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235981	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velleius%20Paterculus	Velleius Paterculus	Marcus Velleius Paterculus (; c. 19 BC – c. AD 31) was a Roman historian, soldier and senator. His Roman history, written in a highly rhetorical style, covered the period from the end of the Trojan War to AD 30, but is most useful for the period from the death of Caesar in 44 BC to the death of Augustus in AD 14. Biography Few details of Velleius' life are known with certainty; even his praenomen is uncertain. Priscian, the only ancient author to mention it, calls him "Marcus", but the title page of the editio princeps, printed in 1520, calls him "Publius", probably due to confusion with a Publius Velleius mentioned in Tacitus. Elsewhere, the same volume calls him Gaius. Some modern writers use the latter name, based on an inscription found on a milestone at El Harrouch in Algeria, once part of Roman Numidia; but the inscription identifies this Gaius Velleius Paterculus as legatus Augusti, an office that the historian is not known to have held, and it is thought to date from the reigns of Claudius or Nero, by which time he is thought to have been dead. The Gaius Velleius Paterculus referred to may be the same man who was consul in AD 60, and a Lucius Velleius Paterculus was consul in the following year; but it is not apparent how either of them were related to the historian. Our remaining information comes from Velleius' own brief description of his life, included in his history. He was born into a noble Campanian family about 19 BC, although the place of his birth is unknown. He was a great-great-great-grandson of Minatus Magius of Aeculanum in Samnium, who received the Roman franchise for his actions during the Social War. Several of his ancestors in subsequent generations held important magistracies or military commands, including his uncle, Capito, who was a member of the Roman Senate. As a young man, Velleius served as a military tribune in Rome's eastern provinces. In AD 2, he was with the army of Gaius Caesar, and personally witnessed the meeting between the young general and Phraates V of Parthia on the banks of the Euphrates. Two years later, Velleius was a cavalry prefect serving in the command of Tiberius in Germania, having already held the office of praefectus castrorum. He continued as a senior member of Tiberius' staff until the future emperor's return to Rome in AD 12. While serving under Tiberius, Velleius was also elected quaestor, an important step on the cursus honorum, filling that office in AD 7. Before his death in AD 14, the emperor Augustus designated Velleius and his brother, Magius Celer, for the praetorship. The emperor died before the comitia could be held, and so the two brothers were formally elected under Tiberius, serving their year of office in AD 15. Few other particulars of Velleius' life are known; he dedicated his history to Marcus Vinicius, and from his description of events during the latter's consulship in AD 30, Velleius must still have been alive that year. But Velleius was among the friends of Sejanus, whom he praises in his writing, and as there is no evidence that the historian survived his friend's downfall by any great length of time, it seems likely that he shared his fate. History The original title of Velleius' history is uncertain. The editio princeps styles it C. Vellei Paterculi Historiae Romanae ad M. Vinicium Cos., The Roman Histories of Gaius Velleius Paterculus to the Consul Marcus Vinicius, but this was probably assigned the work by a copyist, or by one of the grammarians. The work is frequently referred to as a "compendium of Roman history," which has also been used as the title, as have the more abbreviated Historiae Romanae, or Roman History, or simply Historiae or History. The work consists of two books, and was apparently conceived as a universal history. The first covers the period from the aftermath of the Trojan War to the destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War, in 146 BC. The volume is missing several portions, including the beginning, and a section following the eighth chapter, which deals with the founding of Rome. The second book, which continues the history from the age of the Gracchi to the consulship of Marcus Vinicius, in AD 30, is intact. It is particularly useful as the only connected narrative of events during this period; the portions of Livy's history dealing with the late Republic have been lost, and are known only from a brief epitome, while other historians covered only portions of the span. The period from the death of Caesar to that of Augustus is especially detailed. Velleius' subject matter consists largely of historical highlights and character portraits, omitting subtler if equally important details. He draws upon the historical writings of Cato the Elder, Quintus Hortensius, Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, Cornelius Nepos, and Livy, most of which have been lost. He also devotes some attention to Greek and Roman literature, and records unique details about Lucius Afranius and Lucius Pomponius, but he curiously omits any mention of important literary figures such as Plautus, Horace, and Propertius. According to Velleius, the peak of perfection in any literary field is arrived at quickly by the first arrivals. However, this was not an original insight, but a standard view of his time. Style Velleius' style is characterized by the showy rhetoric, hyperbole, and exaggerated figures of speech that were typical of Silver Age Latin. Modern appraisals of his approach and its results vary considerably. In the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith writes, In the execution of his work, Velleius has shown great skill and judgment, and has adopted the only plan by which an historical abridgement can be rendered either interesting or instructive. He does not attempt to give a consecutive account of all the events of history; he omits entirely a vast number of facts, and seizes only upon a few of the more prominent occurrences, which he describes at sufficient length to leave them impressed upon the recollection of his hearers. He also exhibits great tact in the manner in which he passes from one subject to another; his reflections are striking and apposite; and his style, which is a close imitation of Sallust's, is characterized by clearness, conciseness, and energy, but at the same time exhibits some of the faults of writers of his age in a fondness for strange and out-of-the-way expressions. As a historian Velleius is entitled to no mean rank; in his narrative he displays impartiality and love of truth, and in his estimate of the characters of the leading actors in Roman history he generally exhibits both discrimination and judgment. A more critical view appears in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: The author is a vain and shallow courtier, and destitute of real historical insight, although generally trustworthy in his statements of individual facts. He may be regarded as a courtly annalist rather than a historian. His knowledge is superficial, his blunders, numerous, his chronology inconsistent. He labours at portrait-painting, but his portraits are daubs... The repetitions, redundancies, and slovenliness of expression which disfigure the work may be partly due to the haste with which (as the author frequently reminds us) it was written. Some blemishes of style, particularly the clumsy and involved structure of his sentences, may perhaps be ascribed to insufficient literary training. The inflated rhetoric, the straining after effect by means of hyperbole, antithesis and epigram, mark the degenerate taste of the Silver Age, of which Paterculus is the earliest example. In his introduction to Velleius Paterculus, Frederick W. Shipley takes a middle ground: A compendium of Roman history, hastily compiled by an army officer... could hardly be expected to rise to the level either of great history or great literature. And yet, taken for what it is, a rapid sketch of some ten centuries of history, it is, in spite of its many defects... the most successful and most readable of all the abridgements of Roman history which have come down to us. Abridgements are usually little more than skeletons; but Velleius has succeeded, in spite of the brief compass of his work, in clothing the bare bones with real flesh, and in endowing his compendium with more than a mere shadow of vitality, thanks to his own enthusiastic interest in the human side of the great characters of history... [I]t has certain excellences of its own in the treatment of special subjects, especially the chapters on literary history, in which the author has a genuine if not very critical interest, the chapters on the Roman colonies, and those on the history of the organization of the Roman provinces, and in some of the character portraits of the great figures of Roman history. Legacy Velleius' treatise was not intended as a careful and comprehensive study of history. The author acknowledged as much, and stated his desire to write a more detailed work, which he indicated would give a fuller account of the Civil War, and the campaigns of his patron, Tiberius, but there is no reason to believe that he ever did so. His history does not seem to have been widely known in antiquity. According to the scholiast, he was read by Lucan; the Chronica of Sulpicius Severus seems to have been modeled on Velleius' history; and he is mentioned by Priscian, but this seems to be the extent of his influence prior to the discovery of a badly damaged manuscript at Murbach Abbey in Alsace in 1515. Although corrupt and since lost, this formed the basis for the editio princeps published by Beatus Rhenanus in 1520, and a later copy acquired by Orelli. Early editions Editio princeps, Beatus Rhenanus, 1520 early editions by Justus Lipsius, 1591 Jan Gruter, 1607 Gerardus Vossius, 1639 Johan Henrik Boeclerus, 1642 Antonius Thysius the Younger, 1653 Nikolaes Heinsius the Elder, 1678 John Hudson, 1693 Pieter Burman the Elder, 1719 Ruhnken, 1789, reprinted by Karl Heinrich Frotscher, 1830–1839 later editions Johann Caspar von Orelli, 1835 Justus Friedrich Kritz, 1848 Friedrich Gottlob Haase, 1858 Karl Felix Halm, 1876 Robinson Ellis, 1898, reviewed by William Warde Fowler in Classical Review, May 1899 On the sources see F. Burmeister, "De Fontibus Vellei Paterculi," in Berliner Studien für classische Philologie (1894), xv. English translation by J. S. Watson in Bohn's Classical Library. Newer edition Velleius Paterculus, Historiarum Libri Duo, ed. W. S. Watt (2nd ed. 1998. Saur, Stuttgart.) = Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana Commentaries A. J. Woodman, Velleius Paterculus: The Caesarian and Augustan Narrative (2.41-93) (1983 Cambridge U.P.; repr. 2004 paperback) = Cambridge Classical texts and commentaries 25. Velleius Paterculus: The Tiberian Narrative (1977 Cambridge U.P.; repr. 2004 paperback) = Cambridge Classical texts and commentaries 19. ) Translation with Latin text Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, trans. F. W. Shipley; Loeb Classical Library 152 (Harvard University Press, 1924; ) References Further reading Balmaceda, C. (2014). Virtues of Tiberius in Velleius’ "Histories." Historia 63.3: 340–363. Connal, R. T. (2013). Velleius Paterculus: The Soldier and the Senator. Classical World 107(1), 49–62. Cowan, E. ed., (2011). Velleius Paterculus: Making History. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. Gowing, A. M. (2010). Caesar Grabs my Pen: Writing on Civil War under Tiberius. In Citizens of Discord: Rome and Its Civil Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gowing, A. M. (2005). Empire and Memory. The Representation of the Roman Republic in Imperial Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kramer, E. A. (2005). Book One of Velleius’ History: Scope, Levels of Treatment, and Non-Roman Elements. Historia 54.2: 144–161. Schultze, C. (2010). Universal and Particular in Velleius Paterculus. In Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal Historiography. Edited by P. Liddel and A. Fear, 116–130. London: Duckworth. Starr, R. J. (1980). Velleius’ Literary Techniques and the Organization of his History. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 110: 287–301. Sumner, G. V. (1970). The Truth about Velleius Paterculus: Prolegomena. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 74: 257–297. Syme, R. (1978). Mendacity in Velleius. American Journal of Philology. 99: 45–63. Woodman, A. J. (1975). Velleius Paterculus. In Empire and Aftermath. Silver Latin II. Edited by T. A. Dorey, 1–25. London: Routledge. 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235985	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der%20Stahlhelm%2C%20Bund%20der%20Frontsoldaten	Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten	(German, 'The Steel Helmet, League of Front-Line Soldiers'), commonly known as Der Stahlhelm ('The Steel Helmet'), was a German First World War veteran's organisation existing from 1918 to 1935. It was part of the "Black Reichswehr" and in the late days of the Weimar Republic operated as the paramilitary wing of the monarchist German National People's Party (DNVP), placed at party gatherings in the position of armed security guards (Saalschutz). History Weimar Republic (1918–1933) Der Stahlhelm was formed on 25 December 1918 in Magdeburg, Germany, by the factory owner and first World War-disabled reserve officer Franz Seldte. After the 11 November armistice, the Army had been split up and the newly established German Reichswehr according to the Treaty of Versailles was to be confined to no more than 100,000 men. Similar to the numerous Freikorps, which upon the Revolution of 1918–1919 were temporarily backed by the Council of the People's Deputies under Chancellor Friedrich Ebert (Ebert–Groener pact), Der Stahlhelm ex-servicemen's organization was meant to form a paramilitary organization. The league was a rallying point for revanchist and nationalistic forces from the beginning. Within the organization a worldview oriented toward the prior Imperial regime and the Hohenzollern monarchy predominated, many of its members promoting the Dolchstosslegende ("Stab-in-the-back legend") and the "November Criminals" bias against the Weimar Coalition government. Its journal, Der Stahlhelm, was edited by Count Hans-Jürgen von Blumenthal, later hanged for his part in the 20 July plot. Financing was provided by the Deutscher Herrenklub, an association of German industrialists and business magnates with elements of the East Elbian landed gentry (Junker). Jewish veterans were denied admission and formed a separate Reichsbund jüdischer Frontsoldaten. After the failed Kapp Putsch of 1920, the organization gained further support from dissolved Freikorps units. In 1923 the former DNVP politician Theodor Duesterberg joined Der Stahlhelm and quickly rose to Seldte's deputy and long–time rival. In 1923, Stahlhelm units were actively involved in the formally passive resistance struggle of paramilitary formations against the French occupation of the Ruhr area. These units were responsible for numerous acts of sabotage on French trains and military posts. One of the volunteers operating in the Ruhr area was Paul Osthold, who headed the German Institute for Technical Work Training (DINTA) in the 1930s and became one of the leading representatives of German employers' associations in the Federal Republic of Germany. From 1924 on, in several subsidiary organizations, veterans with front line experience as well as new recruits would provide a standing armed force in support of the Reichswehr beyond the 100,000 men allowed. With 500,000 members in 1930, the league was the largest paramilitary organization of Weimar Republic. In the 1920s Der Stahlhelm received political support from Fascist Italy's Duce Benito Mussolini. Although Der Stahlhelm was officially a non-party entity and above party politics, after 1929 it took on an anti-republican and anti-democratic character. Its goals were a German dictatorship, the preparation of a revanchist program, and the direction of local anti-parliamentarian action. For political reasons its members distinguished themselves from the Nazi Party (NSDAP) as "German Fascists". Among their further demands were the establishment of a Greater Germanic People's Reich, struggle against Social Democracy, the "mercantilism of the Jews" and the general liberal democratic worldview, and attempted without success to place candidates favorable to the politics of a renewed expansion to the East. In 1929 Der Stahlhelm supported the "Peoples' Initiative" of DNVP leader Alfred Hugenberg and the Nazis to initiate a German referendum against the Young Plan on World War I reparations in order to overthrow the government of Chancellor Hermann Müller. In 1931 they proposed another referendum for the dissolution of the Prussian Landtag. After both these referenda failed to reach the 50% necessary to be declared valid, the organization in October 1931 joined another attempt of DNVP, NSDAP and Pan-German League to form the Harzburg Front, a united right-wing campaign against the Weimar Republic and Chancellor Heinrich Brüning. However, the front soon broke up and in the first round of the 1932 German presidential election, Theodor Duesterberg ran as Der Stahlhelm candidate against incumbent Paul von Hindenburg and Adolf Hitler. Facing a massive Nazi campaign reproaching him with a non-pure "Aryan" ancestry he only gained 6.8% of the votes cast. Nazi Germany (1933–1935) After the Nazi seizure of power on 30 January 1933, the new authorities urged for a merger into the party's Sturmabteilung (SA) paramilitary organization. Seldte joined the Hitler Cabinet as Reich Minister for Labour, prevailing against Duesterberg. Der Stahlhelm still tried to keep its distance from the Nazis, and in the run-up to the German federal election of 5 March 1933 formed the united conservative "Black-White-Red Struggle Front" (Kampffront Schwarz-Weiß-Rot) with the DNVP and the Agricultural League, reaching 8% of the votes. On 27 March 1933, an SA raid with the intention of disarmament of Stahlhelm members in Braunschweig, who under the command of Werner Schrader had forged an alliance with scattered Republican Reichsbanner forces. The violent incident initiated by Nazi Minister Dietrich Klagges and later called Der Stahlhelm Putsch was characteristic of the pressure applied by the Nazis on Der Stahlhelm in this period, mistrusting the organization due to its fundamentally monarchist character. In April Seldte applied for membership in the NSDAP and also joined the SA, from August 1933 in the rank of an Obergruppenführer. On 27 April 1933, Seldte had officially declared Der Stahlhelm subordinate to Hitler's command. The attempts by the Nazis to integrate Der Stahlhelm succeeded in 1934 in the course of the "voluntary" Gleichschaltung () process: the organization was renamed Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher frontkämpfer-Bund (Stahlhelm) () (NSDFBSt) while large parts were merged into the SA as Wehrstahlhelm, Reserve I and Reserve II contingents. The remaining NSDFBSt local groups were finally dissolved by decree of Adolf Hitler on 7 November 1935. Seldte's rival Duesterberg was interned at Dachau concentration camp upon the Night of the Long Knives at the beginning of July 1934, but released soon after. Ranks and insignia See also Weimar paramilitary groups References Further reading External links Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten at the German Historical Museum, Berlin Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten at Flags of the World 1918 establishments in Germany 1935 disestablishments in Germany Aftermath of World War I in Germany Clubs and societies in Germany Defunct paramilitary organizations German National People's Party German veterans' organisations Organisations based in Berlin Organizations established in 1918 Organizations disestablished in 1935 Organizations of the German Revolution of 1918–1919 Political advocacy groups in Germany	[ 0.4221022129058838, -0.10440926253795624, -0.3057481348514557, -0.058636195957660675, -1.1771959066390991, -0.22651773691177368, 0.4041058421134949, -0.11259735375642776, 0.04167873412370682, -0.31389883160591125, -0.2334025800228119, 0.16045242547988892, 0.17326314747333527, 0.27575281262397766, -0.6320634484291077, 0.047277629375457764, 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235988	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bichir	Bichir	Bichirs and the reedfish comprise Polypteridae , a family of archaic ray-finned fishes and the only family in the order Polypteriformes . All the species occur in freshwater habitats in tropical Africa and the Nile River system, mainly swampy, shallow floodplains and estuaries. Cladistia, polypterids and their fossil relatives, are considered the sister group to all other extant ray-finned fishes (Actinopteri). Anatomy Polypterids are elongated fish with a unique series of dorsal finlets which vary in number from seven to 18, instead of a single dorsal fin. Each of the dorsal finlets has bifid (double-edged) tips, and are the only fins with spines; the rest of the fins are composed of soft rays. The body is covered in thick, bonelike, and rhombic (ganoid) scales. Their jaw structure more closely resembles that of the tetrapods than that of the teleost fishes. Bichirs have a number of other primitive characteristics, including fleshy pectoral fins superficially similar to those of lobe-finned fishes. They also have a pair of slit-like spiracles on the top of their heads that are used to breathe air, two gular plates, and paired ventral lungs (the left lung shorter than the right). Four pairs of gill arches are present. Polypterids have a maximum body length ranging from to over depending on specific species and morphology. Diet and traits Polypterids are nocturnal and feed on small vertebrates, crustaceans, and insects. Common Aquarium Diet includes Bloodworms (Chironomidae Larvae). Polypterids are known to have extraordinary olfactory ability. Polypterid reproduction consists of the female laying anywhere from 100 to 300 eggs over the span of a few days, and subsequent fertilization by the male. Air breathing Polypterids possess paired lungs which connect to the esophagus via a glottis. They are facultative air-breathers, accessing surface air to breathe when the water they inhabit is poorly oxygenated. Their lungs are highly vascularized to facilitate gas exchange. Deoxygenated arterial blood is brought to the lungs by paired pulmonary arteries, which branch from the fourth efferent branchial arteries (artery from the fourth gill arch), and oxygenated blood leaves the lungs in pulmonary veins. Unlike most lungfish and tetrapods, their lungs are smooth sacs instead of alveolated tissue. Polypterids are unique in that they breathe using recoil aspiration. Polypterids appear to prefer breathing air via their spiracles when undisturbed or in extremely shallow waters where they are unable to incline their body enough to breathe air through their mouth. Polypterids as aquarium specimens Polypterids are popular subjects of public and large hobby aquaria. They are sometimes called dragon bichir or dragon fin in pet shops for a more appealing name due to their dragon-like appearance. Though predatory, they are otherwise peaceful, preferring to lie on the bottom, and make good tankmates with other species large enough to not be prey. Some aquarists note that catfish attack (but do not kill) polypterids. Polypterids in captivity have life expectancies up to 10 years. Classification In addition to the extinct genus Bawitius, the two living genera, Polypterus and Erpetoichthys, have 12 extant species: Order Polypteriformes Suborder Polypterioidei Clade Salamandrophysida Family Polypteridae Genus †Bawitius Grandstaff et al. 2012 †Bawitius bartheli (Schaal 1984) Grandstaff et al. 2012 - Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) of Egypt Genus †Serenoichthys Dutheil 1999a †Serenoichthys kemkemensis Dutheil 1999a Genus Erpetoichthys J. A. Smith, 1865 Erpetoichthys calabaricus J. A. Smith, 1865 (reedfish) Genus Polypterus Lacépède, 1803 †Polypterus dageti Gayet & Meunier 1996 †Polypterus faraou Otero et al., 2006 — late Miocene †Polypterus sudanensis Werner & Gayet 1997 Retropinnis group Polypterus retropinnis Vaillant, 1899 (West African bichir) Bichir group Polypterus ansorgii Boulenger, 1910 (Guinean bichir) Polypterus bichir Lacépède, 1803 (Nile bichir) P. b. bichir Lacepède, 1803 P. b. lapradei Steindachner, 1869 P. b. ornatus Arambourg 1948 Polypterus congicus Boulenger, 1898 (Congo bichir) Polypterus endlicheri Heckel, 1847 (saddled bichir) Weeksii group Polypterus mokelembembe Schliewen & Schäfer, 2006 (Mokèlé-mbèmbé bichir) Polypterus ornatipinnis Boulenger, 1902 (ornate bichir) Polypterus weeksii Boulenger, 1898 (mottled bichir) Senegalus group Polypterus delhezi Boulenger, 1899 (barred bichir) Polypterus polli J. P. Gosse, 1988 Polypterus palmas Ayres, 1850 (shortfin bichir) P. p. buettikoferi Steindachner, 1891 P. p. palmas Ayres, 1850 Polypterus senegalus Cuvier, 1829 (gray bichir) P. s. meridionalis Poll, 1941 (most likely a variant of P. s. senegalus) P. s. senegalus Cuvier, 1829 Polypterus teugelsi Britz, 2004 (Cross River bichir) References External links FishBase entry for Polypteridae Fish of Africa Extant Cretaceous first appearances Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte	[ -0.008196048438549042, -0.07730422168970108, -0.6894242167472839, 0.0953938439488411, -0.44885024428367615, 0.5155304074287415, 0.20642298460006714, -0.11104656755924225, -0.2514565587043762, -0.16964773833751678, 0.35155752301216125, 0.10398588329553604, -0.6776015758514404, 0.11207108944654465, -0.03260616213083267, 0.7283222675323486, 0.12146749347448349, 0.2785711884498596, -0.10369685292243958, -0.2029944509267807, -0.26256728172302246, -0.5363553166389465, 0.13590005040168762, -0.33641788363456726, 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235989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell%20scale	Rockwell scale	The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation hardness of a material. The Rockwell test measures the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load (major load) compared to the penetration made by a preload (minor load). There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale (see below). When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength. History The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1908 by Viennese professor Paul Ludwik in his book Die Kegelprobe (crudely, "the cone test"). The differential-depth method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections. The Brinell hardness test, invented in Sweden, was developed earlier – in 1900 – but it was slow, not useful on fully hardened steel, and left too large an impression to be considered nondestructive. Hugh M. Rockwell (1890–1957) and Stanley P. Rockwell (1886–1940) from Connecticut in the United States co-invented the "Rockwell hardness tester," a differential-depth machine. They applied for a patent on July 15, 1914. The requirement for this tester was to quickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. The application was subsequently approved on February 11, 1919, and holds . At the time of invention, both Hugh and Stanley Rockwell worked for the New Departure Manufacturing Co. of Bristol, CT.<ref>S.W. Kallee: [Stanley Pickett Rockwell Stanley Pickett Rockwell - One of the Inventors of the Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine]. Retrieved on 21 November 2018.</ref> New Departure was a major ball bearing manufacturer which in 1916 became part of United Motors and, shortly thereafter, General Motors Corp. After leaving the Connecticut company, Stanley Rockwell, then in Syracuse, NY, applied for an improvement to the original invention on September 11, 1919, which was approved on November 18, 1924. The new tester holds .S. P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Testing Machine", , Nov 1924. Rockwell moved to West Hartford, CT, and made an additional improvement in 1921. Stanley collaborated with instrument manufacturer Charles H. Wilson of the Wilson-Mauelen Company in 1920 to commercialize his invention and develop standardized testing machines. Stanley started a heat-treating firm circa 1923, the Stanley P. Rockwell Company, which still exists in Hartford, CT. The later-named Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company has changed ownership over the years, and was acquired by Instron Corp. in 1993. Rockwell hardness tester classifications based on Rockwell scales Rockwell hardness tester: HRA, HRB, HRC Superficial Rockwell hardness tester: 15N, 30N, 45N, 15T, 30T, 45T, 15W, 30W, 45W, 15X, 30X, 45X, 15Y, 30Y, 45Y Plastic Rockwell hardness tester: HRE, HRL, HRM Twin Rockwell hardness tester (also named as Rockwell & superficial Rockwell hardness tester): HRA, HRB, HRC,15N, 15T, 15W, 15X, 15Y, 30N, 30T, 30W, 30X, 30Y, 45N, 45T, 45W, 45X, 45Y Models and operation The Rockwell hardness test can be conducted on several various hardness testers. All testers, however, fall under one of three categories. Bench model hardness testers can be found either in a digital or analog model. Digital bench models utilize a digital display and typically take more technical training to be able to operate, whereas the analog models are simpler to operate as well as very accurate and display results on a dial on the front of the machine. All bench model testers are usually found within a workshop or laboratory setting. Other testers are portable, and all portable testers will come in a digital model including a digital results screen similar to that of the bench digital model. Nowadays, companies prefer employees to use these portable testers as they are the easiest and most practical to use. One popular brand among engineers is the Phase portable tester which also includes the options to perform several other types of hardness tests including Brinell, Vickers, and Shore. This proves to be the most efficient form of on-the-go testing throughout a manufacturing setting. This also disregards the need for a conversion chart since all of the work is done within the Phase portable tester. The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor load followed by a major load. The minor load establishes the zero position. The major load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The depth of penetration from the zero datum is measured from a dial, on which a harder material gives a lower measure. That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techniques. The Rockwell test is very cost-effective as it does not use any optical equipment to measure the hardness based on the small indention made, rather all calculations are done within the machine to measure the indention in the specimen, providing a clear result in a manner in which is easy to read and understand once given. This also prevents any reworking or finishing needing to be done to the specimen both before and after testing. However, it is critical to double check specimens as the smallest indentions made from testing could potentially result in incorrect measurements in hardness, leading to catastrophe. After time, the indenter on a Rockwell scale can become inaccurate as well and need replacing to ensure accurate and precise hardness measurements. The equation for Rockwell Hardness is , where d is the depth in mm (from the zero load point), and N and h are scale factors that depend on the scale of the test being used (see following section). It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity arises from its speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation. Legacy Rockwell hardness testers operation steps: Load an initial force: Rockwell hardness test initial test force is ; superficial Rockwell hardness test initial test force is . Load main load: reference below form / table 'Scales and values'. Leave the main load for a "dwell time" sufficient for indentation to come to a halt. Release load; the Rockwell value will typically display on a dial or screen automatically. In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation. Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex surface is to be measured. Scales and values There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the "B" and "C" scales. Both express hardness as an arbitrary dimensionless number. Except for testing thin materials in accordance with A623, the steel indenter balls have been replaced by tungsten carbide balls of the varying diameters. When a ball indenter is used, the letter "W" is used to indicate a tungsten carbide ball was used, and the letter "S" indicates the use of a steel ball. E.g.: 70 HRBW indicates the reading was 70 in the Rockwell B scale using a tungsten carbide indenter. The superficial'' Rockwell scales use lower loads and shallower impressions on brittle and very thin materials. The 45N scale employs a 45-kgf load on a diamond cone-shaped Brale indenter, and can be used on dense ceramics. The 15T scale employs a 15-kgf load on a hardened steel ball, and can be used on sheet metal. The B and C scales overlap, such that readings below HRC 20 and those above HRB 100, generally considered unreliable, need not be taken or specified. Typical values Very hard steel (e.g. chisels, quality knife blades): HRC 55–66 (Hardened High Speed Carbon and Tool Steels such as M2, W2, O1, CPM-M4, and D2, as well as many of the newer powder metallurgy Stainless Steels such as CPM-S30V, CPM-154, ZDP-189. There are alloys that hold a HRC upwards 68-70, such as the Hitachi developed HAP72. These are extremely hard, but also somewhat brittle.) Axes: about HRC 45–55 Brass: HRB 55 (Low brass, UNS C24000, H01 Temper) to HRB 93 (Cartridge Brass, UNS C26000 (260 Brass), H10 Temper) Several other scales, including the extensive A-scale, are used for specialized applications. There are special scales for measuring case-hardened specimens. Standards International (ISO) ISO 6508-1: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 1: Test method (scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, N, T) ISO 6508-2: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 2: Verification and calibration of testing machines and indenters ISO 6508-3: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 3: Calibration of reference blocks ISO 2039-2: Plastics—Determination of hardness—Part 2: Rockwell hardness US standard (ASTM International) ASTM E18: Standard methods for Rockwell hardness and Rockwell superficial hardness of metallic materials See also Brinell hardness test Hardness comparison Holger F. Struer Knoop hardness test Leeb Rebound Hardness Test Meyer hardness test Mineral Shore durometer Vickers hardness test References External links Video on the Rockwell hardness test Hardness Conversion Chart Rockwell to brinell conversion chart Hardness Conversion Table Rockwell Hardness Testing Dimensionless numbers Hardness tests	[ -0.039055317640304565, 0.40572378039360046, -0.16345161199569702, 0.010842234827578068, 0.1377914696931839, 0.3768821060657501, 0.21657641232013702, 0.2254917323589325, -0.24312229454517365, -0.8479428291320801, -0.13414989411830902, 0.4655287563800812, 0.41597801446914673, 0.6208380460739136, -0.29722344875335693, 0.7980312705039978, 0.321066290140152, 0.08482031524181366, -0.01930893585085869, 0.2508227527141571, -0.296913743019104, -0.2752384543418884, 0.5637489557266235, -0.6569331884384155, 0.01850908435881138, -0.09894301742315292, 0.20380759239196777, 0.2885567843914032, -0.13203120231628418, 0.24763703346252441, -0.07336518913507462, 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235991	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Lord%20of%20the%20Treasury	First Lord of the Treasury	The First Lord of the Treasury is the head of the commission exercising the ancient office of Lord High Treasurer in the United Kingdom, and is by convention also the prime minister. This office is not equivalent to the usual position of the "treasurer" in other governments; the closer equivalent of a treasurer in the United Kingdom is chancellor of the exchequer, who is the second lord of the Treasury. Lords of the Treasury As of the beginning of the 17th century, the running of the Treasury was frequently entrusted to a commission, rather than to a single individual. Since 1714, it has permanently been in commission. The commissioners have always since that date been referred to as Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, and adopted ordinal numbers to describe their seniority. Eventually in the middle of the same century, the first lord of the Treasury came to be seen as the natural head of the overall ministry running the country, and, as of the time of Robert Walpole (Whig), began to be known, unofficially, as the prime minister. The term prime minister was initially, but decreasingly, used as a term of derogation; it was first used officially in a royal warrant only in 1905. William Pitt the Younger said the prime minister "ought to be the person at the head of the finances"—though Pitt also served as chancellor of the exchequer for the entirety of his time as prime minister, so his linkage of the finance portfolio to the premiership was wider than merely proposing the occupation of the first lordship by the prime minister. Prior to 1841 the first lord of the Treasury also held the office of chancellor of the exchequer unless he was a peer and thus barred from that office; in this case, the second lord of the Treasury usually served as chancellor. As of 1841, the chancellor has always been second lord of the Treasury when he was not also prime minister. By convention, the other Lords Commissioners of the Treasury are also Government Whips in the House of Commons. Official residence 10 Downing Street is the official residence of the first lord of the Treasury, not the office of prime minister. Chequers, a country house in Buckinghamshire, is the official country residence of the prime minister, used as a weekend and holiday home, although the residence has also been used by other senior members of government. List of first lords (1714–1905) Much of this list overlaps with the list of prime ministers of the United Kingdom, but there are some notable differences, principally concerning Lord Salisbury, who was prime minister but not first lord in 1885–86, 1887–92 and 1895–1902. Those first lords who were simultaneously prime minister are indicated in bold; those who were considered prime minister only during part of their term are indicated in bold italic. Thereafter the posts of first lord and prime minister have continually been held by the same person . See also Chief Baron of the Exchequer List of Lords Commissioners of the Treasury Minister for the Civil Service, by convention also the Prime Minister Secretary to the Treasury Notes References Sources Treasury Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom British Prime Minister's Office 1714 establishments in Great Britain	[ -0.027996281161904335, -0.11483459919691086, -0.25545409321784973, -0.05267559364438057, -0.18107104301452637, 0.09828173369169235, -0.0906432494521141, 0.2779749631881714, -0.3687065541744232, -0.11066281050443649, -0.5729967951774597, 0.45651161670684814, -0.14336468279361725, 0.5234002470970154, 0.18514928221702576, -0.536856472492218, 0.6949200630187988, 0.21724377572536469, 0.17730441689491272, -0.9609314799308777, -0.0766424909234047, 0.3190558850765228, -0.07291041314601898, -0.12250372022390366, 0.34021052718162537, 0.05576944351196289, 0.598284125328064, -0.21153749525547028, -0.3403854966163635, -0.4210454821586609, -0.17443130910396576, 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235994	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89leuth%C3%A8re%20Ir%C3%A9n%C3%A9e%20du%20Pont	Éleuthère Irénée du Pont	Éleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours (; ; 24 June 1771 – 31 October 1834) was a French-American chemist and industrialist who founded the gunpowder manufacturer E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. His descendants, the du Pont family, have been one of America's richest and most prominent families since the 19th century, with generations of influential businessmen, politicians and philanthropists. In 1807, du Pont was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in his adopted hometown of Philadelphia. Early life and family Du Pont was born 24 June 1771, in Paris, the son of Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours and Nicole-Charlotte Marie-Louise le Dée de Rencourt. His father was a political economist who had been elevated to the nobility in 1784 by letters patent granted by King Louis XVI, allowing him to carry the honorable de Nemours suffix. Growing up on his father's estate, "Bois des Fossés", near Égreville, young du Pont was enthusiastic about his studies in most subjects, and showed particular interest in explosives. Du Pont married Sophie Dalmas (1775–1828) in 1791, and they had eight children. Du Pont sailed before his family and landed at Newport, Rhode Island on 1 January 1800, along with his father and his brother's family. By 1802, he had established both his business and his family home, Eleutherian Mills, on the Brandywine Creek in Delaware. 1 January is the anniversary of the arrival of the du Pont family in America, and this date is still celebrated by its descendants. Du Pont was a Huguenot. Career in France In the Fall of 1785, du Pont entered the Collège Royal in Paris. Two years later, he was accepted by the friend of his father and noted chemist Antoine Lavoisier as a student in the Régie des poudres, the government agency responsible for the manufacture of gunpowder. It was from Lavoisier that he gained his expertise in nitrate extraction and manufacture. He studied "advanced explosives production techniques" After a brief apprenticeship, he took a position at the government powder works in Essones but quit after Lavoisier left. In 1791, du Pont began to help his father manage their small publishing house in Paris, where they published a republican newspaper in support of governmental reforms in France. Despite being a soft-spoken chemist, he also had a strong sense of social order. Du Pont was a member of the pro-Revolution national guard and supported the Jacobins. However, on 20 August 1792, both du Pont and his father participated in protecting the escape of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette when the Tuileries Palace was stormed. His father angered fellow revolutionaries by refusing to go along with the guillotine execution of Louis XVI, and the two men's moderate political views proved to be a liability in revolutionary France. His father was arrested in 1794, only avoiding execution because of the end of the Reign of Terror. In September 1797, du Pont and his father spent a night in La Force prison while their home and presses were ransacked. These events led his father to lose hope in the political situation in France, and so he began making plans to move their family to America and aspired to create a model community of French émigrés. On 2 October 1799, the du Pont family sold their publishing house and set sail for the United States. They reached Rhode Island on 1 January 1800 and began to settle in the home the eldest du Pont had secured in Bergen Point, New Jersey. They soon set up an office in New York City to decide what their new line of business would be, but ironically mild-mannered and introverted Éleuthère Irénée was not included in much of these plans. However, he soon began to realize the possibilities that his childhood apprenticeship with Lavoisier would allow him and his family in America. E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company Du Pont had no thought of becoming involved with gunpowder manufacture again upon his arrival in the United States, but he brought with him an expertise in chemistry and gunpowder making, during a time when the quality of American-made gunpowder was very poor. Delaware legend holds that he decided to go into the gunpowder business during a fateful hunting trip with Major Louis de Tousard, a former French artillery officer then employed by the United States Army to procure gunpowder supplies. Du Pont's gun misfired as he attempted to shoot a bird, which caused him to reflect on his powder-making apprenticeship with Lavoisier as a youth in France. Du Pont commented on the inferior quality of the American-made powder they were using for hunting despite its high price. At his request, Tousard arranged a tour of an American powder plant. He quickly deduced that the saltpeter being used was of good enough quality, however, the American refining process was poor and inefficient compared with the techniques he had learned in France. He began to think that he could use his experience from France to manufacture gunpowder of a higher quality in the United States and reform the current industry standard for refinery. With his father's blessing, he began to assemble capital for the construction of the first powder mills, and returned to France in the beginning of 1801 to procure the necessary financing and equipment. The act of association was signed on 21 April 1801, and the company was christened E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company since it was its namesake's ingenuity that had created this venture. His gunpowder company was capitalized at $36,000 with 18 shares at $2,000 each. He purchased a site on Brandywine Creek for $6,740. There were several small buildings and a dam with foundations for a cotton-spinning mill which had been destroyed by fire. The first gunpowder was produced in April 1804. Death Du Pont died on 31 October 1834 in Philadelphia. The cause of death was unspecified, due to "conflicting reports of either cholera or a heart attack." He was buried in the Du Pont de Nemours Cemetery on the family property in Wilmington. Legacy The company du Pont founded would become one of the largest and most successful American corporations. By the mid-19th century it was the largest supplier of gunpowder to the U.S. military, and supplied as much as 40 percent of the powder used by the Union Army forces during the Civil War. His sons, Alfred V. du Pont (1798–1856) and Henry du Pont (1812–1889), managed the plant after his death, assisted by his son-in-law, Antoine Bidermann. His grandson, Lammot du Pont I (1831–1884), was the first president of the United States Gunpowder Trade Association, popularly known as the Powder Trust. See also Du Pont family Hagley Museum and Library Eleutharian Mills References Further reading Auguste Moutié, Honoré Théodoric Paul Joseph d'Albert duc de Luynes, "Cartulaire de l'Abbaye de Notre-Dame de la Roche", Levy-Saint-Nom, France. Notre-Dame de la Roche (Augustinian abbey), Paris, 1862 External links Bio at the Du Pont company website The DuPont Company on the Brandywine (A digital exhibit produced by the Hagley Library that includes the influence of Eleuthere Irenee du Pont in the founding of the company] Eleuthère Irénée du Pont Papers at Hagley Museum and Library 1771 births 1834 deaths Eleuthere Irenee du Pont People from Greenville, Delaware Scientists from Paris People in the chemical industry People of the French Revolution French emigrants to the United States 19th-century French chemists 19th-century American chemists Eleuthere Irenee du Pont Huguenots	[ -0.2164383828639984, 0.7953985929489136, -0.5340589284896851, 0.3099246621131897, 0.3033459186553955, 0.6109404563903809, 0.4985992908477783, -0.35741865634918213, 0.3588242530822754, -0.35075727105140686, 0.0014310298720374703, 0.31395861506462097, -0.4303591847419739, 0.7276818752288818, -0.020016802474856377, 0.03975725546479225, 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236001	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe%20Municipal%20Transportation%20Bureau	Kobe Municipal Transportation Bureau	is an agency of the city government of Kobe, Japan that operates municipal subways and city buses. Previously, it also operated city trams. Kobe Municipal Subway Seishin-Yamate Line Kaigan Line Hokushin Line City Bus Tram The city tram of Kobe opened in 1910 by a private company and was purchased by the city government in 1917. As of 1952, it operated 35.6 km of tracks. The tram system was totally abolished by 1971. Between 1917 and 1971, the trams operated approximately 600 million kilometers and transported 5.6 billion passengers. 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236002	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel%20Luberza%20Oppenheimer	Isabel Luberza Oppenheimer	{{Infobox person \| honorific_prefix = Madam \| name = Isabel "la Negra" Luberza Oppenheimer \| image = Isabel_Luberza_Oppenheimer_("Isabel_la_Negra")_del_Barrio_Maragüez,_en_Ponce,_Puerto_Rico_(DSC05441C).jpg \| imagesize = \| caption = Isabel "la Negra" Luberza Oppenheimer, ca. 1950 \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Ponce, Puerto Rico \| death_date = \| occupation = Brothel owner \| death_place = Barrio Maragüez, Ponce, Puerto Rico \| death_cause = Shooting \| resting_place = Cementerio Civil de Ponce \| resting_place_coordinates = \| years_active = Mid 1930s - 1960s \| employer = Self-employed \| net_worth = $500,000 USD<ref name="salinas">Se resolvio el Caso de 'Isabel la Negra'!, foro.univision.com, 25 August 2006. (Commentary on Libres de pagar a Hacienda grupo herederos de "Isabel La Negra" by Mayra Santos Febres, El Nuevo Día. San Juan, Puerto Rico; retrieved 28 July 2012.</ref> \| height = 64" (5'4") \| children = Manuel Morales (adopted) }} Isabel Luberza Oppenheimer (23 July 1901 – 4 January 1974), better known as "Isabel la Negra", was a Puerto Rican brothel owner and madam in barrio Maragüez, Ponce, Puerto Rico.Ramos Rosado, María Esther. La mujer negra en la literatura puertorriqueña. San Juan, P.R.: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1999. Her name and her brothel, Elizabeth's Dancing Club, became part of Puerto Rican folklore both during her life and posthumously. Early years and youth Isabel Luberza Oppenheimer was born in the San Anton neighborhood of Ponce, Puerto Rico, on 23 July 1901. Apart from her business as a madam, well documented in many Puerto Rican newspapers such as El Dia and El Vocero, not much is known about her early life. One widely circulated version is that Isabel left home as a young teenager to live with a wealthy man only to find out that he was married. Another version says she dated and married a much older man, a wealthy American. A well researched and documented story of her life is presented by the prominent criminal attorney and businessman José Ángel “Chiro” Cangiano. In his legal documentary "Receso del Tribunal: Vivencias Judiciales of Jose Angel Cangiano" ("Courtroom Recess: Judicial Experiences of Jose Angel Cangiano"), he debunks those stories and documents Isabel's true story: As a young girl of the poor lower class in Ponce, Isabel fell in love with the son of a wealthy upper class homeowner in the city where her mother worked as a housemaid. The elegant gentleman, a young attorney, returned her love in various ways, including purchasing her a home where he would later enjoy her cooking and would occasionally also invite his professional friends, including attorneys, judges, and prosecutors, for socializing with their wives. Their romance, however, ended abruptly when Isabel, walking downtown with her cousin Norma, recognized her wealthy boyfriend as the groom in the nuptial caravan that passed her during her boyfriend's unannounced marriage to another girl, also a member of Ponce's upper class. Emotionally affected by the experience and "in a bath of tears", Isabel told her cousin Norma that "the man that from that day hence wants to enter my house has to pay a charge." Thus developed the beginnings of Isabel as a brothel owner. Business and career From the late 1930s to the mid-1960s, she owned and operated her bordello in the municipality of Ponce. At that time prostitution was tolerated in Puerto Rico. Her bordello was allegedly visited by politicians, businessmen, and clerics, although this remains unconfirmed. Dubbed by the public Isabel la Negra, she declared herself "Madame" of her brothel. Isabel had two brothels: one in Barrio San Anton and another one in Barrio Maraguez. Some sources claim that, while her brothel businesses made her quite wealthy, the Catholic Church did not accept her donations because of her past and the nature of her profession; but others state the she made many numerous well-received and significant contributions to the Catholic Church in Ponce. Death Isabel la Negra was shot dead on 4 January 1974, an innocent bystander of a drug-related homicide which occurred near one of her establishments. She was 72 years old. She was buried at Cementerio Civil de Ponce. The Catholic Church, which she had allegedly supported for many years, refused to accept her body into the Ponce Cathedral as part of the ceremonies for her burial. In spite of, and some say as a consequence of, this over 13,000 people attended her funeral. Literary and media representations Several of Puerto Rico's most important authors and filmmakers have been inspired by Isabel Luberza Oppenheimer's life and made works based on her experiences. In 1975, Rosario Ferré and Manuel Ramos Otero published two stories about Isabel la Negra in the literary journal Zona de carga y descarga. These stories were later reprinted in short-story collections by each author.Ramos Otero, Manuel. "La última plena que bailó Luberza", El cuento de la Mujer del Mar, pp. 47-68. Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1979. In 1979, a film about her life was released, starring Míriam Colón as Isabel, with José Ferrer, Raul Julia, Miguel Ángel Suárez and Henry Darrow. The film was titled A Life of Sin, and was directed by Efraín López Neris. In 2006, Mayra Santos-Febres published a novel based on the life of Isabel la Negra titled Nuestra Señora de la Noche. The novel was published by Espasa-Calpe in Madrid, Spain (). Legacy There is a street in Ponce, crossed by Papo Franceschi street, and named to the memory of Isabel La Negra at Barrio San Antón, the community where Isabel la Negra was born and raised. See also List of Puerto Ricans German immigration to Puerto Rico Afro–Puerto Ricans Notes Footnotes References Further reading Fay Fowlie de Flores. Ponce, Perla del Sur: Una Bibliografía Anotada. Segunda Edición. 1997. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Universidad de Puerto Rico en Ponce. p. 108. Item 555. "Isabel, La Negra, la prensa, y la leyenda." Avance. 21 January 1974. pp. 14–18. Fay Fowlie de Flores. Ponce, Perla del Sur: Una Bibliografía Anotada. Segunda Edición. 1997. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Universidad de Puerto Rico en Ponce. p. 121. Item 608. Radames Rivera-Lugo. "Falsas memorias ponceñas." Claridad (Suplemento Ponce Es Ponce.'' 14 July 1993. p. 9. 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236007	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary%20transformation	Unitary transformation	In mathematics, a unitary transformation is a transformation that preserves the inner product: the inner product of two vectors before the transformation is equal to their inner product after the transformation. Formal definition More precisely, a unitary transformation is an isomorphism between two Hilbert spaces. In other words, a unitary transformation is a bijective function where and are Hilbert spaces, such that for all and in . Properties A unitary transformation is an isometry, as one can see by setting in this formula. Unitary operator In the case when and are the same space, a unitary transformation is an automorphism of that Hilbert space, and then it is also called a unitary operator. Antiunitary transformation A closely related notion is that of antiunitary transformation, which is a bijective function between two complex Hilbert spaces such that for all and in , where the horizontal bar represents the complex conjugate. See also Antiunitary Orthogonal transformation Time reversal Unitary group Unitary operator Unitary matrix Wigner's Theorem Unitary transformations in quantum mechanics Linear algebra Functional analysis ru:Унитарное преобразование	[ -0.18242885172367096, -0.2837646007537842, 0.01893039606511593, -0.23184877634048462, -0.4394335150718689, 0.042858656495809555, -0.16486090421676636, -0.1751805990934372, -0.05438833311200142, -0.5614606142044067, -0.4978049099445343, 0.4102848470211029, -0.31949570775032043, 0.1375311315059662, -0.189638152718544, 0.35950222611427307, 0.4839070737361908, 0.29253458976745605, -0.4833854138851166, -0.5996213555335999, 0.5293259620666504, 0.6369768381118774, 0.2862529158592224, -0.20398685336112976, 0.023731905966997147, -0.19620868563652039, 0.543073296546936, -0.040242817252874374, 0.09108191728591919, 0.6947991251945496, -0.3021152913570404, 0.4485348165035248, 0.050753772258758545, 0.15115095674991608, 0.2907831370830536, 0.14175982773303986, 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236010	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipi	Tipi	A tepee ( ), also spelled teepee or less commonly tipi, and often called a lodge in older English writings, is a conical tent, traditionally made of animal skins upon wooden poles. Modern tepees usually have a canvas covering. A tepee is distinguished from other conical tents by the smoke flaps at the top of the structure. Historically, the tepee has been used by some Indigenous peoples of the Plains in the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies of North America, notably the seven sub-tribes of the Sioux, among the Iowa people, the Otoe and Pawnee, and among the Blackfeet, Crow, Assiniboines, Arapaho, and Plains Cree. They are also traditional on the other side of the Rocky Mountains by tribes such as the Yakama and the Cayuse. They are still in use in many of these communities, though now primarily for ceremonial purposes rather than daily living. While Native American cultures and civilizations and First Nation band governments from other regions have used other types of dwellings (pueblos, wigwams, and longhouses), tepees are often stereotypically and incorrectly associated with all Native Americans in the United States and Aboriginal Canadians. The tepee is durable, provides warmth and comfort in winter, is cool in the heat of summer, and is dry during heavy rains. Tepees can be disassembled and packed away quickly when people need to relocate and can be reconstructed quickly upon settling in a new area. Historically, this portability was important to Plains Indians with their at-times nomadic lifestyle. A similar structure, the lavvu, is used by the Indigenous Sámi people of northern Europe. Etymology and nomenclature The word tepee comes into English from the Lakota language. The wigwam or "wickiup", a dome-shaped shelter typically made of bark layered on a pole-structure, was also used by various tribes, especially for hunting camps. The term wigwam has often been incorrectly used to refer to a conical skin tepee. The conventional translation in French and English for all indigenous dwellings at one time was "lodge", resulting in many compounds and place names such as sweatlodge, lodgepole pine, Red Lodge, and so on. Types and utility Structure A typical family tepee is a conical, portable structure with two adjustable smoke flaps, multiple poles (historically from long) called lodge poles. Lewis H. Morgan noted that, The frame consists of thirteen poles from fifteen to eighteen feet in length, which, after being tied together at the small ends, are raised upright with a twist so as to cross the poles above the fastening. They are then drawn apart at the large ends and adjusted upon the ground in the rim of a circle usually ten feet in diameter. A number of untanned and tanned buffalo skins, stitched together in a form adjustable to the frame, are drawn around it and lashed together, as shown in the figure. The lower edges are secured to the ground with tent-pins. At the top there is an extra skin adjusted as a collar, so as to be open on the windward side to facilitate the exit of the smoke. A low opening is left for a doorway, which is covered with an extra skin used as a drop. The fire-pit and arrangements for beds are the same as in the Ojibwa lodge, grass being used in the place of spruce or hemlock twigs. Lodgepole pine is the preferred wood in the Northern and Central Plains and red cedar in the Southern Plains. Tepees have a detachable cover over the structure. The cover has historically been made of buffalo hide, an optional skin or cloth lining, and a canvas or bison calf skin door. Modern lodges are more often made of canvas. Ropes (historically raw hide) and wooden pegs are required to bind the poles, close the cover, attach the lining and door, and anchor the resulting structure to the ground. Tepees are distinguished from other tents by two crucial elements: the opening at the top and the smoke flaps, which allow the dwellers to heat themselves and cook with an open fire; and the lining that is primarily used in the winter, which insulates. Tepees were designed to be easily set up or taken down to allow camps to be moved to follow game migrations, especially the bison. When dismantled the tepee poles were used to construct a dog- or later horse-pulled travois on which additional poles and tepee cover were placed. Tepee covers are made by sewing together strips of canvas or tanned hide and cutting out a semicircular shape from the resulting surface. Trimming this shape yields a door and the smoke flaps that allow the dwellers to control the chimney effect to expel smoke from their fires. Old style traditional linings were hides, blankets, and rectangular pieces of cloth hanging about above the ground tied to the poles or a rope. Decoration Historically, most tepees in a village would not be painted. Painted tepees often depicted note-worthy historical battles and often featured geometric portrayals of celestial bodies and animal designs. Sometimes tepees have been painted to depict personal experiences such as war hunting, a dream or vision. When depicting visions, "ceremonies and prayers were first offered, and then the dreamer recounted his dream to the priests and wise men of the community. Those known to be skilled painters were consulted, and the new design was made to fit anonymously within the traditional framework of the tribe's painted tipis." See also Chum (tent), a similar structure used by various peoples from northwestern Siberia to northern Mongolia. Goahti, a somewhat similar structure used by the Sami people of northern Scandinavia Oca, a typical Brazilian indigenous housing; Hogan Igloo Lavvu, a similar structure used by the Sámi people of northern Scandinavia List of human habitation forms Longhouse The Tepee Plains hide painting Wigwam Motel Yurt Lone Teepee, a historic place in Montana, US List of house types References and notes General Holley, Linda A. Tipis, Tepees, Teepees: History and Design of the Cloth Tipi. Gibbs-Smith, 2007. Reginald Laubin, Gladys Laubin, Stanley Vestal, The Indian Tipi: its History, Construction, and Use. