way. With Aşk Ölmez, Erener put aside the idea of "I have to show all the information I've ever had in the first five minutes of the song, and I must reveal my voice there!". She later talked about the album: "It's a little bit fooling around with the idea of love and being human.. I believe there is a philosophy behind it. There are also small jokes, but the album is about women and men and their relationships.... I tried to write about the conflicts that we have in between us, sometimes by taking it as a joke, and sometimes taking it seriously. These are the problems of the majority of people; after all, I don't live anything apart from them. As a person who lives in a big city, I talk about such person's issues. Based on these, I wrote the lyrics of the album." Together with Demir Demirkan, she released the jazz fusion album Painted On Water, which included türküs that were rewritten in English and re-performed. With her eighth album Rengârenk, she put "diva acts aside" and sang in a more calm manner.
Influences
Erener spent her childhood listening to her father's performances of classical Turkish songs. Alanis Morissette, Sting and Tina Turner were among her favorite artists. Milliyets Orhan Kahyaoğlu later said that "despite the influence of Sezen Aksu, she was easily stripped from Sezen's music style due to her own refinement and artistic background." Erener said that before Sezen Aksu, she learned a lot during stage performances in terms of communicating with the audience. She has named Barbra Streisand as the "woman of [her] life". She said that she constantly imitated Streisand before becoming famous, saying: "I can't say how I used to imitate her. I've studied this woman a lot, so much. When I decided to sing my own songs, I became aware that it doesn't work like that, with imitation. After that I tried so hard to find the identity of my voice."
Discography
Sakin Ol! (1992)
Lâ'l (1994)
Sertab Gibi (1997)
Sertab Erener (1999)
Turuncu (2001)
No Boundaries (2004)
Aşk Ölmez (2005)
Painted on Water (with Demir Demirkan) (2009)
Rengârenk (2010)
Ey Şûh-i Sertab (2012)
Sade (2013)
Kırık Kalpler Albümü (2016)
Ben Yaşarım (2020)
Filmography
Television
References
Further reading
External links
1964 births
Singers with a three-octave vocal range
Singers from Istanbul
Living people
Turkish women singers
Turkish pop singers
Turkish singer-songwriters
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Turkey
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003
Eurovision Song Contest winners
English-language singers from Turkey
Sopranos
Golden Butterfly Award winners
Turkish lyricists | [
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235463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway | Skyway | A skyway, skybridge, or skywalk is an elevated type of pedway connecting two or more buildings in an urban area, or connecting elevated points within mountainous recreational zones. Urban skyways very often take the form of enclosed or covered footbridges that protect pedestrians from the weather. Open-top modern skyways in mountains now often have glass bottoms. Sometimes enclosed urban skywalks are made almost totally from glass, including ceilings, walls and floors. Also, some urban skyways function strictly as linear parks designed for walking.
In North America skyways are usually owned by businesses, and are therefore not public spaces (compare with sidewalk). However, in Asia, such as Bangkok's and Hong Kong's skywalks, they are built and owned separately by the city government, connecting between privately run rail stations or other transport with their own footbridges, and run many kilometers. Skyways usually connect on the first few floors above the ground-level floor, though they are sometimes much higher, as in Petronas Towers. The space in the buildings connected by skyways is often devoted to retail business, so areas around the skyway may operate as a shopping mall. Non-commercial areas with closely associated buildings, such as university campuses, can often have skyways and/or tunnels connecting buildings.
The world's largest discontinuous skyway network – Calgary, Alberta, Canada's "+15 Walkway" system – has a total length of . The Minneapolis Skyway System is the world's largest continuous system and spans connecting 80 blocks in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States.
On a smaller scale, terminals of large airports are often connected by skywalk systems, as at Manchester Airport, United Kingdom; in many airports, retractable jet bridges provide a direct connection between airplanes and terminals.
Some cities have the equivalent of a skyway underground, and there are also mixed subway/skyway systems; see underground city.
Early examples
Florence, Italy, Vasari Corridor, connects Palazzo Vecchio to Uffizi and then to Palazzo Pitti, 16th century
Venice, Italy, Bridge of Sighs, connects Doge's Palace and prison, 16th century
Copenhagen, Denmark: skywalk connecting courts building to adjacent uses, 18th century
Faaborg, Funen, Denmark: skywalk in centrum, 18th century
Environmental factors
Besides pedestrian safety and convenience, the chief reasons assigned by urban planners for skywalk development are decrease of traffic congestion, reduction in vehicular air pollution and separation of people from vehicular noise. A number of cities (for example, Spokane, Washington) have given intricate analysis to skywalk systems employing computer models to optimize skywalk layout.
Negative impacts
There is debate about the negative impact on urban areas of skyways. Robertson (1988) noted the negative impacts to street activities, and reductions to the property value at ground level. Woo (2012) found that skywalk systems could be negatively associated with promoting consumerism. Cui (2015) called for more research into the impact of skyways in developing countries.
Cities with notable systems
North America
There are significant skyway networks in many cities in the US Midwest, such as Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Des Moines, Cedar Rapids, Rochester, and Duluth. Most networks in North America are privately owned. Notable exceptions are skyways in Saint Paul and in New York (High Line), which are publicly owned.
Asia
The highest cantilevered skybridge between separate buildings in the world is now in local Raffles City skyscrapers complex in Chongqing, China. The world's longest pedestrian hanging skywalk, at 430 meters, is the Zhangjiajie Glass Bridge, which sits between mountain peaks in China.
The highest cantilevered skybridge as construction element of building exist atop of Kingdom Centre in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
One of the most famous similar cantilevered skybridges, that looks like uppered ship from the bird's-eye and submarine from the ground, known in Singapore's Marina Bay Sands resort complex of skyscrapers.
Also wide known the world's highest 2-story skybridge, 170 m above the ground and 58 m long, between the two towers on 41st and 42nd floors in Petronas Twin Towers dual skyscrapers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Malaysia also has the mountainarian tourist pedestrian glass-bottom Langkawi Sky Bridge in Kedah, Langkawi.
One of the most impressionable hanging pedestrian skybridges, supported by two giant hands, Golden Bridge now attracts tourists in Ba Na Hills near Da Nang, Vietnam.
In Bangkok, Thailand there are more than 5.4 km of covered wide dedicated elevated skywalks with lighting. These were developed due to lack of proper sidewalks as well as street hawkers and local merchants taking advantage of any sidewalk space as makeshift commercial real estate. Common reasons skywalks were built include to avoid street pollution, dust, wetness from food vendors and/or rain, potholes, long queues, crowds, and uneven pavement, supporting urbanism but probably most importantly, tourism receipts. Most skywalks connect to a BTS station and utilize space underneath the rail line and BTS pillar supports. These skywalks have connector ramps which connect stations to malls seamlessly and are paid for by the malls themselves, otherwise the city and BTS fund walkway development. A 50km long extension project was shelved in 2011 due to funding issues, nevertheless the system is growing organically.
In Hong Kong, there are numerous foot bridge networks across the city. Particularly large networks exists around elevated or at grade MTR stations and connections between malls and housing estates in new town centers. The largest network spans Admiralty, Central and parts of Sheung Wan districts in the CBD and consists of the Central Elevated and Central–Mid-Levels Walkway systems which link up over 40 major office buildings. The Central–Mid-Levels walkway system is the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world according to Guinness World Records.[9][10] Other large systems exist in Tsuen Wan and Mong Kok.
The Mumbai Skywalk Project, India is a discontinuous network of over 50 km of skywalks in Mumbai Metropolitan Region, India. The skyways connect Mumbai Suburban Railway stations to important junctions, each 1 to 2 km in length. The first of these is a 1.3 km (0.8 mi) long skywalk connecting the suburban regions of Bandra and Kurla.
Additionally, short skyways are used to connect buildings in other Asian locations.
Europe
Brussels, Belgium has a skyway between the two Belgacom Towers.
London has skywalks on the Barbican Estate and London Wall. The City of London Pedway Scheme was devised as part of the post World War II reconstruction plans for London, it was put into effect mainly from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s and eventually abandoned by the 1980s. Shad Thames has picturesque skyways between former warehouses, used in part to roll barrels between them.
The twin towers of the Highlight Towers in Munich, Germany are joined by two skyways made of glass and steel.
The Promenade Plantée in the 12th arrondissement of Paris, France includes pedestrian bridges and a linear park on an aqueduct of a former railway.
Australia
Melbourne, Australia, four blocks and Airport
Gallery
See also
Footbridge - a bridge for pedestrians
Overpass - a bridge, road or railway crossing over another road or railway
Pedestrian separation structure - any structure which separates pedestrians from the roadway
Pedway - pedestrian walkways, includes both skyways and underground walkways
Sidewalk - pedestrian path along the side of a road
Catwalk - a narrow footbridge or walkway to allow workers access to parts of a structure
Hyatt Regency walkway collapse - a failure of an internal skyway
References
Rooms
Bridges
Urban studies and planning terminology
Pedestrian infrastructure | [
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235465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court%20Line | Court Line | Court Line was a 20th-century British tramp shipping company that was founded in 1905. In the 1960s it diversified into shipbuilding and charter aviation. Its merchant shipping interests were based in London. Its shipyards were at Appledore in Devon and Sunderland in Tyne and Wear. Its airline was based at Luton Airport in Bedfordshire. It also provided bus services in Luton and surrounding areas.
Its airline helped pioneer the concept of "cheap and cheerful" package tours to Spain and other destinations in the Mediterranean in conjunction with Clarksons Holidays, thus taking part in the establishment of a whole new way of holidaymaking for the British public.
The Court Line group, including its airline and subsidiary tour operators, Clarksons Travel Group and Horizon Travel, ceased trading on 15 August 1974, with at least £7 million owing to 100,000 holidaymakers.
Shipping
Philip Haldinstein was a British Jewish businessman from Norwich. He founded the tramp shipping company Haldinstein and Co Ltd in 1905. Robert Stephenson and Company launched Haldinstein's first ship, Arlington Court, at Hebburn on the River Tyne that October.
Between 1906 and 1912 Haldinstein added several new steamships from shipyards on the Tyne and the River Wear. When the First World War broke out in 1914, Haldinstein & Co had a fleet of seven ships and was operating as Court Line, Ltd. Anti-German sentiment arose in Britain in the war, so in 1915 Haldinstein shortened his surname to Haldin.
In 1915 Haldin bought a second-hand ship, Dalebank, which he renamed Ilvington Court. In 1917 a U-boat sank Ilvington Court in the Mediterranean, killing eight of her crew. Haldin sold several ships between 1916 and 1921, reducing his fleet to only two ships: Geddington Court and Hannington Court.
From 1924 onward Haldin expanded his fleet again. He bought a mixture of new and second-hand ships. The second-hand ones were ships that had been built just after the end of the First World War to the Shipping Controller's war standard designs. Haldin continued to name his ships in the same "—ington Court" style, and re-used some names more than once. By 1926 the fleet had 26 ships.
In 1926 Haldin registered his fleet under the name United British Steamship Co Ltd. In 1929 Richard Philipps, the youngest brother of Owen Philipps, 1st Baron Kylsant, joined Haldin in the business, which was renamed Haldin and Philipps Ltd. In the 1930s part of the fleet was laid up. In 1939 Haldin was made a Knight Bachelor.
In 1937 Court Line lost two ships. Nollington Court sank in the Caribbean after striking a submerged object. Less than a fortnight later, Quarrington Court sank in the Red Sea after springing a leak in a water intake in her engine room.
When the Second World War began in 1939, Haldin & Philipps Ltd had a fleet of 23 ships. In the war it lost 14 ships, 13 of them to enemy action, with the loss of 136 lives. One ship, , was lost with all hands.
From 1940 onward Haldin & Philipps started to manage some Empire ships for the Ministry of War Transport. In 1945 and 1946 it bought these ships and renamed them with "—ington Court" names.
In 1948 Philipps retired, and the company name reverted to Haldin & Co. Haldin died in 1953, aged 73.
From 1952 onward Haldin & Co started to buy new ships again. In the 1960s the fleet diversified into tankers. The first was Edith Borthen, which Haldin bought in 1963 and renamed Halcyon Days. The second was Halcyon Breeze, which Hitachi built for Court Line in Japan in 1964. The Admiralty chartered Halcyon Breeze as the oiler . All Court Line tankers were named in the same "Halcyon —" style.
In 1964 Court Line bought Appledore Shipbuilders in Devon. In 1972 it took over a larger shipbuilding business, the Doxford and Sunderland Group. When the Court Line group went bankrupt in 1974, the shipyards and remaining ships in the fleet were sold.
Aviation
Autair
The airline, originally named Argus Air Transport, was formed at London Luton Airport in 1957. In 1960, it became Autair (Luton). On 27 September 1963, it changed to Autair International Airways.
Autair started as a division of Autair Helicopters, a helicopter operator established in the early 1950s. (Autair's helicopter interests were subsequently hived off into a separate company.) It began public transport operations with an ex-British European Airways (BEA) Douglas DC-3, used on contract work for other airlines. More DC-3s and Vickers Vikings were bought. The first of the latter joined the fleet in 1962. Both types operated freight and passenger services, including a growing number of inclusive tour (IT) flights.
One of the earliest charter customers for Autair's DC-3s was ex-naval officer Tom Gullick, who would later head Clarksons. Clarksons began its relationship with Autair by contracting the airline's Vikings to ferry day-trippers between up to ten UK departure points and Rotterdam during the Dutch bulbfield season. Airspeed Ambassadors and a leased Handley Page Herald were introduced in 1963. The former were the airline's first pressurised aircraft while the latter was its first turboprop.
On 1 October 1963, the airline commenced scheduled services between Blackpool and Luton with Vikings. The route was subsequently operated with Ambassadors and extended to Glasgow on 24 May 1966.
In the following years, all piston-engined aircraft types were withdrawn and replaced with Hawker Siddeley 748 and Handley Page Herald turboprops. Three Heralds operated the company's scheduled services, including the main London—Teesside route.
1964 saw the formation of Clarksons Tours (later, Clarksons Holidays) with Tom Gullick as managing director. Over the next few years, Clarksons would become Autair's and its successor Court Line's most important tour operator customer.
In April 1965 Court Line bought Autair's entire share capital for £215,000.
Autair became a jet operator in 1968, when three brand-new BAC One-Eleven 400 series joined its fleet. The new jets mainly operated IT flights.
1968 was also the year Clarkson's customer base had grown to 175,000 (up from 4,000 in 1964), many of whom flew to their holiday destination on Autair's new jets.
By spring 1969, five One-Eleven 400s (including an example acquired second-hand from Channel Airways) operated Autair's IT flights, primarily under contract to Clarksons Tours. These carried the bulk of the airline's half-a-million annual charter passengers, which far outnumbered the 66,000 using its scheduled services each year.
From 1 April 1969, the airline's scheduled operation in London was consolidated at Heathrow, joining Teesside services which had already transferred to London's premier airport from the company's Luton base on 1 November 1967.
In summer 1969, Autair announced its decision to withdraw all scheduled services "irrevocably", following an unsuccessful request for government subsidies. By that time, the airline's scheduled network served Belfast, Blackpool, Carlisle, the Channel Islands, Dundee, Glasgow, Hull, the Isle of Man, London and Teesside in the UK, Dublin in the Republic of Ireland and Amsterdam in the Netherlands. Scheduled services accounted for 12% of Autair's turnover. The airline's scheduled operation was estimated to have generated an annual loss of £150,000 (only London—Teesside was said to be profitable).
On 31 October 1969, scheduled services were stopped and all turboprop aircraft sold. This was followed by an order for seven of the larger 119-seat 500 series One-Eleven.
Court Line Aviation
To coincide with the arrival of the first BAC One-Eleven 500, the airline changed its name on 1 January 1970 to Court Line Aviation and introduced a new corporate look and strategy that focused exclusively on the then fast-growing package holiday market. As the larger One-Eleven 500s were delivered, all but one of the smaller, former Autair 400 series One-Elevens were retired.
The corporate look was an all-over colour design by Peter Murdoch. In keeping with the holiday "feel-good factor", One-Elevens were painted in the following distinctive, eye-catching pastel colour combinations: yellow/gold/orange, pink/rose/magenta, pale violet/mauve/purple, light green/mid-green/forest green. These were named Halcyon Skies. Aircrew wore trendy uniforms designed by Mary Quant. This was part of making passengers feel that the flight was a "fun part" of their holiday. For many, it would be their first flying experience.
Other airlines and tour operators were quick to jump on the burgeoning package holiday bandwagon. This resulted in increasingly fierce competition between operators and led to a price warfare to fill planes and hotels. Under Tom Gullick's management, Shipping Industrial Holdings subsidiary Clarksons Holidays became the undisputed cut-price leader in the IT market. By 1973, Clarksons carried 1.1 million holidaymakers—almost 1968's whole industry total—and contracted over 70% of Court Line's charter capacity. Its meteoric rise was entirely volume-based. It generated the required volumes by ruthlessly undercutting rivals and outbidding them to win the race for securing accommodation in popular overseas holiday resorts, especially in Spain. Thus, in the early 1970s, a holiday in Majorca or on the Costa del Sol became affordable for the average person for the first time.
Court Line and Clarksons Holidays were also a UK pioneers of the "time charter" concept, whereby the airline entered into a long-term relationship with the tour operator. "Time charter" was modelled on similar long-term arrangements between ship owners and charterers in the oil tanker business. It resulted in greater economic security for the charter airline industry and enabled it to acquire new aircraft on more favourable terms.
"Seat-back" catering
Court Line invented "seat-back" catering, a new concept that permitted a reduction in the amount of galley space inside its aircraft's cabins. The extra space obtained was equivalent to three seats on the One-Eleven 400. This enabled it to increase seating densities and reduce individual seat rates to allow tour operators to hold on to their market shares in a price-sensitive environment.
The concept itself consisted of pre-packed meals or snacks – usually, Spam salads out and sandwiches back — loaded into a small, two-shelf compartment in the seat back in front of each passenger. The meal/snack for the outbound journey could be found in the top compartment, the one for the return trip in the lower section. The latter contained a pellet of dry ice placed under the plastic food container, thus preventing the food from spoiling. For the airline's cabin staff, it eliminated handling trays while airborne and resulted in a reduction of their workload. To prevent outbound passengers from consuming meals intended for return passengers, locks needed to be installed on the lower compartment that could only be opened by cabin staff during the aircraft's turnaround at the destination airport (although these were not always effective at deterring determined passengers).
In addition to Court Line/Clarksons, Great Universal Stores (GUS) subsidiary Global was a major proponent of "seat-back" catering among the UK's leading contemporary tour operators. It demanded that package holiday costs be driven down to the bare minimum by replacing the traditional meal service on holiday charter flights with something much cheaper that would simply give passengers "a slice of pie". Industry insiders referred to Global's new inflight catering concept as Global Pie. The cost advantage industry leaders such as Court Line/Clarksons and Global gained over their rivals as a result of their onboard catering innovation eventually forced every other major UK charter airline to adopt "seat-back" catering on most flights serving short- and medium-haul IT destinations.
Widebody era
In 1973, Court Line took delivery of a pair of Lockheed L-1011 Tristars and became the first European airline to operate the Lockheed widebody. The aircraft were acquired on long-term lease from Airlease International, a consortium of eleven British banks and financial institutions. They were uniquely customised for Court with double-width doors to speed up passenger evacuation and featured integral passenger stairs and baggage conveyors to facilitate operations at smaller airports. The introduction of these brand-new widebodies was a big gamble for a small airline operating in a seasonal market with tight margins as the new jets had four times the One-Eleven's passenger capacity (476 vs 119).
Court took the view with Clarksons that the market would grow and that such large aircraft could be operated profitably. In addition, Clarksons was looking to expand further into cruise holidays and new markets in the US and the Caribbean. This, at the time, was wholly new territory for the UK package tour market.
The acquisition of Leeward Islands Air Transport (LIAT), a regional airline based in the Caribbean, in 1972 was part of Court's long-haul expansion strategy. Court Line provided LIAT with BAC One-Eleven series 500 aircraft for scheduled passenger services in the Caribbean. The BAC One-Eleven was the only jet aircraft type ever operated by LIAT.
The introduction of the TriStar led to an increase in maintenance personnel and the modification of an existing hangar at the airline's Luton base to accommodate the new widebody. It also resulted in the purchase of a former Royal Air Force Blackburn Beverley cargo transporter from the Royal Aircraft Establishment to airlift Rolls-Royce RB211 replacement engines and/or other essential spares in case the planes developed a serious technical fault at an overseas station that prevented them from returning to Luton (although in fact the Beverley was never civil registered and so was never used).
The airline's total investment in widebodied equipment amounted to US$55 million.
Hard times
As early as 1971, Clarksons lost as much as £2.6 million despite increasing its turnover by £9 million to £31 million. Industry sources estimated that this equated to a loss of £4 per head.
In 1972, Clarksons's loss grew to £4.8 million. This was almost 2½ times as much as the combined loss of Thomson Holidays (£1.6 million) and Horizon Holidays (£388,000), its closest rivals.
By 1973, Clarksons carried over a million passengers and accounted for 40% of Court Line's turnover.
During the 1973–74 winter season, Clarksons's plight worsened. At the time, the UK was in the grip of a recession, as a result of the early 1970s energy crisis caused by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries' oil boycott of the West in the aftermath of the 1973 Arab–Israeli War. This was a punitive measure directed against these countries for their support of Israel during that war. It led to a drastic reduction in the availability of petroleum products – including jet fuel. This in turn resulted in a tripling of the oil price in October 1973 and a subsequent quadrupling.
1974 became known as the worst year for the UK package tour industry. At the beginning of the year, Britain plunged into the three-day working week, as a consequence of the miners' strike that had been called to topple the Heath Government. This immediately reduced package holiday bookings by 30%. Clarksons, Court Line's main customer and in-house tour operator since April 1973, was facing mounting financial pressure, and Vladimir Raitz's Horizon Holidays, another of the airline's major customers, collapsed during that time. Following Court Line's takeover of Clarksons the previous year for a nominal £1 (excluding a £3.4 million "subsidy" from the airline's parent company to cover the tour operator's projected 1973 loss), it purchased the Horizon group's goodwill for £600,000—including the acquisition of 58% of Horizon Midlands for £400,000—from the administrator. The deal, which became effective in February 1974, was based on payment of £1 for each Horizon customer Court Line expected to carry over the following three years. The airline's decision to purchase Clarksons as well as Horizon was intended to protect its business. In reality, these deals did little to help improve Court Line's increasingly bleak prospects.
As soon as Court Line began diverting Horizon customers onto its planes, British Caledonian (BCal) threatened having Horizon compulsorily wound up if Court Line did not agree to settle Horizon's outstanding debts of over £100,000. BCal's threat forced Court Line to sub-charter a fully crewed BCal One-Eleven jet for Horizon's flying programme and to provide it with additional business. In addition to BCal forcing Court Line to compensate it for the loss of Horizon's business, Thomas Cook's money-back guarantee – a scheme widely copied by other rival tour operators – further reduced the number of Horizon holidaymakers travelling on Court Line's jets. As a result, Court Line carried far fewer Horizon customers than it had anticipated. Clarksons's financial position further deteriorated. In a desperate attempt to fill the group's planes and hotel rooms so that it could stay afloat, Clarksons continued selling holiday packages below cost, with a fortnight all-inclusive holiday to Majorca selling for as little as £50.
Bankruptcy
A deal between the Court Line group and the Wilson Government to sell the former's shipyards at Appledore and Sunderland to the latter for £60 million turned out to be "too little too late" to stave off the company's impending collapse.
On 15 August 1974, Court Line went bankrupt, with all flights cancelled, its fleet comprising two TriStars and nine One-Eleven 500s grounded, all 1,150 staff losing their jobs and as many as 49,000 holidaymakers stranded overseas with no means of getting home. To enable stranded holidaymakers to return to the UK at no additional cost to them, the collapsed group's rivals organised an airlift through the Tour Operators' Study Group (TOSG), the package holiday industry association. This operation was paid for using the £3.5m bond the failed group's tour operators had deposited with TOSG.
The Association of British Travel Agents (ABTA) set up a fund to provide an insurance against such an event in the future. This was a compulsory bonding scheme for travel companies that transported their customers by air. It was administered by TOSG.
On 16 August 1974, all of the group's UK-based subsidiaries went into voluntary liquidation. This included Court Line Aviation and Clarksons Holidays.
Leeward Islands Air Transport (LIAT) in the Caribbean as well as South Africa-based Court Line Helicopters were among Court Line's overseas subsidiaries. Both survived the UK parent company's collapse. LIAT subsequently withdrew the BAC One-Eleven series 500 aircraft from its fleet which had been provided by Court Line.
The Court Line Coaches subsidiary, although itself solvent and having most of its work from sources other than Court Line Aviation, was wound up shortly afterwards. Commercial Motor of 23 August 1974 noted that "Court Line's coach fleet continues operations 'for the present' A go ahead to stay in operation has been given to Court Line Coaches Ltd by Mr Rupert Nicholson, who has been appointed to wind up the Court Line holiday giant which collapsed last week. Court Line Coaches has a fleet of 59 coaches and its managing director Mr Ron Keech told CM on Tuesday that the company has been told it could continue trading. He had however, "no idea" what might happen in a few months' time."
Factors behind collapse
In addition to the early-'70s oil crisis and the three-day week, there were other factors that had caused the collapse of the group of companies that included Court Line and Clarksons.
One of these factors was the parent company's precariously highly geared investment in the shipping and leisure industry sectors.
According to some insider reports at the time, Court Line Aviation was a viable business. However, a proposed management buyout was rejected as its liquidation value was needed to pay off the parent company's debts.
The Department of Trade and Industry final report into the Court Line collapse concludes:
"The short answer is that there was no single reason for the collapse, which was caused by a number of contributory factors. Court Line expanded rapidly in many directions, some of which were both logical and justifiable, others not. The overall management was throughout inadequate and it was in any event never supported by the necessary financial control. This meant that as Court Line expanded, it became progressively vulnerable to any substantial setback in any of its areas of activities. When a serious setback occurred, triggered off by the oil crisis of autumn 1973, it immediately affected the shipping, aviation, and leisure divisions. The group was so highly geared, so structured and having such inadequate financial control, that it might well have been brought down by a substantial reverse in any of its major activities. As it was the cumulative effect on all three divisions, when all the cash resources which would otherwise have been available had been invested unprofitably in the Caribbean, meant that the position progressively deteriorated and rendered the collapse in August 1974 unavoidable."
Disposal of airline's assets
Following the spectacular crash of Court Line and Clarksons at the height of the 1974 holiday season, the failed carrier's fairly new aircraft were acquired by other airlines. Cathay Pacific took the L-1011 TriStar widebodies while Dan-Air and Monarch Airlines respectively purchased four and two of the One-Eleven 500 narrowbodies. These aircraft needed to be re-registered to avoid having them impounded by overseas airport authorities in lieu of the airport user charges Court Line owed them.
Fixed-wing aircraft operated
Autair
Airspeed Ambassador
BAC One-Eleven 400
Douglas DC-3
Douglas DC-4
Handley Page Dart Herald
Hawker Siddeley HS 125
Hawker Siddeley HS 748
Vickers Viking
Court Line
BAC One-Eleven 400/500
Blackburn Beverley
Hawker Siddeley HS 125
Lockheed L-1011 TriStar 1
Piper Navajo
Fleet and employee data
1970
Court Line employed 670 people at that time (as of March 1970).
1974
Court Line employed 1,150 people at that time (as of March 1974).
See also
List of defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
Accidents and incidents
Autair suffered two accidents, one of which involved the loss of lives.
The first of these occurred on 14 September 1967. One of the airline's Ambassadors (registration: G-ALZS) overran the runway at Luton Airport at the end of a non-scheduled passenger flight from Luxembourg. The aircraft had approached Luton in darkness. Visibility was and the cloud base . Following touchdown, the pilot in command retracted the aircraft's flaps in the takeoff position and applied brakes intermittently. The aircraft overran the runway and came to a stop in soft clay. This caused the undercarriage to collapse. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair and had to be written off. However, there were no fatalities among the 69 occupants (four crew and 65 passengers).
The second took place on 23 December 1967. A Hawker Siddeley HS 125 (registration: G-AVGW, owned by The Beecham Group and operated by Autair International) crashed shortly after taking off from Luton Airport, killing both pilots. The aircraft had been on a training flight and the crash occurred when the crew simulated an engine failure on takeoff. The HS 125 lost height rapidly and hit the roof of a nearby factory, resulting in a post-crash fire.
On 18 April 1974, BAC One-Eleven G-AXMJ was involved in a ground collision with Piper PA-23 Aztec G-AYDE during take-off from Luton Airport, Bedfordshire. The Aztec had entered the active runway without permission. The pilot of the Aztec was killed and his passenger was injured. The One-Eleven aborted its take-off and an emergency evacuation was performed with all 93 people on board escaping uninjured. The Aztec was written off and the substantially damaged One-Eleven was repaired and returned to service.
A Court Line BAC One-Eleven leased to Cyprus Airways was stranded in 1974 at Nicosia Airport following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. It was retrieved by British Airways engineers in 1977, but was immediately impounded on its arrival in Britain by Court Line's insurers to help pay off the debts the now defunct company owed. The aircraft was returned to Cyprus Airways in 1978 and remained in service until 1985.
Citations
References
(various backdated issues relating to Autair/Court Line, 1960–1974)
Further reading
(Kelsey Publishing Group online)
External links
Home of the BAC 1-11 on the Web > Enter > Country guide to operators > United Kingdom: Court Line Aviation, Ltd. (OU)
Home of the BAC 1-11 on the Web > Enter > Model Number and Customer Code
Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
Defunct shipping companies of the United Kingdom
Airlines established in 1957
Airlines disestablished in 1974
Travel and holiday companies of the United Kingdom
1905 establishments in England
1974 disestablishments in England
British companies disestablished in 1974
British companies established in 1905 | [
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235467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Milan | List of rulers of Milan | The following is a list of rulers of Milan from the 13th century to 1814, after which it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia by the Congress of Vienna.
Before elevation to duchy
Until 1259, Milan was a free commune that elected its own podestà. The Torriani family gained sustained power in 1240, when Pagano Della Torre was elected podestà. After Pagano's death, Baldo Ghiringhelli was elected podestà in 1259, but at the end of his tenure Martino della Torre, Pagano's nephew, perpetrated a coup d'état, seizing of power of his family over the commune, establishing the first Signoria (Italian for "Lordship") of Milan.
During their tenure, the Torriani family, aligned with French Charles of Anjou, started a strong rivality with Visconti family, loyal to the German Hohenstaufen. In 1262, Pope Urban IV appointed Ottone Visconti as Archbishop of Milan, to Martino della Torre's disappointment. In 1273, a civil war started between the two families, ended with Torriani's defeat in the Battle of Desio of 1277.
On June 1302, Guido della Torre forged a coalition with anti-Visconti cities and marched on Milan, deposing Visconti. However, in 1308 Guido started a quarrel with his cousin, the Archbishop Cassone della Torre. After an assault on Milan Cathedral, Cassone fled to Bologna and solicited an imperial intervention. Taking advantage of a chaotic situation in Northern Italy, King Henry VII of Germany descended into Italy with an army, and in Autumn 1310 he marched on Milan to restore both Cassone and the Visconti. After the fall of Milan, he was crowned King of Italy in the city's Cathedral.
After elevation to duchy
House of Visconti
In 1395, Gian Galeazzo Visconti was titled Duke of Milan by King Wenceslaus, who sold the title under the payment of circa 100,000 florins. Since that moment, all the following rulers of Milan were styled as dukes.
House of Sforza (1st rule)
After the death of Filippo Maria in 1447, the main line of Visconti went extinct. Benefited by political chaos, a cabal of wealthy citizens, academics and clerics declared the Duchy dissolved and proclaimed the oligarchical Golden Ambrosian Republic.
The republic was never recognized and the neighboring states of Venice and Savoy tried to expand their fiefdoms in Lombardy, as well as France. Taking advantage of the state's weakness and the resurgent Guelph-Ghibelline conflict, the commander-in-chief of the Milanese forces, Francesco I Sforza, defected from Milan to Venice in 1448, and two years later, after several side switches and cunning strategies, Sforza entered the city during Annunciation. He was then declared the new Duke of Milan by the City Council, using as a claim his marriage with Bianca Maria Visconti, illegitimate daughter of Filippo Maria.
House of Valois (1st rule)
In 1494, Ludovico Sforza usurped the throne of Milan, after probably poisoning his nephew Gian Galeazzo. After Venetian's threats, Ludovico solicited French king Charles VIII to descend into Italy, starting the First Italian War. After Ludovico's betrayal and alliance with League of Venice in 1495, French were defeated in the Battle of Fornovo and unabled to expand in Italy. Charles VIII's top general and cousin, Louis II, Duke of Orléans (future Louis XII), was humiliated and due to his personal hate toward Ludovico Sforza, started to claim the Duchy of Milan for himself, quoting his paternal descendance from Valentina Visconti and Gian Galeazzo's last will. After Louis XII's ascension to the French Throne in 1499, he started the Second Italian War to conquer Milan and Naples. With French armies near Pavia, Ludovico and his loyalists left Milan on 17 September 1499 to flee toward Germany. This left Louis XII as only Duke of Milan, entering in city on 6 October 1499.
House of Sforza (2nd rule)
Ludovico Sforza was captured on February 1500, dying in hard prison in 1508. His son Massimiliano became the Sforza claimant to the Milanese Throne, finally re-gained in January 1513, six months after the Swiss army entrance in Milan.
House of Valois (2nd rule)
After their defeat in the Battle of Marignano in 1515, the Swiss retired from Milan and Massimiliano was imprisoned by the returning French troops. He waived his rights to Milan for the sum of 30,000 ducats and continued to live in France.
House of Sforza (3rd rule)
By November 1521, the French situation had deteriorated considerably. Emperor Charles V, Henry VIII of England, and the Pope Leo X signed an alliance against Francis on 28 November. Odet de Foix, Viscount of Lautrec, the French governor of Milan, was tasked with resisting the Imperial and Papal forces; he was outmatched by Prospero Colonna, however, and by late November had been forced out of Milan and had retreated to a ring of towns around the Adda River. For the third time and last time, Sforza were restored to power.
House of Habsburg
In 1535, after the death of the heirless Francesco II Sforza, Emperor Charles V annexed the Duchy as a vacant imperial state in order to avoid other claims by the French or the collateral branches of Sforza.
House of Habsburg-Spain
In 1540, the Duchy was secretly given as a gift to Charles V's son Philip, Prince of Asturias. This was made official at the abdication of Charles V in 1555. In 1556, Philip became Philip II of Spain and Milan entered in personal union with the Spanish Crown.
House of Bourbon-Anjou
In September 1700, Charles became ill; by 28 September he was no longer able to eat and Portocarrero persuaded him to alter his Will in favour of Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou. When Charles died on 1 November 1700, the throne was offered to Philip, who was proclaimed King of Spain on 16 November 1700. This was accepted by Britain and the Dutch Republic among others but disputes over division of territories and commercial rights led to the War of the Spanish Succession in 1701.
House of Habsburg-Austria (then Habsburg-Lorraine)
After the Treaty of Rastatt of 1714, Emperor Charles VI officially gained the Duchy of Milan, a possession considered vital to the security of Austria's southern border. Since that moment, Milan was a permanent possession of Austrian branch of Habsburg Monarchy.
See also
List of Governors of the Duchy of Milan
List of mayors of Milan
List of consorts of Milan
Timeline of Milan
References
Bibliography
History of Milan
Milan
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235473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Berkley | Elizabeth Berkley | Elizabeth Berkley (born July 28, 1974) is an American actress. She played Jessie Spano in the television series Saved by the Bell, and Nomi Malone in the 1995 Paul Verhoeven film Showgirls. She voiced the title role in the English dub of the anime film Armitage III: Poly-Matrix, and had supporting roles in the films The First Wives Club and Roger Dodger. In theater, she received critical acclaim for her performance in Hurlyburly.
Early life
Berkley was born and raised in Farmington Hills, a community among Detroit's northern suburbs in affluent Oakland County, Michigan. She is the daughter of Jere, a gift-basket business owner, and Fred Berkley, a lawyer. She has an older brother, Jason. Her family is Jewish. She was raised in a Conservative Jewish household and had a bat mitzvah. She was born with partial heterochromia, the condition of differently colored irises; her right eye is half green and half brown, and her left eye is all green. She also has a mole on her forehead, which she covers with makeup, saying it led to name-calling while growing up. She graduated in 1990 from North Farmington High School in Farmington Hills after attending the Cranbrook Kingswood School, a private school in Bloomfield Hills.