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989, . American Anthropologist. Vol. 16; No. 1. American Anthropological Association of Washington, 1914. Citations Notes External links Simply Differently.org: Tipi, Tepee building resource, how-to manuals and online calculator for canvas lanes Instructions for Setting Up a Sioux Tipi Creepy Teepee Mongolia Explained Indigenous culture of the Great Plains Indigenous architecture House types Portable buildings and shelters Traditional Native American dwellings Tents Lakota words and phrases Western (genre) staples and terminology	[ 0.7331294417381287, 0.05198196694254875, -0.4959999620914459, 0.40778303146362305, 0.13184602558612823, 0.35317903757095337, 0.6691068410873413, -0.09892334043979645, -0.5239765048027039, -0.25293830037117004, -0.5406463742256165, -0.13373446464538574, -0.2337031364440918, 0.21076007187366486, -0.8642125129699707, 0.40146103501319885, 0.7343508005142212, 0.162906676530838, -0.5039118528366089, 0.13281065225601196, -0.20798923075199127, -0.5818470120429993, -0.431546151638031, 0.08685135096311569, 0.7220547795295715, 0.19663341343402863, 0.25349217653274536, 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236011	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facelift%20%28disambiguation%29	Facelift (disambiguation)	Facelift is the common name for rhytidectomy, a cosmetic surgery procedure. Facelift or Face Lift may also refer to: Facelift (product), the revival of a product through cosmetic means such as changing its appearance Facelift (automobile), minor revisions to a car model in the middle of its production run Facelift (album), a 1990 album by Alice in Chains Facelift (TV series), a New Zealand comedy show "Face Lift" (CSI), an episode of the television show CSI: Crime Scene Investigation "Facelift", a song by Soft Machine from the album Third "Face Lift", a song by Joni Mitchell from the album Taming the Tiger See also Croydon facelift, a women's hairstyle Debbie Travis' Facelift, a Canadian home-improvement television program Window dressing	[ 0.01387016847729683, 0.47215399146080017, -0.06257433444261551, -0.40470990538597107, -0.06798479706048965, 0.5886371731758118, 0.655624508857727, 0.20321352779865265, -0.6407615542411804, -0.10132697969675064, -0.37383437156677246, 0.6572719216346741, -0.2167988121509552, 0.3101271688938141, -0.8050860166549683, 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236014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byker%20Grove	Byker Grove	Byker Grove is a British teen drama television series which aired between 1989 and 2006 as part of CBBC on BBC One. It was created by writer Adele Rose and executive producer Andrea Wonfor. The show was broadcast at 5:10pm after Newsround (later moved to 5pm). It was aimed at an older teenager and young adult audience, tackling serious and sometimes controversial storylines. History The show ran between 1989 and 2006, and was set in a youth club in the Byker district of Newcastle Upon Tyne, England. In 1987, Wonfor approached soap writer Adele Rose. Together they created a single pilot episode featuring children aged 8–11 at an out-of-school club (transmitted on BBC in 1988). In autumn 1988, Wonfor gained the backing of Anna Home, then Head of the Children's Department at BBC Television. Home gave the go ahead for a run of a series of six 25-minute episodes to be broadcast by the BBC. The age of the main characters was raised to 12–16 after support from first producer-director, Matthew Robinson. The first series centred on young teenagers crossing the bridge from childhood to adulthood. Production Byker Grove was not filmed in the Byker area of Newcastle. The actual youth club set was in Benwell, which is in the west area of the city, Byker being in the east. Byker Metro station (the suburban rail network in Newcastle and the Tyne and Wear area) and other landmarks in the real Byker (such as the Byker Wall and surrounding estate) were used for filming backdrops. The youth club building seen on-screen is The Mitre, which used to be a nightclub and a pub (which was mentioned in a few storylines from episodes in the late 1990s). After the success of the first series (6 episodes, 1989), The Mitre was bought by the BBC's London property department, which then granted Zenith Television a permanent licence to film the series there. Scenes representing Denwell Burn Youth Club for Series 15 were filmed at Raby Street Youth Club, in the buildings next to Byker Primary School. This is the real youth club for the children of Byker. The final series started on 7 October 2006 on the CBBC Channel. Richard Deverell, head of CBBC, was interviewed on Newsround about the decision to axe Byker Grove. Cast Byker Grove launched the careers of Anthony McPartlin ("P.J.") and Declan Donnelly ("Duncan"), who are otherwise known as Ant & Dec, as well as the actress Jill Halfpenny, Donna Air, former CBBC presenter Andrew Hayden-Smith and Emmerdale actors Dale Meeks, Charlie Hardwick, Chelsea Halfpenny, Laura Norton and Victoria Hawkins. Also appearing in the series was the now glamour model Francoise Boufhal ("Ellie Baines") and Charlie Hunnam, who later starred in the American TV series Sons of Anarchy and co-starred in Pacific Rim (2013). The cast and crew from the first 10 years of the show held their first reunion on 19 May 2012 in the Quayside area of Newcastle upon Tyne and on a river boat cruise. The party guests included Ant and Dec, Donna Air, Charlie Hardwick and Andrew Hayden-Smith. Production team The founder producer/director (1989–95) was Matthew Robinson. After being promoted to become executive producer of Byker Grove for two years (1995–97), he became executive producer of EastEnders, then Head of Drama for BBC Wales, and now runs Khmer Mekong Films in Cambodia. Byker Grove was also home to writers such as Catherine Johnson (who went on to pen Mamma Mia!, the ABBA musical) and Matthew Graham (This Life, Doctor Who and co-creator of BBC One's Life on Mars). The first writer was Adele Rose–in Series 1 she wrote episodes 1–4 and 6; her daughter, Carrie Rose, wrote episode 5. The most prolific writer was Brian B. Thompson, who wrote 50 episodes over 12 series. Byker Grove gave Academy Award-winning director Tom Hooper his first break into TV drama when he directed four episodes in 1997. Storylines Byker Grove was not intended for young children, but aimed at a young adult and teenage audience, as it tackled controversial subjects such as drug addiction, child abuse, homelessness, teen pregnancy, homophobia, and abortion. Although some of the action took place outside the youth club, the series was unusual among dramas in that the characters were rarely shown in school. One of the major settings was the foster home run by the kindly but strict Lou Gallagher, the longest-running character. In November 1994, Byker Grove featured the first gay kiss on UK children's television. It broached the subject of "coming out" when Noddy Fishwick kissed his close friend Gary Hendrix at the back of a cinema. This scene caused outrage in the British tabloids and calls for producer Matthew Robinson to be sacked. However, the BBC strongly backed the storyline, which received countrywide support from gay teenagers, many teachers, and parents. The 2004 series saw the character of Bradley agonising over his sexuality and eventually coming out as gay to his girlfriend Sadie, after a romantic holiday together had failed to live up to their expectations. The series frequently depicted life as unjust, with bad things happening to good people, such as Flora's death from a brain tumour, Greg's fall from the roof of the Grove which left him paralysed from the waist down, Jemma Dobson being electrocuted by a faulty electricity mains socket and youth leader Geoff Keegan's death in an accidental gas explosion after 11 years on the show. Byker Grove frequently confronted viewers with repercussions for the characters' actions, often permanent. These ranged from the comical to the tragic; characters who stole and joy-rode cars often died in them, starting with Gill, and ultimately Craig running over Ben Carter. P.J. was blinded during an illicit and unsupervised paintballing session, in which he ignored warnings and removed his face guard, in a scene filmed on location at Aydon Castle near Corbridge. The central storyline of the first three series was the character of London teenager Julie Warner (Lucy Walsh) struggling to fit in and adjust to life in working class Newcastle and her relationship with the rebellious Martin "Gill" Gillespie. In the show's final episode the characters discover that they do not exist and are the creation of unseen characters known as "The Writers" who plan to conclude the show by demolishing the Grove. However numerous present and former Grove members buy enough time for the characters to re-write the ending so that the club will remain open forever, but ultimately fail to stop it being demolished. Until Series 10 (1998) the rival youth club was known as Denton Burn. In Series 13 (2001) rival youth club members were known as the Denwell Burners as they were from a youth club in Denwell Burn. This is a fictitious area of Newcastle upon Tyne, the name coming from a mixture of Benwell and Denton Burn. The bands of Byker Grove A number of musical acts have been spun off from the series. These include: Michelle Charles (under the guise of Charley, which was her character name) – "The Best Thing", "For the Good Times" PJ & Duncan — who became Ant & Dec for The Cult of... album (Singles: "Let's Get Ready to Rhumble", "Better Watch Out", "We're On The Ball") Byker Grooove – girl band starring Donna Air ('Charlie'), Jayni Hoy ('Leah') and Vicky Taylor ('Angel') whose single "Love Your Sexy" reached UK No. 47 in December 1994. Byker Grooove evolved into the duo Crush with Jayni Hoy and Donna Air. (Singles included "Jellyhead" (AU No. 32, UK No. 50) and "Luv'd Up" (UK No. 45) on Telstar Records.) In the United States, where Byker Grove did not air and nor was the Crush duo promoted as being associated with the series, "Jellyhead" reached No. 72 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1996. The song "Jellyhead" also charted in Australia from early February 1997, peaking at No.32 in early April 1997, spending 23 weeks within the ARIA Top 100 Singles chart, 13 of which were in the Top 50. Summer Matthews – aka Emma Miller (Single: "Little Miss Perfect") Point Break, boyband which included Brett Adams and David Oliver, who played Noddy and Marcus respectively. (Singles include "Freakytime" on Eternal Records.) Other bands with links to Byker Grove include: Freefaller – includes member of Point Break Kane Gang – writers of the original theme music, a development from the "Ooh Gary Davies on your radio" jingle for BBC Radio 1. List of characters in Byker Grove Grove staff There have been several youth leaders working at the Grove over the years. The following is a list of all the ones shown on-screen. Grove members This is a list of characters who appeared in the show as members of the Grove from 1989 to 2006. (When surname is not listed, it is either unknown, or was never mentioned in the show) * Indicates character was still in the show when it finished. + In the books that accompanied the series, Duncan's surname was listed as MacDonald until 1992, despite it being stated in the show in his 1st appearance (Series 1, Episode 3) that it is Sperring. Parents Although most of the action took place in the Grove, several characters' home lives and families were also shown. Some families remained in the show for many years. The house next door to the Grove was home to the Dobson family (1990–93) followed by the Turnbulls (1993–97) and then the Watsons (1998–2000). Other long-running families included the O'Hagans, the Carters and the various children at Lou Gallagher's foster home. See also CBBC Grange Hill Children's Ward References External links Geograph Page - The Mitre, Benwell Byker Grove episode guide Byker Grove cast list 1989 British television series debuts 2006 British television series endings 1980s British children's television series 1990s British children's television series 2000s British children's television series BBC children's television shows 1980s British LGBT-related television series English-language television shows Television shows set in Tyne and Wear Television shows set in Newcastle upon Tyne British teen drama television series 1990s British LGBT-related television series 2000s British LGBT-related drama television series	[ 0.18975767493247986, -0.0738806277513504, 0.44606488943099976, -0.15230853855609894, 0.10579897463321686, 0.09991300851106644, 0.20632950961589813, 0.20681969821453094, 0.060264602303504944, 0.45263099670410156, -0.1877097636461258, -0.18825332820415497, 0.3111814558506012, 0.49251243472099304, 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236016	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Stafford	Henry Stafford	Henry Stafford may refer to: Sir Henry Stafford (c.1425–1471), 3rd husband of Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1455–1483), executed for conspiring against Richard III Henry Stafford, 1st Baron Stafford (1501–1563), English baron Henry Stafford, 2nd Baron Stafford (d. 1566), English baron Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire (1479–1533), English nobleman, brother of Henry VIII's mistress, Anne Stafford Henry Stafford-Jerningham, 9th Baron Stafford (1802-1844) Henry Stafford Northcote, 1st Baron Northcote (1846-1911) British politician William Henry Stafford (1869-1957) U.S. politician William Henry Stafford Jr. (born 1941) U.S. district judge See also Stafford (surname) Harry Stafford (disambiguation) Stafford (disambiguation)	[ -0.21223750710487366, -0.19981028139591217, -0.12093988060951233, 0.045776527374982834, -0.46232151985168457, 0.783048689365387, 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236018	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeh%20Records	Okeh Records	Okeh Records () is an American record label founded by the Otto Heinemann Phonograph Corporation, a phonograph supplier established in 1916, which branched out into phonograph records in 1918. The name was spelled "OkeH" from the initials of Otto K. E. Heinemann but later changed to "OKeh". Since 1926, Okeh has been a subsidiary of Columbia Records, a subsidiary of Sony Music. Okeh is a Jazz imprint distributed by Sony Masterworks, a specialty label of Columbia. Early history Okeh was founded by Otto (Jehuda) Karl Erich Heinemann (Lüneburg, Germany, 20 December 1876 - New York, USA, 13 September 1965) a German-American manager for the U.S. branch of Odeon Records, which was owned by Carl Lindstrom. In 1916, Heinemann incorporated the Otto Heinemann Phonograph Corporation, set up a recording studio and pressing plant in New York City, and started the label in 1918. The first discs were vertical cut, but later the more common lateral-cut method was used. The label's parent company was renamed the General Phonograph Corporation, and the name on its record labels was changed to OKeh. The common 10-inch discs retailed for 75 cents each, the 12-inch discs for $1.25. The company's musical director was Frederick W. Hager, who was also credited under the pseudonym Milo Rega. Okeh issued popular songs, dance numbers, and vaudeville skits similar to other labels, but Heinemann also wanted to provide music for audiences neglected by the larger record companies. Okeh produced lines of recordings in German, Czech, Polish, Swedish, and Yiddish for immigrant communities in the United States. Some were pressed from masters leased from European labels, while others were recorded by Okeh in New York. Okeh's early releases included music by the New Orleans Jazz Band. In 1920, Perry Bradford encouraged Fred Hager, the director of artists and repertoire (A&R), to record blues singer Mamie Smith. The records were popular, and the label issued a series of race records directed by Clarence Williams in New York City and Richard M. Jones in Chicago. From 1921 to 1932, this series included music by Williams, Lonnie Johnson, King Oliver, and Louis Armstrong. Also recording for the label were Bix Beiderbecke, Bennie Moten, Frankie Trumbauer, and Eddie Lang. One of the more popular series was Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven, who recorded about 3 sessions per year between 1925 and 1928, which included popular hits such as "Heebie Jeebies", "Cornet Chop Suey", and "West End Blues". After the success of these records, Armstrong's records were transferred to the popular series as well, which was marketed towards a white audience in 1928. As part of the Carl Lindström Company, Okeh's recordings were distributed by other labels owned by Lindstrom, including Parlophone in the UK. While musicians did not receive much payment for entering the studio, they copyrighted the songs they did record with the hopes that other bands would record the piece; in turn, they would make a steady stream from royalties In 1926, Okeh was sold to Columbia Records. Ownership changed to the American Record Corporation (ARC) in 1934, and the race records series from the 1920s ended. CBS bought the company in 1938. OkeH was a label for rhythm and blues during the 1950s, but jazz albums continued to be released, as in the work of Wild Bill Davis and Red Saunders. The OKeh Laughing Record The OKeh Laughing Record was recorded in Germany by Beka Records by most accounts in 1920, and then later purchased from that record label by OKeh Records in the US. It features who are likely opera singer Lucie Bernardo and Otto Rathke simply laughing for nearly three minutes while accompanied by cornetist Felix Silbers. They recorded six recordings on the same day. It became a best-seller in the US in 1922, and is estimated to have sold around a million records. Okeh Records soon followed with the "Second Laughing Record", "The OKeh Laughing Dance Record" and "The OKeh Crying Record". Other record labels also released similar records. It may have influenced studios to include live audiences and laugh tracks in their shows. It was issued in the UK as The Parlophone Laughing Record and it was featured extensively in the Walter Lantz Productions cartoon short Sh-h-h-h-h-h, the last short directed by Tex Avery. Race records and remote recording General Phonograph Corporation used Mamie Smith's popular song "Crazy Blues" to cultivate a new market in 1920 and they could not keep the record on the shelves because of its popularity. Portraits of Smith and lists of her records were printed in advertisements in newspapers such as the Chicago Defender, the Atlanta Independent, New York Colored News, and others popular with African-Americans (though Smith's records were part of Okeh's regular 4000 series). Okeh had further prominence in the demographic, as African-American musicians Sara Martin, Eva Taylor, Shelton Brooks, Esther Bigeou, and Handy's Orchestra recorded for the label. Okeh issued the 8000 series for race records. The success of this series led Okeh to start recording music where it was being performed, known as remote recording or location recording. Starting in 1923, Okeh sent mobile recording equipment to tour the country and record performers not heard in New York or Chicago. Regular trips were made once or twice a year to New Orleans, Atlanta, San Antonio, St. Louis, Kansas City, and Detroit. The Okeh studio in Atlanta also catered to what was called, "Hillbilly" (now Country) stars at that time. One of the first was "Fiddlin'" John Carson, who is believed to have made the first country music recordings there in June 1923. A double sided record with "The Little Old Log Cabin in the Lane" and "The Old Hen Cackled and the Rooster's Going To Crow." 1940–1970 Okeh releases were infrequent after 1932, although the label continued into 1935. In 1940, after Columbia lost the rights to the Vocalion name by dropping the Brunswick label, the Okeh name was revived to replace it, and the script logo was introduced on a demonstration record announcing that event. The label was again discontinued in 1946 and revived again in 1951. In 1953, Okeh became an exclusive R&B label when its parent, Columbia, transferred Okeh's pop music artists to the newly formed Epic Records. Okeh's music publishing division was renamed April Music. In 1963, Carl Davis became Okeh's A&R manager and improved Okeh's sales for a couple of years. Epic took over management of Okeh in 1965. Among the artists during Okeh's pop phase of the 1950s and 1960s were Johnnie Ray and Little Joe & the Thrillers. With soul music becoming popular in the 1960s, Okeh signed Major Lance, who gave the label two big successes with "The Monkey Time" and "Um, Um, Um, Um, Um, Um". Fifties rocker Larry Williams found a musical home at Okeh for a period of time in the 1960s, recording and producing funky soul with a band that included Johnny "Guitar" Watson. He was paired with Little Richard, who had been persuaded to return to secular music. Williams produced two Little Richard albums for Okeh in 1966 and 1967, which returned Little Richard to the Billboard album chart for the first time in ten years and produced the hit single "Poor Dog". He also acted as the music director for Little Richard's live performances at the Okeh Club in Los Angeles. Bookings for Little Richard during this period skyrocketed. Williams also recorded and released material of his own and with Watson, with some moderate chart success. Much of the success of Okeh in the 1960s was dependent on producer Carl Davis and songwriter Curtis Mayfield. After they left the label (due to disputes with Epic/Okeh head Len Levy), Okeh gradually slipped in sales and was quietly retired by Columbia in 1970. 1993–2000 In 1993, Sony Music reactivated the Okeh label (under distribution by Epic Records) as a new-age blues label. Okeh's first new signings included G. Love & Special Sauce, Keb' Mo, Popa Chubby, and Little Axe. Throughout the first year, in celebration of the relaunch, singles for G. Love, Popa Chubby and Keb' Mo were released on 10-inch vinyl. By 2000, the Okeh label was again retired, and G. Love & Special Sauce was moved to Epic. It was re-launched in 2013 as a jazz line under Sony Masterworks. Since 2013 In January 2013, Sony Music reactivated the Okeh label as Sony's primary jazz imprint under Sony Masterworks. The imprint is part of Sony Masterworks in the U.S., Sony Classical's domestic branch, focusing on both new and established artists who embody "global expressions in jazz". The new artists include David Sanborn, Bob James, Bill Frisell, Regina Carter, Somi, and Dhafer Youssef. Ownership Sony Music Entertainment owns the global rights to the Okeh Records catalogue through Epic Records and Sony's Legacy Recordings reissue subsidiary. EMI's rights to the Okeh catalogue in the UK expired in 1968, and CBS Records took over distribution. See also Okeh Records artists List of record labels Ralph Peer References External links Official site Okeh masters in the Discography of American Historical Recordings Okeh album discography Okeh Records on the Internet Archive's Great 78 Project American record labels Vertical cut record labels Record labels established in 1916 Record labels disestablished in 1935 Record labels disestablished in 1970 Record labels established in 1994 Record labels disestablished in 2000 Re-established companies Jazz record labels Columbia Records Epic Records	[ -0.1180073469877243, 0.8379324078559875, -0.12537729740142822, 0.0683220773935318, 0.1125245988368988, -0.156587153673172, -0.032463762909173965, -0.2128182053565979, -0.29640641808509827, 0.06253339350223541, 0.06811822205781937, 0.27145835757255554, -0.3752996623516083, 0.9352671504020691, -0.14397825300693512, -0.09323739260435104, 0.2236139178276062, 0.6487909555435181, -0.42002683877944946, -0.7729277610778809, -0.4789225161075592, 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236020	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic%20geometry	Elliptic geometry	Elliptic geometry is an example of a geometry in which Euclid's parallel postulate does not hold. Instead, as in spherical geometry, there are no parallel lines since any two lines must intersect. However, unlike in spherical geometry, two lines are usually assumed to intersect at a single point (rather than two). Because of this, the elliptic geometry described in this article is sometimes referred to as single elliptic geometry whereas spherical geometry is sometimes referred to as double elliptic geometry. The appearance of this geometry in the nineteenth century stimulated the development of non-Euclidean geometry generally, including hyperbolic geometry. Elliptic geometry has a variety of properties that differ from those of classical Euclidean plane geometry. For example, the sum of the interior angles of any triangle is always greater than 180°. Definitions In elliptic geometry, two lines perpendicular to a given line must intersect. In fact, the perpendiculars on one side all intersect at a single point called the absolute pole of that line. The perpendiculars on the other side also intersect at a point. However, unlike in spherical geometry, the poles on either side are the same. This is because there are no antipodal points in elliptic geometry. For example, this is achieved in the hyperspherical model (described below) by making the "points" in our geometry actually be pairs of opposite points on a sphere. The reason for doing this is that it allows elliptic geometry to satisfy the axiom that there is a unique line passing through any two points. Every point corresponds to an absolute polar line of which it is the absolute pole. Any point on this polar line forms an absolute conjugate pair with the pole. Such a pair of points is orthogonal, and the distance between them is a quadrant. The distance between a pair of points is proportional to the angle between their absolute polars. As explained by H. S. M. Coxeter: The name "elliptic" is possibly misleading. It does not imply any direct connection with the curve called an ellipse, but only a rather far-fetched analogy. A central conic is called an ellipse or a hyperbola according as it has no asymptote or two asymptotes. Analogously, a non-Euclidean plane is said to be elliptic or hyperbolic according as each of its lines contains no point at infinity or two points at infinity. Two dimensions Elliptic plane The elliptic plane is the real projective plane provided with a metric: Kepler and Desargues used the gnomonic projection to relate a plane σ to points on a hemisphere tangent to it. With O the center of the hemisphere, a point P in σ determines a line OP intersecting the hemisphere, and any line L ⊂ σ determines a plane OL which intersects the hemisphere in half of a great circle. The hemisphere is bounded by a plane through O and parallel to σ. No ordinary line of σ corresponds to this plane; instead a line at infinity is appended to σ. As any line in this extension of σ corresponds to a plane through O, and since any pair of such planes intersects in a line through O, one can conclude that any pair of lines in the extension intersect: the point of intersection lies where the plane intersection meets σ or the line at infinity. Thus the axiom of projective geometry, requiring all pairs of lines in a plane to intersect, is confirmed. Given P and Q in σ, the elliptic distance between them is the measure of the angle POQ, usually taken in radians. Arthur Cayley initiated the study of elliptic geometry when he wrote "On the definition of distance". This venture into abstraction in geometry was followed by Felix Klein and Bernhard Riemann leading to non-Euclidean geometry and Riemannian geometry. Comparison with Euclidean geometry In Euclidean geometry, a figure can be scaled up or scaled down indefinitely, and the resulting figures are similar, i.e., they have the same angles and the same internal proportions. In elliptic geometry, this is not the case. For example, in the spherical model we can see that the distance between any two points must be strictly less than half the circumference of the sphere (because antipodal points are identified). A line segment therefore cannot be scaled up indefinitely. A geometer measuring the geometrical properties of the space he or she inhabits can detect, via measurements, that there is a certain distance scale that is a property of the space. On scales much smaller than this one, the space is approximately flat, geometry is approximately Euclidean, and figures can be scaled up and down while remaining approximately similar. A great deal of Euclidean geometry carries over directly to elliptic geometry. For example, the first and fourth of Euclid's postulates, that there is a unique line between any two points and that all right angles are equal, hold in elliptic geometry. Postulate 3, that one can construct a circle with any given center and radius, fails if "any radius" is taken to mean "any real number", but holds if it is taken to mean "the length of any given line segment". Therefore any result in Euclidean geometry that follows from these three postulates will hold in elliptic geometry, such as proposition 1 from book I of the Elements, which states that given any line segment, an equilateral triangle can be constructed with the segment as its base. Elliptic geometry is also like Euclidean geometry in that space is continuous, homogeneous, isotropic, and without boundaries. Isotropy is guaranteed by the fourth postulate, that all right angles are equal. For an example of homogeneity, note that Euclid's proposition I.1 implies that the same equilateral triangle can be constructed at any location, not just in locations that are special in some way. The lack of boundaries follows from the second postulate, extensibility of a line segment. One way in which elliptic geometry differs from Euclidean geometry is that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is greater than 180 degrees. In the spherical model, for example, a triangle can be constructed with vertices at the locations where the three positive Cartesian coordinate axes intersect the sphere, and all three of its internal angles are 90 degrees, summing to 270 degrees. For sufficiently small triangles, the excess over 180 degrees can be made arbitrarily small. The Pythagorean theorem fails in elliptic geometry. In the 90°–90°–90° triangle described above, all three sides have the same length, and consequently do not satisfy . The Pythagorean result is recovered in the limit of small triangles. The ratio of a circle's circumference to its area is smaller than in Euclidean geometry. In general, area and volume do not scale as the second and third powers of linear dimensions. Elliptic space (the 3D case) Note: This section uses the term "elliptic space" to refer specifically to 3-dimensional elliptic geometry. This is in contrast to the previous section, which was about 2-dimensional elliptic geometry. The quaternions are used to elucidate this space. Elliptic space can be constructed in a way similar to the construction of three-dimensional vector space: with equivalence classes. One uses directed arcs on great circles of the sphere. As directed line segments are equipollent when they are parallel, of the same length, and similarly oriented, so directed arcs found on great circles are equipollent when they are of the same length, orientation, and great circle. These relations of equipollence produce 3D vector space and elliptic space, respectively. Access to elliptic space structure is provided through the vector algebra of William Rowan Hamilton: he envisioned a sphere as a domain of square roots of minus one. Then Euler's formula (where r is on the sphere) represents the great circle in the plane containing 1 and r. Opposite points r and –r correspond to oppositely directed circles. An arc between θ and φ is equipollent with one between 0 and φ – θ. In elliptic space, arc length is less than π, so arcs may be parametrized with θ in [0, π) or (–π/2, π/2]. For It is said that the modulus or norm of z is one (Hamilton called it the tensor of z). But since r ranges over a sphere in 3-space, exp(θ r) ranges over a sphere in 4-space, now called the 3-sphere, as its surface has three dimensions. Hamilton called his algebra quaternions and it quickly became a useful and celebrated tool of mathematics. Its space of four dimensions is evolved in polar co-ordinates with t in the positive real numbers. When doing trigonometry on Earth or the celestial sphere, the sides of the triangles are great circle arcs. The first success of quaternions was a rendering of spherical trigonometry to algebra. Hamilton called a quaternion of norm one a versor, and these are the points of elliptic space. With fixed, the versors form an elliptic line. The distance from to 1 is . For an arbitrary versor , the distance will be that θ for which since this is the formula for the scalar part of any quaternion. An elliptic motion is described by the quaternion mapping where and are fixed versors. Distances between points are the same as between image points of an elliptic motion. In the case that and are quaternion conjugates of one another, the motion is a spatial rotation, and their vector part is the axis of rotation. In the case the elliptic motion is called a right Clifford translation, or a parataxy. The case corresponds to left Clifford translation. Elliptic lines through versor may be of the form or for a fixed . They are the right and left Clifford translations of along an elliptic line through 1. The elliptic space is formed from by identifying antipodal points. Elliptic space has special structures called Clifford parallels and Clifford surfaces. The versor points of elliptic space are mapped by the Cayley transform to ℝ3 for an alternative representation of the space. Higher-dimensional spaces Hyperspherical model The hyperspherical model is the generalization of the spherical model to higher dimensions. The points of n-dimensional elliptic space are the pairs of unit vectors in Rn+1, that is, pairs of opposite points on the surface of the unit ball in -dimensional space (the n-dimensional hypersphere). Lines in this model are great circles, i.e., intersections of the hypersphere with flat hypersurfaces of dimension n passing through the origin. Projective elliptic geometry In the projective model of elliptic geometry, the points of n-dimensional real projective space are used as points of the model. This models an abstract elliptic geometry that is also known as projective geometry. The points of n-dimensional projective space can be identified with lines through the origin in -dimensional space, and can be represented non-uniquely by nonzero vectors in Rn+1, with the understanding that and , for any non-zero scalar , represent the same point. Distance is defined using the metric that is, the distance between two points is the angle between their corresponding lines in Rn+1. The distance formula is homogeneous in each variable, with if and are non-zero scalars, so it does define a distance on the points of projective space. A notable property of the projective elliptic geometry is that for even dimensions, such as the plane, the geometry is non-orientable. It erases the distinction between clockwise and counterclockwise rotation by identifying them. Stereographic model A model representing the same space as the hyperspherical model can be obtained by means of stereographic projection. Let En represent that is, -dimensional real space extended by a single point at infinity. We may define a metric, the chordal metric, on En by where and are any two vectors in Rn and is the usual Euclidean norm. We also define The result is a metric space on En, which represents the distance along a chord of the corresponding points on the hyperspherical model, to which it maps bijectively by stereographic projection. We obtain a model of spherical geometry if we use the metric Elliptic geometry is obtained from this by identifying the points and , and taking the distance from to this pair to be the minimum of the distances from to each of these two points. Self-consistency Because spherical elliptic geometry can be modeled as, for example, a spherical subspace of a Euclidean space, it follows that if Euclidean geometry is self-consistent, so is spherical elliptic geometry. Therefore it is not possible to prove the parallel postulate based on the other four postulates of Euclidean geometry. Tarski proved that elementary Euclidean geometry is complete: there is an algorithm which, for every proposition, can show it to be either true or false. (This does not violate Gödel's theorem, because Euclidean geometry cannot describe a sufficient amount of arithmetic for the theorem to apply.) It therefore follows that elementary elliptic geometry is also self-consistent and complete. See also Elliptic tiling Spherical tiling Notes References Alan F. Beardon, The Geometry of Discrete Groups, Springer-Verlag, 1983 H. S. M. Coxeter (1942) Non-Euclidean Geometry, chapters 5, 6, & 7: Elliptic geometry in 1, 2, & 3 dimensions, University of Toronto Press, reissued 1998 by Mathematical Association of America, . H.S.M. Coxeter (1969) Introduction to Geometry, §6.9 The Elliptic Plane, pp. 92–95. John Wiley & Sons. Felix Klein (1871) "On the so-called noneuclidean geometry" Mathematische Annalen 4:573–625, translated and introduced in John Stillwell (1996) Sources of Hyperbolic Geometry, American Mathematical Society . Boris Odehnal "On isotropic congruences of lines in elliptic three-space" Eduard Study (1913) D.H. Delphenich translator, "Foundations and goals of analytical kinematics", page 20. Alfred Tarski (1951) A Decision Method for Elementary Algebra and Geometry. Univ. of California Press. Alfred North Whitehead (1898) Universal Algebra, Book VI Chapter 2: Elliptic Geometry, pp 371–98. 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236022	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellophone	Mellophone	The mellophone is a brass instrument typically pitched in the key of F, though models in B, E, C, and G (as a bugle) have also historically existed. It has a conical bore, like that of the euphonium and flugelhorn. The mellophone is used as the middle-voiced brass instrument in marching bands and drum and bugle corps in place of French horns, and can also be used to play French horn parts in concert bands and orchestras. These instruments are used instead of French horns for marching because their bells face forward instead of to the back (or to the side), as dissipation of the sound becomes a concern in the open-air environment of marching. Tuning is done solely by adjusting the tuning slide, unlike the French horn where the pitch is affected by the hand position in the bell. Fingerings for the mellophone are the same as fingerings for the trumpet, alto (tenor) horn, and most valved brass instruments. Owing to its use primarily outside concert music, there is little solo literature for the mellophone, other than that used within drum and bugle corps. Characteristics The present-day mellophone has three valves, operated with the right hand (1- and 2- valve mellophone bugles have been used in the past). Mellophone fingerings are the same as the trumpet. It is typically pitched lower, in the key of F or E. The overtone series of the F mellophone is an octave above that of the F horn. The tubing length of a mellophone is the same as that of the F-alto (high) single horn or the F-alto (high) branch of a triple horn or double-descant horn. The direction of the bell as well as the much-reduced amount of tubing (compared to a French horn) make the mellophone look like a large trumpet. The mellophone uses the same mouthpiece as the alto (tenor) horn, which is in between the size of a trombone and trumpet mouthpiece. This mouthpiece usually has a deep cup, like that of the flugelhorn, and has a wider inner diameter than a trumpet mouthpiece. These mouthpieces give the mellophone a dark, round sound. Some trumpet players who double on mellophone use a trumpet-style parabolic ("cup") mouthpiece on the instrument, resulting in a much brighter, more trumpet-like sound. Horn players doubling on mellophone often use a smaller, lighter, conical ("funnel") mouthpiece, as used on French horns, with an adapter to allow them to fit in the larger-bore leadpipe of the mellophone. This style mouthpiece gives the instrument a warmer sound than using a trumpet mouthpiece, and allows French horn players to play the mellophone without changing their embouchure between the two instruments. History Two instruments carry the name mellophone: Traditional mellophones with a rear or sideways facing bell similar to the french horn. The marching mellophone, with a forward-facing bell. In general, the mellophone has its origin in the horn design boom of the 19th century. The earliest version was the Koenig horn, based on a design by Herman Koenig, but manufactured by Antoine Courtois, who may also have played a significant role in its design. Courtois had just won the right to manufacture the saxhorn, in a lawsuit against the inventor of the saxophone, Adolphe Sax. The Koenig horn had three piston valves — the kind used on a modern trumpet, which were a relatively new technology at that time — and was otherwise shaped somewhat like a modern French horn, but smaller. This shape was largely influenced by the post horn. Köhler & Son originally began using the name "mellophone" for its line of horns based loosely on similar instruments by Distin. These were also post horn-like instruments with valves, but the mouthpieces and bell angle were slowly evolving to allow for more projection and control of sound with the technology of valves. The traditional instrument is visually modeled on the horn, with a round shape and a rear-facing bell. Unlike French horns, it is played with the right hand, and the bell points to the rear left of the player. It was used as an alto voice both outdoors and indoors by community and school bands in place of the French horn. The manufacture of these instruments declined significantly in the mid-twentieth century, and they are rarely in use today. Mellophone bugles keyed in G were manufactured for American drum and bugle corps from approximately the 1950s until around 2000 when Drum Corps International changed the rules to allow brass instruments in any key. Modern marching mellophones are more directly related to bugle-horns such as the flugelhorn, euphonium, and tuba. Their tube profile is likewise more conical than the trumpet or trombone. Difference from the horn The marching mellophone is used in place of the horn for marching because it is a bell-front instrument allowing projection of the sound in the direction that the player is facing. This is especially important in drum corps and marching bands because the audience is typically on only one side of the band. There are also marching B French horns with a bell-front configuration. Mellophones are usually constructed with a smaller bore for louder volume than marching French horns. Marching B horns do use a horn mouthpiece and have a more French horn-like sound but are more difficult to play accurately on the field. Another factor in the greater use of mellophones is its ease of use as compared to the difficulty of playing a French horn consistently well. In a French horn, the length of tubing (and the bore size) make the partials much closer together than other brass instruments in their normal range and, therefore, harder to play accurately. The F mellophone has tubing half the length of a French horn, which gives it an overtone series more similar to a trumpet and most other brass instruments. In summary, the mellophone is an instrument designed specifically to bring the approximate sound of a horn in a package which is conducive to playing while marching. Outside a marching setting, the traditional French horn is ubiquitous and the mellophone is rarely used, though they can be used to play French horn parts in a concert band or orchestra. Mellophonium Stan Kenton's instrument C.G. Conn developed its 16E "Mellophonium" and first marketed it in 1957. American bandleader Stan Kenton himself was not involved in the design of the mellophonium; in 1961, however, he provided an endorsement for Conn's advertising upon adopting the instrument. Kenton had, for several years, wished to add another brass voice alongside the trumpets and trombones in his orchestra and experimented unsuccessfully with additional instruments, before discovering the Conn Mellophonium, which bridged the gap he was seeking to fill: In 1962, Kenton explained: "For some time, I recognized the need for using an instrument that would not only give the orchestra another solo voice, but would add more warmth and emphasis to the thematic line. The Mellophonium has not only met all the preliminary requirements, but has also suggested intriguing new ways to shade and dramatize sound. My decision to use four Mellophoniums didn't just happen overnight. Nor are they gimmick instruments. Both the arranging staff and myself realized the need for an instrument that would capture the width of sound that virtually lay untouched between the trumpets and trombones. We first tried ten trumpets—five B flat and five E flat. They didn't make it because it was impossible to distinguish any difference between the two instruments....After experimenting for two days with the flugelhorn, we were ready to give it up completely! Finally, the Conn Instrument Corporation learned that we were interested in locating a new brass instrument and asked us to try the mellophonium. After much experimentation and many preliminary rehearsals, the Mellophonium became the answer we had been looking for. The instrument could be played by a trumpeter with relative ease, though most Mellophonium players in Kenton's band were reluctant users of the instrument due to its difficulty to play in-tune particularly in the higher registers. Several trumpeters quit in protest rather than switch full-time to Mellophonium, and only a few band members preferred the new instrument. Kenton used a four-man mellophonium section September 1960 through November 1963 on 11 albums; two of those LPs received Grammy Awards (Kenton's West Side Story and Adventures In Jazz). Bach instrument The Vincent Bach Corporation also produced a mellophonium, with the shape of the tubing more reminiscent of the cornet. F. E. Olds instrument The F. E. Olds company manufactured mellophoniums with the same wrap as the Vincent Bach Corporation design. Holton instrument The Holton company manufactured mellophoniums with a trumpet like lead pipe and valve assembly with the rest being comparable to a mellophonium. References External links The Middle Horn Leader Al's Mellophone Page, including MelloCast podcast The Mello Zone - blog by John Ericson, associate professor of horn at ASU Photographs of pre-1960 instruments manufactured by Conn, shown at the Conn Loyalist website Brass instruments F instruments Marching band instruments Horns	[ -0.18429364264011383, 0.2741039991378784, -0.10581056773662567, -0.15190643072128296, 0.22514481842517853, 0.5842990875244141, -0.27853742241859436, 0.4707942605018616, -0.611426055431366, -0.28844574093818665, 0.22193694114685059, 0.40109339356422424, -0.2556743323802948, 0.2996678948402405, -0.4270603358745575, 0.46630027890205383, 0.7117034792900085, 0.12055034190416336, -0.03714119642972946, -0.30120524764060974, -0.10593388974666595, -0.21893028914928436, 0.6351727843284607, 0.045741189271211624, 0.4150905907154083, -0.4484838545322418, -0.5193593502044678, -0.06998692452907562, 0.23653173446655273, 0.5387184023857117, 0.029554201290011406, 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236025	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson%20Records	Emerson Records	Emerson Records was an American record company and label created by Victor Emerson in 1915. Victor Hugo Emerson was the chief recording engineer at Columbia Records. In 1914 he left the company, created the Emerson Phonograph Company, and then Emerson Records the following year. He began producing small records, 5-inch discs that sold for 10 cents and 7-inch discs that sold for 25 cents. Early discs consisted of popular tunes, dance numbers, and patriotic marches, recorded by musicians in New York City who were credited as the "Emerson Orchestra" or sometimes "The Emerson Symphony Orchestra". Classical records were made by violinist David Hochstein (his only recordings), pianist Arthur Friedheim, and the orchestra of New York's Rialto Theatre under its director Hugo Riesenfeld. In January 1918 Emerson added a line of 9-inch records that sold for 75 cents. After World War I, Emerson began an ambitious expansion of the business, and in 1919 added a line of industry standard 10-inch discs for 85 cents and increased to one dollar the following year. In 1919 Emerson introduced 12-inch discs, mostly of classical music, for US$1.25. The label's catalog included recordings by Wilbur Sweatman, Eddie Cantor, the Six Brown Brothers, the Louisiana Five, Lizzie Miles, Eubie Blake, Fletcher Henderson, the Original Memphis Five, John W. Myers, Henry Burr and the Peerless Quartet, Billy Golden, Collins & Harlan, Sally Hamlin, Dan W. Quinn, Sam Ash, Vernon Dalhart, Van and Schenck, Ada Jones, and Homer Rodeheaver. In May 1920, Emerson opened a second recording studio in Los Angeles, California. His expansions over-extended the company's finances and forced it into receivership in 1921. In May 1922 investors Benjamin Abrams and Rudolph Kararek purchased the Emerson Company for US$50,000 and raised an additional US$200,000 of capital to revive the business. Emerson discs were then sold for 50 cents each. In 1924, the investors sold Emerson to the Scranton Button Company of Scranton, Pennsylvania. About this time, electric microphones replaced mechanical recording techniques, and Emerson switched to the new method of sound recording in 1926. Scranton Button Co. halted production of new records by its Emerson subsidiary in 1928, but the company retained the name and later applied it to a line of radios. After about 1924 or 1925, Emerson was no longer a popular label. It seldom recorded any artists of note, mostly standard performers who were jobbing around New York, which explains why the later "Electrosonic Emerson" records are so scarce. The company also issued race records that were marketed to blacks. These included the 78 "He Wasn't Born in Araby, But He's a Sheikin' Fool" b/w "Heart Breakin' Joe" (1924), recorded by Ethel Finnie. See also List of record labels Emerson Radio References External links Emerson Records history up to 1920 Emerson Records on the Internet Archive's Great 78 Project American record labels Jazz record labels Record labels established in 1916 Record labels disestablished in 1928	[ 0.14107948541641235, 0.33783698081970215, -0.09196309745311737, 0.28283652663230896, 0.030159179121255875, 0.014608549885451794, 0.16722814738750458, 0.18121765553951263, -0.18714655935764313, -0.11244156956672668, 0.4067976772785187, 0.35469987988471985, -0.3156723976135254, 0.9498293995857239, -0.08065471053123474, -0.06763647496700287, 0.002950243419036269, 0.15325750410556793, -0.16134461760520935, -0.5916059613227844, -0.4607933461666107, -0.08139273524284363, 0.5961199402809143, -0.11030314117670059, -0.2964751720428467, -0.13419517874717712, -0.2371390163898468, -0.2610805034637451, -0.44429928064346313, -0.2071240097284317, 0.23399600386619568, 0.2948003113269806, 0.06437695771455765, 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236028	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln%20Records	Lincoln Records	Lincoln Records was an American record label that existed from 1923 to 1930. The bulk of material on Lincoln was dance music by bands assembled from the pool of New York musicians. Lincoln Records filled a market niche for people who wanted inexpensive, danceable records of popular tunes and did not particularly care who recorded them. Lincoln records initially retailed for 50 cents each. The label had a drawing of Abraham Lincoln on the top. Although the labels said that they were made by the Lincoln Record Corporation, New York, Lincoln was actually owned by Cameo Records. Some Lincoln issues were pressed from Cameo masters, although the name of the band which recorded for Cameo was usually changed to a pseudonym so that the Lincolns would not compete with those on Cameo. The Lincoln Records label debuted in 1924 and was discontinued in 1930. It reappeared in 1949, probably revived by the American Record Corporation which had acquired Cameo years earlier. Through the mid-1950s some children's records and music by less well known artists was released on 45-rpm discs with the Lincoln name. Over the years, of those records issued on Cameo and Lincoln, the Cameo records are much more commonly found, making Lincoln a rather scarce label. Artists on the label included Salt and Pepper, Ray Hamilton, the Lincoln Dance Orchestra, the Broadway Broadcasters, the Hawaiian Gondoliers, The Rangers, and Frances Sper. See also List of record labels References Further reading The American Record Label Book by Brian Rust (Arlington House Publishers, 1978) External links Lincoln Records on the Internet Archive's Great 78 Project American record labels Record labels established in 1924 Record labels disestablished in 1930 Record labels established in 1949 Re-established companies Jazz record labels Companies established in 1924	[ 0.04673786833882332, 0.46116000413894653, -0.7777109146118164, 0.23354963958263397, -0.2256603091955185, -0.0017403543461114168, 0.22471961379051208, 0.032169148325920105, -0.07617537677288055, -0.34470823407173157, 0.24350012838840485, 0.4714944362640381, -0.37423157691955566, 0.9212392568588257, -0.180134117603302, -0.30732956528663635, 0.1695275753736496, 0.2680024802684784, -0.024984581395983696, -0.40303346514701843, -0.7048925757408142, -0.02953631617128849, 0.3200371265411377, -0.36980095505714417, -0.7206867933273315, -0.10248517245054245, -0.15278878808021545, 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236033	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street%20Fighter%20II	Street Fighter II	is a competitive fighting game developed by Capcom and originally released for arcades in 1991. It is the second installment in the Street Fighter series and the sequel to Street Fighter, released in 1987. It is Capcom's fourteenth game to use the CP System arcade system board. Street Fighter II improved many of the concepts introduced in the first game, including the use of special command-based moves, combo system, six-button configuration, and wider selection of playable characters, each with unique fighting style. It prominently features a popular two-player mode that obligates direct, human-to-human competitive play which prolonged the survival of the declining video game arcade business market by stimulating business and driving the fighter genre. It inspired grassroots tournament events, culminating into Evolution Championship Series (EVO). Street Fighter II shifted the arcade competitive dynamic from high score into human competition, including large groups. Street Fighter II became the best-selling game since the golden age of arcade video games. By 1994, it had been played by at least 25 million people in the United States alone. Due to its major success, a series of updated versions has additional features and characters. Worldwide, more than 200,000 arcade cabinets and 15million software units of all versions of Street Fighter II have been sold, grossing an estimated in total revenue, making it one of the top three highest-grossing video games of all time and the best-selling fighting game until 2019. More than 6.3 million SNES cartridges of Street Fighter II have been sold, making it Capcom's best-selling single software game for the next two decades, its best-selling game on a single platform, and the highest-selling third-party game on the SNES. Street Fighter II is regarded as one of the greatest video games of all time and the most important and influential fighting game ever made. Its launch is seen as a revolutionary moment within its genre, credited with popularizing the fighting genre during the 1990s and inspiring other producers to create their own fighting series. It sparked a renaissance for the arcade video game industry and impacted competitive video gaming and wider popular culture such as films and music. Gameplay Street Fighter II follows several conventions and rules established by its 1987 predecessor Street Fighter. The player engages opponents in one-on-one close quarter combat in a series of best-two-out-of-three matches. The objective of each round is to deplete the opponent's vitality before the timer runs out. Both fighters having equal vitality left yields a "double KO" or "draw game" and additional rounds ensue until sudden death. In the first Street Fighter II, a match can last up to ten rounds; this was reduced to four rounds since Champion Edition. If there is no clear winner by the end of the final round, either the computer-controlled opponent will win by default in a single-player match or both fighters will lose in a 2-player match. After every third match in the single-player mode, a bonus stage gives additional points including a car-breaking stage, a barrel breaking stage, and a drum-breaking stage. Between the matches, the next match location is selected on a world map. Like in Street Fighter, the controls are an eight-directional joystick and six attack buttons. The joystick can jump, crouch, walk left and right, and block. A tradeoff of strength and speed are given by three punch buttons and three kick buttons, each of light, medium, and heavy. The player can perform a variety of basic moves in any position, including new grabbing and throwing attacks. Special moves are performed by combinations of directional and button-based commands. Street Fighter II differs from its predecessor due to the selection of multiple playable characters, each with distinct fighting styles and special moves including combos. According to IGN, "the concept of combinations, linked attacks that can't be blocked when they're timed correctly, came about more or less by accident. Street Fighter IIs designers didn't quite mean for it to happen, but players of the original game eventually found out that certain moves naturally flowed into other ones." This combo system was later adopted as a standard feature of fighting games and was expanded upon in this series. Plot The leader of the Shadaloo organization, M. Bison, in his global domination plan sets up a world fighting tournament, to select the best fighters to work in his Shadaloo organization through brainwashing. M. Bison's plans are foiled by Akuma (who was not a competitor in the tournament) who catches him off guard and performs the Shun Goku Satsu on him, killing the Shadaloo boss in an instant. Akuma then takes M. Bison's place in the tournament to fight the finalist, who some sources hint is Ryu. Akuma mocks M. Bison for being the slave of his own power, not knowing that he is actually in absolute control of his Psycho Power. Characters The original Street Fighter II features a roster of eight playable characters. This includes Ryu and Ken—the main characters from Street Fighter—plus six new international characters. In the single-player tournament, the player fights the other seven main fighters, then the final opponentsa group of four CPU-only opponents known as the Grand Masters, which includes Sagat from Street Fighter. Playable characters: , a Japanese martial artist seeking no fame or even the crown of "champion", but only to hone his Shotokan Karate skills with the inner power of Chi, he dedicates his life to perfect his own potential while abandoning everything else in life such as having no family, and few friends, his only bond is with Ken Masters. He is the winner of the previous tournament. He is not convinced that he is the greatest fighter in the world and comes to this tournament in search of fresh competition. E. Honda, a sumo wrestler from Japan. He aims to improve the negative reputation of sumo wrestling by proving competitors to be legitimate athletes. Blanka, a beast-like mutant from Brazil who was raised in the jungle. He enters the tournament to uncover more origins about his forgotten past. Guile, a former United States Air Force special forces operative from the United States, seeking to defeat M. Bison, who killed his best friend Charlie. Ken, Ryu's best friend, greatest rival and former training partner, from the United States. Ryu's personal challenge rekindled Ken's fighting spirit and persuaded him to enter the World Warrior tournament, as well as feeling lackadaisical in his fighting potential due to spending too much time with his fiancée. Chun-Li, a Chinese martial artist who works as an Interpol officer; much like Guile, she doesn't enter the World Warrior tournament for any personal glory except proving that she can defeat any man who challenges her. Chun-Li's ambition in the past was tracking down the movements of the smuggling operation known as Shadowlaw, her goal now is her trail being lead to the tournament by seeking to avenge her deceased father by holding the Grand Master's leader of the crime syndicate responsible. Zangief, a professional wrestler and sambo fighter from the Soviet Union. He aims to prove "Soviet Strength" is the strongest form of strength, particularly by defeating American opponents with his bare hands. Dhalsim, a fire-breathing yoga master from India. Even though he is a pacifist, he uses the money earned from fighting in order to lift people out of poverty. CPU-exclusive characters, in the order of appearance: Balrog, an American boxer, with a similar appearance to Mike Tyson. Called M. Bison in Japan. Once one of the world's greatest heavyweight boxers, he began working for Shadaloo for easy money. Vega, a Spanish bullfighter who wields a claw and uses a unique style of ninjutsu. Called Balrog in Japan. He is vain and wishes to eliminate ugly people from the world. Sagat, a Muay Thai kickboxer and former World Warrior champion from the original Street Fighter, he was once known as The King of Street Fighters until he got demoted as The King of Muai Thai in his own tournament due to the narrow defeat in the hands of Ryu's shoryuken (rising dragon punch) which left a deep gash across his chest, ever since that moment he felt disgrace, and will do anything to have a grudge match with Ryu to get his title back, even if it takes joining forces with Shadaloo. M. Bison, the leader of the criminal organization Shadaloo, who uses a mysterious power known as Psycho Power, and the final opponent of the game. Called Vega in Japan. Regional differences With the exception of Sagat, the Shadaloo Bosses have different names in the Japanese version. The African-American boxer known as Balrog in the international versions was designed as a pastiche of real-life boxer Mike Tyson and was originally named M. Bison (short for "Mike Bison", with "Mike" being one of the American opponents faced in Street Fighter). Vega and M. Bison were originally named Balrog and Vega, respectively. When Street Fighter II was localized for the overseas market, the names of the bosses were rotated, out of concern that the boxer's similarities to Tyson could have led to a likeness infringement lawsuit. This name change was carried over to future games in the series. To avoid confusion in Tournament Play, many players refer to each character by a defining characteristic. The names are "Claw" to refer to the character from Spain, "Boxer" to refer to the African-American boxer, and "Dictator" to refer to the final boss. The characters in the Japanese version have more than one win quote and if the player loses a match against the CPU in the Japanese version, a random playing tip will be shown at the bottom of the continue screen. While the ending text for the characters was originally translated literally, a few changes were made due to creative differences from Capcom's U.S. marketing staff. For example, the name of Guile's fallen friend (who later debuted as a playable fighter in Street Fighter Alpha) was changed from Nash to Charlie, since a staff member from Capcom USA said that Nash is not a natural sounding English name. Development Although the original punching-pad cabinet of Street Fighter had not been very popular, the alternate six-button version was more successful, which began to generate interest in a sequel. Capcom began to make fighting games a priority after Final Fight was commercially successful in the United States. Yoshiki Okamoto recounted, "The basic idea at Capcom was to revive Street Fighter, a good game concept, to make it a better-playing arcade game." Development of Street Fighter II took about two years and about 35 to 40 people, with Noritaka Funamizu as a producer, and Akira Nishitani and Akira Yasuda in charge of the game and character design, respectively. The budget was estimated at . Funamizu notes that the developers did not particularly prioritize Street Fighter IIs balance; he primarily ascribes the game's success to its appealing animation patterns. The quality of animation benefited from the developers' use of the CPS-1 hardware, with advantages including allowing different characters to occupy different amounts of memory. For example, Ryu can occupy 8Mbit and Zangief 12Mbit. The combo system came about by accident: The vast majority of in-game music was composed by Yoko Shimomura. This is ultimately the only game in the series on which Shimomura worked, as she left the company for Square two years later. Isao Abe, a Capcom newcomer, handled a few additional tracks ("Versus Screen", "Sagat's Theme", and "Here Comes A New Challenger") for Street Fighter II and became the main composer on the subsequent versions. The sound programming and sound effects were overseen by Yoshihiro Sakaguchi, the composer on Street Fighter. Location testing began in Japan. It was then exhibited in the United Kingdom at London's Amusement Trades Exhibition International (ATEI) in January 1991. The same month, Capcom held a two-week location test in North America, before unveiling the game at Capcom's distributor conference on February 1, 1991, held at Marriott Harbor Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Capcom introduced Street Fighter II as its "greatest video game ever". Ports Super NES Street Fighter II was released for the Super Famicom on June 10, 1992, in Japan, followed by a North American release for the SNES in August and a European release in December. It is the first game released on a 16-megabit SNES cartridge. Many aspects from the arcade versions were either changed or simplified in order to fit into the smaller memory capacity. This version has a secret code allowing both players to control the same character in a match, which is not possible in the original arcade version. The second player uses the same alternate color palette introduced in Street Fighter II: Champion Edition. The four Shadaloo Bosses are still non-playable, but the code enables their Champion Edition color palette. Tatsuya Nishimura, who had recently joined Capcom from TOSE, arranged the soundtrack with assistance from Shimomura, Abe, and Sakaguchi. The American SNES cartridge was re-released in November 2017 as a limited edition item to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Street Fighter series. Home computers U.S. Gold released versions of Street Fighter II for various home computer platforms in Europe, namely the Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, PC (DOS), and ZX Spectrum. These were all developed by Creative Materials, except the ZX Spectrum version by Tiertex Design Studios. The PC version was also published in North America by Hi-Tech Expressions. These versions suffer numerous inaccuracies, such as missing graphical assets and music tracks, miscolored palettes, and lack of six-button controls due to these platforms having only one or two-button joysticks as standard at the time. Though officially advertised by US Gold along with the C64 and ZX Spectrum conversions and anticipated in magazines, the Amstrad CPC development by Creative Materials was canceled. Game Boy The Game Boy version of Street Fighter II was released on August 11, 1995, in Japan, and in September 1995 internationally. It is missing Dhalsim, E. Honda, and Vega. The graphics, character portraits, and stages are based on Super Street Fighter II, although some moves (such as Blanka's Amazon River Run) from Super Street Fighter II Turbo are included. Because the Game Boy only has two buttons, the strength of punches and kicks is determined by the duration of button presses. Compilations Street Fighter II, Champion Edition, and Turbo are in the compilation Capcom Generation 5 for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn, which was released in North America and Europe as Street Fighter Collection 2. All three games are in Capcom Classics Collection Vol. 1 for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox, and in Capcom Classics Collection Reloaded for the PlayStation Portable. Updates Street Fighter II spawned a series of revisions, each refining the play mechanics, graphics, character roster, and other aspects of the game. The first update, Street Fighter II: Champion Edition, was released in arcades in March 1992. It rebalances characters' power levels, allows both players in two-player matches to select the same character (distinguished by alternate costume colors) and allows players to choose the four previously computer-only boss characters. Following the release of Champion Edition, a wave of unauthorized modifications for arcade cabinets, such as the so-called "Rainbow Edition", appeared, prompting Capcom's official response with Street Fighter II Turbo in December, increasing the playing speed and giving some characters new special moves. Super Street Fighter II: The New Challengers was released in September 1993, using the more advanced CP System II, allowing for updated graphics and audio, and introducing four new characters, but reliving the speed increase of Street Fighter II Turbo, which lead to it being quickly superseded by Super Street Fighter II Turbo, released in February 1994, which allows for a selective game speed, introduces powered-up special moves called Super Combos, and adds a new hidden character. All arcade Street Fighter II games have been ported to various platforms, as individual releases and in compilations. Later home versions further revise or expand the game, including Hyper Street Fighter II (which was later given an arcade release) and Super Street Fighter II Turbo HD Remix. Ultra Street Fighter II: The Final Challengers was released for Nintendo Switch and adds two characters who previously debuted outside Street Fighter II updates. In addition to official updated versions, numerous counterfeit modified versions of Street Fighter II were in wide circulation. For example, nine different counterfeit versions were available on Super Famicom in Japan by December 1992. Reception Commercial By 1994, Street Fighter II had been played by at least 25 million people in the United States alone, across arcades and homes. All versions of Street Fighter II are estimated to have grossed a total of in revenue, mostly from the arcade market. , it is one of the top three highest-grossing video games of all time, along with Space Invaders (1978) and Pac-Man (1980). Arcade versions Street Fighter II was not immediately successful in Japan, as most arcade players were initially playing it solo, rather than multiplayer as originally intended. Yoshiki Okamoto was disappointed with its initial performance, and was told he should have produced another solo beat 'em up like Final Fight instead. After Japanese arcade magazine Gamest began publishing articles informing readers about the "battle play" feature, the game began gaining considerable popularity in Japanese arcades. In Japan, Game Machine magazine listed the game on their April 1, 1991 issue as being the second most-successful table arcade cabinet of the month, outperforming games such as Detana!! TwinBee and King of the Monsters, before Street Fighter II topped the charts two weeks later. It went on to become the highest-grossing arcade game of 1991 in Japan, and then it again became the highest-grossing arcade game of 1992. Street Fighter II Turbo became the highest-grossing arcade game of 1993, with Street Fighter II Dash (Champion Edition) at number four and The World Warrior at number nine. Street Fighter II was similarly successful in the Western world. In the United States, the game was more immediately successful as it exceeded expectations in test markets, with individual machines earning per week, Capcom USA sales representative Jeff Walker predicted it would "become the kit of 1991" and RePlay magazine said the game showed there was "plenty of life" left in the then struggling arcade business. By March, it had become a blockbuster and the top-grossing game in the United States, giving a substantial boost in earnings for street operators. It topped the RePlay arcade software charts from May 1991 through August 1992, for a total of 16 months. On the Play Meter arcade charts, it was the top-grossing video game during JanuaryFebruary 1992 and May 1992. Street Fighter II was the highest-grossing arcade game of 1991 in the United States, and one of the top five highest-grossing arcade conversion kits of 1992 (below Champion Edition). Its success was considered phenomenal; by 1992, it had turned around the convenience store segment of the coin-op industry and become the best-selling arcade game in ten years. Electronic Games noted in its October 1992 issue, "Not since the early 1980s has an arcade game received so much attention and all-out fanatical popularity." It was similarly successful in Australia, where it was performing strongly after 16 months on the market, with Leisure Line magazine noting in 1992 that not "since the days of Space Invaders (1978) has a game had such longevity". In 1991, 50,000 arcade units were sold worldwide, including 17,000 units in Japan, with Capcom reporting continued production of arcade units due to repeat orders. In the United Kingdom, Your Commodore reported in July 1991 that spectators were betting on players at London West End arcades. Between early 1991 and early 1993, Street Fighter II had captured about 60% of the global coin-op market, including 10,000 units installed in the United Kingdom by mid-1991, with individual machines in the UK estimated to be taking between per week over the next two years. Street Fighter II generated an estimated annual revenue of in the UK alone for the two years between mid-1991 and mid-1993, totaling ( at the time, equivalent to $ in ). The company sold more than 60,000 arcade machines of the original Street Fighter II, including about 20,000 to 25,000 units in the United States. It was followed by Street Fighter II′ (Dash or Champion Edition), of which 140,000 arcade units were sold in Japan alone, where it cost ¥160,000 ($1300) for each unit, amounting to ¥22.4 billion ($182 million) revenue generated from hardware sales in Japan (equivalent to $ in ), in addition to about 20,000 to 25,000 units sold in the United States. On the US RePlay arcade charts for July 1992, Champion Edition was number one on the upright cabinets chart (above Midway's Mortal Kombat) while the original Street Fighter II was number two on the coin-op software chart (below SNK's World Heroes). Street Fighter II generated (equivalent to $ in ) annually in 1993, making it the year's highest-grossing entertainment product, above the film Jurassic Park. In January 1994, Capcom referred to Street Fighter II as "the most successful video game series of the decade" while promoting Super Street Fighter II. In early 1994, Capcom projected sales of Super Street Fighter II to reach 100,000 arcade units. According to the March 1995 issue of GameFan magazine, the game had earned "billions of dollars in profit". In addition to Capcom's official arcade units, many pirated counterfeit Street Fighter II arcade clone units were sold across the world. RePlay noted in January 1993 that Street Fighter II had "single-handedly re-ignited the worldwide black market in counterfeit PCBs and speed-up kits". Many counterfeit arcade units often outsold official Street Fighter II arcade cabinets in various markets. For example, about 200,000 counterfeits were in Mexico alone, where Capcom did not officially sell the game. Bondeal from Hong Kong produced 3,000 copied arcade units per month for markets such as Latin America, and a Taiwanese firm produced 20,000 copied arcade units in 1991; in Taiwan, up to 150,000 clone units were manufactured by 1992. Many counterfeit units were in South Korea, such as a trader selling about 100 Street Fighter II PCBs by 1992. Seven different versions of the game claimed to be sequels in 1992, mostly from Hong Kong, and one named Champion of Champion Editions reportedly was in British arcades. Capcom and its partners took legal action against counterfeit arcade units in regions such as Southeast Asia, North America, South Korea, and Puerto Rico. Home conversions The numerous home conversions of Street Fighter II are listed among Capcom's Platinum-class games, with more than one million units sold worldwide. In Japan, 1 million copies of the Super Famicom version were sold in June 1992 within the first two weeks of its release, at a retail price of (equivalent to $ then, or $ in ). The February 1992 issue of Gamest magazine in Japan said that, due to low stock, the console versions were selling for much higher at ¥15,000 (equivalent to about at the time, or $ in ). It topped the Japanese Famitsu sales charts from June through July to August 1992. It was a multi-million seller in Japan by December 1992. In the United States, 750,000 units of the SNES version were sold between July 15 and September 30, 1992, with a retail price of . According to Electronic Gaming Monthly, "Never has a game taken the country [by] storm as this one has." It remained America's top-selling Super NES game for much of late 1992, in August and then October, November, and December. In 1992 in North America, units were sold. In the United Kingdom, Street Fighter II replaced Super Mario World as the bundled game for the SNES, and the SNES and Amiga versions made it the second best-selling home video game of 1992, below Sonic the Hedgehog 2 for the Mega Drive. Worldwide, 4 million Street Fighter II cartridges had been sold by September 1992, units by the end of 1992, and over by 1993. The SNES version became the company's best-selling single consumer game software, at more than 6.3 million units, and it remains its best-selling game software on a single platform. By 1993, units of all home software versions had been sold, and units for Nintendo and Sega consoles by March 1994. The SNES versions of Street Fighter II Turbo and Super Street Fighter II had 4.1 million and 2 million unit sales, respectively, followed by the Mega Drive/Genesis version of Street Fighter II: Special Champion Edition with 1.65 million sales. In total, more than 14 million copies were sold for the SNES and Mega Drive/Genesis consoles. The SNES version of Street Fighter II was Capcom's best-selling single game until 2013, when it was surpassed by Resident Evil 5. The Amiga version was successful in the United Kingdom, where it became the best-selling home computer software of 1992, though only being available for the last 16 days of the year. Street Fighter II also topped the UK's Amiga sales chart in January 1993, and the UK's Atari ST chart in March 1993. In 2008, Super Street Fighter II Turbo HD Remix broke both the first-day and first-week sales records for a download-only game. Street Fighter II was the best-selling fighting game with 15.5million units sold across all versions and platforms, until it was surpassed by Super Smash Bros. Ultimate in 2019. Like the arcades, the home conversions were impacted by copyright infringement. Upon release of the SNES version in 1992, thirteen different unauthorized versions were reportedly available for the Super Famicom. Critical Japan The original arcade version of Street Fighter II was awarded Best Game of 1991 in Gamest magazine's Fifth Annual Grand Prize, which also won in the genre of Best Action Game (the award for fighting games was not established yet). Street Fighter II placed No. 1 in Best VGM, Best Direction, and Best Album, and was second place in Best Graphics below the 3D Namco System 21 game Starblade. All the characters except M. Bison (known internationally as Balrog) are on the list of Best Characters of 1991. Street Fighter II Dash was awarded Best Game of 1992 in the Sixth Annual Grand Prize, as published in the February 1993 issue of Gamest, winning again as Best Action Game. It placed No. 3 in Best VGM, No. 6 in Best Graphics, and No. 5 in Best Direction. The Street Fighter II Image Album is the No. 1 Best Album in the same issue, with the Drama CD version of Street Fighter II tied for No. 7 with the soundtrack for Star Blade. The List of Best Characters only had Chun-Li at No. 3. In the February 1994 issue of Gamest, both Street Fighter II Turbo and Super Street Fighter II were nominated for Best Game of 1993, but neither won (the first place was given to Samurai Spirits). Super ranked third place, and Turbo ranked sixth. In the category of Best Fighting Games, Super ranked third place again, while Turbo placed fifth. Super won third place in the categories of Best Graphics and Best VGM. Cammy, who was introduced in Super, placed fifth place in the list of Best Characters of 1993, with Dee Jay at 36 and T. Hawk at 37. In the January 30, 1995 issue of Gamest, Super Street Fighter II X (known as Super Turbo internationally) placed fourth place in the award for Best Game of 1994 and Best Fighting Game, but did not rank in any of the other awards. The Super Famicom (SNES) version was critically acclaimed. Famitsus panel of four reviewers gave it scores of 9, 9, 9, and 8, adding up to 35 out of 40. This made it one of their five highest-rated games of 1992, along with Dragon Quest V: Hand of the Heavenly Bride, Shin Megami Tensei, World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck, and Mario Paint. They later gave the Turbo update a score of 36 out of 40. This made Street Fighter II Turbo their highest-rated game of 1993, and the twelfth game to have received a Famitsu score of 36/40 or above. International The arcade game was well received by English-language critics upon release. In March 1991, RePlay magazine said "the graphics and sounds are tops" while praising the "solid" gameplay, and it was considered the top game at the American Coin Machine Exposition (ACME) that month. In May 1991, Julian Rignall of Computer and Video Games gave it ratings of 94% for graphics, 93% for sound, 95% for playability, and 92% for lastability, with a 93% score overall. He criticized the original Street Fighter for being a "run-of-the-mill beat 'em up with little in the way of thrills and spills" but praised the sequel for being "absolutely packed with new ideas" and special moves. He noted the "six buttons combining with 8 joystick directions to provide more moves than I've ever seen in a beat 'em up" and praised the "massive, beautifully drawn and animated sprites, tons of speech and the most exciting, action-packed head-to-head conflict yet seen in an arcade game," concluding that it is "one of the best fighting games yet seen in the arcades" and a "brilliant" coin-op. In the June 1991 issue of Sinclair User, John Cook gave the arcade game an "addict factor" of 84%. He praised the gameplay and the "excellent" animation and sound effects, but criticized the controls, stating players "might find the control system a bit daunting at first [with] a joystick plus six (count 'em!) fire buttons [but] it's not that bad really". He concluded "this is bound to appeal to you if you like the beat 'em up style of game." Jeff Davy of Your Commodore praised the game for its large sprites, character animation, varied opponents, character moves, and two-player mode. Computer and Video Games later referred to Street Fighter II as the "game of the millennium" in 1992. The SNES version of Street Fighter II was very well received. In Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM), its panel of four reviewers gave it scores of 10, 9, 10, and 9, adding up to 38 out of 40, and their "Game of the Month" award. Sushi-X (Ken Williams) gave it a 10, calling it "The best! Street Fighter II is the only game I have ever seen that really deserves a 10!" Martin Alessi gave it a 9, describing it as "the best cart available anywhere! Incredible game play!" Ed Semrad gave it a 10, saying "The moves are perfect, the graphics outstanding and the audio exceptional. Get one of the new 6 button sticks and you'll swear you're playing the arcade version." GamePro printed two reviews of the game in its August 1992 issue, both giving it a full score of 5 out of 5; Doctor Dave described it as "Capcom's best arcade conversion yet" while Slasher Quan stated that almost "everything's perfect in the Super NES version" and that it is "a nearly flawless conversion of the arcade original that's made even more enjoyable by new options and the convenience of home fighting." Super Play gave it a 94% score, stating that with "the inclusion of Champion Editions Character vs. Character select and the extra options, I would even go so far to say that this is actually better than the coin-op." Electronic Games gave it scores of 95% for graphics, 92% for sound, and 93% for playability, with a 94% overall, concluding that it is the best fighting game to date. Nintendo Power scored it 16.2 out of 20, stating that the "hottest arcade game around has been faithfully reproduced for this Super NES conversion" and that it "is just like having the arcade game at home!". Nintendo Power ranked it the best SNES game of 1992, above The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past in second place. Computer Gaming World in April 1994 said that "Street Fighter II now enters the PC ring rather late and with a touch of weak wrist". The magazine reported that "the atmosphere and the impact of hefty welts and bone-crushing action is just not here. The usual lament of many PC gamers about arcade conversions is once again true: too little and too late". Entertainment Weekly wrote that "Sure, it's violent (people can be set on fire), but Street Fighter II offers a depth of play (each character has more than 20 different moves) unmatched by any other video-game slugfest." Street Fighter II was named by Electronic Gaming Monthly as the Game of the Year for 1992. EGM awarded Street Fighter II Turbo with Best Super NES Game in 1993. Street Fighter II won the Golden Joystick Award for Game of the Year in 1992. Game Informer gave it the "Best Game of the Year" and "Best Playability in a Video Game" awards. It won Electronic Games magazine's Electronic Gaming Award for the Video Game of the Year, where it was nominated along with NHLPA Hockey '93 and Sonic the Hedgehog 2. The Mega Drive version of Street Fighter II received 10 out of 10 for both graphics and addiction from Mega, who described it as "a candidate for best game ever and without a doubt the best beat-'em-up of all time" and gave it an overall 92% score. MegaTech scored it 95% and awarded it Hyper Game, stating "the greatest coin-op hits the Megadrive in perfect form". Edge gave the PC Engine version of Champion Edition a score of 8 out of 10. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly, while remarking that the Game Boy control is difficult, the game speed "lethargically slow", and it is a very old game, agreed it to be an excellent conversion by Game Boy standards. The Axe Grinder of GamePro agreed, praising the graphics and Game Boy survival mode, but criticizing the slow controls and concluding that "The real problem here is that the game's just plain old." Retrospective Street Fighter II has been listed among the best games of all time. Game Informer ranked it as the 22nd-best game ever made in 2001. The staff praised it for popularizing the one-on-one fighting game genre and noted that its Super NES ports were "near-perfect." They later ranked it the 25th-best game ever made in 2009. Other publications that listed it among the best games of all time include BuzzFeed, Electronic Gaming Monthly, IGN, Edge, Empire, Famitsu, FHM, G4, GameFAQs, GameSpot, GamingBolt, Guinness World Records, Next Generation, NowGamer, Retro Gamer, Stuff, Time, and Yahoo! Guinness World Records awarded Street Fighter II the world records of "First Fighting Game to Use Combos", "Most Cloned Fighting Game", and "Biggest-Selling Coin-Operated Fighting Game" in the Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008. GameSpot gave the PlayStation 3 version of HD Remix a score of 8.5 out of 10. Legacy Sequels The Street Fighter II games were followed by several sub-series of Street Fighter games and spinoffs including Street Fighter Alpha, Street Fighter EX, Street Fighter III, Pocket Fighter, Super Puzzle Fighter II Turbo, and Vs. series. Capcom released Street Fighter IV for the arcades in July 2008, followed by Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in February 2009 and Microsoft Windows in July 2009. Street Fighter V was released for the PlayStation 4 and Windows in 2016. Other media The characters joined the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero lineup in 1993, as Hasbro bought their toy rights. An unofficial South Korean animation, Street Fighter, was produced by Daiwon Animation in 1992 and features the cast of Street Fighter II. The Hong Kong movie Future Cops has a renamed cast of Street Fighter II characters. Two film adaptations were released in 1994: Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie, a Japanese anime film produced by Group TAC; and Street Fighter, an American live-action film starring Jean-Claude Van Damme. A U.S. Street Fighter cartoon follows a combined plot of the live-action movie and the game series. An unrelated anime, Street Fighter II V, features younger characters similar to The Legend of Chun-Li. Capcom sponsored car 88 in the 1992 Indianapolis 500, providing a Street Fighter livery, which failed to qualify. Impact Street Fighter II is regarded as one of the most influential video games of all time, and the most important fighting game in particular. The release of Street Fighter II in 1991 is often considered a revolutionary moment in the fighting game genre. It has the most accurate joystick and button scanning routine in the genre, allowing players to reliably execute multi-button special moves, and its graphics use Capcom's CPS arcade chipset, with highly detailed characters and stages. Whereas previous games allow players to combat a variety of computer-controlled fighters, Street Fighter II allows human combat. The popularity of Street Fighter II surprised the gaming industry, as arcade owners bought more machines to keep up with demand. It was responsible for introducing the combo mechanic, which came about when skilled players learned that they could combine several attacks with no time for the opponent to recover. Its success inspired a wave of other fighting games, which were initially often labeled as "clones" or imitators, including titles such as Guardians of the 'Hood, Art of Fighting, Time Killers, Mortal Kombat, and Killer Instinct. Street Fighter II also influenced the development of the combat mechanics of beat 'em up game Streets of Rage 2. However, Street Fighter II also received criticism for its depiction of street violence, and for having inspired numerous other violent games in the industry. Street Fighter II revitalized the arcade video game industry in the early 1990s, to a level of popularity not seen since the days of Pac-Man in the early 1980s; It was the best-selling arcade video game by far since the golden age of arcade video games, bringing an arcade renaissance in the early 1990s. Its impact on home video games was equally important, becoming a long-lasting system-seller for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Since then up until the late 1990s, numerous best-selling home video games were arcade ports. In 2005, Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked it the 9th most important game since they began publication in 1989, stating no game "did more to prop up arcades" in the 1990s and it was the first killer app for the SNES. The game popularized the concept of "face-to-face", tournament-level competition between two players instead of just high scores. This enabled the competitive multiplayer and deathmatch modes found in modern action games. John Romero, for example, cited the competitive multiplayer of Street Fighter II as an influence on the deathmatch mode of seminal first-person shooter Doom. It is an innovation in revision series, with Capcom continuously upgrading and expanding the arcade game instead of releasing a sequel. This furthered the practice of patches and downloadable content found in modern video games. Popular culture Street Fighter II has been frequently sampled and referenced in hip hop music, by artists such as The Lady of Rage, Nicki Minaj, Lupe Fiasco, Dizzee Rascal, Lil B, Sean Price, and Madlib. This started with Hi-C's "Swing'n" (1993) and DJ Qbert's "Track 10" (1994) which sampled Street Fighter II, and the Street Fighter film soundtrack (1994) which is the first major film soundtrack to consist almost entirely of hip hop music. According to DJ Qbert, "I think hip-hop is a cool thing, I think Street Fighter is a cool thing". According to Vice magazine, "Street Fighters mixture of competition, bravado, and individualism easily translate into the trials and travails of a rapper." The "Perfect" sample was used by Kanye West and Drake in The Life of Pablo (2016). UK rap includes grime DJ Logan Sama saying, "Street Fighter is just a huge cultural thing that everyone experienced growing up [with] such a huge impact that it has just stayed in everyone's consciousness." According to Jake Hawkes of Soapbox, "grime was built around lyrical clashes [and] the 1v1 setup of these clashes was easily equated with Street Fighters 1 on 1 battles." Grime MCs such as Dizzee Rascal were sampling Street Fighter II in 2002, and Street Fighter II has been sampled "by almost every grime MC". It became an integral part of BBC Radio 1Xtra DJ Charlie Sloth's Fire in the Booth freestyle segments, using samples such as "Hadouken", "Shoryuken", and the "Perfect" announcer sound. Notes References Further reading External links Street Fighter II entry at Arcade-History 1991 video games 1992 video games 1993 video games 2D fighting games Amiga games Arcade video games Atari ST games Cancelled Amstrad CPC games Cancelled Nintendo Entertainment System games Commodore 64 games CP System games DOS games Game Boy games IOS games Java platform games Street Fighter games Super Nintendo Entertainment System games Tiger handheld games U.S. Gold games Fighting games Video game sequels Video games developed in Japan Video games scored by David Lowe Video games scored by Yoko Shimomura Video games set in 1991 Video games set in Brazil Video games set in China Video games set in India Video games set in Jamaica Video games set in Japan Video games set in Mexico Video games set in Spain Video games set in Thailand Video games set in the Soviet Union Video games set in the United States Video games with alternate endings Video games with alternative versions Virtual Console 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236034	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20municipalities%20in%20Michigan	List of municipalities in Michigan	Michigan is a state located in the Midwestern United States. According to the 2020 United States Census, Michigan is the 10th most populous state with inhabitants and the 22nd largest by land area spanning of land. Michigan is divided into 83 counties and contains 533 municipalities consisting of cities, villages and townships. Specifically, Michigan has 276 cities, 257 villages, and 1,240 townships. The largest municipality by population in Michigan is Detroit with 639,111 residents, and the smallest municipality by population is Pointe Aux Barques Township with 10 residents. The largest municipality by land area is McMillan Township which spans , while Ahmeek is the smallest at . Municipalities may be incorporated as either cities or villages. Cities are not subject to a township's jurisdiction, but villages remain part of the township in which they are located; village residents pay both township and village taxes, and share services with the township. Since all Michigan residents who do not live in a city live in a township, a village's population is counted in the population of the township in which it is located. List of municipalities See also Administrative divisions of Michigan List of counties in Michigan List of census-designated places in Michigan References External links Local Government links from Michigan.gov National Association of Towns and Townships The Michigan Townships Association Michigan Municipal League Michigan Michigan Michigan Local government in Michigan Cities, villages, and townships	[ -0.17958706617355347, 0.624651312828064, -0.09669407457113266, 0.21190710365772247, 0.00017225401825271547, 0.28410804271698, 0.4072209596633911, 0.8160161972045898, -0.2666075825691223, -0.047599948942661285, -0.017565065994858742, -0.12027597427368164, 0.16429503262043, 0.43953296542167664, -0.28321388363838196, 0.37924906611442566, 0.02343466319143772, 0.9909777045249939, 0.3099188506603241, -0.33676978945732117, 0.02873963490128517, -0.26079443097114563, 0.6991168260574341, 0.24955803155899048, 0.2597956955432892, 0.015264369547367096, 0.9022402167320251, -0.3870117962360382, 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236036	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit%20of%20the%20Week%20Records	Hit of the Week Records	Hit of the Week was an American record label founded in 1930 that sold low-priced records made of Durium instead of the usual shellac. History Around 1930, several types of thin, flexible records made of various plastic formulations were introduced in Europe, such as the German Phonycord, French Pathé Cellodisc, British Filmophone and Goodson, and Spanish Delfos records. In the US, this short-lived trend was represented by Hit of the Week records, which were made of a sturdy brown paper base coated with Durium, a lightweight synthetic resin. The records tended to have a low-frequency rumble due to their texture, and their audio fidelity was generally inferior than most ordinary shellac records of the time. Unusually, Hit of the Week records were recorded on one side only, an early practice in the disc record industry which most other manufacturers had generally abandoned around 1910. As a consequence of being uncoated on the other side, they have a strong tendency to curl and now often require the use of a clip or weight around the turntable spindle to keep them sufficiently flat during play. A few releases had the performer's portrait printed on the uncoated paper side, or were imprinted there with advertising matter. They were issued in flimsy rice paper sleeves, few of which have survived. A new issue featuring a current "hit" popular song was released every week. Unlike other records, they were sold at newsstands. Previous issues could be obtained by mail order. Retailing for 15 cents each, later raised to 20 cents, Hit of the Week records were by far the lowest-priced records in the US at that time. The first regular issue was released in February 1930. By the summer of 1930, up to half a million copies of each week's issue were produced. But as the Depression worsened, sales slumped. In March 1931 the company went into receivership and in May it was purchased by the Erwin, Wasey & Company advertising agency. A new format debuted in August, featuring two songs or dance tunes on each single-sided disc and a total playing time of about five minutes, but the label remained unprofitable. The final Hit of the Week issue was released in June 1932. After the demise of the label, some limited use was made of smaller (often only four inches in diameter) records made of the same material, mostly for giveaway advertising novelties. Specimens of one of the most common advertising records, which invited the recipient to come see the new 1932 Chevrolet automobile, are usually found with a mailing label and postage on the uncoated back side. Musicians who recorded for Hit of the Week included Gene Austin, Duke Ellington and His Orchestra (under the pseudonym "Harlem Hot Chocolates"), Ben Pollack, Eddie Cantor (on a special 25 cent "Durium De Luxe" issue), Morton Downey, and Rudy Vallée. Most of the arrangements were performed by studio musicians in New York, led by Adrian Schubert, Bert Hirsch, Vincent Lopez, Don Voorhees, and Phil Spitalny. Jazz "breaks" by instrumental stars such as Joe Venuti and Eddie Lang enlivened some recordings. The vocalists who recorded with the studio bands included several popular radio singers of the period, such as Ralph Kirbery and Helen Rowland. In the UK, a similar series was issued on the Durium label. See also List of record labels References Discographies Hit of the Week Discography, Hans Koert (Heinkenszand, The Netherlands) (1994–2007) Durium (GB) Discography, Hans Koert (Heinkenszand, The Netherlands) (1994–2007) Durium Advertisement and Custom Records Discography, Hans Koert (The Netherlands) (1994–2007) External links Hit of the week - Durium web log The Complete Hit of the week Recordings A set of four 2CDs. 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236041	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unary%20coding	Unary coding	Unary coding, or the unary numeral system and also sometimes called thermometer code, is an entropy encoding that represents a natural number, n, with n ones followed by a zero (if natural number is understood as non-negative integer) or with n − 1 ones followed by a zero (if natural number is understood as strictly positive integer). For example 5 is represented as 111110 or 11110. Some representations use n or n − 1 zeros followed by a one. The ones and zeros are interchangeable without loss of generality. Unary coding is both a prefix-free code and a self-synchronizing code. Unary coding is an optimally efficient encoding for the following discrete probability distribution for . In symbol-by-symbol coding, it is optimal for any geometric distribution for which k ≥ φ = 1.61803398879…, the golden ratio, or, more generally, for any discrete distribution for which for . Although it is the optimal symbol-by-symbol coding for such probability distributions, Golomb coding achieves better compression capability for the geometric distribution because it does not consider input symbols independently, but rather implicitly groups the inputs. For the same reason, arithmetic encoding performs better for general probability distributions, as in the last case above. Unary code in use today Examples of unary code uses include: In Golomb Rice code, unary encoding is used to encode the quotient part of the Golomb code word. In UTF-8, unary encoding is used in the leading byte of a multi-byte sequence to indicate the number of bytes in the sequence so that the length of the sequence can be determined without examining the continuation bytes. Instantaneously trained neural networks use unary coding for efficient data representation. Unary coding in biological networks Unary coding is used in the neural circuits responsible for birdsong production. The nucleus in the brain of the songbirds that plays a part in both the learning and the production of bird song is the HVC (high vocal center). The command signals for different notes in the birdsong emanate from different points in the HVC. This coding works as space coding which is an efficient strategy for biological circuits due to its inherent simplicity and robustness. Standard run-length unary codes All binary data is defined by the ability to represent unary numbers in alternating run-lengths of 1s and 0s. This conforms to the standard definition of unary codes of N digits of the same number 1 or 0. All run-lengths by definition have at least one digit and thus represent strictly positive integers. Uniquely decodable non-prefix unary codes Following is an example of uniquely decodable unary codes that is not a prefix code and is not instantaneously decodable (need look-ahead to decode) Generalized unary coding A generalized version of unary coding was presented by Subhash Kak to represent numbers much more efficiently than standard unary coding. Here's an example of generalized unary coding for integers from 1 through 15 that requires only 7 bits (where three bits are arbitrarily chosen in place of a single one in standard unary to show the number). Note that the representation is cyclic where one uses markers to represent higher integers in higher cycles. Generalized unary coding requires that the range of numbers to be represented to be pre-specified because this range determines the number of bits that are needed. 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236048	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncated%20binary%20encoding	Truncated binary encoding	Truncated binary encoding is an entropy encoding typically used for uniform probability distributions with a finite alphabet. It is parameterized by an alphabet with total size of number n. It is a slightly more general form of binary encoding when n is not a power of two. If n is a power of two then the coded value for 0 ≤ x < n is the simple binary code for x of length log2(n). Otherwise let k = floor( log2(n) ) such that 2k < n < 2k+1 and let u = 2k+1 - n. Truncated binary encoding assigns the first u symbols codewords of length k and then assigns the remaining n - u symbols the last n - u codewords of length k + 1. Because all the codewords of length k + 1 consist of an unassigned codeword of length k with a "0" or "1" appended, the resulting code is a prefix code. Example with n = 5 For example, for the alphabet {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, n = 5 and 22 ≤ n < 23, hence k = 2 and u = 23 - 5 = 3. Truncated binary encoding assigns the first u symbols the codewords 00, 01, and 10, all of length 2, then assigns the last n - u symbols the codewords 110 and 111, the last two codewords of length 3. For example, if n is 5, plain binary encoding and truncated binary encoding allocates the following codewords. Digits shown struck are not transmitted in truncated binary. It takes 3 bits to encode n using straightforward binary encoding, hence 23 - n = 8 - 5 = 3 are unused. In numerical terms, to send a value x where 0 ≤ x < n, and where there are 2k ≤ n < 2k+1 symbols, there are u = 2k + 1 − n unused entries when the alphabet size is rounded up to the nearest power of two. The process to encode the number x in truncated binary is: If x is less than u, encode it in k binary bits. If x is greater than or equal to u, encode the value x + u in k + 1 binary bits. Example with n = 10 Another example, encoding an alphabet of size 10 (between 0 and 9) requires 4 bits, but there are 24 − 10 = 6 unused codes, so input values less than 6 have the first bit discarded, while input values greater than or equal to 6 are offset by 6 to the end of the binary space. (Unused patterns are not shown in this table.) To decode, read the first k bits. If they encode a value less than u, decoding is complete. Otherwise, read an additional bit and subtract u from the result. Example with n = 7 Here is a more extreme case: with n = 7 the next power of 2 is 8 so k = 2 and u = 23 - 7 = 1: This last example demonstrates that a leading zero bit does not always indicate a short code; if u < 2k, some long codes will begin with a zero bit. Simple algorithm Generate the truncated binary encoding for a value x, 0 <= x < n, where n > 0 is the size of the alphabet containing x. n need not be a power of two. string TruncatedBinary (int x, int n) { // Set k = floor(log2(n)), i.e., k such that 2^k <= n < 2^(k+1). int k = 0, t = n; while (t > 1) { k++; t >>= 1; } // Set u to the number of unused codewords = 2^(k+1) - n. int u = (1 << k+1) - n; if (x < u) return Binary(x, k); else return Binary(x+u, k+1)); } The routine Binary is expository; usually just the rightmost len bits of the variable x are desired. Here we simply output the binary code for x using len bits, padding with high-order 0's if necessary. string Binary (int x, int len) { string s = ""; while (x != 0) { if (even(x)) s = '0' + s; else s = '1' + s; x >>= 1; } while (s.Length < len) s = '0' + s; return s; } On efficiency If n is not a power of two, and k bit symbols are observed with probability p, k + 1 bit symbols are observed with probability 1 - p. We can calculate the expected number of bits per symbol as: . Raw encoding of the symbol is bits. Then relative space saving s (see Data_compression_ratio) of the encoding can be defined as . When simplified, this expression leads to: . This indicates that relative efficiency of truncated binary encoding increases as probability p of k bit symbols increase, and the raw encoding bits per symbol decreases. 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236050	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Beaufort	Thomas Beaufort	Thomas Beaufort may refer to: Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter (1377–1426), English military commander, briefly Chancellor of England Thomas Beaufort, Count of Perche (c. 1405–1431), English military commander	[ -0.30316072702407837, -0.20087307691574097, -0.09284751862287521, -0.10377029329538345, -0.2665168344974518, 0.7074027061462402, 0.47873935103416443, -0.2646535336971283, -0.35290104150772095, -0.3072269856929779, -0.29339566826820374, 0.18976493179798126, -0.26938778162002563, 0.25152096152305603, -0.06255833059549332, 0.3140049874782562, 0.2632775902748108, 0.09135498851537704, -0.21193824708461761, -0.6091321110725403, 0.17331328988075256, -0.14841176569461823, 0.0835781916975975, 0.10949589312076569, 0.2747105062007904, 0.2980242371559143, 0.7242413759231567, -0.5539953112602234, -0.20640712976455688, 0.12126040458679199, 0.017221737653017044, 0.4115140736103058, 0.060167886316776276, 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236053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Mary%27s%20University	Saint Mary's University	St. Mary's University (in French, Université Ste-Marie, in Spanish, Universidad de Santa María) is the name of several universities: Brazil Universidade Federal de Santa Maria Canada St. Mary's University, Calgary, Alberta Saint Mary's University (Halifax), Nova Scotia Collège Sainte-Marie de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, defunct Chile Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María Panama Universidad Católica Santa María La Antigua Peru Catholic University of Santa María Philippines Saint Mary's University (Philippines), Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya South Sudan St. Mary's University in Juba United Kingdom St Mary's University College, Belfast, a college of Queen's University Belfast, in Northern Ireland St Mary's University, Twickenham, London, oldest Catholic university in the United Kingdom United States (by state) Saint Mary's College of California, Moraga, California St. Mary's Seminary and University, Baltimore, Maryland Mount St. Mary's University, Emmitsburg, Maryland Saint Mary's College (Michigan), Orchard Lake, Michigan, defunct—now known as Madonna University Saint Mary's University of Minnesota, Winona, Minnesota St. Mary's University (Galveston, Texas), Galveston, Texas, a defunct university that closed in 1922. St. Mary's University, Texas, San Antonio, Texas University of Saint Mary, Leavenworth, Kansas Venezuela Universidad Santa María (Venezuela) See also St. Mary's University College (disambiguation) Saint Mary's (disambiguation) Saint Mary's College (disambiguation) St. Mary's High School (disambiguation) St. Mary's School (disambiguation) St. Mary's Academy (disambiguation)	[ -0.39522430300712585, 0.15504033863544464, 0.0562579482793808, -0.21457359194755554, 0.04264120012521744, 0.7286689877510071, 0.941508948802948, 0.8351989388465881, -0.5052539110183716, -0.6683634519577026, -0.25110629200935364, 0.1521763801574707, 0.5737506747245789, 0.4135087728500366, 0.4654787480831146, -0.12089291214942932, 0.5266497135162354, 0.787311315536499, 0.03915798291563988, -0.9231789708137512, -0.5858578681945801, 0.009591162204742432, 0.3153849244117737, 0.18417519330978394, 0.07089747488498688, 0.26036012172698975, 0.31524792313575745, 0.018183719366788864, 0.12850390374660492, 0.13468952476978302, 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236056	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudimentary%20Peni	Rudimentary Peni	Rudimentary Peni are a British anarcho-punk band formed in 1980, emerging from the London anarcho-punk scene. Lead singer/guitarist Nick Blinko is notorious for his witty, macabre lyrics and dark pen-and-ink artwork, prominently featured on all of Rudimentary Peni's albums. Bassist Grant Matthews has also written several songs for the band, though his lyrics primarily focus on sociopolitical themes. Very few photos exist of the band, as their albums feature Blinko's drawings instead, but Pushead published a few in an early edition of his magazine. History Rudimentary Peni were formed in June 1980 in Abbots Langley, Hertfordshire by Blinko (vocals, guitar), Greville (drums) and Matthews (bass). Blinko and Greville had met years prior in Langleybury Comprehensive secondary school. Greville had been playing drums since he was young, beginning lessons at the age of 10, and slowly became interested in punk rock around the time Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols by the Sex Pistols was released After meeting Blinko through a mutual friend, the pair began the experimental electronic duo the Magits, formed in 1977 and dissolved around 1980. The Magits released their first and only EP, Fully Coherent, in 1979 on Blinko's newly formed Outer Himalayan Records; it was the label's first release. In his 2006 book The Day the Country Died: A History of Anarcho Punk 1980–1984, punk historian Ian Glasper referred to the sound of the Magits' EP as a "meandering collection of keyboard torture". Blinko, Greville, and Matthews subsequently formed Rudimentary Peni. In Maximum RocknRoll issue No. 237 (February 2003), Matthews explained how he came up with the name of the band: "When I was at school studying biology, we were told that in the fetal stage the clitoris is a rudimentary penis". By 1981, the band had played their first show, along with the S-Haters and Soft Drinks in Watford, Hertfortshire. Greville later characterized the first show, as well as the ones following it, as fairly disappointing, setting a precedent for the band's distaste for playing live. While they were inspired by punk rock, the band did not adopt the look of the day, as Greville noted: "The majority of people [were] clearly disappointed that we didn't have green mohicans and multiple piercings...if you were the sort of person to be put off by what we looked like, you were never going to understand or appreciate the songs anyway". They recorded their first EP, an eponymous 12-song 7", in 1981 at Street Level Studios in London and released it on Outer Himalayan. It was fast, loud, and often described as "demented" due to the sound, as well as Blinko's lyrics and artwork, which adorned the cover and inner sleeves. After the release of the EP, the band played their first London show on 18 September 1981 along with anarcho-punk bands Flux of Pink Indians and the Subhumans. Early on, Rudimentary Peni had connections with fellow anarcho-punkers Crass, and their second 7" EP, Farce, was issued by Crass Records. Up through the band's first studio album, Death Church (1983), their records were packaged in fold-out paper sleeves full of artwork, lyrics and poster graphics characteristic of Crass and many other bands in the anarcho-punk scene. In 1987, the band's first two EPs were collected by Corpus Christi Records as The EPs of RP. Rudimentary Peni stopped performing in the mid-1980s after bassist Matthews was diagnosed with cancer. After a four-year hiatus, they recorded Cacophony (1988), a sonic tribute to seminal New England horror author H. P. Lovecraft. Mark Ferelli of Part 1, a contemporary English deathrock band, introduced Blinko to Lovecraft; the pair also pushed each other's pen-and-ink artwork forward via friendly competition. The band continued to record and release material into the 21st century, including the album Pope Adrian 37th Psychristiatric (1995) and the EPs Echoes of Anguish (1998), The Underclass (2000), Archaic (2004) and No More Pain (2008), and have maintained a diverse cult following in the United States punk scene. Most reissues of their 1980s albums are now out of print. Blinko authored a semi-autobiographical novel called The Primal Screamer, published in 1995 by Spare Change Books (his bandmates and Ferelli appear under false names), as well as the more recent The Haunted Head (2009, Coptic Cat) and Visions of Pope Adrian 37th (2011, Coptic Cat). Blinko has also become increasingly popular in the outsider art scene. Lineup Nick Blinko - guitar, vocals, artwork, lyrics Grant Matthews - bass guitar, lyrics Jon Greville - drums Discography Chart placings shown are from the UK Indie Chart. Studio albums Death Church LP (Corpus Christi Records, 1983) (No. 3) Cacophony LP (Outer Himalayan, 1988) (No. 7) Pope Adrian 37th Psychristiatric CD (Outer Himalayan, 1995) The Great War (2021, Sealed Records) EPs Rudimentary Peni 7" EP (1981, Outer Himalayan) Farce 7" EP (1982, Crass Records) (#7) Echoes of Anguish 12" EP/CD EP (1998, Outer Himalayan) The Underclass 7" EP/CD EP (2000, Outer Himalayan) Archaic 10" EP/CD EP (2004, Outer Himalayan) No More Pain 12" EP/CD EP (2008, Southern Records) Singles Wilfred Owen the Chance CD (2009, Coptic Cat/Outer Himalayan) Live albums Derby 1993 (2015, Sheffield Tape Archive) Compilation albums The EPs of RP LP (1987, Corpus Christi Records) References External links Rudimentary Peni on Facebook Rudimentary Peni on Discogs Rudimentary Peni 1988 interview on Troubled Times Radio Anarcho-punk groups English punk rock groups Musical groups established in 1980 Death rock groups English gothic rock groups	[ 0.4575704038143158, -0.0228151585906744, 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236060	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recoilless%20rifle	Recoilless rifle	A recoilless rifle, recoilless launcher or recoilless gun, sometimes abbreviated "RR" or "RCL" (for ReCoilLess) is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some form of countermass such as propellant gas from the rear of the weapon at the moment of firing, creating forward thrust that counteracts most of the weapon's recoil. This allows for the elimination of much of the heavy and bulky recoil-counteracting equipment of a conventional cannon as well as a thinner-walled barrel, and thus the launch of a relatively large projectile from a platform that would not be capable of handling the weight or recoil of a conventional gun of the same size. Technically, only devices that use spin-stabilized projectiles fired from a rifled barrel are recoilless rifles, while smoothbore variants (which can be fin-stabilized or unstabilized) are recoilless guns. This distinction is often lost, and both are often called recoilless rifles. Though similar in appearance to a tube-based rocket launcher (since these also operate on a recoilless launch principle), the key difference is that recoilless weapons fire shells utilizing a conventional smokeless propellant. While there are rocket-assisted rounds for recoilless weapons, they are still ejected from the barrel by the deflagration of a conventional propelling charge. Because some projectile velocity is inevitably lost to the recoil compensation, recoilless rifles tend to have inferior range to traditional cannon, although with a far greater ease of transport, making them popular with paratroop, mountain warfare and special forces units, where portability is of particular concern, as well as with some light infantry and infantry fire support units. The greatly diminished recoil allows for devices that can be carried by individual infantrymen: heavier recoilless rifles are mounted on light tripods, wheeled light carriages, or small vehicles, and intended to be carried by crew of two to five. The largest versions retain enough bulk and recoil to be restricted to a towed mount or relatively heavy vehicle, but are still much lighter and more portable than cannon of the same scale. Such large systems have mostly been replaced by guided anti-tank missiles in first-world armies. Design There are a number of principles under which a recoilless gun can operate, all involving the ejection of some kind of counter-mass from the rear of the gun tube to offset the force of the projectile being fired forward. The most basic method, and the first to be employed, is simply making a double-ended gun with a conventional sealed breech, which fires identical projectiles forwards and backwards. Such a system places enormous stress on its midpoint, is extremely cumbersome to reload, and has the highly undesirable effect of launching a projectile potentially just as deadly as the one launched at the enemy at a point behind the shooter where their allies may well be. The most common system involves venting some portion of the weapon's propellant gas to the rear of the tube, in the same fashion as a rocket launcher. This creates a forward directed momentum which is nearly equal to the rearward momentum (recoil) imparted to the system by accelerating the projectile. The balance thus created does not leave much momentum to be imparted to the weapon's mounting or the gunner in the form of felt recoil. Since recoil has been mostly negated, a heavy and complex recoil damping mechanism is not necessary. Despite the name, it is rare for the forces to completely balance, and real-world recoilless rifles do recoil noticeably (with varying degrees of severity). Recoilless rifles will not function correctly if the venting system is damaged, blocked, or poorly maintained: in this state, the recoil-damping effect can be reduced or lost altogether, leading to dangerously powerful recoil. Conversely, if a projectile becomes lodged in the barrel for any reason, the entire weapon will be forced forward. Recoilless rifle rounds for breech-loading reloadable systems resemble conventional cased ammunition, using a driving band to engage the rifled gun tube and spin-stabilize the projectile. The casing of a recoilless rifle round is often perforated to vent the propellant gases, which are then directed to the rear by an expansion chamber surrounding the weapon's breech. In the case of single-shot recoilless weapons such as the Panzerfaust or AT4, the device is externally almost identical in design to a single-shot rocket launcher: the key difference is that the launch tube is a gun that launches the projectile using a pre-loaded powder charge, not a hollow tube. Weapons of this type can either encase their projectile inside the disposable gun tube, or mount it on the muzzle: the latter allows the launching of an above-caliber projectile. Like single shot rocket launchers, the need to only survive a single firing means that single-shot recoilless weapons can be made from relatively flimsy and therefore very light materials, such as fiberglass. Recoilless gun launch systems are often used to provide the initial thrust for man-portable weapons firing rocket-powered projectiles: examples include the RPG-7, Panzerfaust 3 and MATADOR. Since venting propellant gases to the rear can be dangerous in confined spaces, some recoilless guns use a combination of a countershot and captive piston propelling cartridge design to avoid both recoil and backblast. The Armbrust "cartridge," for example, contains the propellant charge inside a double-ended piston assembly, with the projectile in front, and an equal countermass of shredded plastic to the rear. On firing, the propellant expands rapidly, pushing the pistons outward. This pushes the projectile forwards towards the target and the countermass backwards providing the recoilless effect. The shredded plastic countermass is quickly slowed by air resistance and is harmless at a distance more than a few feet from the rear of the barrel. The two ends of the piston assembly are captured at the ends of the barrel, by which point the propellant gas has expanded and cooled enough that there is no threat of explosion. Other countermass materials that have been used include inert powders and liquids. History The earliest known example of a design for a gun based on recoilless principles was created by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th or early 16th century. This design was of a gun which fired projectiles in opposite directions, but there is no evidence any physical firearm based on the design was constructed at the time. In 1879 a French patent was filed by Alfred Krupp for a recoilless gun. The first recoilless gun known to have actually been constructed was developed by Commander Cleland Davis of the US Navy, just prior to World War I. His design, named the Davis gun, connected two guns back-to-back, with the backwards-facing gun loaded with lead balls and grease of the same weight as the shell in the other gun. His idea was used experimentally by the British as an anti-Zeppelin and anti-submarine weapon mounted on a Handley Page O/100 bomber and intended to be installed on other aircraft. In the Soviet Union, the development of recoilless weapons ("Dinamo-Reaktivnaya Pushka" (DRP), roughly "dynamic reaction cannon") began in 1923. In the 1930s, many different types of weapons were built and tested with configurations ranging from 37 mm to 305 mm. Some of the smaller examples were tested in aircraft (Grigorovich I-Z and Tupolev I-12) and saw some limited production and service, but development was abandoned around 1938. The best-known of these early recoilless rifles was the Model 1935 76 mm DRP designed by Leonid Kurchevsky. A small number of these mounted on trucks saw combat in the Winter War. Two were captured by the Finns and tested; one example was given to the Germans in 1940. The first recoilless gun to enter service in Germany was the 7.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40 ("light gun" '40), a simple 75 mm smoothbore recoilless gun developed to give German airborne troops artillery and anti-tank support that could be parachuted into battle. The 7.5cm LG 40 was found to be so useful during the invasion of Crete that Krupp and Rheinmetall set to work creating more powerful versions, respectively the 10.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40 and 10.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 42. These weapons were loosely copied by the US Army. The Luftwaffe also showed great interest in aircraft-mounted recoilless weapons to allow their planes to attack tanks, fortified structures and ships. These included the unusual Düsenkanone 88, an 88mm recoilless rifle fed by a 10-round rotary cylinder and with the exhaust vent angled upwards at 51 degrees to the barrel so it could pass through the host aircraft's fuselage rather than risking a rear-vented backblast damaging the tail, and the Sondergerät SG104 "Münchhausen", a gargantuan 14-inch (355.6mm) weapon designed to be mounted under the fuselage of a Dornier Do 217. None of these systems proceeded beyond the prototype stage. The US did have a development program, and it is not clear to what extent the German designs were copied. These weapons remained fairly rare during the war, although the American M20 became increasingly common in 1945. Postwar saw a great deal of interest in recoilless systems, as they potentially offered an effective replacement for the obsolete anti-tank rifle in infantry units. During World War II, the Swedish military developed a shoulder-fired 20 mm device, the Pansarvärnsgevär m/42 (20 mm m/42); the British expressed their interest in it, but by that point the weapon, patterned after obsolete anti-tank rifles, was too weak to be effective against period tank armor. This system would form the basis of the much more successful Carl Gustav recoilless rifle postwar. By the time of the Korean War, recoilless rifles were found throughout the US forces. The earliest American infantry recoilless rifles were the shoulder-fired 57 mm M18 and the tripod-mounted 75 mm M20, later followed by the 105 mm M27: the latter proved unreliable, too heavy, and too hard to aim. Newer models replacing these were the 90 mm M67 and 106 mm M40 (which was actually 105 mm caliber, but designated otherwise to prevent accidental issue of incompatible M27 ammunition). In addition, the Davy Crockett, a muzzle-loaded recoilless launch system for tactical nuclear warheads intended to counteract Soviet tank units, was developed in the 1960s and deployed to American units in Germany. The Soviet Union adopted a series of crew-served smoothbore recoilless guns in the 1950s and 1960s, specifically the 73mm SPG-9, 82mm B-10 and 107mm B-11. All are found quite commonly around the world in the inventories of former Soviet client states, where they are usually used as anti-tank guns. The British, whose efforts were led by Charles Dennistoun Burney, inventor of the Wallbuster HESH round, also developed recoilless designs. Burney demonstrated the technique with a recoilless 4-gauge shotgun. His "Burney Gun" was developed to fire the Wallbuster shell against the Atlantic Wall defences, but was not required in the D-Day landings of 1944. He went on to produce further designs, with two in particular created as anti-tank weapons. The Ordnance, RCL, 3.45 in could be fired off a man's shoulder or from a light tripod, and fired an 11 lb (5 kg) wallbuster shell to 1,000 yards. The larger Ordnance RCL. 3.7in fired a 22.2 lb (10 kg) wallbuster to 2,000 yards. Postwar work developed and deployed the BAT (Battalion, Anti Tank) series of recoilless rifles, culminating in the 120 mm L6 WOMBAT. This was too large to be transported by infantry and was usually towed by jeep. The weapon was aimed via a spotting rifle, a modified Bren Gun on the MOBAT and an American M8C spotting rifle on the WOMBAT: the latter fired a .50 BAT (12.7x77mm) point-detonating incendiary tracer round whose trajectory matched that of the main weapon. When tracer rounds hits were observed, the main gun was fired. During the late 1960s and 1970s, SACLOS wire-guided missiles began to supplant recoilless rifles in the anti-tank role. While recoilless rifles retain several advantages such as being able to be employed at extremely close range, as a guided missile typically has a significant deadzone before it can arm and begin to seek its target, missile systems tend to be lighter and more accurate, and are better suited to deployment of hollow-charge warheads. The large crew-served recoilless rifle started to disappear from first-rate armed forces, except in areas such as the Arctic, where thermal batteries used to provide after-launch power to wire-guided missiles like M47 Dragon and BGM-71 TOW would fail due to extremely low temperatures. The former 6th Light Infantry Division in Alaska used the M67 in its special weapons platoons, as did the Ranger Battalions and the US Army's Berlin Brigade. The last major use was the M50 Ontos, which mounted six M40 rifles on a light (9 ton) tracked chassis. They were largely used in an anti-personnel role firing "beehive" flechette rounds. In 1970 the Ontos was removed from service and most were broken up. The M40, usually mounted on a jeep or technical, is still very common in conflict zones throughout the world, where it is used as a hard-hitting strike weapon in support of infantry, with the M40-armed technical fulfilling a similar combat role to an attack helicopter. Front-line recoilless weapons in the armies of modern industrialized nations are mostly man-portable devices such as the Carl Gustav, an 84 mm weapon. First introduced in 1948 and exported extensively since 1964, it is still in widespread use throughout the world today: a huge selection of special-purpose rounds are available for the system, and the current variant, known as the M4 or M3E1, is designed to be compatible with computerized optics and future "smart" ammunition. Many nations also use a weapon derived from the Carl Gustav, the one-shot AT4, which was originally developed in 1984 to fulfil an urgent requirement for an effective replacement for the M72 LAW after the failure of the FGR-17 Viper program the previous year. The ubiquitous RPG-7 is also technically a recoilless gun, since its rocket-powered projectile is launched using an explosive booster charge (even more so when firing the OG-7V anti-personnel round, which has no rocket motor), though it is usually not classified as one. Civilian use Obsolete 75mm M20 and 105mm M27 recoilless rifles were used by the U.S. National Park Service and the U.S. Forest Service as a system for triggering controlled avalanches at a safe distance, from the early 1950s until the US Military's inventory of surplus ammunition for these weapons was exhausted in the 1990s. They were then replaced with M40 106mm recoilless rifles, but following a catastrophic in-bore ammunition explosion that killed one of the five-man gun crew at Alpine Meadows Ski Resort, California, in 1995 and two further in-bore explosions at Mammoth Mountain, California, within thirteen days of each other in December 2002, all such guns were removed from use and replaced with surplus 105mm howitzers. 