From a young age, she danced, and practiced in a room her parents arranged for her in the basement. She auditioned for the lead role in the film Annie. When she became interested in pursuing dance professionally, she traveled to New York City to train with dancers and choreographers. She performed in several ballets, including Swan Lake, and in 1983, she appeared in some musicals.
Career
1980s
Berkley was a teenage model for Elite before pursuing an acting career. She made her television debut in the 1987 television film Frog, and made a number of guest appearances on other TV shows. In 1989, at the age of 15, she auditioned for the role of Kelly Kapowski in Saved by the Bell, but the producers of the show could not decide whether to cast Tiffani-Amber Thiessen or her. In the end, they created for Berkley the character Jessie Spano, a role she played from 1989 to 1993, and in both of the show's television-film installments.
1990s
After leaving Saved by the Bell to pursue a film career, Berkley won the role of Nomi Malone, the lead character in the controversial Paul Verhoeven film Showgirls (1995). The sex- and nudity-laden film was given a NC-17 rating in the United States (the first big-budget film to receive the rating), was a box office bomb, and was widely panned by critics. Berkeley's performance received negative reviews, with Todd McCarthy describing it in Variety as "harsh, graceless and quickly tiresome", and Janet Maslin of The New York Times writing that Berkeley displayed "the open-mouthed, vacant-eyed look of an inflatable party doll." Berkley's agent subsequently dropped her, and the film's negative fallout made it hard for her to find new representation. Over the years, Showgirls has achieved cult status among film fans and ranks 36 on Entertainment Weeklys list of the Top 50 Cult Movies.
Berkley was cast in the title role in the anime film Armitage III: Poly Matrix, which also starred Kiefer Sutherland, and accepted a small role in The First Wives Club, a comedy starring Diane Keaton, Goldie Hawn and Bette Midler. She then played a Madonna body double named Tina in the independent film The Real Blonde. She has had supporting roles in independent films such as The Taxman, Tail Lights Fade, Roger Dodger, and Moving Malcolm. She also had a small role as a call girl hired by Al Pacino's character in Oliver Stone's sports drama Any Given Sunday, and a key supporting role in Woody Allen's The Curse of the Jade Scorpion. She appeared on stage with Eddie Izzard for Honey in the London stage version of Lenny in 1999.
2000s
Berkley made her Broadway debut in the comedy Sly Fox with Richard Dreyfuss in February 2004, three months after her marriage to artist Greg Lauren.
She replaced Catherine Keener as Bonnie in the 2005 off-Broadway production of David Rabe's Hurlyburly, appearing with Ethan Hawke, Parker Posey and Bobby Cannavale. Berkley received praise for her role in the show, with Charles Isherwood of The New York Times even going as far as apologizing to her for his past criticisms of her ability, stating that the fact she held "her own among this skilled company of scene-stealers is a testament to how much her talent has grown." In 2006, she appeared at the sixth annual 24 Hour Plays alongside Jennifer Aniston, Rosie Perez, and Lili Taylor, in which six writers, six directors, 24 actors, and production crews have 24 hours to write, direct, and perform six 10-minute plays.
Berkley has been seen in many dramatic television roles, guest-starring on series such as CSI: Miami, NYPD Blue, Without a Trace, Threshold, and Law & Order: Criminal Intent. She had a recurring role in the successful and critically acclaimed sitcom Titus, playing the title character's sister Shannon. She also starred in the Lifetime television film Student Seduction, where she played Christie Dawson, a high-school teacher wrongfully accused of sexual harassment by one of her students, who becomes obsessed with her. It was followed by another made-for-television film in 2007, Black Widow, where she played a woman suspected of killing her husbands for their money. The film Meet Market, where she starred with Julian McMahon, Krista Allen, and Aisha Tyler, was released straight to DVD in 2008.
In 2008, Berkley signed on to appear in a multiepisode arc of CSI: Miami, in which she plays Horatio Caine's (David Caruso) ex-lover, Julia Winston, who is also the mother of his recently discovered son. The episodes in which Berkley appeared were very highly rated and all of them featured in the top-10 Nielsen ratings chart. She has since appeared in the show's season-six finale.
Berkley hosted Bravo's reality series, Step It Up and Dance, a competition featuring the exploits of 10 wannabe dancers who compete against each other to win a cash prize of $100,000, and the opportunity to work with and perform for some of the country's top choreographers. The show premiered in April 2008 on Bravo, and was canceled after the first season. The show came out as the network's strongest ever in its time slot (10/11 C) with 826,000 viewers. The show continued to perform well throughout its run, averaging 756,000 viewers each week – of whom 522,000 were aged 18 to 49 – and helped contribute to Bravo's highest-rated April ever. According to Berkley, hosting the show is a very fulfilling job. She was quoted as saying that she gets "invested in the dancers" because she has befriended many of them offstage.
During the press tour for Step It Up and Dance, Berkley appeared on various shows, including various morning news programs, ABC's Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Fuse TV's The Sauce, E!'s Chelsea Lately, CNBC's The Big Idea with Donny Deutsch, and ABC's The View. While on The View, she spoke of her admiration for co-host Whoopi Goldberg, calling her "an extraordinary being". Her appearance on the show was unique in that she brought the ladies of the show tap shoes and taught them a short dance routine. Berkley starred alongside Thomas Jane in the David Arquette-directed short film "The Butler's in Love", which premiered at Mann's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles in June 2008.
In 2009, Berkley starred in a multiepisode arc of the Showtime series The L Word, during its sixth and final season. She played Kelly Wentworth, a straight girl who got away from Jennifer Beals' character Bette Porter in college. Berkley and Beals are best friends in real life, having previously worked on the 2002 independent film Roger Dodger. Berkley continued with television work, reprising her role as Julia Winston in CSI: Miami, appearing in three more episodes, including the season-seven finale. In the sequel to the cult hit Donnie Darko, S. Darko, she played Trudy, a former drug addict turned born-again Christian, who becomes infatuated with her pastor. She also appeared as Tracy in the 2009 comedy Women in Trouble.
During Berkley's guest appearance on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon in June 2009, her Saved by the Bell co-star Mark-Paul Gosselaar – as Zack Morris – expressed his desire to take part in Jimmy Fallon's "class reunion" of the show's original cast members, and revealed that Berkley has also agreed to take part in the reunion. Dennis Haskins, Lark Voorhies, Mario Lopez, Elizabeth Berkley and Mark-Paul Gosselaar agreed to a reunion. Gosselaar reprised his role as Zack Morris on Late Night on June 8, 2009, while promoting his then-current TNT drama, Raising the Bar. The spoof interview closed with a performance of "Friends Forever" originally by Zack Attack, where Zack played guitar and sang with backing from Fallon's house band, the Roots. Tiffani Thiessen posted a parody video to the online website Funny or Die, where she said she was just too busy to join in a reunion.
2010s
In 2011, Berkley played the lead female role in the Hallmark Channel original movie Lucky Christmas, about a woman who wins the lottery, only to have to recover the ticket from the glove compartment of her stolen car. The film premiered on the channel on November 12, 2011.
In September 2013, Berkley was announced as one of the contestants on the 17th season of Dancing with the Stars. She partnered with Valentin Chmerkovskiy. They were eliminated on the 9th week of competition, and landed in 6th place, despite receiving high judge scores. Several perfect scores were earned and awarded by expert panel judges. Ultimately, however, the public vote eliminated her team based upon popularity metrics used by the show.
In 2014, the TV movie The Unauthorized Saved by the Bell Story aired, with actress Tiera Skovbye portraying Berkley. On February 4, 2015, Berkley reunited with Mark-Paul Gosselaar, Mario Lopez, Dennis Haskins, and Tiffani Thiessen on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, where they appeared in a Saved by the Bell sketch with Fallon. In November 2020, Berkely reprised the role of Jessie Spano in the Saved by the Bell sequel series.
Ask-Elizabeth
In 2010, Berkley set up the now-defunct self-help program online for teen girls called Ask-Elizabeth. The website was created when husband Greg Lauren commented on the number of girls who came to her asking for advice and joked that she should have her own column. She regularly meets with young girls to discuss different issues and topics, and to help them with any problems that they are going through and speaks of her own troubles in the past.
Ask-Elizabeth was also the working title of a reality series focusing on the program's success and its continued efforts to help girls throughout the country. The show, produced by MTV, featured Berkley traveling around the United States looking at the issues and topics most important to teenaged girls. Amy Bailey, vice president of development in MTV's News and Documentaries division, said Berkley approached MTV with the idea. "She does these workshops around the country with teen girls and gets them to really open up about self-esteem and body issues," said Bailey. "We had been looking for a program that tackled the same issues, so it seemed like a perfect match." The status of the show itself is unknown, as it was originally expected to premiere in late 2008, but never got off the ground.
In 2011, Berkley published Ask-Elizabeth, a self-help book for teenaged girls, which drew from the workshops she conducted for the Ask-Elizabeth program.
Personal life
In 2000, Berkley was tangentially involved in a $45 million lawsuit when actor and screenwriter Roger Wilson filed suit against Leonardo DiCaprio, claiming that DiCaprio had encouraged his friends to assault Wilson in a street fight, related to invitations to socialize directed at Berkley. DiCaprio was alleged to have pursued Berkley whilst she was in a relationship with Wilson and Wilson confronted DiCaprio over the accusation.
On November 1, 2003, Berkley married artist and actor Greg Lauren at the Esperanza Hotel in Cabo San Lucas. She formally changed her name to Elizabeth Berkley Lauren, but she still uses her maiden name professionally. She gave birth to their son in July 2012.
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Notes
References
External links
1974 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Michigan
American women activists
American child actresses
American child models
Businesspeople from Michigan
American female dancers
American female models
Dancers from Michigan
Female models from Michigan
American film actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Golden Raspberry Award winners
Jewish American actresses
Jewish female models
Participants in American reality television series
People from Farmington Hills, Michigan
21st-century American Jews
North Farmington High School alumni | [
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235474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Tuscany | List of rulers of Tuscany | The rulers of Tuscany varied over time, sometimes being margraves, the rulers of handfuls of border counties and sometimes the heads of the most important family of the region.
Margraves of Tuscany, 812–1197
House of Boniface
These were originally counts of Lucca who extended their power over the neighbouring counties.
Boniface I, 812–823
Boniface II, 828–834
Aganus, 835–845
Adalbert I, 847–886
Adalbert II the Rich, 886–915
Guy, 915–929
Lambert, 929–931
House of Boso
These were the (mostly illegitimate) relatives of Hugh of Arles, King of Italy, whom he appointed to their post after removing the dynasty of Boniface
Boso, 931–936
Humbert, 936–961
Hugh the Great, 961–1001
House of Hucpold
Boniface (III), 1004–1011
Nondynastic
Rainier, 1014–1027
House of Canossa
These were the descendants of the Counts of Canossa.
Boniface III, 1027–1052
Frederick, 1052–1055
Matilda, 1055–1115
Beatrice of Bar, 1052–1069 (regent as mother of Frederick and Mathilda)
Godfrey the Bearded, Duke of Lower Lorraine, 1053–1069 (regent as husband of Beatrice and step-father to Frederick and Matilda)
Godfrey the Hunchback, Duke of Lower Lorraine, 1069–1076 (co-ruler as husband of Matilda)
Welf II, 1089–1095 (co-ruler as husband of Matilda)
Nondynastic
Rabodo, 1116–1119
Conrad, 1119/20–1129/31
Rampret, c. 1131
Engelbert, 1134/5–1137
Henry the Proud, 1137–1139
Ulrich of Attems, 1139–1152 (imperial vicar)
Welf VI, 1152–1160
Welf VII, 1160–1167
Rainald of Dassel, Archbishop of Cologne, 1160–1163 (imperial vicar)
Christian of Buch, Archbishop of Mainz 1163–1173 (imperial vicar)
Welf VI, 1167–1173
Philip, 1195–1197
In 1197 Philip was elected King of Germany and the majority of the Tuscan nobility, cities and bishops formed the Tuscan League with Papal backing.
Frederick of Antioch, 1246–50 (imperial vicar)
After this, Tuscany was splintered between the competing republics of Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, Pistoia and Lucca. Since the 14th century, Florence gained dominance over Pistoia (1306, officially annexed 1530), Arezzo (1384), Pisa (1406), and Siena (1559). Lucca was an independent republic until the Napoleonic period in the 19th century.
Rulers of Florence, 1434–1569
De facto rulers of the House of Medici, 1434–1494
Republic of Florence (1494-1512)
Rulers of the House of Medici (1512-1532)
After the Sack of Rome, Florence overthrew the Medicis once more and became a republic until Pope Clement VII signed a peace treaty with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor who then invaded Florence and restored the Medicis.
Medici dukes of Florence, 1532–1569
Medici grand dukes of Tuscany, 1569–1737
Habsburg-Lorraine grand dukes of Tuscany, 1737–1801
Bourbon-Parma kings of Etruria, 1801–1807
Tuscany was annexed by France, 1807–1814. Napoleon's sister Elisa Bonaparte was given the honorary title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany, but did not actually rule over the region.
Habsburg-Lorraine grand dukes of Tuscany, 1814–1860
Leopoldo II was driven from Tuscany by revolution from 21 February to 12 April 1849, and again on 27 April 1859. He abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinando IV, on 21 July 1859, but Ferdinando IV was never recognized in Tuscany, and was deposed by the provisional government on 16 August. Tuscany was annexed by Piedmont-Sardinia, on 22 March 1860.
Titular Habsburg-Lorraine claimants, 1860–present
Ferdinando IV 1860–1908
Giuseppe Ferdinando 1908–1921
Pietro Ferdinando 1921–1948
Goffredo 1948–1984
Leopoldo Francesco 1984–1993
Sigismondo 1993–Present
See also
List of Tuscan consorts
Grand Duchy of Tuscany
History of Tuscany
People from Tuscany
Lists of Italian people
Tuscany
History of Tuscany
Grand Duchy of Tuscany
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
House of Medici
People of the Republic of Florence
Royal houses of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany | [
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235475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20grey%20kangaroo | Western grey kangaroo | The western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus), also referred to as a western grey giant kangaroo, black-faced kangaroo, mallee kangaroo, and sooty kangaroo, is a large and very common kangaroo found across almost the entire southern part of Australia, from just south of Shark Bay through coastal Western Australia and South Australia, into western Victoria, and in the entire Murray–Darling basin in New South Wales and Queensland.
Taxonomy
Long known to the Aboriginal Australians, for Europeans, the western grey kangaroo was the centre of a great deal of sometimes comical taxonomic confusion for almost 200 years. It was first noted by European explorers when Matthew Flinders landed on Kangaroo Island in 1802. Flinders shot several for food, but assumed that they were eastern grey kangaroos. In 1803, French explorers captured several Kangaroo Island western grey kangaroos and shipped them to Paris, where they lived in the Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes for some years. Eventually, researchers at the Paris Museum of Natural History recognized that these animals were indeed distinct from the eastern grey kangaroo and formally described the species as Macropus fuliginosus in 1817. For reasons that remain unclear, the species was incorrectly described as native to Tasmania.
There the matter rested for over 100 years, and it was not until 1917 that researchers realized that the "forester kangaroo" of Tasmania was in fact Macropus giganteus, the same eastern grey kangaroo that was, and still is, widespread in the southeastern part of the mainland. By 1971, it was understood that the Kangaroo Island western grey kangaroo belonged to the same species as the kangaroos of southern and Western Australia, and that this population extended through much of the eastern part of the continent as well (see range map). For a time, three subspecies were described, two on the mainland and one on Kangaroo Island. The current classification scheme emerged in the 1990s.
The western grey kangaroo is not found in the north or the far southeast of Australia, and the eastern grey does not extend beyond the New South Wales–South Australia border, but the two species are both common in the Murray–Darling basin area. They never interbreed in the wild, although it has proved possible to produce hybrids between eastern grey females and western grey males in captivity.
Subspecies
There are two subspecies:
Macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus (commonly known as the Kangaroo Island western grey kangaroo), which is endemic to Kangaroo Island, South Australia
Macropus fuliginosus melanops, which has a range of different forms that intergrade clinally from west to east.
Description
The western grey kangaroo is one of the largest macropods in Australia. It weighs and its length is with a tail, standing approximately tall. It exhibits sexual dimorphism with the male up to twice the size of female. It has thick, coarse fur with colour ranging from pale grey to brown; its throat, chest and belly have a paler colour.
This species is difficult to distinguish from its sibling species, the eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). However, the western grey kangaroo has darker grey-brown fur, darker colouration around the head, and sometimes has a blackish patch around the elbow.
Ecology and behaviour
Diet
It feeds at night, mainly on grasses but also on leafy shrubs and low trees. It has a nickname "stinker" because mature males have a distinctive curry-like odour.
Reproduction and development
The western grey kangaroo lives in groups of up to 15. The males compete for females during the breeding season. During these "boxing" contests, they lock arms and try to push each other over. Usually, only the dominant male in the group mates. The gestation period is 30–31 days, after which the incompletely developed fetus (referred to as a joey) attaches to the teat in the pouch for 130–150 days.
Females sexually mature at 17 months while males mature at around 20 months.
The western grey kangaroo is closely related to the eastern grey kangaroo (M. giganteus), and their distribution overlaps extensively, especially in the Murray–Darling basin. However, the two species interbreed only rarely in the wild. Although hybridisation occurs in both directions in the overlap zone between the two species in the wild, this does not seem to be the case with captive animals. Although interbreeding between the two species does occasionally occur in captive animals, viable offspring are only produced when the mating pair consists of a female eastern grey kangaroo and a male western grey kangaroo. This is an example of unidirectional hybridisation.
Relationship with humans
The western grey kangaroo is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List, with a population showing an increasing trend. Total population within the commercial harvest areas is estimated to 2,348,393 individuals.
Though the feeding habits of M. fuliginosus can be problematic for agriculture, it is protected and controlled exclusively by the state faunal authorities. Because it is considered a competitor for water and pasture by ranchers, this species is considered a pest in some areas. To limit agricultural damage, kangaroo culling has been allowed under license every year.
Commercial hunting for meat and skin also allowed under regulation, with skins providing a high-quality, long-lasting leather. About 40% of harvested meat is used for human consumption; leather is used as a material for handbags, briefcases, and belts.
Commercial hunting is permitted in New South Wales, South Australia, and Western Australia, but disallowed in Tasmania, Northern Territory and Kangaroo Island.
References
Macropods
Mammals of Western Australia
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of Victoria (Australia)
Marsupials of Australia
Mammals described in 1817 | [
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] |
235496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol%20language | Mongol language | Mongol language may refer to:
Languages of Papua New Guinea:
Mongol language (New Guinea), a Ramu language of Papua New Guinea
Mongol–Langam languages, a language family of East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea
Languages of Central Asia:
Middle Mongol language, a Mongolic koiné language spoken in the Mongol Empire
Mongolian language, the official language of Mongolia
Mongolic languages, a group of languages spoken in East-Central Asia, mostly in Mongolia and surrounding areas
See also
Mongols, a Central and Northern Asian ethno-linguistic group | [
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235498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability%20scanner | Vulnerability scanner | A vulnerability scanner is a computer program designed to assess computers, networks or applications for known weaknesses. These scanners are used to discover the weaknesses of a given system. They are utilized in the identification and detection of vulnerabilities arising from mis-configurations or flawed programming within a network-based asset such as a firewall, router, web server, application server, etc. Modern vulnerability scanners allow for both authenticated and unauthenticated scans. Modern scanners are typically available as SaaS (Software as a Service); provided over the internet and delivered as a web application. The modern vulnerability scanner often has the ability to customize vulnerability reports as well as the installed software, open ports, certificates and other host information that can be queried as part of its workflow.
Authenticated scans allow for the scanner to directly access network based assets using remote administrative protocols such as secure shell (SSH) or remote desktop protocol (RDP) and authenticate using provided system credentials. This allows the vulnerability scanner to access low-level data, such as specific services and configuration details of the host operating system. It's then able to provide detailed and accurate information about the operating system and installed software, including configuration issues and missing security patches.
Unauthenticated scans is a method that can result in a high number of false positives and is unable to provide detailed information about the assets operating system and installed software. This method is typically used by threat actors or security analyst trying determine the security posture of externally accessible assets.
The CIS Critical Security Controls for Effective Cyber Defense designates continuous vulnerability scanning as a critical control for effective cyber defense.
See also
Browser security
Computer emergency response team
Information security
Internet security
Mobile security
Dynamic application security testing
Penetration testing
Pentesting software toolkits
◦ OpenVAS
◦ Nessus
◦ Metasploit Project
◦ Snort
References
External links
Web Application [need link to legit site, old site was hoax]
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Publication of their Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP) outline.
Computer security software | [
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235503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Sedgewick%20%28computer%20scientist%29 | Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist) | Robert Sedgewick (born December 20, 1946) is the founding chair and the William O. Baker Professor in Computer Science at Princeton University and was a member of the board of directors of Adobe Systems (1990-2016). He previously served on the faculty at Brown University and has held visiting research positions at Xerox PARC, Institute for Defense Analyses, and INRIA. His research expertise is in algorithm science, data structures, and analytic combinatorics. He is also active in developing the college curriculum in computer science and in harnessing technology to make that curriculum available to anyone seeking the opportunity to learn from it.
Early life
Sedgewick was born on December 20, 1946 in Willimantic, Connecticut. During his childhood he lived in Storrs, Connecticut, where his parents Charles Hill Wallace Sedgewick and Rose Whelan Sedgewick were professors at the University of Connecticut.
In 1958, he moved with his parents to Wheaton, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C., where he attended Wheaton High School, graduating in 1964.
Education
Sedgewick earned his Bachelor of Science (1968) and Master of Science (1969) degrees in Applied Mathematics from Brown University, where he was a student of Andries van Dam. He went on to graduate work at Stanford University where he was an advisee of Donald E. Knuth, receiving his Ph.D. in 1975. His thesis was entitled Quicksort and was named an outstanding dissertation in computer science.
Work and academic career
Sedgewick returned to Brown to start his academic career as an assistant professor in 1975, with promotion to associate professor in 1980 and full professor in 1983. At Brown, he participated in the founding of the computer science department, in 1979.
In 1985, Sedgewick joined the faculty at Princeton University as founding chair of the Department of Computer Science where he is now the William O. Baker *39 Professor of Computer Science. The first-year courses in computer science that he developed at Princeton are among the most popular courses ever offered at the university. He also pioneered the practice of replacing large live lectures with on-demand online videos.
Throughout his career, he has worked at research institutions outside of academia during summers and sabbatical leaves:
The Communications Research Division of the Institute for Defense Analyses in Princeton, New Jersey, an opportunity to work with the CRAY-1 supercomputer.
Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), an opportunity to see the personal computer come into existence.
The Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et en Automatique (INRIA) in France, a long and fruitful collaboration with Philippe Flajolet.
Research
Sedgewick developed red-black trees (with Leonidas J. Guibas), ternary search trees (with Jon Bentley), and pairing heaps (with R. E. Tarjan and Michael Fredman). He solved open problems left by Donald Knuth in the analysis of quicksort, shellsort, heapsort (with R. Schaffer), and Batcher's sort. His books on algorithms are replete with novel implementations of classic algorithms and scientific studies comparing them, in Pascal (programming language), C (programming language), C++, Modula-3, and Java (programming language) (See Bibliography). He is known for emphasizing a scientific approach to the analysis of algorithms, based on validating mathematical models with experimental work using realistic data. With Philippe Flajolet, he developed the field of mathematics known as analytic combinatorics.
He has organized research meetings and conferences on data structures, algorithm science, and analytic combinatorics around the world, including Dagstuhl seminars on analysis of algorithms and data structures,. In particular, in 1993, together with Rainer Kemp, Philippe Flajolet and Helmut Prodinger, he initiated the successful series of workshops and conferences which was key to the development of a research community around the analysis of algorithms, and which evolved into the AofA—International Meeting on Combinatorial, Probabilistic, and Asymptotic Methods in the Analysis of Algorithms. Robert Sedgewick was also the main proponent and organizer of the first editions of the SIAM Meetings on Analytic Algorithmics and Combinatorics (ANALCO), a series of meetings annually held from 2004 to 2019, co-located with the Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA).
Publishing
Sedgewick is the author of twenty books. He is best known for Algorithms, originally published in 1983 and now in its fourth edition. His 2008 book with Philippe Flajolet, Analytic Combinatorics, was awarded the Leroy P. Steele Prize for mathematical exposition by the American Mathematical Society. His most recent book, co-authored with Kevin Wayne, is Computer Science: An Interdisciplinary Approach.
Online Learning
Sedgewick is a pioneer in the development of massive open online courses, currently offering six MOOCs. With Kevin Wayne, he developed a scalable model that integrates the textbook, studio-produced online lectures, and extensive online content. Their two MOOCs and online content on algorithms are among the most popular on the web and have provided the opportunity for over one million registrants to learn from them at no cost.
He is an active advocate for expanding the reach of computer science, and is featured in articles in the Chronicle of Higher Education, the American Enterprise Institute, and the Washington Post, with essays published in the Wall Street Journal and Inside Higher Ed.
Awards
Flajolet Lecture Prize. AofA—International Meeting on Combinatorial, Probabilistic, and Asymptotic Methods in the Analysis of Algorithms, 2016.
Leroy P. Steele Prize for Mathematical Exposition. American Mathematical Society, 2019.
Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award. Association for Computing Machinery, 2019.
Recent books and online content
Computer Science: An Interdisciplinary Approach (with K. Wayne). Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 2016, 1131 pp. Associated online content: Booksite, curated lectures Part 1 and Part 2, and MOOCs Part 1 and Part 2.
Algorithms, Fourth Edition (with K. Wayne). Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 2011, 955 pp. Earlier editions: 11 books, using 5 programming languages, translated into many foreign languages, 1983–2003. Associated online content: Booksite, curated lectures, and MOOCs Part 1 and Part 2.
An Introduction to the Analysis of Algorithms, Second Edition (with P. Flajolet). Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 2013, 572 pp. First edition, 1996. Associated online content: Booksite, curated lectures, and MOOC.
Analytic Combinatorics (with P. Flajolet). Cambridge University Press, 2009, 824pp. Associated online content: Booksite, curated lectures, and MOOC.
Personal life
Sedgewick lives in Princeton, New Jersey and spends summers in Jamestown, Rhode Island with his wife Linda (née Migneault), married in 1971. They have four children and six grandchildren.
Bibliography
References
External links
Robert Sedgewick's home page
People of the ACM
Google Scholar
Video interview with Robert Sedgewick for Princeton Startup TV (04.06.2012)
1946 births
Living people
American computer scientists
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Place of birth missing (living people)
Brown University faculty
Princeton University faculty
Stanford University School of Engineering alumni | [
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] |
235510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedgewick | Sedgewick | Sedgewick could refer to:
Robert Sedgewick (disambiguation), several people
Sedgwick Avenue, Bronx, New York
Sedgewick, Alberta, place
General Sedgewick, a U.S. Army Ship in the American Civil War
See also
Sedgwick (disambiguation) | [
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235517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin%20Chargaff | Erwin Chargaff | Erwin Chargaff (11 August 1905 – 20 June 2002) was an Austro-Hungarian-born American biochemist, writer, Bucovinian Jew who emigrated to the United States during the Nazi era, and professor of biochemistry at Columbia University medical school. He wrote a well-reviewed autobiography, Heraclitean Fire: Sketches from a Life Before Nature.
Early life
Chargaff was born on 11 August 1905 to a Jewish family in Czernowitz, Duchy of Bukovina, Austria-Hungary, which is now Chernivtsi, Ukraine.
At the outbreak of World War I, his family moved to Vienna, where he attended the Maximiliansgymnasium (now the Gymnasium Wasagasse). He then went on to the Vienna College of Technology (Technische Hochschule Wien) where he met his future wife Vera Broido.
From 1924 to 1928, Chargaff studied chemistry in Vienna, and earned a doctorate working under the direction of Fritz Feigl.
He married Vera Broido in 1928. Chargaff had one son, Thomas Chargaff.
From 1925 to 1930, Chargaff served as the Milton Campbell Research Fellow in organic chemistry at Yale University, but he did not like New Haven, Connecticut. Chargaff returned to Europe, where he lived from 1930 to 1934, serving first as the assistant in charge of chemistry for the department of bacteriology and public health at the University of Berlin (1930–1933) and then, being forced to resign his position in Germany as a result of the Nazi policies against Jews, as a research associate at the Pasteur Institute in Paris (1933–1934).
Columbia University
Chargaff immigrated to Manhattan, New York City in 1935, taking a position as a research associate in the department of biochemistry at Columbia University, where he spent most of his professional career. Chargaff became an assistant professor in 1938 and a professor in 1952. After serving as department chair from 1970 to 1974, Chargaff retired as professor emeritus. After his retirement as professor emeritus, Chargaff moved his lab to Roosevelt Hospital, where he continued to work until his retirement in 1992.
He became an American citizen in 1940.
During his time at Columbia, Chargaff published numerous scientific papers, dealing primarily with the study of nucleic acids such as DNA using chromatographic techniques. He became interested in DNA in 1944 after Oswald Avery identified the molecule as the basis of heredity. Cohen says that "Almost alone among the scientists of this time, Chargaff accepted the unusual Avery paper and concluded that genetic differences among DNAs must be reflected in chemical differences among these substances. He was actually the first biochemist to reorganize his laboratory to test this hypothesis, which he went on to prove by 1949." Chargaff said of the Avery discovery: "I saw before me (in 1944), in dark contours, the beginning of a grammar of biology", and in 1950 he published a paper with the conclusion that the amounts of adenine and thymine in DNA were roughly the same, as were the amounts of cytosine and guanine. This later became known as the first of Chargaff's rules. Instrumental in his DNA discoveries were the innovation of paper chromatography, and the commercially-available ultraviolet spectrophotometer tool.
Chargaff lectured about his results at Cambridge University in 1952, with Watson and Crick in attendance.
Chargaff's rules
Key conclusions from Erwin Chargaff's work are now known as Chargaff's rules. The first and best known achievement was to show that in natural DNA the number of guanine units equals the number of cytosine units and the number of adenine units equals the number of thymine units. In human DNA, for example, the four bases are present in these percentages: A=30.9% and T=29.4%; G=19.9% and C=19.8%. This strongly hinted towards the base pair makeup of the DNA, although Chargaff did not explicitly state this connection himself. For this research, Chargaff is credited with disproving the tetranucleotide hypothesis (Phoebus Levene's widely accepted hypothesis that DNA was composed of a large number of repeats of GACT). Most researchers had previously assumed that deviations from equimolar base ratios (G = A = C = T) were due to experimental error, but Chargaff documented that the variation was real, with [C + G] typically being slightly less abundant. He did his experiments with the newly developed paper chromatography and ultraviolet spectrophotometer. Chargaff met Francis Crick and James D. Watson at Cambridge in 1952, and, despite not getting along with them personally, he explained his findings to them. Chargaff's research would later help the Watson and Crick laboratory team to deduce the double helical structure of DNA.
The second of Chargaff's rules is that the composition of DNA varies from one species to another, in particular in the relative amounts of A, G, T, and C bases. Such evidence of molecular diversity, which had been presumed absent from DNA, made DNA a more credible candidate for the genetic material than protein.
Later life
Beginning in the 1950s, Chargaff became increasingly outspoken about the failure of the field of molecular biology, claiming that molecular biology was "running riot and doing things that can never be justified". He believed that human knowledge will always be limited in relation to the complexity of the natural world, and that it is simply dangerous when humans believe that the world is a machine, even assuming that humans can have full knowledge of its workings. He also believed that in a world that functions as a complex system of interdependency and interconnectedness, genetic engineering of life will inevitably have unforeseen consequences.
After Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins received the 1962 Nobel Prize for their work on discovering the double helix of DNA, Chargaff withdrew from his lab and wrote to scientists all over the world about his exclusion.
Chargaff warned in his 1978 book Heraclitean Fire of a "molecular Auschwitz" that "the technology of genetic engineering poses a greater threat to the world than the advent of nuclear technology. An irreversible attack on the biosphere is something so unheard of, so unthinkable to previous generations, that I only wish that mine had not been guilty of it".
The IVF technique earned his scathing disapprobation. In 1987, "Engineering a Molecular Nightmare" was published in the journal Nature, which was then sent by David Alton and his colleagues in the All-Party Parliamentary Pro-Life Group (APPPLG) to every Westminster MP in an effort to minimise the forthcoming harm caused by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990.
Chargaff wrote in 2002 that "There are two nuclei that man should never have touched: the atomic nucleus and the cell nucleus. The technology of genetic engineering poses a greater threat to the world than the advent of nuclear technology."
Chargaff died later that year on 20 June 2002 in Manhattan, New York City. He is buried in Mount Carmel Cemetery (Queens).
Honors
Honors awarded to him include the Pasteur Medal (1949); Carl Neuberg Medal (1958); Charles Leopold Mayer Prize; inaugural Heineken Prize (Amsterdam, 1964); Gregor Mendel Medal (Halle, 1968); and the National Medal of Science (1974).
Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1961), the National Academy of Sciences (1965), and the American Philosophical Society (1979) and the German Academy of Sciences.
Honorary Doctorate awarded by Columbia University in 1975.
Books authored
Unbegreifliches Geheimnis. Wissenschaft als Kampf für und gegen die Natur. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980,
Bemerkungen. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1981,
Warnungstafeln. Die Vergangenheit spricht zur Gegenwart. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1982,
Kritik der Zukunft. Essay. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1983,
Zeugenschaft. Essays über Sprache und Wissenschaft. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1985,
Serious Questions, An ABC of Sceptical Reflections. Boston, Basel, Stuttgart: Birkhäuser, 1986
Abscheu vor der Weltgeschichte. Fragmente vom Menschen. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1988,
Alphabetische Anschläge. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1989,
Vorläufiges Ende. Ein Dreigespräch. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1990,
Vermächtnis. Essays. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1992,
Über das Lebendige. Ausgewählte Essays. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1993,
Armes Amerika – Arme Welt. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1994,
Ein zweites Leben. Autobiographisches und andere Texte. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1995,
Die Aussicht vom dreizehnten Stock. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1998,
Brevier der Ahnungen. Eine Auswahl aus dem Werk. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 2002,
Stimmen im Labyrinth. Über die Natur und ihre Erforschung. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 2003,
See also
Nobel Prize controversies
References
Sources
Erwin Chargaff Papers, American Philosophical Society
Chargaff obituary from The Guardian, 2 July 2002
Chargaff obituary from The Sydney Morning Herald, 12 July 2002
The composition of the deoxyribonucleic acid of salmon sperm by E. Chargaff, R. Lipshitz, C. Green and M. E. Hodes in Journal of Biological Chemistry (1951) volume 192 pages 223–230.
External links
How Genetics Got a Chemical Education. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (1979), 325, 345–360.
Weintraub, B. (2006). Erwin Chargaff and Chargaff's Rules. Chemistry in Israel, Bulletin of the Israel Chemical Society. (Sept. 2006), 22, 29–31.
Key Participants: Erwin Chargaff – Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
Austrian biochemists
American biochemists
Columbia University faculty
National Medal of Science laureates
Bukovina Jews
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Austrian Jews
Austro-Hungarian emigrants to the United States
People from Chernivtsi
People from the Duchy of Bukovina
1905 births
2002 deaths
Winners of the Heineken Prize
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States | [
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235518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakeel%20Badayuni | Shakeel Badayuni | Shakeel Badayuni (3 August 1916 – 20 April 1970) was an Indian Urdu poet, lyricist and songwriter in Hindi / Urdu language films.
Early life
Shakeel Badayuni was born in Badaun, Uttar Pradesh. His father, Mohammed Jamaal Ahmed Sokhta Qadiri, wanted him to have a good career, thus he arranged Arabic, Urdu, Persian, and Hindi tuition for Shakeel at home. His inclination towards poetry was not hereditary like other . One of his distant relatives, Zia-ul-Qadiri Badayuni, was a religious . Shakeel Masoodi was influenced by him and the contemporary environment of Badayun led him to poetry.
When he joined Aligarh Muslim University in 1936, he started participating in inter-college, inter-university mushairas and won frequently. In 1940, he married Salma, who was his distant relative and had been living in a common house with him since childhood, however, the purdah system was vogue in their family and they were not close. After completing his BA, he moved to Delhi as a supply officer, but continued participating in mushairas, earning fame nationwide. Those were the days of who wrote about the downtrodden sections of society, their upliftment, the betterment of society and all. But Shakeel had an altogether different taste – his poetry was romantic and close to the heart. Shakeel used to say:
Main Shakeel Dil Ka Hoon Tarjuman
Keh Mohabbaton Ka Hoon Raazdaan
Mujhe Fakhr Hai Meri Shayari
Meri Zindagi Se Juda Nahin
During his Aligarh days, Badauni also started learning Urdu poetry formally from Hakim Abdul Waheed 'Ashk' Bijnori.
Career
Shakeel moved to Bombay in 1944, to write songs for films. He met film producer, A.R. Kardar and music composer, Naushad Ali, who asked him to sum up his poetic skills in one line. Shakeel wrote, Hum Dard Ka Afsana Duniya Ko Suna Denge, Har Dil Main Mohabbat Ki Ek Aag Laga Dengey. Naushad immediately retained him for Kardar's film, Dard (1947). The songs of Dard proved to be very successful, especially Uma Devi (Tun Tun)'s Afsana Likh Rahi Hoon. Only a few are so lucky that they attain success in their first film, but Shakeel deserved success which started with Dard and continued on over the years.
Together, he and Naushad became one of the most sought after composer/lyricist duos in the industry. Among the scores they churned out together, are those of (1951), Baiju Bawra (1952), Mother India (1957), and Mughal-e-Azam (1960), that stand out. Other films they scored together include Dulari (1949), Shabab (1954), Ganga Jamuna (1961), and Mere Mehboob (1963). Although Shakeel Badayuni worked most extensively with Naushad, he also collaborated with Ravi and Hemant Kumar as well. His lyrics for the song Husnwale Tera Jawab Nahin and Ravi's music score both won Filmfare Awards for the hit film Gharana. His other notable film with Ravi is Chaudhvin Ka Chand (1960), while Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (1962) is his biggest hit with Hemant Kumar. The title song from Chaudhvin Ka Chand, rendered by Mohammed Rafi, won Badayuni the Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist in 1961.
Shakeel penned numbers for around 89 films. In addition, he wrote many popular ghazals sung by Begum Akhtar, and which are still sung by vocalists like Pankaj Udhas and others.
The Indian government had honoured him with the title Geet Kar-e-Azam.
Association with Naushad
Shakeel shared a close friendship with Naushad, Ravi and Naushad's former assistant, Ghulam Mohammed, with whom he enjoyed his life to the fullest. Naushad used Shakeel as the lyricist for his tunes for most of his films for a period of 24 years. Baiju Bawra, which was a milestone in both of their careers, was supposed to go to Kavi Pradeep. Vijay Bhatt, the director of the movie was insistent on using Kavi Pradeep as lyricist, since the film was supposed to have many devotional songs. Naushad requested Vijay Bhatt to hear the lyrics written by Shakeel. Vijay Bhatt agreed.
When Shakeel Badayuni was diagnosed with tuberculosis, he was put up in a sanatorium in Panchgani for treatment. Naushad knowing that his financial condition was not well, took 3 films to him, getting the lyrics written in the sanatorium, and got him a payment of nearly 10 times more than his normal fees.
Association with Ravi
Shakeel also wrote a substantial chunk of his songs for music director Ravi Sharma. Prominent amongst those were Chaudhvin Ka Chand (1960), Gharana (1961), Ghunghat, Grahasti (1963), Nartaki (1963), as well as Phool Aur Patthar and Do Badan (both released in 1966).
Association with Hemant Kumar
Shakeel wrote for Hemant Kumar for movies like Bees Saal Baad (1962), Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (1962), Bin Badal Barsaat.
Association with S.D. Burman
Shakeel penned lyrics for the tunes of S.D. Burman for movies Kaise Kahoon & Benazir.
Others
C.Ramachandra – Zindagi Aur Maut, Wahan Ke Log.
Roshan – Bedaag, Noorjahan.
Personal life
Shakeel Badayuni succumbed to diabetes complications at the age of fifty-three, on 20 April 1970, at Bombay Hospital leaving behind his wife, two sons and two daughters. One daughter, Najma, died soon afterwards, while still a college student. His elder son Javed and grand son Zeeshan work in the travel and tourism industry. His other son's name is Tariq. Shakeel's friends Ahmed Zakaria and Rangoonwala formed a trust called Yaad-e-Shakeel after his death and this trust became the source of some income to his bereaved family.
Shakeel loved to play badminton, go on picnics and hunting trips and fly kites with his friends from the industry, Naushad and Mohammed Rafi. Sometimes Johnny Walker would join them in kite-flying competitions. Dilip Kumar, writers Wajahat Mirza, Khumar Barabankvi and Azm Bazidpuri were among Shakeel's other close friends within the industry.
His 20 best songs
Badayuni penned several memorable songs in his career. Some of his popular works include the musical Baiju Bawra (1952), historical epic Mughal-e-Azam (1960) and social Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (1962).
Suhani Raat Dhal Chuki (Dulari)
Man Tarpat Hari Darshan Ko Aaj (Baiju Bawra)
O Duniya Ke Rakhwale (Baiju Bawra)
Madhuban Me Radhika Naache Re (Kohinoor)
Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya? (Mughal- E- Azam)
Chaudvin Ka Chand Ho (Chaudvin Ka Chand)
Dil Laga Kar Hum Ye Samjhe (Zindagi Aur Maut)
Mere Mehboob Tujhe Meri (Mere Mehboob) (1963)
Jane Bahaar Husn Tera Bemisaal Hai (Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya)
Ek Shahenshah Ne Banwa Ke Haseen Taj Mahal (Leader)
Koi Saagar Dil Ko (Dil Diya Dard Liya)
Beqarar Kar Ke Hume (Bees Saal Baad)
Lo Aa Gai Unki Yaad (Do Badan)
Na Jao Saiyaan (Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulaam)
Meri Baat Rahi Mere Man Me (Sahi Bibi Aur Ghulam)
Aaj Puraani Raahon Se (Aadmi)
Jab Dil Se Dil Takrata Hai (Sunghursh)
Ek Baar Zara Phir Kahe Do (Bin Baadal Barsaat)
Tumhe Paa Ke Hum Ne (Gehra Daag)
Zindagi Tu Jhoom Le Zara (Kaise Kahoon)
Awards
1961 Filmfare Best Lyricist Award for the song Chaudvin ka chand ho in the film Chaudhvin Ka Chand (1960)
1962 Filmfare Best Lyricist Award for the song husnwale tera jawab nahin in the film Gharana (1961)
1963 Filmfare Best Lyricist Award for the song Kahin Deep Jale in the film Bees Saal Baad (1962)
Government recognition
A postage stamp, bearing his face, was released by India Post to honour him on 3 May 2013.
See also
Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya, a song by Shakeel Badayuni
Insaaf Ki Dagar Pe, song by Shakkel Badayuni
References
Urdu-language poets from India
Indian lyricists
Filmfare Awards winners
1916 births
1970 deaths
Aligarh Muslim University alumni
Indian Muslims
People from Budaun
People of British India
20th-century Indian poets
Indian male poets
Poets from Uttar Pradesh
20th-century Indian male writers | [
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235520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Geospatial-Intelligence%20Agency | National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency | The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) is a combat support agency within the United States Department of Defense whose primary mission is collecting, analyzing, and distributing geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in support of national security. Initially known as the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) from 1996 to 2003, it is one of the "big five" members of the United States Intelligence Community.
NGA headquarters, also known as NGA Campus East or NCE, is located at Fort Belvoir North Area in Springfield, Virginia. The agency also operates major facilities in the St. Louis, Missouri area (referred to as NGA Campus West or NCW), as well as support and liaison offices worldwide. The NGA headquarters, at , is the third-largest government building in the Washington metropolitan area after The Pentagon and the Ronald Reagan Building.
In addition to using GEOINT for U.S. military and intelligence efforts, NGA provides assistance during natural and man-made disasters, aids in security planning for major events such as the Olympic Games, disseminates maritime safety information, and gathers data on climate change.
The seventh and current director of the agency is Vice Admiral Robert D. Sharp, USN; on January 10, 2022, Vice Admiral Frank D. Whitworth III was nominated to succeed him in the post.
History
U.S. mapping and charting efforts remained relatively unchanged until World War I, when aerial photography became a major contributor to battlefield intelligence. Using stereo viewers, photo-interpreters reviewed thousands of images. Many of these were of the same target at different angles and times, giving rise to what became modern imagery analysis and mapmaking.
Engineer Reproduction Plant (ERP)
The Engineer Reproduction Plant was the Army Corps of Engineers's first attempt to centralize mapping production, printing, and distribution. It was located on the grounds of the Army War College in Washington, D.C. Previously, topographic mapping had largely been a function of individual field engineer units using field surveying techniques or copying existing or captured products. In addition, ERP assumed the "supervision and maintenance" of the War Department Map Collection, effective April 1, 1939.
Army Map Service (AMS) / U.S. Army Topographic Command (USATC)
With the advent of the Second World War aviation, field surveys began giving way to photogrammetry, photo interpretation, and geodesy. During wartime, it became increasingly possible to compile maps with minimal field work. Out of this emerged AMS, which absorbed the existing ERP in May 1942. It was located at the Dalecarlia Site (including buildings now named for John C. Frémont and Charles H. Ruth) on MacArthur Blvd., just outside Washington, D.C., in Montgomery County, Maryland, and adjacent to the Dalecarlia Reservoir. AMS was designated as an Engineer field activity, effective July 1, 1942, by General Order 22, OCE, June 19, 1942. The Army Map Service also combined many of the Army's remaining geographic intelligence organizations and the Engineer Technical Intelligence Division. AMS was redesignated the U.S. Army Topographic Command (USATC) on September 1, 1968, and continued as an independent organization until 1972, when it was merged into the new Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) and redesignated as the DMA Topographic Center (DMATC) (see below).
Aeronautical Chart Plant (ACP)
After the war, as airplane capacity and range improved, the need for charts grew. The Army Air Corps established its map unit, which was renamed ACP in 1943 and was located in St. Louis, Missouri. ACP was known as the U.S. Air Force Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC) from 1952 to 1972 (See DMAAC below).
National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC)
Shortly before leaving office in January 1961, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized the creation of the National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC), a joint project of the CIA and DIA. NPIC was a component of the CIA's Directorate of Science and Technology (DDS&T) and its primary function was imagery analysis. NPIC became part of the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now NGA) in 1996.
Directors of NPIC
Cuban Missile Crisis
NPIC first identified the Soviet Union's basing of missiles in Cuba in 1962. By exploiting images from U-2 overflights and film from canisters ejected by orbiting Corona satellites, NPIC analysts developed the information necessary to inform U.S. policymakers and influence operations during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Their analysis garnered worldwide attention when the Kennedy Administration declassified and made public a portion of the images depicting the Soviet missiles on Cuban soil; Adlai Stevenson presented the images to the United Nations Security Council on October 25, 1962.
Defense Mapping Agency (DMA)
The Defense Mapping Agency was created on January 1, 1972, to consolidate all U.S. military mapping activities. DMA's "birth certificate", DoD Directive 5105.40, resulted from a formerly classified Presidential directive, "Organization and Management of the U.S. Foreign Intelligence Community" (November 5, 1971), which directed the consolidation of mapping functions previously dispersed among the military services. DMA became operational on July 1, 1972, pursuant to General Order 3, DMA (June 16, 1972). On October 1, 1996, DMA was folded into the National Imagery and Mapping Agency – which later became NGA.
DMA was first headquartered at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C, then at Falls Church, Virginia. Its mostly civilian workforce was concentrated at production sites in Bethesda, Maryland, Northern Virginia, and St. Louis, Missouri. DMA was formed from the Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Division, Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and from various mapping-related organizations of the military services.
DMA Hydrographic Center (DMAHC)
DMAHC was formed in 1972 when the Navy's Hydrographic Office split its two components: The charting component was attached to DMAHC, and the survey component moved to the Naval Oceanographic Office, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, on the grounds of what is now the Stennis Space Center. DMAHC was responsible for creating terrestrial maps of coastal areas worldwide and hydrographic charts for DoD. DMAHC was initially located in Suitland, Maryland, but later relocated to Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland.
DMA Topographic Center (DMATC)
DMATC was located in Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland. It was responsible for creating topographic maps worldwide for DoD. DMATC's location in Bethesda, Maryland is the former site of NGA's headquarters.
DMA Hydrographic/Topographic Center (DMAHTC)
DMAHC and DMATC eventually merged to form DMAHTC, with offices in Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland.
DMA Aerospace Center (DMAAC)
DMAAC originated with the U.S. Air Force's Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC) and was located in St. Louis, Missouri.
National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA)
NIMA was established on October 1, 1996, by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1997. The creation of NIMA followed more than a year of study, debate, and planning by the defense, intelligence, and policy-making communities (as well as the Congress) and continuing consultations with customer organizations. The creation of NIMA centralized responsibility for imagery and mapping.
NIMA combined the DMA, the Central Imagery Office (CIO), and the Defense Dissemination Program Office (DDPO) in their entirety, and the mission and functions of the NPIC. Also merged into NIMA were the imagery exploitation, dissemination, and processing elements of the Defense Intelligence Agency, National Reconnaissance Office, and the Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office.
NIMA's creation was clouded by the natural reluctance of cultures to merge and the fear that their respective missions—mapping in support of defense activities versus intelligence production, principally in support of national policymakers—would be subordinated, each to the other.
NGA
With the enactment of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 on November 24, 2003, NIMA was renamed NGA to better reflect its primary mission in the area of GEOINT.
2005 BRAC and Impact on NGA
As a part of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process, all major Washington, D.C.–area NGA facilities, including those in Bethesda, Maryland; Reston, Virginia; and Washington, D.C., would be consolidated at a new facility at the Fort Belvoir proving grounds. This new facility, later known as NCE, houses several thousand people and is situated on the former Engineer Proving Ground site near Fort Belvoir. NGA facilities in St. Louis were not affected by the 2005 BRAC process.
The cost of the new center, as of March 2009, was expected to be $2.4 billion. The center's campus is approximately and was completed in September 2011.
Next NGA West
NGA is currently constructing a new facility in St. Louis, Missouri, Next NGA West, at a cost of $1.7 billion. The facility is expected to hold 3,000 employees and open by 2025. St. Louis' city legislature is currently reconsidering legislation to surround Next NGA West with a protection zone that would bar certain businesses, such as gas stations, hazardous material companies, and foreign government-supported enterprises, from building around the site for security purposes.
Organization
Agency Structure
Executive Leadership Team
NGA is headed by a director, currently Navy Vice Adm. Robert D. Sharp; the director is followed in precedence by the deputy director and chief of staff, currently Brett Markham. The holders of these three offices comprise NGA's executive leadership team.
Chief of Staff
While NGA's director and deputy director oversee the agency as a whole, the Chief of Staff is tasked with overseeing NGA's executive support staff, administrative services, logistics, personnel security, human resources, employee training and development, corporate communications, and congressional engagement.
Directorates and directorate leaders
NGA is split into various directorates led by directors (D/XX) and associate deputy directors (ADD/XX) with "XX" standing in for each direcorate's two-letter designation. Known directorates and leadership figures include but are not limited to the:
Analysis Directorate, containing the Director of Analytic Operations (D/AO) and Associate Deputy Director for Operational Engagement (ADD/AE) and led by a director, currently Director of Analysis Susan "Sue" Kalweit
Source Operations & Management Directorate (S or "Source" Directorate), led by the Director of the Source Operations & Management Directorate or Director of Source Operations
Enterprise Operations Directorate (E or "Enterprise" Directorate), led by the Director of the Enterprise Operations Directorate
IT Services Directorate
Plans and Programs Directorate
Research Directorate
Security and Installation Operations Directorate (SI)
Human Development Directorate (HD)
Financial Management Directorate (FM)
Unnamed "NGA contracting directorate"
Acquisitions Directorate
Unnamed "A Directorate" (possibly Acquisitions or Analysis)
Unnamed "P Directorate" (possibly Plans and Programs or former Analysis and Production Directorate (see below))
An Analysis and Production Directorate (P or "Production" Directorate) existed in 2011, although NGA presently has a Directorate for Analysis which may be a replacement or separated portion of the Analysis and Production Directorate.
The deputy associate director of operations directly oversees NGA Operations Center (itself led by a director and deputy director) the Office of NGA Defense, the Office of Expeditionary Operations, and NGA leadership at the three National Reconnaissance Office Aerospace Data facilities.
Other internal groups and leaders
NGA contains NGA Support Teams (NST), which work with directorates, are detailed internationally, deploy with warfighters, or liaise with service branches. Multiple NGA Command NSTs also exist. NGA's western operations, such as the construction of Next NGA West campus in St. Louis, Missouri, are headed by the NGA west executive (who can concurrently serve in other leadership roles). There is also an NGA Equality Executive. Other organizations present in NGA, which may or may not be components of directorates, include:
NGA Operations Center
Office of Expeditionary Operations
Office of NGA Defense (OND)
Office of the Chief Information Officer (OCIO), led by NGA's Chief Information Officer
Office of the Inspector General (OIG), led by NGA's Inspector General (currently Cardell Richardson, Sr.)
Records Service Office
National Geospatial-Intelligence Committee (GEOCOM), containing subcommittees
National Geospatial-Intelligence College (NGC), led by a director
GEOINT Enterprise Office, led by a director and organized into branches
Office of Geomatics
Aeronautical Navigation Office
Office of Corporate Assessment and Program Evaluation (CAPE)
Office of Corporate Communications, led by a director
Office of Geomatics
Office of Strategic Operations-Performance
NGA Cyber Security Operations Cell (CSOC), led by a director and organized into teams
NGA Police
NGA History Department
Office of Maritime Safety
Bathymetry branch, led by a chief
Office of Contract Services
Office of Future Warfare Systems (MRF)
Office of Diversity Management and Equal Employment Opportunity, led by a director
Custom Media Team (XCMS), containing the Tailored Media support team and CMGS (Custom Media Generation System) team
GPS Division
Historical Imagery Division/Historical Imagery team
Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) Team, community led by NGA containing screened non-NGA users/institutions
Office of Ventures and Innovation
NGA Research, led by a director
Enterprise Innovation Office (EIO)
Office of Strategic Operations
Office of Geography
NGA Outpost Valley (NOV), office of NGA in Silicon Valley
Office of Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs
Personnel Security Division, led by a chief
Meteorological Operations Center
Office of General Counsel (OGC)
Records and Declassification Program Office
FOIA/Privacy Act Program Office
Additionally, military Service GEOINT Offices (SGOs) liaise with NGA, but belong to their respective military service branches and represent their geospatial intelligence needs. The Canadian Armed Forces deploys a liaison team to NGA; that team's operations officer also acts as NGA's Commonwealth liaison.
NGA is a member of the National System for Geospatial Intelligence (NSG) and the larger Allied System for Geospatial Intelligence (ASG), which includes close allies Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. The U.S. and those four nations also form the Five Eyes intelligence alliance.
Employees
NGA employs professionals in aeronautical analysis, cartography, geospatial analysis, imagery analysis, marine analysis, the physical sciences, geodesy, computer and telecommunication engineering, and photogrammetry, as well as those in the national security and law enforcement fields.
List of NIMA / NGA Directors
This table lists all Directors of the NIMA and NGA and their term of office. The agency transitioned from NIMA to NGA during Lieutenant General King's directorship.
† - Although General Clapper preferred the use of his military rank, he was in fact a member of the Defense Intelligence Senior Executive Service (DISES) during his term as Director of NGA, as he had retired from active duty as the director of Defense Intelligence Agency in 1995. Clapper was the first civilian to head NIMA / NGA.
Civilian, Department of Defense, and Intelligence Community activities
Osama bin Laden compound raid: NGA was integral in helping the Department of Defense and the U.S. Intelligence Community pinpoint the compound in Abbotabad, Pakistan where Osama bin Laden hid for several years and to plan the raid that killed him.
9/11 aftermath: After the September 11, 2001 attacks, NIMA partnered with the U.S. Geological Survey to survey the World Trade Center site and determine the extent of the destruction.
Keyhole investment: NGA contributed approximately 25% of In-Q-Tel's funding of Keyhole Inc, whose Earth-viewing software became Google Earth.
Hurricane Katrina: NGA supported Hurricane Katrina relief efforts by "providing geospatial information about the affected areas based on imagery from commercial and U.S. government satellites, and from airborne platforms, to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and other government agencies. NGA's Earth website is a central source of these efforts.
Microsoft partnership: Microsoft Corp. and NGA have signed a letter of understanding to advance the design and delivery of geospatial information applications to customers. NGA will continue to use the Microsoft Virtual Earth platform (as it did for Katrina relief) to provide geospatial support for humanitarian, peacekeeping, and national-security efforts. Virtual Earth is a set of online mapping and search services that deliver imagery through an API.
Google and GeoEye: In 2008 NGA partnered with Google and GeoEye. Google would be allowed to use GeoEye spy satellite imagery with reduced resolution for Google Earth.
Open source software on GitHub: April 2014 NGA became the first intelligence agency to open-source software on GitHub. NGA Director Letitia Long talks about NGA's GitHub initiative and the first offering, GeoQ, at the GEOINT Symposium. Her comments start at 40 minutes and 40 seconds from her GEOINT 2014 conference speech. NGA open sources software packages under their GitHub organizational account.
After the 2019 creation of the United States Space Force, NGA began working with the USSF "to provide geospatial intelligence to support and identify future needs of the service," establishing a new support team (NST) embedded at USSF headquarters.
Controversies
NIMA / NGA has been involved in several controversies.
India tested a nuclear weapon in 1998 that reportedly took the United States by surprise. Due to budget cuts in defense spending after the end of the Cold War (see Peace dividend), the Intelligence Community was forced to reevaluate the allocation of its limited resources.
In 1999, NIMA reportedly provided NATO war-planners with incorrect maps which did not reflect that the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade had moved locations, which some have argued was the cause of the accidental NATO bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade. The Central Intelligence Agency countered this criticism by saying this overstates the importance of the map itself in the analytic process. Maps of urban areas will be out-of-date the day after they are published, but what is important is having accurate databases.
On Jan. 17, 2013, USS Guardian, a mine countermeasures ship, was grounded on the Tubbataha Reef in the southern Philippines. While it was determined that the NGA had provided an inaccurate chart that was off by as much as , the Navy primarily faulted the ship's crew, specifically the commanding officer, the executive officer and two junior officers that were standing watch at the time of the grounding, as they had failed to adhere to prudent, safe, and sound navigation principles. The crew relied solely on the inaccurate Digital Nautical Chart (DNC) during the planning and execution of the navigation plan and failed to appropriately cross-reference additional charts and utilize visual cues.
From 2013 to 2018, NGA designated the latitude and longitude coordinates of a private residence as a default location for Pretoria, South Africa, causing the digital-mapping website MaxMind to set it as the location of over one million IP addresses, which in turn caused people searching for missing phones and other electronics (as well as other people trying to track down IP addresses in Pretoria and police officers attempting to track criminals) to show up at the residence. The issue was eventually resolved following a private investigation and a request to both NGA and MaxMind that the default location be changed.
Other
Credit Unions
Credit Union (NCE)
Constellation Federal Credit Union (CFCU) was chartered in 1944 during the Army Map Service era. It continued to serve all successive legacy agencies' employees and their families with a “once a member, always a member” policy until CFCU merged into Northwest Federal Credit Union in March 2019.
In 2011, upon consolidating most Washington DC metro area NGA employees to NCE, the Belvoir Federal Credit Union (BFCU) became the on-site credit union serving NCE-based personnel. In 2016, BFCU merged with Pentagon Federal Credit Union.
Credit Union (NCW)
Arsenal Credit Union (ACU) was founded in August 1948 as Aero Chart Credit Union, organized to serve employees of the Aeronautical Chart Plant (ACP), located at the St. Louis Arsenal. The name changed to ACU in 1952, a nod to the St. Louis site's Civil War-era use as an arsenal.
FOIA OIG Cases
Using the Freedom of Information Act, individuals and organizations have requested and obtained documents from NGA's Office of Inspector General detailing internal incidents.
Case 09-034 2009 Presidential Inauguration bombing remarks
A heavily redacted May 2009 document detailing NGA OIG Case 09-034 (Computer Misuse Case Number A580051·09) states that an individual, whose identity is redacted but contextually must be an NGA employee, "was overhead discussing plans to potentially detonate an explosive device at the 2009 Presidential Inauguration." While the seriousness of these claims is not commented on, the individual received "a Letter of Reprimand" and counseling from management officials; no other punishment is listed. The incident was included in a memo to the chief of NGA's Personnel Security Division.
Case 09-041 child pornography charge
Case 09-041 comprises documents showing the indictment, guilty plea, and sentencing of Joel W. Stephens in on one count of felony possession of child pornography. Stephens possessed the illegal images in 2009 and pleaded guilty in 2010; he was then sentenced to 37 months in prison and, after his prison term, lifelong supervised release. No affiliation between Stephens and the NGA is mentioned, although the case was investigated by NGA's inspector general and Stephens is stated to reside in St. Louis, Missouri, home to several NGA west buildings.
Gallery
See also
Cartography
Geographic Information System (GIS)
GEOnet Names Server
Geospatial engineering
GIS use in NGA
Imagery intelligence (IMINT)
Geospatial intelligence (GEOINT)
Orthophoto
Remote sensing
Satellite imagery
Small Sats
TransApps
Australian Geospatial-Intelligence Organisation, Australian counterpart
Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica (REMA), produced by NGA.
References
Further reading
Explains NGA's capabilities.
Online repository of issues of NGA's magazine NGA Pathfinder:
External links
GEOnet Names Server (GNS) - Database of foreign geographic feature names. Worldwide coverage excluding the United States and Antarctica, containing approximately 3.93 million features with 5.45 million names, and their coordinates
Center for Geospatial Intelligence : University of Missouri - Columbia research center focused on GeoINT
JP 2-03, Geospatial Intelligence Support to Joint Operations, 31 October 2012
Commission Report on the National Imagery and Mapping Agency
GeoIntelligence: A trade publication covering the uses of spatial technologies for national defense and homeland security by organizations such as NGA
DMA Receives Hammer Award, 26 January 1996
Agency Provides More Than Just Maps
The Center for Intelligence and Security Studies trains new analysts in Intelligence Analysis
United States Department of Defense agencies
United States intelligence agencies
Military cartography
Military geography
Military intelligence agencies
Military in Virginia
Surveillance
Government agencies established in 1996
1996 establishments in the United States
Intelligence analysis agencies
Geographic data and information organizations in the United States
Photogrammetry organizations
Geographic information systems organizations | [
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235524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchatantra | Panchatantra | The Panchatantra (IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, , "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story. The surviving work is dated to about 200 BCE, but the fables are likely much more ancient. The text's author is unknown, but it has been attributed to Vishnu Sharma in some recensions and Vasubhaga in others, both of which may be fictitious pen names. It is likely a Hindu text, and based on older oral traditions with "animal fables that are as old as we are able to imagine".
It is "certainly the most frequently translated literary product of India", and these stories are among the most widely known in the world. It goes by many names in many cultures. There is a version of Panchatantra in nearly every major language of India, and in addition there are 200 versions of the text in more than 50 languages around the world. One version reached Europe in the 11th century. To quote :
The earliest known translation into a non-Indian language is in Middle Persian (Pahlavi, 550 CE) by Burzoe. This became the basis for a Syriac translation as Kalilag and Damnag and a translation into Arabic in 750 CE by Persian scholar Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa as Kalīlah wa Dimnah. A New Persian version by Rudaki, from the 3rd century Hijri, became known as Kalīleh o Demneh. Rendered in prose by Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah Monshi in 1143 CE, this was the basis of Kashefi's 15th-century Anvār-i Suhaylī (The Lights of Canopus), which in turn was translated into Humayun-namah in Turkish. The book is also known as The Fables of Bidpai (or Pilpai in various European languages, Vidyapati in Sanskrit) or The Morall Philosophie of Doni (English, 1570). Most European versions of the text are derivative works of the 12th-century Hebrew version of Panchatantra by Rabbi Joel. In Germany, its translation in 1480 by has been widely read. Several versions of the text are also found in Indonesia, where it is titled as Tantri Kamandaka, Tantravakya or Candapingala and consists of 360 fables. In Laos, a version is called Nandaka-prakarana, while in Thailand it has been referred to as Nang Tantrai.
Author and chronology
The prelude section of the Panchatantra identifies an octogenarian Brahmin named Vishnusharma (IAST: Viṣṇuśarman) as its author. He is stated to be teaching the principles of good government to three princes of Amarasakti. It is unclear, states Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian religions, if Vishnusharma was a real person or himself a literary invention. Some South Indian recensions of the text, as well as Southeast Asian versions of Panchatantra attribute the text to Vasubhaga, states Olivelle. Based on the content and mention of the same name in other texts dated to ancient and medieval era centuries, most scholars agree that Vishnusharma is a fictitious name. Olivelle and other scholars state that regardless of who the author was, it is likely "the author was a Hindu, and not a Buddhist, nor Jain", but it is unlikely that the author was a devotee of Hindu god Vishnu because the text neither expresses any sentiments against other Hindu deities such as Shiva, Indra and others, nor does it avoid invoking them with reverence.
Various locations where the text was composed have been proposed but this has been controversial. Some of the proposed locations include Kashmir, Southwestern or South India. The text's original language was likely Sanskrit. Though the text is now known as Panchatantra, the title found in old manuscript versions varies regionally, and includes names such as Tantrakhyayika, Panchakhyanaka, Panchakhyana and Tantropakhyana. The suffix akhyayika and akhyanaka mean "little story" or "little story book" in Sanskrit.
The text was translated into Pahlavi in 550 CE, which forms the latest limit of the text's existence. The earliest limit is uncertain. It quotes identical verses from Arthasastra, which is broadly accepted to have been completed by the early centuries of the common era. According to Olivelle, "the current scholarly consensus places the Panchatantra around 300 CE, although we should remind ourselves that this is only an educated guess". The text quotes from older genre of Indian literature, and legends with anthropomorphic animals are found in more ancient texts dated to the early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE such as the chapter 4.1 of the Chandogya Upanishad. According to Gillian Adams, Panchatantra may be a product of the Vedic period, but its age cannot be ascertained with confidence because "the original Sanskrit version has been lost".
Content
The Panchatantra is a series of inter-woven fables, many of which deploy metaphors of anthropomorphized animals with human virtues and vices. Its narrative illustrates, for the benefit of three ignorant princes, the central Hindu principles of nīti. While nīti is hard to translate, it roughly means prudent worldly conduct, or "the wise conduct of life".
Apart from a short introduction, it consists of five parts. Each part contains a main story, called the frame story, which in turn contains several embedded stories, as one character narrates a story to another. Often these stories contain further embedded stories. The stories operate like a succession of Russian dolls, one narrative opening within another, sometimes three or four deep. Besides the stories, the characters also quote various epigrammatic verses to make their point.
The five books have their own subtitles.
Book 1: Mitra-bheda
The first treatise features a jackal named Damanaka, as the unemployed minister in a kingdom ruled by a lion. He, along with his moralizing sidekick named Karataka, conspire to break up alliances and friendships of the lion king. A series of fables describe the conspiracies and causes that lead to close and inseparable friends breaking up.
The Book 1 contains over thirty fables, with the version Arthur Ryder translated containing 34: The Loss of Friends, The Wedge-Pulling Monkey, The Jackal and the War-Drum, Merchant Strong-Tooth, Godly and June, The Jackal at the Ram-Fight, The Weaver's Wife, How the Crow-Hen Killed the Black Snake, The Heron that Liked Crab-Meat, Numskull and the Rabbit, The Weaver Who Loved a Princess, The Ungrateful Man, Leap and Creep, The Blue Jackal, Passion and the Owl, Ugly's Trust Abused, The Lion and the Carpenter, The Plover Who Fought the Ocean, Shell-Neck Slim and Grim, Forethought Readywit and Fatalist, The Duel Between Elephant and Sparrow, The Shrewd Old Gander, The Lion and the Ram, Smart the Jackal, The Monk Who Left His Body Behind, The Girl Who Married a Snake, Poor Blossom, The Unteachable Monkey, Right-Mind and Wrong-Mind, A Remedy Worse than the Disease, The Mice That Ate Iron, The Results of Education, The Sensible Enemy, The Foolish Friend.
It is the longest of the five books, making up roughly 45% of the work's length.
Book 2: Mitra-samprāpti
The second treatise is quite different in structure than the remaining books, states Olivelle, as it does not truly embed fables. It is a collection of adventures of four characters: a crow (scavenger, not a predator, airborne habits), a mouse (tiny, underground habits), a turtle (slow, water habits) and a deer (a grazing animal viewed by other animals as prey, land habits). The overall focus of the book is the reverse of the first book. Its theme is to emphasize the importance of friendships, team work, and alliances. It teaches, "weak animals with very different skills, working together can accomplish what they cannot when they work alone", according to Olivelle. United through their cooperation and in their mutual support, the fables describe how they are able to outwit all external threats and prosper.
The second book contains ten fables: The Winning of Friends, The Bharunda Birds, Gold's Gloom, Mother Shandilee's Bargain, Self-defeating Forethought, Mister Duly, Soft, the Weaver, Hang-Ball and Greedy, The Mice That Set Elephant Free, Spot's Captivity.
Book 2 makes up about 22% of the total length.
Book 3: Kākolūkīyam
The third treatise discusses war and peace, presenting through animal characters a moral about the battle of wits being a strategic means to neutralize a vastly superior opponent's army. The thesis in this treatise is that a battle of wits is a more potent force than a battle of swords. The choice of animals embeds a metaphor of a war between good versus evil, and light versus darkness. Crows are good, weaker and smaller in number and are creatures of the day (light), while owls are presented as evil, numerous and stronger creatures of the night (darkness). The crow king listens to the witty and wise counsel of Ciramjivin, while the owl king ignores the counsel of Raktaksa. The good crows win.
The fables in the third book, as well as others, do not strictly limit to matters of war and peace. Some present fables that demonstrate how different characters have different needs and motives, which is subjectively rational from each character's viewpoint, and that addressing these needs can empower peaceful relationships even if they start off in a different way. For example, in the fable The Old Man the Young Wife, the text relates a story wherein an old man marries a young woman from a penniless family. The young woman detests his appearance so much that she refuses to even look at him let alone consummate their marriage. One night, while she sleeps in the same bed with her back facing the old man, a thief enters their house. She is scared, turns over, and for security embraces the man. This thrills every limb of the old man. He feels grateful to the thief for making his young wife hold him at last. The aged man rises and profusely thanks the thief, requesting the intruder to take whatever he desires.
The third book contains eighteen fables in Ryder translation: Crows and Owls, How the Birds Picked a King, How the Rabbit Fooled the Elephant, The Cat's Judgment, The Brahmin's Goat, The Snake and the Ants, The Snake Who Paid Cash, The Unsocial Swans, The Self-sacrificing Dove, The Old Man with the Young Wife, The Brahmin, the Thief and the Ghost, The Snake in the Prince's Belly, The Gullible Carpenter, Mouse-Maid Made Mouse, The Bird with Golden Dung, The Cave That Talked, The Frog That Rode Snakeback, The Butter-blinded Brahmin.
This is about 26% of the total length.
Book 4: Labdh
The book four of the Panchatantra is a simpler compilation of ancient moral-filled fables. These, states Olivelle, teach messages such as "a bird in hand is worth two in the bush". They caution the reader to avoid succumbing to peer pressure and cunning intent wrapped in soothing words. The book is different from the first three, in that the earlier books give positive examples of ethical behavior offering examples and actions "to do". In contrast, book four presents negative examples with consequences, offering examples and actions "to avoid, to watch out for".
The fourth book contains thirteen fables in Ryder translation: Loss of Gains, The Monkey and the Crocodile, Handsome and Theodore, Flop-Ear and Dusty, The Potter Militant, The Jackal Who Killed No Elephants, The Ungrateful Wife, King Joy and Secretary Splendor, The Ass in the Tiger-Skin, The Farmer's Wife, The Pert Hen-Sparrow, How Supersmart Ate the Elephant, The Dog Who Went Abroad.