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236065	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Chillicothe%20%281862%29	USS Chillicothe (1862)	USS Chillicothe was an ironclad river gunboat of the United States Navy. She was named for the capital of Ohio from 1803 to 1810. Chillicothe was laid down at Cincinnati, Ohio. She was commissioned on 5 September 1862 at Jeffersonville, Indiana, with Acting Lieutenant J. P. Sanford in command. Necessary alterations and repairs and lack of sufficient water to pass over the falls detained her in the Ohio River until early January 1863. Service history From 8 January 1863, when she sailed from Cairo, Illinois, until the end of the American Civil War, Chillicothe was constantly employed in the Mississippi River and its tributaries. She joined in the expeditions to the White River in Arkansas in January 1863 and contributed to the capture of Fort Hindman, Arkansas. She then joined the Yazoo Pass Expedition, from 20 February to 10 April. Coming under enemy's fire with in the Yazoo expedition, Chillicothe was heavily damaged and lost several men. She was sent to Mound City, Illinois, for repairs and returned to duty on the Mississippi River on 6 September 1863. On 24 February 1864 she entered the Red River for the expedition of 7 March to 15 May in which her commanding officer, Lieutenant Joseph P. Couthouy, was mortally wounded by rifle fire on 3 April. From 22 May 1864 until 26 May 1865 she lay off Fort Adams, Mississippi, on 8 June 1864 assisting in the capture of a Confederate battery at Simmesport, Louisiana. Chillicothe arrived at Cairo, Illinois, on 13 July 1865, and on 29 November 1865 was sold at auction at Mound City, Illinois. As a civilian-owned ship, she was destroyed by fire in September 1872. See also Bibliography of early U.S. naval history References Gunboats of the United States Navy Ships built in Cincinnati Ships of the Union Navy American Civil War patrol vessels of the United States 1862 ships United States Navy Ohio-related ships	[ -0.4364532232284546, 0.40464553236961365, -0.7598778009414673, 0.31508931517601013, 0.3177410364151001, 0.4334019720554352, 1.170454978942871, -0.16445836424827576, -0.5701640844345093, -0.01254024263471365, 0.7155455350875854, 0.05293222516775131, -0.7502919435501099, 1.0098410844802856, -0.42796996235847473, 0.3659677803516388, -0.25765490531921387, 0.5191699862480164, 0.2662985622882843, -0.6788803339004517, -0.17943993210792542, -0.6986954808235168, 0.4923635423183441, -0.05081253871321678, 0.09593784809112549, 0.1507943868637085, 0.5941997170448303, -0.05606571212410927, 0.06407631188631058, 0.02117050625383854, -0.2011590600013733, 0.8926743865013123, 0.02753320150077343, -0.03648829832673073, -0.09114473313093185, 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236074	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtown%2C%20New%20South%20Wales	Newtown, New South Wales	Newtown, a suburb of Sydney's inner west, is located approximately four kilometres south-west of the Sydney central business district, straddling the local government areas of the City of Sydney and Inner West Council in the state of New South Wales, Australia. King Street is the main street of Newtown and centre of commercial and entertainment activity. The street follows the spine of a long ridge that rises up near Sydney University and extends to the south, becoming the Princes Highway at its southern end. Enmore Road branches off King Street towards the suburb of Enmore at Newtown Bridge, where the road passes over the railway line at Newtown Station. Enmore Road and King Street together comprise 9.1 kilometres of over 600 shopfronts. The main shopping strip of Newtown is the longest and most complete commercial precinct of the late Victorian and Federation period in Australia. King Street is often referred to as "Eat Street" in the media due to the large number of cafés, pubs and restaurants of various cultures. Cafés, restaurants and galleries can also be found in the streets surrounding King Street. Newtown's rugby league club competed in the NSWRFL Premiership from its foundation in 1908 until 1983. History Aboriginal history The area known as Newtown was part of a broader area where Cadigal tribe of the Eora people, who ranged across the entire area from the southern shores of Sydney Harbour to Botany Bay in the south-east and Petersham in the inner-west. The first indigenous Australian to receive a Christian burial was Tommy, an 11-year-old boy who died of bronchitis in the Sydney Infirmary. He was buried in Camperdown Cemetery, in a section now located outside the wall. The cemetery also contains a sandstone obelisk erected in 1944 by the Rangers League of NSW, in memory of Tommy and three other indigenous Australians buried there: Mogo, William Perry and Wandelina Cabrorigirel, although their graves are no longer identifiable. When the names were transcribed from the records onto the monument, there was an error in deciphering the flowing hand in which many of the original burial dockets were written. It is now known that the fourth name was not Wandelina Cabrorigirel, but Mandelina (Aboriginal). King street, Newtown's main street, reputedly follows an Aboriginal track that branched out from the main western track, now beneath Broadway and Parramatta Road, and which continued all the way to the coastal plains around Botany Bay. This conflicts with other claims that the main western track was a barrier which divided the land. 19th century Newtown was established as a residential and farming area in the early 19th century. The area took its name from a grocery store opened there by John and Margaret Webster in 1832, at a site close to where the Newtown railway station stands today. They placed a sign atop their store that read "New Town Stores". Captain Sylvester John Browne, father of Thomas Alexander Browne ("Rolf Boldrewood"), built "Newtown House" in the area around the same time, which has also been cited as the source of the name. The name New Town was adopted, at first unofficially, with the space disappearing to form the name Newtown. The part of Newtown lying south of King Street was a portion of the two estates granted by Governor Arthur Phillip to the Superintendent of Convicts, Nicholas Devine, in 1794 and 1799. Erskineville and much of Macdonaldtown/Golden Grove were also once part of Devine's grant. In 1827, when Devine was aged about 90, this land was acquired from him by a convict, Bernard Rochford, who sold it to many of Sydney's wealthiest and most influential inhabitants, including the mayor. Devine's heir, John Devine, a coachbuilder of Birmingham, challenged the will, which was blatantly fraudulent. The "Newtown Ejectment Case" was eventually settled out of court by the payment to Devine of an unknown sum of money said to have been "considerable". The land was further divided into housing that is now evidenced by the rows of terrace houses and commercial and industrial premises. Part of the area now falling within the present boundaries of Newtown, north of King Street, was originally part of Camperdown. This area was named by Governor William Bligh, who received it as a land grant in 1806 and passed it to his daughter and son-in-law on his return to England in 1810. In 1848 part of this land was acquired by the Sydney Church of England Cemetery Company to create a general cemetery beyond the boundary of the City of Sydney. Camperdown Cemetery, just one block away from King Street, was to become significant in the life of the suburb. Between its consecration in 1849 and its closure to further sales in 1868 it saw 15,000 burials of people from all over Sydney. Of that number, approximately half were paupers buried in unmarked and often communal graves, sometimes as many as 12 in a day during a measles epidemic. Camperdown Cemetery remains, though much reduced in size, as a rare example of mid-19th-century cemetery landscaping. It retains the Cemetery Lodge and huge fig tree dating from 1848, as well as a number of oak trees of the same date. It survived to become the main green space of Newtown. Among the notables buried in the cemetery are explorer-surveyor Sir Thomas Livingstone Mitchell, Major Edmund Lockyer and Mary, Lady Jamison (widow of the colonial pioneer landowner, physician, constitutional reformer and "knight of the realm", Sir John Jamison), and Eliza Emily Donnithorne, recluse and rumoured inspiration for Miss Havisham. The cemetery also holds the remains of many of the victims of the wreck of the Dunbar in 1857. From 1845, when the first Anglican church was built on the site of the present Community Centre on Stephen Street, by Edmund Blacket, a number of churches were established, including St Joseph's Roman Catholic church in the 1850s, the Methodist church on King Street, now Newtown Mission, and the Baptist church in Church Street. The present St Stephen's Anglican church, a fine example of Victorian Gothic architecture, was designed, like its predecessor, by Blacket, and built in the grounds of the cemetery between 1871 and 1880. Both it and the cemetery are on the National Trust register of buildings of national significance. Its Mears and Stainbank carillon is unique in Australia, while its Walker and Sons organ of 1874 is regarded as one of the finest in New South Wales. On 12 December 1862 the Municipality of Newtown was incorporated and divided into three wards: O'Connell, Kingston and Enmore, covering . In 1893 a plan was discussed to rename the council area "South Sydney" (as three municipalities North of Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) had merged to form North Sydney three years earlier), but nothing came of it. Housing Although there are a few earlier buildings in Newtown, the most rapid development came in the late 19th century, with many former farms and other large properties being subdivided and developed as row-houses, known popularly as "terrace houses". With their predominance of Victorian-era houses with stuccoed facades, balconies of iron lace and moulded architectural ornaments, many Newtown streets are similar to those of other well-known inner-city suburbs like Glebe, Paddington and Balmain. From about 1870 onwards, a large proportion of Newtown's residents lived in terrace houses of the cheapest possible construction. Many of these terraces were "two-up two-down", with rear kitchen, some having adjoining walls only one brick thick and a continuous shared roofspace. Hundreds of these terrace houses still remain, generally 4 metres (13 ft) wide. It was not uncommon for speculative builders to build a row of these small houses terminating in a house of 1½ width at the corner of the street, this last being a commercial premises, or "corner store". During the Federation period, single-storey row houses became increasingly common. This preponderance of small houses is indicative of the working-class employment of most Newtown residents, many of whom worked in the city or at local shops, factories, warehouses, brickyards and at the nearby Eveleigh Railway Workshops. Retail and service trades dominated the suburb increasingly throughout this period, with tradesmen and shopkeepers together accounting for 70–75% of the working population. During the late 19th century and early 20th century, Newtown prospered, so much so that in the Jubilee Souvenir of the Municipality of Newtown, published in 1912, it was described as "one of the most wealthy suburbs around Sydney". A number of imposing Victorian mansions were also built on larger estates, as well as rows of larger and more stylish terrace houses in certain areas such as Brown Street in North Newtown and Holmwood Street in South Newtown. As in many other historic areas of Sydney, some of the largest and most important houses, such as "Erskine Villa" (formerly on Erskineville Road, and which gave its name to the suburb of Erskineville), were demolished and the estates subdivided. Another loss was the home of Mary Reibey in Station Street, which was acquired by the NSW Department of Housing in 1964, demolished in 1967, and replaced with an 8-story public housing tower block. Only the cottage of Reibey's dairyman survives, a little further down the street. One of the most impressive surviving sets of 19th-century housing in Newtown is the imposing terrace of five elegant five-storey mansions running along Warren Ball Avenue in North Newtown, facing onto Hollis Park. From the late 19th century onwards, the Newtown area became a major commercial and industrial centre. King Street developed into a thriving retail precinct and the area was soon dotted with factories, workshops, warehouses and commercial and retail premises of all kinds and sizes. Several major industries were established in the greater Newtown area from the late 19th century, including the Eveleigh rail workshops, the IXL jam and preserves factory in North Newtown/Darlington, the St Peters brickworks and the Fowler Potteries in Camperdown. Public Housing Newtown is home to some public housing pockets built throughout the late 1960s to the 1970s, mainly consisting of unit complexes with walk-up apartments, extensive townhouses and tower blocks closely built together on small blocks of land, resided by the suburbs 1000 social housing tenants. These housing complexes dominate the housing stock on some of Newtown streets. The large housing estates gradually shrunk as many of the homes were demolished and or reverted to private ownership as the surrounding area slowly went through gentrification. Most complexes were built with Radburn principles, with prefabricated walk-up flats and apartment blocks accessed by communal pathways and courtyards separated from roads, creating densely populated concentrations of disadvantage. The Radburn design has been widely criticised in outer-suburbs estates, allegedly contributing to some fire hazards and social problems with isolated areas giving local criminals a place to commit crime and evade motorised patrols. Homes in these areas are owned by either the NSW Department of Housing or the Aboriginal Housing Office. The complexes take up a significant amount of Newtown’s Indigenous Australian population. The SA1 covering the Golden Grove housing estate according to the 2016 census, is the suburbs most economically/socially disadvantaged. Department of Housing sites in Newtown: 8 Prefabricated terraces, 7 walk-up flats, 250–350 residents. Alice Street/Camden Street 9 Prefabricated walk-up flats, 75–120 residents. Alice Street/Hawken Street corner 13 Prefabricated walk-up flats, 1 6-story tower block, 300–500 residents. Forbes Street/Golden Grove Street/Darlington Road 1 9-story tower block, numerous Victorian terrace houses, 170–240 residents. Station Street/Reiby Lane corner As well as numerous Victorian terrace houses and walk-up flat developments scattered around the suburbs streets. Early 20th century Although it prospered in the late 19th century, during the first half of the 20th century, and especially during the Depression, like many inner-city Sydney suburbs such as Glebe and Paddington, the area became increasingly run down as wealthy Sydneysiders preferred to settle in newer and more prestigious areas. In 1949, Newtown was incorporated into the City of Sydney. Mid-20th century Newtown was originally a relatively prosperous suburb, the legacy of which is the numerous lavish Victorian mansions still standing in the area. However, many parts of Newtown had gradually become a working-class enclave, and for much of the 20th century, Newtown was a low-income blue-collar suburb, often denigrated as a slum. In the post-war period, the low rents and house prices attracted newly arrived European migrants, and Newtown's population changed radically, becoming home to a sizeable migrant community. In 1968, a controversial redistribution of local government boundaries by the Askin state Liberal government saw part of Newtown become part of Marrickville Council. From the 1970s, as the post-war population prospered, raised families and aged, many moved to outlying suburbs to build larger houses, resulting in a supply of relatively cheap terrace houses and cottages entered the rental market. Because of its proximity to the expanding Sydney University and the Sydney CBD, along with the comparatively low rents, Newtown began to attract university students in the 1960s and 1970s. The area became a center for student share-households in Sydney and the development of cafés, pubs and restaurants made it a mecca for many young people. Newtown gained a reputation as a bohemian center and the gay and lesbian population also increased. Late 20th century and early 21st century The 1980s was the period that probably saw the greatest diversity in Newtown. At this time, cheap housing was still available. During the 1990s many long-established businesses closed, including Brennan's Department Store, a charming old-fashioned department store founded in the 19th century, and one of the last relics of the heyday of Victorian commerce in Newtown. Many homes have been restored and remain examples of 19th-century architecture in Sydney. The northern end of Newtown (closer to the university and the city) is considered the more prestigious, with house prices and rents in this part of town often higher than those for similar properties in South Newtown, Enmore or St Peters. Like other similar inner-Sydney suburbs (most notably Paddington and Glebe), gentrification has led to another shift in Newtown's demographics. From the 1970s onwards, many major industrial and commercial sites in the area were closed or vacated. Many of these former commercial sites have since been redeveloped as housing such as the Alpha House and Beta House apartment complexes on King Street, which were formerly both multi-storey warehouses. Prior to becoming apartments, Alpha and Beta house became two artist warehouses that accommodated the birthing of many national and international performing arts companies and artists. One such company, "Legs on the Wall", was created in Beta House. Heritage listings Newtown has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: 187 – 189 Church Street: St Stephen's Anglican Church 15 Carillon Avenue: The Women's College building Great Southern and Western railway: Newtown railway station and Newtown Tram Depot 69–77 King Street: Trocadero 280a King Street: Newtown Mission Uniting Church Transport Rail Newtown railway station is on the Inner West & Leppington Line of the Sydney Trains network. The station opened in 1855, as one of the original four intermediate stations on the Sydney to Parramatta railway line (the others being Ashfield, Burwood and Homebush), and it was soon serviced by ten steam trains a day. In 1878 the station was moved from Station Street to its current location by the fork of King Street and Enmore Road. Until the 1960s, when trams were phased out in Sydney, Newtown was a major hub for train-tram transfers; several regular electric tram services were centred there and the old Newtown Tram Depot (long vacant and now largely derelict) still stands next to the station. A small building (next-door to the Bank Hotel) operated as a late-night kebab and takeaway food outlet for many years from the late 1960s until it closed in the mid-1980s and the building was later demolished. The long-abandoned former office buildings of the tram depot (adjacent to the current station entrance) were renovated during the renovation and rebuilding of Newtown Station and how house a café and restaurant. This extensive renovation, completed in 2012, greatly improved commuter access to the station platforms (which lie in a deep cutting under King St) including additional stairways and a disabled-accessible elevator, although the renovation works and the layout of the new station entrance blocked the old tram-line entry way into the tram sheds, effectively cutting off direct vehicular access from King St into the tram sheds (which still lie vacant and derelict as of mid-2017). Buses State Transit and Transit Systems operate buses through Newtown. The trams were replaced by bus services that inherited the old route numbers – 422, 426, 428 – and follow the old tram routes that run along King Street and Enmore Road, going inwards to the city and outwards to Tempe, Dulwich Hill and Canterbury, respectively. Since then the 423 service from the city to Kingsgrove via Newtown has been added. There is also the 352 service that goes east through Surry Hills to Bondi Junction and the 370 service running north to the University of Sydney and Glebe Point and south-east to the University of New South Wales and Coogee. Education In the 1990s, Newtown High School was chosen by the NSW Department of Education as the site for a new specialised performing arts high school, which would combine traditional academic subjects with music and theatrical performance education. The school was renamed Newtown High School of the Performing Arts. Prior to becoming Newtown High School, it was Newtown Junior Technical School (the "tech") that educated boys from 1st Year to 3rd Year at the end of which they gained the Intermediate Certificate unless they had already left school at the age of 15. Girls of the same age group were educated in the southern part of Newtown Public School. The primary public school was segregated with the boys part facing Newman St opposite the tannery works that often omitted obnoxious odours.' (From "Prior to...odours" it is based on personal knowledge through living in Newtown and attending those schools.) Primary and infants school include: Australia Street Infants School Bridge Road School, Camperdown Camdenville Public School Newtown Public School North Newtown Public School St Joseph's College (defunct) Private schools in the area include the Athena School. The University of Sydney's Centre for Continuing Education provides adult education open to the general public. Landmarks Pubs In part because of its industrial and commercial history, the Newtown area contains many pubs. These include a number of late-Victorian establishments and several in an Art Deco style from the mid-20th century. In July 2000, one of these, "The Marlborough", called by historian Chrys Meader "the Gateway to Newtown" because of its visually commanding appearance at a wide intersection of King Street and Missenden Road, was stripped of all its original Art Deco tiles and had its upper floor substantially damaged before protests to the council prevented this being taken further. The Trocadero One of the major architectural conservation projects in Newtown in recent years has been the restoration of the Trocadero dance hall in King Street North. This large entertainment venue opened in 1889 and is one of the last 19th-century dance halls still standing in Sydney. Over the years it functioned variously as a dance hall, a skating rink, a cinema, a boxing and vaudeville venue, a bicycle factory and a motor body works. From 1920 onward it was owned by the Grace Brothers retail company, and several sections were leased out as shops or accommodation. For many years the shopfront on the northern side of the building housed Maurice's Lebanese Restaurant, commemorated in John Kennedy's "On King St, I'm A King". The building was purchased by Moore Theological College in 1974, and from 1981 to 1994 it housed the Con Dellis used furniture store, but all occupation ceased after that time. Fortunately, a sympathetic restoration program during 2005–06 by Moore College has returned this outstanding 19th-century building, including its elaborate Flemish-style facade, to its former glory. Burland Hall One Newtown landmark that has undergone many changes during the 20th century is the site of the former Burland Community Hall, on King St. In the early 20th century the site was occupied by the original Hub Theatre. From the mid-20th century it was occupied by an Art Deco-style cinema operated by the Hoyts cinema chain. In the mid-1960s the cinema was converted into a community hall and it was renamed Burland Community Hall in 1965. For years it was the venue for community events such as dances, concerts, film screenings, meetings, parties, wedding receptions and a community market. In 1986 its upper floor was taken over for the Newtown branch of the City of Sydney Library network, following the decision by Marrickville Council to close its Newtown library branch due to budgetary constraints. In 1995 the library moved to new premises in the former Salvation Army Citadel in nearby Brown Street, and Burland Hall was redeveloped into offices and retail premises. Hub Theatre One of the most notable local landmarks is the Hub Theatre opposite Newtown Station, next to the old Newtown Town Hall. The original Hub stood at , before moving to its present location, on the site of an earlier vaudeville theatre. It was converted to a cinema in the 1930. From the early 1970s, with the relaxation of Australia's censorship laws, it was used to screen pornographic films and stagelive "adult" sex shows, including the long-running "Little French Maid". The Hub closed as a "porno" venue in the early 1990s and has been mostly vacant ever since; the owners of the Dendy chain tried to secure the venue for its Newtown cinema, but were unsuccessful. Recently, the Hub has been home to live comedy shows and other such performances, seeing a rejuvenation of the building. There are only two remaining adult venues in Newtown (Max Black and Adult World, both on King Street). Culture Live music Newtown has been a hub for live entertainment since the late 19th century. During the 1980s the many pubs in the area housed a thriving live music scene, notably the Sandringham in King Street. One of the best-known Australian bands to emerge from this scene was The Whitlams, who held down a formative residency at "The Sando" for several years. Musician John Kennedy wrote a tribute to the area in the mid-1980s. His single "King Street" name-checked familiar Newtown landmarks and local figures of the time, including "The Wire Man" (a local eccentric who collected wire and wire coathangers), Maurice's Lebanese restaurant, and the Coles New World supermarket, which occupied the site of the current Dendy Cinema. Throughout the 1990s it was particularly known as a centre for indie rock, with the suburb home to many musicians and several live venues. In the late nineties it boasted a handful of popular venues: Goldmans / Newtown RSL, The Globe, Feedback and The Sandringham, all of which had closed by the late 1990s. After its takeover by Petersham RSL Club, the former Newtown RSL reopened as a music venue under the name of @Newtown but closed in January 2011 due to financial losses. Live music returned to the Sandringham Hotel in 2005, and in 2014 it reopened as the Newtown Social Club, hosting music in an upstairs performance space. However, in July 2017 the Newtown Social Club closed and the venue reopened as Holey Moley, a licensed 18-hole mini-golf course designed to give punters "good content for Instagram", according to its developers. Another recent addition to Newtown's live music scene is the small live venue Leadbelly (formerly The Vanguard) at the north end of King Street, and the continuing popularity of the lyric-sized Enmore Theatre. Theatre Newtown and its surrounding areas have the highest concentration of independent theatres and live performance spaces in Sydney. Theatres include: New Theatre, formed in 1932 and is Australia's oldest continuously performing theatre. Enmore Theatre on Enmore Road the Newtown High School of the Performing Arts In the 1970s and 1980s many theatres, cinemas and music venues in the Sydney CBD were demolished. Due to the lack of "lyric"-sized venues, the Enmore Theatre in Enmore Road has become one of the busiest medium-sized concert venues in Sydney. Festivals Newtown hosts a number of annual festivals. The Newtown Festival is a community festival of free live music, events, workshops and stalls that has been held annually since 1978. Held in Camperdown Memorial Park next to St. Stephen's Church, Newtown. The purpose of the festival is to raise funds for the Newtown Neighbourhood Centre, an association that provides services to non-English speakers, the aged, disabled or poor. Controversially, in 2006 for the first time the festival was held within a fenced confine. Feastability, Newtown's Food and Wine Festival, showcases the eclectic international cuisines of the suburb along with Australian wine, local pubs and brewers, bakers and confectioners. The festival, which is held on the last Sunday of each September, started in the mid-1990s as six stalls outside the Hub. It now takes place in the grounds of Newtown School of Performing Arts, has more than 40 stalls and features all-day entertainment from musicians and artists, as well as kids' activities. The festival is organised by Marrickville Council. Under the Blue Moon Festival was an alternative community festival also held in September. The event had a variety of entertainment; live music, discussions, street performances, fashion shows and other subculture presentations, especially those of the Goth community. Local business and special interest groups provided a diverse variety of entertainment, including a local alternative hairdresser and even the local mortuary with a display of coffins. The Sydney Fringe festival is a three-week alternative arts festival that was held for the first time in September 2010 at venues in Newtown, Enmore and Marrickville. It is a project of the Newtown Entertainment Precinct Association. Sport Newtown Rugby League Club—the "Newtown Jets"—is Australia's oldest existing rugby league club, formed in 1908 at the Newtown Town Hall. They compete in the NSWRL Premier League competition, a tier below the NRL's national premiership, having left the top grade after the 1983 season. Their home ground is Henson Park, Marrickville. Film and television In the late 1960s, the Australian TV drama series You Can't See Round Corners starred Rowena Wallace and Ken Shorter as a draft dodger hiding out in Newtown. The TV series was based on Jon Cleary's novel of the same name, which is set in 1940s Paddington. When the decision was made to set the TV series in the 1960s, scriptwriter Richard Lane moved the action to Newtown because Paddington by the 1960s was considered too gentrified, while Newtown was still an "industrial suburb". In the mid-1980s, the Spanish Mission-style service station on King Street was used as a location for scenes in the Ray Lawrence film Bliss, which was based on the novel by Peter Carey. In the film, the service station was used as the childhood home of Harry Joy's wife Bettina, played by Lynette Curran. Erskineville Kings (1999), directed by Alan White and starring Hugh Jackman, features extensive use of locations in Newtown and Erskineville, including a scene shot in Gould's Book Arcade. Garage Days (2002) directed by Alex Proyas, depicts a fictional indie rock band based in Newtown. The ABC television drama Love Is a Four Letter Word, starring musician-actor Peter Fenton and featuring live bands each episode, included extensive location shooting at the Courthouse Hotel in Australia Street. St Stephen's Church and Camperdown Cemetery have regularly been used as sites for filming movies, TV and videos, notably in Priscilla, Queen of the Desert. The 2012 romantic comedy Not Suitable for Children, directed by Peter Templeman, was filmed in Newtown and surrounding suburbs. In 2013, Sydney band Sticky Fingers filmed the music video for their song "Australia Street" on King Street. In 2014, the British alternative rock band Coldplay featured the town in the music video for their single "A Sky Full Of Stars". Literature People and institutions Significant writers who live or lived in Newtown include Rolfe Boldrewood, Henry Lawson, Henry Kendall, Ethel Turner, Ruby Langford Ginib, Nadia Wheatley, Bertram Stevens, Martin Johnston, John Forbes, Fiona Place, Laurie Duggan, Steven Herrick, Minne Agnes Filson (aka Rickety Kate), David Malouf, Gig Ryan, Jean Bedford and Peter Corris. The composer and writer Isaac Nathan, who collaborated with Lord Byron on his Hebrew Melodies, is buried at Camperdown cemetery. The first municipal library in New South Wales was established in Newtown in 1868 in the Newtown School of Arts building at the corner of Australia and King Streets. Today, as well as the Newtown Library run by the City of Sydney, the suburb is home to The Women's Library, a feminist library established in 1992. Newtown is home to many bookshops, including Gould's Book Arcade (founded in 1967 by activist Bob Gould), Better Read than Dead, Elizabeth's Bookshop, Modern Times, Pentimento, and Parliament on King. Anarchist bookshop Black Rose Books, established in 1982, has occupied several sites in Newtown including its current location on Enmore Road. Many publishing houses have been active in Newtown over the years. Walker Books, Vagabond Press, Darlington Press and Sydney University Press are currently based in the Newtown area; Newtown publishers of the past include Neptune Press, Camperdown Press, Millennium Books and Leftbank Publishing. The Newtown Review of Books, a literary journal established in 2012 by Jean Bedford and Linda Funnell, has published essays about the suburb by the crime writer Peter Corris. Newtown in fiction One of the first pieces of fiction to be published in colonial Sydney was "The Legend of Newtown" by future member of parliament D.H. Deneihy, published in the Sydney Sentinel on 5 November 1845 when the author was 17. It described Newtown as "a favourite place ... to snatch a mouthful of fresh air, a view of the ruralities of the place". The famous Newtown recluse and eccentric Eliza Emily Donnithorne (1826–1886) is said by some sources to have inspired the character of Miss Havisham in Charles Dickens' novel Great Expectations. Donnithorne lived in Cambridge House (later known as Camperdown Lodge and since demolished) at 36 King Street, Newtown from about 1836 until her death in 1886. She is buried at Camperdown cemetery. Dorothy Hewett's 1959 novel Bobbin' Up includes a description of the dance halls and night life of King Street in the 1950s. The House that Was Eureka by Nadia Wheatley (1985) is set in a row of Newtown terrace houses in 1931 and 1981, both periods of economic downturn and high unemployment in the suburb. More recently, Sandra Leigh Price's 2015 novel The Bird's Child is set in bohemian Newtown in 1929. Dark Fires Shall Burn, a 2016 crime novel by Anna Westbrook, is set in Newtown in 1946. The verse novel Newtown Voices by Sue Cartledge (2017) describes Newtown in 1978. The Blank Page by John Dale (1987) features a cameo by the Marlborough Hotel on King Street. Newtown in poetry Poems about Newtown include "Laminex" by John Tranter, "Newtown Pastoral" by Gig Ryan, "On the Road" by S.K. Kelen, "Thread Drift" by Pam Brown, "Greek Cheeses" and "To a Runner Dressed in Black" by Adam Aiken, "King Street Newtown" by Alison Clark, "Autumn in Newtown" by Christopher Kelen, and the 1994 collection Wildlife in Newtown by Colleen Burke. Newtown in children's literature Children's literature set in Newtown includes My Place and Five Times Dizzy and Dancing in the Anzac Deli by Nadia Wheatley and Lara of Newtown by Chris McKimmie. Graffiti and street art The Newtown area is also known for its creative graffiti and "street art". The most prominent of these works are the large murals created in the late 1980s and early 1990s, which were painted on the walls of houses and shops in the area. Spray-painted "tags" have proliferated all over the area in recent years, although more recently the style of tagging has become far more elaborate than the simple spray-can signatures that litter walls throughout the district. Examples include a mural of American civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. on King Street (painted by Andrew Aiken (Seems)and Juilee Pryor), the "Great Wave" mural in Gowrie Street, the "Three Proud People" mural (a reproduction of a photo taken at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics), and the "map of Africa" mural in King Street. Gay and lesbian culture Newtown, St Peters and Erskineville have the highest proportions of same-sex couples in the 2011 census. The gay and lesbian community of Newtown also extends into neighboring Glebe, Leichhardt, Annandale, Marrickville, Enmore and Dulwich Hill. The area was home to two of Sydney’s most well-established gay and lesbian pubs, the Newtown Hotel on King Street and the nearby Imperial Hotel in Erskineville Road (the famous drag show pub featured in the movie Priscilla, Queen of the Desert). The owners of the Newtown Hotel abruptly terminated negotiations for lease renewal and locked the licence-owner out of the premises in November 2007. The bar reopened in late 2010, under the name 'Freaky Tiki'. After renovations in 2010, it has reopened and reclaimed its original name, The Newtown Hotel, and currently offers a general, non-specific clientele, in common with most bars in the area. The Imperial also closed in 2007 for renovations but did not reopen until 2010, following a protracted and expensive licensing battle with the local council. As of 2019, The Imperial hosts queer parties on Thursday nights. One bar formerly known as Zanzibar had a loyal lesbian following but it rebranded as Websters Bar, with a general clientele in 2016. Wednesday nights are especially popular for lesbians as the upstairs bar at The Bank Hotel hosts nights for queer women. Since 2018, rapid gentrification of the area and Sydney's introduction of the CBD lockout laws, which Newtown is excluded from, has seen much of the LGBTQ+ scene pushed into neighboring areas. Also as a result, homophobic violence has risen in the area. The Gay and Lesbian Counselling Service in Newtown provides free telephone counselling for gays and lesbians living in NSW, as well as Twenty 10, a support organisation for young gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, same-sex attracted and gender-questioning people who are under 26 and having problems at home or have recently become homeless. Population Demographics In the 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population and Housing, there were 15,029 people in Newtown. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 1.1% of the population. 58.2% of people were born in Australia. The most common countries of birth were England 5.8%, New Zealand 2.9%, China 2.3%, United States of America 1.4% and Thailand 1.0%. 71.8% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 2.7%, Greek 1.5%, Spanish 1.5%, Cantonese 1.2% and Thai 1.0%. The most common responses for religion in Newtown in the 2016 Census were No Religion, 53.3%, Not stated 13.3%, Catholic 12.1%, Anglican 6.8% and Buddhism 3.1%. Of occupied private dwellings in Newtown, 54.0% were semi-detached, 38.9% were flats or apartments, 4.2% were separate houses and 2.5% were other dwellings. Notable residents Angelspit, industrial music duo Christine Anu (b. 1970), pop singer Charles Badham (1813–1884), classical scholar Sarah Blasko, musician Sticky Fingers – Reggae fusion/indie rock Rolf Boldrewood (1826–1915), born Thomas Browne, author of seventeen novels including the classic Robbery Under Arms Doc Brown, comedian former rapper Eliza Emily Donnithorne (c.1826–1886), recluse and rumoured model for Miss Havisham Arthur Capell (1906–1982), linguist & anthropologist Murray Cook (b. 1960), member of Australian children's group The Wiggles John Villiers Farrow (1904–1963), Academy Award-winning Australian film director and father of actresses Mia Farrow and Prudence Farrow Francis Forbes (1784–1841), first Chief Justice of the NSW Supreme Court Lilian Fowler (1886–1954), Labor politician, Australia's first female Mayor Frenzal Rhomb, band originating in Newtown Nicholas Harding, former winner of the Archibald Prize for portraiture Ignatius Jones, entertainer and former lead singer of 80s rock band Jimmy And The Boys Henry Kendall (1831–1882), poet Ruby Langford Ginibi (1934–2011), Bundjalung author and Koori activist Henry Lawson (1867–1922), writer Genevieve Lemon, actress and singer Paul Mac, DJ and music producer Enda Markey, theatre producer Anthony Mundine (b. 1975), rugby league player and boxer Dawn O'Donnell (1928–2007), prominent business and nightclub owner, gay and lesbian rights campaigner Mary Reibey (1777–1855), pioneering entrepreneur who is portrayed on the Australian twenty-dollar note Saul Samuel (1820–1900), merchant and politician Adam Spencer, mathematician, science broadcaster and radio and TV personality Bertram Stevens (1872–1922), literary critic, art critic, editor Clarrie Stevenson (1910−1984), rugby league player Monica Trapaga (b. 1965), former children's presenter and jazz singer Nadia Wheatley, writer The Whitlams, pop band Charles Windeyer (1780–1855), magistrate & legal pioneer, inaugural Lord Mayor of Sydney Harold Wyndham (1903–1988), educationalist Youth Group, indie rock band mostly known for their hit remake of "Forever Young" Governance Local Newtown is divided between Inner West Council and City of Sydney local government areas. State Newtown was predominantly in the State Electoral District of Marrickville, which was represented by the then deputy Premier Andrew Refshauge until his resignation on 10 August 2005. The resulting by-election, held on 17 September 2005 was won by Carmel Tebbutt. Prior to the 2015 NSW State Election, the Electoral district of Newtown was recreated, which had previously existed but had been abolished after the 1950 election. Newtown now resides in this district. Federal Federally, Newtown lies partly in the electorate of Grayndler, represented by Anthony Albanese of the ALP, and partly in the electorate of Sydney, represented by Tanya Plibersek, also of the ALP. Both electorates saw strong Green votes in the 2001 election, and it was expected the Green candidates, rather than the Liberal Party, would provide the main opposition to the ALP in the 2004 election, although the Liberals ultimately did narrowly retain their lead over the Greens in these electorates. Further reading Alan Sharpe. Pictorial History of Newtown. Published by Kingsclear Books,Australia.1999. () Matt Murphy.The Weight of Evidence. Published by Hale and Iremonger, Australia 2013. () Gallery References External links Newtown Neighbourhood Centre The Newtown Project, historical documents from Newtown Marrickville Council website Council of the City of Sydney website Newtown Jets Rugby League Football Club Newtown Precinct: Information about theatre performances and other live entertainment Newtown Festival Enmore Theatre The Vanguard Newtown CityPoem, a mural in Newtown Newtown local Photographer sample exhibition SYDNEY.com – Newtown Suburbs of Sydney Gay villages in Australia LGBT culture in Sydney Inner West Slums in Australia	[ 0.3084145784378052, -0.21384751796722412, -0.38028815388679504, -0.4163287878036499, 0.3516673743724823, 0.5114667415618896, 0.7103371024131775, -0.1362956166267395, -0.04816185310482979, -0.7309355735778809, -0.21684855222702026, 0.3434733748435974, -0.26491665840148926, 0.2005033642053604, -0.5763841867446899, 1.0205389261245728, 0.7506151795387268, 0.6292040348052979, 0.5180156230926514, -0.4603888690471649, -0.027146201580762863, 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236078	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible%20Woman	Invisible Woman	The Invisible Woman (Susan "Sue" Storm Richards) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a founding member of the Fantastic Four and was the first female superhero created by Marvel during the Silver Age of Comic Books. Sue Storm received her powers by being exposed to a cosmic storm, and was originally known as the Invisible Girl. She possesses two powers: invisibility and force fields. Her invisibility power deals with bending light waves and allows her to render herself and other objects invisible. She can also project powerful fields of invisible psionic, hyperspace-based energy that she uses for a variety of offensive and defensive effects, including shields, blasts, explosions, and levitation. Sue plays a central role in the lives of her hot-headed younger brother Johnny Storm, her brilliant husband Reed Richards, her close friend Ben Grimm, and her children (Franklin and Valeria). She was also romantically involved with Namor the Sub-Mariner for a time, and they remain close friends. Invisible Woman was portrayed by Rebecca Staab in the unreleased 1994 film The Fantastic Four, Jessica Alba in the 2005 film Fantastic Four and its 2007 sequel Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, and Kate Mara in the 2015 film Fantastic Four. Publication history Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in The Fantastic Four #1 (Nov. 1961). Since Stan Lee wanted The Fantastic Four to be driven by familial connections rather than action, the primary impetus for Susan Storm's creation was to not only be a full member of the team, but also the female lead (with Reed Richards a.k.a. Mister Fantastic being the male lead) of the series. He eventually emphasized this to readers explicitly, with a story in which the Fantastic Four read fan mail denigrating the Invisible Girl's value to the team, and respond by enumerating some of the occasions on which she played a key role in their victories. Teammate Johnny Storm a.k.a. the Human Torch being Sue's little brother became one of several sources of tension within the group, and she also served as the center of a love triangle with Reed and the Fantastic Four's sometime ally, sometime enemy Namor. Sue was initially presented as the sole reason for Ben Grimm, a bad guy, remaining on the group, which was significantly toned down in the published series. Lee did not want Sue to have super strength, "to be Wonder Woman and punch people", so eventually he came to invisibility, inspired by works such as Universal Pictures' The Invisible Man. His original two-page plot summary for the first issue of The Fantastic Four, reprinted in the Marvel Masterworks and Marvel Epic Collection editions of the first ten issues, handled Susan's powers similarly to The Invisible Man, which required her to take off her clothes, but noting concern that that might be "too sexy" for a comic book. It also noted that she could not turn visible again, and would wear a mask recreating her face when she wanted to be seen. By the time the first issue was written and drawn, both elements had changed: Susan could turn invisible and visible at will, and doing so affected the visibility of whatever clothing she was wearing. Invisible Woman has primarily appeared in issues of Fantastic Four. In issue 22 (January 1964), the creators expanded Sue's abilities, giving her the powers to render other objects and people invisible and create strong force fields and psionic blasts. Under John Byrne's authorship, Sue became more confident and assertive in her abilities, which became more versatile and impressive. She finds she can use her force field abilities to manipulate matter through the air, immobilize enemies, or administer long-range attacks. Susan changed her nom de guerre to Invisible Woman. In April 2019, Marvel Comics announced that it will publish Invisible Woman, a five-issue miniseries. This will be Sue Storm's first solo title. Adam Hughes drew the cover for Issue #1. Fictional character biography As detailed in The Marvel Saga: Official History of The Marvel Universe #16, Susan Storm, and her younger brother, Jonathan grew up in the town of Glenville, Long Island, children of the physician Franklin Storm and his wife Mary. The parents left their kids alone one night to travel to a dinner honoring Dr. Storm. On the way, a tire blew out and Mary was injured. Franklin escaped injury and insisted on operating on his wife. He was unable to save her. After his wife's death, Dr. Franklin Storm became a gambler and a drunk, losing his medical practice, which led him to the accidental killing of a loan shark. Franklin did not defend himself in court, because he still felt guilty over Mary's death. With their father in prison, Susan had to become a mother figure for her younger brother. While living with her aunt, Susan, at the young age of 17, met her future husband, Reed Richards, a house guest who was attending college. When she graduated from high school as the award-winning captain of her Girls' Varsity Swim Team, she moved to California to attend college, where she pursued an acting career and encountered Richards again. They began to become romantically involved with each other. Reed Richards, working in the field of aerospace engineering, was designing a spacecraft for interstellar travel. Everything was going well until the government stopped the funding of his project. Richards, wanting to see his project through, decided to make an unscheduled test flight. Originally, it was only going to be Reed and his best friend, Ben Grimm, involved, but Susan was instrumental in persuading Reed in letting her brother and herself join them on the dangerous space mission. In space, the quartet was exposed to massive amounts of cosmic radiation. As a result, they had to abort the mission and return to Earth. After the crash landing, they realized that they gained superhuman powers; hers was the ability to become invisible at will. Realizing the potential use of their abilities, the four of them became the Fantastic Four, for the benefit of mankind. Susan adopted the code name Invisible Girl. Invisible Girl As the Fantastic Four, the team set up their first headquarters in the Baxter Building in Manhattan. The Fantastic Four encounter many villains in the early part of their career, but none of them contend for Susan's affections more than Namor the Sub-Mariner. Sue feels an amount of attraction to Namor, but her heart belongs with Reed, a situation that has been called the Marvel Universe's first love triangle. Initially, her powers are limited to making herself invisible. However, before long Sue discovers she can make other things invisible as well as create force fields of invisible energy. After Susan is injured in battle with the Mole Man, her father escapes from prison and operates on her to save her life. Franklin makes amends with his children before returning to prison; however, the Super-Skrull finds a way to kidnap Dr. Storm, mimic his appearance, and then fight the Fantastic Four as the Invincible Man. In the process of defeating the Super-Skrull, Dr. Storm sacrifices his own life to protect the Fantastic Four from a Skrull booby trap. Reed and Sue's relationship progresses, with the two of them deciding to get married. The wedding is the event of the century, with several of New York City's preeminent superheroes in attendance. Not long after that, Sue and the Fantastic Four encounter Galactus and the Silver Surfer. Sue later becomes pregnant with her first child. As a result, she takes time off as an active member of the team. Johnny's girlfriend, the Inhuman elementalist Crystal, joins the team, taking over Susan's roster spot. Susan's cosmic ray irradiated blood cells serve as an obstacle for her in carrying the unborn child to term. Knowing this, Reed, Johnny, and Ben journey into the Negative Zone to acquire the Cosmic Control Rod from Annihilus. Effectively utilizing the device, the baby is safely delivered and is named Franklin, in memory of Susan and Johnny's father. Due to the genetically altered structure of his parents, Franklin is a mutant, possessing vast powers. Seeking to use the boy's talents for his own sadistic purposes, Annihilus triggers a premature full release of Franklin's latent abilities, which were already in the process of gradual emergence. Fearing that his son could release enough psionic energy to eliminate all life on Earth, Reed shuts down Franklin's mind. Angry with Reed for not seeking her input in the matter, Susan leaves the Fantastic Four and has a marital separation from Reed. Medusa of the Inhumans takes her roster spot. With the help of Namor, Susan reconciles with Reed and returns to the Fantastic Four accompanied by Franklin. Invisible Woman Susan eventually becomes pregnant for a second time. However, this second child is stillborn due to Susan having been exposed to radiation inside the Negative Zone. A depressed Susan is manipulated by Psycho-Man into becoming Malice. As Malice, Susan attacks her friends and family in the Fantastic Four, utilizing her abilities at power levels she had never displayed previously. Reed saves Susan by forcing her to hate him legitimately. Susan (off-panel) does something to Psycho-Man, causing him to let out a terrifying scream. After she rejoins her teammates, Susan states that Psycho-Man will never hurt anyone ever again. Susan is profoundly affected by the entire episode, and changes her code name from "Invisible Girl" to "Invisible Woman". Along with Reed, she briefly leaves the Fantastic Four and joins the Avengers. The two of them rejoin the Fantastic Four before long. During the Infinity War, Susan faces off against Malice, who has reemerged in her subconscious. Susan absorbs Malice into her own consciousness. Subsequently, Susan's personality is influenced by Malice, causing her to become more aggressive in battle, even creating invisible razor-like force fields she uses to slice enemies. Her son Franklin, who has traveled forward and back in time, becomes the adult hero Psi-Lord, frees his mother, and absorbs the influence of Malice into himself. He eventually defeats Malice by projecting her into the mind of the Dark Raider, an insane alternate universe counterpart of Reed Richards who later dies in the Negative Zone. After the apparent death of Reed, Susan becomes a capable leader. Susan keeps searching for Reed, feeling he is still alive, despite romantic advances from her old flame, Namor the Sub-Mariner. The Fantastic Four eventually rescue the time-displaced Reed, who finds himself temporarily losing confidence in his leadership skills, since Susan is also a capable leader. Following their return to their Earth of origin, the Fantastic Four encounter Valeria von Doom. This new Marvel Girl came from an alternate future, where she was the child of Susan and Doctor Doom. Susan eventually comes to accept the young girl as a friend. During a conflict with Abraxas, Franklin reveals that he used his abilities to save Susan's original stillborn child and place it in another alternate future. After the ordeal involving Abraxas, Marvel Girl is restored to a baby again inside Susan's womb. Susan again has a difficult birthing. Due to the help of Doctor Doom, Susan gives birth to a healthy baby girl, which Doom names Valeria, his price for helping Sue. Doom places a spell on the baby, which makes her his familiar spirit, to be used against the Fantastic Four. The Fantastic Four wrestle Valeria free from Doom's control and defeat him. Sue, the Human Torch Zius, leader of a group of Galactus refugees, kidnaps Susan. His intent was to use her powers to hide planets from Galactus. Reed finds a way to fool Zius, by switching Susan and Johnny's powers. Susan assists in an adventure where Johnny becomes a herald of Galactus. Wielding a cosmic version of her powers, Johnny is able to see through people to the very cores of their personality. Both Sue and Johnny gain a newfound respect for each other and how they deal with their powers. Soon, Reed tries to switch the powers back. The entire FF's powers are granted to four random civilians before being restored to their rightful wielders. This parallels an earlier torture by Doom, where Sue was given an extremely painful version of Johnny's pyrokinetic ability. Anti-registration movement During the 2006–07 storyline "Civil War", which takes place in the aftermath of an explosion in a residential neighborhood in Stamford, Connecticut, and prompting calls for the government to register people with superhuman abilities, Sue's brother Johnny is beaten up by locals angered by his celebrity superhero status. Although Sue is initially part of the pro-registration side supporting the Superhuman Registration Act, she defects after the Thor clone, created by her husband Mister Fantastic and Tony Stark, kills Bill Foster. Sue leaves the Baxter Building, informing Reed via a note that their children are in his care, as she intends to join Captain America's underground resistance force. Her final injunction to her husband is a heartfelt request: "Please fix this." The Storm siblings narrowly escape a team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents bent on capturing them in Civil War #5. The two further elude detection by operating under fake husband and wife identities provided by Nick Fury, becoming members of Captain America's Secret Avengers. Before storming the Negative Zone prison, Sue visits Namor to plead for assistance. He refuses and indicates she is still attracted to him, an accusation she does not deny. During the final battle depicted in Civil War #7, as Susan is nearly shot by Taskmaster, but Reed Richards jumps in front of her and takes the brunt of the attack, sustaining a major injury. Outraged, Susan beats Taskmaster into the ground. Following the end of the war, Susan helps with the clean-up of New York City. She and the other Secret Avengers are granted amnesty, and she returns home to Reed. Seeking to repair the damage done to their marriage as a result of the war, Sue and Reed take time off from the Fantastic Four, but ask Storm and the Black Panther to take their places in the meantime. World War Hulk In the second issue of World War Hulk, the Fantastic Four confront the Hulk. Reed has designed a machine that recreates the Sentry's aura. The Hulk, only momentarily calmed, discovers the ruse. Sue deploys her force fields to defend Reed against the Hulk, who shatters her protective fields with such force that she collapses, leaving Reed vulnerable. Reed suffers a vicious beating at the hands of the Hulk; Sue telephones the Sentry for help. The Hulk transforms Madison Square Garden into a gladiatorial arena. Sue and the other defeated heroes are held captive in a lower level. The heroes are outfitted with the same obedience disks that were used to suppress the Hulk's powers and force him to fight his companions on Sakaar. Death Some time after World War Hulk, but before Secret Invasion, the Richards family has hired a new nanny for their kids, Tabitha Deneuve. At the same time, a mysterious new group, calling themselves the New Defenders, commits robberies, and one of their members, Psionics, starts a relationship with Johnny. After a bad break-up, Johnny is kidnapped by the Defenders, along with Doctor Doom and Galactus, to power a massive machine that is designed to apparently save the people of the future 500 years from now, a plan orchestrated by Tabitha, who is revealed to be Susan Richards from 500 years in the future. Eventually, the present Fantastic Four are able to save both the present Earth and the future Earth by sending the future inhabitants to the Earth Trust's private duplicate Nu-Earth, but after freeing Doctor Doom, the future Sue goes to apologize to him and is electrocuted by Doom. Secret Invasion: Fantastic Four While Susan is on a lecture tour in Vancouver, British Columbia, a Skrull posing as Mister Fantastic ambushes her, applying pressure to her skull with an invisible force field and knocking her unconscious. Then, a Skrull infiltrates the Baxter Building disguised as Susan and opens a portal into the Negative Zone, forcing the top three floors of the building into the Negative Zone, and in turn trapping herself, Johnny, Ben, and the two Richards children there. The Skrull impersonating her is later revealed to be Johnny's ex-wife Lyja, who once infiltrated the Fantastic Four by impersonating Ben Grimm's love interest Alicia Masters. The real Susan Richards is recovered alive from a downed Skrull ship after the final battle of the invasion. Future Foundation Reed started the Future Foundation for the benefit of the world and for science. When the Human Torch died, the Fantastic Four was dissolved and Sue's heroic exploits were moved entirely under the banner of the Future Foundation. It is later revealed that Johnny was revived and is still alive. Secret Wars Sue and the rest of the Fantastic Four create a life raft that will save them from the coming death of the universe. However, right before the final incursion between their universe and the Ultimate Universe, Sue's part of the ship becomes separated. Reed and Black Panther plan to get her ship back, with Sue holding her part together with her force field. However, the death of the universe proves too much, even for her, and she, Ben, and her children die at the hands of Oblivion, with Reed screaming in agony at the death of his wife and children. Captain Marvel tells him they need to go, and they leave Sue's destroyed part of the ship behind. When Molecule Man transfers his power to Reed, Reed used it to resurrect his family including Sue, and they began to rebuild the entire Multiverse. Invisible Woman was later with Mister Fantastic and the Future Foundation when they were confronted by the Griever at the End of All Things. Powers and abilities The Invisible Woman received her powers after cosmic radiation had triggered mutagenic changes in her body. Originally only able to turn herself invisible, Sue later discovered she could render other things invisible as well and project an invisible force field. It has been said on numerous occasions, including by the Fantastic Four's greatest opponent, Doctor Doom, that Susan Storm is the single-most powerful member of the quartet and she is one of the few beings able to rupture the shell of a Celestial. Invisibility As the Invisible Woman, Susan can render herself wholly or partially invisible at will. She can also render other people or objects fully or partially invisible too, affecting up to of volume. She achieves these feats by mentally bending all wavelengths of visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light to bend around herself or her target without causing any visible distortion effects. According to the Women of Marvel: Celebrating Seven Decades Handbook, Sue's retinas don't function conventionally and instead of just registering objects using reflected light, the retinas in Sue's eyes also interpolate shapes based on reflected cosmic rays, which in the Marvel Universe are always present in the atmosphere, granted usually only in small concentrations. This anomaly apparently allows her to perceive invisible people and objects, though she does not see them in colour since the cosmic-ray reflections bypass her eyes' rods and cones; her vision may also be monochromatic when she herself is invisible since her eyes do not reflect light in that state, though she otherwise seems to possess a full range of vision while she is invisible. She can also sense people or objects made invisible by scientific means, and can restore them to a visible state at will. Force-field projection Sue can also mentally generate a field of invisible psionic force (drawn from hyperspace), which she is able to manipulate for a variety of effects. For example, Sue can shape her fields into simple invisible constructs (e.g., barriers, clamps, columns, cones, cylinders, darts, discs, domes, platforms, rams, ramps, slides, spheres, etc.) or generate a nearly indestructible invisible force field around herself or her target. She can vary the texture and tensile strength of her field to some extent, rendering it rigid as steel or as soft and yielding as foam rubber; softer variants on the field enable her to cushion impacts more gently, and are less likely to result in psionic backlash against Susan herself (in some cases, sufficiently powerful assaults on her more rigid psionic fields can cause her mental or physical pain via psychic feedback). She is also able to make her shields opaque or translucent like milk glass to effectively block variations of light such as laser-beams, or make them semipermeable to filter oxygen from water though the latter is mentally taxing. She can generate solid force constructs as small as a marble or as large as in diameter, and her hollow projections such as domes can extend up to several miles in area. By generating additional force behind her psionic constructs, Sue can turn them into offensive weapons, ranging from massive invisible battering rams to small projectiles such as spheres and darts. By forming one of her force fields within an object and expanding the field, Sue can cause her target to explode. She can also travel atop her animated constructs, enabling her to simulate a limited approximation of levitation or flight. She can manipulate the energy of her force fields around other objects to simulate telekinetic abilities as well. She is capable of generating and manipulating multiple psionic force fields simultaneously. This power is only limited by her concentration; once she stops concentrating on a psionic force field, it simply ceases to exist. Sue's force fields can also counteract or interact with other forms of psychic energy. For instance, when battling against Psi-Lord, an adult version of her own son, her force fields shielded her mind from his telepathic abilities. Similarly, Jean Grey's psychokinetic abilities could not pass through her shields. Miscellaneous abilities Susan is an excellent swimmer and a capable unarmed combatant, having been trained in judo by Mister Fantastic and received additional coaching from Iron Fist, the Thing, and She-Hulk. Other versions In other media Television Invisible Woman appears in the 1967 Fantastic Four TV series voiced by Jo Ann Pflug. Invisible Woman is in the 1978 Fantastic Four TV series voiced by Ginny Tyler. Invisible Woman appeared in the 1994 Fantastic Four animated series, voiced by Lori Alan. She and Reed Richards are already married before they got their powers. Invisible Woman appears toward the end of the 1994 Spider-Man TV series in the "Secret Wars" storyline, voiced by Gail Matthius. She and the Fantastic Four are among the heroes Spider-Man summons to a planet to help him against the villains the Beyonder brought there. Invisible Woman appears in Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes, voiced by Lara Gilchrist. It is the first Fantastic Four cartoon not to have Reed and Susan married at the beginning of the series. Invisible Woman appears in The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Tara Strong. Invisible Woman appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Erin Torpey. She appears in a brief cameo appearance in the episode "The Man Who Stole Tomorrow". She later appears in the episode "The Private War of Doctor Doom" where she is friends with Wasp and both of them were captured by Doctor Doom's Doombots and taken to Latveria where they were placed in a machine. The Avengers and the other members of the Fantastic Four were able to save both of them. The scans from Doctor Doom's machine revealed that Invisible Woman is a Skrull in disguise. In the episode "Prisoner of War", the real Invisible Woman is found by Captain America, who had also been imprisoned with a Skrull taking his place on Earth, on the Skrull's ship. Unlike the other prisoners, she is kept unconscious at all time because she is more powerful than the rest of them combined. After she is freed, she helps the others escape from the ship. In the episode "Secret Invasion," Invisible Woman saves the Baxter Building from her Skrull counterpart. Invisible Woman appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Monsters No More", voiced by Kari Wahlgren. She teamed up with the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. to stop the Tribbitites invasion. Film Sue Storm is portrayed by Rebecca Staab in the 1994 film adaptation The Fantastic Four. This film portrays Sue very much as she was in the original comics; shy, reserved and infatuated with Reed. The film concludes with Reed and Sue's marriage. Sue Storm is portrayed by Jessica Alba in the 2005 film Fantastic Four. Sue, a brilliant scientist, leads Victor Von Doom's Department of Genetic Research. She is dating Von Doom at the beginning of the film. Immediately prior to the arrival of the cosmic storm which grants her the ability to manipulate light (allowing her to disappear and generate semi-visible force fields), Victor proposes to her: she turns him down. Unlike in other media, Sue was not able to render her normal clothes invisible which resulted in an embarrassing moment when Sue tried to disrobe to sneak through a crowd, only to reappear while still in her underwear. Although her powers are influenced by her emotions, she manages to control her abilities during the team's climactic battle with Von Doom. Sue accepts Richards' proposal of marriage at the end of the film. In the sequel, Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, Sue Storm's wedding to Mister Fantastic is interrupted by the arrival of the Silver Surfer, who initially serves as a herald to the planet-consuming Galactus, but soon decides to oppose Galactus' attack upon Earth because Sue reminds him of the woman he loved back on his homeworld. While attempting to shield the Silver Surfer with a force field, Sue is impaled in the heart by a spear created by a cosmic-powered Doctor Doom, and she dies in Reed's arms. However, Silver Surfer uses his cosmic powers to heal and revive her. After the Surfer successfully fends away Galactus, Sue and Reed marry. Kate Mara portrays Sue in the 2015 Fantastic Four film reboot, directed by Josh Trank. In the film, Susan is Albanian from Kosovo, the adopted daughter of Franklin Storm and adopted sister of Johnny Storm. After gaining her powers from Planet Zero, Susan develops invisibility and force field abilities. The scientists working alongside Franklin Storm were able to create a special suit to help Susan master her abilities. When Victor von Doom returns from Planet Zero and goes on a rampage trying to get back to Planet Zero, Susan is devastated when her adoptive father is killed by Victor. She later helps Reed, Ben and Johnny defeat Victor. Video games Invisible Woman has appeared in numerous video games, usually accompanied by her brother and teammates, such as the 1997 video game for the original PlayStation. Invisible Woman appears in the 2005 Fantastic Four video game voiced by Jessica Alba while her "classic" form is voiced by Grey DeLisle for bonus levels that can be unlocked in the first game. Invisible Woman appears in the 2007 Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer video game voiced by Erin Matthews. Invisible Woman has a cameo appearance in the Spider-Man game based on his 1990s animated series for Genesis and Super NES. By reaching certain levels of the game, she can be called a limited number of times for assistance. Here, she makes Spider-Man temporarily invisible. Invisible Woman appears as a playable character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Danica McKellar. She can serve a variety of in-game roles as either a booster or buffer, unseen melee attacker, or a mid- to long-range fighter. Her classic, New Marvel, original and Ultimate costumes are available. She has special dialogue with Jean Grey, Black Bolt, Namor, Vision, and Uatu. A simulation disc has Invisible Woman fighting Radioactive Man on the S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier. Invisible Woman is a playable character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2 with Danica McKellar reprising her role. Her classic design is her default costume and her Ultimate design is her alternate costume. Invisible Woman appears as a playable character in the Marvel Super Hero Squad video game and its sequel Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet voiced by Tara Strong. Invisible Woman is a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced again by Grey DeLisle. Invisible Woman is available as downloadable content for the game LittleBigPlanet, as part of "Marvel Costume Kit 3". Invisible Woman is a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad: Comic Combat, voiced by Tara Strong. Invisible Woman appeared in the virtual pinball game Fantastic Four for Pinball FX 2, voiced by Laura Bailey. Invisible Woman is a playable character in the Facebook game Marvel: Avengers Alliance. Invisible Woman appears as a playable character in Marvel Heroes. However, due to legal reasons, she was removed from the game on July 1, 2017. Invisible Woman appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Kari Wahlgren. Invisible Woman is a playable character in the mobile game Marvel: Future Fight. Invisible Woman is a playable character in the mobile game Marvel Puzzle Quest. Invisible Woman appears in the "Shadow of Doom" DLC of Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Kari Wahlgren. Invisible Woman appears as a playable character in 2019 MOBA game Marvel Super War. Her role in the game is support with normal difficulty to play. She uses invisibility as her passive, and her skills including giving shields for teammates while her ultimate allows her to deal damage while immobilizing enemies in range. In popular culture In the WildStorm series Planetary, written by Warren Ellis, the main adversaries of the eponymous team of superpowered investigators are an evil version of Marvel's Fantastic Four called The Four. The Sue Storm analogue is Kim Suskind, who has exactly the same powers as the original, except that she has to wear a pair of goggles in order to see while invisible. The daughter of a Nazi scientist and lover of The Four's leader, Randall Dowling, Suskind destroys her opponents by rapidly expanding a force field inside their heads. Invisible Woman appeared in the Robot Chicken episode "Monstourage" voiced by Emmanuelle Chriqui. In the fight against Doctor Doom, she turned invisible only to be hit and dragged by a car. None of the other Fantastic Four members found out about this. Rugrats introduced a parody character, Miss Invisible, in the episode "Mega Diaper Babies"; Lil also creates a similar superheroine form in the same episode, calling herself "Dotted-Line Girl". In The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror XIV" segment titled "Stop the World, I want to Goof Off!", there is a moment where the family is turned into members of the Fantastic 4. Maggie is the Invisible Woman. Pamela Anderson appears as the Invisible Girl in Superhero Movie, in which she has an affair with Professor X. Reception Invisible Woman was ranked as the 99th-greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine. IGN also ranked the Invisible Woman as the 66th-greatest comic book hero of all time stating that "the Fantastic Four are nothing if not a dysfunctional family, and they need someone to hold that family together. That someone tends to be Susan Richards", and 40th in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers". She was ranked 85th in Comics Buyer's Guide "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list. References External links Susan Storm on the Marvel Universe Character Bio Wiki Ultimate Susan Storm on the Marvel Universe Character Bio Wiki Fantastic Four movie featurette - Sue Storm Invisible Woman at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on September 17, 2016. Avengers (comics) characters Characters created by Jack Kirby Characters created by Stan Lee Comics characters introduced in 1961 Fantastic Four characters Female characters in film Fictional actors Fictional astronauts Fictional characters from New York City Fictional characters who can turn invisible Fictional competitive swimmers Fictional models Fictional schoolteachers Fictional telekinetics Marvel Comics American superheroes Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers Marvel Comics female superheroes Marvel Comics film characters Marvel Comics martial artists Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics orphans Fictional people from Kosovo	[ -0.34917518496513367, -0.3423152267932892, -0.6318789124488831, 0.009120002388954163, -0.2096993625164032, 0.6245397329330444, 0.20946526527404785, 0.5630837678909302, -0.4803978502750397, 0.09047961235046387, -0.5978964567184448, 0.20081719756126404, -0.5177813768386841, 0.1268729269504547, -0.4526124894618988, 0.07854482531547546, 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236082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamie%20Smith	Mamie Smith	Mamie Smith (née Robinson; May 26, 1891 – September 16, 1946) was an American vaudeville singer, dancer, pianist, and actress. As a vaudeville singer she performed in multiple styles, including jazz and blues. In 1920, she entered blues history as the first African American artist to make vocal blues recordings. Willie "The Lion" Smith (no relation) described the background of that recording in his autobiography, Music on My Mind (1964). Early life Robinson was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1891. The year of her birth has previously been given as 1883, but in 2018, researcher John Jeremiah Sullivan discovered her birth certificate stating she was born in Cincinnati in 1891. When she was around 10 years old, she found work touring with a white act, the Four Dancing Mitchells. As a teenager, she danced in Salem Tutt Whitney's Smart Set. In 1913, she left the Tutt Brothers to sing in clubs in Harlem and married William "Smitty" Smith, a singer. Musical career On February 14, 1920, Smith recorded "That Thing Called Love" and "You Can't Keep a Good Man Down" for the Okeh label in New York City, after African-American songwriter and bandleader Perry Bradford persuaded Fred Hagar to break the color barrier in black music recording. Okeh Records recorded many iconic songs by black musicians. Although this was the first recording by a black blues singer, the backing musicians were all white. Hagar had received threats from Northern and Southern pressure groups saying they would boycott the company if he recorded a black singer. Despite these threats the record was a commercial success and opened the door for more black musicians to record. Smith's biggest hit was recorded later, on August 10, 1920, when she recorded a set of songs written by Perry Bradford, including "Crazy Blues" and "It's Right Here for You (If You Don't Get It, 'Tain't No Fault of Mine)", again for Okeh Records, A million copies were sold in less than a year. Many were bought by African Americans, and there was a sharp rise in sales of "race records". Because of its historical significance, "Crazy Blues" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1994 and was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2005. Although other African Americans had been recorded earlier, such as George W. Johnson in the 1890s, they were performing music that had a substantial following among European-American audiences. The success of Smith's record prompted record companies to seek to record other female blues singers and began the era of what is now known as classic female blues. Smith continued to make popular recordings for Okeh throughout the 1920s. In 1924 she made three releases for Ajax Records, which, while heavily promoted, did not sell well. She made some records for Victor. She toured the United States and Europe with her band, Mamie Smith & Her Jazz Hounds, as part of Mamie Smith's Struttin' Along Review. She was billed as "The Queen of the Blues", a billing soon one-upped by Bessie Smith, who was called "The Empress of the Blues". Mamie found that the new mass medium of radio provided a means of gaining additional fans, especially in cities with predominantly white audiences. For example, she and several members of her band performed on KGW in Portland, Oregon, in early May 1923 and received positive reviews. Recording lineups of the Jazz Hounds included (from August 1920 to October 1921) Jake Green, Curtis Moseley, Garvin Bushell, Johnny Dunn, Dope Andrews, Ernest Elliot, Porter Grainger, Leroy Parker and Bob Fuller, and (from June 1922 to January 1923) Coleman Hawkins, Everett Robbins, Johnny Dunn, Herschel Brassfield, Herb Flemming, Buster Bailey Cutie Perkins, Joe Smith, Bubber Miley, and Cecil Carpenter. While recording with the Jazz Hounds, she also recorded as Mamie Smith and Her Jazz Band, comprising George Bell, Charles Matson, Nathan Glantz, Larry Briers, Jules Levy, Jr., Joe Samuels, together with musicians from the Jazz Hounds, including Hawkins, Fuller and Carpenter. Film career and later years Smith appeared in an early sound film, Jailhouse Blues, in 1929. She retired from recording and performing in 1931. She returned to performing in 1939 to appear in the motion picture Paradise in Harlem, produced by her husband, Jack Goldberg. She also appeared in other films, including Mystery in Swing (1940), Sunday Sinners (1940), Stolen Paradise (1941), Murder on Lenox Avenue (1941), and Because I Love You (1943). Death and memorial Smith died in 1946 in New York, New York, reportedly penniless. She was interred at Frederick Douglass Memorial Park on Staten Island, on ground which remained unmarked until 2013, when a monument was finally erected. Initially, according to the Jas Obrecht Music Archive website, Smith was buried in an unmarked grave until 1963, when musicians from Iserlohn, West Germany, used the money from a Hot Jazz benefit to buy a headstone that read “Mamie Smith (1883–1946): First Lady of The Blues”. With the help of fellow blues singer Victoria Spivey and Record Research Magazine publisher Len Kunstadt, Smith was re-interred at Frederick Douglass Memorial Park in Richmond, New York. Smith's re-interment was celebrated with a gala honoring the late singer on January 27, 1964. However, according to the 2012 campaign website, Mamie Smith was still buried without a headstone 67 years after her death in 1946. A successful campaign to finally acquire and erect a headstone for Smith was begun in 2012 by Michael and Anne Fanciullo Cala. The couple, respectively a blues journalist and editor, developed a months-long crowdfunding campaign on the Indiegogo Web site to purchase a headstone for Smith. The philanthropy Music Cares also supported the effort. The campaign raised over $8,000 that funded the creation of a four-foot-high etched granite headstone featuring an image of the late blues singer. The monument was erected with great fanfare at Frederick Douglass Cemetery in Staten Island, New York, on September 20, 2013. Excess funds from the campaign were donated to the cemetery for grounds care. Hit records References External links Mamie Smith African American Registry profile; accessed May 10, 2018. Mamie Smith Blues Online Biography with photos Mamie Smith on RedHotJazz.com with .ram files of her early recordings Mamie Smith and the Birth of the Blues Market, NPR.org; accessed May 10, 2018. "Crazy Blues" (reworked later as "Harlem Blues"). 1891 births 1946 deaths Classic female blues singers 20th-century African-American women singers American blues singers American jazz bandleaders Blackface minstrel performers Vaudeville performers Okeh Records artists Ajax Records artists 20th-century American singers 20th-century American women singers	[ -0.264129102230072, -0.008947785943746567, -0.9951685667037964, -0.20458000898361206, 0.5109436511993408, 0.657038688659668, 1.1604175567626953, 0.19116318225860596, -0.6787254810333252, -0.26257017254829407, 0.24578309059143066, 0.3775622546672821, -0.08852884918451309, 0.24598556756973267, -0.987997829914093, 0.5485827922821045, 0.23713982105255127, 0.27753275632858276, -0.2572456896305084, -0.5463132262229919, -0.4107651114463806, -0.4890074133872986, 0.6425105929374695, -0.07496859133243561, -0.8624396324157715, 0.36654651165008545, -0.4418172836303711, 0.4556752145290375, 0.4010385274887085, 0.34471049904823303, 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236091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysteron	Mysteron	The Mysterons are a fictional race of extraterrestrials and the antagonists in the 1960s British Supermarionation science-fiction television series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons (1967–68) and its 2005 computer-animated remake, Gerry Anderson's New Captain Scarlet. They are the remnants of the original Mysteron race: alien beings that originated in a galaxy other than the Milky Way and maintained a colony on Mars. They are symbolised by ubiquitous, projected green rings of light and the deep bass voice of their human convert Captain Black. They were voiced by Donald Gray in the original series and Mike Hayley in the remake. In the 2000 computer-animated test film Captain Scarlet and the Return of the Mysterons, they were voiced by Gary Martin. Depiction Captain Scarlet As shown in the first episode of the Captain Scarlet television series, hostilities between Earth and the Mysterons commence following a Zero-X expedition to Mars, led by Captain Black of the Earth security organisation Spectrum. The purpose of the mission had been to locate the source of radio signals that Spectrum had detected emanating from the planet. The Zero-X astronauts discover an alien city complex on the Martian surface. After mistaking a deployed surveillance device for a weapon, Black fears an attack and, in violation of his orders, launches an assault on the complex that destroys it completely. However, the city is almost immediately rebuilt before their eyes as a blue beam of light passes over its ruins. Speaking in a deep, echoing voice, the aliens identify themselves as the Mysterons and state that they have discovered the secret of "reversing matter" (a power later referred to as "retrometabolism"). They have the ability to heal any physical injury, and re-create the exact likeness of any object or person – a power they can exercise only after the original object has been destroyed or the original person killed. Dedicating themselves to a "slow, but nonetheless effective" retaliation for the unprovoked attack on their Martian complex, the Mysterons seize telepathic control of Black and return him to Earth, making him instrumental in avenging the Mysterons by acting as their agent and destroying other people and objects, so that they may be re-created under Mysteron control. In an attempt to assassinate the World President, the Mysterons kill and re-create Spectrum's foremost agent, Captain Scarlet, as a replicated doppelganger. The plot fails, however, when Scarlet's reconstruction falls to its apparent death from the top of a tower, later returning to life with the indestructible qualities intact but his original human consciousness restored. (The mechanism by which this occurs is never explained in the series canon). The Mysterons themselves are never seen on screen. They broadcast their threats by radio, often disguising their intentions with word play – such as stating that they will "kill time" when they intend to kill a major Spanish official whose surname is Tiempo (Spanish for "time") in the episode "Operation Time". The original script for the first episode described the voice of the Mysterons as "commanding" and "hypnotic", also specifying that it would be created "by the [voice] artist inhaling helium and the subsequent recording being played back at a lower speed, together with a repetitive echo treatment". The aliens are represented visually by twin rings of green light that they cast onto the scenes of murder and destruction from which their facsimiles emerge. The pilot script described these rings as "two fiery green circles" suggestive of eyes. Gerry Anderson said that he came up with this device after seeing a TV advertisement for wool that featured the Woolmark logo being projected over the body of a woman. During filming, the ring effect was produced by panning a transparency across the set using a slide projector. The Mysteron likenesses created are impervious to X-Rays - showing up on X-Rays as though they were conventional photographs - and can only be destroyed by massive amounts of electricity. The re-creation process requires the subject to be clinically dead before the copy is created; in one episode, ("Treble Cross"), World Air Force test pilot Major Gravener, who the Mysterons had attacked and copied, was later resuscitated in hospital, allowing Spectrum to set a trap for the Mysterons by sending the real Gravener out in place of his duplicate. Despite their general ruthlessness, certain storylines have shown that the Mysterons are unwilling to cause agony or resort to torture. In one episode Captain Black releases one of the Angels from a radioactive chamber before she could suffer radiation poisoning (albeit after he trapped her there), although this was a ruse to draw away the Spectrum agents who were tracking him with geiger counters. A novelisation also depicts the Mysterons trapping Captains Scarlet and Blue on a satellite that they plan to obliterate using its self-destruct mechanism, rather than leaving it to plunge into the Sun where the Spectrum agents would die a slower, more painful death. Anderson originally intended the Mysterons to be more conventional Martians, later choosing to make them effectively invisible so that the series would not feel dated. Comic strips The Captain Scarlet strip in the TV Century 21 comic book depicted the Mysterons as both energy beings and a computer collective. On 16 September 1967, a new comic strip called "The Mysterons" appeared simultaneously in the comic books Solo, and its sister publication TV Tornado. The initial story provides an adaptation of the destruction of the Mysteron city on Mars by Captain Black, as shown in the first episode of the Captain Scarlet television series. Following the re-creation of their city, it then goes on to depict the previously peaceful Mysterons deciding that they must protect themselves from further aggression by conquering the universe. To that end some of the Mysterons depart in a flying saucer, headed for the Andromeda Galaxy, to commence their plan. Solo merged with the TV Tornado comic the following week, with the Mysteron strip running in the latter publication from issues 36 to 58. In the second instalment, when a Mysteron party lands on the planet Andorme, the atmosphere restores the hitherto disembodied creatures to visibility in "… the ancient Mysteron shape". In this form they are depicted as spherical, polyhedral beings, with three of the faces having "eye slits", one of which can emit a destructive energy beam. New Captain Scarlet The final episode of the re-imagined series, Gerry Anderson's New Captain Scarlet, reveals a great deal about the Mysterons as they exist in the version of the new series. They live in a city on Mars that is normally hidden from view. The city appears on the surface of Mars for the first time in 2068, during the ill-fated mission commanded by Captain Black (Instrument of Destruction, Part 1). They are categorically stated to be energy beings, with one being shown to be capable of transforming into the "green rings", and are to some extent individualised – there is a dissenting faction in the "Mysteron consciousness" (as a member of the faction puts it) that believes that, given time, humans will outgrow their destructive impulses and become more like the Mysterons themselves. Unfortunately for the series' protagonists, this group has virtually no influence, and their only agent dispatched to Earth was quickly de-corporalised and remanded into Mysteron custody by the majority group's primary agent, Black. The Mysterons were first discovered by Spectrum captains Scarlet and Black during an investigation into the source of strange signals emanating from Mars. They appear as a pair of green rings; however, it is not known whether this is the result of technology. The Mysterons claim to be peaceful beings, but wage a "war of nerves" against the people of Earth following Black's devastating assault on the Mysteron city. The Mysterons possess the ability to reconstruct exact replicas of objects or persons. It is due to this remarkable ability that they are able to re-create their city following Black's attack. They also employ this power from time to time during the "Mysteronisation" process, which imbues the reconstruction (dubbed "replicant" by Spectrum) with the power of "retro-metabolisation" – the replicant is able to heal completely from almost any injury, including fatal ones. The only known survivor of the process is Scarlet, who retains his retro-metabolism and remains virtually indestructible, an ability which is a great asset in his work. Mysterons are also able to control the minds of their human victims, whether the subject has been replicated or not. Mysterons make use of hypnosis for short-term control, as demonstrated by the replicant of Commander Lewis on Doctor Gold ("The Homecoming"). To create a full agent, they use the reconstruction process which leaves them in total control of the victim's body. The Mysteronisation process alters the replicants at the sub-atomic level and subtly alters their genetic code. It is this alteration of DNA that leaves them vulnerable to detection, and as such all Spectrum personnel are subject to regular DNA checking. Critical response Commentators have offered a range of explanations as to the exact nature of the Mysterons. According to Nicholas J. Cull, they are a species of "invisible" alien, while Alasdair Wilkins and Sophie Bushwick of the website io9 describe them as "an unfathomable race of probably non-corporeal entities". The tie-in publication The Complete Book of Captain Scarlet by Chris Bentley refutes the notion that the Mysterons of the original series are a type of energy being, instead referring to them as "sentient computers" forming a group mind. The computer complex on Mars is the legacy of the original, corporeal Mysteron race – described as being of extragalactic origin and "masters in the art of computer technology" – who colonised the planet in the 2nd millennium BC and abandoned it at the start of the 20th century AD. Eamonn McCusker of The Digital Fix describes the Mysterons – along with their primary agent, Captain Black – as "the perfect villains", arguing that their menacing voices and green "eyes" helped to make Captain Scarlet "more memorable than any of Anderson's other shows". Sarah Kurchak of The A.V. Club believes that the Mysterons marked a departure from the villains of earlier Anderson productions due to their apparent omnipresence and omnipotence. She describes them as "truly, realistically terrifying [...] an unknowable foreign entity capable of the deepest undercover work that could strike at any time," adding that Spectrum's occasional defeats at their hands made them "all the more alarming". Wilkins and Bushwick categorise the Mysterons as an example of the "monstrous and evil" type of Martian commonly seen in film, TV and literature, and rank them second only to the invaders of the H. G. Wells novel The War of the Worlds (1897) for malevolence. Simon J. Gerard of Starburst magazine regards the secondary title sequence – in which the Mysterons, represented only by their "strange green light beams", announce their latest threat to Spectrum – as the "defining moment" of the original Captain Scarlet. The authors of The Rough Guide to Cult TV argue that for younger children, the aliens' slow, deep voice "seemed to embody evil." Several commentators argue that the fact that the Mysterons remain unseen, preferring instead to operate through their replicated intermediaries, makes them all the more frightening. Digital Spy's Morgan Jeffery calls the Mysterons' invisibility "a masterstroke, and another reason why Captain Scarlet holds up well to the scrutiny of an adult eye. The Hood from Thunderbirds, Stingrays Aquaphibians - these are characters unlikely to disturb the dreams of any but the very young. The Mysterons, though? The images conjured up in the minds of older children with over-active imaginations would have been far more terrifying than anything Anderson and his team could have hoped to construct." Kyle Anderson of Nerdist.com considers the Mysterons' schemes "pretty ingenious". Other commentators have criticised their methods. Tom Spilsbury questions the wisdom of making the duplicate of Captain Scarlet indestructible given that his death and resurrection in the first episode cause him to break free of Mysteron control. Jeffery queries why the aliens need to create duplicates at all, given that they are apparently able to manipulate Black through mind control. In addition, both Spilsbury and others consider it tactically unsound for the Mysterons, when broadcasting threats to Earth, to inform Spectrum of their exact targets. Writing for Starburst, Andrew Pixley and Julie Rogers suggest that the aliens' transmitted threats make them sound "like some evil alien Ted Rogers". Andrew Blair of Den of Geek writes that "there's something both rubbish and endearing about the Mysterons' attempts to harass humanity into submission with their decidedly piecemeal approach." Symbolism Actor Cy Grant, who voiced the original Lieutenant Green and praised Captain Scarlet for its positive multiculturalism, believed that the series employed a form of black-and-white dualism of which the Mysterons were an aspect: "The 'darkness' of the Mysterons is most easily seen as the psychological rift — the struggle of 'good' and 'evil' — of the Western world as personified by Colonel White and his team. Dark and light are but aspects of each other. Incidentally, green is the colour of nature that can heal that rift." The Mysterons have also been interpreted as part of a supposed religious allegory in the series. Grant and other commentators have compared Cloudbase (Spectrum's airborne headquarters) to Heaven, Colonel White (the head of Spectrum) to God, and the resurrected Captain Scarlet (White's top agent) to the Son of God; Captain Black, a Spectrum officer-turned-Mysteron agent, is viewed as either an analogue of the Devil or a Judas figure in league with the "satanic" Mysterons of the planet Mars (which Grant likened to Hades). Anderson denied that any of this symbolism was intentional. Cold War analysis Bill Osgerby argues that the Mysterons' tactic of replacing humans with alien doppelgangers promotes "themes of anxiety and mistrust" and an "atmosphere of unease and ambiguity", which he believes reflect the "crisis and collapse of social and political certainties" during the 1960s. Cull, who interprets the original Captain Scarlet as a media product of the Cold War, regards the Mysterons' campaign against Earth as a kind of "Cold War scenario". In an allusion to other science fiction of the time, he states that the Mysterons' reconstructive ability "creates an ever-present danger of an enemy within, which is the stuff of archetypal Cold War paranoia narratives on the model of Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956)." He adds that Captain Scarlet reflects progressive attitudes to real-world events in that it is humans who start the conflict by attacking the Mysteron city; this "opens the issue of blame and invites reflection on the guilt of one's own side." Discussing humanity's first contact with the Mysterons in the original series' first episode, Geoff Willmetts of Sfcrowsnest notes the Mysterons' technological advantages and humanity's status as a relatively "immature sentient species", stating that this leads to a lack of trust that provokes conflict. He comments: "This is a dilemma of any first contact scenario. One side is always likely to be superior to the other and that will always build some elements of mistrust as to what motivates them and their actions." For Jeffery, that the Mysterons are not "out-and-out villains" is one of the elements that makes Captain Scarlet more "mature" than Thunderbirds. Comparison to terrorism The Mysterons' tactics have been characterised as a form of terrorism by Gerry Anderson and others, including commentator Andrew Billen. Jim Sangster and Paul Condon consider it "oddly prophetic" that Captain Scarlets original UK run ended not long before the hi-jacking of El Al Flight 426, an event that "made political terrorism big news." They regard the series' theme of terrorism as "incredibly perceptive" on Anderson's part, calling it "staggering ... that at the same time as airplane hi-jacks became a distressingly regular occurrence in the Middle East, and IRA bombings in London, Gerry Anderson was explaining the effects of terrorism to kids, even down to having an aggressor who, it could be argued, has a genuine cause for complaint." The aftermath of the September 11 attacks and subsequent War on Terror have also prompted comparisons. In 2003, Tom Weaver of Starlog magazine noted that the Mysterons employ "what in these troubled times would be called sleeper agents and homicide bombers", "hi-jack" airliners and attempt to wage biological and nuclear warfare. He concluded that "the similarities between the Mysterons' terrorist tactics and our current real-life conflict are so striking, they become impossible to ignore." Commenting on the updated Mysterons of the 2005 remake, David Garland suggested that the aliens' persistent focus on terrorising Earth remotely, as opposed to invading it, "holds particular contemporary resonance". Anderson rejected comparisons to 21st-century terrorism, stating that the Mysterons' methods are not terrorism "as we know it" but "of an invisible force from another world". On parallels between the series and modern events, he argued that "any film that has any kind of war or conflict is always timely, because we as human beings are forever killing each other". 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236093	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump%20and%20dump	Pump and dump	Pump and dump (P&D) is a form of securities fraud that involves artificially inflating the price of an owned stock through false and misleading positive statements, in order to sell the cheaply purchased stock at a higher price. Once the operators of the scheme "dump" (sell) their overvalued shares, the price falls and investors lose their money. This is most common with small cap cryptocurrencies and very small corporations/companies, i.e. "microcaps". While fraudsters in the past relied on cold calls, the Internet now offers a cheaper and easier way of reaching large numbers of potential investors through spam email, investment research websites, social media, and misinformation. Scenarios Pump and dump schemes may take place on the Internet using an email spam campaign, through media channels via a fake press release, or through telemarketing from "boiler room" brokerage houses (such as that dramatized in the 2000 film Boiler Room). Often the stock promoter will claim to have "inside" information about impending news. Newsletters may purport to offer unbiased recommendations, then tout a company as a "hot" stock, for their own benefit. Promoters may also post messages in online chat groups or internet forums, urging readers to buy the stock quickly. If a promoter's campaign to "pump" a stock is successful, it will entice unwitting investors to purchase shares of the target company. The increased demand, price, and trading volume of the stock may convince more people to believe the hype, and to buy shares as well. When the promoters behind the scheme sell (dump) their shares and stop promoting the stock, the price plummets, and other investors are left holding a stock that is worth significantly less than what they paid for it. Fraudsters frequently use this ploy with small, thinly traded companies—known as "penny stocks", generally traded over-the-counter (in the United States, this would mean markets such as the OTC Bulletin Board or the Pink Sheets), rather than markets such as the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) or NASDAQ—because it is easier to manipulate a stock when there is little or no independent information available about the company. The same principle applies in the United Kingdom, where target companies are typically small companies on the AIM or OFEX. A more modern spin on this attack is known as hack, pump and dump. In this form, a person purchases penny stocks and then uses compromised brokerage accounts to purchase large quantities of that stock. The net result is a price increase, which is often pushed further by day traders seeing a quick advance in a stock. The original stockholder then cashes out at a premium. Pump and dump schemes also permeate the crypto-market, targeting especially low market-cap, illiquid coins on cryptocurrency exchanges. Examples Stratton Oakmont In the early 1990s the penny-stock brokerage Stratton Oakmont artificially inflated the price of owned stock through false and misleading positive statements, in order to sell the cheaply purchased stock at a higher price. Firm co-founder Jordan Belfort was criminally convicted for his role in the scheme. He later turned his story into a memoir, The Wolf of Wall Street, which was later adapted into an Academy Award-nominated film of the same name. Jonathan Lebed During the dot-com bubble, when stock-market fever was at its height and many people spent significant amounts of time on stock Internet message boards, a 15-year-old named Jonathan Lebed allegedly used the Internet to run a successful pump and dump. Lebed bought penny stocks and then promoted them on message boards, pointing at the price increase. Allegedly, when other investors bought the stock, Lebed sold his for a profit, leaving the other investors holding the bag. He came to the attention of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which filed a civil suit against him alleging security manipulation. Lebed settled the charges by paying a fraction of his total gains. He neither admitted nor denied wrongdoing, but promised not to manipulate securities in the future. Enron As late as April 2001, before the Enron collapse, executives at the large energy company Enron participated in an elaborate scheme of pump and dump, in addition to other illegal practices that fooled even the most experienced analysts on Wall Street. Studies of the anonymous messages posted on the Yahoo board dedicated to Enron revealed predictive messages that the company was akin to a house of cards, and that investors should bail out while the stock was good. After Enron falsely reported profits which inflated the stock price, they covered the real numbers by using questionable accounting practices. Twenty-nine Enron executives sold overvalued stock for more than a billion dollars before the company went bankrupt. Park Financial Group and International Media Solutions, LLC Park Financial Group, Spear & Jackson, and International Media Solutions, LLC were involved in a pump and dump where the price per share increased by $14.00 and over 100,000 shares were traded each day, netting Spear & Jackson around $3 million in profits. In 2005 Spear & Jackson and International Media Solutions were fined over $8 million, including its two executive officers, Kermit J. Silva and Yolanda Velazquez, each paying an additional $420,000 out of their personal accounts. On December 5, 2007, Park and the company's president were ordered to pay over $113,000 in fines and penalties. Langbar International Started as Crown Corporation, Langbar International was the biggest pump and dump fraud on the Alternative Investment Market, part of the London Stock Exchange. The company was at one point valued greater than $1 billion, based on supposed bank deposits in Brazil which did not exist. None of the chief conspirators were convicted, although their whereabouts are known. A patsy who made a negligent false statement about the assets was convicted and banned from being a director. The investors who lost as much as £100 million sued one of the fraudsters and recovered £30 million. Morrie Tobin In April 2018, Morrie Tobin and others, using offshore accounts, gained over $165 million from a pump and dump scheme. When questioned by federal agents, Tobin told the agents that he was involved in another scheme implicating a soccer coach from Yale University, which in turn led to the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal. In February 2019, Tobin pled guilty to conspiracy and securities fraud. On June 7, 2019, a federal judge hit Tobin with a $4 million forfeiture. Cryptocurrency Being an unregulated market, and due to the concentration of a large amount of cryptocurrency in a small number of hands, the price is very sensitive to pump and dump schemes. There are organised pump and dump schemes run through social media platforms including Telegram and Discord. Scam Pump and dump stock scams are prevalent in spam, accounting for about 15% of spam e-mail messages. A survey of 75,000 unsolicited emails sent between January 2004 and July 2005 concluded that spammers could make an average return of 4.29% by using this method, while recipients who act on the spam message typically lose close to 5.5% of their investment within two days. A study by Böhme and Holz shows a similar effect. Stocks targeted by spam are almost always penny stocks, selling for less than $5 per share, not traded on major exchanges, thinly traded, and difficult or impossible to sell short. Spammers acquire stock before sending the messages, and sell the day the message is sent. Comparison with other types of schemes A pump and dump scam is a type of economic bubble, with the main difference between this scheme and most other types of bubbles being that the pump and dump bubble is deliberately perpetrated by unlawful activity. A pump and dump scheme is similar in many ways to a Ponzi scheme (in that both types of scam use misrepresentations in an effort to enrich the promoters and/or initial investors with money from later investors), however, there are a number of differences between the schemes: Ponzi-type investments are privately traded, often between individuals that are known to one another, whereas pump and dump schemes are typically marketed to the general public and traded on public stock exchanges and the victims and perpetrators are not acquainted with each other. Ponzi schemes typically promise very specific returns on investments and/or include falsified records implying consistent and steady returns, whereas pump and dump schemes only come with general and/or implied promises of substantial profits. Ponzi schemes typically come with the expectation of profit over a relatively-extended period of time and typically last for months, years or even decades before their inevitable collapse. By comparison, pump and dump scams are designed to make profits extremely quickly and are executed over a period of weeks, days or even hours. Ponzi schemes are occasionally the result of investment vehicles that are originally intended to be legitimate but ultimately fail to perform as expected. By comparison, pump and dump schemes are invariably intended to be scams from their conception, although a fairly common tactic employed by pump and dump schemers is to take over a once-legitimate business (one that is either failing or defunct), or even just its name, in order to pump and dump its stock. For all of the above reasons, Ponzi schemes tend to leave a far more extensive trail of evidence. They are typically much easier to prosecute after they are discovered, and often result in much stiffer criminal penalties. Pump and dump differs from many other forms of spam (such as advance fee fraud emails and lottery scam messages) in that it does not require the recipient to contact the spammer to collect supposed "winnings", or to transfer money from supposed bank accounts. This makes tracking the source of pump and dump spam difficult, and has also given rise to "minimalist" spam consisting of a small untraceable image file containing a picture of a stock symbol. Short and distort A variant of the pump and dump scam, the "short and distort" works in the opposite manner. Instead of first buying the stock, and then artificially raising its price before selling, in a "short and distort" the scammer first short-sells the stock, and then artificially lowers the price, using the same techniques as the pump and dump but using criticism or negative predictions regarding the stock. The scammer then covers their short position when they buy back the stock at a lower price. Regulation One method of regulating and restricting pump and dump manipulators is to target the category of stocks most often associated with this scheme. To that end, penny stocks have been the target of heightened enforcement efforts. In the United States, regulators have defined a penny stock as a security that must meet a number of specific standards. The criteria include price, market capitalization, and minimum shareholder equity. Securities traded on a national stock exchange, regardless of price, are exempt from regulatory designation as a penny stock, since it is thought that exchange traded securities are less vulnerable to manipulation. Therefore, Citigroup (NYSE:C) and other NYSE listed securities which traded below $1.00 during the market downturn of 2008–2009, while properly regarded as "low priced" securities, were not technically "penny stocks". Although penny stock trading in the United States is now primarily controlled through rules and regulations enforced by the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), the genesis of this control is found in state securities law. The State of Georgia was the first state to codify a comprehensive penny stock securities law. Secretary of State Max Cleland, whose office enforced state securities laws, was a principal proponent of the legislation. Representative Chesley V. Morton, the only stockbroker in the Georgia General Assembly at the time, was a principal sponsor of the bill in the Georgia House of Representatives. Georgia's penny stock law was subsequently challenged in court. However, the law was eventually upheld in U.S. District Court, and the statute became the template for laws enacted in other states. Shortly thereafter, both FINRA and the SEC enacted comprehensive revisions of their penny stock regulations. These regulations proved effective in either shuttering or greatly restricting broker/dealers, such as Blinder, Robinson & Company, which specialized in the penny stocks sector. Meyer Blinder was jailed for securities fraud in 1992, after the collapse of his firm. However, sanctions under these specific regulations lack an effective means to address pump and dump schemes perpetrated by unregistered groups and individuals. References Further reading Sergey Perminov, Trendocracy and Stock Market Manipulations 2008, . External links Pump and dump stock Schemes in 2005 The SEC Pump and dump stock Schemes in 2001 The SEC The movie Boiler Room, a fictional account of a pump and dump company Financial regulation Finance fraud Spamming Stock market	[ 0.5967878103256226, 0.2991972863674164, -0.4687122106552124, 0.2231847643852234, 0.49912554025650024, 0.05263644456863403, -0.405367374420166, 0.2213522046804428, -0.05938948318362236, 0.23632220923900604, -0.21657977998256683, 0.7519201636314392, -0.37812986969947815, 0.38788485527038574, -0.230332612991333, 0.06280239671468735, 0.2529282867908478, 0.19783541560173035, 0.6419130563735962, -0.00023934533237479627, -0.7606462836265564, -0.31529203057289124, 0.23041342198848724, -0.5264514684677124, 0.2504750192165375, 0.1742611825466156, 0.3227291703224182, -0.11940240114927292, -0.700165331363678, 0.26495277881622314, 0.6117002964019775, 0.6000084280967712, 0.5280476808547974, -0.15114252269268036, 0.060970552265644073, 0.32404378056526184, 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236094	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochinchina	Cochinchina	Cochinchina or Cochin-China (; ; , ; ; ) is a historical exonym for part of Vietnam, depending on the contexts. Sometimes it referred to the whole of Vietnam, but it was commonly used to refer to the region south of the Gianh River. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Vietnam was divided between the Trịnh lords to the north and the Nguyễn lords to the south. The two domains bordered each other on the Son–Gianh River. The northern section was called Tonkin by Europeans, and the southern part, , was called Cochinchina by most Europeans and Quinam by the Dutch. Lower Cochinchina (), whose principal city is Saigon, is the newest territory of the Vietnamese people in the movement of (Southward expansion). This region was also the first part of Vietnam to be colonized by the French. Inaugurated as the French Cochinchina in 1862, this colonial administrative unit reached its full extent from 1867 and was a constituent territory of French Indochina from 1887 until early 1945. So during the French colonial period, the label Cochinchina moved further south, and came to refer exclusively to the southernmost part of Vietnam. Beside the French colony of Cochinchina, the two other parts of Vietnam at the time were the French protectorates of Annam (Central Vietnam) and Tonkin (Northern Vietnam). South Vietnam (also called ) was reorganized from the State of Vietnam after the Geneva Conference in 1954 by combining Lower Cochinchina with the southern part of Annam, the former protectorate. Background The conquest of the south of present-day Vietnam was a long process of territorial acquisition by the Vietnamese. It is called Nam tiến (Chinese characters: 南進, English meaning "South[ern] Advance") by Vietnamese historians. Vietnam (then known as Đại Việt) greatly expanded its territory in 1470 under the great king Lê Thánh Tông, at the expense of Champa. The next two hundred years was a time of territorial consolidation and civil war with only gradual expansion southwards. In 1516, Portuguese traders sailing from Malacca landed in Da Nang, Đại Việt, and established a presence there. They named the area "Cochin-China", borrowing the first part from the Malay Kuchi, which referred to all of Vietnam, and which in turn derived from the Chinese Jiāozhǐ, pronounced Giao Chỉ in Vietnam. They appended the "China" specifier to distinguish the area from the city and the princely state of Cochin in India, their first headquarters in the Malabar Coast. As a result of a civil war that started in 1520, the Emperor of China sent a commission to study the political status of Annam in 1536. As a consequence of the delivered report, he declared war against the Mạc dynasty. The nominal ruler of the Mạc died at the very time that the Chinese armies passed the frontiers of the kingdom in 1537, and his father, Mạc Đăng Dung (the real power in any case), hurried to submit to the Imperial will, and declared himself to be a vassal of China. The Chinese declared that both the Lê dynasty and the Mạc had a right to part of the lands and so they recognised the Lê rule in the southern part of Vietnam while at the same time recognising the Mạc rule in the northern part, which was called Tunquin (i.e. Tonkin). This was to be a feudatory state of China under the government of the Mạc. However, this arrangement did not last long. In 1592, Trịnh Tùng, leading the Royal (Trịnh) army, conquered nearly all of the Mạc territory and moved the Lê kings back to the original capital of Hanoi. The Mạc only held on to a tiny part of north Vietnam until 1667, when Trịnh Tạc conquered the last Mạc lands. Cochinchina Kingdom of the Nguyen lords (1600–1774) In 1600 after returning from Tonkin, lord Nguyễn Hoàng built his own government in the two southern provinces of Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam, today in central Vietnam. In 1623, lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên established a trading community at Saigon, then called Prey Nakor, with the consent of the king of Cambodia, Chey Chettha II. Over the next 50 years, Vietnamese control slowly expanded in this area but only gradually as the Nguyễn were fighting a protracted civil war with the Trịnh lords in the north. With the end of the war with the Trịnh, the Nguyễn were able to devote more effort (and military force) to conquest of the south. First, the remaining Champa territories were taken; next, the areas around the Mekong river were placed under Vietnamese control. At least three wars were fought between the Nguyễn lords and the Cambodian kings in the period 1715 to 1770 with the Vietnamese gaining more territory with each war. The wars all involved the much more powerful Siamese kings who fought on behalf of their vassals, the Cambodians. During the late 18th century emerged the Tây Sơn Rebellion, coming out from the Nguyễn domain. In 1774, the Trịnh army captured the capital Phú Xuân of the Nguyễn realm, whose leaders then had to flee to Lower Cochinchina. The three brothers of Tây Sơn, former peasants, however, soon succeeded in conquering first the lands of the Nguyễn and then the lands of the Trịnh, briefly unifying Vietnam. Cochinchina Empire of the Nguyễn (1802–1862) Final unification of Vietnam came under Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, a tenacious member of the Nguyễn noble family who fought for 25 years against the Tây Sơn and ultimately conquered the entire country in 1802. He ruled all of Vietnam under the name Gia Long. His son Minh Mạng reigned from 14 February 1820 until 20 January 1841 what was known to the British as Cochin China and to the Americans as hyphenated Cochin-China. In hopes of negotiating commercial treaties, the British in 1822 sent East India Company agent John Crawfurd, and the Americans in 1833 sent diplomatist Edmund Roberts, who returned in 1836. Neither envoy was fully cognizant of conditions within the country, and neither succeeded. Gia Long's successors (see the Nguyễn dynasty for details) repelled the Siamese from Cambodia and even annexed Phnom Penh and surrounding territory in the war between 1831 and 1834, but were forced to relinquish these conquests in the war between 1841 and 1845. Colonial Cochinchina: 1862–1945 French conquest For a series of complex reasons, the Second French Empire of Napoleon III, with the help of Spanish troops arriving from the Spanish East Indies, attacked Đà Nẵng (Tourane) of Nguyen Dynasty Vietnam in September 1858. Unable to occupy Đà Nẵng, the alliance moved to Lower Cochinchina in the South. On 17 February 1859, they captured Saigon. Later on, the French defeated the Nguyễn army at the Battle of Ky Hoa in 1861. The Vietnamese government was forced to cede the three southern Vietnamese provinces of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường to France in June 1862 Treaty of Saigon. In 1867, French Admiral Pierre de la Grandière forced the Vietnamese to surrender three additional provinces, Châu Đốc, Hà Tiên and Vĩnh Long. With these three additions all of southern Vietnam and the Mekong Delta fell under French control. French colony In 1871 all the territories ceded to the French in southern Vietnam were incorporated as colony of Cochinchina, with Admiral Dupré as its first governor. As a result, the name "Cochinchina" came to refer exclusively to the southern third of Vietnam. (In Catholic ecclesiastical contexts Cochinchina still related to the older meaning of Đàng Trong until 1924 when the three Apostolic Vicariates of Northern, Eastern, and Western Cochinchina were renamed to Apostolic Vicariates of Huế, Qui Nhơn, and Saïgon). In 1887, the colony became a confederal member of the Union of French Indochina. Unlike the protectorates of Annam (central Vietnam) and Tonkin (northern Vietnam), Cochinchina was ruled directly by the French, both de jure and de facto, and was represented by a deputy in the National Assembly in Paris. Within Indochina, Cochinchina was the territory with the greatest European presence. At its height, in 1940, it was estimated at 16,550 people, the vast majority living in Saigon. The French authorities dispossessed Vietnamese landowners and peasants to ensure European control of the expansion of rice and rubber production. As they expanded in response to the increased rubber demand after the First World War, the European plantations recruited, as indentured labour, workers from "the overcrowded villages of the Red River Delta in Tonkin and the coastal lowlands of Annam". These migrants brought south the influence of the Communist Party of Nguyen Ai Quoc (Ho Chi Minh), and of other underground nationalist parties (the Tan Viet and Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng—VNQDD). At the same time, the local peasantry were driven into debt servitude, and into plantation labour, by land and poll taxes. Such conditions contributed to the 1916 Cochinchina uprising, and to widespread agrarian and labor unrest in 1930-32. In 1936 the formation in France of the Popular Front government led by Leon Blum was accompanied by promises of colonial reform. Failure to deliver, helped generate further unrest culminating in the summer of 1937 in general dock and transport strikes. The left anti-colonial forces split between the Moscow-oriented Communist Party and their Trotskyist left opposition and, following the French declaration of war against Germany in September 1939 was suppressed. Under the slogan "Land to the Tillers, Freedom for the workers and independence for Vietnam", in November 1940 the Communist Party in Cochinchina instigated a widespread insurrection. fighting in the Mekong Delta fighting continued until the end of the year. Southern Resistance War and incorporation into South Vietnam, 1945-1955 Cochinchina was occupied by Japan during World War II (1941–45). After the Japanese surrender in August 1945, the Communist-front Viet Minh had declared a provisional government (a Southern Administrative Committee) in Saigon. In Saigon, the violence of a French restoration assisted by British and surrendered Japanese troops, triggered a general uprising on September 23. In the course of what became known as the Southern Resistance War (Nam Bộ kháng chiến) the Viet Minh defeated rival resistance forces but, by the end of 1945, had been pushed out of Saigon and major urban centres into the countryside. After 1945, the status of Cochinchina was a subject of discord between France and Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh. In 1946, the French proclaimed Cochinchina an "autonomous republic", which was one of the causes of the First Indochina War. In 1948, Cochinchina was renamed as the Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam. It was merged the next year with the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam, and the State of Vietnam, with former emperor Bảo Đại as head of state, was then officially established. After the First Indochina War and temporary partition of Vietnam agreed at Geneva, with French and American patronage Cochinchina was merged in 1955 with Annam south of the 17th parallel to form the Republic of Vietnam, "South Vietnam", under the presidency of Ngo Dinh Diem. 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236095	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYN%20flood	SYN flood	A SYN flood is a form of denial-of-service attack in which an attacker rapidly initiates a connection to a server without finalizing the connection. The server has to spend resources waiting for half-opened connections, which can consume enough resources to make the system unresponsive to legitimate traffic. The packet that the attacker sends is the SYN packet, a part of TCP's three-way handshake used to establish a connection. Technical details When a client attempts to start a TCP connection to a server, the client and server exchange a series of messages which normally runs like this: The client requests a connection by sending a SYN (synchronize) message to the server. The server acknowledges this request by sending SYN-ACK back to the client. The client responds with an ACK, and the connection is established. This is called the TCP three-way handshake, and is the foundation for every connection established using the TCP protocol. A SYN flood attack works by not responding to the server with the expected ACK code. The malicious client can either simply not send the expected ACK, or by spoofing the source IP address in the SYN, cause the server to send the SYN-ACK to a falsified IP address – which will not send an ACK because it "knows" that it never sent a SYN. The server will wait for the acknowledgement for some time, as simple network congestion could also be the cause of the missing ACK. However, in an attack, the half-open connections created by the malicious client bind resources on the server and may eventually exceed the resources available on the server. At that point, the server cannot connect to any clients, whether legitimate or otherwise. This effectively denies service to legitimate clients. Some systems may also malfunction or crash when other operating system functions are starved of resources in this way. Countermeasures There are a number of well-known countermeasures listed in RFC 4987 including: Filtering Increasing backlog Reducing SYN-RECEIVED timer Recycling the oldest half-open TCP SYN cache SYN cookies Hybrid approaches Firewalls and proxies See also Fraggle attack Internet Control Message Protocol IP address spoofing Ping flood Smurf attack UDP flood attack References External links Official CERT advisory on SYN Attacks Denial-of-service attacks	[ -0.31399011611938477, 0.06407371163368225, -0.5573855638504028, 0.057265620678663254, 0.059681400656700134, -0.14691805839538574, 0.663017988204956, 0.4576474726200104, -0.11285543441772461, -0.36721694469451904, -0.600324809551239, 0.12331220507621765, -0.681644856929779, 0.7085232734680176, -0.01814677193760872, 0.002582024550065398, 0.44731560349464417, 0.46403899788856506, 0.10962241142988205, -0.11049070954322815, -0.523802638053894, -0.19839560985565186, -0.1474011093378067, -0.09617581218481064, 0.007214355282485485, 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236096	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocksucker%20Blues	Cocksucker Blues	Cocksucker Blues is an unreleased documentary film directed by the still photographer Robert Frank chronicling The Rolling Stones American Tour 1972 in support of their album Exile on Main St. Production There was much anticipation for the band's arrival in the United States, since they had not visited there since the 1969 disaster at the Altamont Free Concert in which a fan was stabbed and beaten to death by Hells Angels and the incident was caught on camera. Behind the scenes, the tour embodied debauchery, lewdness and hedonism. The film was shot cinéma vérité, with several cameras available for anyone in the entourage to pick up and start shooting. This allowed the film's audience to witness backstage parties, drug use (Mick Taylor is shown smoking marijuana with some roadies and Mick Jagger seen snorting cocaine backstage), roadie and groupie antics, and the Stones with their defenses down. One scene includes a groupie in a hotel room injecting heroin. Fate The film came under a court order which forbade it from being shown unless the director, Robert Frank, was physically present. This ruling stemmed from the conflict that arose when the band, having commissioned the film, decided that its content was embarrassing and potentially incriminating, and did not want it shown. Frank felt otherwise, hence the ruling. According to Ray Young, "The salty title notwithstanding, its nudity, needles and hedonism was supposedly incriminating and the picture was shelved—this during a liberal climate that saw the likes of Cry Uncle! and Chafed Elbows playing in neighborhood theatres." Deep Throat was released in the same year. A Rolling Stones concert film, Ladies and Gentlemen: The Rolling Stones, was released instead, and Cocksucker Blues was indefinitely shelved. The court order in question also enjoined Frank against exhibiting Cocksucker Blues more frequently than four times per year in an "archival setting" with Frank being present. Frank personally introduced one such rare screening of the film on February 23, 1988 at Boston's Cinema 57 theater in Park Square in conjunction with promoting the release that week of his new film, Candy Mountain. Other screenings have included the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York on October 3, 2009 (curator Jeff Rosenheim, introducing the movie, mentioned that Robert Frank was "in the building," but pointed out that the building was over ); the Museum of Modern Art in New York in November 2012 as part of a two-week festival, "The Rolling Stones: 50 Years on Film"; the Cleveland Cinematheque on November 15, 2013; the Chuck Jones Theater during the 2015 Telluride Film Festival; and the Rotterdam, Netherlands 2015 International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA) as part of a Robert Frank retrospective, with Frank in attendance. At one point a Santa Monica, California theatre presented the film in a number of late night shows, though a stink bomb was placed in the ventilation on opening night to discourage attendance, but the film was shown anyway. In popular culture The fourth section of Don DeLillo's magnum opus, Underworld, is titled Cocksucker Blues. The Stones' song/film is referred to in the narrative of that section. See also List of American films of 1972 Schoolboy Blues Titicut Follies, documentary about a Massachusetts mental hospital legally barred from distribution over privacy concerns for over 20 years References External links Review by Rick McGrath 1972 films American films English-language films Unreleased American films 1972 documentary films The Rolling Stones documentary films	[ 0.4012412428855896, 0.43399155139923096, -0.7302310466766357, -0.26159441471099854, 0.4454849660396576, -0.05496340990066528, 0.4023132622241974, 0.25286465883255005, -0.18821148574352264, -0.151863232254982, 0.13394924998283386, 0.580157995223999, -0.2699909806251526, 0.2780979573726654, -0.26472362875938416, 0.6134107112884521, 0.04052985832095146, -0.6487224102020264, -0.011639522388577461, -0.9096405506134033, 0.01458934135735035, -0.42650145292282104, 0.34408432245254517, -0.209329292178154, -0.3581697344779968, 0.14027631282806396, -0.14583410322666168, -0.010113322176039219, -0.1483153998851776, 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236098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsequence	Subsequence	In mathematics, a subsequence of a given sequence is a sequence that can be derived from the given sequence by deleting some or no elements without changing the order of the remaining elements. For example, the sequence is a subsequence of obtained after removal of elements and The relation of one sequence being the subsequence of another is a preorder. Subsequences can contain consecutive elements which were not consecutive in the original sequence. A subsequence which consists of a consecutive run of elements from the original sequence, such as from is a substring. The substring is a refinement of the subsequence. The list of all subsequences for the word "apple" would be "a", "ap", "al", "ae", "app", "apl", "ape", "ale", "appl", "appe", "aple", "apple", "p", "pp", "pl", "pe", "ppl", "ppe", "ple", "pple", "l", "le", "e", "" (empty string). Common subsequence Given two sequences and a sequence is said to be a common subsequence of and if is a subsequence of both and For example, if then is said to be a common subsequence of and This would be the longest common subsequence, since only has length 3, and the common subsequence has length 4. The longest common subsequence of and is Applications Subsequences have applications to computer science, especially in the discipline of bioinformatics, where computers are used to compare, analyze, and store DNA, RNA, and protein sequences. Take two sequences of DNA containing 37 elements, say: SEQ1 = ACGGTGTCGTGCTATGCTGATGCTGACTTATATGCTA SEQ2 = CGTTCGGCTATCGTACGTTCTATTCTATGATTTCTAA The longest common subsequence of sequences 1 and 2 is: LCS(SEQ1,SEQ2) = CGTTCGGCTATGCTTCTACTTATTCTA This can be illustrated by highlighting the 27 elements of the longest common subsequence into the initial sequences: SEQ1 = AGGTGAGGAG SEQ2 = CTAGTTAGTA Another way to show this is to align the two sequences, that is, to position elements of the longest common subsequence in a same column (indicated by the vertical bar) and to introduce a special character (here, a dash) for padding of arisen empty subsequences: SEQ1 = ACGGTGTCGTGCTAT-G--C-TGATGCTGA--CT-T-ATATG-CTA- \| \|\| \|\|\| \|\|\|\|\| \| \| \| \| \|\| \| \|\| \| \|\| \| \|\|\| SEQ2 = -C-GT-TCG-GCTATCGTACGT--T-CT-ATTCTATGAT-T-TCTAA Subsequences are used to determine how similar the two strands of DNA are, using the DNA bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. Theorems Every infinite sequence of real numbers has an infinite monotone subsequence (This is a lemma used in the proof of the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem). Every infinite bounded sequence in has a convergent subsequence (This is the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem). For all integers and every finite sequence of length at least contains a monotonically increasing subsequence of length a monotonically decreasing subsequence of length (This is the Erdős–Szekeres theorem). See also Notes Elementary mathematics Sequences and series	[ -0.47815409302711487, -0.018541045486927032, -0.5624054074287415, -0.018085306510329247, 0.05148621276021004, 0.2052384316921234, 0.3054426908493042, -0.169337198138237, -0.031631406396627426, -0.2781355082988739, -0.7520791292190552, 0.02334120124578476, -0.5103865265846252, 0.4821777641773224, -0.2540474534034729, 0.6863014698028564, 0.4840002954006195, 0.1648862063884735, -0.6050294041633606, -0.05040905624628067, 0.044601984322071075, 0.3481225073337555, -0.20154960453510284, -0.5636975169181824, 0.458261102437973, -0.1826646775007248, -0.2686215937137604, -0.17825715243816376, -0.22269058227539062, 0.5949087142944336, -0.11543066054582596, 0.36571353673934937, 0.528671383857727, 0.027143297716975212, 0.07960263639688492, -0.1865231692790985, 0.0077738515101373196, -0.30297330021858215, -0.08598863333463669, -0.44977980852127075, 0.19999949634075165, -0.2794455885887146, 0.05895138531923294, 0.031689729541540146, 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236101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Atlanta	USS Atlanta	Five United States Navy ships have borne the name Atlanta, after the city of Atlanta, Georgia: , was a Confederate ironclad converted from a blockade runner, named CSS Atlanta, captured in 1863 , was a protected cruiser, launched in 1884 and decommissioned in 1912 , an anti-aircraft cruiser (later redesignated light cruiser), was commissioned in 1941 and sunk in November 1942 at the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , a light cruiser, was commissioned in 1944, served in World War II and in the 1960s was used for target practice , was a Los Angeles-class nuclear attack submarine commissioned 1982 and inactivated in 1999 Sources United States Navy ship names	[ -0.012685641646385193, -0.12347155064344406, -0.48928436636924744, -0.014709539711475372, -0.17506103217601776, 0.5595685243606567, 0.36505261063575745, -0.11120972037315369, -0.6577690839767456, -0.046991657465696335, -0.05772039666771889, 0.2273889034986496, 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236104	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial%20Japanese%20Navy	Imperial Japanese Navy	The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or Nippon Kaigun, 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender in World War II. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) was formed between 1952–1954 after the dissolution of the IJN. The Imperial Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world by 1920, behind the Royal Navy and the United States Navy (USN). It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for aircraft and airstrike operation from the fleet. It was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the Pacific War. The origins of the Imperial Japanese Navy go back to early interactions with nations on the Asian continent, beginning in the early medieval period and reaching a peak of activity during the 16th and 17th centuries at a time of cultural exchange with European powers during the Age of Discovery. After two centuries of stagnation during the country's ensuing seclusion policy under the shōgun of the Edo period, Japan's navy was comparatively backward when the country was forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. This eventually led to the Meiji Restoration. Accompanying the re-ascendance of the Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization. The navy had several successes, sometimes against much more powerful enemies such as in the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, before being largely destroyed in World War II. Origins Japan has a long history of naval interaction with the Asian continent, involving transportation of troops between Korea and Japan, starting at least with the beginning of the Kofun period in the 3rd century. Following the attempts at Mongol invasions of Japan by Kubilai Khan in 1274 and 1281, Japanese wakō became very active in plundering the coast of China. Japan undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Warring States period when feudal rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. Around that time Japan may have developed one of the first ironclad warships when Oda Nobunaga, a daimyō, had six iron-covered Oatakebune made in 1576. In 1588 Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued a ban on Wakō piracy; the pirates then became vassals of Hideyoshi, and comprised the naval force used in the Japanese invasion of Korea (1592–1598). Japan built her first large ocean-going warships in the beginning of the 17th century, following contacts with the Western nations during the Nanban trade period. In 1613, the daimyō of Sendai, in agreement with the Tokugawa Bakufu, built Date Maru, a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported the Japanese embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, which then continued to Europe. From 1604 the Bakufu also commissioned about 350 Red seal ships, usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies, mainly for Southeast Asian trade. Western studies and the end of seclusion For more than 200 years, beginning in the 1640s, the Japanese policy of seclusion ("sakoku") forbade contacts with the outside world and prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships on pain of death. Contacts were maintained, however, with the Dutch through the port of Nagasaki, the Chinese also through Nagasaki and the Ryukyus and Korea through intermediaries with Tsushima. The study of Western sciences, called "rangaku" through the Dutch enclave of Dejima in Nagasaki led to the transfer of knowledge related to the Western technological and scientific revolution which allowed Japan to remain aware of naval sciences, such as cartography, optics and mechanical sciences. Seclusion, however, led to the loss of any naval and maritime traditions the nation possessed. Apart from Dutch trade ships, no other Western vessels were allowed to enter Japanese ports. A notable exception was during the Napoleonic wars when neutral ships flew the Dutch flag. Frictions with the foreign ships, however, started from the beginning of the 19th century. The Nagasaki Harbour Incident involving in 1808, and other subsequent incidents in the following decades, led the shogunate to enact an Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels. Western ships, which were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling and the trade with China, began to challenge the seclusion policy. The Morrison Incident in 1837 and news of China's defeat during the Opium War led the shogunate to repeal the law to execute foreigners, and instead to adopt the Order for the Provision of Firewood and Water. The shogunate also began to strengthen the nation's coastal defenses. Many Japanese realized that traditional ways would not be sufficient to repel further intrusions, and western knowledge was utilized through the Dutch at Dejima to reinforce Japan's capability to repel the foreigners; field guns, mortars, and firearms were obtained, and coastal defenses reinforced. Numerous attempts to open Japan ended in failure, in part to Japanese resistance, until the early 1850s. During 1853 and 1854, American warships under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry, entered Edo Bay and made demonstrations of force requesting trade negotiations. After two hundred years of seclusion, the 1854 Convention of Kanagawa led to the opening of Japan to international trade and interaction. This was soon followed by the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and treaties with other powers. Development of shogunal and domain naval forces As soon as Japan opened up to foreign influences, the Tokugawa shogunate recognized the vulnerability of the country from the sea and initiated an active policy of assimilation and adoption of Western naval technologies. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, , and began using it for training, establishing a Naval Training Center at Nagasaki. Samurai such as the future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki (1836–1908) was sent by the shogunate to study in the Netherlands for several years. In 1859 the Naval Training Center relocated to Tsukiji in Tokyo. In 1857 the shogunate acquired its first screw-driven steam warship and used it as an escort for the 1860 Japanese delegation to the United States. In 1865 the French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build Japan's first modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka and Nagasaki. The shogunate also allowed and then ordered various domains to purchase warships and to develop naval fleets, Satsuma, especially, had petitioned the shogunate to build modern naval vessels. A naval center had been set up by the Satsuma domain in Kagoshima, students were sent abroad for training and a number of ships were acquired. The domains of Chōshū, Hizen, Tosa and Kaga joined Satsuma in acquiring ships. These naval elements proved insufficient during the Royal Navy's Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 and the Allied bombardments of Shimonoseki in 1863–64. By the mid-1860s the shogunate had a fleet of eight warships and thirty-six auxiliaries. Satsuma (which had the largest domain fleet) had nine steamships, Choshu had five ships plus numerous auxiliary craft, Kaga had ten ships and Chikuzen eight. Numerous smaller domains also had acquired a number of ships. However, these fleets resembled maritime organizations rather than actual navies with ships functioning as transports as well as combat vessels; they were also manned by personnel who lacked experienced seamanship except for coastal sailing and who had virtually no combat training. Creation of the Imperial Japanese Navy (1868–72) The Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to the overthrow of the shogunate. From 1868, the newly formed Meiji government continued with reforms to centralize and modernize Japan. Boshin War Although the Meiji reformers had overthrown the Tokugawa shogunate, tensions between the former ruler and the restoration leaders led to the Boshin War (January 1868 to June 1869). The early part of the conflict largely involved land battles, with naval forces playing a minimal role transporting troops from western to eastern Japan. Only the Battle of Awa (28 January 1868) was significant; this also proved one of the few Tokugawa successes in the war. Tokugawa Yoshinobu eventually surrendered after the fall of Edo in July 1868, and as a result most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, however resistance continued in the North. On 26 March 1868 the first naval review in Japan took place in Osaka Bay, with six ships from the private domain navies of Saga, Chōshū, Satsuma, Kurume, Kumamoto and Hiroshima participating. The total tonnage of these ships was 2,252 tons, which was far smaller than the tonnage of the single foreign vessel (from the French Navy) that also participated. The following year, in July 1869, the Imperial Japanese Navy was formally established, two months after the last combat of the Boshin War. Enomoto Takeaki, the admiral of the shōguns navy, refused to surrender all his ships, remitting just four vessels, and escaped to northern Honshū with the remnants of the shōguns navy: eight steam warships and 2,000 men. Following the defeat of pro-shogunate resistance on Honshū, Admiral Enomoto Takeaki fled to Hokkaidō, where he established the breakaway Republic of Ezo (27 January 1869). The new Meiji government dispatched a military force to defeat the rebels, culminating with the Naval Battle of Hakodate in May 1869. The Imperial side took delivery (February 1869) of the French-built ironclad Kotetsu (originally ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate) and used it decisively towards the end of the conflict. Consolidation In February 1868 the Imperial government had placed all captured shogunate naval vessels under the Navy Army affairs section. In the following months, military forces of the government came under the control of several organizations which were established and then disbanded until the establishment of the Ministry of War and of the Ministry of the Navy of Japan in 1872. For the first two years (1868–1870) of the Meiji state no national, centrally controlled navy existed, – the Meiji government only administered those Tokugawa vessels captured in the early phase of the Boshin War of 1868–1869. All other naval vessels remained under the control of the various domains which had been acquired during the Bakumatsu period. The naval forces mirrored the political environment of Japan at the time: the domains retained their political as well as military independence from the Imperial government. Katsu Kaishū a former Tokugawa navy leader, was brought into the government as Vice Minister of the Navy in 1872, and became the first Minister of the Navy from 1873 until 1878 because of his naval experience and his ability to control Tokugawa personnel who retained positions in the government naval forces. Upon assuming office Katsu Kaishu recommended the rapid centralization of all naval forces – government and domain – under one agency. The nascent Meiji government in its first years did not have the necessary political and military force to implement such a policy and so, like much of the government, the naval forces retained a decentralized structure in most of 1869 through 1870. The incident involving Enomoto Takeaki's refusal to surrender and his escape to Hokkaidō with a large part of the former Tokugawa Navy's best warships embarrassed the Meiji government politically. The imperial side had to rely on considerable naval assistance from the most powerful domains as the government did not have enough naval power to put down the rebellion on its own. Although the rebel forces in Hokkaidō surrendered, the government's response to the rebellion demonstrated the need for a strong centralized naval force. Even before the rebellion the restoration leaders had realized the need for greater political, economic and military centralization and by August 1869 most of the domains had returned their lands and population registers to the government. In 1871 the domains were abolished altogether and as with the political context the centralization of the navy began with the domains donating their forces to the central government. As a result, in 1871 Japan could finally boast a centrally controlled navy, this was also the institutional beginning of the Imperial Japanese Navy. In February 1872, the Ministry of War was replaced by a separate Army Ministry and Navy Ministry. In October 1873, Katsu Kaishū became Navy Minister. Secondary Service (1872–1882) After the consolidation of the government the new Meiji state set about to build up national strength. The Meiji government honored the treaties with the Western powers signed during the Bakumatsu period with the ultimate goal of revising them, leading to a subsided threat from the sea. This however led to conflict with those disgruntled samurai who wanted to expel the westerners and with groups which opposed the Meiji reforms. Internal dissent - including peasant uprisings - become a greater concern for the government, which curtailed plans for naval expansion as a result. In the immediate period from 1868 many members of the Meiji coalition advocated giving preference to maritime forces over the army and saw naval strength as paramount. In 1870 the new government drafted an ambitious plan to develop a navy with 200 ships organized into ten fleets. The plan was abandoned within a year due to lack of resources. Financial considerations were a major factor restricting the growth of the navy during the 1870s. Japan at the time was not a wealthy state. Soon, however, domestic rebellions, the Saga Rebellion (1874) and especially the Satsuma Rebellion (1877), forced the government to focus on land warfare, and the army gained prominence. Naval policy, as expressed by the slogan Shusei Kokubō (literally: "Static Defense"), focused on coastal defenses, on a standing army (established with the assistance of the second French Military Mission to Japan), and a coastal navy that could act in a supportive role to drive an invading enemy from the coast. The resulting military organization followed the Rikushu Kaijū (Army first, Navy second) principle. This meant a defense designed to repel an enemy from Japanese territory, and the chief responsibility for that mission rested upon Japan's army; consequently, the army gained the bulk of the military expenditures. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Imperial Japanese Navy remained an essentially coastal-defense force, although the Meiji government continued to modernize it. Jo Sho Maru (soon renamed Ryūjō Maru) commissioned by Thomas Glover was launched at Aberdeen, Scotland on 27 March 1869. British support and influence In 1870 an Imperial decree determined that Britain's Royal Navy should serve as the model for development, instead of the Netherlands navy. In 1873 a thirty-four-man British naval mission, headed by Lt. Comdr. Archibald Douglas, arrived in Japan. Douglas directed instruction at the Naval Academy at Tsukiji for several years, the mission remained in Japan until 1879, substantially advancing the development of the navy and firmly establishing British traditions within the Japanese navy from matters of seamanship to the style of its uniforms and the attitudes of its officers. From September 1870, the English Lieutenant Horse, a former gunnery instructor for the Saga fief during the Bakumatsu period, was put in charge of gunnery practice on board the Ryūjō. In 1871, the ministry resolved to send 16 trainees abroad for training in naval sciences (14 to Great Britain, two to the United States), among which was Heihachirō Tōgō. Later, Commander L.P. Willan was hired in 1879 to train naval cadets. Further modernization (1870s) Ships such as the , and were built in British shipyards, and they were the first warships built abroad specifically for the Imperial Japanese Navy. Private construction companies such as Ishikawajima and Kawasaki also emerged around this time. First interventions abroad (Taiwan 1874, Korea 1875–76) During 1873, a plan to invade the Korean Peninsula, the Seikanron proposal made by Saigō Takamori, was narrowly abandoned by decision of the central government in Tokyo. In 1874, the Taiwan expedition was the first foray abroad of the new Imperial Japanese Navy and Army after the Mudan Incident of 1871, however the navy served largely as a transport force. Various interventions in the Korean Peninsula continued in 1875–1876, starting with the Ganghwa Island incident provoked by the Japanese gunboat , leading to the dispatch of a large force of the Imperial Japanese Navy. As a result, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 was signed, marking the official opening of Korea to foreign trade, and Japan's first example of Western-style interventionism and adoption of "unequal treaties" tactics. In 1878, the Japanese cruiser Seiki sailed to Europe with an entirely Japanese crew. Naval expansion (1882–1893) First naval expansion bill After the Imo Incident in July 1882, Iwakura Tomomi submitted a document to the daijō-kan titled "Opinions Regarding Naval Expansion" asserting that a strong navy was essential to maintaining the security of Japan. In furthering his argument, Iwakura suggested that domestic rebellions were no longer Japan's primary military concern and that naval affairs should take precedence over army concerns; a strong navy was more important than a sizable army to preserve the Japanese state. Furthermore, he justified that a large, modern navy, would have the added potential benefit of instilling Japan with greater international prestige and recognition, as navies were internationally recognized hallmarks of power and status. Iwakura also suggested that the Meiji government could support naval growth by increasing taxes on tobacco, sake, and soy. After lengthy discussions, Iwakura eventually convinced the ruling coalition to support Japan's first multi-year naval expansion plan in history. In May 1883, the government approved a plan that, when completed, would add 32 warships over eight years at a cost of just over ¥26 million. This development was very significant for the navy, as the amount allocated virtually equaled the navy's entire budget between 1873 and 1882. The 1882 naval expansion plan succeeded in a large part because of Satsuma power, influence, and patronage. Between 19 August and 23 November 1882, Satsuma forces with Iwakura's leadership, worked tirelessly to secure support for the Navy's expansion plan. After uniting the other Satsuma members of the Dajokan, Iwakura approached the emperor the Meiji emperor arguing persuasively just as he did with the Dajokan, that naval expansion was critical to Japan's security and that the standing army of forty thousand men was more than sufficient for domestic purposes. While the government should direct the lion's share of future military appropriations toward naval matters, a powerful navy would legitimize an increase in tax revenue. On November 24, the emperor assembled select ministers of the daijō-kan together with military officers, and announced the need for increased tax revenues to provide adequate funding for military expansion, this was followed by an imperial re-script. The following month, in December, an annual ¥7.5-million tax increase on sake, soy, and tobacco was fully approved, in the hopes that it would provide ¥3.5 million annually for warship construction and ¥2.5 million for warship maintenance. In February 1883, the government directed further revenues from other ministries to support an increase in the navy's warship construction and purchasing budget. By March 1883, the navy secured the ¥6.5 million required annually to support an eight-year expansion plan, this was the largest that the Imperial Japanese Navy had secured in its young existence. However, naval expansion remained a highly contentious issue for both the government and the navy throughout much of the 1880s. Overseas advances in naval technology increased the costs of purchasing large components of a modern fleet, so that by 1885 cost overruns had jeopardized the entire 1883 plan. Furthermore, increased costs coupled with decreased domestic tax revenues, heightened concern and political tension in Japan regarding funding naval expansion. In 1883, two large warships were ordered from British shipyards. The and were 3,650 ton ships. They were capable of speeds up to and were armed with deck armor and two Krupp guns. The naval architect Sasō Sachū designed these on the line of the Elswick class of protected cruisers but with superior specifications. An arms race was taking place with China however, who equipped herself with two 7,335 ton German-built battleships (Ting Yüan and Chen-Yüan). Unable to confront the Chinese fleet with only two modern cruisers, Japan resorted to French assistance to build a large, modern fleet which could prevail in the upcoming conflict. Influence of the French "Jeune École" (1880s) During the 1880s, France took the lead in influence, due to its "Jeune École" ("young school") doctrine, favoring small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats, against bigger units. The choice of France may also have been influenced by the Minister of the Navy, who happened to be Enomoto Takeaki at that time (Navy Minister 1880–1885), a former ally of the French during the Boshin War. Also, Japan was uneasy with being dependent on Great Britain, at a time when Great Britain was very close to China. The Meiji government issued its First Naval Expansion bill in 1882, requiring the construction of 48 warships, of which 22 were to be torpedo boats. The naval successes of the French Navy against China in the Sino-French War of 1883–85 seemed to validate the potential of torpedo boats, an approach which was also attractive to the limited resources of Japan. In 1885, the new Navy slogan became Kaikoku Nippon (Jp:海国日本, "Maritime Japan"). In 1885, the leading French Navy engineer Émile Bertin was hired for four years to reinforce the Japanese Navy and to direct the construction of the arsenals of Kure and Sasebo. He developed the Sankeikan class of cruisers; three units featuring a single powerful main gun, the Canet gun. Altogether, Bertin supervised the building of more than 20 units. They helped establish the first true modern naval force of Japan. It allowed Japan to achieve mastery in the building of large units, since some of the ships were imported, and some others were built domestically at the arsenal of Yokosuka: 3 cruisers: the 4,700 ton and , built in France, and the , built at Yokosuka. 3 coastal warships of 4,278 tons. 2 small cruisers: the , a small cruiser of 2,439 tons built in Britain, and the , 1,800 tons, built at Yokosuka. 1 frigate, the 1,600 ton , built at Yokosuka. 1 aviso: the 726 ton , built in France. 16 torpedo boats of 54 tons each, built in France by the Companie du Creusot in 1888, and assembled in Japan. This period also allowed Japan "to embrace the revolutionary new technologies embodied in torpedoes, torpedo-boats and mines, of which the French at the time were probably the world's best exponents". Japan acquired its first torpedoes in 1884, and established a "Torpedo Training Center" at Yokosuka in 1886. These ships, ordered during the fiscal years 1885 and 1886, were the last major orders placed with France. The unexplained sinking of en route from France to Japan in December 1886, created embarrassment however. British shipbuilding Japan turned again to Britain, with the order of a revolutionary torpedo boat, , which was considered the first effective design of a destroyer, in 1887 and with the purchase of , built at the Armstrong works in Elswick, Newcastle upon Tyne, the fastest cruiser in the world at the time of her launch in 1892. In 1889, she ordered the Clyde-built , which defined the type for armored cruisers. Between 1882 and 1918, ending with the visit of the French Military Mission to Japan, the Imperial Japanese Navy stopped relying on foreign instructors altogether. In 1886, she manufactured her own prismatic powder, and in 1892 one of her officers invented a powerful explosive, the Shimose powder. Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) Japan continued the modernization of its navy, especially as China was also building a powerful modern fleet with foreign, especially German, assistance, and as a result tensions were building between the two countries over Korea. The Japanese naval leadership on the eve of hostilities, was generally cautious and even apprehensive as the navy had not yet received the warships ordered in February 1893, particularly the battleships and and the cruiser . Hence, initiating hostilities at the time was not ideal, and the navy was far less confident than the Japanese army about the outcome of a war with China. Japan's main strategy was to gain command of the sea as this was critical to the operations on land. An early victory over the Beiyang fleet would allow Japan to transport troops and material to the Korean Peninsula, however any prolongation of the war would increase the risk of intervention by the European powers with interests in East Asia. The army's Fifth Division would land at Chemulpo on the western coast of Korea, both to engage and push Chinese forces northwest up the peninsula and to draw the Beiyang Fleet into the Yellow Sea, where it would be engaged in decisive battle. Depending upon the outcome of this engagement, Japan would make one of three choices; If the Combined Fleet were to win decisively, the larger part of the Japanese army would undertake immediate landings on the coast between Shanhaiguan and Tianjin in order to defeat the Chinese army and bring the war to a swift conclusion. If the engagement were to be a draw and neither side gained control of the sea, the army would concentrate on the occupation of Korea. Lastly, if the Combined Fleet was defeated and consequently lost command of the sea, the bulk of the army would remain in Japan and prepare to repel a Chinese invasion, while the Fifth Division in Korea would be ordered to hang on and fight a rearguard action. A Japanese squadron intercepted and defeated a Chinese force near Korean island of Pungdo; damaging a cruiser, sinking a loaded transport, capturing one gunboat and destroying another. The battle occurred before the war was officially declared on 1 August 1894. On August 10, the Japanese ventured into the Yellow Sea to seek out the Beiyang Fleet and bombarded both Weihaiwei and Port Arthur. Finding only small vessels in either harbor, the Combined Fleet returned to Korea to support further landings off the Chinese coast. The Beiyang Fleet under the command of Admiral Ding was initially ordered to stay close to the Chinese coast while reinforcements were sent to Korea by land. But as Japanese troops had very quickly advanced northward from Seoul to Pyongyang the Chinese decided to rush troops to Korea by sea under a naval escort, in mid-September. Concurrently, because there had been no decisive encounter at sea, the Japanese decided to send more troops to Korea. Early in September, the navy was directed to support further landings and to support the army on Korea's western coast. As Japanese ground forces then moved north to attack Pyongyang, Admiral Ito correctly guessed that the Chinese would attempt to reinforce their army in Korea by sea. On 14 September, the Combined Fleet went north to search the Korean and Chinese coasts and to bring the Beiyang Fleet to battle. On 17 September 1894, the Japanese encountered them off the mouth of the Yalu River. The Combined Fleet then devastated the Beiyang Fleet during the battle, in which the Chinese fleet lost eight out of 12 warships. The Chinese subsequently retreated behind the Weihaiwei fortifications. However, they were then surprised by Japanese troops, who outflanked the harbour's defenses in coordination with the navy. The remnants of the Beiyang Fleet were destroyed at Weihaiwei. Although Japan turned out victorious, the two large German-made Chinese ironclad battleships (Dingyuan and Zhenyuan) remained almost impervious to Japanese guns, highlighting the need for bigger capital ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The next step of the Imperial Japanese Navy's expansion would thus involve a combination of heavily armed large warships, with smaller and innovative offensive units permitting aggressive tactics. As a result of the conflict, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895), Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands were transferred to Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy took possession of the island and quelled opposition movements between March to October 1895. Japan also obtained the Liaodong Peninsula, although she was forced by Russia, Germany and France to return it to China (Triple Intervention), only to see Russia take possession of it soon after. Suppression of the Boxer rebellion (1900) The Imperial Japanese Navy further intervened in China in 1900 by participating, together with Western Powers, in the suppression of the Chinese Boxer Rebellion. The Navy supplied the largest number of warships (18 out of a total of 50) and delivered the largest contingent of troops among the intervening nations (20,840 Imperial Japanese Army and Navy soldiers, out of a total of 54,000). The conflict allowed Japan to enter combat together with Western nations and to acquire first-hand understanding of their fighting methods. Naval Buildup and tensions with Russia Following the war against China, the Triple Intervention under Russian leadership, pressured Japan to renounce its claim to the Liaodong Peninsula. The Japanese were well aware of the naval power the three countries possessed in East Asian waters, particularly Russia. Faced with little choice the Japanese retroceded the territory back to China for an additional 30 million taels (roughly ¥45 million). With the humiliation of the forced return of the Liaodong Peninsula, Japan began to build up its military strength in preparation for future confrontations. The political capital and public support for the navy gained as a result of the recent conflict with China, also encouraged popular and legislative support for naval expansion. In 1895, Yamamoto Gombei was assigned to compose a study of Japan's future naval needs. He believed that Japan should have sufficient naval strength to not only to deal with a single hypothetical enemy separately, but to also confront any fleet from two combined powers that might be dispatched against Japan from overseas waters. He assumed that with their conflicting global interests, it was highly unlikely that the British and Russians would ever join together in a war against Japan, considering it more likely that a major power like Russia in alliance with a lesser naval power, would dispatch a portion of their fleet against Japan. Yamamoto therefore calculated that four battleships would be the main battle force that a major power could divert from their other naval commitments to use against Japan and he also added two more battleships that might be contributed to such a naval expedition by a lesser hostile power. In order to achieve victory Japan should have a force of six of the largest battleships supplemented by four armored cruisers of at least 7,000 tons. The centerpiece of this expansion was to be the acquisition of four new battleships in addition to the two which were already being completed in Britain being part of an earlier construction program. Yamamoto was also advocating the construction of a balanced fleet. Battleships would be supplemented by lesser warships of various types, including cruisers that could seek out and pursue the enemy and a sufficient number of destroyers and torpedo boats capable of striking the enemy in home ports. As a result, the program also included the construction of twenty-three destroyers, sixty-three torpedo boats, and an expansion of Japanese shipyards and repair and training facilities. In 1897, because of fears that the size of the Russian fleet assigned to East Asian waters could be larger than previously believed, the plan was revised. Although budgetary limitations simply could not permit the construction of another battleship squadron, the new Harvey and KC armor plates could resist all but the largest AP shells. Japan could now acquire armored cruisers that could take the place in the battle line. Hence, with new armor and lighter but more powerful quick-firing guns, this new cruiser type was superior to many older battleships still afloat. Subsequently, the revisions to the ten-year plan led to the four protected cruisers were replaced by additional two armored cruisers. As a consequence the "Six-Six Fleet" was born, with six battleships and six armored cruisers. The program for a 260,000-ton navy to be completed over a ten-year period in two stages of construction, with the total cost being ¥280 million, was approved by the cabinet in late 1895 and funded by the Diet in early 1896. Of the total warship acquisitions accounted for just over ¥200 million. The first stage would begin in 1896 and be completed by 1902; the second would run from 1897 to 1905. The program was financed significantly from the Chinese indemnity secured after the First Sino-Japanese War. This was used to fund the bulk of the naval expansion, roughly ¥139 million, with public loans and existing government revenue providing the rest of the financing required over the ten years of the program. Japan's industrial resources at the time were inadequate for the construction of a fleet of armored warships domestically, as the country was still in the process of developing and acquiring the industrial infrastructure for the construction of major naval vessels. Consequently, the overwhelming majority was built in British shipyards. With the completion of the fleet, Japan would become the fourth strongest naval power in the world in a single decade. In 1902, Japan formed an alliance with Britain, the terms of which stated that if Japan went to war in the Far East and that a third power entered the fight against Japan, then Britain would come to the aid of the Japanese. This was a check to prevent any third power from intervening militarily in any future war with Russia. Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) The new fleet consisted of: 6 battleships (all British-built) 8 armored cruisers (4 British-, 2 Italian-, 1 German-built Yakumo, and 1 French-built Azuma) 9 cruisers (5 Japanese, 2 British and 2 U.S.-built) 24 destroyers (16 British- and 8 Japanese-built) 63 torpedo boats (26 German-, 10 British-, 17 French-, and 10 Japanese-built) One of these battleships, , which was among the most powerful warships afloat when completed, was ordered from the Vickers shipyard in the United Kingdom at the end of 1898, for delivery to Japan in 1902. Commercial shipbuilding in Japan was exhibited by construction of the twin screw steamer Aki-Maru, built for Nippon Yusen Kaisha by the Mitsubishi Dockyard & Engine Works, Nagasaki. The Imperial Japanese cruiser was built at the Union Iron Works in San Francisco, California. These dispositions culminated with the Russo-Japanese War. At the Battle of Tsushima, Admiral Togo (flag in Mikasa) led the Japanese Combined Fleet into the decisive engagement of the war. The Russian fleet was almost completely annihilated: out of 38 Russian ships, 21 were sunk, seven captured, six disarmed, 4,545 Russian servicemen died and 6,106 were taken prisoner. On the other hand, the Japanese only lost 116 men and three torpedo boats. These victories broke Russian strength in East Asia, and triggered waves of mutinies in the Russian Navy at Sevastopol, Vladivostok and Kronstadt, peaking in June with the Potemkin uprising, thereby contributing to the Russian Revolution of 1905. The victory at Tsushima elevated the stature of the navy. During the Russo-Japanese war, Japan also made accelerated efforts to develop and construct a fleet of submarines. Submarines had only recently become operational military engines, and were considered to be special weapons of considerable potential. Naval losses for the Japanese Navy during the war amounted to two battleships, four cruisers, one armored cruiser, seven destroyers, and at least 10 torpedo boats; the majority of them were lost due to hitting Russian mines. The Imperial Japanese Navy acquired its first submarines in 1905 from Electric Boat Company, barely four years after the U.S. Navy had commissioned its own first submarine, . The ships were Holland designs and were developed under the supervision of Electric Boat's representative, Arthur L. Busch. These five submarines (known as Holland Type VII's) were shipped in kit form to Japan (October 1904) and then assembled at the Yokosuka, Kanagawa Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, to become hulls No.1 through 5, and became operational at the end of 1905. Towards an autonomous national navy (1905–1914) Japan continued in its efforts to build up a strong national naval industry. Following a strategy of "copy, improve, innovate", foreign ships of various designs were usually analysed in depth, their specifications often improved on, and then were purchased in pairs so as to organize comparative testing and improvements. Over the years, the importation of whole classes of ships was progressively substituted by local assembly, and then complete local production, starting with the smallest ships, such as torpedo boats and cruisers in the 1880s, to finish with whole battleships in the early 20th century. The last major purchase was in 1913 when the battlecruiser was purchased from the Vickers shipyard. By 1918, there was no aspect of shipbuilding technology where Japanese capabilities fell significantly below world standards. The period immediately after Tsushima also saw the IJN, under the influence of the navalist theoretician Satō Tetsutarō, adopt an explicit policy of building for a potential future conflict against the United States Navy. Satō called for a battlefleet at least 70% as strong as that of the US. In 1907, the official policy of the Navy became an 'eight-eight fleet' of eight modern battleships and eight battlecruisers. However, financial constraints prevented this ideal ever becoming a reality. By 1920, the Imperial Japanese Navy was the world's third largest navy and a leader in naval development: Following its 1897 invention by Marconi, the Japanese Navy was the first navy to employ wireless telegraphy in combat, at the 1905 Battle of Tsushima. In 1905, it began building the battleship , at the time the largest warship in the world by displacement, and the first ship to be designed, ordered and laid down as an "all-big-gun" battleship, about one year prior to the launching of . However, due to a lack of material, she was completed with a mixed battery of rifles, launched on 15 November 1906, and completed on 25 March 1910. Between 1903 and 1910, Japan began to build battleships domestically. The 1906 battleship Satsuma was built in Japan with about 80% material imported from Great Britain, with the following battleship class in 1909, the , being built with only 20% imported parts. World War I (1914–1918) Japan entered World War I on the side of the Entente, against Germany and Austria-Hungary, as a consequence of the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In the Siege of Tsingtao, the Imperial Japanese Navy helped seize the German colony of Tsingtao. During the siege, beginning on 5 September 1914, conducted the world's first successful sea-launched air strikes. On 6 September 1914, in the very first air-sea battle in history, a Farman aircraft launched by Wakamiya attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser and the German gunboat Jaguar off Tsingtao. from Jiaozhou Bay. Four Maurice Farman seaplanes bombarded German land targets like communication and command centers, and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao peninsula from September to 6 November 1914 when the Germans surrendered. A battle group was also sent to the central Pacific in August and September to pursue the German East Asiatic squadron, which then moved into the Southern Atlantic, where it encountered British naval forces and was destroyed at the Falkland Islands. Japan also seized German possessions in northern Micronesia, which remained Japanese colonies until the end of World War II, under the League of Nations' South Seas Mandate. Hard pressed in Europe, where she had only a narrow margin of superiority against Germany, Britain had requested, but was denied, the loan of Japan's four newly built Kongō-class battlecruisers (, , , and ), some of the first ships in the world to be equipped with guns, and the most formidable battlecruisers in the world at the time. Following a further request by the British and the initiation of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany, in March 1917, the Japanese sent a special force to the Mediterranean. This force, consisted of one protected cruiser, as flotilla leader and eight of the Navy's newest Kaba-class destroyers (, , , , , , , and ), under Admiral Satō Kōzō, was based in Malta and efficiently protected allied shipping between Marseille, Taranto, and ports in Egypt until the end of the War. In June, Akashi was replaced by , and four more destroyers were added (Kashi, Hinoki, Momo, and Yanagi). They were later joined by the cruiser . By the end of the war, the Japanese had escorted 788 allied transports. One destroyer, Sakaki, was torpedoed on 11 June 1917 by a German submarine with the loss of 59 officers and men. A memorial at the Kalkara Naval Cemetery in Malta was dedicated to the 72 Japanese sailors who died in action during the Mediterranean convoy patrols. In 1917, Japan exported 12 Arabe-class destroyers to France. In 1918, ships such as were assigned to convoy escort in the Indian Ocean between Singapore and the Suez Canal as part of Japan's contribution to the war effort under the Anglo-Japanese alliance. After the conflict, the Japanese Navy received seven German submarines as spoils of war, which were brought to Japan and analysed, contributing greatly to the development of the Japanese submarine industry. Interwar years (1918–1937) By 1921, Japan's naval expenditure reached nearly 32% of the national government budget. In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy possessed 10 battleships, 10 aircraft carriers, 38 cruisers (heavy and light), 112 destroyers, 65 submarines, and various auxiliary ships. Washington treaty system In the years following after the end of First World War the naval construction programs of the three greatest naval powers Britain, Japan and the United States had threatened to set off a new potentially dangerous and expensive naval arms race. The subsequent Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 became one of history's most effective arms reduction programs, setting up a system of ratios between the five signatory powers. The United States and Britain were each allocated 525,000 tons of capital ships, Japan 315,000, and France and Italy to 175,000, ratios of 5:3:1.75. Also agreed to was a ten-year moratorium on battleship construction, though replacement of battleships reaching 20 years of service was permitted. Maximum limits of 35,000 tons and 16-inch guns were also set. Carriers were restricted with the same 5:5:3 ratio, with Japan allotted 81,000 tons. Many naval leaders in Japan's delegation were outraged by these limitations, as Japan would always be behind its chief rivals. However, in the end it was concluded that even these unfavorable limitations would be better than an unrestricted arms race with the industrially dominant United States. The Washington System may have made Japan a junior partner with the US and Britain, but it also curtailed the rise of China and the Soviet Union, who both sought to challenge Japan in Asia. The Washington Treaty did not restrict the building of ships other than battleships and carriers, resulting in a building race for heavy cruisers. These were limited to 10,000 tons and 8-inch guns. The Japanese were also able to get some concessions, most notably the battleship , which had been partly funded by donations from schoolchildren and would have been scrapped under the terms of the treaty. The Treaty also dictated that the United States, Britain, and Japan could not expand their Western Pacific fortifications. Japan specifically could not militarize the Kurile Islands, the Bonin Islands, Amami-Oshima, the Loochoo Islands, Formosa and the Pescadores. Development of naval aviation Japan at times continued to solicit foreign expertise in areas in which the IJN was inexperienced, such as naval aviation. The Japanese navy had closely monitored the progress of aviation of the three Allied naval powers during World War I and concluded that Britain had made the greatest advances in naval aviation,. The Sempill Mission led by Captain William Forbes-Sempill, a former officer in the Royal Air Force experienced in the design and testing of Royal Navy aircraft during the First World War. The mission consisted of 27 members, who were largely personnel with experience in naval aviation and included pilots and engineers from several British aircraft manufacturing firms. The British technical mission left for Japan in September with the objective of helping the Imperial Japanese Navy develop and improve the proficiency of its naval air arm. The mission arrived at Kasumigaura Naval Air Station the following month, in November 1921, and stayed in Japan for 18 months. The mission brought to Kasumigaura well over a hundred British aircraft comprising twenty different models, five of which were then currently in service with the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm. The Japanese were trained on several, such as the Gloster Sparrowhawk, then a frontline fighter. The Japanese would go on to order 50 of these aircraft from Gloster, and build 40. These planes eventually provided the inspiration for the design of a number of Japanese naval aircraft. Technicians become familiar with the newest aerial weapons and equipment-torpedoes, bombs, machine guns, cameras, and communications gear. Japanese naval aviators were trained in various techniques such as torpedo bombing, flight control and carrier landing and take-offs. The mission also brought the plans of the most recent British aircraft carriers, such as HMS Argus and HMS Hermes, which influenced the final stages of the development of the carrier . By the time its last members had returned to Britain, the Japanese had acquired a reasonable grasp of the latest aviation technology and taken the first steps toward having an effective naval air force. Japanese naval aviation also, both in technology and in doctrine, continued to be dependent on the British model for most of the 1920s. Naval developments during the interwar years Between the wars, Japan took the lead in many areas of warship development: In 1921, it launched , the first purpose-designed aircraft carrier in the world to be completed, and subsequently developed a fleet of aircraft carriers second to none. In keeping with its doctrine, the Imperial Japanese Navy was the first to mount guns (in ), guns (in ), and began the only battleships ever to mount guns (in the ). In 1928, she launched the innovative , introducing enclosed dual turrets capable of anti-aircraft fire. The new destroyer design was soon emulated by other navies. The Fubukis also featured the first torpedo tubes enclosed in splinterproof turrets. Japan developed the oxygen fuelled Type 93 torpedo, generally recognized as the best torpedo of World War II. Doctrinal debates The Imperial Japanese Navy was faced before and during World War II with considerable challenges, probably more so than any other navy in the world. Japan, like Britain, was almost entirely dependent on foreign resources to supply its economy. To achieve Japan's expansionist policies, IJN had to secure and protect distant sources of raw material (especially Southeast Asian oil and raw materials), controlled by foreign countries (Britain, France, and the Netherlands). To achieve this goal, she had to build large warships capable of long range assault. In the years before World War II, the IJN began to structure itself specifically to fight the United States. A long stretch of militaristic expansion and the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 had exacerbated tensions with the United States, which was seen as a rival of Japan. This was in conflict with Japan's doctrine of "decisive battle" (, Kantai kessen, which did not require long range), in which IJN would allow the U.S. to sail across the Pacific, using submarines to damage it, then engage the U.S. Navy in a "decisive battle area" near Japan after inflicting such attrition. This is also in keeping with the theory of Alfred T. Mahan, to which every major navy subscribed before World War II, in which wars would be decided by engagements between opposing surface fleets, as they had been for over 300 years. Following the dictates of Satō (who doubtless was influenced by Mahan), it was the basis for Japan's demand for a 70% ratio (10:10:7) at the Washington Naval Conference, which would give Japan superiority in the "decisive battle area", and the U.S.' insistence on a 60% ratio, which meant parity. Japan, unlike other navies, clung to it even after it had been demonstrated to be obsolete. It was also in conflict with her past experience. Japan's numerical and industrial inferiority led her to seek technical superiority (fewer, but faster, more powerful ships), qualitative superiority (better training), and aggressive tactics (daring and speedy attacks overwhelming the enemy, a recipe for success in her previous conflicts), but failed to take account of any of these traits. Her opponents in any future Pacific War would not face the political and geographical constraints of her previous wars, nor did she allow for losses in ships and crews. During the pre-war years, two schools of thought battled over whether the navy should be organized around powerful battleships, ultimately able to defeat American ones in Japanese waters, or aircraft carriers. Neither really prevailed, and both types were developed. The result was that neither ended up with overwhelming strength over its American adversary. A consistent weakness of gunned Japanese warship development was the tendency to incorporate too much armament, and too much engine power, relative to ship size (a side-effect of the Washington Treaty), leading to shortcomings in stability, protection and structural strength. Circle Plans In response to the London Treaty of 1930, the Japanese started a series of naval construction programs or hoju keikaku (naval replenishment, or construction, plans), known unofficially as the maru keikaku (circle plans). Between 1930 and the outbreak of the Second World War there were four of these "Circle plans" which were drawn up in 1931, 1934, 1937, and 1939. The Circle One was plan approved in 1931, provided for the construction of 39 ships to be laid down between 1931 and 1934, centering on four of the new s, and expansion of the Naval Air Service to 14 Air Groups. However, plans for a second Circle plan were delayed by the Tomozuru capsizing and heavy typhoon damage to the Fourth fleet, when it was revealed that the basic designs of many Japanese warships were flawed due to poor construction techniques and instability caused by attempting to mount too much weaponry on too small a displacement hull. As a result, most of the naval budget in 1932–1933 was absorbed in modifications to rectify the issues with existing equipment. In 1934, the Circle Two plan was approved, covering the construction of 48 new warships including the s and two carriers: and . The plan also continued the buildup in naval aircraft and authorized the creation of eight new Naval Air Groups. With Japan's renunciation of naval treaties in December 1934, Circle Three plan was approved in 1937, its third major naval building program since 1930. A six-year effort, it called for construction of new warships that were free from the old treaty restrictions, while concentrating on qualitative superiority to compensate for Japan's quantitative deficiencies compared with the United States. While the core of Circle three was to be the construction of the two battleships and , it also called for building the two , along with sixty-four other warships in other categories. Circle Three also called for the rearming of the demilitarized battleship and the refitting of her sister ships, the , , and . Also funded was upgrading of the four s and the two Tone class cruisers, which were under construction, by replacing their 6-inch main batteries with 8-inch guns. In aviation, Circle Three aimed at maintaining parity with American naval air power by adding 827 planes for allocation to fourteen planned land-based air groups, and increasing carrier aircraft by nearly 1,000. To accommodate the new land aircraft the plan called for several new airfields to be built or expanded; it also provided for a significant increase in the size of the navy's production facilities for aircraft and aerial weapons. In 1938, with the construction of Circle Three under way, the Japanese had begun to consider preparations for the next major expansion, which was scheduled for 1940. However, with the American second Vinson act in 1938, the Japanese accelerated the Circle Four six-year expansion program, which was approved in September 1939. Circle Four's goal was doubling Japan's naval air strength in just five years, delivering air superiority in East Asia and the western Pacific. It called for building of two , a fleet carrier, six of a new class of planned escort carriers, six cruisers, twenty-two destroyers, and twenty-five submarines. The real emphasis, however, was on naval air power, in which the Japanese hoped to take the lead. To achieve Asian air superiority Circle Four planned for the acquisition of 175 ship based aircraft and nearly 1,500 land based aircraft to be allocated to seventy-five new air groups. Upon completion of this expansion Japan would have 874 ship-based aircraft and 3,341 aircraft in 128 land based air groups, 65 of these being combat air groups and 63 training. Conflict in China The China War was of great importance and value to the development of Japanese naval aviation, demonstrating how aircraft could contribute to the projection of naval power ashore. The IJN had two primary responsibilities during it: to support amphibious operations on the Chinese coast and the strategic aerial bombardment of Chinese cities – the first time any naval air arm had been given such tasks. From the onset of hostilities in 1937 until forces were diverted to combat for the Pacific war in 1941, naval aircraft played a key role in military operations on the Chinese mainland. These began with attacks on military installations largely in the Yangtze River basin along the Chinese coast by Japanese carrier aircraft. Naval involvement during the conflict peaked in 1938–39 with the heavy bombardment of Chinese cities deep in the interior by land-based medium bombers and concluded during 1941 with an attempt by both, carrier-borne and land-based, tactical aircraft to cut communication and transportation routes in southern China. Although, the 1937–41 air offensives failed in their political and psychological aims, they did reduce the flow of strategic materiel to China and for a time improved the Japanese military situation in the central and southern parts of the country. World War II To effectively combat the numerically superior American navy, the Japanese had devoted a large amount of resources to create a force of superior quality. Betting on the success of aggressive tactics which stemmed from Mahanian doctrine and the concept of decisive battle, Japan did not invest significantly in capabilities needed to protect its long shipping lines against enemy submarines, particularly under-investing in the vital area of antisubmarine warfare (both escort ships and escort carriers), and in the specialized training and organization to support it. Imperial Japan's reluctance to use its submarine fleet for commerce raiding and failure to secure its communications also hastened its defeat. The IJN launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, killing 2,403 Americans and crippling the U.S. Pacific Fleet. During the first six months of the Pacific War, the IJN enjoyed spectacular success inflicting heavy defeats on Allied forces. Allied navies were devastated during the Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia. Japanese naval aircraft were also responsible for the sinkings of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse which was the first time that capital ships were sunk by aerial attack while underway. In April 1942, the Indian Ocean raid drove the Royal Navy from South East Asia. After these successes, the IJN now concentrated on the elimination and neutralization of strategic points from where the Allies could launch counteroffensives against Japanese conquests. However, at Coral Sea the Japanese were forced to abandon their attempts to isolate Australia while the defeat in the Midway Campaign saw the Japanese forced on the defensive. The campaign in the Solomon Islands, in which the Japanese lost the war of attrition, was the most decisive; the Japanese failed to commit enough forces in sufficient time. During 1943 the Allies were able to reorganize their forces and American industrial strength began to turn the tide of the war. American forces ultimately managed to gain the upper hand through a vastly greater industrial output and a modernization of its air and naval forces. In 1943, the Japanese also turned their attention to the defensive perimeters of their previous conquests. Forces on Japanese held islands in Micronesia were to absorb and wear down an expected American counteroffensive. However, American industrial power become apparent and the military forces that faced the Japanese in 1943 were overwhelming in firepower and equipment. From the end of 1943 to 1944 Japan's defensive perimeter failed to hold. The defeat at the Philippine Sea was a disaster for Japanese naval air power with American pilots terming the slanted air/sea battle the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot, mostly going in the favor of the U.S., while the battle of Leyte Gulf led to the destruction of a large part of the surface fleet. During the last phase of the war, the Imperial Japanese Navy resorted to a series of desperate measures, including a variety of Special Attack Units which were popularly called kamikaze. By May 1945, most of the Imperial Japanese Navy had been sunk and the remnants had taken refuge in Japan's harbors. By July 1945, the Nagato was the only remaining ship of the Imperial Japanese Navy's capital ships that had not been sunk in raids by the United States Navy. Legacy Self-Defense Forces Following Japan's surrender and subsequent occupation by the Allies at the conclusion of World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy was dissolved in 1945. In the new constitution of Japan which was drawn up in 1947, Article 9 specifies that "The Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes." The prevalent view in Japan is that this article allows for military forces to be kept for the purposes of self-defense. Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution In 1952, the Coastal Safety Force was formed within the Maritime Safety Agency, incorporating the minesweeping fleet and other military vessels, mainly destroyers, given by the United States. In 1954, the Coastal Safety Force was separated, and the JMSDF was formally created as the naval branch of the Japanese Self-Defense Force (JSDF), following the passage of the 1954 Self-Defense Forces Law. Japan's current navy falls under the umbrella of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) as the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). See also Admiral of the Fleet (Japan) Carrier Striking Task Force Control Faction and Imperial Way Faction – Army political groups about government reform Fleet Faction and Treaty Faction – Navy political groups about naval treaties Imperial Japanese Naval Academy Imperial Japanese Navy Armor Units Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation Bureau Imperial Japanese Navy bases and facilities Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors Japanese nationalism Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces Kaientai List of Japanese Navy ships and war vessels in World War II List of weapons of the Japanese Navy Marshal (Japan) May 15 Incident – coup d'état with Navy support Recruitment in the Imperial Japanese Navy "Strike South" and "Strike North" Doctrines Tokkeitai – Navy Military Police Tomogashima Notes References Howe, Christopher (1996) The origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy, Development and technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War, The University of Chicago Press Ireland, Bernard (1996) Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century Lyon, D.J. (1976) World War II warships, Excalibur Books Further reading Boxer, C.R. (1993) The Christian Century in Japan 1549–1650, Delorme, Pierre, Les Grandes Batailles de l'Histoire, Port-Arthur 1904, Socomer Editions (French) Gardiner, Robert (editor) (2001) Steam, Steel and Shellfire, The Steam Warship 1815–1905, Nagazumi, Yōko (永積洋子) Red Seal Ships (朱印船), (Japanese) Polak, Christian. (2001). Soie et lumières: L'âge d'or des échanges franco-japonais (des origines aux années 1950). Tokyo: Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Française du Japon, Hachette Fujin Gahōsha (アシェット婦人画報社). Polak, Christian. (2002). 絹と光: 知られざる日仏交流100年の歴史 (江戶時代-1950年代) Kinu to hikariō: shirarezaru Nichi-Futsu kōryū 100-nen no rekishi (Edo jidai-1950-nendai). Tokyo: Ashetto Fujin Gahōsha, 2002. ; Seki, Eiji. (2006). Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. London: Global Oriental. (cloth) [reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2007 – previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation.] Tōgō Shrine and Tōgō Association (東郷神社・東郷会), Togo Heihachiro in images, illustrated Meiji Navy (図説東郷平八郎、目で見る明治の海軍), (Japanese) Japanese submarines 潜水艦大作戦, Jinbutsu publishing (新人物従来社) (Japanese) External links Axis History Factbook – Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) Nobunaga's ironclad navy Hiroshi Nishida's IJN site Imperial Japanese Navy page Imperial Japanese Navy Awards of the Golden Kite in World War 2, a Note Imperial Japanese Navy in World War 1, 1914–18 including warship losses Disbanded navies Empire of Japan Military of the Empire of Japan . 1869 establishments in Japan 1945 disestablishments in Japan Japanese Navy Japanese Navy Attack on Pearl Harbor Naval history of World War II Articles containing video clips	[ -0.0032069419976323843, -0.414927214384079, -0.6526360511779785, 0.2500587999820709, 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236105	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest%20common%20subsequence%20problem	Longest common subsequence problem	The longest common subsequence (LCS) problem is the problem of finding the longest subsequence common to all sequences in a set of sequences (often just two sequences). It differs from the longest common substring problem: unlike substrings, subsequences are not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences. The longest common subsequence problem is a classic computer science problem, the basis of data comparison programs such as the diff utility, and has applications in computational linguistics and bioinformatics. It is also widely used by revision control systems such as Git for reconciling multiple changes made to a revision-controlled collection of files. For example, consider the sequences (ABCD) and (ACBAD). They have 5 length-2 common subsequences: (AB), (AC), (AD), (BD), and (CD); 2 length-3 common subsequences: (ABD) and (ACD); and no longer common subsequences. So (ABD) and (ACD) are their longest common subsequences. Complexity For the general case of an arbitrary number of input sequences, the problem is NP-hard. When the number of sequences is constant, the problem is solvable in polynomial time by dynamic programming. Given sequences of lengths , a naive search would test each of the subsequences of the first sequence to determine whether they are also subsequences of the remaining sequences; each subsequence may be tested in time linear in the lengths of the remaining sequences, so the time for this algorithm would be For the case of two sequences of n and m elements, the running time of the dynamic programming approach is O(n × m). For an arbitrary number of input sequences, the dynamic programming approach gives a solution in There exist methods with lower complexity, which often depend on the length of the LCS, the size of the alphabet, or both. The LCS is not necessarily unique; in the worst case, the number of common subsequences is exponential in the lengths of the inputs, so the algorithmic complexity must be at least exponential. Solution for two sequences The LCS problem has an optimal substructure: the problem can be broken down into smaller, simpler subproblems, which can, in turn, be broken down into simpler subproblems, and so on, until, finally, the solution becomes trivial. LCS in particular has overlapping subproblems: the solutions to high-level subproblems often reuse solutions to lower level subproblems. Problems with these two properties are amenable to dynamic programming approaches, in which subproblem solutions are memoized, that is, the solutions of subproblems are saved for reuse. Prefixes The prefix Sn of S is defined as the first n characters of S. For example, the prefixes of S = (AGCA) are S0 = () S1 = (A) S2 = (AG) S3 = (AGC) S4 = (AGCA). Let LCS(X, Y) be a function that computes a longest subsequence common to X and Y. Such a function has two interesting properties. First property LCS(X^A,Y^A) = LCS(X,Y)^A, for all strings X, Y and all symbols A, where ^ denotes string concatenation. This allows one to simplify the LCS computation for two sequences ending in the same symbol. For example, LCS("BANANA","ATANA") = LCS("BANAN","ATAN")^"A", Continuing for the remaining common symbols, LCS("BANANA","ATANA") = LCS("BAN","AT")^"ANA". Second property If A and B are distinct symbols (A≠B), then LCS(X^A,Y^B) is one of the maximal-length strings in the set { LCS(X^A,Y), LCS(X,Y^B) }, for all strings X, Y. For example, LCS("ABCDEFG","BCDGK") is the longest string among LCS("ABCDEFG","BCDG") and LCS("ABCDEF","BCDGK"); if both happened to be of equal length, one of them could be chosen arbitrarily. To realize the property, distinguish two cases: If LCS("ABCDEFG","BCDGK") ends with a "G", then the final "K" cannot be in the LCS, hence LCS("ABCDEFG","BCDGK") = LCS("ABCDEFG","BCDG"). If LCS("ABCDEFG","BCDGK") does not end with a "G", then the final "G" cannot be in the LCS, hence LCS("ABCDEFG","BCDGK") = LCS("ABCDEF","BCDGK"). LCS function defined Let two sequences be defined as follows: and . The prefixes of are ; the prefixes of are . Let represent the set of longest common subsequence of prefixes and . This set of sequences is given by the following. To find the LCS of and , compare and . If they are equal, then the sequence is extended by that element, . If they are not equal, then the longest among the two sequences, , and , is retained. (If they are the same length, but not identical, then both are retained.) Worked example The longest subsequence common to R = (GAC), and C = (AGCAT) will be found. Because the LCS function uses a "zeroth" element, it is convenient to define zero prefixes that are empty for these sequences: R0 = Ø; and C0 = Ø. All the prefixes are placed in a table with C in the first row (making it a column header) and R in the first column (making it a row header). This table is used to store the LCS sequence for each step of the calculation. The second column and second row have been filled in with Ø, because when an empty sequence is compared with a non-empty sequence, the longest common subsequence is always an empty sequence. LCS(R1, C1) is determined by comparing the first elements in each sequence. G and A are not the same, so this LCS gets (using the "second property") the longest of the two sequences, LCS(R1, C0) and LCS(R0, C1). According to the table, both of these are empty, so LCS(R1, C1) is also empty, as shown in the table below. The arrows indicate that the sequence comes from both the cell above, LCS(R0, C1) and the cell on the left, LCS(R1, C0). LCS(R1, C2) is determined by comparing G and G. They match, so G is appended to the upper left sequence, LCS(R0, C1), which is (Ø), giving (ØG), which is (G). For LCS(R1, C3), G and C do not match. The sequence above is empty; the one to the left contains one element, G. Selecting the longest of these, LCS(R1, C3) is (G). The arrow points to the left, since that is the longest of the two sequences. LCS(R1, C4), likewise, is (G). LCS(R1, C5), likewise, is (G). For LCS(R2, C1), A is compared with A. The two elements match, so A is appended to Ø, giving (A). For LCS(R2, C2), A and G do not match, so the longest of LCS(R1, C2), which is (G), and LCS(R2, C1), which is (A), is used. In this case, they each contain one element, so this LCS is given two subsequences: (A) and (G). For LCS(R2, C3), A does not match C. LCS(R2, C2) contains sequences (A) and (G); LCS(R1, C3) is (G), which is already contained in LCS(R2, C2). The result is that LCS(R2, C3) also contains the two subsequences, (A) and (G). For LCS(R2, C4), A matches A, which is appended to the upper left cell, giving (GA). For LCS(R2, C5), A does not match T. Comparing the two sequences, (GA) and (G), the longest is (GA), so LCS(R2, C5) is (GA). For LCS(R3, C1), C and A do not match, so LCS(R3, C1) gets the longest of the two sequences, (A). For LCS(R3, C2), C and G do not match. Both LCS(R3, C1) and LCS(R2, C2) have one element. The result is that LCS(R3, C2) contains the two subsequences, (A) and (G). For LCS(R3, C3), C and C match, so C is appended to LCS(R2, C2), which contains the two subsequences, (A) and (G), giving (AC) and (GC). For LCS(R3, C4), C and A do not match. Combining LCS(R3, C3), which contains (AC) and (GC), and LCS(R2, C4), which contains (GA), gives a total of three sequences: (AC), (GC), and (GA). Finally, for LCS(R3, C5), C and T do not match. The result is that LCS(R3, C5) also contains the three sequences, (AC), (GC), and (GA). The final result is that the last cell contains all the longest subsequences common to (AGCAT) and (GAC); these are (AC), (GC), and (GA). The table also shows the longest common subsequences for every possible pair of prefixes. For example, for (AGC) and (GA), the longest common subsequence are (A) and (G). Traceback approach Calculating the LCS of a row of the LCS table requires only the solutions to the current row and the previous row. Still, for long sequences, these sequences can get numerous and long, requiring a lot of storage space. Storage space can be saved by saving not the actual subsequences, but the length of the subsequence and the direction of the arrows, as in the table below. The actual subsequences are deduced in a "traceback" procedure that follows the arrows backwards, starting from the last cell in the table. When the length decreases, the sequences must have had a common element. Several paths are possible when two arrows are shown in a cell. Below is the table for such an analysis, with numbers colored in cells where the length is about to decrease. The bold numbers trace out the sequence, (GA). Relation to other problems For two strings and , the length of the shortest common supersequence is related to the length of the LCS by The edit distance when only insertion and deletion is allowed (no substitution), or when the cost of the substitution is the double of the cost of an insertion or deletion, is: Code for the dynamic programming solution Computing the length of the LCS The function below takes as input sequences X[1..m] and Y[1..n], computes the LCS between X[1..i] and Y[1..j] for all 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n, and stores it in C[i,j]. C[m,n] will contain the length of the LCS of X and Y. function LCSLength(X[1..m], Y[1..n]) C = array(0..m, 0..n) for i := 0..m C[i,0] = 0 for j := 0..n C[0,j] = 0 for i := 1..m for j := 1..n if X[i] = Y[j] C[i,j] := C[i-1,j-1] + 1 else C[i,j] := max(C[i,j-1], C[i-1,j]) return C[m,n] Alternatively, memoization could be used. Example in C# static int LcsLength(string a, string b) { int m = a.Length; int n = b.Length; int[,] C = new int[m + 1, n + 1]; for (int i = 0; i <= m; i++) C[i, 0] = 0; for (int j = 0; j <= n; j++) C[0, j] = 0; for (int i = 1; i <= m; i++) for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++) { if (a[i - 1] == b[j - 1]) C[i, j] = C[i - 1, j - 1] + 1; else C[i, j] = Math.Max(C[i, j - 1], C[i - 1, j]); } return C[m, n]; } Reading out a LCS The following function backtracks the choices taken when computing the C table. If the last characters in the prefixes are equal, they must be in an LCS. If not, check what gave the largest LCS of keeping and , and make the same choice. Just choose one if they were equally long. Call the function with i=m and j=n. function backtrack(C[0..m,0..n], X[1..m], Y[1..n], i, j) if i = 0 or j = 0 return "" if X[i] = Y[j] return backtrack(C, X, Y, i-1, j-1) + X[i] if C[i,j-1] > C[i-1,j] return backtrack(C, X, Y, i, j-1) return backtrack(C, X, Y, i-1, j) Example in C# string Backtrack(int[,] C, char[] aStr, char[] bStr, int x, int y) { if (x == 0 \| y == 0) return ""; if (aStr[x - 1] == bStr[y - 1]) // x-1, y-1 return backtrack(C, aStr, bStr, x - 1, y - 1) + aStr[x - 1]; // x-1 if (C[x, y - 1] > C[x - 1, y]) return backtrack(C, aStr, bStr, x, y - 1); return backtrack(C, aStr, bStr, x - 1, y); } Reading out all LCSs If choosing and would give an equally long result, read out both resulting subsequences. This is returned as a set by this function. Notice that this function is not