Book 4, along with Book 5, is very short. Together the last two books constitute about 7% of the total text.
Book 5: Aparīkṣitakārakaṃ
Book five of the text is, like book four, a simpler compilation of moral-filled fables. These also present negative examples with consequences, offering examples and actions for the reader to ponder, avoid, and watch out for. The lessons in this last book include "get facts, be patient, don't act in haste then regret later", "don't build castles in the air". The book five is also unusual in that almost all its characters are humans, unlike the first four where the characters are predominantly anthropomorphized animals. According to Olivelle, it may be that the text's ancient author sought to bring the reader out of the fantasy world of talking and pondering animals into the realities of the human world.
The fifth book contains twelve fables about hasty actions or jumping to conclusions without establishing facts and proper due diligence. In Ryder translation, they are: Ill-considered Action, The Loyal Mongoose, The Four Treasure-Seekers, The Lion-Makers, Hundred-Wit Thousand-Wit and Single-Wit, The Musical Donkey, Slow the Weaver, The Brahman's Dream, The Unforgiving Monkey, The Credulous Fiend, The Three-Breasted Princess, The Fiend Who Washed His Feet.
One of the fables in this book is the story of a woman and a mongoose. She leaves her child with a mongoose friend. When she returns, she sees blood on the mongoose's mouth, and kills the friend, believing the animal killed her child. The woman discovers her child alive, and learns that the blood on the mongoose mouth came from it biting the snake while defending her child from the snake's attack. She regrets having killed the friend because of her hasty action.
Links with other fables
The fables of Panchatantra are found in numerous world languages. It is also considered partly the origin of European secondary works, such as folk tale motifs found in Boccaccio, La Fontaine and the works of Grimm Brothers. For a while, this had led to the hypothesis that popular worldwide animal-based fables had origins in India and the Middle East. According to Max Muller,
This monocausal hypothesis has now been generally discarded in favor of polygenetic hypothesis which states that fable motifs had independent origins in many ancient human cultures, some of which have common roots and some influenced by co-sharing of fables. The shared fables implied morals that appealed to communities separated by large distances and these fables were therefore retained, transmitted over human generations with local variations. However, many post-medieval era authors explicitly credit their inspirations to texts such as "Bidpai" and "Pilpay, the Indian sage" that are known to be based on the Panchatantra.
According to Niklas Bengtsson, even though India being the exclusive original source of fables is no longer taken seriously, the ancient classic Panchatantra, "which new folklore research continues to illuminate, was certainly the first work ever written down for children, and this in itself means that the Indian influence has been enormous [on world literature], not only on the genres of fables and fairy tales, but on those genres as taken up in children's literature". According to Adams and Bottigheimer, the fables of Panchatantra are known in at least 38 languages around the world in 112 versions by Jacob's old estimate, and its relationship with Mesopotamian and Greek fables is hotly debated in part because the original manuscripts of all three ancient texts have not survived. Olivelle states that there are 200 versions of the text in more than 50 languages around the world, in addition to a version in nearly every major language of India.
Scholars have noted the strong similarity between a few of the stories in The Panchatantra and Aesop's Fables. Examples are The Ass in the Panther's Skin and The Ass without Heart and Ears. The Broken Pot is similar to Aesop's The Milkmaid and Her Pail, The Gold-Giving Snake is similar to Aesop's The Man and the Serpent and Le Paysan et Dame serpent by Marie de France (Fables) Other well-known stories include The Tortoise and The Geese and The Tiger, the Brahmin and the Jackal. Similar animal fables are found in most cultures of the world, although some folklorists view India as the prime source. The Panchatantra has been a source of the world's fable literature.
The French fabulist Jean de La Fontaine acknowledged his indebtedness to the work in the introduction to his Second Fables:
"This is a second book of fables that I present to the public... I have to acknowledge that the greatest part is inspired from Pilpay, an Indian Sage".
The Panchatantra is the origin also of several stories in Arabian Nights, Sindbad, and of many Western nursery rhymes and ballads.
Origins and function
In the Indian tradition, The Panchatantra is a . Nīti can be roughly translated as "the wise conduct of life" and a śāstra is a technical or scientific treatise; thus it is considered a treatise on political science and human conduct. Its literary sources are "the expert tradition of political science and the folk and literary traditions of storytelling". It draws from the Dharma and Artha śāstras, quoting them extensively. It is also explained that nīti "represents an admirable attempt to answer the insistent question how to win the utmost possible joy from life in the world of men" and that nīti is "the harmonious development of the powers of man, a life in which security, prosperity, resolute action, friendship, and good learning are so combined to produce joy".
The Panchatantra shares many stories in common with the Buddhist Jataka tales, purportedly told by the historical Buddha before his death around 400 BCE. As the scholar Patrick Olivelle writes, "It is clear that the Buddhists did not invent the stories. [...] It is quite uncertain whether the author of [the Panchatantra] borrowed his stories from the Jātakas or the Mahābhārata, or whether he was tapping into a common treasury of tales, both oral and literary, of ancient India." Many scholars believe the tales were based on earlier oral folk traditions, which were finally written down, although there is no conclusive evidence. In the early 20th century, W. Norman Brown found that many folk tales in India appeared to be borrowed from literary sources and not vice versa.
An early Western scholar who studied The Panchatantra was Dr. Johannes Hertel, who thought the book had a Machiavellian character. Similarly, Edgerton noted that "the so-called 'morals' of the stories have no bearing on morality; they are unmoral, and often immoral. They glorify shrewdness and practical wisdom, in the affairs of life, and especially of politics, of government." Other scholars dismiss this assessment as one-sided, and view the stories as teaching , or proper moral conduct. Also:
According to Olivelle, "Indeed, the current scholarly debate regarding the intent and purpose of the 'Pañcatantra' — whether it supports unscrupulous Machiavellian politics or demands ethical conduct from those holding high office — underscores the rich ambiguity of the text". Konrad Meisig states that the Panchatantra has been incorrectly represented by some as "an entertaining textbook for the education of princes in the Machiavellian rules of Arthasastra", but instead it is a book for the "Little Man" to develop "Niti" (social ethics, prudent behavior, shrewdness) in their pursuit of Artha, and a work on social satire. According to Joseph Jacobs, "... if one thinks of it, the very raison d'être of the Fable is to imply its moral without mentioning it."
The Panchatantra, states Patrick Olivelle, tells wonderfully a collection of delightful stories with pithy proverbs, ageless and practical wisdom; one of its appeal and success is that it is a complex book that "does not reduce the complexities of human life, government policy, political strategies, and ethical dilemmas into simple solutions; it can and does speak to different readers at different levels." In the Indian tradition, the work is a Shastra genre of literature, more specifically a Nitishastra text.
The text has been a source of studies on political thought in Hinduism, as well as the management of Artha with a debate on virtues and vices.
Metaphors and layered meanings
The Sanskrit version of the Panchatantra text gives names to the animal characters, but these names are creative with double meanings. The names connote the character observable in nature but also map a human personality that a reader can readily identify. For example, the deer characters are presented as a metaphor for the charming, innocent, peaceful and tranquil personality who is a target for those who seek a prey to exploit, while the crocodile is presented to symbolize dangerous intent hidden beneath a welcoming ambiance (waters of a lotus flower-laden pond). Dozens of different types of wildlife found in India are thus named, and they constitute an array of symbolic characters in the Panchatantra. Thus, the names of the animals evoke layered meaning that resonates with the reader, and the same story can be read at different levels.
Cross-cultural migrations
The work has gone through many different versions and translations from the sixth century to the present day. The original Indian version was first translated into a foreign language (Pahlavi) by Borzūya in 570CE, then into Arabic in 750. This Arabic version was translated into several languages, including Syriac, Greek, Persian, Hebrew and Spanish, and thus became the source of versions in European languages, until the English translation by Charles Wilkins of the Sanskrit Hitopadesha in 1787.
Early cross-cultural migrations
The Panchatantra approximated its current literary form within the 4th–6th centuries CE, though originally written around 200 BCE. No Sanskrit texts before 1000 CE have survived. Buddhist monks on pilgrimage to India took the influential Sanskrit text (probably both in oral and literary formats) north to Tibet and China and east to South East Asia. These led to versions in all Southeast Asian countries, including Tibetan, Chinese, Mongolian, Javanese and Lao derivatives.
How Borzuy brought the work from India
The Panchatantra also migrated into the Middle East, through Iran, during the Sassanid reign of Anoushiravan. Around 550 CE his notable physician Borzuy (Burzuwaih) translated the work from Sanskrit into the Pahlavi (Middle Persian language). He transliterated the main characters as Karirak ud Damanak.
According to the story told in the Shāh Nāma (The Book of the Kings, Persia's late 10th-century national epic by Ferdowsi), Borzuy sought his king's permission to make a trip to Hindustan in search of a mountain herb he had read about that is "mingled into a compound and, when sprinkled over a corpse, it is immediately restored to life." He did not find the herb, but was told by a wise sage of "a different interpretation. The herb is the scientist; science is the mountain, everlastingly out of reach of the multitude. The corpse is the man without knowledge, for the uninstructed man is everywhere lifeless. Through knowledge man becomes revivified."
The sage pointed to the book, and the visiting physician Borzuy translated the work with the help of some Pandits (Brahmins). According to Hans Bakker, Borzuy visited the kingdom of Kannauj in north India during the 6th century in an era of intense exchange between Persian and Indian royal courts, and he secretly translated a copy of the text then sent it to the court of Anoushiravan in Persia, along with other cultural and technical knowledge.
Kalila wa Demna: Mid. Persian and Arabic versions
Borzuy's translation of the Sanskrit version into Pahlavi arrived in Persia by the 6th century, but this Middle Persian version is now lost. The book had become popular in Sassanid, and was translated into Syriac and Arabic whose copies survive. According to Riedel, "the three preserved New Persian translations originated between the 10th and 12th century", and are based on the 8th-century Arabic translation by Ibn al-Muqaffa of Borzuy's work on Panchatantra. It is the 8th-century Kalila wa Demna text, states Riedel, that has been the most influential of the known Arabic versions, not only in the Middle East, but also through its translations into Greek, Hebrew and Old Spanish.
The Persian Ibn al-Muqaffa' translated the Panchatantra (in ) from Middle Persian to Arabic as Kalīla wa Dimna. This is considered the first masterpiece of "Arabic literary prose."
The introduction of the first book of Kalila wa Demna is different from Panchatantra, in being more elaborate and instead of king and his three sons studying in the Indian version, the Persian version speaks of a merchant and his three sons who had squandered away their father's wealth. The Persian version also makes an abrupt switch from the story of the three sons to an injured ox, and thereafter parallels the Panchatantra.
The two jackals' names transmogrified into Kalila and Dimna in the Persian version. Perhaps because the first section constituted most of the work, or because translators could find no simple equivalent in Zoroastrian Pahlavi for the concept expressed by the Sanskrit word 'Panchatantra', the jackals' names, Kalila and Dimna, became the generic name for the entire work in classical times.
After the first chapter, Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ inserted a new one, telling of Dimna's trial. The jackal is suspected of instigating the death of the bull "Shanzabeh", a key character in the first chapter. The trial lasts for two days without conclusion, until a tiger and leopard appear to bear witness against Dimna. He is found guilty and put to death.
Ibn al-Muqaffa' inserted other additions and interpretations into his 750CE "re-telling" (see Francois de Blois' Burzōy's voyage to India and the origin of the book Kalīlah wa Dimnah). The political theorist Jennifer London suggests that he was expressing risky political views in a metaphorical way. (Al-Muqaffa' was murdered within a few years of completing his manuscript). London has analysed how Ibn al-Muqaffa' could have used his version to make "frank political expression" at the 'Abbasid court (see J. London's "How To Do Things With Fables: Ibn al-Muqaffas Frank Speech in Stories from Kalila wa Dimna," History of Political Thought XXIX: 2 (2008)).
The Arabic classic by Ibn al-Muqaffa
Borzuy's 570 CE Pahlavi translation (Kalile va Demne, now lost) was translated into Syriac. Nearly two centuries later, it was translated into Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa around 750 CE under the Arabic title, Kalīla wa Dimna. After the Arab invasion of Persia (Iran), Ibn al-Muqaffa's version (two languages removed from the pre-Islamic Sanskrit original) emerged as the pivotal surviving text that enriched world literature. Ibn al-Muqaffa's work is considered a model of the finest Arabic prose style, and "is considered the first masterpiece of Arabic literary prose."
Some scholars believe that Ibn al-Muqaffa's translation of the second section, illustrating the Sanskrit principle of Mitra Laabha (Gaining Friends), became the unifying basis for the Brethren of Purity (Ikwhan al-Safa) — the anonymous 9th-century CE encyclopedists whose prodigious literary effort, Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Sincerity, codified Indian, Persian and Greek knowledge. A suggestion made by Goldziher, and later written on by Philip K. Hitti in his History of the Arabs, proposes that "The appellation is presumably taken from the story of the ringdove in Kalilah wa-Dimnah in which it is related that a group of animals by acting as faithful friends (ikhwan al-safa) to one another escaped the snares of the hunter." This story is mentioned as an exemplum when the Brethren speak of mutual aid in one risaala (treatise), a crucial part of their system of ethics.
Spread to the rest of Europe
Almost all pre-modern European translations of the Panchatantra arise from this Arabic version. From Arabic it was re-translated into Syriac in the 10th or 11th century, into Greek (as Stephanites and Ichnelates) in 1080 by the Jewish Byzantine doctor Simeon Seth, into 'modern' Persian by Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah Munshi in 1121, and in 1252 into Spanish (old Castilian, Calila e Dimna).
Perhaps most importantly, it was translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Joel in the 12th century. This Hebrew version was translated into Latin by John of Capua as Directorium Humanae Vitae, or "Directory of Human Life", and printed in 1480, and became the source of most European versions.
A German translation, Das Buch der Beispiele, of the Panchatantra was printed in 1483, making this one of the earliest books to be printed by Gutenberg's press after the Bible.
The Latin version was translated into Italian by Antonfrancesco Doni in 1552. This translation became the basis for the first English translation, in 1570: Sir Thomas North translated it into Elizabethan English as The Fables of Bidpai: The Morall Philosophie of Doni (reprinted by Joseph Jacobs, 1888). La Fontaine published The Fables of Bidpai in 1679, based on "the Indian sage Pilpay".
Modern era
It was the Panchatantra that served as the basis for the studies of Theodor Benfey, the pioneer in the field of comparative literature. His efforts began to clear up some confusion surrounding the history of the Panchatantra, culminating in the work of Hertel (, , , ) and . Hertel discovered several recensions in India, in particular the oldest available Sanskrit recension, the Tantrakhyayika in Kashmir, and the so-called North Western Family Sanskrit text by the Jain monk Purnabhadra in 1199 CE that blends and rearranges at least three earlier versions. Edgerton undertook a minute study of all texts which seemed "to provide useful evidence on the lost Sanskrit text to which, it must be assumed, they all go back", and believed he had reconstructed the original Sanskrit Panchatantra; this version is known as the Southern Family text.
Among modern translations, Arthur W. Ryder's translation (), translating prose for prose and verse for rhyming verse, remains popular. In the 1990s two English versions of the Panchatantra were published, Chandra Rajan's translation (like Ryder's, based on Purnabhadra's recension) by Penguin (1993), and Patrick Olivelle's translation (based on Edgerton's reconstruction of the ur-text) by Oxford University Press (1997). Olivelle's translation was republished in 2006 by the Clay Sanskrit Library.
Recently Ibn al-Muqaffa's historical milieu itself, when composing his masterpiece in Baghdad during the bloody Abbasid overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty, has become the subject (and rather confusingly, also the title) of a gritty Shakespearean drama by the multicultural Kuwaiti playwright Sulayman Al-Bassam. Ibn al-Muqqafa's biographical background serves as an illustrative metaphor for today's escalating bloodthirstiness in Iraq — once again a historical vortex for clashing civilisations on a multiplicity of levels, including the obvious tribal, religious and political parallels.
The novelist Doris Lessing notes in her introduction to Ramsay Wood's 1980 "retelling" of the first two of the five Panchatantra books, that
See also
Arthashastra
Calila e Dimna
Hitopadesha
Jataka tales
Katha (storytelling format)
Kathasaritsagara
Mirrors for princes
Wisdom literature
One Thousand and One Nights
Notes
Editions and translations
(Ordered chronologically.)
Sanskrit texts
Critical editions
(reprinting in Devanagari only the text from his 1924 work)
Others
, Google Books
(Text with Sanskrit commentary)
(Complete Sanskrit text with Hindi translation)
Translations in English
The Panchatantra
(also republished in 1956, reprint 1964, and by Jaico Publishing House, Bombay, 1949). The Panchatantra, Columbia University archives; (Translation based on Hertel's text of Purnabhadra's Recension of 1199 CE.)
(reprint: 1995) (Translation based on Hertel manuscript.)
(Translation based on Edgerton manuscript.)
(Accessible popular compilation derived from a Sanskrit text with reference to the aforementioned translations by Chandra Rajan and Patrick Olivelle.)
Kalila and Dimna, Fables of Bidpai and other texts
Google BooksGoogle Books (translated from Silvestre de Stacy's 1816 collation of different Arabic manuscripts)
Also online at Persian Literature in Translation
, reprinted by Philo Press, Amsterdam 1970
Google Books (edited and induced from The Morall Philosophie of Doni by Sir Thomas North, 1570)Tales Within Tales – adapted from the fables of Pilpai, Sir Arthur N Wollaston, John Murray, London 1909
Further reading
N. M. Penzer (1924), The Ocean of Story, Being C.H. Tawney's Translation of Somadeva's Katha Sarit Sagara (or Ocean of Streams of Story): Volume V (of X), Appendix I: pp. 207–242 also proofread with glossary
Ferial Ghazoul (1983), Poetic Logic in The Panchatantra and The Arabian Nights, Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Winter 1983), pp. 13–21Burzoy's Voyage to India and the Origin of the Book of Kalilah wa Dimnah Google Books, Francois de Blois, Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1990On Kalila wa Dimna and Persian National Fairy Tales Transoxiana.com, Dr. Pavel Basharin [Moscow], Tansoxiana 12, 2007The Past We Share — The Near Eastern Ancestry of Western Folk Literature, E. L. Ranelagh, Quartet Books, Horizon Press, New York, 1979In Arabian Nights — A Search of Morocco through its Stories and Storytellers by Tahir Shah, Doubleday, 2008.
Ibn al-Muqaffa, Abdallah. Kalilah et Dimnah. Ed. P. Louis Cheiko. 3 ed. Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1947.
Ibn al-Muqaffa, Abd'. Calila e Dimna. Edited by Juan Manuel Cacho Blecua and María Jesus Lacarra. Madrid: Editorial Castalia, 1984.
Keller, John Esten, and Robert White Linker. El libro de Calila e Digna. Madrid Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1967.
Latham, J.D. "Ibn al-Muqaffa' and Early 'Abbasid Prose." '''Abbasid Belles-Lettres. Eds. Julia Ashtiany, et al. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989. 48–77.
Parker, Margaret. The Didactic Structure and Content of El libro de Calila e Digna. Miami, FL: Ediciones Universal, 1978.
Penzol, Pedro. Las traducciones del "Calila e Dimna". Madrid,: Impr. de Ramona Velasco, viuda de P. Perez,, 1931.
Shaw, Sandra. The Jatakas — Birth Stories of the Bodhisatta, Penguin Classics, Penguin Books India, New Delhi, 2006
Wacks, David A. "The Performativity of Ibn al-Muqaffas Kalîla wa-Dimna and Al-Maqamat al-Luzumiyya of al-Saraqusti," Journal of Arabic Literature'' 34.1–2 (2003): 178–89.
External links
3rd-century BC books
Ancient Indian literature
Fables
History of literature
Indian folklore
Islamic mirrors for princes
Medieval Arabic literature
Oral tradition
Persian literature
Sanskrit texts
Storytelling
Treatises | [
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235526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colgate-Palmolive | Colgate-Palmolive | Colgate-Palmolive Company is an American multinational consumer products company headquartered on Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. It specializes in the production, distribution and provision of household, health care, personal care and veterinary products.
History and founding
William Colgate, a devout Baptist English immigrant soap and candle maker established in 1806 a starch, soap, and candle factory on Dutch Street in New York City under the name William Colgate & Company.
In 1833, he suffered a severe heart attack, stopping his business's sales; after a convalescence he continued with his business. In the 1840s, the company began selling individual cakes of soap in uniform weights. In 1857, Colgate died and the company was reorganized as Colgate & Company under the management of his devout Baptist son Samuel Colgate, who did not want to continue the business but thought it would be the right thing to do. In 1872, he introduced Cashmere Bouquet, a perfumed soap.
In 1873, the company introduced its first Colgate Toothpaste, an aromatic toothpaste sold in jars. In 1896, the company sold the first toothpaste in a tube, named Colgate Ribbon Dental Cream (invented by dentist Washington Sheffield). Also in 1896, Colgate hired Martin Ittner and under his direction founded one of the first applied research labs. By 1908, they initiated mass sales of toothpaste in tubes. William Colgate's other son, James Boorman Colgate, was a primary trustee of Colgate University (formerly Madison University).
In Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the B. J. Johnson Company was making a soap from palm oil and olive oil, the formula of which was developed by Burdett J. Johnson in 1898. The soap was popular enough to rename their company after it in 1917 — Palmolive. Around the start of the 20th century, Palmolive was the world's best-selling soap.
Advertisement and sponsorship
Extensive advertising included the radio programs The Palmolive Hour (1927-1931) and Palmolive Beauty Box Theater (1934-1937). A Kansas City, Kansas-based soap manufacturer known as Peet Brothers, who were originally from Wisconsin, merged with Palmolive to become Palmolive-Peet. In 1928, Palmolive-Peet acquired the Colgate Company to create the Colgate-Palmolive-Peet Company. In 1953, Peet was dropped from the name, leaving only Colgate-Palmolive Company, the current name.
Competition with P&G
Colgate-Palmolive has long been in competition with Procter & Gamble (P&G), the world's largest soap and detergent maker. P&G introduced its Tide laundry detergent shortly after World War II, and thousands of consumers turned from Colgate's soaps to the new product. Colgate lost its number one place in the toothpaste market when P&G added fluoride to its toothpaste (Colgate has since re-claimed the #1 sales position). In the beginning of TV, Colgate-Palmolive wished to compete with P&G as a sponsor of soap operas and sponsored many soaps in full or in part including The Doctors.
George Henry Lesch, president, CEO, and chairman of the board of Colgate-Palmolive in the 1960s and 1970s, transformed the firm into a modern company with major restructuring.
Recent years
In 2005, Colgate sold the under-performing brands Fab, Dynamo, Arctic Power, ABC, Cold Power and Fresh Start, as well as the license of the Ajax brand for laundry detergents in the US, Canada and Puerto Rico, to Phoenix Brands, LLC as part of its plan to focus on their higher margin oral, personal, and pet care products.
In 2006, Colgate-Palmolive announced the intended acquisition of Tom's of Maine, a leading maker of natural toothpaste, for US $100 million. Tom's of Maine was founded by Tom Chappell in 1970.
In 2020, Colgate-Palmolive acquired Hello Products LLC, one of the fastest-growing, premium oral care brands in the United States, for an undisclosed amount.
Today, Colgate has numerous subsidiary organizations spanning 200 countries, but it is publicly listed in three, the United States, India and Pakistan.
On October 25, 2012, the company announced it would cut 2,310 workers, or 6% of its workforce, by the end of 2016 in a push to make the consumer products company more efficient. The company ranked 184th on the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue. In 2021, the company ranked 15th on the list of Most Trusted Brands by Morning Consult.
Educational and community involvement
In 1890, Madison University in New York State was renamed Colgate University in honor of the Colgate family following decades of financial support and involvement.
The Colgate-Palmolive Company has sponsored a non-profit track meet open to women of all ages called the Colgate Women's Games. The Colgate Women's Games is the nation's largest amateur track series open to all girls from elementary school through college. Held at Brooklyn's Pratt Institute, competitors participate in preliminary meets and semi-finals over five weekends throughout January. Finalists compete for trophies and educational grants-in-aid from Colgate-Palmolive Company at New York City's Madison Square Garden in February. For more than 20 years, the company supports the Starlight Children Foundation which is a non profit organization dedicated to help seriously ill children and their families. The mission is to help children to cope with pain, fear and isolation through entertainment, family activities and education.
In addition the Colgate site has all kinds of resources for children including educational tooth brushing songs and animated videos focused on their well known former animated mascot Dr. Rabbit.
Ethics
In 2011, Colgate-Palmolive was one of the first companies recognized by PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) under the new "working for regulatory change" category for companies that test on animals only when mandated by government regulations and are actively seeking alternatives to animal testing. This relates to the corporation's decision to continue to participate in the profitable Chinese market, where some animal testing is still a regulatory requirement. Other companies have chosen to decline entry to this market.
In 2006, Colgate-Palmolive acquired an 84% stake in Tom's of Maine. In 2011, the company chose to retain the use of the antibacterial agent triclosan in its market-leading Total toothpaste range, despite withdrawing it from several other product ranges, following concerns about triclosan's impact on health and the environment.
Environmental record
In 2019, BreakFreeFromPlastic cited Colgate-Palmolive as one of the world's top ten plastic polluters. Previously, Colgate-Palmolive had committed to 100% recyclability of plastics in packaging across all its product categories by 2025, but made no commitment to reducing the use of virgin plastic in packaging.
Products of the Colgate-Palmolive company, specifically "Total" brand toothpaste contain triclosan.
Colgate-Palmolive, as a successor to The Mennen Company, is one of about 300 companies held potentially responsible for hazardous waste at the Chemsol federal Superfund site in Piscataway, New Jersey. Their involvement in this site may have contributed to the contamination of an estimated of soil with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), PCBs, and lead off-site. A proposed $23 million agreement with the government and state of New Jersey would require Colgate-Palmolive and the other involved companies to pay for the cleanup of this hazardous waste that is contaminating the soil as well as the groundwater.
Colgate-Palmolive received the 2012 Safe-in-Sound Excellence in Hearing Loss Prevention Award.
Corporate governance
Current members of the board of directors of Colgate-Palmolive are:
Noel Wallace
John P. Bilbrey
Lisa M. Edwards
C. Martin Harris
Martina Hund-Mejean
Kimberly A. Nelson
Lorrie M. Norrington
Michael B. Polk
John T. Cahill
Stephen Sadove
Employment diversity
Colgate-Palmolive was named one of the "100 Best Companies for Working Mothers" by Working Mother magazine. The 2012 Human Rights Campaign "report card" on American businesses gave Colgate an A for its support of diversity in the workplace.
Brands
Colgate now markets a broadly diversified mix of products in the United States and other countries. Major product areas include household and personal care products, food products, health care and industrial supplies, and sports and leisure time equipment.
Afta Lotion
Anthony longlife soap
Anbesol
Ajax
Axion
Caprice (shampoo) (Mexico)
Cibaca (India)
Cold Power
Colgate
Colodent (Poland)
Crystal White Octagon
Cuddly (Australia)
Darlie (toothpaste) (Southeast Asia)
Dermassage
Dentagard (toothpaste; Germany)
Dynamo (detergent)
Elmex (toothpaste)
EltaMD (skincare)
Fab (detergent)
Fabuloso
Filorga (cosmetics; France)
Fluffy (Australia)
Fresh Start
Freska-Ra (Mexico)
Gard (shampoo)
Hacı Şakir (Turkey)
Hello Products
Hill's Pet Nutrition (pet food)
Hurricane (detergent) (Australia)
Irish Spring
Kolynos
La Croix (bleach) France
Mennen
Meridol (toothpaste)
Murphy Oil Soap
Palmolive
PCA Skin
Profiden (Toothpaste, Spain)
Protex
Sanex
Science Diet
Skin Bracer
Softsoap
Soft As Soap (soap) (Australia)
Softlan (softener) (Southeast Asia)
Soupline (France, Belgium)
Speed Stick
Spree (detergent) (Australia)
Suavitel (Mexico)
Tahiti (soap) (France, Belgium, Switzerland).
Teen Spirit (deodorant)
Tender Care
Tom's of Maine
Ultra Brite
Discontinued products and former brands
Ajax Laundry Detergent (Ajax Cleanser still made by CP)
Ad (detergent)
Bambeanos
Brisk (fluoride toothpaste)
Burst (detergent)
Cue (fluoride toothpaste)
Cashmere Bouquet (soap)
Cherish (cinnamon flavored toothpaste)
Cold Power (detergent)* (known in Canada as Arctic Power, Australian and New Zealand rights sold to Henkel in May 2015)
Coleo (soap)
Colgate Entrees
Colgate Tooth Powder** and Colgate Chlorophyll Tooth Powder
Colgate Toothpaste with Chlorophyll**
Dynamo (liquid detergent-no longer made by CP in the U.S.)
Fab Detergent (no longer made by CP in the U.S.)
Fab One Shot (detergent)
Florient (room deodorizer)
Halo Shampoo
Kolynos (toothpaste)**
Lustre-Creme Shampoo
Octagon (soap)
Palmolive Rapid Shave
Colgate's Peter Pan Beauty Bar with Chlorophyll
Soaky (bubble bath for kids)
Super Suds (detergent)
Swerl (liquid cleanser)
Vel (dishwashing detergent)
Notes:
* While detergent brands continue to be manufactured and sold by Colgate in some countries, in the United States they have been sold to another company, Phoenix Brands in 2005. Phoenix Brands would file for bankruptcy in May 2016 and the US rights have been assumed by Fab & Kind Company.
In May 2015, Colgate-Palmolive sold its Australian laundry detergents and pre-wash brands to Henkel for US$245 million (€220 million). Colgate-Palmolive has divested its laundry detergents business in Colombia, which was in turn acquired by Unilever and some Asian countries, which was acquired by Procter & Gamble.
** Still being made by Colgate-Palmolive internationally, but no longer available in the U.S.
Facilities
In the U.S., the company operates approximately 60 properties, of which 14 are owned. Major U.S. manufacturing and warehousing facilities used by the oral, personal and home care segment of Colgate-Palmolive were located in Morristown, New Jersey (previously the headquarters of the Mennen company prior to their 1991 buyout, and still HQ of the Mennen division) until 2014, when the plant shut down and moved operations to Hodges, South Carolina ; Morristown, Tennessee; and Cambridge, Ohio. The pet nutrition segment has major facilities in Bowling Green, Kentucky; Emporia, Kansas; Topeka, Kansas; and Richmond, Indiana. The primary research center for oral, personal and home care products is located in Piscataway, New Jersey and the primary research center for pet nutrition products is located in Topeka, Kansas.
Overseas, the company operates approximately 280 properties of which 80 are owned in over 70 countries. Major overseas facilities used by the Oral, Personal and Home Care segment are located in Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, France, Guatemala, India, Italy, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, Poland, South Africa, Thailand, Venezuela, Vietnam and elsewhere throughout the world.
Colgate-Palmolive has closed or is in the process of phasing out production at certain facilities under a restructuring program initiated in 2004 and has built new state-of-the-art plants to produce toothpaste in the U.S., Mexico and Poland.
Colgate-Palmolive's chief manufacturing plant is located in Burlington, New Jersey, producing all of the fragrance and flavor oils for the company's facilities around the world.
Advertising
The iconic hand on the Palmolive dishwashing soap label belongs to hand model Elizabeth Barbour. The image is an illustration of a photograph taken in 1985 when the Colgate-Palmolive Company updated the image, hiring Barbour, then with the Ford Agency in New York City.
References
External links
Colgate-Palmolive company history
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
American companies established in 1806
Cosmetics companies of the United States
Piscataway, New Jersey
Multinational companies based in New York City
Superfund sites in New Jersey
Manufacturing companies established in 1806
Dental companies of the United States
Personal care companies
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235528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colgate | Colgate | Colgate may refer to:
Places
Colgate, North Dakota, US
Colgate, Wisconsin, US
Colgate, West Sussex, England, UK
Colgate, Saskatchewan, Canada
Other
Colgate (name)
Colgate (toothpaste), a product of Colgate-Palmolive
Colgate-Palmolive, a corporation
The Colgate Comedy Hour, an American musical variety television show sponsored by Colgate-Palmolive
Colgate Clock (Indiana), an octagonal clock in Clarksville, Indiana
Colgate Clock (Jersey City), an octagonal clock in Jersey City, New Jersey
Colgate University, a private liberal arts college in Madison County, New York
Colgate (pony), a character in My Little Pony
See also
Coalgate (disambiguation)
Colgate Clock (disambiguation)
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235529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EIS | EIS | Eis or EIS may refer to:
Education
Eastern Independent Schools of Melbourne, in Australia
Educational Institute of Scotland, a trade union
Ekamai International School, in Bangkok, Thailand
English for Integrated Studies, a program in Thailand
English International School Moscow, a school network in Moscow, Russia
Era International School, in Andhra Pradesh, India
Escuela Internacional Sampedrana, a school in San Pedro Sula, Honduras
Essence International School, in Kaduna, Nigeria
European International School, in Parañaque City, Philippines
European International School Ho Chi Minh City, in Vietnam
Government
Enhanced Imaging System, an American satellite program
Enterprise Investment Scheme, series of UK Tax reliefs
Epidemic Intelligence Service, a program of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Health and medicine
Emergency Infant Services, an American charity
Estrogen insensitivity syndrome
People
Egon Eis (1910–1994), Austrian screenwriter
Frederick Eis (1843–1926), German-American Catholic bishop
Maria Eis (1896–1954), Austrian actress
Otto Eis (1903–1952), Austrian-American screenwriter
Science and technology
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
Electrolyte–insulator–semiconductor sensor
Electronic image stabilization
Embryo-carrying interstellar starship, a concept in space colonization
Enterprise information system
Evolving intelligent system
Executive information system
Extreme Ice Survey
Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer, an instrument onboard the Hinode satellite
Effective Isotropic Sensitivity
Other uses
Eisbach (Rhine), a river in Germany
Edmonton International Speedway, in Alberta, Canada
English Institute of Sport, a network of sports related services
Environmental impact statement, in the United States
Expressive Intelligence Studio, a game design research group at University of California, Santa Cruz
Terrance B. Lettsome International Airport, in the British Virgin Islands
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235530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Have%20Returned | I Have Returned | I Have Returned was Ray Stevens' twenty-second studio album and his second for MCA Records, released in 1985. The pictures on both the front and the back of the album were taken in the Mississippi Sound near Biloxi, Mississippi according to the album credits. The cover depicts Stevens dressed as General Douglas MacArthur from World War II. "The Haircut Song" and "The Ballad of the Blue Cyclone" were released as singles from the album. "Santa Claus Is Watching You" is a re-recording of Stevens' 1960s pop single and was re-issued as a country single around the time of the album's release and was made into a popular music video.
Stevens later re-recorded "The Pirate Song" on his 1991 album #1 With a Bullet and re-recorded the song a third time in 2000 for a music video found on Funniest Video Characters.
The first track, "Thus Cacked Henrietta", is a rendition of the popular fanfare portion from Richard Strauss' "Also sprach Zarathustra", performed in chicken clucks. The rendition by Stevens lasts a little over 1 minute and was his first chicken-clucking performance since 1977's "In the Mood," released under the alias The Henhouse Five Plus Too.