polynomial, as it might branch in almost every step if the strings are similar. function backtrackAll(C[0..m,0..n], X[1..m], Y[1..n], i, j) if i = 0 or j = 0 return {""} if X[i] = Y[j] return {Z + X[i] for all Z in backtrackAll(C, X, Y, i-1, j-1)} R := {} if C[i,j-1] ≥ C[i-1,j] R := backtrackAll(C, X, Y, i, j-1) if C[i-1,j] ≥ C[i,j-1] R := R ∪ backtrackAll(C, X, Y, i-1, j) return R Print the diff This function will backtrack through the C matrix, and print the diff between the two sequences. Notice that you will get a different answer if you exchange ≥ and <, with > and ≤ below. function printDiff(C[0..m,0..n], X[1..m], Y[1..n], i, j) if i >= 0 and j >= 0 and X[i] = Y[j] printDiff(C, X, Y, i-1, j-1) print " " + X[i] else if j > 0 and (i = 0 or C[i,j-1] ≥ C[i-1,j]) printDiff(C, X, Y, i, j-1) print "+ " + Y[j] else if i > 0 and (j = 0 or C[i,j-1] < C[i-1,j]) printDiff(C, X, Y, i-1, j) print "- " + X[i] else print "" Example Let be “XMJYAUZ” and be “MZJAWXU”. The longest common subsequence between and is “MJAU”. The table C shown below, which is generated by the function LCSLength, shows the lengths of the longest common subsequences between prefixes of and . The th row and th column shows the length of the LCS between and . The highlighted numbers show the path the function backtrack would follow from the bottom right to the top left corner, when reading out an LCS. If the current symbols in and are equal, they are part of the LCS, and we go both up and left (shown in bold). If not, we go up or left, depending on which cell has a higher number. This corresponds to either taking the LCS between and , or and . Code optimization Several optimizations can be made to the algorithm above to speed it up for real-world cases. Reduce the problem set The C matrix in the naive algorithm grows quadratically with the lengths of the sequences. For two 100-item sequences, a 10,000-item matrix would be needed, and 10,000 comparisons would need to be done. In most real-world cases, especially source code diffs and patches, the beginnings and ends of files rarely change, and almost certainly not both at the same time. If only a few items have changed in the middle of the sequence, the beginning and end can be eliminated. This reduces not only the memory requirements for the matrix, but also the number of comparisons that must be done. function LCS(X[1..m], Y[1..n]) start := 1 m_end := m n_end := n trim off the matching items at the beginning while start ≤ m_end and start ≤ n_end and X[start] = Y[start] start := start + 1 trim off the matching items at the end while start ≤ m_end and start ≤ n_end and X[m_end] = Y[n_end] m_end := m_end - 1 n_end := n_end - 1 C = array(start-1..m_end, start-1..n_end) only loop over the items that have changed for i := start..m_end for' j := start..n_end the algorithm continues as before ...'' In the best-case scenario, a sequence with no changes, this optimization would eliminate the need for the C matrix. In the worst-case scenario, a change to the very first and last items in the sequence, only two additional comparisons are performed. Reduce the comparison time Most of the time taken by the naive algorithm is spent performing comparisons between items in the sequences. For textual sequences such as source code, you want to view lines as the sequence elements instead of single characters. This can mean comparisons of relatively long strings for each step in the algorithm. Two optimizations can be made that can help to reduce the time these comparisons consume. Reduce strings to hashes A hash function or checksum can be used to reduce the size of the strings in the sequences. That is, for source code where the average line is 60 or more characters long, the hash or checksum for that line might be only 8 to 40 characters long. Additionally, the randomized nature of hashes and checksums would guarantee that comparisons would short-circuit faster, as lines of source code will rarely be changed at the beginning. There are three primary drawbacks to this optimization. First, an amount of time needs to be spent beforehand to precompute the hashes for the two sequences. Second, additional memory needs to be allocated for the new hashed sequences. However, in comparison to the naive algorithm used here, both of these drawbacks are relatively minimal. The third drawback is that of collisions. Since the checksum or hash is not guaranteed to be unique, there is a small chance that two different items could be reduced to the same hash. This is unlikely in source code, but it is possible. A cryptographic hash would therefore be far better suited for this optimization, as its entropy is going to be significantly greater than that of a simple checksum. However, the benefits may not be worth the setup and computational requirements of a cryptographic hash for small sequence lengths. Reduce the required space If only the length of the LCS is required, the matrix can be reduced to a matrix with ease, or to a vector (smarter) as the dynamic programming approach only needs the current and previous columns of the matrix. Hirschberg's algorithm allows the construction of the optimal sequence itself in the same quadratic time and linear space bounds. Further optimized algorithms Several algorithms exist that run faster than the presented dynamic programming approach. One of them is Hunt–Szymanski algorithm, which typically runs in time (for ), where is the number of matches between the two sequences. For problems with a bounded alphabet size, the Method of Four Russians can be used to reduce the running time of the dynamic programming algorithm by a logarithmic factor. Behavior on random strings Beginning with , a number of researchers have investigated the behavior of the longest common subsequence length when the two given strings are drawn randomly from the same alphabet. When the alphabet size is constant, the expected length of the LCS is proportional to the length of the two strings, and the constants of proportionality (depending on alphabet size) are known as the Chvátal–Sankoff constants. Their exact values are not known, but upper and lower bounds on their values have been proven, and it is known that they grow inversely proportionally to the square root of the alphabet size. Simplified mathematical models of the longest common subsequence problem have been shown to be controlled by the Tracy–Widom distribution. See also Longest increasing subsequence Longest alternating subsequence Levenshtein distance References External links Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: longest common subsequence A collection of implementations of the longest common subsequence in many programming languages Find Longest Common Subsequence in Python Problems on strings Combinatorics Dynamic programming Polynomial-time problems NP-complete problems	[ -0.808014452457428, -0.050726331770420074, -0.09800464659929276, -0.07604088634252548, 0.31472522020339966, 0.07914285361766815, -0.015352326445281506, 0.08606663346290588, -0.676899790763855, -0.47206515073776245, -0.5440124273300171, 0.061862342059612274, -0.37377020716667175, 0.3565995693206787, 0.254555344581604, 0.6844314932823181, 0.6606646180152893, 0.3530600666999817, -0.32289034128189087, -0.5662514567375183, 0.2726507782936096, 0.4054453372955322, 0.08114014565944672, -0.642661452293396, 0.16056707501411438, -0.19772160053253174, -0.3861142694950104, 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236106	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rites%20of%20Spring	Rites of Spring	Rites of Spring was an American post-hardcore band from Washington, D.C., formed in late 1983. Along with Embrace, and Beefeater, they were one of the mainstay acts of the 1985 Revolution Summer movement which took place within the Washington, D.C. hardcore punk scene. Musically, Rites of Spring increased the frenetic violence and visceral passion of hardcore punk while simultaneously experimenting with its compositional rules. Lyrically, they also shifted hardcore into intensely personal realms and, in doing so, are often considered the first emo band, but the band itself rejected any association between themselves and the emo label. The band only performed 19 shows, 16 in the DC area and 3 outside of DC. Vocalist/guitarist Guy Picciotto and drummer Brendan Canty went on to play in Fugazi with producer and former Minor Threat singer Ian MacKaye in the late 1980s, while bassist Mike Fellows formed Miighty Flashlight and has had a solo career. History Picciotto, Canty, and Fellows had previously played together in the short-lived hardcore band Insurrection. The trio was joined by guitarist Eddie Janney—formerly of the Faith, Skewbald, and the Untouchables—and began writing music together in December 1983. The band finished several songs during this early period, like "All There Is," "End on End," and "By Design." The group made a demo recording at Inner Ear Studios in April 1984, but Fellows moved to California. "We thought he was leaving forever," Picciotto recalled. "And then we just kept practicing without him, hoping he'd come back. Lo and behold, three months later, he returned." AllMusic's Matt Kantor described the band's music as being at times "fast and furious" while also being "at other times lush and evocative though always with a sense of drive and melody." Though rooted in the loud-and-fast style of hardcore punk, Rites of Spring is to be among the first bands who played music in the emotional hardcore genre, or what is now commonly and retrospectively called emo-core, a precursor of screamo. Jenny Toomey notes that, "Rites of Spring existed well before the term did and they hated it." They were influenced by The Faith (Eddie Janney's previous band) and their 1983 EP Subject to Change with their introspective lyrics and angry, melody-tinged songwriting. The band is named after the symphonic ballet The Rite of Spring by Igor Stravinsky. "We were reading about Stravinsky and the first [performance] where everybody beat each other on the head," Picciotto explained. "Whenever you fuck with someone musically and they take their music really serious, they're gonna fuck with you back." Picciotto also said the band chose the name to reflect their desire to revive the D.C. punk scene. "We were trying to create a rebirth of what's going on here," he said. "It seemed to be stagnating for a long time and we just thought the name kind of fit the way we felt, a springtime type thing." Recordings Rites of Spring was the band’s eponymous debut album from 1985. Its twelve songs were recorded at Inner Ear Studios in February 1985, produced by Ian MacKaye of Fugazi and Minor Threat and Michael Hampton of The Faith and SOA. It was released on vinyl in June of that year as Dischord Records No. 16. The album was re-released on CD and cassette in 1987, with an additional track from the same session, "Other Way Around," as well as the four songs from the Rites' follow-up EP, All Through a Life, Dischord No. 22. The CD and cassette originally retained the number "16" while the 1991 repress, as well as the 2001 remastered version of the same seventeen songs, were numbered "16CD" and given the new title End on End. Their first demo of six songs was recorded in April of 1984, almost a year before the sessions that became their debut album. It was released as a CD EP and 10" vinyl record in 2012 on Dischord Records with the catalog number 176. The band broke up in January 1986 soon after the sessions that produced the "All Through A Life" recording. Post-breakup and musical influence Picciotto, Janney and Canty formed One Last Wish with Embrace alumnus, guitarist Michael Hampton. They recorded one studio album, entitled 1986, which was released in 1999 due to the band breaking up after mixing was finished. The Rites of Spring personnel reunited for a quasi-reincarnation called Happy Go Licky, releasing an LP/CD of various live concert recordings though never producing any studio work. The music was much more experimental than Rites of Spring, heavily improvised and featuring tape loop effects. Picciotto and Canty eventually teamed up with bassist Joe Lally and former Minor Threat, Skewbald/Grand Union, Egg Hunt, and Embrace singer Ian MacKaye (co-owner of the band’s label, Dischord Records) in Fugazi. Mike Fellows went on to do session work for the Drag City label and form Miighty Flashlight, releasing an eponymous album under this name in 2002. Picciotto himself doesn't recognize the attribution of having "created" emo. When asked about it in an interview his response was, "I've never recognized 'emo' as a genre of music. I always thought it was the most retarded term ever. I know there is this generic commonplace that every band that gets labeled with that term hates it. They feel scandalized by it. But honestly, I just thought that all the bands I played in were punk rock bands. The reason I think it's so stupid is that - what, like the Bad Brains weren't emotional? What - they were robots or something? It just doesn't make any sense to me." Dischord released the band's only demo, entitled Six Song Demo, in October 2012. All tracks on the demo were previously recorded versions of songs appearing on the Rites of Spring album. Members Guy Picciotto – guitar, vocals Edward Janney – guitar Mike Fellows – bass guitar Brendan Canty – drums Discography Studio album Rites of Spring (1985) EP All Through a Life (1987) Compilation End on End (1991) Demo Six Song Demo (2012) See also Revolution Summer References External links Pattison, Louis (November 27, 2012). "Rites of Spring and the summer that changed punk rock". The Guardian. American emo musical groups Hardcore punk groups from Washington, D.C. 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236109	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20de%20la%20Pole%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Suffolk	William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk	William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, (16 October 13962 May 1450), nicknamed Jackanapes, was an English magnate, statesman, and military commander during the Hundred Years' War. He became a favourite of the weak king Henry VI of England, and consequently a leading figure in the English government where he became associated with many of the royal government's failures of the time, particularly on the war in France. Suffolk also appears prominently in Shakespeare's Henry VI, parts 1 and 2. He fought in the Hundred Years' War and participated in campaigns of Henry V, and then continued to serve in France for King Henry VI. He was one of the English commanders at the failed Siege of Orléans. He favoured a diplomatic rather than military solution to the deteriorating situation in France, a stance which would later resonate well with King Henry VI. Suffolk became a dominant figure in the government, and was at the forefront of the main policies conducted during the period. He played a central role in organizing the Treaty of Tours (1444), and arranged the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. At the end of Suffolk's political career he was accused of maladministration by many and forced into exile. At sea on his way out, he was caught by an angry mob, subjected to a mock trial, and beheaded. His estates were forfeited to the crown but later restored to his only son, John. His political successor was the Duke of Somerset. Biography William de la Pole was born in Cotton, Suffolk, the second son of Michael de la Pole, 2nd Earl of Suffolk by his wife Katherine de Stafford, daughter of Hugh de Stafford, 2nd Earl of Stafford, KG, and Philippa de Beauchamp. Almost continually engaged in the wars in France, he was seriously wounded during the Siege of Harfleur (1415), where his father died from dysentery. Later that year his older brother Michael, 3rd Earl of Suffolk, was killed at the Battle of Agincourt, and William succeeded as 4th Earl. He served in all the later French campaigns of the reign of Henry V, and in spite of his youth held high command on the marches of Normandy in 1421–22. In 1423 he joined Thomas, Earl of Salisbury in Champagne. He fought under John, Duke of Bedford, at the Battle of Verneuil on 17 August 1424, and throughout the next four years was Salisbury's chief lieutenant in the direction of the war. He became co-commander of the English forces at the Siege of Orléans (1429), after the death of Salisbury. When the city was relieved by Joan of Arc in 1429, he managed a retreat to Jargeau where he was forced to surrender on 12 June. He was captured by a French squire named . Admiring the young soldier's bravery, the earl decided to knight him before surrendering. This dubbing has remained famous in French history and literature and has been recounted by the writer Alexandre Dumas. He remained a prisoner of Charles VII of France for three years, and was ransomed in 1431, after fourteen years' continuous field service. After his return to the Kingdom of England in 1434 he was made Constable of Wallingford Castle. He became a courtier and a close ally of Cardinal Henry Beaufort. Despite the diplomatic failure of the Congress of Arras, the cardinal's authority remained strong and Suffolk gained increasing influence. His most notable accomplishment in this period was negotiating the marriage of King Henry VI with Margaret of Anjou in 1444, which he achieved despite initial reluctance, and included a two years' truce. This earned him a promotion from Earl to Marquess of Suffolk. However, a secret clause was put in the agreement which gave Maine and Anjou back to France, which was partly to cause his downfall. His own marriage took place on 11 November 1430 (date of licence), to (as her third husband) Alice Chaucer (1404–1475), daughter of Thomas Chaucer of Ewelme, Oxfordshire, and granddaughter of the notable poet Geoffrey Chaucer and his wife, Philippa Roet. With the deaths in 1447 of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (shortly after his arrest for treason), and Cardinal Beaufort, Suffolk became the principal power behind the throne of the weak and compliant Henry VI. In short order he was appointed Chamberlain, Admiral of England, and to several other important offices. He was created Earl of Pembroke in 1447, and Duke of Suffolk in 1448. However, Suffolk was suspected of responsibility in Humphrey's death, and later of being a traitor. On 16 July [what year??] he met in secret with Jean, Count de Dunois, at his mansion of the Rose in Candlewick street, the first of several meetings in London at which they planned a French invasion. Suffolk passed Council minutes to Dunois, the French hero of the Siege of Orleans. It was rumoured that Suffolk never paid his ransom of £20,000 owed to Dunois. The Lord Treasurer, Ralph Cromwell, wanted heavy taxes from Suffolk; the duke's powerful enemies included John Paston and Sir John Fastolf. Many blamed Suffolk's retainers for lawlessness in East Anglia. The following three years saw the near-complete loss of the English possessions in northern France (Rouen, Normandy etc.). Suffolk could not avoid taking the blame for these failures, partly because of the loss of Maine and Anjou through his marriage negotiations regarding Henry VI. When parliament met in November 1449, the opposition showed its strength by forcing the treasurer, Adam Moleyns, to resign. Molyens was murdered by sailors at Portsmouth on 9 January 1450. Suffolk, realizing that an attack on himself was inevitable, boldly challenged his enemies in parliament, appealing to the long and honourable record of his public services. However, on 28 January he was arrested, imprisoned in the Tower of London and impeached in parliament by the Commons. The King intervened to protect his favourite, who was banished for five years, but on his journey to Calais his ship was intercepted by the ship Nicholas of the Tower. Suffolk was captured, subjected to a mock trial, and executed by beheading. He was later found on the sands near Dover, and the body was probably brought to a church in Suffolk, possibly Wingfield. He was interred in the Carthusian Priory in Hull by his widow Alice, as was his wish, and not in the church at Wingfield, as is often stated. The Priory, founded in 1377 by his grandfather the first Earl of Suffolk, was dissolved in 1539, and most of the original buildings did not survive the two Civil War sieges of Hull in 1642 and 1643. Descendants Suffolk's only known legitimate son, John, became the second Duke of Suffolk in 1463. Suffolk also fathered an illegitimate daughter, Jane de la Pole. Her mother is said to have been a nun, Malyne de Cay. "The nighte before that he was yolden [yielded himself up in surrender to the Franco-Scottish forces of Joan of Arc on 12 June 1429] he laye in bed with a nonne whom he toke oute of holy profession and defouled, whose name was Malyne de Cay, by whom he gate a daughter, now married to Stonard of Oxonfordshire". Jane de la Pole (died 28 February 1494) was married before 1450 to Thomas Stonor (1423–1474), of Stonor in Pyrton, Oxfordshire. Their son Sir William Stonor, Kt, was married to Anne Neville, daughter of John, Marquess of Montagu and had two children: John Neville, married to Mary Fortesque, daughter of Sir John Fortesque of Punsburn, Hereford, but died without issue; and Anne Stonor, married to Sir Adrian Fortesque, who distinguished himself at the Battle of the Spurs; he was beheaded in 1539. Thomas Stonor and Jane de la Pole's two other sons were Edward and Thomas. Thomas Stoner married Savilla Brecknock, daughter of Sir David Brecknock. His great-great-grandson Thomas Stoner (18 December 16262 September 1683) married in 1651 Elizabeth Nevill (born 1641), daughter of Henry, Lord Bergavenny and his second wife Katherine Vaux, daughter of George Vaux and sister of Edward, Lord Vaux of Harrowden. Thomas's son John Stoner (22 March 165419 November 1689) married on 8 July 1675 Lady Mary Talbot, daughter of Francis, Earl of Shrewsbury and his wife Jane Conyers, daughter of Sir John Conyers. Jackanapes Suffolk's nickname "Jackanapes" came from "Jack of Naples", a slang name for a monkey at the time. This was probably due to his heraldic badge, which consisted of an "ape's clog", i.e. a wooden block chained to a pet monkey to prevent it escaping. The phrase "jackanape" later came to mean an impertinent or conceited person, due to the popular perception of Suffolk as a nouveau riche upstart; his great-grandfather had been a wool merchant from Hull. Portrayals in drama, verse and prose Suffolk is a major character in two Shakespeare plays. His negotiation of the marriage of Henry and Margaret is portrayed in Henry VI, Part 1. Shakespeare's version has Suffolk fall in love with Margaret. He negotiates the marriage so that he and she can be close to one another. His disgrace and death are depicted in Henry VI, Part 2. Shakespeare departs from the historical record by having Henry banish Suffolk for complicity in the murder of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. Suffolk is murdered by a pirate named Walter Whitmore (fulfilling a prophecy given earlier in the play proclaiming he will "die by Water"), and Margaret later wanders to her castle carrying his severed head and grieving. His murder is the subject of the traditional English folk ballad "Six Dukes Went a-Fishing" (Roud #78) Suffolk is the protagonist in Susan Curran's historical novel The Heron's Catch (1989). He plays a role in many of the seventeen Dame Frevisse detective novels of Margaret Frazer, set in England in the 1440s. Suffolk is a significant character in Cynthia Harnett's historical novel for children, The Writing on the Hearth (1971) Suffolk is one of the three dedicatees of Geoffrey Hill's sonnet sequence, "Funeral Music" (first published in Stand magazine; collected in King Log, Andre Deutsch 1968). Hill speculates about him in the essay appended to the poems. Suffolk is one of the main characters in Conn Iggulden's Wars of the Roses: Stormbird, about the end of the Hundred Years' War and the start of the Wars of the Roses. See also Battle of Jargeau Battle of Patay Battle of Cravant Siege of Montargis John and William Merfold Jack Cade Footnotes References Bibliography External links 1396 births 1450 deaths 15th-century English Navy personnel Lord High Admirals of England 101 William Earls of Pembroke Knights of the Garter People executed by decapitation People from Mid Suffolk District Holders of the Honour of Wallingford	[ -0.7994134426116943, -0.35235798358917236, 0.16886842250823975, -0.10410813242197037, -0.25244614481925964, 1.0001355409622192, 0.11953087896108627, -0.276734858751297, -0.46442103385925293, -0.10231196135282516, -0.1619648039340973, -0.14944733679294586, -0.37123435735702515, -0.01661888137459755, 0.14407384395599365, 0.32199108600616455, 0.023798784241080284, -0.1339593231678009, -0.13129357993602753, -0.45664462447166443, 0.19275657832622528, -0.1632707118988037, 0.2200261503458023, -0.14038527011871338, 0.4159506857395172, 0.16168668866157532, 0.7595303058624268, 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236114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordskog%20Records	Nordskog Records	Nordskog Records was a jazz record company and label founded by Andrae Nordskog in 1921 in Santa Monica, California. The label's recording studio and factory were in Los Angeles. It issued 27 double-sided discs. It had no pressing plant, so it contracted with Arto Records of Orange, New Jersey. Wax masters were shipped across country by railroad; many melted on the trip across the desert. By some accounts among the recordings lost were sessions by Jelly Roll Morton and King Oliver. Among the records which survived were the only recordings of Eva Tanguay, early sides by Abe Lyman's Orchestra, Henry Halstead's Orchestra, and a number of recordings by Kid Ory's band. The Ory sides were the first recorded jazz by an African American band from New Orleans. In 1923, Arto filed for bankruptcy. Nordskog sued for the return of some 80 unissued masters, with mothers and stampers then in Arto's possession, but failed to regain anything. Nordskog went out of business. The labels proclaim Nordskog records to be "The Golden-Voiced Records". See also List of record labels References External links Kid Ory’s Legendary Nordskog/Sunshine Recordings by Floyd Levin also includes some general information about the label and photos American record labels Record labels established in 1921 Record labels disestablished in 1923 Jazz record labels	[ -0.12095672637224197, 0.520745038986206, -0.07756879180669785, -0.009311657398939133, 0.039468780159950256, -0.35597166419029236, 0.1469276398420334, 0.16382461786270142, -0.4733564555644989, -0.14392684400081635, -0.06458839029073715, -0.24865758419036865, -0.4341754913330078, 0.38864338397979736, -0.07277962565422058, -0.2914123237133026, 0.31653615832328796, 0.2536327540874481, -0.3500840365886688, -0.7755905389785767, -0.05760565400123596, -0.46561166644096375, 0.18710386753082275, -0.19825249910354614, 0.05986344814300537, -0.3569753170013428, -0.26657530665397644, 0.4530661404132843, -0.34471455216407776, 0.1958693265914917, 0.35244524478912354, 0.5780268311500549, 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236116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Beaufort	John Beaufort	John Beaufort may refer to: John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset (c. 1373–1410) John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset (1403–1444) John Beaufort, Marquess of Dorset (c. 1455–1471) Jean J. Beaufort (1832–1897), known as John Joseph Beaufort, Union Army Medal of Honor recipient	[ -0.3212495446205139, -0.06135058030486107, -0.3603062331676483, 0.10576003044843674, -0.08856839686632156, 0.9416033625602722, 0.5125086307525635, -0.11704177409410477, -0.5501662492752075, -0.27356070280075073, 0.016286754980683327, -0.09503483027219772, -0.3506196439266205, 0.4232710301876068, -0.46612972021102905, 0.5643366575241089, 0.11595718562602997, 0.18016713857650757, 0.09847549349069595, -0.5644753575325012, 0.42181631922721863, -0.3326861560344696, -0.11371815204620361, 0.04532241076231003, 0.2604370415210724, 0.27248716354370117, 0.635974645614624, -0.33678945899009705, -0.09656592458486557, -0.10053102672100067, 0.03714338690042496, 0.48193103075027466, 0.46725013852119446, -0.06714732199907303, -0.2657924294471741, -0.4803634285926819, -0.08441042900085449, -0.12339193373918533, -0.027869688346982002, -0.09985776245594025, 0.29527750611305237, 0.17021960020065308, 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236118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Beaufort%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Somerset	John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset	John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, 3rd Earl of Somerset (25 March 140430 May 1444) was an English nobleman and military commander during the Hundred Years War. He was the maternal grandfather of Henry VII. Origins Born on 25 March 1404, he was the second son of John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset (1371-1410), the eldest of the four legitimized children of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, by his mistress Katherine Swynford. John of Gaunt was the third surviving son of King Edward III. His mother was Margaret Holland (1385-1439), a daughter of Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent, the son of Joan "the Fair Maid of Kent", a grand-daughter of King Edward I and wife of Edward the Black Prince (eldest brother of John of Gaunt) and mother of King Richard II Career In 1418 he became 3rd Earl of Somerset, having succeeded his elder brother Henry Beaufort, 2nd Earl of Somerset (1401-1418), who died unmarried, aged 17, whilst fighting for the Lancastrian cause at the Siege of Rouen in France, under the command of their uncle Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter (1377-1426). French Campaign & imprisonment He fought in the 1419 French campaigns of his cousin King Henry V. In 1421 he accompanied his step-father Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence (the king's younger brother) on a campaign in Anjou, France. Thomas was killed at the Battle of Baugé (22 March 1421), while Somerset and his younger brother were captured and imprisoned for 17 years. On 25 March 1425 Somerset came into his majority, but his paternal estates had to be managed by his mother for the next thirteen years of his imprisonment. He remained imprisoned until 1438 and having been ransomed, became one of the leading English commanders in France. Created Duke of Somerset In 1443 John was created Duke of Somerset and Earl of Kendal, was made a Knight of the Garter and appointed Captain-General of Guyenne. He presided over a period during which England lost much territory in France and proved a poor commander. Humphrey of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Gloucester, regent for the young King Henry VI, was unable to control the administration of justice and finance, which led to widespread lawlessness. At the beginning of the second lieutenantcy of Richard, Duke of York, Gloucester declined the office of Lieutenant-Governor, which was then accepted by Somerset, who drew from it a salary of 600 pounds. He was appointed Admiral of the Sea to the army commander John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, who from August 1440 besieged Harfleur, which had been in French hands for five months. King Charles VII of France sent a large army under Richemont. The English dug a double ditch rampart with only 1,000 men, while Somerset's squadron prevented a French landing by sea, using archers to pick off the enemy at short range. Having been thus frustrated the French withdrew to Paris and lifted the siege. The town surrendered to the English and was re-occupied. York was incensed that John's uncle Cardinal Henry Beaufort advised the king to sue for peace. Somerset advised King Henry that peace was humanitarian and that the king of France was determined to seize Pontoise. When York arrived in Normandy in 1441 to the campaign, Somerset had resigned. But the fall of Pontoise to Charles, Duke of Orléans in September 1441 weakened English garrisons and in Gascony the situation was even worse. The Beauforts sent Sir Edward Hull, who arrived at Bordeaux on 22 October 1442 to inform York that a huge army would arrive commanded by Somerset. York was ordered to fortify Rouen; just as the king and Dauphin of France were threatening Bordeaux and Aquitaine and seized the town of Dax Somerset dithered; York was held back as Guyenne was being lost. Meanwhile, the Duke of York, fighting alongside the tactician Lord Talbot, had been appointed Lieutenant for all France. With the Duke of Gloucester's wife Eleanor charged with treason, Somerset took the opportunity in April 1443 to declare himself Lieutenant of Aquitaine and Captain-General of Guyenne. By then, the negotiations Somerset had started as Captain-General of Calais had failed. These two factors turned York against the Beauforts. But the last straw was the payment of £25,000 to Somerset while York remained heavily in debt. Furthermore, Guyenne was consuming precious resources otherwise destined for Normandy. Death & burial In August 1443 Somerset led 7,000 men to Cherbourg and marched south to Gascony; the duke was ill. He blundered into Guerche, a Breton town with which England had signed a peace treaty. But Somerset set all prisoners free, accepting money from the Duke of Brittany. Marching aimlessly through Maine, he returned that winter to England. His death in 1444, possibly by suicide, and that of his uncle the Cardinal, marked the end of Beaufort influence and left the door open for William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, to dominate the government. The lasting effect of these events was burning resentment between the House of York and the remaining members of the Beaufort family. Marriage & issue In 1439 he married Margaret Beauchamp, a daughter of Sir John Beauchamp, de jure 3rd Baron Beauchamp (d.1412/14) of Bletsoe in Bedfordshire, by his second wife Edith Stourton, a daughter of Sir John Stourton of Stourton, Wiltshire. By his wife he had an only daughter and sole heiress: Lady Margaret Beaufort (1443–1509), who married Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond (1430-1456) by whom she was the mother of King Henry VII, the first of the Tudor dynasty. Succession As he died without male issue his dukedom went extinct but his earldom passed to his younger brother Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset (1406-1455). As Edmund was later granted the title Duke of Somerset, he is often called 2nd Duke of Somerset though he did not inherit the title from his brother. Illegitimate issue His illegitimate issue included: Tacine of Somerset, who being foreign-born was made a denizen of England 20 June 1443. She married (before 29 Sept. 1447) Reynold (or Reginald) Grey, 7th Lord Grey of Wilton by whom she had one son: John Grey, 8th Lord Grey of Wilton; John of Somerset (c.1444–1453) Titles and styles 1st Duke of Somerset (28 August 1443 – 27 May 1444) 1st Earl of Kendal (28 August 1443 – 27 May 1444) 3rd Earl of Somerset (25 November 1418 – 27 May 1444) Ancestry and family tree References Notes Further reading External links \|- 1404 births 1444 deaths John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset Burials at Wimborne Minster (church) 101 Earls of Kendal Earls of Somerset Knights of the Garter People of the Hundred Years' War	[ -0.8146692514419556, -0.42920002341270447, -0.4164251983165741, -0.13686132431030273, -0.007143028080463409, 1.0419585704803467, 0.5612174272537231, -0.3587990403175354, -0.1513359546661377, -0.233133003115654, -0.2524769902229309, 0.23917387425899506, -0.3611273169517517, 0.21049907803535461, -0.2866326570510864, 0.507856011390686, 0.3191741704940796, -0.3841549754142761, 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236120	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine%20Records%20%28United%20States%29	Sunshine Records (United States)	Sunshine Records was a small California-based record label of the early 1920s, producing 6 double-sided gramophone records of early jazz and blues. The labels of Sunshine Records say that they were "Manuf. by Spikes Bros. Phonograph Co. Inc. Los Angeles", but they were all actually manufactured by Nordskog Records, and also issued by Nordskog. Most Sunshine Records simply have the Sunshine label pasted over the Nordskog label. (It is believed that the labels were supposed to be pressed onto the records, but Arto Records, who pressed Nordskog's records, made this error.) The Spikes Brothers (John and Reb Spikes) were the owner/operators of a Los Angeles, California music store which catered to the city's African-American community. The Spikes Brothers also published sheet music both by themselves and other songwriters, mostly, they later recalled, to help draw attention to numbers they hoped to sell to national music publishers. The Spikes Brothers arranged with Nordskog to sell copies of records by African-American artists in their store on their own label. It is believed that all copies of the rare Sunshine Records were sold only at the Spikes Brothers Music Store. All of the Sunshine Records feature Kid Ory's New Orleans jazz band. Two sides are instrumentals by the band; on the rest Ory's group accompanies singers Roberta Dudley and Ruth Lee. 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236122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t%20Say%20a%20Word	Don't Say a Word	Don't Say a Word is a 2001 American psychological thriller film starring Michael Douglas, Brittany Murphy and Sean Bean based on the novel Don't Say a Word by Andrew Klavan. It was directed by Gary Fleder and written by Anthony Peckham and Patrick Smith Kelly. Plot In 1991, a gang of thieves steal a rare $10-million gem, but, in the process, two of the gang double-cross their leader, Patrick Koster, and take off with the precious stone. Ten years later, on the day before Thanksgiving, prominent Manhattan private practice child psychiatrist, Dr. Nathan R. Conrad, is invited by his friend and former colleague, Dr. Louis Sachs, to examine a "disturbed" young lady named Elisabeth Burrows at the state sanatorium. Having been released from prison two weeks earlier, Patrick and the remaining gang members break into an apartment which overlooks Nathan's apartment, where he lives with his wife Aggie and daughter Jessie. He is informed by Patrick that Elisabeth is only pretending to be insane to hide out in the institution from this gang that is searching for the gem. That evening, Patrick kidnaps Jessie as a means of forcing Nathan to acquire a six-digit number from Elisabeth's memory. As Nathan visits Elisabeth, she is reluctant at first, but he gains her trust laterespecially when he reveals the situation with Jessie. Sachs admits to Nathan that the gang who kidnapped Jessie also kidnapped his girlfriend to force him to acquire the number from Elisabeth. Sachs is then visited by Detective Sandra Cassidy, who reveals to him that his girlfriend has been found dead. Meanwhile, Aggie hears Jessie's voice and realizes the kidnappers reside in the nearby apartment. The kidnappers send one of them to kill Aggie while the others escape with Jessie, but Aggie sets an ambush and kills him. After Nathan takes Elisabeth out of the sanatorium, she remembers certain events regarding the gang. It is revealed that Elisabeth's father was the gang member who double crossed the others and kept the gem. However, other members of the gang later found him and ordered him to reveal where he had hidden the gem, subsequently pushing him in front of a subway train. The gang members were arrested immediately, and Elisabeth escaped with her doll in which the gem was hidden. She also remembers that the required number, 815508, is the number of her father's grave at Hart Island and that her doll is placed beside him in the coffin. She explains that she had stowed away on a boat that was taking her father's coffin for burial in Potter's field on Hart Island, where the gravediggers put the doll, named Mischka, inside. Nathan and Elisabeth steal a boat to reach Hart Island. The gang members track them down and demand that Nathan give them the number they want. Elisabeth reveals the number and Patrick orders his companion to exhume her father's coffin after releasing Jessie. He finds the doll and the gem hidden inside it. He then decides to kill Nathan and Elisabeth, but Cassidy arrives before he can shoot them. Patrick's companion is shot by Cassidy, but Patrick manages to wound her. Taking advantage of the confusion, Nathan takes the gem from Patrick and throws it to a nearby excavation machine. Nathan kicks Patrick into the grave, and then triggers the mechanism which covers Patrick with earth, burying him alive. Nathan reunites with Aggie and Jessie, and invites Elisabeth to live with them. Cast Production An earlier version of the script did not feature the investigation side-plot set around Detective Sandra Cassidy. Although the film is entirely set in New York, shooting took place in winter 2000 in both New York and Toronto. Due to the film's release nearly three weeks after the September 11 attacks, the filmmakers contemplated delaying the movie, but ultimately decided against it. However, they cut out and replaced shots of the World Trade Center from the edit, such as the opening shot, which now instead shows Brooklyn. Soundtrack The film's musical score was composed by Mark Isham. The soundtrack was released on cd from Varèse Sarabande that contains eight score selections from various scenes, including Heist, Kidnapped and the horrific events at Subway. 1 Heist 6:02 2 Elisabeth 4:40 3 Kidnapped 4:28 4 A Body 1:37 5 Hart Island 3:38 6 Subway 4:06 7 Mishka 3:13 8 A Family 3:24 Reception Critical response Don't Say a Word received poor reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 24% based on 114 reviews. The site's consensus states: "Don't Say a Word is slick and competently made, but the movie is routine and stretches believability with many eye rolling moments." Metacritic gives the film a generally unfavorable review with a score of 38% based on 32 reviews. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four, deeming that "the movie as a whole looks and occasionally plays better than it is" and praising Gary Fleder's "poetic visual touch" as well as Brittany Murphy's and Sky McCole Bartusiak's performances. Conversely, in his review for Empire, Kim Newman found the film bland and thought it "rarely manages to make you forget its blatant silliness". He did however praise the female cast, in particular Famke Janssen. Box office The film earned over $100 million worldwide against a budget of $50 million. References External links 2001 films English-language films 2001 crime thriller films 2001 psychological thriller films 2000s heist films 20th Century Fox films American films American crime thriller films American heist films American psychological thriller films Films about kidnapping Films about post-traumatic stress disorder Films based on American crime novels Films directed by Gary Fleder Films produced by Arnold Kopelson Films scored by Mark Isham Films set in 1991 Films set in 2001 Films set in Manhattan Films set in psychiatric hospitals Films shot in Toronto Impact of the September 11 attacks on cinema Italian-language films Regency Enterprises films Thanksgiving in films Village Roadshow Pictures films	[ 0.21407300233840942, 0.023271361365914345, -0.48705610632896423, -0.17717953026294708, -0.2616732716560364, 0.010439188219606876, 1.0174665451049805, 0.6631748676300049, -0.00493105361238122, 0.4323788285255432, 0.09510811418294907, 0.4277416467666626, -0.7346271276473999, 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236123	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilize%20%28Anti-Flag%20album%29	Mobilize (Anti-Flag album)	Mobilize is the fourth studio album by punk rock band Anti-Flag. It contains eight new studio tracks, and eight live songs. The album's live tracks were recorded at the Mr. Roboto Project, a cooperatively-organized and volunteer-run DIY venue in Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania (just outside Pittsburgh's city limits). Track listing All tracks written by Justin Sane except as noted. Live Songs (The first pressing contained a bonus compilation disc showcasing A-F records bands from 1998-2002.) Personnel Justin Sane - Guitar & Lead Vocals Chris Head - Guitar & Vocals Chris #2 - Bass & Lead Vocals Pat Thetic - Drums Spaz - Vocals on "Spaz's House Destruction Party"; he also appears after "Die For Your Government" with the band where he sings "Coz I Got High" and "Coz Pat Got High" Charts References 2002 albums A-F Records albums Anti-Flag albums	[ 0.18073616921901703, 0.12904590368270874, -0.14709167182445526, 0.013380791060626507, -0.7717437148094177, 0.5065542459487915, 0.6457548141479492, -0.20137226581573486, -0.002929230220615864, -0.5442994832992554, 0.29116129875183105, 0.3427753746509552, -0.727942168712616, 0.14219564199447632, 0.14327405393123627, 0.5341057181358337, -0.0832415223121643, 0.513397216796875, -0.264982670545578, -0.4405443072319031, 0.12871000170707703, 0.029499251395463943, 0.20653779804706573, 0.2100372612476349, -0.30165985226631165, 0.31932130455970764, 0.28604793548583984, 0.05348402261734009, -0.2833262085914612, 0.017402194440364838, 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236125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Taranaki%20War	Second Taranaki War	The Second Taranaki War is a term used by some historians for the period of hostilities between Māori and the New Zealand Government in the Taranaki district of New Zealand between 1863 and 1866. The term is avoided by some historians, who either describe the conflicts as merely a series of West Coast campaigns that took place between the Taranaki War (1860–1861) and Titokowaru's War (1868–69), or an extension of the First Taranaki War. The conflict, which overlapped the wars in Waikato and Tauranga, was fuelled by a combination of factors: lingering Māori resentment over the sale of land at Waitara in 1860 and government delays in resolving the issue; a large-scale land confiscation policy launched by the government in late 1863; and the rise of the so-called Hauhau movement, an extremist part of the Pai Marire syncretic religion, which was strongly opposed to the alienation of Māori land and eager to strengthen Māori identity. The Hauhau movement became a unifying factor for Taranaki Māori in the absence of individual Māori commanders. The style of warfare after 1863 differed markedly from that of the 1860-61 conflict, in which Māori had taken set positions and challenged the army to an open contest. From 1863 the army, working with greater numbers of troops and heavy artillery, systematically took possession of Māori land by driving off the inhabitants, adopting a "scorched earth" strategy of laying waste to Māori villages and cultivations, with attacks on villages, whether warlike or otherwise. As the troops advanced, the Government built an expanding line of redoubts, behind which settlers built homes and developed farms. The effect was a creeping confiscation of almost a million acres (4,000 km2) of land, with little distinction between the land of loyal or rebel Māori owners. The Government's war policy was opposed by the British commander, General Duncan Cameron, who clashed with Governor Sir George Grey and offered his resignation in February 1865. He left New Zealand six months later. Cameron, who viewed the war as a form of land plunder, had urged the Colonial Office to withdraw British troops from New Zealand and from the end of 1865 the Imperial forces began to leave, replaced by an expanding New Zealand military force. Among the new colonial forces were specialist Forest Ranger units, which embarked on lengthy search-and-destroy missions deep into the bush. The Waitangi Tribunal has argued that apart from the attack on Sentry Hill in April 1864, there was an absence of Māori aggression throughout the entire Second War, and that therefore Māori were never actually at war. It concluded: "In so far as Māori fought at all – and few did – they were merely defending their kainga, crops and land against military advance and occupation." Background and causes of the war The conflict in Taranaki had its roots in the First Taranaki War, which had ended in March 1861 with an uneasy truce. Neither side fulfilled the terms of the truce, leaving many of the issues unresolved. Chief among those issues was (1) the legality of the sale of a block of land at Waitara, which had sparked the first war, but Māori unrest was exacerbated by (2) a new land confiscation strategy launched by the Government and (3) the emergence of a fiery nationalist religious movement. Disputed Waitara land In 1861 Governor Thomas Gore Browne had promised to investigate the legitimacy of the sale of the Waitara land, but as delays continued, Taranaki and Ngāti Ruanui Māori became increasingly impatient. During the earlier war they had driven settlers off farmland at Omata and Tataraimaka, 20 km south of New Plymouth, and occupied it, claiming it by right of conquest and vowing to hold it until the Waitara land was returned to them. On 12 March 1863, 300 men from the 57th Regiment, led by Colonel Sir Henry James Warre, marched out to Omata to retake the land and a month later, on 4 April, Browne's successor, Governor Sir George Grey, marched to Tataraimaka with troops and built a redoubt and re-occupied the land in what the Waitangi Tribunal described as a hostile act. The five tribes encamped in the area – Atiawa, Taranaki, Ngatiruanui, Nga Rauru and Whanganui – promptly requested assistance from Ngāti Maniapoto and Waikato Māori to respond to what they regarded as an act of war. In a despatch to London Grey wrote that he had failed to shake the "dogged determination" of Māori on the Waitara question. "A great part of the native race," he wrote, "may be stated to be at the present moment in arms, in a state of chronic discontent ... Large numbers of them have renounced the Queen's authority, and many of them declare openly that they have been so wronged that they will never return under it ... the great majority of them declare that if war arises from this cause, they will rise and make a simultaneous attack upon the several European settlements in the Northern Island. The reasons they urge for such proceedings are ... that the people of the Waitara, without having been guilty of any crime, were driven at the point of the sword from villages, houses, and homes which they had occupied for years. That a great crime had been committed against them. That through all future generations it will be told that their lands have been forcibly and unlawfully taken from them by officers appointed by the Queen of the United Kingdom. They argue that they have no hope of obtaining justice, that their eventual extermination is determined on; but that all that is left to them is to die like men, after a long and desperate struggle; and that the sooner they can bring that on before our preparations are further matured, and our numbers increased, the greater is their chance of success." A month later Grey began planning to return Waitara to the Māori, and on 11 May issued a proclamation renouncing all government claims to the land. But he did nothing to signal his intention and on 4 May, a week before he acted, Māori began killing British troops traversing their land. The Government declared those killings to be the outbreak of a new Taranaki war and Grey immediately wrote to the Colonial Office in London, requesting three additional regiments be sent to New Zealand. He also ordered the return to New Plymouth of troops that had been moved to Auckland at the close of the earlier Taranaki hostilities, where they had been building a road southward in preparation for the invasion of the Waikato. Land confiscations In December 1863 the Parliament passed the New Zealand Settlements Act 1863, a piece of punitive legislation allowing unlimited confiscation of Māori land by the government, ostensibly as a means of suppressing "rebellion". Under the Act, Māori who had been "in rebellion" could be stripped of their land, which would be surveyed, divided and either given as 20 hectare farms to military settlers as a means of establishing and maintaining peace, or sold to recover the costs of fighting Māori. Volunteers were enlisted from among gold miners in Otago and Melbourne for military service and a total of 479,848 hectares were confiscated in Taranaki by means of proclamations in January and September 1865. Little distinction was made between the land of "rebels" and Māori loyal to the government. According to the Waitangi Tribunal, Māori recognised that the British intention was to seize the greater part of their land for European settlement through a policy of confiscation and saw that their best hope of keeping their homes, lands and status lay in taking up arms. The 1927 Royal Commission on Confiscated Land, chaired by senior Supreme Court judge Sir William Sim, concluded: "The Natives were treated as rebels and war declared against them before they had engaged in rebellion of any kind ... In their eyes the fight was not against the Queen's sovereignty, but a struggle for house and home." The rise of Hauhauism In 1862 the so-called Hauhau Movement emerged among Taranaki Māori. The movement was an extremist part of the Pai Mārire religion that was both violent and vehemently anti-Pākehā. Adherence to the Hauhau movement, which included incantations, a sacred pole, belief in supernatural protection from bullets, and occasionally beheadings, the removal of the hearts of enemy and cannibalism, spread rapidly through the North Island from 1864, welding tribes in a bond of passionate hatred against the pakeha. Hostilities resume Two hui were held by Taranaki, Ngāti Ruanui, Ngā Rauru and Whanganui iwi. The first, held on 3 July 1861 at Wiriwiri near Manaia, Taranaki, resulted in most of the 1,000 people present pledging support for the Kīngitanga Movement. The second, held at Kapoaiaia near Cape Egmont in July 1862 involving 600 members, involved the decision that Tataraimaka, Kaipopo, Waiwakaiho, Waitaha and Waitara were Māori lands, and that any attempt to create a road south of Waireka near Omata by European settlers would be considered an act of war. By December 1862, work on the road had extended west past Waireka to Okurukuru, and by early 1863, Tamati Hone Oraukawa led a Ngāti Ruanui party north to support Taranaki iwi, if British troops re-occupied Tataraimaka. Grey, while visiting the Waikato in January 1863, indicated that he intended to send troops to retake Tataraimaka. On 4 March 1863, Grey arrived at New Plymouth alongside General Duncan Cameron, Dillon Bell and Colonial Secretary Alfred Domett. Between this time and early April, British troops established redoubts south and west of Omata, reaching Tataraimaka. In March 1863 a group of Māori encamped on land they had seized at Tataraimaka were ousted with force by British troops in what they regarded as an act of war. The Waitangi Tribunal, in its 1996 report, also claimed the military reoccupation of Tataraimaka was a hostile act that implied war had been unilaterally resumed. Two months later, on 4 May 1863, a party of about 40 Māori ambushed a small military party of the 57th Regiment on a coastal road west of Oakura, killing all but one of the 10 soldiers as an act of revenge. The ambush may have been planned as an assassination attempt on Grey, who regularly rode the track between New Plymouth and the Tataraimaka military post. Three weeks later Māori laid another ambush near the Poutoko Redoubt, from New Plymouth, injuring a mounted officer of the 57th Regiment. The Militia and Taranaki Rifle Volunteers were called up for guard and patrol duty around New Plymouth and in June a 50-man corps of forest rangers was formed within the Taranaki Rifles by Captain Harry Atkinson to follow Māori into the bush and clear the country surrounding New Plymouth of hostile bands. The force was later expanded to two companies and named the Taranaki Bush Rangers. On 4 June the new British commander, Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron, led 870 members of the 57th Regiment and 70th Regiment to attack and defeat a party of about 50 Māori still occupying the Tataraimaka block beside the Katikara River. 29 Māori and one soldier from the 57th Regiment were killed in the engagement. The Māori were also shelled by HMS Eclipse from about offshore. On 2 October a large force of the 57th Regiment, Volunteers and militia engaged Māori near Poutoko Redoubt, Omata, 9 km south of New Plymouth. Victoria Crosses were awarded to two members of the 57th, Ensign John Thornton Down and Drummer Dudley Stagpoole, for bravery during the battle. The Hauhau movement intervenes In late 1863 Taranaki Māori built a strongly entrenched position at Kaitake, high on a steep ridge overlooking Oakura. The pā was shelled in December by the 57th Regiment and through the week of 20 to 25 March 1864, the pā and nearby fortifications at Te Tutu and Ahuahu were stormed and taken by a force of 420 of the 57th, 70th and Volunteers and Militia commanded by Colonel Sir Henry James Warre, with four Armstrong guns. Cultivations of more than 2.5ha of maize, potatoes, tobacco and other crops were also found in bush clearings and destroyed. Kaitake was occupied by a company of the 57th Regiment and a company of the Otago Volunteers. Almost a fortnight later, on 6 April, a combined force of 57th Regiment and the newly formed Taranaki Military Settlers, a total of 101 men, set off from Kaitake to destroy native crops near the Ahuahu village, set amid dense bush south of Oakura. A detachment suffered 19 casualties – seven killed and 12 wounded – after being surprised by a Māori attack as they rested without their weapons at the order of their commander, Captain P.W.J. Lloyd. Māori casualties were slight. The naked bodies of the seven dead, including Lloyd, were later recovered; all had been decapitated as part of a Hauhau rite. The mutilations were the first of a series inflicted on British and New Zealand soldiers carried out by Hauhau devotees between 1864 and 1873. Lloyd had only recently arrived in New Zealand from England and his lack of caution was blamed on his unfamiliarity with Māori war tactics. The easy victory of the Māori over the numerically stronger British-led force gave a powerful impetus to the Hauhau movement. The heads of the slain soldiers were later discovered to have been taken to the east coast as part of a Pai Marire recruitment drive. Attack on Sentry Hill Three weeks later, on 30 April 1864, the measure of devotion to the Hauhau movement displayed itself in the reckless march by 200 warriors on the Sentry Hill redoubt, 9 km north-east of New Plymouth, in a one-sided battle that cost the lives of possibly a fifth of the Māori force. The redoubt had been built in late 1863 by Captain W. B. Messenger and 120 men of the Military Settlers on the crown of a hill that was the site of an ancient pā, and garrisoned by a detachment of 75 men from the 57th Regiment under Captain Shortt, with two Coehorn mortars. The construction of the outpost was regarded by the Atiawa as a challenge, being built close to the Māori position at Manutahi and on their land. In April 1864 a war party was formed of the best fighting men from the west coast iwi that had joined the rapidly spreading Hauhau movement. In a 1920 interview with historian James Cowan, Te Kahu-Pukoro, a fighter who took part in the attack, explained: "The Pai-marire religion was then new, and we were all completely under its influence and firmly believed in the teaching of Te Ua and his apostles. Hepanaia Kapewhiti was at the head of the war-party. He was our prophet. He taught us the Pai-marire karakia (chant), and told us that if we repeated it as we went into battle the pakeha bullets would not strike us. This we all believed." Led by Hepanaia, the warriors participated in sacred ceremonies around a pole at the Manutahi pā, with all the principal Taranaki chiefs present: Wiremu Kīngi and Kingi Parengarenga, as well as Te Whiti and Tohu Kākahi, both of whom would later become prophets at Parihaka. The force, armed with muskets, shotguns, tomahawks and spears, marched to Sentry Hill and at 8am launched their attack, ascending the slope that led to the redoubt. Te Kahu-Pukoro recalled: About 34 Māori and one imperial soldier were killed. Among those shot dead, at almost point-blank range, were chiefs Hepanaia, Kingi Parengarenga (Taranaki), Tupara Keina (Ngatiawa), Tamati Hone (Ngati Ruanui) and Hare Te Kokai, who had advocated the frontal attack on the redoubt. According to Cowan, the slaughter temporarily weakened the new confidence in Pai-marire, but chief prophet Te Ua had a satisfying explanation: that those who fell were to blame because they did not repose absolute faith in the karakia, or incantation. Return to Te Arei On 8 September 1864 a force of 450 men of the 70th Regiment and Bushrangers returned to Te Arei, scene of the final British campaign of the First Taranaki War, and took the Hauhau pā of Manutahi after its inhabitants abandoned it, cutting down the niu flagstaff and destroying the palisading and whare, or homes, inside. Three days later Colonel Warre led a strong force of the 70th Regiment as well as 50 kupapa ("friendly" Māori) to Te Arei and also took possession of the recently abandoned stronghold. Wanganui area campaigns The focus of Hauhau activities shifted south with the Battle of Moutoa, on the Wanganui River, on 14 May 1864, in which Lower Wanganui kupapa routed a Hauhau war party intending to raid Wanganui. Among the 50 Hauhau killed was the prophet Matene Rangitauira, while the defending forces suffered 15 deaths. Sporadic fighting between Upper and Lower Wanganui iwi continued through to 1865 and in April 1865 a combined force of 200 Taranaki Military Settlers and Patea Rangers, under Major Willoughby Brassey of the New Zealand Militia, was sent to Pipiriki, 90 km upriver from Wanganui, to establish a military post. Three redoubts were built above the river, an act that was taken by local Māori as a challenge. On 19 July a force of more than 1000 Māori began a siege of the redoubts that lasted until 30 July, with heavy exchanges of fire on most days. A relief force of 300 Forest Rangers, Wanganui Rangers and Native Contingent, as well as several hundred Lower Wanganui Māori, arrived with food and ammunition but discovered the Hauhau positions abandoned. Māori losses were between 13 and 20; the colonial force suffered four wounded. Cameron's West Coast campaign In January 1865 General Cameron took the field in the Wanganui district, under instructions by Governor Grey to secure "sufficient possession" of land between Wanganui and the Patea River to provide access to Waitotara. The Government claimed to have bought land at Waitotara in 1863, and in turn had sold more than in October 1864, but the sale was disputed by some Māori, who refused to leave. A secure route from Wanganui to Patea would form a key part of the Government's strategy for a thoroughfare between Wanganui and New Plymouth, with redoubts and military settlements to protect it along the way. Cameron's campaign became notable for its caution and slow pace, and sparked an acrimonious series of exchanges between Governor Grey and Cameron, who developed a distaste for the operations against Māori, viewing it as a war of land plunder and explaining the campaign could not deliver the "decisive blow" that might induce the Māori to submit. Cameron considered that the British army did most of the fighting and suffered most of the casualties in order to enable settlers to take Māori land. Many of his soldiers also had great admiration for the Māori, for their courage and chivalrous treatment of the wounded. Cameron offered his resignation to Grey on 7 February and left New Zealand in August. Cameron's march from Wanganui, with about 2000 troops, mainly the 57th Regiment, began on 24 January and came under daylight attack that day and the next from Hauhau forces led by Patohe while camped on an open plain at Nukumaru, suffering more than 50 casualties and killing about 23 Māori. The Hauhau warriors were part of a contingent of 2000 based at Weraroa pā, near Waitotara, who were determined to halt Cameron's march northward. Pai-Mārire chief prophet Te Ua Haumēne was also at the pā, but took no part in the fighting. Cameron's force, by then boosted to 2300, moved again on 2 February, crossing the Waitotara River by raft and establishing posts at Waitotara, Patea and several other places before arriving at the Waingongoro River, between Hawera and Manaia, on 31 March, where a large camp and redoubts were built. Troops encountered fire at Hawera, but his only other major encounter was at Te Ngaio, in open country between Patea and Kakaramea, on 15 March when the troops were ambushed by about 200 Māori, including unarmed women. Cameron claimed 80 Māori losses, the heaviest loss of Hauhau tribes in the West Coast campaign. His force suffered one killed and three wounded in the Te Ngaio attack, which was the last military attempt by Māori to halt Cameron's northward advance. Cameron's own troops were also losing enthusiasm for the campaign, with one 18th-century writer reporting sympathetic Irish soldiers in the 57th Regiment saying, "Begorra, it's a murder to shoot them. Sure, they are our own people, with their potatoes and fish, and children." Difficulties with landing supplies on the harbourless coast, as well as the recognition that the land route to New Plymouth was both difficult and hostile, convinced Cameron that it would be prudent to abandon his advance and he returned to Patea, leaving several of the redoubts manned by the 57th Regiment. Cameron had also declined to attack Weraroa pā, claiming he had an insufficient force to besiege the stronghold and keep communications open. He also refused to waste men's lives on the attack of such an apparently strong position. As historian B.J. Dalton points out, he had already outflanked the pā, neutralising its strategic importance. By July a frustrated Grey decided to act on his own to take Weraroa, which he claimed was the key to the occupation of the West Coast. On 20 July, without Cameron's knowledge, he joined Captain Thomas McDonnell to lead a mix of colonial forces in raids on several Hauhau villages near the pā, taking 60 prisoners. The pā was shelled the next day and Grey captured the pā after learning it had been abandoned, earning public praise after sustained criticism of the pace of Cameron's campaign. Warre's campaign While Cameron made his slow advance northward along the South Taranaki coast, Warre extended his string of redoubts in the north, by April 1865 establishing posts from Pukearuhe, 50 km north of New Plymouth, to Ōpunake, 80 km south of the town. The redoubts brought the length of Taranaki coastline occupied to 130 km, but the forts commanded practically only the country within rifle range of their parapets. Isolated skirmishing between Māori and British forces led to raids by Warre on 13 June to destroy villages inland of Warea, while on 29 July a mix of British troops and Taranaki Mounted Volunteers returned to Warea, burning villages and engaging in several skirmish's with Maori they encountered; a Maori village was attacked and burnt. Chute's forest campaign On 2 September 1865, Grey proclaimed peace to all Māori who had taken part in the West Coast "rebellion", but with little effect. By 20 September there were further deaths following a Māori ambush at Warea and reprisals by the 43rd Regiment and Mounted Corps. Further skirmishing took place near Hawera and Patea in October and November. Cameron's replacement, Major-General Trevor Chute, arrived in New Plymouth on 20 September to take command of operations just as Premier Frederick Weld's policy of military self-reliance took effect and the withdrawal of British troops from New Zealand began. The 70th and 65th Regiments were the first to leave the country, with Imperial regiments gradually being concentrated at Auckland. In contrast to Cameron, who preferred to operate on the coast, Chute embarked on a series of aggressive forest operations, following Māori into their strongholds and storming pā. Following orders from Grey to open a campaign against the West Coast tribes, Chute marched from Wanganui on 30 December 1865, with 33 Royal Artillery, 280 of the 14th Regiment, 45 Forest Rangers under Major Gustavus von Tempsky, 300 Wanganui Native Contingent and other Māori with a Transport Corps of 45 men, each driving a two-horse dray. Chute's force burned the village of Okutuku, inland of Waverley on 3 January 1866 and stormed the pā with bayonets the next day, killing six Māori and suffering seven casualties. On 7 January they repeated the strategy at Te Putahi above the Whenuakura River, killing 14 Māori and losing two Imperial soldiers. Chute reported the Hauhau Māori had been driven inland and followed them. On 14 January he launched an attack on the strongly fortified Otapawa pā, about 8 km north of Hawera. The pā, occupied by Tangahoe, Ngati-Ruanui and Pakakohi tribes, was considered the main stronghold of South Taranaki Hauhaus. Chute claimed 30 Māori were killed, but the deaths came at a high price: 11 of his force were killed and 20 wounded in what was describe as an impetuous frontal attack on a pā he wrongly assumed had been abandoned. The force moved northward, crossing the Waingongoro River and destroying another seven villages. On 17 January 1866 Chute launched his most ambitious campaign, leading a force of 514, including Forest Rangers and Native Contingent, to New Plymouth along an ancient inland Māori war track to the east of Mt Taranaki. The momentum of the advance quickly ran out as they encountered a combination of heavy undergrowth and torrential rain. Carrying just three days' provisions, the column ran out of food and did not arrive in New Plymouth until 26 January, having been forced to eat a dog and two horses en route. The march was hailed as a triumph, but Belich commented: "Chute narrowly escaped becoming one of the few generals to lose an army without the presence of an enemy to excuse him." Chute marched back to Wanganui via the coast road, having encircled Mt Taranaki. The five-week campaign had resulted in the destruction of seven fortified pā and 21 villages, along with cultivations and food storages, inflicting heavy casualties. According to historian B.J. Dalton, the aim was no longer to conquer territory, but to inflict the utmost "punishment" on the enemy: "Inevitably there was a great deal of brutality, much burning of undefended villages and indiscriminate looting, in which loyal Maoris often suffered." The Nelson Examiner reported: "There were no prisoners made in these late engagements as General Chute ... does not care to encumber himself with such costly luxuries," while politician Alfred Saunders agreed there were "avoidable cruelties". After reading Grey's reports expressing his satisfaction with the Chute campaign, Sir Frederic Rogers, Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, wrote back: "I doubt whether the natives have ever attempted to devastate our settlements as we are devastating theirs. There is more destruction than fighting." McDonnell's campaign In early 1866 military settlers began taking possession of land confiscated from Taranaki Māori to create new townships including Kakaramea, Te Pakakohi and Ngarauru. As surveyors moved on to the land, the Government recalled forces from Opotiki on the east coast to form a camp at Patea to provide additional security. The force consisted of the Patea and Wanganui Rangers, Taranaki Military Settlers, Wanganui Yeomanry Cavalry and kupapa Māori and was commanded by Major Thomas McDonnell, an able but ruthless commander. A series of attacks on small parties and convoys in June prompted retaliatory raids by McDonnell on local villages, including a bayonet raid on the Pokokaikai pā north of Hawera on 1 August 1866, in which two men and a woman were killed. McDonnell had only days earlier communicated with the pā and extracted a strong signal that they intended remaining peaceful. A commission of inquiry held into the Pokaikai raid concluded the attack had been unnecessary and that McDonnell's action in lulling the Māori into a state of security and then attacking them had been "improper and unjust". A convoy was ambushed by Māori on 23 September in retaliation, with one soldier hacked to death with a tomahawk. In September 1866 the field headquarters of the South Taranaki force was established at a redoubt built at Waihi (Normanby) and further raids were launched from it in September and October against pā and villages in the interior, including Te Pungarehu, on the western side of the Waingongoro River, Keteonetea, Te Popoia and Tirotiromoana. Villages were burned and crops destroyed in the raids and villagers were shot or taken prisoner. At one village where McDonnell carried out a surprise raid, he reported 21 dead "and others could not be counted as they were buried in the burning ruins of the houses". When protests were raised over the brutality of the attacks, Premier Edward Stafford said such a mode of warfare "may not accord with the war regulations, but it is one necessary for and suited to local circumstances". With local Māori weakened and intimidated, fighting came to an end in November and an uneasy peace prevailed on the west coast until June 1868, with the outbreak of the third Taranaki War, generally known as Titokowaru's War. 21st century postscript The outcome of the armed conflict in Taranaki between 1860 and 1869 was a series of enforced confiscations of Taranaki tribal land from Māori blanketed as being in rebellion against the Government. Since 2001, the New Zealand Government has negotiated settlements with four of the eight Taranaki tribes, paying more than $101 million in compensation for the lands, and apologising for the actions of the government of that day. See also First Taranaki War Titokowaru's War New Zealand Wars New Zealand land confiscations Waitara, New Zealand Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements References Further reading Belich, James (1996) Making Peoples. Penguin Press. Binney, Judith (1995). Redemption Songs: A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki. Auckland: Auckland University Press. Maxwell, Peter (2000). Frontier, the Battle for the North Island of New Zealand. Celebrity Books. Simpson, Tony (1979). Te Riri Pakeha. Hodder and Stoughton. Sinclair, Keith (ed.) (1996). The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand (2nd ed.) Wellington: Oxford University Press. Stowers, Richard (1996). Forest Rangers. Richard Stowers. Vaggioli, Dom Felici (2000). History of New Zealand and its Inhabitants, Trans. J. Crockett. Dunedin: University of Otago Press. Original Italian publication, 1896. "The People of Many Peaks: The Māori Biographies". (1990). From The Dictionary of New Zealand Biographies, Vol. 1, 1769-1869. Bridget Williams Books and Department of Internal Affairs, New Zealand. 