Track listing
Album credits
Arranged & Produced by: Ray Stevens
Engineer: Stuart Keathley
Recorded at: Ray Stevens Studio, Nashville, Tennessee
Mastered by: Glenn Meadows at Masterfonics
Musicians
Keyboards & Synthesizers: Ray Stevens
Drums: Jerry Carrigan & Jerry Kroon
Bass: Jack Williams
Electric Guitars: Steve Gibson
Rhythm Guitars: Mark Casstevens
Banjo: Mark Casstevens
Dobro: Steve Gibson
Saxophone: Denis Solee
Trombone: Roger Bissell
Trumpet: Ray Stevens
Tympani: Ray Stevens
Background Vocals: Lisa Silver, Diane Tidwell, Wendy Suits, Ray Stevens
Art Direction: Ray Stevens & Slick Lawson
Design: Simon Levy
Photography: Slick Lawson
Production: Susan Scott
Landing Craft: Vincent J. Fusca, III, Captain USMC, 4th PLT (REIN) CO. A, 4th ASLT AMPH BN, USMCR, Gulfport, MS
Special Thanks To: Pony Maples-Weapons, Faye Sloan Costumes, George Nalley-Stevens Aviation
Chart performance
Album
Singles
References
1985 albums
Ray Stevens albums
MCA Records albums | [
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] |
235532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali | Bengali | Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to:
something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia
Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region
Bengali language, the language they speak
Bengali alphabet, the writing system
Bengali–Assamese script
Bengali (Unicode block), a block of Bengali characters in Unicode
Bengali, Nancowry, a village in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India
, a ship launched in 1837 and wrecked in 1951
Bengali, member of the ThunderCats
Bengali-Fodé Koita, Guinean footballer
Bengali Keïta, Guinean centre-back
Bengali Singh, Indian politician
Abdul Wahid Bengali, 19th-century theologian
Ali Sher Bengali, 16th-century Sufi
Athar Ali Bengali, politician and teacher
Mohamed Bengali, Ivorian footballer
Yusuf Bengali, 16th-century Sufi
See also
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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235534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boredom | Boredom | In conventional usage, boredom is an emotional and occasionally psychological state experienced when an individual is left without anything in particular to do, is not interested in their surroundings, or feels that a day or period is dull or tedious. It is also understood by scholars as a modern phenomenon which has a cultural dimension. "There is no universally accepted definition of boredom. But whatever it is, researchers argue, it is not simply another name for depression or apathy. It seems to be a specific mental state that people find unpleasant—a lack of stimulation that leaves them craving relief, with a host of behavioural, medical and social consequences." According to BBC News, boredom "...can be a dangerous and disruptive state of mind that damages your health"; yet research "...suggest[s] that without boredom we couldn't achieve our creative feats."
In Experience Without Qualities: Boredom and Modernity, Elizabeth Goodstein traces the modern discourse on boredom through literary, philosophical, and sociological texts to find that as "a discursively articulated phenomenon...boredom is at once objective and subjective, emotion and intellectualization—not just a response to the modern world, but also a historically constituted strategy for coping with its discontents." In both conceptions, boredom has to do fundamentally with an experience of time and problems of meaning.
Etymology and terminology
The expression to be a bore had been used in print in the sense of "to be tiresome or dull" since 1768 at the latest. The expression "boredom" means "state of being bored," 1852, from bore (v.1) + -dom. It also has been employed in a sense "bores as a class" (1883) and "practice of being a bore" (1864, a sense properly belonging to boreism, 1833). The word "bore" as a noun meaning a "thing which causes ennui or annoyance" is attested to since 1778; "of persons by 1812". The noun "bore" comes from the verb "bore", which had the meaning "[to] be tiresome or dull" first attested [in] 1768, a vogue word c. 1780–81 according to Grose (1785); possibly a figurative extension of "to move forward slowly and persistently, as a [hole-] boring tool does." A popular misconception is that Charles Dickens coined the term "boredom" in his work Bleak House, published in 1853. The word, however, has been attested since at least 1829 in an issue of the publication The Albion.
The French term for boredom, ennui, is sometimes used in English as well, at least since 1778. The term ennui was first used "as a French word in English;" in the 1660s and it was "nativized by 1758". The term ennui comes "from French ennui, from Old French enui "annoyance" (13c.), [a] back-formation from enoiier, anuier. "The German word for "boredom" expresses this: Langeweile, a compound made of lange "long" and Weile "while", which is in line with the common perception that when one is bored, time passes "tortuously" slowly.
Psychology
Different scholars use different definitions of boredom, which complicates research. Boredom has been defined by Cynthia D. Fisher in terms of its main central psychological processes: "an unpleasant, transient affective state in which the individual feels a pervasive lack of interest and difficulty concentrating on the current activity." Mark Leary et al. describe boredom as "an affective experience associated with cognitive attentional processes." Robert Plutchik characterized boredom as a mild form of disgust. In positive psychology, boredom is described as a response to a moderate challenge for which the subject has more than enough skill.
There are three types of boredom, all of which involve problems of engagement of attention. These include times when humans are prevented from engaging in wanted activity, when humans are forced to engage in unwanted activity, or when people are simply unable for some other reason to maintain engagement in an activity. Boredom proneness is a tendency to experience boredom of all types. This is typically assessed by the Boredom Proneness Scale. Recent research has found that boredom proneness is clearly and consistently associated with failures of attention. Boredom and its proneness are both theoretically and empirically linked to depression and similar symptoms. Nonetheless, boredom proneness has been found to be as strongly correlated with attentional lapses as with depression. Although boredom is often viewed as a trivial and mild irritant, proneness to boredom has been linked to a very diverse range of possible psychological, physical, educational, and social problems.
Absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behaviour. Absent-mindedness is a mental condition in which the subject experiences low levels of attention and frequent distraction. Absent-mindedness is not a diagnosed condition, but rather a symptom of boredom and sleepiness which people experience in their daily lives. When suffering from absent-mindedness, people tend to show signs of memory lapse and weak recollection of recently occurring events. This can usually be a result of a variety of other conditions often diagnosed by clinicians such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression. In addition to absent-mindedness leading to an array of consequences affecting daily life, it can have as more severe, long-term problems.
Physical health
Lethargy is a state of tiredness, weariness, fatigue, or lack of energy. It can be accompanied by depression, decreased motivation, or apathy. Lethargy can be a normal response to boredom, inadequate sleep, overexertion, overworking, stress, lack of exercise, or a symptom of a disorder. When part of a normal response, lethargy often resolves with rest, adequate sleep, decreased stress, and good nutrition.
Philosophy
Boredom is a condition characterized by perception of one's environment as dull, tedious, and lacking in stimulation. This can result from leisure and a lack of aesthetic interests. Labor and art may be alienated and passive, or immersed in tedium. There is an inherent anxiety in boredom; people will expend considerable effort to prevent or remedy it, yet in many circumstances, it is accepted as suffering to be endured. Common passive ways to escape boredom are to sleep or to think creative thoughts (daydream). Typical active solutions consist in an intentional activity of some sort, often something new, as familiarity and repetition lead to the tedious.
During the fin de siècle, the French term for the end of the 19th century in the West, some of the cultural hallmarks included "ennui", cynicism, pessimism, and "...a widespread belief that civilization leads to decadence."
Boredom also plays a role in existentialist thought. Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche were two of the first philosophers considered fundamental to the existentialist movement. Like Pascal, they were interested in people's quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life and the use of diversion to escape from boredom. Kierkegaard's Either/Or describes the rotation method, a method used by higher-level aesthetes in order to avoid boredom. The method is an essential hedonistic aspect of the aesthetic way of life. For the aesthete, one constantly changes what one is doing in order to maximize the enjoyment and pleasure derived from each activity.
In contexts where one is confined, spatially or otherwise, boredom may be met with various religious activities, not because religion would want to associate itself with tedium, but rather, partly because boredom may be taken as the essential human condition, to which God, wisdom, or morality are the ultimate answers. Many existentialist philosophers, like Arthur Schopenhauer, espouse this view. This view of religiosity among boredom does affect how often people are bored. People who had a higher religiosity while performing boring tasks reported less boredom than people of less religiosity. People performing the meaningless task had to search less for meaning.
Martin Heidegger wrote about boredom in two texts available in English, in the 1929/30 semester lecture course The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics, and again in the essay What is Metaphysics? published in the same year. In the lecture, Heidegger included about 100 pages on boredom, probably the most extensive philosophical treatment ever of the subject. He focused on waiting at railway stations in particular as a major context of boredom. Søren Kierkegaard remarks in Either/Or that "patience cannot be depicted" visually, since there is a sense that any immediate moment of life may be fundamentally tedious.
Blaise Pascal in the Pensées discusses the human condition in saying "we seek rest in a struggle against some obstacles. And when we have overcome these, rest proves unbearable because of the boredom it produces", and later states that "only an infinite and immutable object—that is, God himself—can fill this infinite abyss."
Without stimulus or focus, the individual is confronted with nothingness, the meaninglessness of existence, and experiences existential anxiety. Heidegger states this idea as follows: "Profound boredom, drifting here and there in the abysses of our existence like a muffling fog, removes all things and men and oneself along with it into a remarkable indifference. This boredom reveals being as a whole." Schopenhauer used the existence of boredom in an attempt to prove the vanity of human existence, stating, "...for if life, in the desire for which our essence and existence consists, possessed in itself a positive value and real content, there would be no such thing as boredom: mere existence would fulfil and satisfy us."
Erich Fromm and other thinkers of critical theory speak of boredom as a common psychological response to industrial society, where people are required to engage in alienated labor. According to Fromm, boredom is "perhaps the most important source of aggression and destructiveness today." For Fromm, the search for thrills and novelty that characterizes consumer culture are not solutions to boredom, but mere distractions from boredom which, he argues, continues unconsciously. Above and beyond taste and character, the universal case of boredom consists in any instance of waiting, as Heidegger noted, such as in line, for someone else to arrive or finish a task, or while one is travelling somewhere. The automobile requires fast reflexes, making its operator busy and hence, perhaps for other reasons as well, making the ride more tedious despite being over sooner.
Interestingly, in some Nguni languages such as Zulu, boredom and loneliness are represented by the same word (isizungu). This adds a new dimension to the oft-quoted definition of ubuntu: "A person is a person through other people".
Causes and effects
Although it has not been widely studied, research on boredom suggests that boredom is a major factor impacting diverse areas of a person's life. People ranked low on a boredom-proneness scale were found to have better performance in a wide variety of aspects of their lives, including career, education, and autonomy. Boredom can be a symptom of clinical depression. Boredom can be a form of learned helplessness, a phenomenon closely related to depression. Some philosophies of parenting propose that if children are raised in an environment devoid of stimuli, and are not allowed or encouraged to interact with their environment, they will fail to develop the mental capacities to do so.
In a learning environment, a common cause of boredom is lack of understanding; for instance, if one is not following or connecting to the material in a class or lecture, it will usually seem boring. However, the opposite can also be true; something that is too easily understood, simple or transparent, can also be boring. Boredom is often inversely related to learning, and in school it may be a sign that a student is not challenged enough, or too challenged. An activity that is predictable to the students is likely to bore them.
A 1989 study indicated that an individual's impression of boredom may be influenced by the individual's degree of attention, as a higher acoustic level of distraction from the environment correlated with higher reportings of boredom. Boredom has been studied as being related to drug abuse among teens. Boredom has been proposed as a cause of pathological gambling behavior. A study found results consistent with the hypothesis that pathological gamblers seek stimulation to avoid states of boredom and depression. It has been suggested that boredom has an evolutionary basis that encourages humans to seek out new challenges. It may influence human learning and ingenuity.
Some recent studies have suggested that boredom may have some positive effects. A low-stimulus environment may lead to increased creativity and may set the stage for a "eureka moment".
In the workplace
Boreout is a management theory that posits that lack of work, boredom, and consequent lack of satisfaction are a common malaise affecting individuals working in modern organizations, especially in office-based white collar jobs. This theory was first expounded in 2007 in Diagnose Boreout, a book by Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin, two Swiss business consultants. They claim the absence of meaningful tasks, rather than the presence of stress, is many workers' chief problem.
A "banishment room" (also known as a "chasing-out-room" and a "boredom room") is a modern employee exit management strategy whereby employees are transferred to a department where they are assigned meaningless work until they become disheartened enough to quit. Since the resignation is voluntary, the employee would not be eligible for certain benefits. The legality and ethics of the practice is questionable and may be construed as constructive dismissal by the courts in some regions.
In popular culture
"Meh" is an interjection used as an expression of indifference or boredom. It may also mean "be it as it may". It is often regarded as a verbal shrug of the shoulders. The use of the term "meh" shows that the speaker is apathetic, uninterested, or indifferent to the question or subject at hand. It is occasionally used as an adjective, meaning something is mediocre or unremarkable.
Superfluous man
The superfluous man (, lishniy chelovek) is an 1840s and 1850s Russian literary concept derived from the Byronic hero. It refers to an individual, perhaps talented and capable, who does not fit into social norms. In most cases, this person is born into wealth and privilege. Typical characteristics are disregard for social values, cynicism, and existential boredom; typical behaviors are gambling, drinking, smoking, sexual intrigues, and duels. He is often unempathetic and carelessly distresses others with his actions.
Existentialist fiction
The bored antihero became prominent in early 20th century existentialist works such as Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis (1915), Jean-Paul Sartre's La Nausée (1938) (), and Albert Camus' L'Étranger (1942) (). The protagonist in these works is an indecisive central character who drifts through his life and is marked by ennui, angst, and alienation.
Grunge lit
Grunge lit is an Australian literary genre of fictional or semi-autobiographical writing in the early 1990s about young adults living in an "inner cit[y]" "...world of disintegrating futures where the only relief from...boredom was through a nihilistic pursuit of sex, violence, drugs and alcohol". Often the central characters are disfranchised, lacking drive and determination beyond the desire to satisfy their basic needs. It was typically written by "new, young authors" who examined "gritty, dirty, real existences" of everyday characters. It has been described as both a sub-set of dirty realism and an offshoot of Generation X literature. Stuart Glover states that the term "grunge lit" takes the term "grunge" from the "late 80s and early 90s—...Seattle [grunge] bands". Glover states that the term "grunge lit" was mainly a marketing term used by publishing companies; he states that most of the authors who have been categorized as "grunge lit" writers reject the label.
See also
Apathy
Cabin fever
Drab (color)
Dysthymia
Motivation
References
External links
Boredom: A History of Western Philosophical Perspectives, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Concepts in aesthetics
Emotions
Existentialist concepts | [
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235536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20%28weapon%29 | Bill (weapon) | A bill is a class of agricultural implement used for trimming tree limbs, which was often repurposed for use as an infantry polearm. In English, the term 'Italian Bill' is applied to the similarly functioning ronche/runka/roncone.
In contrast to the English bill, the Italian 'bill', (variously called the ronche, runka, or ronkone) tended toward long thrusting points.
The English distinguished between several varieties of bill, including the black, brown and forest bills, but the differences between them are currently not fully understood. Bills were adapted to military use through addition of various projecting blades. Other variants include bill hook and bill-guisarme.
Disambiguation
The bill is similar in size, function and appearance to the halberd, and might be said to represent convergent evolution to fill a common niche: a pole-arm with a point to thrust with, a hook to drag with, and a spike/axe to cut with. The bill should not be conflated with a war-scythe, another pole-arm adapted from an agricultural implement, the scythe.
George Silver, writing in 1599, stated that the black bill should be long, while the forest bill should be .
During the early 16th century when most European states were adopting the pike and arquebus, the English preferred to stick with the combination of bill and English longbow. Even in the Tudor period, bills were still common with levies sent to fight the Scots. The Battle of Flodden in 1513 was a classic match between continental-style pike formations (Scots) and billmen (English). When the English army fought in the Italian War of 1542–1546, the bill was still the main polearm of the English.
The English increasingly transitioned to pike and shot formations from the mid 16th century, but kept the billhook in use in the same capacity as other armies used greatswords and halberds. In 1588, the English Trained Bands consisted of 36% arquebusiers, 6% musketeers, 16% bowmen, 26% pikemen, and 16% billmen. Lansdowne MS 56, attributed to Lord Burghley, states that ideally infantry formations should consist of 50% shot, 30% pikes, and 20% bills.
Along with the pike, the bill is mentioned as being one of the main weapons of the Irish rebels in Ulster during the 1798 rebellion.
Although obsolete as a military weapon by the 17th century, bills were sent (along with other obsolete arms and armour) to the New World with English colonists to provide defence against Native Americans and Spanish military expeditions. Examples of bills have been excavated at the site of Jamestown, Virginia.
Variants
The shorthanded bills were used by the army of historic India as well, mainly by infantrymen of Bengal.
An agricultural version, commonly known as either a brush-axe, bush-axe, or brush-hook, is readily available in rural hardware and farm-supply stores in the United States today, and is available in the United Kingdom as a "long bill". It has a handle, and a head. It is useful for clearing undergrowth and unwanted hedgerows. Both the concave and convex edges may be sharpened edges, but spear-points and back-hooks are not available. Expertly used, the brush-axe can fell a tree with a single blow.
In Brazil the bill (foice) is a very common tool in rural areas as tool and sometimes as a self-defence weapon.
See also
Falx
Siege hook
Footnotes
References
Medieval pole weapons
Medieval blade weapons | [
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235537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Hendrik%20Breitner | George Hendrik Breitner | George Hendrik Breitner (12 September 1857 – 5 June 1923) was a Dutch painter and photographer. An important figure in Amsterdam Impressionism, he is noted especially for his paintings of street scenes and harbours in a realistic style. He painted en plein air, and became interested in photography as a means of documenting street life and atmospheric effects – rainy weather in particular – as reference materials for his paintings.
Biography
George Hendrik Breitner was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands.
From 1876 to 1880 he attended the Art Academy in The Hague where his extraordinary talent was rewarded on various occasions. From October 1878 till April 1879 he worked as an art teacher at the Leiden academy Ars Aemula Naturae. In 1880 he was expelled from the Art Academy of The Hague for misconduct, because he had destroyed the regulations-board. In the same year he lived at landscapist Willem Maris's place at Loosduinen and was accepted as a member of Pulchri Studio, an important artist's society in The Hague. Later, he distanced himself from the Hague School and today he is generally regarded as an Amsterdam Impressionist.
During 1880–1881 he worked at the famous Panorama Mesdag together with Hendrik Mesdag, S. Mesdag-van Houten, Theophile de Bock and Barend Blommers. In 1882 he met and worked together with Vincent van Gogh, with whom he often went sketching in the poorer areas of The Hague. Breitner preferred working-class models: labourers, servant girls and people from the lower class districts. Interest in the lot of the common people, which many artists felt in that period, was nurtured by the social conscience of French writers such as Émile Zola.
He was associated with the Dutch literary group known as the Tachtigers (English translation: "Eighty-ers"). This was a group that championed impressionism and naturalism against romanticism, influencing other painters such as Isaac Israëls, Willem Witsen, and poets like Willem Kloos.
In 1886, he entered the Rijksakademie of Amsterdam, but soon it became clear that Breitner was far beyond the level of education offered there.
Breitner saw himself as "le peintre du peuple", the people's painter. He was the painter of city views par excellence: wooden foundation piles by the harbour, demolition work and construction sites in the old centre, horse trams on the Dam, or canals in the rain. With his nervous brush strokes, he captured the dynamic street life. By 1890, cameras were affordable, and Breitner had a much better instrument to satisfy his ambitions. He became very interested in capturing movement and illumination in the city, and became a master in doing this. It is not impossible that Breitner's preference for cloudy weather conditions and a greyish and brownish palette resulted from certain limitations of the photographic material.
Breitner also painted female nudes, but just like Rembrandt he was criticized because his nudes were painted too realistically and did not resemble the common ideal of beauty. In his own time Breitner's paintings were admired by artists and art lovers, but often despised by the Dutch art critics for their raw and realistic nature.
By the turn of the century Breitner was a famous painter in the Netherlands, as demonstrated by a highly successful retrospective exhibition at Arti et Amicitiae in Amsterdam (1901). Breitner travelled frequently in the last decades of his life, visiting Paris, London, and Berlin, among other cities, and continued to take photographs. In 1909 he went to the United States as a member of the jury for the Carnegie International Exhibition in Pittsburgh.
Although Breitner exhibited abroad early on, his fame never crossed the borders of the Netherlands. At the time foreign interest was more for anecdotal and picturesque works; the typical "Dutchness" of the Hague School. As time went by critics lost interest in Breitner. The younger generation regarded impressionism as too superficial. They aspired to a more elevated and spiritual form of art, but Breitner did not allow himself to be influenced by these new artistic trends. Around 1905–1910 pointillism as practised by Jan Sluyters, Piet Mondrian and Leo Gestel was flourishing. Between 1911 and 1914 all the latest art movements arrived in the Netherlands one after another including cubism, futurism and expressionism. Breitner's role as contemporary historical painter was finished.
Breitner had only two pupils, Kees Maks (1876–1967) and Marie Henrie Mackenzie (1878–1961).
He died on 5 June 1923 in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Breitner and van Gogh
In the early months of 1882, Breitner came into contact with Vincent van Gogh. Van Gogh appears to have been introduced to him by his brother Theo, and the pair sketched together in the working-class districts of The Hague. Breitner was motivated to do so because he regarded himself as a painter of the common folk. Van Gogh, initially at any rate, was more intent on recruiting models. It is likely that Breitner introduced van Gogh to the novels of Émile Zola and the cause of social realism.
Breitner was hospitalised in April. Van Gogh visited him in hospital, but Breitner did not return the visits when van Gogh himself was hospitalised two months later, and they did not meet again until the following July when van Gogh was on the verge of leaving The Hague and Breitner spending more time in Rotterdam than the Hague. At that time van Gogh gave Theo a less than flattering account of Breitner's paintings as resembling mouldy wallpaper, although he did say he thought he would be all right in the end. For his part, there is no evidence that Breitner saw anything notable in van Gogh's work. He later reminisced that sketching with van Gogh was problematic because, whereas Breitner sketched discreetly in a notebook, van Gogh came laden with apparatus and attracted hostile attention.
Two years after van Gogh's death, Breitner wrote that he did not like van Gogh's paintings: "I can’t help it, but to me it seems like art for Eskimos, I cannot enjoy it. I honestly find it coarse and distasteful, without any distinction, and what’s more, he has stolen it all from Millet and others."
Legacy
Breitner introduced a social realism to the Netherlands that created shock waves similar to that of Courbet and Manet's in France. In his early years, the corn merchant A.P. van Stolk, who was interested in art, played an influential role. He financially supported the young painter from 1877 to 1883, but his conservative taste clashed with Breitner's particular style.
The discovery in 1996 of a large collection of photographic prints and negatives made clear that Breitner was also a talented photographer of street life in the city. Sometimes he made various pictures of the same subject, from different perspectives or in different weather conditions. Photos sometimes formed the immediate example for a particular painting, for instance the girls in kimono. On other occasions, Breitner used photography for general reference, to capture an atmosphere, a light effect or the weather in the city at a particular moment.
Breitner is remembered in a Dutch figure of speech: when the streets are grey and rainy, people of Amsterdam whisper grimly "Echt Breitnerweer" (Typical Breitnerweather).
Art market
Girl in a Red Kimono realized €582,450 at a Christie's Amsterdam sale in October 2003. The purchaser was Robert Noortman. The model for the painting was Geesje Kwak, the subject of a series of seven paintings and studies by Breitner of a girl dressed in a red or white kimono lying on a bed or standing before a mirror. The painting is considered a high point of Dutch Japonisme.
In April 2005, Rokin with the Nieuwezijdskapel, Amsterdam realized €415,200 at Christie's, Amsterdam.
Gezicht op Keizersgracht hoek Reguliersgrach (An Elegant Lady Strolling Along a Canal in Amsterdam) realized €760,250 at an October 2007 Christie's Amsterdam sale. The scene is a noted beauty spot in Amsterdam and the palette rather brighter than Breitner's norm, although still muted by comparison with his French counterparts.
Influences
Breitner Academie (2016–present). From 2016, the Amsterdam Academy of Fine Arts is housed at Overhoeksplein 1-2, next to the EYE Film Institute film museum and Tolhuistuin. The academy was renamed the Breitner Academie, named after the Amsterdam artist George Hendrik Breitner.
References
External links
Dossier George Hendrik Breitner (1857–1923) (in Dutch).
A snapshot of Breitner’s career
biographical notes of George Hendrik Breitner, in Dutch RKD-Archive, The Hague
many free pictures of Breitner's paintings: on the website of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
1857 births
1923 deaths
19th-century Dutch people
Painters from Amsterdam
Cityscape artists
Dutch Impressionist painters
Modern painters
Royal Academy of Art, The Hague alumni
Painters from Rotterdam
20th-century Dutch photographers
19th-century Dutch photographers | [
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235539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canopic%20jar | Canopic jar | Canopic jars were used by the ancient Egyptians during the mummification process to store and preserve the viscera of their owner for the afterlife. They were commonly either carved from limestone or were made of pottery. These jars were used by the ancient Egyptians from the time of the Old Kingdom until the time of the Late Period or the Ptolemaic Period, by which time the viscera were simply wrapped and placed with the body. The viscera were not kept in a single canopic jar: each jar was reserved for specific organs. The term canopic reflects the mistaken association by early Egyptologists with the Greek legend of Canopus – the boat captain of Menelaus on the voyage to Troy – "who was buried at Canopus in the Delta where he was worshipped in the form of a jar". In alternative versions, the name derives from the location Canopus (now Abukir) in the western Nile Delta near Alexandria, where human-headed jars were worshipped as personifications of the god Osiris.
Canopic jars of the Old Kingdom were rarely inscribed and had a plain lid. In the Middle Kingdom inscriptions became more usual, and the lids were often in the form of human heads. By the Nineteenth Dynasty each of the four lids depicted one of the four sons of Horus, as guardians of the organs.
Use and design
The canopic jars were four in number, each for the safekeeping of particular human organs: the stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver, all of which, it was believed, would be needed in the afterlife. There was no jar for the heart: the Egyptians believed it to be the seat of the soul, and so it was left inside the body.
These organs were removed from the body and carefully treated with natron (a natural preservative used by embalmers) and placed in the sacred Canopic Jars.
Many Old Kingdom canopic jars were found empty and damaged, even in undisturbed tombs. Therefore it seems that they were never used as containers. Instead, it seems that they were part of burial rituals and were placed after these rituals, empty.
The design of canopic jars changed over time. The oldest date from the Eleventh or the Twelfth Dynasty, and are made of stone or wood. The last jars date from the New Kingdom. In the Old Kingdom the jars had plain lids, though by the First Intermediate Period jars with human heads (assumed to represent the dead) began to appear. Sometimes the covers of the jars were modeled after (or painted to resemble) the head of Anubis, the god of death and embalming. By the late Eighteenth Dynasty canopic jars had come to feature the four sons of Horus. Many sets of jars survive from this period, in alabaster, aragonite, calcareous stone, and blue or green glazed porcelain. The sons of Horus were also the gods of the cardinal compass points. Each god was responsible for protecting a particular organ and was himself protected by a companion goddess. They were:
Hapi, the baboon-headed god representing the North, whose jar contained the lungs and was protected by the goddess Nephthys. Hapi is often used interchangeably with the Nile god Hapi, though they are actually different gods.
Duamutef, the jackal-headed god representing the East, whose jar contained the stomach and was protected by the goddess Neith
Imsety, the human-headed god representing the South, whose jar contained the liver and was protected by the goddess Isis
Qebehsenuef, the falcon-headed god representing the West, whose jar contained the intestines and was protected by the goddess Serqet.
Early canopic jars were placed inside a canopic chest and buried in tombs together with the sarcophagus of the dead. Later, they were sometimes arranged in rows beneath the bier, or at the four corners of the chamber. After the early periods there were usually inscriptions on the outsides of the jars, sometimes quite long and complex. The scholar Sir Ernest Budge quoted an inscription from the Saïte or Ptolemaic period that begins: "Thy bread is to thee. Thy beer is to thee. Thou livest upon that on which Ra lives." Other inscriptions tell of purification in the afterlife.
In the Third Intermediate Period and later, dummy canopic jars were introduced. Improved embalming techniques allowed the viscera to remain in the body; the traditional jars remained a feature of tombs, but were no longer hollowed out for storage of the organs.
Copious jars were produced, and surviving examples of them can be seen in museums around the world.
In 2020, excavations at Saqqara showed that a woman called Didibastet, whose 2,600-year-old undisturbed tomb was discovered behind a stone wall, was entombed with six canopic jars instead of the traditional four. A CT scan revealed that the jars contain human tissue, suggesting that Didibastet's mummification was possibly the result of a specific request.
See also
Jar burial
Art of ancient Egypt#Funerary art
Ushabti
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Ancient Egyptian funerary practices | [
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235540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breitner | Breitner | Breitner is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
George Hendrik Breitner (1857–1923), Dutch painter and photographer
Paul Breitner (born 1951), German footballer and commentator
See also
Breitner Da Silva (born 1989), Venezuelan footballer
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235541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sore | Sore | Sore may refer to:
Ulcer (dermatology), a sore on the skin or a mucous membrane
Sore, a mild pain or ache
Sore (album), by Buzzov*en
Sore (band), an Indonesian rock band
Sore, Landes, a village in the Landes département of France
Sore, a slang term for angry
See also
Cold sore
Sores, a surname | [
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235543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal%20to%20ridicule | Appeal to ridicule | Appeal to ridicule (also called appeal to mockery, ab absurdo, or the horse laugh) is an informal fallacy which presents an opponent's argument as absurd, ridiculous, or humorous, and therefore not worthy of serious consideration.
Appeal to ridicule is often found in the form of comparing a nuanced circumstance or argument to a laughably commonplace occurrence or to some other irrelevancy on the basis of comedic timing, wordplay, or making an opponent and their argument the object of a joke. This is a rhetorical tactic that mocks an opponent's argument or standpoint, attempting to inspire an emotional reaction (making it a type of appeal to emotion) in the audience and to highlight any counter-intuitive aspects of that argument, making it appear foolish and contrary to common sense. This is typically done by making a mockery of the argument's foundation that represents it in an uncharitable and oversimplified way. The person using the tactic often utilizes sarcasm in their argument.
An example of an appeal to ridicule:
See also
Reductio ad absurdum
Straw man (a similar fallacy)
References
Ridicule | [
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235544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberni%20Quartet | Alberni Quartet | The Alberni Quartet is a renowned British string quartet, whose members have included:
1st violin Dennis Simons, then Howard Davis, currently Karin Leishman
2nd violin Howard Davis, then John Knight, then Peter Pople, currently Victoria Sayles
Viola John White, then Berian Evans, then Roger Best, currently Matthew Souter
Cello Gregory Baron, then David Smith, currently Richard May
The quartet was founded in 1962 by four students of the Royal Academy of Music (Dennis Simons, Howard Davis, John White, and Gregory Baron). From 1968 Davis became the 1st violinist, with Peter Pople, Roger Best, and David Smith. They were based in Harlow, Essex where they became established in the 1960s as the town's "quartet in residence", and by the mid-1970s had become world-renowned. Their debut in the Carnegie Hall was well received in the New York Times, and they received positive reviews of their recordings of Schumann's piano quintet, Schubert's string quintet and Brahms' string sextets numbers one and two.
As well as performing a wide range of the classical string quartet repertoire from Haydn and Mozart to Bartók and Benjamin Britten, they performed new works written for them including Alan Rawsthorne's third string quartet written for the 1965 Harlow Music Festival, and Nicholas Maw's first string quartet.
Benjamin Britten coached them in his own first and second string quartets (they have recorded all three of his works in the genre), and entrusted the first British performances of Dmitri Shostakovich's ninth and tenth quartets (whose scores he had acquired from the composer) to them.
The Alberni were the first Western quartet to visit China (1987).
They were the resident quartet at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama from 1981 to 1988.
In 1993, at the Presteigne Festival, the quartet gave the first complete performance of Adrian Williams' Third String Quartet.
The Alberni Quartet are now based in South-West England, and have been Quartet-in-Residence at Cedars Hall, Wells, and Artists-in-Residence at the 2018 Two Moors Festival.
Notes
References
External links
Alberni String Quartet Residential Course for Chamber Ensembles 18-20 January 2013 - Gregynog Hall, University of Wales. www.jbryant.eu
The Ways of Going, cantata for baritone, oboe and string quartet (1989–90) by Adrian Williams. Text from the poetry of Alun Lewis. Premiere at the Sunday Times Hay-on-Wye Festival 1990 (who commissioned the 51 minute work) by John Shirley-Quirk, Sara Watkins and the Alberni Quartet.
English string quartets
Harlow
Musical groups established in the 1960s | [
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235545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegri%20Quartet | Allegri Quartet | The Allegri Quartet is a string quartet that was founded in 1953 by Eli Goren and William Pleeth.
It is Britain's longest-running chamber music ensemble, sustained over six decades by successive generations of performers.
A commitment to refreshing the repertoire had led the Allegri Quartet to give more than 60 world premières since 1964, including specially commissioned pieces by leading composers such as James MacMillan, Jonathan Harvey and Colin Matthews.
Personnel
The quartet's members have included:
1st Violin
Eli Goren (founder)
Hugh Maguire
Peter Carter
Daniel Rowland
Ofer Falk
Martyn Jackson
2nd Violin
James Barton
Peter Thomas
David Roth
Fiona McNaught
Rafael Todes
Viola
Patrick Ireland
Prunella Pacey
Keith Lovell
Roger Tapping
Jonathan Barritt
Dorothea Vogel
Cello
William Pleeth
Bruno Schrecker
Pal Banda
Katherine Jenkinson
Vanessa Lucas-Smith
The names of the current performers are shown in emboldened text. Like all the senior professional String Quartets, the members of the Allegri teach and give masterclasses as well as performing and recording.
The Quartet celebrated their 50th anniversary in 2004 and held a reunion at the Llanfyllin Festival at which many of the past members also performed.
Daniel Rowland joined the Quartet following Peter Carter's retirement at the beginning of 2005.
External links
Allegri Quartet - Official Website
'The Allegri at 50 – a Quartet in Five Movements' by Piers Burton-Page
Allegri Quartet on MySpace
Allegri Quartet on YouTube
Allegri Quartet Archive
Musical groups established in 1953
English string quartets | [
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235546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarab | Scarab | Scarab may refer to:
Beetles
Scarab (artifact), popular amulets and impression seals in Ancient Egypt
Scarabaeidae, the family of over 30,000 species of beetles, often called scarabs or scarab beetles
Scarabaeus sacer, common name Sacred scarab, sacred to ancient Egyptians
Arts, entertainment, and media
Scarab (comics), a number of different comic book characters
Scarab (video game), a 1997 first-person shooter
Scarab, a fictional dinghy in Arthur Ransome's children's novel The Picts and the Martyrs
The Scarab Murder Case, a 1929 book
"Scarab", a song by Northlane from Singularity, 2013
Businesses and organisations
Scarab (constructor), defunct all-American sports car and open-wheel race car constructor
Scarab (fraternity), an architectural fraternity at University of Illinois
Scarab, the former name of the video game company feelplus
Scarab Club, an artists' club, gallery, and studio in Detroit, Michigan, U.S.
Scarab Productions, a film, television and new media production company
Scarabbean Senior Society, an organization at the University of Tennessee whose members are called "scarabs"
Places
Scarab Bluff, Alexander Island, Antarctica
Scarab Peak, Victoria Land, Antarctica
Transportation
Aircraft
RAE Scarab, a 1932 British light aircraft
Teledyne Ryan Scarab, a jet-powered reconnaissance UAV developed in the United States in the 1980s for sale to Egypt
Warner Scarab, an American seven-cylinder radial aircraft engine
Land vehicles and watercraft
Scarab (boat), a brand of high performance power boats and fishing boats
Scarab (rover), a 2010 robotic lunar rover prototype
Scammell Scarab, a British 3-wheeled articulated lorry tractor unit produced 1948-1967
Fiberfab Scarab STM (Sport Transport Module), an American 3-wheeled car
Stout Scarab, a 1930–1940s American minivan
Scarab compact road sweeper vehicle
Other uses
Currency sign (typography) ¤ known as scarab
Scarab SS-21, NATO term for the Russian OTR-21 Tochka tactical ballistic missile
"Scarab", a disc golf putter by Infinite Discs
See also
Scarabaeus (video game)
WebScarab
Animal common name disambiguation pages | [
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235548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appetite | Appetite | Appetite is the desire to eat food, sometimes due to hunger. Appealing foods can stimulate appetite even when hunger is absent, although appetite can be greatly reduced by satiety. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Appetite has a relationship with every individual's behavior. Appetitive behaviour also known as approach behaviour, and consummatory behaviour, are the only processes that involve energy intake, whereas all other behaviours affect the release of energy. When stressed, appetite levels may increase and result in an increase of food intake. Decreased desire to eat is termed anorexia, while polyphagia (or "hyperphagia") is increased eating. Dysregulation of appetite contributes to anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, cachexia, overeating, and binge eating disorder.
Role in disease
A limited or excessive appetite is not necessarily pathological. Abnormal appetite could be defined as eating habits causing malnutrition and related conditions such as obesity and its related problems.
Both genetic and environmental factors may regulate appetite, and abnormalities in either may lead to abnormal appetite. Poor appetite (anorexia) can have numerous causes, but may be a result of physical (infectious, autoimmune or malignant disease) or psychological (stress, mental disorders) factors. Likewise, hyperphagia (excessive eating) may be a result of hormonal imbalances, mental disorders (e.g., depression) and others. Dyspepsia, also known as indigestion, can also affect appetite as one of its symptoms is feeling "overly full" soon after beginning a meal. Taste and smell ("dysgeusia", bad taste) or the lack thereof may also effect appetite.
Abnormal appetite may also be linked to genetics on a chromosomal scale, shown by the 1950s discovery of Prader–Willi syndrome, a type of obesity caused by chromosome alterations. Additionally, anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are more commonly found in females than males – thus hinting at a possibility of a linkage to the X-chromosome.
Eating disorders
Dysregulation of appetite lies at the root of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa is a mental disorder characterized as severe dietary restriction and intense fear of weight gain. Furthermore, persons with anorexia nervosa may exercise ritualistically. Individuals who have anorexia have high levels of ghrelin, a hormone that stimulates appetite, so the body is trying to cause hunger, but the urge to eat is being suppressed by the person. Binge eating disorder (commonly referred to as BED) is described as eating excessively (or uncontrollably) between periodic time intervals. The risk for BED can be present in children and most commonly manifests during adulthood. Studies suggest that the heritability of BED in adults is approximately 50%. Similarly to bulimia, some people may be involved in purging and binging. They might vomit after food intake or take purgatives. Body dysmorphic disorder may involve food restriction in an attempt to deal with a perceived fault, and may be associated with depression and social isolation.
Obesity
Various hereditary forms of obesity have been traced to defects in hypothalamic signaling (such as the leptin receptor and the MC-4 receptor) or are still awaiting characterization – Prader-Willi syndrome – in addition, decreased response to satiety may promote development of obesity. It has been found that ghrelin-reactive IgG immunoglobulins affect ghrelin's orexigenic response.
Other than genetically-stimulated appetite abnormalities, there are physiological ones that do not require genes for activation. For example, ghrelin and leptin are released from the stomach and adipose cells, respectively, into the blood stream. Ghrelin stimulates feelings of hunger, whereas leptin stimulates feelings of satisfaction from food. Any changes in normal production levels of these two hormones can lead to obesity. Looking at leptin, the more cells present in a body, the more adipose tissues there are, and thus, the more leptin would be produced. This overproduction of leptin will cause the hypothalamus to become resistant to leptin and so, although the adipose cells are producing leptin, the body will not understand that it should stop eating. This will produce a perpetual cycle for those that are obese.
Pediatric eating problems
Eating issues such as "picky eating" affects about 25% of children, but among children with development disorders this number may be significantly higher, which in some cases may be related to the sounds, smells, and tastes (sensory processing disorder).
Pharmacology and treatment
The glycemic index has been thought to effect satiety; however, a study investigating the effect of satiety found that a high-glycemic food, potatoes, reduced appetite more than a low glycemic index food.
Suppression
Mechanisms controlling appetite are a potential target for weight loss drugs. Appetite control mechanisms seem to strongly counteract undereating, whereas they appear weak to control overeating. Early anorectics (appetite suppressants) were fenfluramine and phentermine. A more recent addition is sibutramine which increases serotonin and noradrenaline levels in the central nervous system, but had to be withdrawn from the market when it was shown to have an adverse cardiovascular risk profile. Similarly, the appetite suppressant rimonabant (a cannabinoid receptor antagonist) had to be withdrawn when it was linked with worsening depression and increased risk of suicide. Recent reports on recombinant PYY 3-36 suggest that this agent may contribute to weight loss by suppressing appetite.
Given the epidemic proportions of obesity in the Western world and the fact that it is increasing rapidly in some poorer countries, observers expect developments in this area to snowball in the near future.
Stimulation
Weight loss or loss of appetite ("cachexia") is an effect of some diseases, and a side effect of some prescription drugs. Stimulants such as methylphenidate commonly reduce appetite in patients, and have been prescribed off-label for weight loss. Three agents are approved for appetite stimulation in the United States: megestrol acetate - a progesterone available as an oral tablet, oxandrolone - an oral anabolic steroid, and dronabinol - a cannabinoid available in an oral capsule.
Ghrelin, a gut hormone recognized as affecting appetite, is under investigation. Ghrelin itself must be delivered parenterally and research has therefore focused on substances that can be taken orally. Rikkunshito, a traditional Japanese Kampo medicine, is under preliminary research for its potential to stimulate ghrelin and appetite.
See also
Specific appetite
Orexigenic
Adipsia
References
Endocrinology
Eating behaviors | [
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235550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence%20analysis | Sequence analysis | In bioinformatics, sequence analysis is the process of subjecting a DNA, RNA or peptide sequence to any of a wide range of analytical methods to understand its features, function, structure, or evolution. Methodologies used include sequence alignment, searches against biological databases, and others.
Since the development of methods of high-throughput production of gene and protein sequences, the rate of addition of new sequences to the databases increased very rapidly. Such a collection of sequences does not, by itself, increase the scientist's understanding of the biology of organisms. However, comparing these new sequences to those with known functions is a key way of understanding the biology of an organism from which the new sequence comes. Thus, sequence analysis can be used to assign function to genes and proteins by the study of the similarities between the compared sequences. Nowadays, there are many tools and techniques that provide the sequence comparisons (sequence alignment) and analyze the alignment product to understand its biology.
Sequence analysis in molecular biology includes a very wide range of relevant topics:
The comparison of sequences in order to find similarity, often to infer if they are related (homologous)
Identification of intrinsic features of the sequence such as active sites, post translational modification sites, gene-structures, reading frames, distributions of introns and exons and regulatory elements
Identification of sequence differences and variations such as point mutations and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in order to get the genetic marker.
Revealing the evolution and genetic diversity of sequences and organisms
Identification of molecular structure from sequence alone
In chemistry, sequence analysis comprises techniques used to determine the sequence of a polymer formed of several monomers (see Sequence analysis of synthetic polymers).
In molecular biology and genetics, the same process is called simply "sequencing".
In marketing, sequence analysis is often used in analytical customer relationship management applications, such as NPTB models (Next Product to Buy).
In social sciences and in sociology in particular, sequence methods are increasingly used to study life-course and career trajectories, time use, patterns of organizational and national development, conversation and interaction structure, and the problem of work/family synchrony. This body of research is described under sequence analysis in social sciences.
History
Since the very first sequences of the insulin protein were characterized by Fred Sanger in 1951, biologists have been trying to use this knowledge to understand the function of molecules. He and his colleagues' discoveries contributed to the successful sequencing of the first DNA-based genome. The method used in this study, which is called the “Sanger method” or Sanger sequencing, was a milestone in sequencing long strand molecules such as DNA. This method was eventually used in the human genome project. According to Michael Levitt, sequence analysis was born in the period from 1969–1977. In 1969 the analysis of sequences of transfer RNAs was used to infer residue interactions from correlated changes in the nucleotide sequences, giving rise to a model of the tRNA secondary structure. In 1970, Saul B. Needleman and Christian D. Wunsch published the first computer algorithm for aligning two sequences. Over this time, developments in obtaining nucleotide sequence improved greatly, leading to the publication of the first complete genome of a bacteriophage in 1977. Robert Holley and his team in Cornell University were believed to be the first to sequence an RNA molecule.
Sequence alignment
There are millions of protein and nucleotide sequences known. These sequences fall into many groups of related sequences known as protein families or gene families. Relationships between these sequences are usually discovered by aligning them together and assigning this alignment a score. There are two main types of sequence alignment. Pair-wise sequence alignment only compares two sequences at a time and multiple sequence alignment compares many sequences. Two important algorithms for aligning pairs of sequences are the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm and the Smith-Waterman algorithm. Popular tools for sequence alignment include:
Pair-wise alignment - BLAST, Dot plots
Multiple alignment - ClustalW, PROBCONS, MUSCLE, MAFFT, and T-Coffee.
A common use for pairwise sequence alignment is to take a sequence of interest and compare it to all known sequences in a database to identify homologous sequences. In general, the matches in the database are ordered to show the most closely related sequences first, followed by sequences with diminishing similarity. These matches are usually reported with a measure of statistical significance such as an Expectation value.
Profile comparison
In 1987, Michael Gribskov, Andrew McLachlan, and David Eisenberg introduced the method of profile comparison for identifying distant similarities between proteins. Rather than using a single sequence, profile methods use a multiple sequence alignment to encode a profile which contains information about the conservation level of each residue. These profiles can then be used to search collections of sequences to find sequences that are related. Profiles are also known as Position Specific Scoring Matrices (PSSMs). In 1993, a probabilistic interpretation of profiles was introduced by Anders Krogh and colleagues using hidden Markov models. These models have become known as profile-HMMs.
In recent years, methods have been developed that allow the comparison of profiles directly to each other. These are known as profile-profile comparison methods.
Sequence assembly
Sequence assembly refers to the reconstruction of a DNA sequence by aligning and merging small DNA fragments. It is an integral part of modern DNA sequencing. Since presently-available DNA sequencing technologies are ill-suited for reading long sequences, large pieces of DNA (such as genomes) are often sequenced by (1) cutting the DNA into small pieces, (2) reading the small fragments, and (3) reconstituting the original DNA by merging the information on various fragments.
Recently, sequencing multiple species at one time is one of the top research objectives. Metagenomics is the study of microbial communities directly obtained from the environment. Different from cultured microorganisms from the lab, the wild sample usually contains dozens, sometimes even thousands of types of microorganisms from their original habitats. Recovering the original genomes can prove to be very challenging.
Gene prediction
Gene prediction or gene finding refers to the process of identifying the regions of genomic DNA that encode genes. This includes protein-coding genes as well as RNA genes, but may also include the prediction of other functional elements such as regulatory regions. Geri is one of the first and most important steps in understanding the genome of a species once it has been sequenced. In general, the prediction of bacterial genes is significantly simpler and more accurate than the prediction of genes in eukaryotic species that usually have complex intron/exon patterns. Identifying genes in long sequences remains a problem, especially when the number of genes is unknown. Hidden markov models can be part of the solution. Machine learning has played a significant role in predicting the sequence of transcription factors. Traditional sequencing analysis focused on the statistical parameters of the nucleotide sequence itself (The most common programs used are listed in Table 4.1). Another method is to identify homologous sequences based on other known gene sequences (Tools see Table 4.3). The two methods described here are focused on the sequence. However, the shape feature of these molecules such as DNA and protein have also been studied and proposed to have an equivalent, if not higher, influence on the behaviors of these molecules.
Protein structure prediction
The 3D structures of molecules are of major importance to their functions in nature. Since structural prediction of large molecules at an atomic level is a largely intractable problem, some biologists introduced ways to predict 3D structure at a primary sequence level. This includes the biochemical or statistical analysis of amino acid residues in local regions and structural the inference from homologs (or other potentially related proteins) with known 3D structures.
There have been a large number of diverse approaches to solve the structure prediction problem. In order to determine which methods were most effective, a structure prediction competition was founded called CASP (Critical Assessment of Structure Prediction).
Methodology
The tasks that lie in the space of sequence analysis are often non-trivial to resolve and require the use of relatively complex approaches. Of the many types of methods used in practice, the most popular include:
DNA patterns
Dynamic programming
Artificial Neural Network
Hidden Markov Model
Support Vector Machine
Clustering
Bayesian Network
Regression Analysis
Sequence mining
Alignment-free sequence analysis
See also
Fourier transform
Least-squares spectral analysis
List of sequence alignment software
List of alignment visualization software
List of phylogenetics software
List of phylogenetic tree visualization software
List of protein structure prediction software
List of RNA structure prediction software
Sequence analysis in social sciences
References
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] |
235551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Clancy%27s%20Net%20Force | Tom Clancy's Net Force | Tom Clancy's Net Force is a novel series, created by Tom Clancy and Steve Pieczenik and originally written by Steve Perry. The original series ceased publication in 2006. There was also a spin-off of young adult books called Net Force Explorers. The series was rebooted in 2019 with the Dark Web novel by Jerome Preisler.
General
Tom Clancy's Net Force is aimed at an adult audience, while the related series Net Force Explorers (which follows the adventures of a teen auxiliary of the Net Force in 2025) is aimed at the older teen market.
The initial Net Force concept was alluded to in the third Op-Center novel, Games of State; given that Net Force was created by the same two men who created the Op-Center series, it can be assumed that they occur in the same universe. However, no direct connection has yet been drawn between the two.
Main characters
These characters are in most or all books:
Original series
The books in the Tom Clancy's Net Force series so far are:
Relaunch series
The books in the Tom Clancy's Net Force Relaunch series so far are:
In other media
The first book of the series, Net Force, was adapted and altered into a made-for-TV film in 1999, starring Scott Bakula as Alex Michaels and Joanna Going as Toni Fiorella.
References
Book series introduced in 1998
Novel series
Techno-thriller novels | [
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235554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko-ry%C5%AB | Ko-ryū | is a Japanese term for any kind of Japanese school of traditional arts. The term literally translates as "old school" (ko—old, ryū—school) or "traditional school". It is sometimes also translated as "old style".
It is often used as a synonymous shorthand for , ancient Japanese martial arts that predate the Meiji Restoration of 1868. In English, the International Hoplology Society makes a distinction for martial arts between Koryū and Kobudō concerned the origin and the difference between the ranking of priorities concerning combat, morals, discipline and/or aesthetic form.
Ko-ryū is one of the oldest and most traditional schools of Ikebana. From it, various other schools have formed that carry its name, such as the Nihon Ko-ryū, Katsura Ko-ryū, Miyako Ko-ryū, Ko-ryū Shōshōkai, and .
Sources
Draeger, Donn F. Classical Bujitsu (Martial Arts and Ways of Japan). Weatherhill, 1973, 2007.
Hall, David A. Encyclopedia of Japanese Martial Arts. Kodansha USA, 2012.
Skoss, Diane, Editor. Koryu Bujutsu: Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan. Koryubooks, 1997.
Skoss, Diane, Editor. Sword and Spirit: Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan, Volume 2. Koryubooks, 1999.
Skoss, Diane, Editor. Keiko Shokon: Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan, Volume 3. Koryubooks, 2002.
References
Japanese martial arts
Japanese martial arts terminology
Kadō schools | [
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235558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denying%20the%20correlative | Denying the correlative | The informal fallacy of denying the correlative is an attempt made at introducing alternatives where there are none. It is the opposite of the false dilemma, which is denying other alternatives. Its logical form is
Either X or not X,
therefore Y.
For example:
Judge: So did you kill your landlord or not?
Kirk: I fought with him.
In the context of a multiple choice question, the best answer must be chosen from the available alternatives. However, in determining whether this fallacy is committed, a close look at the context is required. The essence of denying the correlative is introducing an alternative into a context that logically admits none, but this itself could be taken as an indication that the context is irrational. Even if there are no implicit alternatives, (such as the right to remain silent), assumptions may need to be questioned and clarified or implications may require a disclaimer.
See also
Correlative based fallacies
Existential import
Law of non-contradiction
References
Further reading
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235559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crying%20%28disambiguation%29 | Crying (disambiguation) | Crying is the human production of tears in response to an emotional state.
Crying may also refer to:
Music
Crying (band), an American rock band from Purchase, New York
Crying (album), a 1962 album by Roy Orbison
Songs
"Cryin'", a 1993 song by Aerosmith
"Cryin'" (Joe Satriani song), 1992
"Crying" (Roy Orbison song), 1961
"Cryin'" (Vixen song), 1988
"Crying", by Björk from Debut
"Crying", by Bobby Vinton from Roses Are Red
"Cryin'", by Chris Isaak from Chris Isaak
"Cryin'", by Doro from Angels Never Die
"Cryin'", by Eric Clapton from Crossroads 2: Live in the Seventies
"Crying", by George Harrison from Wonderwall Music
"Crying", by King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard from Oddments
"Crying", by J. J. Cale from Okie
"Cryin'", by Ringo Starr from Ringo's Rotogravure
"Crying", by Sistar from Give It To Me
"Crying", by TV on the Radio from Dear Science
"Crying", by Yngwie Malmsteen from Trilogy
Other uses
"Crying" (Beavis and Butt-Head), an episode of Beavis and Butt-Head
See also
Cry (disambiguation)
Animal communication
Town crier | [
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235562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue | Fatigue | Fatigue describes a state of tiredness that does not resolve with rest or sleep. In general usage, fatigue is synonymous with extreme tiredness or exhaustion that normally follows prolonged physical or mental activity. When it does not resolve after rest or sleep, or occurs independently of physical or mental exertion, it may be a symptom of a medical condition that may become severe or progressive.
Fatigue can be a feature of a mental disorder such as depression; may be associated with conditions of chronic pain such as fibromyalgia; it may also feature in conditions of chronic low-level inflammation, and be a disease-related symptom in many other conditions. Fatigue often has no known cause, and is recognised as being very complex in nature. Fatigability describes a susceptibility to fatigue.
Physical fatigue results from muscle fatigue brought about by intense physical activity. Mental fatigue results from prolonged periods of cognitive activity which impairs cognitive ability. Mental fatigue can manifest as sleepiness, lethargy, or directed attention fatigue. Mental fatigue can also impair physical performance.
Classification
Physical
Physical fatigue, or muscle fatigue, is the temporary physical inability of muscles to perform optimally. The onset of muscle fatigue during physical activity is gradual, and depends upon an individual's level of physical fitness – other factors include sleep deprivation and overall health. Physical fatigue can be caused by a lack of energy in the muscle, by a decrease of the efficiency of the neuromuscular junction or by a reduction of the drive originating from the central nervous system, and can be reversed by rest. The central component of fatigue is triggered by an increase of the level of serotonin in the central nervous system. During motor activity, serotonin released in synapses that contact motor neurons promotes muscle contraction. During high level of motor activity, the amount of serotonin released increases and a spillover occurs. Serotonin binds to extrasynaptic receptors located on the axonal initial segment of motor neurons with the result that nerve impulse initiation and thereby muscle contraction are inhibited.
Muscle strength testing can be used to determine the presence of a neuromuscular disease, but cannot determine its cause. Additional testing, such as electromyography, can provide diagnostic information, but information gained from muscle strength testing alone is not enough to diagnose most neuromuscular disorders.
People with multiple sclerosis experience a form of overwhelming lassitude or tiredness that can occur at any time of the day, for any duration, and that does not necessarily recur in a recognizable pattern for any given patient, referred to as "neurological fatigue", and often as "multiple sclerosis fatigue".
Mental
Mental fatigue is a temporary inability to maintain optimal cognitive performance. The onset of mental fatigue during any cognitive activity is gradual, and depends upon an individual's cognitive ability, and also upon other factors, such as sleep deprivation and overall health. Mental fatigue has also been shown to decrease physical performance. It can manifest as somnolence, lethargy, directed attention fatigue, or disengagement. Research also suggests that mental fatigue is closely linked to the concept of ego depletion. For example, one pre-registered study of 686 participants found that after exerting mental effort, people are likely to disengage and become less interested in exerting further effort. Decreased attention can also be described as a more or less decreased level of consciousness. In any case, this can be dangerous when performing tasks that require constant concentration, such as operating large vehicles. For instance, a person who is sufficiently somnolent may experience microsleep. However, objective cognitive testing can be used to differentiate the neurocognitive deficits of brain disease from those attributable to tiredness.
The perception of mental fatigue is believed to be modulated by the brain's reticular activating system (RAS).
Fatigue impacts a driver's reaction time, awareness of hazards around them and their attention. Drowsy drivers are three times more likely to be involved in a car crash and if they are awake over 20 hours, is the equivalent of driving with a blood-alcohol concentration level of 0.08%.
Primary vs secondary
In some areas it has been proposed that fatigue be separated into primary fatigue, caused directly by a disease process, and secondary fatigue, caused by more general impacts on the person of having the disease.
Causes
Fatigue is a normal result of work, mental stress, anxiety, overstimulation and understimulation, jet lag, active recreation, boredom, lack of sleep or disease.
Acute
Causes of acute fatigue include depression; chemical causes, such as dehydration, poisoning, low blood sugar, or mineral or vitamin deficiencies. Fatigue is different from drowsiness, where a patient feels that sleep is required.
Temporary fatigue is likely to be a minor illness like the common cold as one part of the sickness behavior response that happens when the immune system fights an infection.
Prolonged
Prolonged fatigue is a self-reported, persistent (constant) fatigue lasting at least one month.
Chronic
Chronic fatigue is a self-reported fatigue lasting at least six consecutive months. Chronic fatigue may be either persistent or relapsing. Chronic fatigue is a symptom of many diseases and conditions. Some major categories of conditions that feature fatigue include:
Autoimmune diseases, such as celiac disease, lupus, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, Sjögren's syndrome, and spondyloarthropathy
Anxiety disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder
Blood disorders such as anemia and hemochromatosis
Cancer, in which case it is called cancer fatigue
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)
Substance use disorders including alcohol use disorder
Depression and other mental disorders that feature depressed mood
Developmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder
Eating disorders, which can produce fatigue due to inadequate nutrition
Endocrine diseases or metabolic disorders: diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and Addison’s disease
Fibromyalgia
Gulf War syndrome
Heart failure
HIV
Idiopathic chronic fatigue (ICF), which is chronic fatigue with no known cause that does not meet chronic fatigue syndrome criteria
Inborn errors of metabolism such as fructose malabsorption.
Infectious diseases such as infectious mononucleosis or tuberculosis
Irritable bowel syndrome
Kidney diseases e.g. acute renal failure, chronic renal failure
Leukemia or lymphoma
Liver failure or liver diseases e.g. Hepatitis
Lyme disease
Neurological disorders such as narcolepsy, Parkinson's disease, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome and post-concussion syndrome
Physical trauma and other pain-causing conditions, such as arthritis
Sleep deprivation or sleep disorders, e.g. sleep apnea
Stroke
Thyroid disease such as hypothyroidism
Fatigue may also be a side effect of certain medications (e.g., lithium salts, ciprofloxacin); beta blockers, which can induce exercise intolerance; and many cancer treatments, particularly chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
Inflammation
Inflammation has been linked to many types of fatigue. Findings implicate neuroinflammation in the etiology of fatigue in autoimmune and related disorders.
Diagnosis
One study concluded about 50% of people who have fatigue receive a diagnosis that could explain the fatigue after a year with the condition. In those people who have a possible diagnosis, musculoskeletal (19.4%) and psychological problems (16.5%) are the most common. Definitive physical conditions were only found in 8.2% of cases.
If a person with fatigue decides to seek medical advice, the overall goal is to identify and rule out any treatable conditions. This is done by considering the person's medical history, any other symptoms that are present, and evaluating of the qualities of the fatigue itself. The affected person may be able to identify patterns to the fatigue, such as being more tired at certain times of day, whether fatigue increases throughout the day, and whether fatigue is reduced after taking a nap.
Because disrupted sleep is a significant contributor to fatigue, a diagnostic evaluation considers the quality of sleep, the emotional state of the person, sleep pattern, and stress level. The amount of sleep, the hours that are set aside for sleep, and the number of times that a person awakens during the night are important. A sleep study may be ordered to rule out a sleep disorder.
Depression and other psychological conditions can produce fatigue, so people who report fatigue are routinely screened for these conditions, along with substance use disorders, poor diet, and lack of physical exercise, which paradoxically increases fatigue.
Basic medical tests may be performed to rule out common causes of fatigue. These include blood tests to check for infection or anemia, a urinalysis to look for signs of liver disease or diabetes mellitus, and other tests to check for kidney and liver function, such as a comprehensive metabolic panel. Other tests may be chosen depending on the patient's social history, such as an HIV test or pregnancy test.
Comparison with sleepiness
Fatigue is generally considered a more long-term condition than sleepiness (somnolence). Although sleepiness can be a symptom of a medical condition, it usually results from lack of restful sleep, or a lack of stimulation. Chronic fatigue, on the other hand, is a symptom of a greater medical problem in most cases. It manifests in mental or physical weariness and inability to complete tasks at normal performance. Both are often used interchangeably and even categorized under the description of 'being tired.' Fatigue is often described as an uncomfortable tiredness, whereas sleepiness is comfortable and inviting.
Measurement
Fatigue can be quantitatively measured. Devices to measure medical fatigue have been developed by Japanese companies, among them Nintendo (cancelled). Nevertheless, such devices are not in common use outside Japan.
Management
Medications are reviewed as some have side effects that may contribute to fatigue and the interactions of medications are complex.
See also
Cancer-related fatigue
Combat stress reaction
Directed attention fatigue
Effects of fatigue on safety
Gaucher's disease
Heat illness
Malaise
Microsleep
Museum fatigue
Presenteeism
Sleep-deprived driving
Pacing (activity management)
Zoom fatigue
References
Further reading
Byung-Chul Han: Müdigkeitsgesellschaft. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2010, . (Philosophical essay about fatigue as a sociological problem and symptom).
Danish edition: Træthedssamfundet. Møller, 2012, .
Dutch edition: De vermoeide samenleving. van gennep, 2012, .
Italian editions : La società della stanchezza. nottetempo, 2012, .
Korean edition: 한병철 지음 | 김태환 옮김. Moonji, 2011, .
Spanish edition: La sociedad del cansancio. Herder Editorial, 2012, .
External links
Fatigue — Information for Patients, U.S. National Cancer Institute
Exercise physiology
Symptoms
Subjective experience | [
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235563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tired | Tired | Tired may refer to:
Emotional or physical state
Fatigue, a feeling of exhaustion
Sleepy, having the need for sleep
Geography
Tired Mountain, a mountain in Alaska
Music
EPs
Tired (EP), a 2002 EP by Monkey Majik
Songs
"Tired" (Alan Walker song), from 2017
"Tired" (Stone Sour song), a song by Stone Sour from House of Gold & Bones - Part 1
"Tired", a song by Adele on 19 from 2007
"Tired", a song by LCD Soundsystem on LCD Soundsystem from 2005
"Tired", a song by Rollins Band on Weight from 1994
"Tired", a song originally performed by Tabitha's Secret, covered by Matchbox Twenty
"Tired", a song by Vaughan Williams from Four Last Songs (Vaughan Williams)
"Tired", a song by Willa Ford on Willa Was Here from 2001
”Tired” a song by Kelly Price From 2011
See also
Tire (disambiguation) | [
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] |
235571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algor%20mortis | Algor mortis | Algor mortis (Latin: algor—coldness; mortis—of death), the second stage of death, is the change in body temperature post mortem, until the ambient temperature is matched. This is generally a steady decline, although if the ambient temperature is above the body temperature (such as in a hot desert), the change in temperature will be positive, as the (relatively) cooler body acclimates to the warmer environment. External factors can have a significant influence.
The term was first used by Bennet Dowler in 1849. The first published measurements of the intervals of temperature after death were done by John Davy in 1839.
Applicability
A measured rectal temperature can give some indication of the time of death. Although the heat conduction which leads to body cooling follows an exponential decay curve, it can be approximated as a linear process: 2 °C during the first hour and 1 °C per hour until the body nears ambient temperature.
The Glaister equation estimates the hours elapsed since death as a linear function of the rectal temperature:
or
As decomposition occurs the internal body temperature tends to rise again.
Variability
Generally, temperature change is considered an inaccurate means of determining time of death, as the rate of change is affected by several key factors, including:
Stability or fluctuation of the ambient temperature.
The thickness (i.e. thermal insulation value) and body coverage of clothing or similar materials.
The thermal conductivity of the surface on which a body lies.
Diseases or drugs which increase body temperature and thereby raise the starting temperature of the corpse at the time of death
The existence of a "temperature plateau", a highly variable length of time in which the body does not cool.
References
Further reading
Karen T. Taylor, "Forensic art and illustration", CRC Press, 2000, , p. 308
Robert G. Mayer, "Embalming: history, theory, and practice", McGraw-Hill Professional, 2005, , p. 106
Calixto Machado, "Brain death: a reappraisal", Springer, 2007, , pp. 73–74
External links
Standards Employed to Determine Time of Death
Estimation of the time since death (by rectal temperature, C. Henssge, 2004).
Signs of death
Latin medical words and phrases
Forensic pathology | [
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] |
235576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suction | Suction | Suction is the colloquial term to describe the air pressure differential between areas.
Removing air from a space results in a pressure differential. Suction pressure is therefore limited by external air pressure. Even a perfect vacuum cannot suck with more pressure than is available in the surrounding environment. Suctions can form on the sea, for example, when a ship founders.
When the pressure in one g part of a system is reduced relative to another, the fluid in the higher pressure region will exert a force relative to the region of lowered pressure. Pressure reduction may be static, as in a piston and cylinder arrangement, or dynamic, as in the case of a vacuum cleaner when air flow results in a reduced pressure region.
When animals breathe, the diaphragm and muscles around the rib cage cause a change of volume in the lungs. The increased volume of the chest cavity decreases the pressure inside, creating an imbalance with the ambient air pressure, resulting in suction.
See also
Pump
Vacuum pump
Suction devices used in medicine
Implosion
Suction cup
Suction cupping
References
Physical quantities
Units of pressure
Vacuum | [
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235579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendezvous%20problem | Rendezvous problem | The rendezvous dilemma is a logical dilemma, typically formulated in this way:
Two people have a date in a park they have never been to before. Arriving separately in the park, they are both surprised to discover that it is a huge area and consequently they cannot find one another. In this situation each person has to choose between waiting in a fixed place in the hope that the other will find them, or else starting to look for the other in the hope that they have chosen to wait somewhere.
If they both choose to wait, they will never meet. If they both choose to walk there are chances that they meet and chances that they do not. If one chooses to wait and the other chooses to walk, then there is a theoretical certainty that they will meet eventually; in practice, though, it may take too long for it to be guaranteed. The question posed, then, is: what strategies should they choose to maximize their probability of meeting?
Examples of this class of problems are known as rendezvous problems. These problems were first introduced informally by Steve Alpern in 1976, and he formalised the continuous version of the problem in 1995. This has led to much recent research in rendezvous search. Even the symmetric rendezvous problem played in n discrete locations (sometimes called the Mozart Cafe Rendezvous Problem) has turned out to be very difficult to solve, and in 1990 Richard Weber and Eddie Anderson conjectured the optimal strategy. Only recently has the conjecture been proved for n = 3 by Richard Weber. This was the first non-trivial symmetric rendezvous search problem to be fully solved. Note that the corresponding asymmetric rendezvous problem has a simple optimal solution: one player stays put and the other player visits a random permutation of the locations.
As well as being problems of theoretical interest, rendezvous problems include real-world problems with applications in the fields of synchronization, operating system design, operations research, and even search and rescue operations planning.
Deterministic rendezvous problem
The deterministic rendezvous problem is a variant of the rendezvous problem where the players, or robots, must find each other by following a deterministic sequence of instructions. Although each robot follows the same instruction sequence, a unique label assigned to each robot is used for symmetry breaking.
See also
Coordination game
Dining philosophers problem
Probabilistic algorithm
Search games
Sleeping barber problem
Superrationality
Symmetry breaking
References
Cooperative games | [
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235582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suck | Suck | Suck may refer to:
Suction, the force exerted by a partial vacuum
Arts and entertainment
Music
Suck (band), a South African hard rock group
Suck, drummer for the 1990s Japanese punk band Teengenerate
Suck, a 2003 album by The Revs
"Suck", a song by Pigface from Gub
"Suck", a song by Priests from Nothing Feels Natural
"Suck", a song by Shriekback from Jam Science
"Sucks" (song), a song by KMFDM
Other media
Suck (film), a 2009 vampire musical-comedy
Suck (publication), a European underground pornographic magazine, 1969–1974
Suck.com, a satire and editorial web site
Places
River Suck, a river in Ireland
Suck Run, a stream in Ohio
See also
Suck Creek (disambiguation)
Sucker (disambiguation)
Suk (disambiguation)
Sux (disambiguation) | [
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235583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing%20%28disambiguation%29 | Sing (disambiguation) | Sing may refer to:
Singing, the act of producing musical sounds with a voice
Music
Super Impassioned Net Generation (S.I.N.G), Chinese girl group
Songs
"Sing" (Annie Lennox song), 2008
"Sing" (The Dresden Dolls song), 2006
"Sing" (Ed Sheeran song), 2014
"Sing" (Gary Barlow song), 2012
"Sing" (Sesame Street song), 1973, covered by The Carpenters
"Sing" (Maria Doyle song), 2012, featuring Damien Rice
"Sing" (My Chemical Romance song), 2010
"Sing" (Theo Tams song), 2008
"Sing" (Travis song), 2001
"Sing" (Wynonna Judd song), 2009, written by Rodney Crowell
"Sing!" (song), 1975, from the musical A Chorus Line
"Sing", by Blur from the album Leisure
"Sing", by Dope from the album Group Therapy
"Sing", by Hollywood Undead
"Sing", by Nakatomi
"Sing", by Pentatonix from the album Pentatonix
"Sing", by Unwritten Law from the album Swan
"Sing", by Zooey Deschanel from She & Him's album Volume Two
"Sing", by Jars of Clay from the album Who We Are Instead
Albums
Sing (Abundant Life Church album), 2004
Sing (Gary Barlow album), 2012
Sing (Jim Bianco album), 2008
Sing (Neil Zaza album), 1996
Sings (Conway Twitty album), 1958
Sings (Emi Tawata album), 2009
Sjung, a 2012 album by Laleh which in English translates as Sing
Sing, a 2012 album by Maria Doyle Kennedy
Sing, a 2017 album by Super Impassioned Net Generation
Films
Sing (1989 film), a 1989 musical film following a fictional SING! production in New York City
Sing!, a 2001 documentary short film about the Los Angeles Children's Chorus
Sing (2016 American film), an American animated film and the seventh animated feature film produced by Illumination Entertainment
Sing 2, an American animated film produced by Illumination Entertainment
Sing (2016 Hungarian film), a 2016 Hungarian short film and 2017 Oscars winner
People
Matt Sing (born 1975), Australian rugby player
Sing Chew, Chinese singer
Other uses
SING!, an annual student performance in New York City high schools
Sing#, programming language
Sistema Interconectado del Norte Grande, a power grid in the Norte Grande zone of Chile
Sing (video game), a video game for the Wii U
"Sing-song", a lilting intonation which is a feature of Southern Irish and Welsh English
Spitzer Infrared Nearby Galaxies Survey (SINGS), a survey of 75 galaxies using the Spitzer Space Telescope
See also
Singh, surname
List of people with surname Singh
Synge (surname)
Sing Sing (disambiguation)
Sing Sing Sing (disambiguation) | [
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235585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber-hose%20cryptanalysis | Rubber-hose cryptanalysis | In cryptography, rubber-hose cryptanalysis is a euphemism for the extraction of cryptographic secrets (e.g. the password to an encrypted file) from a person by coercion or torture—such as beating that person with a rubber hose, hence the name—in contrast to a mathematical or technical cryptanalytic attack.
Details
According to Amnesty International and the UN, many countries in the world routinely torture people. It is therefore logical to assume that at least some of those countries use (or would be willing to use) some form of rubber-hose cryptanalysis. In practice, psychological coercion can prove as effective as physical torture. Not physically violent but highly intimidating methods include such tactics as the threat of harsh legal penalties. The incentive to cooperate may be some form of plea bargain, such as an offer to drop or reduce criminal charges against a suspect in return for full co-operation with investigators. Alternatively, in some countries threats may be made to prosecute as co-conspirators (or inflict violence upon) close relatives (e.g. spouse, children, or parents) of the person being questioned unless they co-operate.
In some contexts, rubber-hose cryptanalysis may not be a viable attack because of a need to decrypt data covertly; information such as a password may lose its value if it is known to have been compromised. It has been argued that one of the purposes of strong cryptography is to force adversaries to resort to less covert attacks.
The earliest known use of the term was on the sci.crypt newsgroup, in a message posted 16 October 1990 by Marcus J. Ranum, alluding to corporal punishment:
Although the term is used tongue-in-cheek, its implications are serious: in modern cryptosystems, the weakest link is often the human user. A direct attack on a cipher algorithm, or the cryptographic protocols used, is likely to be much more expensive and difficult than targeting the people who use or manage the system. Thus, many cryptosystems and security systems are designed with special emphasis on keeping human vulnerability to a minimum. For example, in public-key cryptography, the defender may hold the key to encrypt the message, but not the decryption key needed to decipher it. The problem here is that the defender may be unable to convince the attacker to stop coercion. In plausibly deniable encryption, a second key is created which unlocks a second convincing but relatively harmless message (for example, apparently personal writings expressing "deviant" thoughts or desires of some type that are lawful but taboo), so the defender can prove to have handed over the keys whilst the attacker remains unaware of the primary hidden message. In this case, the designer's expectation is that the attacker will not realize this, and forego threats or actual torture. The risk, however, is that the attacker may be aware of deniable encryption and will assume the defender knows more than one key, meaning the attacker may refuse to stop coercing the defender even if one or more keys are revealed: on the assumption the defender is still withholding additional keys which hold additional information.
In law
In some jurisdictions, statutes assume the opposite—that human operators know (or have access to) such things as session keys, an assumption which parallels that made by rubber-hose practitioners. An example is the United Kingdom's Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act, which makes it a crime not to surrender encryption keys on demand from a government official authorized by the act.
According to the Home Office, the burden of proof that an accused person is in possession of a key rests on the prosecution; moreover, the act contains a defense for operators who have lost or forgotten a key, and they are not liable if they are judged to have done what they can to recover a key.
Possible case
In the lead-up to the 2017 Kenyan general election, the head of information, communication, and technology at the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission, Christopher Msando, was murdered. He had played a major role in developing the new voting system for the election. His body showed apparent marks of torture, and there were concerns that the murderers had tried to get password information out of him.
In popular culture
In xkcd comic #538 (Security), in the first panel a crypto nerd imagines that due to his advanced encryption, the crackers will be ultimately defeated. In the second panel the author suggests that in the real world, people with the desire to access this information would simply use torture to coerce the nerd to give them the password. xkcd 538: Security Explain xkcd 538: Security
See also
(encrypted filesystem)
References
Cryptographic attacks
Espionage techniques
Torture
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235588 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionable%20cause | Questionable cause | The questionable cause—also known as causal fallacy, false cause, or non causa pro causa ("non-cause for cause" in Latin)—is a category of informal fallacies in which a cause is incorrectly identified.
For example: "Every time I go to sleep, the sun goes down. Therefore, my going to sleep causes the sun to set." The two events may coincide, but have no causal connection.
Fallacies of questionable cause include:
Circular cause and consequence
Correlation implies causation (cum hoc, ergo propter hoc)
Third-cause fallacy
Wrong direction
Fallacy of the single cause
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
Regression fallacy
Texas sharpshooter fallacy
Jumping to conclusions
Association fallacy
Reductio ad hitlerum
Magical thinking
References
External links
Non causa pro causa in the Fallacy Files by Gary N. Curtis
Informal fallacies | [
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235589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axolotl | Axolotl | The axolotl (; from ), Ambystoma mexicanum, is a paedomorphic salamander related to the tiger salamander. The species was originally found in several lakes, such as Lake Xochimilco underlying Mexico City. Axolotls are unusual among amphibians in that they reach adulthood without undergoing metamorphosis. Instead of taking to the land, adults remain aquatic and gilled.
Axolotls should not be confused with the larval stage of closely related tiger salamander species (A. tigrinum), which are widespread in much of North America and occasionally become paedomorphic. Neither should they be confused with mudpuppies (Necturus spp.), fully aquatic salamanders from a different family that are not closely related to the axolotl but bear a superficial resemblance.
, wild axolotls were near extinction due to urbanization in Mexico City and consequent water pollution, as well as the introduction of invasive species such as tilapia and perch. They are listed as critically endangered in the wild, with a decreasing population of around 50 to 1000 adult individuals, by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and are listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Axolotls are used extensively in scientific research due to their ability to regenerate limbs, gills and parts of their eyes and brains. Axolotls were also sold as food in Mexican markets and were a staple in the Aztec diet.
Description
A sexually mature adult axolotl, at age 18–27 months, ranges in length from , although a size close to is most common and greater than is rare. Axolotls possess features typical of salamander larvae, including external gills and a caudal fin extending from behind the head to the vent. External gills are usually lost when salamander species mature into adulthood, although the axolotl maintains this feature. This is due to their neoteny evolution, where axolotls are much more aquatic than other salamander species.
Their heads are wide, and their eyes are lidless. Their limbs are underdeveloped and possess long, thin digits. Males are identified by their swollen cloacae lined with papillae, while females are noticeable for their wider bodies full of eggs. Three pairs of external gill stalks (rami) originate behind their heads and are used to move oxygenated water. The external gill rami are lined with filaments (fimbriae) to increase surface area for gas exchange. Four-gill slits lined with gill rakers are hidden underneath the external gills, which prevent food from entering and allow particles to filter through.
Axolotls have barely visible vestigial teeth, which develop during metamorphosis. The primary method of feeding is by suction, during which their rakers interlock to close the gill slits. External gills are used for respiration, although buccal pumping (gulping air from the surface) may also be used to provide oxygen to their lungs. Buccal pumping can occur in a two-stroke manner that pumps air from the mouth to the lungs, and with four-stroke that reverses this pathway with compression forces.
Axolotls have four pigmentation genes; when mutated they create different color variants. The normal wild-type animal is brown/tan with gold speckles and an olive undertone. The five more common mutant colors are leucistic (pale pink with black eyes), golden albino (golden with gold eyes), xanthic (grey with black eyes), albino (pale pink/white with red eyes) in which is more common in axolotls than some other creatures and melanoid (all black/dark blue with no gold speckling or olive tone). In addition, there is wide individual variability in the size, frequency, and intensity of the gold speckling and at least one variant that develops a black and white piebald appearance on reaching maturity. Because pet breeders frequently cross the variant colors, double homozygous mutants are common in the pet trade, especially white/pink animals with pink eyes that are double homozygous mutants for both the albino and leucistic trait. Axolotls also have some limited ability to alter their color to provide better camouflage by changing the relative size and thickness of their melanophores.
Habitat & ecology
The axolotl is only native to the freshwater of Lake Xochimilco and Lake Chalco in the Valley of Mexico. Lake Chalco no longer exists, having been drained as a flood control measure, and Lake Xochimilco remains a remnant of its former self, existing mainly as canals. The water temperature in Xochimilco rarely rises above , although it may fall to in the winter, and perhaps lower.
Surveys in 1998, 2003, and 2008 found 6,000, 1,000, and 100 axolotls per square kilometer in its Lake Xochimilco habitat, respectively. A four-month-long search in 2013, however, turned up no surviving individuals in the wild. Just a month later, two wild ones were spotted in a network of canals leading from Xochimilco.
The wild population has been put under heavy pressure by the growth of Mexico City. The axolotl is currently on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's annual Red List of threatened species. Non-native fish, such as African tilapia and Asian carp, have also recently been introduced to the waters. These new fish have been eating the axolotls' young, as well as their primary source of food.
Axolotls are members of the tiger salamander, or Ambystoma tigrinum, species complex, along with all other Mexican species of Ambystoma. Their habitat is like that of most neotenic species—a high-altitude body of water surrounded by a risky terrestrial environment. These conditions are thought to favor neoteny. However, a terrestrial population of Mexican tiger salamanders occupies and breeds in the axolotl's habitat.
The axolotl is carnivorous, consuming small prey such as molluscs, worms, insects, other arthropods, and small fish in the wild. Axolotls locate food by smell, and will "snap" at any potential meal, sucking the food into their stomachs with vacuum force.
Use as a model organism
Today, the axolotl is still used in research as a model organism, and large numbers are bred in captivity. They are especially easy to breed compared to other salamanders in their family, which are rarely captive-bred due to the demands of terrestrial life. One attractive feature for research is the large and easily manipulated embryo, which allows viewing of the full development of a vertebrate. Axolotls are used in heart defect studies due to the presence of a mutant gene that causes heart failure in embryos. Since the embryos survive almost to hatching with no heart function, the defect is very observable. The axolotl is also considered an ideal animal model for the study of neural tube closure due to the similarities between human and axolotl neural plate and tube formation; the axolotl's neural tube, unlike the frog's, is not hidden under a layer of superficial epithelium. There are also mutations affecting other organ systems some of which are not well characterized and others that are. The genetics of the color variants of the axolotl have also been widely studied.
Regeneration
The feature of the axolotl that attracts most attention is its healing ability: the axolotl does not heal by scarring and is capable of the regeneration of entire lost appendages in a period of months, and, in certain cases, more vital structures, such as tail, limb, central nervous system, and tissues of the eye and heart. They can even restore less vital parts of their brains. They can also readily accept transplants from other individuals, including eyes and parts of the brain—restoring these alien organs to full functionality. In some cases, axolotls have been known to repair a damaged limb, as well as regenerating an additional one, ending up with an extra appendage that makes them attractive to pet owners as a novelty. In metamorphosed individuals, however, the ability to regenerate is greatly diminished. The axolotl is therefore used as a model for the development of limbs in vertebrates. There are three basic requirements for regeneration of the limb. The wound epithelium, nerve signaling, and the presence of cells from the different limb axes. A wound epidermis is quickly formed by the cells to cover up the site of the wound. In the following days, the cells of the wound epidermis divide and grow quickly forming a blastema, which means the wound is ready to heal and undergo patterning to form the new limb.
It is believed that during limb generation, axolotls have a different system to regulate their internal macrophage level and suppress inflammation, as scarring prevents proper healing and regeneration. However, this belief has been questioned by other studies.
Genome
The 32 billion base pair long sequence of the axolotl's genome was published in 2018 and was the largest animal genome completed at the time. It revealed species-specific genetic pathways that may be responsible for limb regeneration. Although the axolotl genome is about 10 times as large as the human genome, it encodes a similar number of proteins, namely 23,251 (the human genome encodes about 20,000 proteins). The size difference is mostly explained by a large fraction of repetitive sequences, but such repeated elements also contribute to increased median intron sizes (22,759 bp) which are 13, 16 and 25 times that observed in human (1,750 bp), mouse (1,469 bp) and Tibetan frog (906 bp), respectively.
Neoteny
When most amphibians are young, they live in water, and they use gills that can breathe in the water. When they become adults, they go through a process called metamorphosis, in which they lose their gills and start living on land. However, the axolotl is unusual in that it has a lack of thyroid stimulating hormone, which is needed for the thyroid to produce thyroxine in order for the axolotl to go through metamorphosis; therefore, it keeps its gills and lives in water all its life, even after it becomes an adult and is able to reproduce. Its body has the capacity to go through metamorphosis if given the necessary hormone, but axolotls do not produce it, and must be exposed to it from an external source, after which an axolotl undergoes an artificially-induced metamorphosis and begins living on land. One method of artificial metamorphosis induction is through an injection of iodine, which is used in the production of thyroid hormones.
An axolotl undergoing metamorphosis experiences a number of physiological changes that help them adapt to life on land. These include increased muscle tone in limbs, the absorption of gills and fins into the body, the development of eyelids, and a reduction in the skin's permeability to water, allowing the axolotl to stay more easily hydrated when on land. The lungs of an axolotl, though present alongside gills after reaching non-metamorphosed adulthood, develop further during metamorphosis.
An axolotl that has gone through metamorphosis resembles an adult plateau tiger salamander, though the axolotl differs in its longer toes. The process of artificially inducing metamorphosis can often result in death during or even following a successful attempt, and so casual hobbyists are generally discouraged from attempting to induce metamorphosis in pet axolotls.
Neoteny is the term for reaching sexual maturity without undergoing metamorphosis. Many other species within the axolotl's genus are also either entirely neotenic or have neotenic populations. Sirens and Necturus are other neotenic salamanders, although unlike axolotls, they cannot be induced to metamorphose by an injection of iodine or thyroxine hormone.
The genes responsible for neoteny in laboratory animals may have been identified; however, they are not linked in wild populations, suggesting artificial selection is the cause of complete neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls.
Six adult axolotls (including a leucistic specimen) were shipped from Mexico City to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1863. Unaware of their neoteny, Auguste Duméril was surprised when, instead of the axolotl, he found in the vivarium a new species, similar to the salamander. This discovery was the starting point of research about neoteny. It is not certain that Ambystoma velasci specimens were not included in the original shipment. Vilem Laufberger in Prague used thyroid hormone injections to induce an axolotl to grow into a terrestrial adult salamander. The experiment was repeated by Englishman Julian Huxley, who was unaware the experiment had already been done, using ground thyroids. Since then, experiments have been done often with injections of iodine or various thyroid hormones used to induce metamorphosis.
Neoteny has been observed in all salamander families in which it seems to be a survival mechanism, in aquatic environments only of mountain and hill, with little food and, in particular, with little iodine. In this way, salamanders can reproduce and survive in the form of a smaller larval stage, which is aquatic and requires a lower quality and quantity of food compared to the big adult, which is terrestrial. If the salamander larvae ingest a sufficient amount of iodine, directly or indirectly through cannibalism, they quickly begin metamorphosis and transform into bigger terrestrial adults, with higher dietary requirements. In fact, in some high mountain lakes there live dwarf forms of salmonids that are caused by deficiencies in food and, in particular, iodine, which causes cretinism and dwarfism due to hypothyroidism, as it does in humans.
Captive care
The axolotl is a popular exotic pet like its relative, the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum). As for all poikilothermic organisms, lower temperatures result in slower metabolism and a very unhealthily reduced appetite. Temperatures at approximately to are suggested for captive axolotls to ensure sufficient food intake; stress resulting from more than a day's exposure to lower temperatures may quickly lead to disease and death, and temperatures higher than may lead to metabolic rate increase, also causing stress and eventually death. Chlorine, commonly added to tapwater, is harmful to axolotls. A single axolotl typically requires a tank. Axolotls spend the majority of the time at the bottom of the tank.
Salts, such as Holtfreter's solution, are often added to the water to prevent infection.
In captivity, axolotls eat a variety of readily available foods, including trout and salmon pellets, frozen or live bloodworms, earthworms, and waxworms. Axolotls can also eat feeder fish, but care should be taken as fish may contain parasites.
Substrates are another important consideration for captive axolotls, as axolotls (like other amphibians and reptiles) tend to ingest bedding material together with food and are commonly prone to gastrointestinal obstruction and foreign body ingestion. Some common substrates used for animal enclosures can be harmful for amphibians and reptiles. Gravel (common in aquarium use) should not be used, and is recommended that any sand consists of smooth particles with a grain size of under 1mm. One guide to axolotl care for laboratories notes that bowel obstructions are a common cause of death, and recommends that no items with a diameter below 3 cm (or approximately the size of the animal's head) should be available to the animal.
There is some evidence that axolotls might seek out appropriately-sized gravel for use as gastroliths based on experiments conducted at the University of Manitoba axolotl colony, but these studies are outdated and not conclusive. As there is no conclusive evidence pointing to gastrolith use, gravel should be avoided due to the high risk of impaction.
In popular culture
Axolotl is one of several words, mostly of foreign origin, adopted by Mad Magazine as nonsense words for use as running gags; potrzebie and veeblefetzer are two others.
In Frank Herbert's fictional Dune universe, the Tleilaxu use a technology called "axlotl tanks" to regrow limbs.
Argentine writer Julio Cortázar included a short story entitled "Axolotl" in his 1956 collection Final del juego. The story concerns a man who becomes obsessed with the salamanders after viewing them in an aquarium in Paris.
In the Netflix series BoJack Horseman, there is an anthropomorphic axolotl character named Yolanda Buenaventura voiced by Natalie Morales.
In 2020, it was announced that the axolotl will be featured on the new design for Mexico's 50-peso banknote, along with images of maize and chinampas.
Mojang Studios added axolotls to the sandbox game Minecraft in the 1.17 update to increase awareness of their endangerment.
See also
Amphibious fish
Barred tiger salamander
Handfish
Lake Patzcuaro salamander
Olm
Regenerative biomedicine
Tiger salamander
References
External links
Follow the Eggs, Hatchlings and Juveniles
Mating Dance and Laying Eggs
Follow the Eggs and Hatchlings (2nd Batch)
Indiana U Axolotl Colony
University of KY Axolotl Colony
Mystical amphibian venerated by Aztecs nears extinction
The animal that’s everywhere and nowhere
"The Tao of Axolotl" – thetolteciching.com; on folklore
Amphibians described in the 18th century
Amphibians of Mexico
Animal models
Animal testing on amphibians
Animals bred for albinism on a large scale
Critically endangered biota of Mexico
Critically endangered fauna of North America
Endemic fauna of Mexico
Mole salamanders
Population genetics
Regenerative biomedicine
Taxa named by Frederick Polydore Nodder
Taxa named by George Shaw
Valley of Mexico | [
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235592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acton%20Town%20tube%20station | Acton Town tube station | Acton Town is a London Underground station in the south-west corner of Acton, West London, in the London Borough of Ealing, close to the border with the London Borough of Hounslow. The station is served by the District and Piccadilly lines and is in Travelcard Zone 3. On the District line, it is between Chiswick Park and Ealing Common stations, and on the Piccadilly line it is between Hammersmith (Turnham Green in the early mornings and late evenings) and Ealing Common on the Uxbridge branch & South Ealing on the Heathrow branch.
This was one of the oldest-running train stations in the world.
Acton Town station was opened as Mill Hill Park on 1 July 1879 by the District Railway (DR, now the District line). It remained as a terminus until on 1 May 1883 and 23 June 1903 the DR opened two branches from Acton Town to Hounslow Town and Park Royal & Twyford Abbey respectively. On 4 July 1932 the Piccadilly line was extended to Acton Town. District line services to both the Hounslow and Uxbridge branches were withdrawn completely on 9 and 10 October 1964 after which operations were provided by the Piccadilly line alone.
The original brick-built station was built in 1879 and in February 1910 the station building was reconstructed. On 1 March 1910 the station was given its present name. In 1931 and 1932 the station was rebuilt again in preparation for transferring the Uxbridge branch service from the District line to the Piccadilly line. The new station was designed by Charles Holden in a modern European geometric style using brick, reinforced concrete and glass.
Location
The station is at the junction of Gunnersbury Lane (A4000) and Bollo Lane. To the south-west of the station is the former Acton Works, central overhaul and engineering works for the London Underground. It is now home to the London Transport Museum's reserve collection of rail and road vehicles (as known as London Transport Museum Depot or Museum Depot). The museum depot is opened to the public on a number of weekends throughout the year. To the north of the station is the District line's Ealing Common Depot.
Frank Pick House is near the station, on Gunnersbury Lane. It is named after Frank Pick, the London Passenger Transport Board's chief executive. It is home to one of the engineering departments of the London Underground.
History
District line
Hounslow and Uxbridge branches
Acton Town station was opened as Mill Hill Park on 1 July 1879 by the District Railway (DR, now the District line) on its extension from Turnham Green to Ealing Broadway. On 1 May 1883 the DR opened a branch from Acton Town to the now defunct Hounslow Town station, which developed into the Heathrow branch. On 23 June 1903 the DR tracks extended north of Acton Town to a new station at Park Royal & Twyford Abbey which became the first of the Underground's surface lines to use electric traction instead of steam with the Acton Town – Ealing Common section also electrified. The existing deep tube lines, (City and South London Railway, Waterloo & City Railway (now Waterloo & City line) and Central London Railway) had always been electrically powered. Services on the Hounslow branch (now the Heathrow branch) and to Central London were electrified on 13 June 1905 and 1 July 1905 respectively.
South Acton branch
On 13 June 1905, a passenger service began on the short branch to South Acton. A short fifth platform for the single car train of the South Acton branch was provided to the north of the eastbound island platform. At first the service ran to Hounslow West and to Uxbridge but it was later reduced to a shuttle between Acton Town and South Acton on 15 February 1932. The South Acton branch was closed on 28 February 1959 due to low usage; its platform at Acton Town has not been removed and is still visible. The platform is hidden behind advertising hoardings and not obvious to the casual observer. Much of the branch remains including a bridge support on the south side of Bollo Lane. In the picture, the area behind the hoarding in the background is the location of the former branch platform (Platform 5) which was only ever very short, two carriages at most. Part of a dismantled bridge where the shuttle crossed Bollo Lane remains near the entrance to Acton Works
South Acton branch: present day
The Platform 5 building and some adjacent buildings now host a car repair/maintenance garage which also offers MOT. It is called 'Autocar Centre'. On Tuesday, February 1 2022, there was a fire (See 'Incidents' section below for more information)
Piccadilly line
On 4 July 1932, the Piccadilly line was extended west from its original terminus at Hammersmith and shared the route with the District line to Ealing Common. From Ealing Common to South Harrow, the District line was replaced by the Piccadilly line, and from that date, District line trains from Acton Town ran only either to Hounslow West or to Ealing Broadway. On 9 January 1933 Piccadilly line trains, sharing with the District line, began serving Northfields on the Hounslow branch, and their service was extended to Hounslow West on 13 March 1933 but Piccadilly line trains did not call at South Ealing until 1935. District line services on the Hounslow branch were withdrawn on 9 and 10 October 1964 after which operations were provided by the Piccadilly line alone.
Station building
The original brick-built station was built in 1879. In February 1910 the station building was reconstructed and on 1 March 1910 the station was given its present name. In 1931 and 1932 the station was rebuilt again in preparation for transferring the Uxbridge branch service from the District line to the Piccadilly line. The new station was designed by Charles Holden in a modern European geometric style using brick, reinforced concrete and glass.
As other stations Holden designed, Acton Town station features a tall block-like ticket hall rising above a low horizontal structure housing the station offices and shops. The ticket hall has a projecting London Underground roundel sign over a canopy, the brick walls of the ticket hall are punctuated with panels of clerestory windows and the structure is capped with a flat concrete slab roof. From the ticket hall enclosed stairs descend to the platforms under integral concrete canopies on paired piers in alternating broad and narrow bay formation. A part of the narrow bays is infilled by kiosks, integral poster boards, roundel signs and fixed seating. The platforms are linked by a secondary bridge at the southern end. Reinforced concrete platform canopies replaced the original timber canopies. Since 17 May 1994, the station has been a Grade II Listed building.
The stated reason for why it should be listed was:
"Reinforced concrete post and lintel construction with red brick infill, some load-bearing. Symmetrical almost square and double-height ticket hall flanked by kiosks on bridge, from which parade of shops descends to Bollo Lane with secondary entrance under stepped boxed lighting to the rear. Ticket hall gives on to complex access area with open frame construction, whence enclosed stairs descend to platforms under integral concrete. canopies - incorporating clerestory - on paired piers in alternating broad and narrow bay formation. The narrow bays part infilled by kiosks, integral poster boards, roundel signs and fixed seating. The platforms are linked by a secondary bridge at the southern end. All the frontage shops have their original bronzed glazing, particularly elaborate in the taller frontages to Bollo Lane and in the side passage. All shopdoors original save that to single shop east of station. The station windows metal with strong horizontal emphasis in their glazing bars. Ticket hall has projecting roundel sign over canopy, and three double-height paired windows to street frontage with similar windows at upper level to rear. Exposed concrete frame to ceiling, rendered upper walls with brown tiling below. Original tiled floors. Included as an important example of Holden's mature work for an interchange station."
Services and connections
Services
Between Acton Town and Hammersmith, District line trains serve all stations, but Piccadilly line trains run non-stop to Hammersmith except for calling at Turnham Green at the start and end of the day. The run between Acton Town and Hammersmith spans nearly three miles – the longest distance between stops on the Piccadilly line. West of Acton Town, District line trains go via Ealing Common to Ealing Broadway and Piccadilly line trains run either via South Ealing to Heathrow, or via Ealing Common to Uxbridge.
District line
The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:
6tph eastbound to Upminster (Barking on Sundays)
6tph westbound to Ealing Broadway
There is also a morning service every day from Acton Town (Ealing Broadway on Saturdays) to Edgware Road and a late evening service from Edgware Road to Ealing Broadway on Sundays only.
Piccadilly line
Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 2–5 minutes eastbound, Off-Peak = 3 tph to Uxbridge and 3 tph to Rayners Lane, Peak = 6 tph to Uxbridge and 6 tph to Rayners Lane, and every 2–7 minutes westbound to Heathrow Terminal 2 & 3 and Terminal 5 or via the Heathrow Terminal 4 loop. Since 16 December 2016, Acton Town is also served by Night Tube trains between Cockfosters and Heathrow Terminal 5.
During occasional closures on the District line, the Piccadilly line provides additional services to serve destinations on the District line such as Ealing Broadway. This is done either by diverting some trains bound for Rayners Lane and Uxbridge, or as a shuttle from Acton Town. Also, Piccadilly line trains may also run on the District line tracks between Hammersmith and Acton Town to serve the District line stations with no platforms on the Piccadilly line, namely Ravenscourt Park, Stamford Brook, Turnham Green and Chiswick Park.
Connections
London Buses routes 70, E3 and night route N11 serve the station.
Incidents
On Tuesday, February 1 2022, there was a large fire at the Autocar Centre, a garage where the now-abandoned Platform 5 (See History, 'South Acton branch' above for more information) is, which subsequently caused the evacuation of the station and "severe delays" to the District Line and Piccadilly Line. 10 fire engines and 70 firefighters were sent to the scene after being called at 5:10 PM and stayed there until late at night, bringing the fire under control. The cause of the fire is not yet known, but will be investigated by the LFB. Since the fire, witnesses in the area have described the roof as burned and partially caved in, though the damage to the abandoned Platform 5 itself is unknown.
Gallery
Notes and references
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
District line stations
Piccadilly line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Ealing
Former Metropolitan District Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1879
Charles Holden railway stations
Art Deco architecture in London
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Ealing
Grade II listed railway stations
Acton, London | [
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235593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker%20Street%20tube%20station | Baker Street tube station | Baker Street is a London Underground station at the junction of Baker Street and the Marylebone Road in the City of Westminster. It is one of the original stations of the Metropolitan Railway (MR), the world's first underground railway, opened on 10 January 1863.
The station is in Travelcard Zone 1 and is served by five lines. On the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines it is between Great Portland Street and Edgware Road. On the Metropolitan line it is between Great Portland Street and Finchley Road. On the Bakerloo line it is between Regent's Park and Marylebone, and on the Jubilee line it is between Bond Street and St John's Wood.
Location
The station has entrances on Baker Street, Chiltern Street (ticket holders only) and Marylebone Road. Nearby attractions include Regent's Park, Lord's Cricket Ground, the Sherlock Holmes Museum and Madame Tussauds.
History
Metropolitan Railway – the first underground railway
In the first half of the 19th century, the population and physical extent of London grew greatly. The congested streets and the distance to the city from the stations to the north and west prompted many attempts to get parliamentary approval to build new railway lines into the city. In 1852, Charles Pearson planned a railway from Farringdon to King's Cross. Although the plan was supported by the city, the railway companies were not interested and the company struggled to proceed. The Bayswater, Paddington, and Holborn Bridge Railway Company was established to connect the Great Western Railway's (GWR) Paddington station to Pearson's route at King's Cross. A bill was published in November 1852 and in January 1853 the directors held their first meeting and appointed John Fowler as its engineer. Several bills were submitted for a route between Paddington and Farringdon. The company's name was also to be changed again, to Metropolitan Railway and the route was approved on 7 August 1854.
Construction began in March 1860; using the "cut-and-cover" method to dig the tunnel. Despite having several accidents during construction, work was complete by the end of 1862 at a cost of £1.3 million. Rail services through the station opened to the public on Saturday, 10 January 1863.
In the next few years, extensions of the line were made at both ends with connections from Paddington to the GWR's Hammersmith and City Railway (H&CR) and at Gloucester Road to the District Railway (DR). From 1871, the MR and the DR operated a joint Inner Circle service between Mansion House and Moorgate Street.
North-western "branch"
In April 1868, the Metropolitan & St John's Wood Railway (M&SJWR) opened a single-track railway in tunnel to Swiss Cottage from new platforms at Baker Street East (which eventually become the present Metropolitan line platforms). The line was worked by the MR with a train every 20 minutes. A junction was built with the original route at Baker Street, but there were no through trains after 1869.
The M&SJWR branch was extended in 1879 to Willesden Green and, in 1880, to Neasden and Harrow-on-the-Hill. Two years later, the single-track tunnel between Baker Street and Swiss Cottage was duplicated and the M&SJWR was absorbed by the MR.
Bakerloo and Jubilee lines
In November 1891, a private bill was presented to Parliament for the construction of the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (BS&WR). The railway was planned to run entirely underground from Marylebone to Elephant & Castle via Baker Street and Waterloo and was approved in 1900. Construction commenced in August 1898 under the direction of Sir Benjamin Baker, W.R. Galbraith and R.F. Church with building work by Perry & Company of Tredegar Works, Bow. Test trains began running in 1905. The official opening of the BS&WR by Sir Edwin Cornwall took place on 10 March 1906. The first section of the BS&WR was between Baker Street and Lambeth North. Baker Street was the temporary northern terminus of the line until it was extended to Marylebone on 27 March 1907, a year after the rest of the line. The B&SWR's station building designed by Leslie Green stood on Baker Street and served the tube platforms with lifts, but these were supplemented with escalators in 1914, linking the Metropolitan line and the Bakerloo line platforms by a new concourse excavated under the Metropolitan line. An elaborately decorated restaurant and tea-room was added above Green's terminal building, the Chiltern Court Restaurant, which was opened in 1913.
On 1 July 1933, the MR and BS&WR amalgamated with other Underground railways, tramway companies and bus operators to form the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB), and the MR became the Metropolitan line, while the BS&WR became the Bakerloo line of London Transport. However, there was a bottleneck on the Metropolitan line at Finchley Road where four tracks merge into two to Baker Street. LPTB decided to extend the Bakerloo line from Baker Street as a branch line, taking over the existing section between Finchley Road and Stanmore. Construction began in April 1936. On 20 November 1939, following the construction of an additional southbound platform and connecting tube tunnels between Baker Street and Finchley Road stations, the Bakerloo line took over the Metropolitan line's stopping services between Finchley Road and Wembley Park and its Stanmore branch.
The current Bakerloo ticket hall and escalators to the lower concourse were provided in conjunction with the new service.
After the Victoria line had been completed in the 1960s, the new Jubilee line was proposed which would take a route via Baker Street, Bond Street, Trafalgar Square, Strand, Fleet Street, Ludgate Circus and Cannon Street, then proceeding into southeast London. This new line was to have been called the Fleet line. The Jubilee line added an extra northbound platform and replaced the Bakerloo line service to Stanmore from the station, opening on 1 May 1979.
Circle and Hammersmith & City lines
The initial route on the Hammersmith & City line was formed by the H&CR, running between Hammersmith and Moorgate. Services were eventually extended to Barking via the DR and shared with the existing MR tracks between Baker Street and Liverpool Street. The route between Hammersmith and Barking was shown on the tube map as part of the Metropolitan line, but since 1990 has been shown separately, the Metropolitan line becoming the route from Aldgate to Baker Street and northwards through "Metro-Land" to Uxbridge, Watford and Amersham.
The circle line was initially formed by the combination of the MR and DR routes, which were between Edgware Road and South Kensington, Edgware Road and Aldgate via King's Cross St Pancras, South Kensington and Mansion House, and a joint railway between Mansion House and Aldgate. Since 1949, the Circle line is shown separately on the map.
Incidents
On 18 June 1925, electric locomotive No.4 collided with a passenger train when a signal was changed from green to red just as the locomotive was passing it. Six people were injured.
On 23 August 1973, a bomb was found in a carrier bag in the ticket hall. The bomb was defused by the bomb squad. A week later, on 30 August, a member of staff found another bomb left on the overbridge. Again, it was defused without any injury.
The station today
Baker Street station is the combination of three separate stations, with several booking offices throughout its operational years. Major changes took place in 1891-93 and 1910–12. The first part is the Circle Line station, which has its two platforms now used by the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines. They are situated on a roughly east-to-west alignment beneath Marylebone Road, spanning approximately the stretch between Upper Baker Street and Allsop Place. This was part of the original Metropolitan Railway from Bishop's Road (now Paddington (Circle and Hammersmith & City lines) station to Farringdon Street (now Farringdon) which opened on 10 January 1863.
The platforms serving the main branch of the Metropolitan line towards Harrow, Uxbridge and beyond are located within the triangle formed by Marylebone Road, Upper Baker Street and Allsop Place, following the alignment of Allsop place. This station is the second section which opened on 13 April 1868 by the Metropolitan & St. John's Wood Railway. This was later absorbed by the Metropolitan Railway, which is usually known to them as Baker Street East station.
The final section is the deep-level tube station of the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway (now part of the Bakerloo line), situated at a lower level beneath the site of Baker Street East, opened on 10 March 1906. This part of the station now contains four platforms which are used by both the Bakerloo and Jubilee lines.
This station is a terminus for some Metropolitan line trains, but there is also a connecting curve that joins to the Circle line just beyond the platforms, allowing Metropolitan line through services to run to Aldgate. The deep-level Bakerloo and Jubilee lines platforms are arranged in a cross-platform interchange layout and there are track connections between the two lines just to the north of the station. Access to the Bakerloo and Jubilee lines is only via escalators.
With ten platforms overall, Baker Street has the most London Underground platforms of any station on the network. Since Swiss Cottage and St John's Wood have replaced the former three stations between Finchley Road and Baker Street on the Metropolitan line, it takes an average of five and a half minutes to travel between them.
As part of the Transported by Design programme of activities, on 15 October 2015, after two months of public voting, Baker Street underground station's platforms were elected by Londoners as one of the 10 favourite transport design icons.
The former Chiltern Court Restaurant above the station is still in use today as the Metropolitan Bar, part of the Wetherspoons pub chain.
Sub-surface platforms
Of the MR's original stations, now the Circle and Hammersmith & City line platforms five and six are the best preserved dating from the station's opening in 1863. Plaques of the Metropolitan Railway's coat of arms along the platform and old plans and photographs depict the station which has changed remarkably little in over a hundred and fifty years. Restoration work in the 1980s on the oldest portions of Baker Street station brought it back to something similar to its 1863 appearance.
The Metropolitan line's platforms one to four were largely the result of the station's rebuild in the 1920s to cater for the increase in traffic on its outer suburban routes. Today the basic layout remains the same with platforms two and three being through tracks for City services to Aldgate from Amersham, Chesham and Uxbridge flanked by terminal platforms one and four which are the domain of services to and from Watford. The northern end of the platforms is in a cutting being surrounded by Chiltern Court and Selbie House the latter of which houses Baker Street control centre responsible for signalling the Metropolitan line from Preston Road to Aldgate, as well as the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines between Baker Street and Aldgate. The southern end of the platforms are situated in a cut and cover tunnel which runs towards Great Portland Street. All Metropolitan line platforms can function as terminating tracks however under normal circumstance only dead ended platforms one and four are used as such.
Deep-level tube platforms
The Bakerloo line uses platforms eight and nine which date from 10 March 1906 when the Baker Street & Waterloo railway opened between here and Lambeth North (then called Kennington Road). The contraction of the name to "Bakerloo" rapidly caught on, and the official name was changed to match in July 1906.
By the mid-1930s, the Metropolitan line was suffering from congestion caused by the limited capacity of its tracks between Baker Street and Finchley Road stations. To relieve this pressure, the network-wide New Works Programme, 1935–1940 included the construction of new sections of tunnel between the Bakerloo line's platforms at Baker Street and Finchley Road and the replacement of three Metropolitan line stations (Lord's, Marlborough Road and Swiss Cottage) between those points with two new Bakerloo stations (St John's Wood and Swiss Cottage). The Bakerloo line also took over the Metropolitan line's service to Stanmore on 20 November 1939. The branch remained part of the Bakerloo line until 1 May 1979, when similar congestion problems for the Bakerloo line caused by the two branches converging at Baker Street led to the opening of the Jubilee line, initially created by connecting the Stanmore branch to new tunnels bored between Baker Street and Charing Cross. Following refurbishment in the 1980s the original tiling scheme was replaced with tiles depicting the silhouette of Sherlock Holmes who lived at 221B, Baker Street.
he Bakerloo still maintains its connection with the now Jubilee line tracks to Stanmore with tunnels linking from Northbound Bakerloo line platform nine to the Northbound Jubilee line toward St John's Wood and Southbound from Jubilee line platform seven to the Southbound Bakerloo line towards Regents Park. Although no passenger services operate over these sections they can be used for the transfer of engineering trains and was used to transfer Bakerloo line 1972 stock trains to and from Acton Works as part of a refurbishment programme.
Jubilee line trains use platforms seven and ten, which opened in 1979 when the newly built Jubilee line took over existing Bakerloo line services to Stanmore running through new tunnels from Baker Street to Charing Cross to serve as a relief line to the Bakerloo which by now was suffering from capacity issues. In 1999 the Jubilee line was extended from Green Park to Stratford and made the Jubilee line platforms at Charing Cross redundant after twenty years The design of the Jubilee line platforms at Baker Street has changed little since being opened with illustrations depicting famous scenes from Sherlock Holmes cases.
Cross platform interchange is provided between Bakerloo and Jubilee lines in both directions.
Station improvements
Step-free access project
In 2008 TfL proposed a project to provide step-free access to the sub-surface platforms. The project was a TfL-funded Games-enabling project in its investment programme (and not a project specifically funded as a result of the success of the London 2012 Games bid). The project was included in the strategy on accessible transport published by the London 2012 Olympic Delivery Authority and the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games.
Access to the Metropolitan line platforms 1–4 (serving trains to and from Finchley Road) would be provided by a bridge from the Bakerloo and Jubilee line ticket hall, with a lift from the bridge to each island platform. Through a passage from platforms 1–2, this would also give step-free access to platform 5 (Circle and Hammersmith & City line eastbound trains). Access to platform 6 (Circle and Hammersmith & City line westbound trains) would be provided by demolishing the triangular building outside the station, on the north side of Marylebone Road, and taking over the public pedestrian subway under Marylebone Road to provide a link between a lift up from platform 5 to the subway and a lift at the other end of the subway down to platform 6. The replacement for the triangular building would also act as an emergency exit for the station.
TfL applied for planning permission and listed building consent for providing access to platforms 5 and 6 on 1 October 2008, but the application was subsequently withdrawn. (The part of the proposed scheme to provide step-free access to platforms 1–4 is within TfL's permitted development rights, and so does not require planning permission.) TfL announced on 31 March 2009 that because of budgetary constraints the step-free scheme would be deferred.
Platform lengthening
In order to accommodate the new, longer S stock trains, which started operating Metropolitan line services in August 2010, platforms 1 and 4 have been extended. However, the Circle and Hammersmith & City line platforms 5 and 6 have not been extended to accommodate their new S7 Stock trains, due to the enclosed nature of the platforms. Instead, selective door operation is employed.
Services
Bakerloo line
On this line, it is between Regent's Park and Marylebone. Trains can terminate at Queen's Park, Stonebridge Park, or Harrow and Wealdstone to the north, and Piccadilly Circus, Lambeth North or Elephant & Castle to the south.
The typical service pattern in trains per hour (tph) operated during off-peak hours is:
6tph to Harrow & Wealdstone via Queen's Park and Stonebridge Park (Northbound)
3tph to Stonebridge Park via Queen's Park (Northbound)
11tph to Queen's Park (Northbound)
20tph to Elephant & Castle (Southbound)
Weekday peak service operates with one or two additional Queen's Park-Elephant & Castle trains per hour, and Sunday service operates with two fewer Queen's Park-Elephant & Castle trains per hour during the core of the day.
Jubilee line
The station is situated between Bond Street to the south and St John's Wood to the north. Southbound trains usually terminate at Stratford and North Greenwich although additional turn back points are provided at Green Park, Waterloo, London Bridge, Canary Wharf and West Ham. Northbound trains usually terminate at Stanmore, Wembley Park and Willesden Green although additional turn back points are available at Finchley Road, West Hampstead and Neasden.
The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:
20tph Southbound to Stratford
6tph Southbound to North Greenwich
16tph Northbound to Stanmore
5tph Northbound to Wembley Park
5tph Northbound to Willesden Green
The Night tube service (Friday night to Saturday morning & Saturday night to Sunday morning) in trains per hour is:
6tph Southbound to Stratford
6tph Northbound to Stanmore
Circle line
The station is between Great Portland Street and Edgware Road on this line as well on the Hammersmith & City line.
The typical service in trains per hour is:
6tph Clockwise to Edgware Road via King's Cross St Pancras, Liverpool Street, Tower Hill and Victoria
6tph Anti-clockwise to Hammersmith via Paddington
Hammersmith & City line
Between 1 October 1877 and 31 December 1906 some services on the H&CR were extended to Richmond over the London and South Western Railway (L&SWR) via its station at Hammersmith (Grove Road).
The station is between Great Portland Street and Edgware Road on this line, as with the Circle line.
The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:
6tph Eastbound to Barking or Plaistow
6tph Westbound to Hammersmith
Metropolitan line
The Metropolitan line is the only line to operate an express service although currently this is mostly southbound in the morning peaks and northbound in the evening peaks. Southbound fast services run non-stop between Moor Park, Harrow-on-the-Hill and Finchley Road whilst semi-fast services run non stop between Harrow-on-the-Hill and Finchley Road. Northbound fast and semi-fast services call additionally at Wembley Park.
The station is situated between Great Portland Street sharing tracks with the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines in the East and Finchley Road Station to the North. Southbound trains may terminate here and return north towards Uxbridge, Amersham, Chesham, or Watford, where platforms 1 and 4 are used.
The off-peak service in trains per hour is:
12tph Southbound to Aldgate
4tph Southbound services terminate here
2tph Northbound to Amersham (all stations)
2tph Northbound to Chesham (all stations)
4tph Northbound to Watford (all stations)
8tph Northbound to Uxbridge (all stations)
Connections
The station is served by London Bus routes 2, 13, 18, 27, 30, 74, 113, 139, 189, 205, 274 and 453, and also by night routes N18, N74, N113 and N205. In addition, bus routes 27, 139, 189 and 453 have a 24-hour service.
Points of interest
Royal Academy of Music
Madame Tussauds
Sherlock Holmes Museum
In popular culture
The Metropolitan Bar above Baker Street station is featured in Metro-Land, a 1973 documentary film by John Betjeman in which he reminiscences about its genteel origins as the Chiltern Court Restaurant.
The excavation of Baker Street for the Underground can be seen in a scene of the 2011 film Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows, set in 1891.
See also
Baker Street (song) by Gerry Rafferty
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Oldest Portion of Baker Street Station
(restoration)
Bakerloo line stations
Circle line stations
Hammersmith & City line stations
Metropolitan line stations
Jubilee line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Tube stations in the City of Westminster
Former Metropolitan Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1863
Former Baker Street and Waterloo Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1906
Grade II* listed railway stations
Grade II* listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Charles Walter Clark railway stations
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235596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association%20fallacy | Association fallacy | An association fallacy is an informal inductive fallacy of the hasty-generalization or red-herring type and which asserts, by irrelevant association and often by appeal to emotion, that qualities of one thing are inherently qualities of another. Two types of association fallacies are sometimes referred to as guilt by association and honor by association.
Form
In notation of first-order logic, this type of fallacy can be expressed as (∃x ∈ S : φ(x)) ⇒ (∀x ∈ S : φ(x)), meaning "if there exists any x in the set S so that a property φ is true for x, then for all x in S the property φ must be true."
Premise: A is a B
Premise: A is also a C
Conclusion: Therefore, all Bs are Cs
The fallacy in the argument can be illustrated through the use of an Euler diagram: "A" satisfies the requirement that it is part of both sets "B" and "C", but if one represents this as an Euler diagram, it can clearly be seen that it is possible that a part of set "B" is not part of set "C", refuting the conclusion that "all Bs are Cs".
Guilt by association
Examples
Some syllogistic examples of guilt by association:
John is a con artist. John has black hair. Therefore, all people with black hair are con artists.
Lyle is a crooked salesman. Lyle proposes monorail. Therefore, monorail is folly.
Jane is good at mathematics. Jane is dyslexic. Therefore, all dyslexic people are good at mathematics.
Simon, Karl, Jared, and Brett are all friends of Josh, and they are all petty criminals. Jill is a friend of Josh; therefore, Jill is a petty criminal.
Guilt by association as an ad hominem fallacy
Guilt by association can sometimes also be a type of ad hominem fallacy, if the argument attacks a person because of the similarity between the views of someone making an argument and other proponents of the argument.
This form of the argument is as follows:
Group A makes a particular claim.
Group B, which is currently viewed negatively by some, makes the same claim as Group A.
Therefore, Group A is viewed as associated with Group B, and is now also viewed negatively.
An example of this fallacy would be "My opponent for office just received an endorsement from the Puppy Haters Association. Is that the sort of person you would want to vote for?"
Honor by association
The counterpart of "guilt by association" is honor by association, where one claims that someone or something must be reputable because of the people or organizations that are related to it or otherwise support it.
Examples:
Citizens of Country X won more Nobel Prizes, gold medals, and literary awards than citizens of Country Y. Therefore, a citizen of Country X is superior to a citizen of Country Y.
Gary has a voice type and pronunciation which gives a trustworthy impression. Gary is a car salesman and says to customers that his cars are in good condition. Therefore, the cars are in good condition.
In many advertisements, businesses heavily use the principle of honor by association. For example, an attractive spokesperson will say that a specific product is good. The attractiveness of the spokesperson gives the product good associations.
Galileo gambit
A form of the association fallacy often used by those denying a well-established scientific or historical proposition is the so-called Galileo gambit. The argument runs thus: Galileo was ridiculed in his time for his scientific observations, but was later acknowledged to be right; the proponent argues that since their non-mainstream views are provoking ridicule and rejection from other scientists, they will later be recognized as correct, like Galileo. The gambit is flawed in that being ridiculed does not necessarily correlate with being right and that many people who have been ridiculed in history were, in fact, wrong. Similarly, Carl Sagan has stated that people laughed at geniuses such as Columbus and the Wright Brothers, but "they also laughed at Bozo the Clown".
See also
Notes
References
Fallacies: Classical and Contemporary Readings, edited by Hans V. Hansen and Robert C. Pinto (1995).
Bibliography on Fallacies: http://www.ditext.com/eemeren/bib.html
External links
The Fallacy Files Guilt by Association
Propagandacritic.com "Transfer technique"
Propagandacritic.com "Testimonial"
Genetic fallacies
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] |
235600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20legion | Foreign legion | Foreign Legion is a title which has been used by a small number of military units composed of foreign volunteers. It usually refers to the French Foreign Legion, a wing of the French Army established in 1831, but also the Spanish Legion, part of the Spanish Army, established in 1920, both of which were operating mainly in North Africa. Referring to individual soldiers, "legionnaire" has been used by many states to refer to soldiers who are neither citizens nor imperial subjects of the states whose military they join. More than 90 states have implemented such recruitment policies between 1815 and 2020.
Foreign Legion may also refer to:
Military
Brigade of Gurkhas, light infantry unit of the British Army
Foreign volunteers, a term for troops joining a foreign army
International Brigades, of the Spanish Civil War
International Legion, created in 1860 by Giuseppe Garibaldi
King's German Legion (KGL), a British Army unit of expatriate Germans during the Napoleonic Wars
Mahal (Israel), foreigners serving in the Israeli army
Polish Legions (Napoleonic period), Polish military units that served with the French Army, 1790s–1810s
Portuguese Legion (Napoleonic Wars), a Portuguese military force in Napoleon's Imperial Armies
Rhodesian Light Infantry, informally known as Rhodesian Foreign Legion (1961–1980)
Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL), informally known as Dutch Foreign Legion (1830–1950)
Royal Sicilian Regiment (1806-1816)
Russian–German Legion, a Russian Army unit of expatriate German personnel during the Napoleonic Wars
Spanish Legion, a quasi-independent unit of the Spanish Army
Värvat främlingsregemente, Recruited Foreigners Regiment, Swedish regiment of Polish deserters
International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine, a Ukrainian brigade created during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Entertainment
The Foreign Legion, a 1928 silent film
Foreign Legion (band), a punk band from Wales
Foreign Legion (album), a 2002 album by Murfreesboro
Foreign Legion (Tin Hat album), a 2010 album by Tin Hat
Foreign Legion (wrestling) (La Legión Extranjera), a loosely affiliated group in Mexican wrestling
Foreign Legions, a 2001 anthology edited by David Drake
See also
List of military legions
Tarzan and the Foreign Legion (1947 novel) by Edgar Rice Burroughs
Abbott and Costello in the Foreign Legion (1950 film)
Swiss Guards
French Foreign Legion (disambiguation)
Legion (disambiguation)
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235601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ju%20Si-gyeong | Ju Si-gyeong | Ju Si-gyeong (December 22, 1876 – July 27, 1914) was one of the founders of modern Korean linguistics. He was born in Bongsan-gun, Hwanghae Province. He and his students helped standardize the Korean language, based spelling and grammar of the vernacular.
Biography
Ju Si-gyeong was born in Hwanghae-do, now North Korea. He studied Classical Chinese from his childhood. Ju moved to Seoul in 1887. He was interested in the Western learning methods and he studied Linguistics in one of these new schools.
After studying modern linguistics in Seoul, he found work in the first Hangeul-only newspaper Dongnip Sinmun in 1896, founded by the independence activist Soh Jaipil. In 1897, Seo was sent into the exile to the United States and Ju left the newspaper.
He served as a Korean instructor for the American missionary W.B. Scranton, founder of today's Ewha Womans University.
Standardizing Korean Language
In 1886, Ju realized the need of a standardized alphabet. With some colleagues, he established the Korean Language System Society (). He hosted several seminars in the National Language Discussion Centre of the Sangdong Youth Academy of the Korean language ().
He proposed that the Korean parts of speech include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, unconjugated adjectives (), auxiliaries (), conjunctions, exclamations, and sentence-final particles ().
In his 1914 publication, Sounds of the Language, he promotes writing Hangul linearly rather than syllabically. This is one of his few proposals not to have been implemented, although there have been experiments with linear hangul, most notably in Primorsky Krai.
Publications
The National Language Classical Phonetics () (1908): based on his lecture notes
An Introduction to the National Language () (1910)
An Introduction to the Chinese Language () (1909)
Sounds of the Language () (1914)
The Grammar of the National Language () (1910)
The History of the Downfall of Vietnam () (1907)
Miscellaneous
Ju Si-gyeong coined the name Hangul (한글) between 1910 and 1913 to identify the Korean writing system, which had existed under several other names such as onmun (vernacular script) since the 15th century.
His name is sometimes written without the disambiguity hyphen: Ju Sigyeong and Chu Sigyong. In this case, they are often mispronounced as Sig-yeong and Sig-yong respectively.
See also
Korean language
References
External links
주시경 (Ju Si-kyeong) a biography with a photo
1876 births
1914 deaths
History of Korea
South Korean Protestants
Converts to Christianity
Sangju Ju clan
People from North Hwanghae
Linguists from Korea
20th-century linguists | [
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235603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20companies%20of%20Malaysia | List of companies of Malaysia | Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. It is a relatively state-oriented and newly industrialised market economy.
The state plays a significant but declining role in guiding economic activity through macroeconomic plans. In 2014, Malaysia's economy grew 6%, the second highest growth in ASEAN behind Philippines' growth of 6.1%. The economy of Malaysia (GDP PPP) in 2014 was $746.821 billion, the third largest in ASEAN behind Indonesia and Thailand and the 28th largest in the world.
For further information on the types of business entities in this country and their abbreviations, see "Business entities in Malaysia".
Largest firms
This list shows firms in the Fortune Global 500, which ranks firms by total revenues reported before 31 March 2017. Only the top five firms (if available) are included as a sample.
Notable firms
This list includes notable companies with primary headquarters located in the country. The industry and sector follow the Industry Classification Benchmark taxonomy. Organizations which have ceased operations are included and noted as defunct.
See also
Companies Commission of Malaysia
Economy of Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur Composite Index
References
Malaysia | [
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235604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animated%20series | Animated series | An animated series is a set of animated works with a common series title, usually related to one another. These episodes should typically share the same main characters, some different secondary characters and a basic theme. Series can have either a finite number of episodes like a miniseries, a definite end, or be open-ended, without a predetermined number of episodes. They can be broadcast on television, shown in movie theatres, released direct-to-video or on the internet. Like other television series, films, including animated films, animated series can be of a wide variety of genres and can also have different demographic target audiences, from males to females ranging children to adults.
Television
Animated television series are regularly presented and can appear as much as up to once a week or daily during a prescribed time slot. The time slot may vary including morning, like saturday-morning cartoons, prime time, like prime time cartoons, to late night, like late night anime. They may also be broadcast on weekdays (weekday cartoons) or only on weekends.
The duration of each episode varies depending on the series. Traditionally, series are produced as complete half-hour or nearly half-hour programs; however, many are produced as animated shorts of 10–11 minutes, which can also be paired with other shorts to fill a set time period. If pairing between two or more shorts is done, then said shorts may be called "segments". If on television 15-20 minutes based on commercial time. A full half hour would cut into advertisement time frames. Note that Netflix and other streaming companies that don't show commercials may require a full 30 minute cartoon the length depends on the company that airs the cartoon. There are also some short series with a length of approximately five minutes; these have recently become more common in Japanese animation.
They are sometimes grouped together according to network programming demands. Thus a particular series may appear in a number of formats or time blocks.
Animated television series had historically been used for comedy, like the cartoons, a piece of art, usually developed for humorous intent, and so, called cartoon series. However, more recently animated television series have fallen into other genres, such as action / adventure series like Speed Racer and G.I. Joe.
The first animated television series was Crusader Rabbit.
Animated sitcoms first appeared in the 1960s, with The Flintstones (1960–1966), followed by The Jetsons (1962–1987).
From 1972 to 1974, Hanna-Barbera produced Wait Till Your Father Gets Home, an adult-oriented Animated sitcom in the style of All in the Family.
Broadcast network
The 1980s and 1990s was a renaissance of the animation children's television series and adult's television series. Various broadcast networks and media companies began creating television channels and formats designed specifically for airing cartoon and anime series. Companies that already had these types of formats in place began to revamp their existing models during this time. Examples of current networks are:
During the 1990s, more mature content than those of traditional cartoon series began to appear more widely, extending beyond a primary audience of children. These cartoon series included The Simpsons, The Ren & Stimpy Show, Rocko's Modern Life, Beavis and Butt-Head, King of the Hill, Duckman, South Park and Family Guy. Canadian computer-animated series ReBoot, which began as a child-friendly show, shifted its target age group to ages 12 and up, resulting in a darker and more mature storyline.
Classification
Completely original
TV Animation: Mobile Suit Gundam, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Tenchi Muyo!, ...
web animation
Theatrical
Animated series shown in movie theatres include the Tom and Jerry animated cartoon short films that appeared in movie theaters from 1940 to 1967.
Video
Direct-to-video animated series include most Japanese original video animations (OVAs). The first OVA series (and also the first overall OVA) was Dallos (1983). Almost all hentai (pornographic) anime series are released as OVAs.
Web series
Animated web series are animated series designed and produced for streaming services and called "web series".
Examples include Happy Tree Friends from 1999 and Eddsworld in 2004.
They can also be released on YouTube, such as Asdfmovie, which debuted in 2008.
References
Animated series
Television genres | [
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235619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind%20thrust%20earthquake | Blind thrust earthquake | A blind thrust earthquake occurs along a thrust fault that does not show signs on the Earth's surface, hence the designation "blind". Such faults, being invisible at the surface, have not been mapped by standard surface geological mapping. Sometimes they are discovered as a by-product of oil exploration seismology; in other cases their existence is not suspected.
Although such earthquakes are not amongst the most energetic, they are sometimes the most destructive, as conditions combine to form an urban earthquake which greatly affects urban seismic risk.
A blind thrust earthquake is quite close, in meaning, to a buried rupture earthquake, if a buried rupture earthquake is not specifically about the fault, but signs the earthquake leaves, on the Earth's surface.
Blind thrust faults
Blind thrust faults generally exist near tectonic plate margins, in the broad disturbance zone. They form when a section of the Earth's crust is under high compressive stresses, due to plate margin collision, or the general geometry of how the plates are sliding past each other.
As shown in the diagram, a weak plate under compression generally forms thrusting sheets, or overlapping sliding sections. This can form a hill and valley landform, with the hills being the strong sections, and the valleys being the highly disturbed thrust faulted and folded sections. After a long period of erosion the visible landscape may be flattened, with material eroded from the hills filling up the valleys and hiding the underlying hill-and-valley geology. The valley rock is very weak and usually highly weathered, presenting deep, fertile soil; naturally, this is the area that becomes populated. Reflection seismology profiles show the disturbed rock that hides a blind thrust fault.
If the region is under active compression these faults are constantly rupturing, but any given valley might only experience a large earthquake every few hundred years. Although usually of magnitude 6 to 7 compared to the largest magnitude 9 earthquakes of recent times, such a temblor is especially destructive because the seismic waves are highly directed, and the soft basin soil of the valley can amplify the ground motions tenfold or more.
It is said that blind thrust earthquakes contribute more to urban seismic risk than the 'big ones' of magnitude 8 or more.
Examples of occurrence
Some known faults
Los Angeles, California, USA, has many earthquakes and is well-studied. In addition to surface faults, a number of blind-thrust faults have been found under the basin and metropolitan area. A NASA study which combined satellite radar images and Global Positioning System (GPS) observations found that "tectonic squeezing across Los Angeles" "will likely produce earthquakes on either the blind Elysian Park or Puente Hills thrust fault systems".
Bajo Segura Fault Zone, Spain
Fukaya Fault System, Japan (near Tokyo)
Uemachi Fault System, Osaka Basin, Japan
Main Frontal Thrust, Himalaya
Specific events
See also
Buried rupture earthquake
Surface rupture earthquake
References
Types of earthquake
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235623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s%20rank%20correlation%20coefficient | Spearman's rank correlation coefficient | In statistics, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient or Spearman's ρ, named after Charles Spearman and often denoted by the Greek letter (rho) or as , is a nonparametric measure of rank correlation (statistical dependence between the rankings of two variables). It assesses how well the relationship between two variables can be described using a monotonic function.
The Spearman correlation between two variables is equal to the Pearson correlation between the rank values of those two variables; while Pearson's correlation assesses linear relationships, Spearman's correlation assesses monotonic relationships (whether linear or not). If there are no repeated data values, a perfect Spearman correlation of +1 or −1 occurs when each of the variables is a perfect monotone function of the other.
Intuitively, the Spearman correlation between two variables will be high when observations have a similar (or identical for a correlation of 1) rank (i.e. relative position label of the observations within the variable: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) between the two variables, and low when observations have a dissimilar (or fully opposed for a correlation of −1) rank between the two variables.
Spearman's coefficient is appropriate for both continuous and discrete ordinal variables. Both Spearman's and Kendall's can be formulated as special cases of a more general correlation coefficient.
Definition and calculation
The Spearman correlation coefficient is defined as the Pearson correlation coefficient between the rank variables.
For a sample of size n, the n raw scores are converted to ranks , and is computed as
where
denotes the usual Pearson correlation coefficient, but applied to the rank variables,
is the covariance of the rank variables,
and are the standard deviations of the rank variables.
Only if all n ranks are distinct integers, it can be computed using the popular formula
where
is the difference between the two ranks of each observation,
n is the number of observations.
Consider a bivariate sample with corresponding ranks . Then, the Spearman correlation coefficient of is
Where
Now we will show that can be expressed only by , in the case where there are no ties within each sample.
First, recall the following formulas for the triangular number and Square pyramidal number:
It follows that
Thus,
and
So up to this point we have that:
Now, let , hence
Now we can express using and get
Substituting this result back in the last expression of gives us
Identical values are usually each assigned fractional ranks equal to the average of their positions in the ascending order of the values, which is equivalent to averaging over all possible permutations.
If ties are present in the data set, the simplified formula above yields incorrect results: Only if in both variables all ranks are distinct, then (calculated according to biased variance).
The first equation — normalizing by the standard deviation — may be used even when ranks are normalized to [0, 1] ("relative ranks") because it is insensitive both to translation and linear scaling.
The simplified method should also not be used in cases where the data set is truncated; that is, when the Spearman's correlation coefficient is desired for the top X records (whether by pre-change rank or post-change rank, or both), the user should use the Pearson correlation coefficient formula given above.
Related quantities
There are several other numerical measures that quantify the extent of statistical dependence between pairs of observations. The most common of these is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, which is a similar correlation method to Spearman's rank, that measures the “linear” relationships between the raw numbers rather than between their ranks.
An alternative name for the Spearman rank correlation is the “grade correlation”; in this, the “rank” of an observation is replaced by the “grade”. In continuous distributions, the grade of an observation is, by convention, always one half less than the rank, and hence the grade and rank correlations are the same in this case. More generally, the “grade” of an observation is proportional to an estimate of the fraction of a population less than a given value, with the half-observation adjustment at observed values. Thus this corresponds to one possible treatment of tied ranks. While unusual, the term “grade correlation” is still in use.
Interpretation
The sign of the Spearman correlation indicates the direction of association between X (the independent variable) and Y (the dependent variable). If Y tends to increase when X increases, the Spearman correlation coefficient is positive. If Y tends to decrease when X increases, the Spearman correlation coefficient is negative. A Spearman correlation of zero indicates that there is no tendency for Y to either increase or decrease when X increases. The Spearman correlation increases in magnitude as X and Y become closer to being perfectly monotone functions of each other. When X and Y are perfectly monotonically related, the Spearman correlation coefficient becomes 1. A perfectly monotone increasing relationship implies that for any two pairs of data values and , that and always have the same sign. A perfectly monotone decreasing relationship implies that these differences always have opposite signs.
The Spearman correlation coefficient is often described as being "nonparametric". This can have two meanings. First, a perfect Spearman correlation results when X and Y are related by any monotonic function. Contrast this with the Pearson correlation, which only gives a perfect value when X and Y are related by a linear function. The other sense in which the Spearman correlation is nonparametric is that its exact sampling distribution can be obtained without requiring knowledge (i.e., knowing the parameters) of the joint probability distribution of X and Y.
Example
In this example, the raw data in the table below is used to calculate the correlation between the IQ of a person with the number of hours spent in front of TV per week.
Firstly, evaluate . To do so use the following steps, reflected in the table below.
Sort the data by the first column (). Create a new column and assign it the ranked values 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
Next, sort the data by the second column (). Create a fourth column and similarly assign it the ranked values 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
Create a fifth column to hold the differences between the two rank columns ( and ).
Create one final column to hold the value of column squared.
With found, add them to find . The value of n is 10. These values can now be substituted back into the equation
to give
which evaluates to with a p-value = 0.627188 (using the t-distribution).
That the value is close to zero shows that the correlation between IQ and hours spent watching TV is very low, although the negative value suggests that the longer the time spent watching television the lower the IQ. In the case of ties in the original values, this formula should not be used; instead, the Pearson correlation coefficient should be calculated on the ranks (where ties are given ranks, as described above).
Determining significance
One approach to test whether an observed value of ρ is significantly different from zero (r will always maintain ) is to calculate the probability that it would be greater than or equal to the observed r, given the null hypothesis, by using a permutation test. An advantage of this approach is that it automatically takes into account the number of tied data values in the sample and the way they are treated in computing the rank correlation.
Another approach parallels the use of the Fisher transformation in the case of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. That is, confidence intervals and hypothesis tests relating to the population value ρ can be carried out using the Fisher transformation:
If F(r) is the Fisher transformation of r, the sample Spearman rank correlation coefficient, and n is the sample size, then
is a z-score for r, which approximately follows a standard normal distribution under the null hypothesis of statistical independence ().
One can also test for significance using
which is distributed approximately as Student's t-distribution with degrees of freedom under the null hypothesis. A justification for this result relies on a permutation argument.
A generalization of the Spearman coefficient is useful in the situation where there are three or more conditions, a number of subjects are all observed in each of them, and it is predicted that the observations will have a particular order. For example, a number of subjects might each be given three trials at the same task, and it is predicted that performance will improve from trial to trial. A test of the significance of the trend between conditions in this situation was developed by E. B. Page and is usually referred to as Page's trend test for ordered alternatives.
Correspondence analysis based on Spearman's ρ
Classic correspondence analysis is a statistical method that gives a score to every value of two nominal variables. In this way the Pearson correlation coefficient between them is maximized.
There exists an equivalent of this method, called grade correspondence analysis, which maximizes Spearman's ρ or Kendall's τ.
Approximating Spearman's ρ from a stream
There are two existing approaches to approximating the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient from streaming data. The first approach
involves coarsening the joint distribution of . For continuous values: cutpoints are selected for and respectively, discretizing
these random variables. Default cutpoints are added at and . A count matrix of size , denoted , is then constructed where stores the number of observations that
fall into the two-dimensional cell indexed by . For streaming data, when a new observation arrives, the appropriate element is incremented. The Spearman's rank
correlation can then be computed, based on the count matrix , using linear algebra operations (Algorithm 2). Note that for discrete random
variables, no discretization procedure is necessary. This method is applicable to stationary streaming data as well as large data sets. For non-stationary streaming data, where the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient may change over time, the same procedure can be applied, but to a moving window of observations. When using a moving window, memory requirements grow linearly with chosen window size.
The second approach to approximating the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient from streaming data involves the use of Hermite series based estimators. These estimators, based on Hermite polynomials,
allow sequential estimation of the probability density function and cumulative distribution function in univariate and bivariate cases. Bivariate Hermite series density
estimators and univariate Hermite series based cumulative distribution function estimators are plugged into a large sample version of the
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient estimator, to give a sequential Spearman's correlation estimator. This estimator is phrased in
terms of linear algebra operations for computational efficiency (equation (8) and algorithm 1 and 2). These algorithms are only applicable to continuous random variable data, but have
certain advantages over the count matrix approach in this setting. The first advantage is improved accuracy when applied to large numbers of observations. The second advantage is that the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient can be
computed on non-stationary streams without relying on a moving window. Instead, the Hermite series based estimator uses an exponential weighting scheme to track time-varying Spearman's rank correlation from streaming data,
which has constant memory requirements with respect to "effective" moving window size.
Software implementations
R's statistics base-package implements the test cor.test(x, y, method = "spearman") in its "stats" package (also cor(x, y, method = "spearman") will work.
Stata implementation: spearman varlist calculates all pairwise correlation coefficients for all variables in varlist.
MATLAB implementation: [r,p] = corr(x,y,'Type','Spearman') where r is the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, p is the p-value, and x and y are vectors.
Python. Can be computed with the spearmanr function of the scipy.stats module.
See also
Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient
Chebyshev's sum inequality, rearrangement inequality (These two articles may shed light on the mathematical properties of Spearman's ρ.)
Distance correlation
Polychoric correlation
References
Further reading
Corder, G. W. & Foreman, D. I. (2014). Nonparametric Statistics: A Step-by-Step Approach, Wiley. .
External links
Table of critical values of ρ for significance with small samples
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient – Excel Guide: sample data and formulae for Excel, developed by the Royal Geographical Society.
Covariance and correlation
Information retrieval evaluation
Nonparametric statistics
Statistical tests | [
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235626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highbury%20%26%20Islington%20station | Highbury & Islington station | Highbury & Islington is a London Underground and National Rail interchange station in the London Borough of Islington, north London. It is served by the London Underground's Victoria line and the Great Northern's Northern City Line, as well as the London Overground's East and North London Lines.
On the Victoria line the station is between and . On the Northern City Line it is between and , down the line from . On the North London Line of the Overground it is between and . It is the terminus of the East London Line, with Canonbury the preceding station.
It is the 13th busiest station in the UK with over 30 million people a year using it in 2018/19 according to Office of Rail and Road statistics.
The station is in Travelcard Zone 2.
History
The current station derives from two earlier stations. The first, which was on the same site, was a Victorian-gothic building, designed by Edwin Henry Horne, with a drive-in forecourt, opened on 26 September 1850 by the North London Railway (NLR) and called 'Islington'. Following reconstruction, it was renamed 'Highbury & Islington' on 1 July 1872.
The second station, on the opposite side of Holloway Road, was opened on 28 June 1904 by the Great Northern & City Railway (GN&CR) on its underground line between and . It was renamed to Highbury & Islington on 20 July 1922. This line and stations were operated by the Metropolitan Railway and its successors from 1913 until 1975 when the line, by then called the Northern City Line, was transferred to British Rail. The route is now operated by Great Northern.
The NLR station was damaged by a V-1 flying bomb on 27 June 1944; however, its main building remained in use until it was demolished in the 1960s during the building of the Victoria line. The original westbound platform buildings remain, as does a small part of the original entrance to the left of the present station entrance.
The present single-storey structure was built in the 1960s for the opening of the Victoria line on 1 September 1968 and is the entrance for all lines. When the escalators to the deep-level platforms were opened, the GN&CR station building was closed. Its disused entrance remains and was refurbished externally in 2006 – it houses signalling equipment for the Victoria line.
The Victoria line was built to give as many interchanges as possible with Underground and British Rail lines, with, wherever possible, cross-platform connection between different lines heading in the same direction. To this end, at Highbury & Islington the northbound Northern City Line platform was reallocated to the southbound Victoria line to give a direct link between the two southbound platforms; a new northbound platform was constructed for each line; the northbound running NCL tunnel was diverted to its new platform; and the southbound Victoria line tunnel was joined to the old northbound NCL tunnel.
Former train operating company Anglia Railways ran services known as London Crosslink from Norwich to Basingstoke via Stratford, which called at Highbury & Islington. This service operated from 2000 until 2002.
To allow new four-car trains to run on the London Overground network, the North London Line between and was closed between February and May 2010 while a new signalling system was installed and 30 platforms were extended. During this closure, the Highbury & Islington station ticket hall was extended and step-free access installed on all of the London Overground platforms. The North London Line reopened on 1 June 2010; however, the East London Line platforms did not open until March 2011, whilst the Western Curve was reinstated, linking the station to Dalston Junction and the rest of the East London Line.
Platforms
Highbury & Islington has a total of eight platforms, divided between those that are on the surface and those that are deep level:
Platform 1 – London Overground (East London Line) services to
Platform 2 – London Overground (East London Line) services to ( on Sundays)
Platform 3 – Northbound Victoria line
Platform 4 – Northbound Northern City Line
Platform 5 – Southbound Victoria line
Platform 6 – Southbound Northern City Line
Platform 7 – London Overground Westbound North London Line
Platform 8 – London Overground Eastbound North London Line
Surface platforms
Platforms for North London Line (NLL) and East London Line (ELL) services are operated by London Overground. On 1 June 2010, following the temporary closure of the route from February 2010 to May 2010, NLL services were rerouted to the newly built platforms 7 and 8 for the AC lines, which replaced the old "special use" platform. Platforms 1 and 2, which previously served the NLL route on third rail lines, were closed from February 2010 for reconstruction and reopened in 2011 for the ELL services. The change of platforms allows ELL services to operate without having to cross over NLL tracks. An island platform provides platforms 2 and 7, platforms 1 and 8 are side platforms. When the ELL extension to Clapham Junction was first instituted in December 2012, trains ran through to Clapham Junction from this station throughout the week. Following a timetable change in December 2014, they only do so on Sundays, with the second destination served alongside Crystal Palace on weekdays & Saturdays.
Deep-level platforms
Platforms 3 to 6 are deep-level platforms. Platforms 3 and 5 are used for services on the Victoria line; 4 and 6 are used for Northern City Line services.
Services
London Overground
All times below are correct .
East London Line
Mondays to Saturdays there is a service every 6–9 minutes throughout the day, while on Sundays before 13:00 there is a service every 15 minutes, changing after that to every 7–8 minutes until the end of service.
North London Line
Mondays to Fridays there is a service approximately every 7–8 minutes throughout the morning and evening peaks, changing to roughly every 10 minutes off-peak. On Saturdays the service is approximately every 10 minutes. Sunday services are similar in frequency to the services on Saturdays.
Great Northern
Mondays to Fridays there is a service approximately every 4–15 minutes until 10:00, when the frequency is every 10 minutes until 16:00, when the frequency again changes to between every 4–15 minutes until the end of service. Prior to December 2015, weekend and evening services were diverted to Kings Cross from Finsbury Park. Northbound trains run alternately to and to , with hourly extensions to on weekdays and at weekends.
London Underground
Victoria line
Westbound there is a service every 2–5 minutes all day, all week. Eastbound there are services every 2–8 minutes all day, all week.
Connections
London Buses routes 4, 19, 30, 43, 271 and 393 and night routes N19 and N41 serve the station.
References
External links
Original NLR station
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
Geoffrey Tribe's Railway Photo Halt
GN&CR station building, June 1968
New station entrance, June 1968
Victoria line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Islington
Railway stations in the London Borough of Islington
Former North London Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1850
Former Great Northern and City Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1904
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1975
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1976
Thameslink railway stations
Railway stations served by London Overground
DfT Category C2 stations
DfT Category F1 stations
Unopened Northern Heights extension stations
Highbury
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