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236127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin%20III	Baldwin III	Baldwin III may refer to: Baldwin III, Count of Flanders (940–962) Baldwin III, Count of Hainaut (1088–1120) Baldwin III of Jerusalem (1130–1162) Baldwin III of Ramla (early 1130s–c. 1187 or 1186–1188)	[ -0.4540202021598816, 0.36401939392089844, 0.2056816965341568, 0.030457841232419014, -0.8022462129592896, 0.4647122621536255, 0.3575133979320526, -0.6368256211280823, -0.5288548469543457, -0.49538254737854004, -0.3129332363605499, 0.09656228125095367, -0.1665893942117691, -0.06097760424017906, -0.2216370552778244, 0.6328763365745544, 0.3304443657398224, 0.2318456918001175, -0.16941417753696442, -0.8711706399917603, 0.2984811067581177, -0.032341212034225464, 0.02178998477756977, -0.12996067106723785, 0.4084461033344269, 0.18647357821464539, 0.8625088930130005, 0.24941730499267578, -0.12177417427301407, -0.03219781070947647, 0.15675322711467743, 0.1282253861427307, 0.48928675055503845, -0.12316866964101791, 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236128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance%20%28band%29	Renaissance (band)	Renaissance are an English progressive rock band, best known for their 1978 UK top 10 hit "Northern Lights" and progressive rock classics like "Carpet of the Sun", "Mother Russia", and "Ashes Are Burning". They developed a unique sound, combining a female lead vocal with a fusion of classical, folk, rock, and jazz influences. Characteristic elements of the Renaissance sound are Annie Haslam's wide vocal range, prominent piano accompaniment, orchestral arrangements, vocal harmonies, acoustic guitar, bass guitar, synthesiser, and versatile drum work. The band created a significant following in the northeast United States in the 1970s, and that region remains their strongest fan base. The original line-up included two former members of the Yardbirds, Keith Relf and Jim McCarty, along with John Hawken, Louis Cennamo and Relf's sister Jane Relf. They intended to put "something together with more of a classical influence". Renaissance was born, and the band released a studio album in 1969, and another in 1971. Subsequently, John Tout replaced Hawken on keyboards, followed by a period of high turnover of musicians until the "classic line-up" of Annie Haslam, John Tout, Michael Dunford, Jon Camp, and Terry Sullivan was established, although none of them were in the original band. They were assisted with lyrics on many songs from Cornish poet Betty Thatcher-Newsinger. From 1972 to 1979 Renaissance released seven successful studio albums, toured extensively, and sold out three nights in a row at Carnegie Hall with Tony Cox conducting the New York Philharmonic. The 1980s were a lean time for them, with personnel changes, and two relatively unsuccessful studio albums, leading to disbandment in 1987. Two different offshoots of Renaissance existed at the same time at one stage in the mid-1990s. The band re-formed in 1998 to record Tuscany, which was eventually released in 2001; however, they disbanded again the next year. 2009 heralded a new line-up for Renaissance, led by Haslam and Dunford, and since then the band has continued to record and tour. Dunford died in November 2012. Later, Haslam stated that the band would continue touring. The current line-up is not as English as the band's early period, with five U.S.-born members and one English-born member who lives in the United States. In 2013, Renaissance released the studio album Grandine il Vento, re-released the following year under the title Symphony of Light. Original incarnation (1969–1970) As the Yardbirds were transforming into the New Yardbirds (with Jimmy Page) in 1968 and then Led Zeppelin, departing members Keith Relf and Jim McCarty formed an acoustic duo called Together. They released "Henry's Coming Home" b/w "Love Mum and Dad" as a single on Columbia Records in November 1968 without chart success. In January 1969, Relf and McCarty organized a new group devoted to experimentation with rock, folk, and classical forms. In his book Mountains Come Out of the Sky: An Illustrated History of Prog Rock, Will Romano quoted McCarty: "Toward the end of the Yardbirds we wanted to do something a bit more poetic, if you like, not so heavy. A bit more folky... We had had enough of heavy rock." This quintet—Relf on guitar and vocals, McCarty on drums and vocals, plus bassist Louis Cennamo, pianist John Hawken, and Relf's sister Jane as an additional vocalist—released a pair of albums on Elektra (US) and Island (UK-ILPS 9114), the first one, titled simply Renaissance (1969), being produced by fellow ex-Yardbird Paul Samwell-Smith. The band had begun performing in May 1969, before recording had commenced for the debut LP, mostly in the UK, but with occasional forays abroad, including festivals in Belgium (Amougies, October 1969) and France (Operation 666 at the Olympia in January 1970, and Le Bourget in March 1970, both in Paris). In February 1970, they embarked on a North American tour, but that month-long trek proved only marginally successful. Because of their Yardbirds credentials, they found themselves paired with bands such as the Kinks and their new classically orientated direction did not always go down well because audiences were expecting rock/blues-based material. Beginning in the late spring of 1970 as touring began to grind on them, the original band gradually dissolved. Keith Relf and McCarty decided to quit performing, and Cennamo joined Colosseum. Hawken organized a new line-up to fulfill contractual obligations to Island Records and complete the band's second album, Illusion (1971) which had been left unfinished. Transition (1970–71) Apart from Jane Relf, the new band consisted mostly of former members of Hawken's previous band, the Nashville Teens – guitarist Michael Dunford, bassist Neil Korner and singer Terry Crowe, plus drummer Terry Slade. This line-up recorded one track, "Mr Pine", a Dunford composition, and played a few gigs during the summer of 1970. Meanwhile, a final recording session brought together the original line-up minus Hawken, with Don Shin sitting in on keyboards, and produced the album's closing track "Past Orbits of Dust". The now completed Illusion was released in Germany in 1971, although it was not released in the UK until 1976 (Island HELP 27). The album marked the beginning of Renaissance's long-standing collaboration with poet Betty Thatcher-Newsinger as lyricist when she co-wrote two songs with Relf and McCarty. The two remaining original members left in late 1970; Jane Relf was replaced by American folk singer Anne-Marie "Binky" Cullom, then John Hawken left to join Spooky Tooth and pianist John Tout replaced him. There is an extant video (released on the DVD "Kings & Queens" in 2010) of that line-up performing five songs on a German TV program (Muzik-Kanal). The plan at the time was that Relf and McCarty would remain involved as non-performing members – Relf as a producer and McCarty as a songwriter. Both were present when singer Annie Haslam successfully auditioned in January 1971 to replace the departing Cullom (who would later marry drummer Terry Slade and retire from the music scene). While McCarty would go on to write songs for the new band, Relf's involvement would be short-lived. Dunford soon emerged as a prolific composer, and continued the writing partnership with Thatcher, who would go on to write most of the lyrics for the band's 1970s albums. Second incarnation (1971–1980) Sometime in 1971, new manager Miles Copeland III decided to re-organize the band, focusing on what he felt were Renaissance's strong points – Haslam's voice and Tout's piano. Will Romano in Mountains Come Out of the Sky explained that "unlike many of the artists to which they were compared Renaissance allowed the piano and female voice to come to the forefront". Until then Haslam had shared vocals with Terry Crowe, who was in effect the band's chief vocalist. Crowe and Korner went, the former not replaced, the latter replaced by a succession of bass players, including John Wetton (later of King Crimson, U.K., and Asia), Frank Farrell (formerly of Supertramp) and Danny McCulloch (formerly of the Animals and a former bandmate of Dunford and Crowe in the Plebs), until the position settled with the inclusion of Jon Camp. It was also decided that Dunford would now concentrate on composing, and a new guitar player, Mick Parsons, was brought in for live work. In 1972, shortly before recording sessions for the new band's debut LP, drummer Terence Sullivan joined after Slade's initial replacement, Ginger Dixon, was deemed unsuitable following a European tour. Parsons died in a car accident and was replaced at short notice by Rob Hendry. The resulting line-up entered the studio having played only a dozen gigs together. Prologue was released later in 1972 on EMI-Sovereign Records in the UK and on Capitol-Sovereign in North America. Prologue'''s music was, except for two songs by McCarty, composed by Dunford, with all lyrics by Thatcher-Newsinger. Rock radio stations (particularly in the northeast US and Cleveland) gave the song "Spare Some Love" significant airplay for a few months after the album's release, and fans of Yes and Emerson, Lake & Palmer in particular, took notice of the band. Francis Monkman, of the group Curved Air (another group managed by Copeland), was a guest on VCS3 synthesizer on the final track "Rajah Khan". Hendry was replaced for the Prologue tour by Peter Finberg, but Finberg was already committed to another band and so could not be a permanent replacement. This left Camp to play most of the guitar on their next album, Ashes are Burning, released in 1973. Though the band were trying to transition to a more acoustic sound, Andy Powell, of the group Wishbone Ash (yet another group managed by Copeland), was brought in for an electric guitar solo on the final track "Ashes are Burning", which became the band's anthem piece, often extended in live performances to over twenty minutes with a long bass solo and other instrumental workouts. The album became the band's first to chart in the US, where it reached No. 171 on the Billboard 200. Shortly after the album's release, Michael Dunford returned as (acoustic) guitarist, completing what most fans regard as the classic five-piece line-up, which would remain together through five studio albums. The band played their first US concerts during this period, enjoying success on the East Coast in particular, which soon resulted in a special orchestral concert at New York's Academy of Music in May 1974. Soon Renaissance would choose to concentrate on the US market, as the UK press virtually ignored them. Joining BTM label The band left Sovereign Records and joined Miles Copeland's new prog rock stable and label BTM (for British Talent Management). The label's first release was Turn of the Cards in 1974. With a larger budget, the album went from folk-flavoured to a more dark, lush, orchestral rock sound. One of the album's songs, "Things I Don't Understand", which clocked in at 9:30, was Jim McCarty's last co-writing credit with the group (although it was actually in the band's live repertoire for years). A lengthy tribute to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, called "Mother Russia", closed out the album, with lyrics inspired by his autobiographical novel, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. Turn of the Cards was first issued in the United States on Sire Records in August 1974, where it reached No. 94, some months before an official UK release. It remained in the Billboard 200 for 21 weeks. Although Renaissance's fan base was relatively small, its following was heavily concentrated in the large cities of the northeast US. The album was eventually released in the UK in March 1975. It was soon followed by Scheherazade and Other Stories, released on both sides of the Atlantic in September 1975. The album, whose second side was taken up with the epic tone-poem "Song of Scheherazade" based on stories from One Thousand and One Nights, peaked at No. 48 in the United States. There is "no musical connection to the well-known classical work Scheherazade by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov", but the track does have a recurring six-note motif that alludes to that work. A double live album, Live at Carnegie Hall, followed in 1976. Despite criticisms that much of the album was little more than a note for note reproduction of highlights from their previous four studio albums, the album reached No. 55 in the US. Renaissance were the first British band to sell out three consecutive nights at Carnegie Hall. They were joined on stage by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra. While introducing the song "Ashes Are Burning", Haslam refers to it as the title track from the group's second album, rather than their fourth, suggesting that the Haslam-led lineup by this point considered themselves a distinct band from Keith Relf's incarnation of the group. (This point is further underscored by the band's including an album discography in the gatefold of LP copies of Live at Carnegie Hall, which lists only the four albums from Prologue forward.)Live at Carnegie Halls follow-up, Novella, saw more chart success in the US, peaking at No. 46 in 1977, although its UK release was delayed by yet another label change. Will Romano in Mountains Come Out of the Sky describes the band: "Renaissance was at an all-time popularity high, finding themselves playing to sold-out audiences ... in the U.S., particularly in the northeastern part of the country, in Pennsylvania and New York." UK hit single Although commercial success was limited during this period, Renaissance scored a hit single in Britain with "Northern Lights", which reached No. 10 during the summer of 1978. The single was taken from the album A Song for All Seasons (a No. 58 album in the US), and received significant airplay in the US on both AOR and on radio stations adapting to a new format known as "soft rock", now known as adult contemporary. The band performed on a modestly successful tour of the US east of the Mississippi and drew significant crowds in State College, Pennsylvania and Cleveland in May and June 1979, promoting both A Song for All Seasons and a mix of old and new tracks. Additionally, the band gained exposure via US television; performing "Carpet of the Sun" in 1977 on The Midnight Special, and appearing as guests on the May 4, 1978, edition of the Mike Douglas Show, where they played "Northern Lights". Renaissance floundered following 1979's Azure d'Or, as many fans could not relate to a largely synthesizer-oriented sound. As a result, the band's fan base began to lose interest and the album only reached No. 125. Dunford and Camp assumed most of the band's songwriting. In the 1970s, Renaissance defined their work with folk rock and classical fusions. Their songs include quotations from and allusions to such composers as Alain, Bach, Chopin, Debussy, Giazotto, Maurice Jarre, Rachmaninoff, Rimsky-Korsakov, Prokofiev and Shostakovich. Renaissance records, especially Ashes Are Burning, were frequently played on American progressive rock radio stations such as WNEW-FM, WHFS-FM, WMMR-FM, KSHE 95 and WVBR. Critical reception to the "classic line-up" Reviewers were deeply divided in their reactions to the "classic" period of Renaissance, and their style of music. Some critics saw little value in their music, like Wayne King's entry in The New Rolling Stone Record Guide describing the period 1974 to 1983: "Their inability to compose songs that would allow for any fluidity or improvisation meant that Renaissance's appeal, nonexistent in their native England and cultish at best in America, declined ... and the remainder of the Sire material matches this commercial decline with an artistic one. The comeback attempt on IRS ... was a ludicrous failure." Progressive rock reviewers were much more supportive, such as Charles Snider in The Strawberry Bricks Guide to Progressive Rock evaluating the album Scheherazade and Other Stories, who describes: "Annie Haslam's crystal clear five-octave voice high in the mix, supported by the virtuoso talents of pianist John Tout and Jon Camp's distinctive Rickenbacker bass, and orchestral arrangements by Tony Cox." 1980–1998 After the Azure d'Or tour, Tout left the group for personal reasons, quickly followed by Sullivan. Subsequent albums Camera Camera (1981) and Time-Line (1983) brought Renaissance more into the contemporary synthpop and new wave genre, but neither garnered enough commercial interest to make a viable future for the band. Camera Camera was the band's final album to chart in the US where it reached No. 196 in late 1981. In 1985 Camp left, and Haslam and Dunford led an acoustic version of the band and performed occasional shows (the last being in Georgetown, DC, until splitting up in August 1987). In 1988, Sire issued a two-part compilation, Tales of 1001 Nights, focusing on the band's 1972–79 period. In the 1990s most of their catalogue appeared on CD from reissue record labels such as Repertoire Records (Germany). In 2006 Repertoire issued remastered versions of Ashes are Burning, Turn of the Cards and Scheherezade and Other Stories. In the mid-1990s, both Haslam (who had released a self-titled solo album in 1989) and Dunford (who had been working on a proposed musical based on the Scheherazade storyline) formed their own bands, each using the name Renaissance and releasing albums with different line-ups. Third incarnation Renaissance partially re-formed in 1998 around a nucleus of Haslam, Dunford and Sullivan, plus Tout and several new musicians, most notably Roy Wood and Mickey Simmonds, to record the CD Tuscany. In 1999, Haslam, Dunford and Simmonds played a one-off trio concert at London's Astoria supporting Caravan. In March 2001, following the delayed release of Tuscany, a full band tour was organised, with a line-up of Haslam, Dunford, Sullivan, Simmonds, Rave Tesar (keyboards) and David J. Keyes (bass/voc), who played one London concert on 9 March (again at the Astoria) and three dates in Japan – Osaka on the 13th, Nagoya on the 14th and Tokyo on the 16th. The Tokyo concert was recorded and released as In the Land of the Rising Sun: Live in Japan 2001. (Tout, although in the audience at the Astoria, did not perform on this tour.) Haslam, who had become the band's spokesperson, said that several factors made further touring and recording impractical. The band's short third incarnation was soon over. Terry Sullivan recorded an album called South of Winter in 2004, with a studio group he named Renaissant. It is evocative of Renaissance's music, with lyrics by Thatcher-Newsinger and keyboard contributions by John Tout. On 20 September 2008, John Tout made his first public appearance in the US in over 25 years, with Annie Haslam and the Jann Klose band, at the Sellersville Theatre 1894 in Sellersville, Pennsylvania. In 2009, Tout suffered a heart attack. In August 2009, Haslam announced that she and Dunford were commemorating the 40th anniversary of Renaissance with a re-formed band, called Renaissance 2009 (including no other members of the "classic" line-up, but with musicians from the 2001 incarnation of the band), and a concert tour. A tour in Eastern North America and Japan was undertaken in 2010, together with a three-song EP release and a new official website. Renaissance headlined the sold-out final edition of the North East Art Rock Festival, entitled NEARfest Apocalypse, on 23 June 2012. Bassist/vocalist David J. Keyes died in July 2019 from leiomyosarcoma. Deaths of Betty Thatcher, Michael Dunford, and John Tout Betty Thatcher (born 16 February 1944), the band's non-performing lyricist who wrote most of the lyrics for the band (mostly for the second 'classic' lineup, but starting with the original Relf-led version), died on 15 August 2011. On 20 November 2012, Michael Dunford (born 8 July 1944) died from a cerebral hemorrhage at his home in Surrey, England. A few weeks later, Haslam stated that the band would continue touring in the future, despite losing "her guiding light". In February 2013, it was announced that Ryche Chlanda would be the guitarist on their 2013 tour, and he has established a permanent role in the band, although not appearing on their 2015 UK and European dates. John Tout died of lung failure on 1 May 2015 at the Royal Free Hospital in Hampstead, London. According to ultimateclassicrock.com, the band paid tribute to their former keyboardist on their Facebook page, saying: “He was an amazing musician, highly contributing to the unique sound of the band from 1970–1980." Symphony of Light In April 2013 a new Renaissance album, Grandine il Vento, was released. It was dedicated on the inside sleeve to Dunford. This album was reissued as Symphony of Light in April 2014 with three bonus tracks. Symphony of Light follows a similar path to the band's early work with a combination of shorter songs, and longer, more progressive tracks such as the title track, and "The Mystic and the Muse". The band were joined by well-known guest musicians Ian Anderson playing the flute on "Cry to the World", and John Wetton performing a duet with Haslam on "Blood Silver Like Moonlight". All the music was written by Dunford, except "Renaissance Man" (dedicated to Dunford) which was written by Rave Tesar. All the lyrics were written by Haslam, and the artwork featured a painting 'Symphony of Light' also by Haslam. Ralph Greco, Jr. in vintagerock.com observed that "Symphony of Light thrives on lush production, evocative lyrics, excellent playing and that superlative voice that could only belong to Annie Haslam." The current line-up is not as English as the band's early period with five U.S. born members, and one English born member who lives in the U.S. PersonnelCurrent members' Annie Haslam – vocals, percussion (1971–1987, 1998–2002, 2009–present) Mark Lambert – guitar, backing vocals (2015–present); bass (1985–1987) Rave Tesar – keyboards, piano (2001–2002, 2009–present) Geoffrey Langley – keyboards, backing vocals (2016–present) John Arbo – bass, backing vocals (2018–present) Frank Pagano – drums, percussion, backing vocals (2009–2017, 2018–present) Discography Studio albums Live albums Other releases In the Beginning (compilation double-album of Prologue and Ashes are Burning), 1978 Tales of 1001 Nights (compilation in two volumes), 1990 Da Capo (Repertoire Germany compilation), 1995 (2 CDs) (Limited Edition in tall digipak with a much more concise, detailed booklet) Live at the Royal Albert Hall: King Biscuit Flower Hour, 1997 (live performance recorded 1977; two volumes) Songs from Renaissance Days, 1997 (compilation of out-takes, including one B-side and two Haslam solo tracks, 1979–88) The BBC Sessions 1975–1978, 1999 [2 CDs] Day of the Dreamer, 2000 (live performance recorded 1978) Unplugged Live at the Academy of Music, 2000 (live performance recorded 1985) Live + Direct, 2002 (edited 1970 live recording plus demos and miscellany from 1968 to 1976) Innocents and Illusions, 2004 (compilation double CD of Renaissance and Illusion from the original incarnation) Dreams & Omens, 2008 (live performance recorded 1978) Live in Chicago, 2010 (live performance recorded 1983) The Mystic and the Muse (Three-track EP of new songs), 2010 Past Orbits of Dust, 2012 (live performances, plus one remastered studio track, from 1969 to 1970) DeLane Lea Studios 1973, 2015 (live performance recorded 1973) Academy of Music, 2015 (live performance recorded 1974) Singles United Kingdom "Island" b/w "The Sea", Island WIP6079 Jan70 "Spare Some Love" b/w "Prologue", Sovereign SOV113 Jan72 "Back Home Once Again" b/w "The Captive Heart", Warner Bros K17012 Sep77 "Northern Lights" b/w "Opening Out", Warner Bros K17177 May78 – UK #10 "The Winter Tree" b/w "Island of Avalon", Warner Bros K17353 Apr79 "Jekyll and Hyde" b/w "Forever Changing", Warner Bros K17407 Jun79 "Faeries (Living at the Bottom of the Garden)" b/w "Remember", Illegal ILS0025 Oct81 "Bonjour Swansong" b/w "Ukraine Ways", Illegal ILS0027 Feb82 "Richard IX" b/w "Flight", I.R.S. PFP1016 Jul83 United States "Prologue" b/w "Spare Some Love", 1972 "Carpet of the Sun" b/w "Bound for Infinity", 1973 "Mother Russia" (3'07 edit) b/w "I Think of You", 1974 "Carpet of the Sun" (live) b/w "Kiev" (live), 1976 "Midas Man" b/w "The Captive Heart", 1977 "Northern Lights" b/w "Opening Out", 1978 "Jekyll and Hyde" b/w "Forever Changing", 1979 "Bonjour Swansong" b/w "Remember", 1981 Japan only "Spare Some Love" b/w "Prologue", 1972 "The Mystic and the Muse" 3 Song EP, 2010 West Germany only "Faeries (Living at the Bottom of the Garden)" b/w "Bonjour Swansong" Michael Dunford's Renaissance These albums were essentially collaborations between Dunford and singer Stephanie Adlington. The Other Woman, 1994 (originally issued as by "Renaissance") Ocean Gypsy, 1997 (mostly new versions of past Renaissance songs) Trip to the Fair, 1998 (compilation of tracks from the previous two releases) Annie Haslam's Renaissance This album was essentially an Annie Haslam solo release (one of several). Blessing in Disguise, 1994. Renaissant This album was essentially a Terry Sullivan solo release with lyrics by Betty Thatcher-Newsinger and keyboards by John Tout. Terry's wife Christine did most of the vocals, with Terry himself taking lead on two songs.South of Winter (2005) Major television appearances Don Kirshner's Rock ConcertMulti-artist television programme with Renaissance performing "Can You Understand" and "Black Flame". Syndicated (USA), 1974. 11 minutes, original running time unknown. The Midnight SpecialMulti-artist television programme with Renaissance performing "Carpet of the Sun" and "Midas Man". NBC (USA), 1976. 5 minutes, original running time unknown. Sight and Sound in ConcertFirst in a series of programmes consisting of artists performing live with the first performance broadcast simultaneously on BBC TV and FM radio, hosted by DJ Alan Black. Songs performed were: "Carpet of the Sun", "Mother Russia", "Can You Hear Me?", "Ocean Gypsy", "Running Hard", "Touching Once" and "Prologue". Originally broadcast on 8 January 1977. BBC (UK), 1977. Approximately 50–55 minutes. The Mike Douglas ShowTelevision talk show features Renaissance performing "Northern Lights" and "Day of the Dreamer" on 4 May 1978. MTV InterviewInterview by J.J. Jackson with Annie Haslam and Jon Camp on the Time Line album Tour. MTV (USA), April 1983. 10 minutes. Illusion Shortly prior to his death (May 1976), Keith Relf wanted to try to reform the original Renaissance. Since the name Renaissance was now firmly in the hands of the Haslam lineup, he chose the tentative band name "Now". Jim McCarty was not involved at this point. After Relf's death (May 1976), the surviving four formed a new band (along with two new musicians) and named it Illusion after Renaissance's second album. Illusion released two albums for Island Records before splitting, while a third made up of unreleased demos appeared years later. The demos were recorded in 1979 but no label was interested in them which caused Illusion to break up. The original four reformed again for the production of Through the Fire which was released under the bandname of Renaissance-Illusion. There are two second albums entitled Illusion: the second album of the original Renaissance (1971); and the eponymous second album of their reunion band, Illusion (1978). Out of the Mist (1977) produced by Paul Samwell-Smith (original bass player of the Yardbirds) Illusion (1978) produced by Douglas Bogie (recording engineer) Enchanted Caress: Previously Unreleased Material (1990) produced by Jim McCarty Illusion: The Island Years (2003) 2-CD compilation of Out of the Mist/Illusion with unreleased track by Keith Relf Renaissance-Illusion Through the Fire (2001) produced by Jim McCarty Covers of Renaissance songs This list does not include Renaissance songs performed by individual former members of the band. "Ashes Are Burning" on the Faith & Disease albums Fortune His Sleep (1995) and Livesongs: Third Body (1996). "Ocean Gypsy" on the Blackmore's Night album Shadow of the Moon'' (1997 – a ballad version). References External links Official band website www.RenaissanceTouring.com Renaissance official Facebook page RenaissanceTouring Northern Lights (fan site) www.NlightsWeb.com Renaissance Fanfare (fan site) Prologue.ning.com Annie Haslam's official site www.AnnieHaslam.com Renaissance biography by Bruce Eder, discography and album reviews, credits & releases at AllMusic Renaissance discography, album releases & credits at Discogs Renaissance biography, discography, album credits & user reviews at ProgArchives.com Renaissance albums to be listened as stream on Spotify English progressive rock groups Island Records artists Musical groups established in 1969 Musical groups disestablished in 1987 Musical groups reestablished in 1998 Musical groups disestablished in 2002 Musical groups reestablished in 2009 The Yardbirds Sire Records artists Elektra Records artists Progressive pop musicians Symphonic rock groups Female-fronted musical groups	[ -0.05816405639052391, 0.007892395369708538, 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236129	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin%20II	Baldwin II	Baldwin II may refer to: Baldwin II of Flanders ( 865–918) Baldwin II of Boulogne (c. 990–c. 1033) Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut (1056–1098) Baldwin II of Jerusalem, King of Jerusalem (died 1131) Baldwin II of Constantinople, Latin Emperor of Constantinople (1217–1273) de:Liste der Herrscher namens Balduin#Balduin II. ru:Балдуин II	[ -0.5122369527816772, 0.18135635554790497, -0.07316218316555023, 0.15606364607810974, -0.6970052123069763, 0.4260386526584625, 0.217582568526268, -0.40842491388320923, -0.5124344229698181, -0.22765180468559265, -0.25440341234207153, 0.25940433144569397, -0.044030532240867615, -0.11584551632404327, -0.08374758064746857, 0.5533521771430969, 0.4089813232421875, 0.17867735028266907, -0.06932300329208374, -0.831799328327179, 0.39746519923210144, -0.12434351444244385, -0.16248810291290283, -0.17749381065368652, 0.5623437166213989, 0.22388635575771332, 0.8814566731452942, 0.16697078943252563, 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236130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waukesha%2C%20Wisconsin	Waukesha, Wisconsin	Waukesha () is a city in and the county seat of Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. It is part of the Milwaukee metropolitan area. Its population was 70,718 at the 2010 census. The city is adjacent to the Village of Waukesha. History The area that Waukesha now encompasses was first settled by European-Americans in 1834, with Morris D. Cutler as its first settler. When the first settlers arrived, there was nothing but dense virgin forest and wild prairie. The settlers laid out farms, constructed roads, erected government buildings and established post routes. The original founders of Waukesha consisted entirely of settlers from New England, particularly Connecticut, rural Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine, as well some from upstate New York who were born to parents who had migrated to that region from New England shortly after the American Revolution. These people were "Yankee" settlers. In other words, they were descended from the English Puritans who settled New England in the 1600s. They were part of a wave of New England farmers who headed west into what was then the wilds of the Northwest Territory during the early 1800s. Most of them arrived as a result of the completion of the Erie Canal as well as the end of the Black Hawk War. When they arrived in what is now Waukesha County, the New Englanders laid out farms, constructed roads, erected government buildings and established post routes. They brought with them many of their Yankee New England values, such as a passion for education, establishing many schools as well as staunch support for abolitionism. They were mostly members of the Congregationalist Church though some were Episcopalian. Due to the second Great Awakening some of them had converted to Methodism and some had become Baptists before moving to what is now Waukesha County. Waukesha, like much of Wisconsin, would be culturally very continuous with early New England culture for most of its early history. By 1846, the area was incorporated as the Town of Prairie Village (soon changed to Prairieville). On February 8, 1847, the town changed its name to "Waukesha,". On January 10, 1852, the settled area once known as Prairieville was separated from the town of Waukesha, and incorporated as a village and in 1896, incorporated as a city. The first appointed mayor of the newly incorporated city of Waukesha was John Brehm, who served from January to April 1896. Welsh immigrants settling in Waukesha as early as the 1840s, and large numbers arrived in the late 1800s and early 1900s, when they were one of the largest ethnic groups in Waukesha. Around the same time there was also relatively large amounts of Serbian immigrants settling in Waukesha. In the late 1800s a large number of Belgian families arrived in Waukesha as well. Name "Waukesha" is thought to be an Anglicization of the Ojibwe word Waagoshag, the plural of fox ("waagosh"), or the Potawatomi name Wau-tsha. Wau-tsha (sometimes written as Wauk-tsha or Wauke-tsha) was the leader of the local tribe at the time of the first European settlement of the area. This is confirmed by accounts of Increase A. Lapham, an early settler and historian of the region. According to Lapham, the Algonquian word for "fox" was pishtaka. Cutler also told visitors about Wau-tsha, who was described as "tall and athletic, proud in his bearing, dignified and friendly." "Spring City" Matthew Laflin, an early pioneer of Chicago, Illinois, provided the capital and enterprise that laid the foundation for Waukesha as a famous Wisconsin watering resort and was the proprietor of the grand resort, the Fountain Spring House. Waukesha was once known for its extremely clean and good-tasting spring water and was called a "spa town." This earned the city the nicknames "Spring City" and "Saratoga of the West." According to author Kristine Adams Wendt, in 1868, Colonel Richard Dunbar, a sufferer of diabetes, chanced upon the medicinal properties of what he later named the Bethesda Spring while viewing a parcel of land recently purchased by his sister. Testimonials found in a Dunbar brochure of 1873 proclaimed the miraculous benefits. Wendt reports that by 1872, "area newspapers carried accounts of a community ill equipped to handle its new popularity among the suffering multitudes. The semi-weekly Wisconsin (Milwaukee) of July 31, 1872, reported 'that fully 500 visitors are quartered in hotels and scattered in private families here, seeking benefit from the marvelous waters…'" The "healing waters" were so valued that a controversial attempt was made to build a pipeline between the city and Chicago so that they could be enjoyed by visitors to the 1893 Columbian Exposition. According to Time magazine, "[t]he scheme had been conceived by one Charles Welsh who had been given the springs by his uncle, but after several miles of pipe were laid, it was discovered that the cost was too great." Richard W. Sears, founder of Sears and Roebuck, may have been attracted to Waukesha by the waters. In failing health, Sears retired from business in 1908 and, according to The New York Times, "spent his time on his great farm near Waukesha." In 1914, Sears died in Waukesha of Bright's disease, leaving an estate estimated at $20 million. Over the years, the natural springs have been spoiled by pollution and a number have gone dry. Water drawn from an aquifer reached radium levels exceeding federal standards. In 2013, Waukesha applied for permission to withdraw water from Lake Michigan. Because Waukesha is outside the lake's basin, the 2008 Great Lakes Compact makes the city ineligible to withdraw water from the lake without approval from the governors of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. In June, 2016, the governors approved Waukesha's application. Football history One of the most important "firsts" in American sports history occurred in Waukesha on September 5, 1906, when Carroll College (now Carroll University) hosted the football team from St. Louis University. SLU halfback Bradbury Robinson threw the first legal forward pass in football history in that game. The Carroll players and local fans were stunned. The visitors went on to win 22–0. Project Nike During the Cold War, Waukesha County was the site of three Nike Missile batteries, located in the city of Waukesha and nearby Muskego and Lannon. In the city of Waukesha, the U.S. Army and later the Wisconsin National Guard operated the command and control center from 1956 to 1970 at what is now Hillcrest Park, on Davidson Road. The missile pits existed near the corner of Cleveland Avenue and Hwy 164—first holding Ajax missiles with conventional warheads and later the nuclear equipped Hercules warhead. The Hercules provided a similar nuclear capability as that of the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki in World War II. The Midwest Chapter of the Cold War Museum has promoted the preservation of the Hillcrest Park site as a local Cold War museum, honoring Cold War veterans and commemorating America's longest and costliest conflict. Recent history On May 31, 2014, two 12-year-old Waukesha girls lured their friend into the woods and stabbed her 19 times. They did this to appease a fictional online character known as Slender Man. The victim survived the attack after being found by a cyclist. The two perpetrators were found not guilty by mental disease or defect, and were sentenced to long periods in mental health institutions. On November 21, 2021, the driver of a red SUV drove through the Waukesha Christmas Parade during its procession through downtown Waukesha late that afternoon, killing six people and injuring 62 others. Geography and climate Waukesha is located near the center of Waukesha County in southeastern Wisconsin, west of Milwaukee. Waukesha is also located east of Madison. The city shares borders with City of Brookfield, Town of Brookfield, Genesee, New Berlin, City of Pewaukee, Village of Pewaukee, Town of Delafield and Village of Waukesha. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. The city is located on both sides of the Fox River, which starts near Menomonee Falls and flows into the Illinois River. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as humid continental (Dfb). Demographics 2019 US Census Bureau ACS estimates 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 70,718 people, 28,295 households, and 17,506 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 29,843 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 88.1% White, 2.3% African American, 0.4% Native American, 3.5% Asian, 3.5% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.1% of the population. There were 28,295 households, of which 32.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.1% were non-families. 30.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.02. The median age in the city was 34.2 years. 23.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.4% were from 25 to 44; 24.7% were from 45 to 64; and 10.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.0% male and 51.0% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 64,825 people, 25,663 households, and 16,296 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,000.5 people per square mile (1,158.8/km2). There were 26,856 housing units at an average density of 1,243.1 per square mile (480.1/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91.22% White, 1.28% African American, 0.33% Native American, 2.17% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 3.31% from other races, and 1.65% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.58% of the population. There were 25,663 households, out of which 32.5% of households had children under age 18 living with them, 50.2% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.5% were non-families. Twenty-nine percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 people and the average family size was 3.04 people. In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.7% under the age of 18, 10.8% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 10.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.8 males. The median income for a household in the city was $50,084, and the median income for a family was $60,841. Males had a median income of $40,743 versus $29,279 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,242. About 3.0% of families and 5.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.0% of those under age 18 and 5.9% of those age 65 or over. Transportation Waukesha County Airport (KUES) and Waukesha Metro Transit serve the city and surrounding communities. Freight rail service is provided by the Canadian National Railway and the Wisconsin and Southern Railroad. I-94, U.S. 18, WIS-59, WIS-164, and WIS-318 creates a beltway bypass around Downtown Waukesha. Economy Top employers According to Waukesha's 2017 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: Sports Downtown Waukesha is the site of one of the stages of the Tour of America's Dairyland cycling event, which features a criterium race, started in 1993. Government Waukesha's mayor is Shawn Reilly (Republican prior to 2021) and its citizens are represented by Scott L. Fitzgerald (R) in the United States House of Representatives, and by Ron Johnson (R) and Tammy Baldwin (D) in the United States Senate. Chris Kapenga (R) represents Waukesha in the Wisconsin State Senate, and Scott Allen (R) and Adam Neylon (R) represent Waukesha in the Wisconsin State Assembly. Education The School District of Waukesha serves the city and portions of surrounding municipalities. It operates four high schools in the city: Waukesha South High School, Waukesha West High School, Waukesha North High School, and Harvey Phillip (East) High School, an alternative school. It also operates two charter schools; Waukesha Engineering Preparatory Academy (WEPA), and the Waukesha Academy of Health Professions (WAHP). It also runs three middle schools, 14 elementary schools (including two STEM Academies, the Randall Campus for K-5 and the Saratoga Campus for 6–8, which feature a curriculum more focused on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math). Private schools include Mt. Calvary Lutheran School (Pre-K-8) and Trinity Lutheran School (Pre-K-8) of the WELS, Waukesha Christian Academy, and Catholic Memorial High School. Located on the city's northwest side, the University of Wisconsin–Waukesha, part of the UW system, offers two-year associate degrees. Students have the option of transferring to four-year institutions to complete their undergraduate education. Waukesha County Technical College has a campus located in the downtown area. Waukesha is home to Carroll University, a private Presbyterian university. Opened in 1846, it is the oldest college in the state. One of the two New Tribes Bible Institute campuses within the United States is located on a large hill in central Waukesha. Operated by New Tribes Mission, the school doubles as the first part of a four-year missionary training program, which includes field training in the U.S. Media Newspapers and online publications; The Waukesha Freeman, Conley Publishing Group The New Perspective, Carroll University The Observer, University of Wisconsin-Waukesha WaukeshaNOW (community newspaper/website published by the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel) Several radio stations, though outside of WCCX, the others have studios in Milwaukee and serve the entire market; WRRD (1510 AM) WCCX (104.5 FM) WMIL-FM (106.1 FM) One television station is licensed to Waukesha; WTAS-LD (channel 47) Historic landmarks Old Waukesha County Courthouse Chicago and North Western Depot Notable people Sister cities Waukesha is the sister city of: Kokshetau, Kazakhstan (since 1989) References External links Official website Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1884 1890 1895 1901 1911 1917 1922 Cities in Wisconsin Cities in Waukesha County, Wisconsin Spa towns 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236137	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activities%20of%20daily%20living	Activities of daily living	Activities of daily living (ADLs or ADL) is a term used in healthcare to refer to people's daily self-care activities. Health professionals often use a person's ability or inability to perform ADLs as a measurement of their functional status. The concept of ADLs was originally proposed in the 1950s by Sidney Katz and his team at the Benjamin Rose Hospital in Cleveland, Ohio. The concept of ADLs has been added to and refined by a variety of researchers since that time. For example, many indexes that assess ADLs now include some measure of mobility. Additionally, to be more inclusive of the range of activities that support independent living, in 1969, Lawton and Brody developed the instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs). ADLs are often used in the care of people with disabilities, people with injuries, and the elderly. Younger children often require help from adults to perform ADLs, as they have not yet developed the skills necessary to perform them independently. Common ADLs include feeding oneself, bathing, dressing, grooming, work, homemaking, cleaning oneself after defecating, and leisure. A number of national surveys have collected data on the ADL status of the U.S. population. While basic definitions of ADLs have been suggested, what specifically constitutes a particular ADL for each individual may vary. Some factors that influence peoples' perception of their function level include culture and education. ADLs are categorized into basic, self-care tasks acquired starting from infancy, and instrumental, tasks learned throughout adolescence. A person who cannot perform essential ADLs may have poorer quality of life or be unsafe in their current living conditions; therefore, they may require the help of other individuals and/or mechanical devices. Examples of mechanical devices to aid in ADLs include electric lifting seats, bathtub transfer benches, and ramps to replace stairs. Basic Basic ADLs consist of self-care tasks that include: Bathing and showering Personal hygiene and grooming (including brushing/combing/styling hair) Dressing Toilet hygiene (getting to the toilet, cleaning oneself, and getting back up) Functional mobility, often referred to as "transferring", as measured by the ability to walk, get in and out of bed, and get into and out of a chair; the broader definition (moving from one place to another while performing activities) is useful for people with different physical abilities who are still able to get around independently Self-feeding (not including cooking or chewing and swallowing), as opposed to assisted feeding The functional independence measure (FIM) is a tool developed in 1983 that uses a 0-7 scale to rank different ADLs based on the level of assistance they require. A 7 on the scale means the patient is independent, whereas a 0 on the scale means the patient cannot complete the activity without assistance. The specific breakdown of the scale is shown below: 7 - Independent 6 - Modified Independent 5 - Supervision/Set-up 4 - Minimal Assist 3 - Moderate Assist 2 - Maximal Assist 1 - Total Assist 0 - Activity Does Not Occur Although not in wide general use, a mnemonic that some find useful for identifying different ADLs is DEATH: dressing/bathing, eating, ambulating (walking), toileting, hygiene. Instrumental Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) are not necessary for fundamental functioning, but they let an individual live independently in a community: Cleaning and maintaining the house Managing money Moving within the community Preparing meals Shopping for groceries and necessities Taking prescribed medications Using the telephone or other form of communication Occupational therapists often evaluate IADLs when completing patient assessments. The American Occupational Therapy Association identifies 12 types of IADLs that may be performed as a co-occupation with others: Care of others (including selecting and supervising caregivers) Care of pets Child rearing Communication management Community mobility Financial management Health management and maintenance Home establishment and maintenance Meal preparation and cleanup Religious observances Safety procedures and emergency responses Shopping Therapy Occupational therapists evaluate and use therapeutic interventions to rebuild the skills required to maintain, regain or increase a person's independence in all Activities of Daily Living that have declined because of health conditions (physical or mental), injury or age-related debility. Physical therapists use exercises to assist patients in maintaining and gaining independence in ADLs. The exercise program is based on what components patients are lacking such as walking speed, strength, balance, and coordination. Slow walking speed is associated with increased risk of falls. Exercise enhances walking speed, allowing for safer and more functional ambulation capabilities. After initiating an exercise program, it is important to maintain the routine. Otherwise, the benefits will be lost. Exercise for patients who are frail is essential for preserving functional independence and avoiding the necessity for care from others or placement in a long-term-care facility. Assistance Assisting in activities of daily living are skills required in nursing and as well as other professions such as nursing assistants. This includes assisting in patient mobility, such as moving an activity intolerant patient within bed. For hygiene, this often involves bed baths and assisting with urinary and bowel elimination. Evaluation There are several evaluation tools, such as the Katz ADL scale, the Older Americans Resources and Services (OARS) ADL/IADL scale, the Lawton IADL scale and the Bristol Activities of Daily Living Scale. In the domain of disability, measures have been developed to capture functional recovery in performing basic activities of daily living. Among them, some measures like the Functional Independence Measure are designed for assessment across a wide range of disabilities. Others like the Spinal Cord Independence Measure are designed to evaluate participants in a specific type of disability. Most models of health care service use ADL evaluations in their practice, including the medical (or institutional) models, such as the Roper-Logan-Tierney model of nursing, and the resident-centered models, such as the Program of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly (PACE). The Pervasive computing technology was considered to determine the wellness of the elderly living independently in their homes. The framework of the intelligent system consists of monitoring important daily activities through the observation of everyday object usage. The improved wellness indices helped in reducing false warnings related to the daily activities of elderly living. Research ADL evaluations are used increasingly in epidemiological studies as an assessment of health in later-life that does not necessarily involve specific ailments. Studies using ADL differ from those investigating specific disease outcomes, as they are sensitive to a broader spectrum of health effects, at lower-levels of impact. ADL is measured on a continuous scale, making the process of investigation fairly straightforward. Sidney Katz initially studied 64 hip fracture patients over an 18-month period. Comprehensive data on treatments, patient progression, and outcomes were collected during this study. After analyzing the study data, the researchers discovered that the patients they viewed as being most independent could perform a set of basic activities – ranging from the most complex bathing activity, to the least complex feeding activity. From these data, Katz developed a scale to assess patients' ability to live independently. This was first published in the 1963 in the Journal of the American Medical Association; the paper has since been cited over 1,000 times. Although the scale offers a standardized measure for psychological and biological function, the process of arriving at this assumption has been criticised. Specifically, Porter has argued for a phenomenological approach noting that: Katz et al. (1963) made a claim that became the basis for the ontological assumptions of the ADL research tradition. In their suggestion that there was an "ordered regression [in skills] as part of the natural process of aging" (p. 918), there was an implicit generalization, from their sample of older persons with fractured hips, to all older persons. Porter emphasizes the possible disease-specific nature of ADLs (being derived from hip-fracture patients), the need for objective definition of ADLs, and the possible value of adding additional functional measures. A systematic review examined the effectiveness of imparting activities of daily life skills programmes for people with chronic mental illnesses: See also Activities of daily living assistance Assisted living Schwab and England ADL scale Care of residents Global Assessment of Functioning Long-term care Long term care insurance Nursing home Transgenerational design References Occupational therapy Nursing Caregiving Self-care	[ 0.6844288110733032, 0.19567500054836273, -0.23530793190002441, -0.05316338688135147, -0.0301426500082016, 0.0402509905397892, 0.592287003993988, -0.1752464920282364, -0.22533847391605377, -0.5784150958061218, -0.4453486204147339, 0.6264779567718506, -0.4377678632736206, -0.2570224106311798, -0.16418147087097168, 0.7236483693122864, 0.5386556386947632, 0.48997849225997925, 0.42811116576194763, 0.041867680847644806, -0.6542055010795593, -0.1294594407081604, 0.29923948645591736, -0.3873465061187744, -0.09465350955724716, -0.11527879536151886, 0.28389638662338257, 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236138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TB	TB	TB or Tb may refer to: Science and technology Computing Terabyte (TB), a unit of information (often measuring storage capacity) Terabit (Tb), a unit of information (often measuring data transfer) Thunderbolt (interface) Vehicles T.B. (Thompson Brothers), a three-wheeled cyclecar manufactured by Thompson Brothers of Bilston, England, from 1919 until 1924 Torpedo boat, a relatively small and fast naval vessel designed to carry torpedoes into battle Boeing TB, an American torpedo bomber biplane designed by the US Navy and built by Boeing in 1927 Other uses in science and technology Terbium, a metallic element with chemical symbol Tb Terrific broth, a bacterial growth medium for E. coli Tuberculosis (TB), a chronic infectious disease Tubercle bacillus, another name for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the pathogen causing tuberculosis. Brightness temperature (Tb), in astrophysics Sports TB Tvøroyri (Tvøroyrar Bóltfelag), a Faroese football club from Tvøroyri Tampa Bay Buccaneers, a professional American football team in the Tampa Bay Area Tampa Bay Lightning, a professional ice hockey team in the Tampa Bay Area Tampa Bay Rays, a professional baseball team in the Tampa Bay Area Total bases, a baseball statistic Other uses Tablespoon (tb), a rough, culinary unit of volume Tommy Brown (record producer) (also known as TB or TB Hits), American record producer and songwriter Taco Bell, an American chain of fast-food restaurants Teboil (until 1966 TB), a Finnish gas station company Tekkaman Blade, a Japanese animated TV series Places in the United States TB, Maryland, an unincorporated community Tampa Bay, Florida	[ 0.5422583222389221, 0.1333465278148651, -0.8192681074142456, 0.6323143243789673, -0.010155639611184597, 0.402520090341568, 0.13427883386611938, -0.3991653323173523, -0.10705941915512085, -0.19415727257728577, 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236140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSP	MSP	MSP may refer to: Businesses and organizations LoanSphere MSP, a mortgage servicing platform application provided by Black Knight Financial Services Managed Service Provider, a company that is outsourced to take care of business's IT services Matchstick Productions, a company producing videos of extreme sports, especially skiing Mathematical Sciences Publishers, a scientific publisher based in Berkeley, California Men's Studies Press, an academic publisher registered in Harriman, Tennessee Moscow Finnish School (Moskovan suomalainen peruskoulu) Movimento Sviluppo e Pace, an Italian NGO Multi-Sided Platform, an organization that enables interaction between two or more groups of agents, for example through a two-sided market Government and politics Police forces Malabar Special Police, a paramilitary unit of the State Police of Kerala, India Maine State Police, state police agency for the U.S. state of Maine Maryland State Police, state police agency for the U.S. state of Maryland Massachusetts State Police, state police agency for the U.S. state of Massachusetts Michigan State Police, state police agency for the U.S. state of Michigan Minnesota State Patrol, state police agency for the U.S. state of Minnesota Political parties Movement of Society for Peace (French: Mouvement de la société pour la paix, Arabic: Harakat Moudjtamaa As-Silm حركة مجتمع السلم, formerly called Hamas حماس), an Algerian political party National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi), Islamist political party in Turkey Social Patriot Movement (Spanish: Movimiento Social Patriota), Chilean fascist organization. Prisons Maine State Prison, a former prison in Thomaston, Maine Michigan State Prison, a former prison in Jackson, Michigan Mississippi State Penitentiary, in Parchman, Mississippi Missouri State Penitentiary, a former prison in Jefferson City, Missouri Montana State Prison, in Deer Lodge, Montana Other uses in government and politics Main-Spessart, code used on German vehicle registration plates Medical Services Plan of British Columbia, government-administered single-payer health insurance scheme in the Canadian province of British Columbia Medicare Savings Program Member of the Scottish Parliament Ministerio de Salud Pública, Uruguayan ministry of public health Places Minneapolis–Saint Paul, the twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul and the surrounding area — the most highly populated area in Minnesota, U.S. Science and technology Biology, ecology, and medicine Major sperm protein, the most abundant protein in nematode sperm Marine spatial planning, a process of making decisions about sustainable use of marine resources Merozoite surface protein, used in malaria research Methylation-specific PCR, a method for detecting methylated DNA sequence Macrophage-stimulating protein Computing and information technology Managed service provider, a business model for providing information-technology services Max/MSP, max signal processing Message Send Protocol, an application-layer computing protocol used to send a short message between networking nodes on a computer network Message Submission Program or smmsp in Sendmail e-mail systems Microsoft Installer Patch Files, files downloaded from updating applications installed with Microsoft Installer and which have the .msp file extension Microsoft Points, the currency used on the Xbox Live and Zune marketplaces Microsoft Project, a project-management software program developed and sold by Microsoft Microsoft Student Partners, an organization of university students interested in careers in technology and showing a willingness to help others learn about Microsoft technology Microsoft Surface Pro Minimum spanning tree, a graph theory problem MSP (file format), a pre-bmp picture format readable in the oldest versions of Microsoft Paint TI MSP430, a mixed-signal microcontroller family from Texas Instruments Other uses in science and technology Mechanically separated poultry, a paste-like meat product Millisecond pulsar, in astronomy, a pulsar with a rotational period in the range of 1-10 milliseconds Micro-spectrophotometer, an instrument used to measure the UV, visible, and near-infrared spectra of microscopic objects Monosodium phosphate, a chemical compound of sodium with a phosphate counterion MSP Groza silent pistol, a double-barreled firearm designed in the Soviet Union in 1972 Transport Marina South Pier MRT station, a MRT station in Singapore (MRT station abbreviation MSP) Midway station (Minnesota), a former train station in St. Paul, Minnesota, United States Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport, in Hennepin County, Minnesota, U.S. (IATA airport code MSP) Other uses Manic Street Preachers, Welsh rock band formed in 1986 Meadowbrook State Parkway, in New York Minimum Support Price, regulated agriculture commodity price in India Maastricht Science Programme, Liberal Arts & Sciences programme at Maastricht University	[ 0.31472110748291016, 0.039817407727241516, 0.2059086263179779, 0.466865599155426, 0.29192402958869934, 0.11804003268480301, 0.30382221937179565, 0.05088289454579353, -0.6009086966514587, 0.017233192920684814, -0.6732576489448547, 0.1571546494960785, 0.05476925149559975, -0.26732611656188965, 0.29788023233413696, -0.19682945311069489, 0.4399566352367401, 0.6859426498413086, -0.2255699336528778, -0.33840423822402954, -0.7794584631919861, 0.019824180752038956, 0.6600998044013977, -0.8324898481369019, -0.09183914214372635, 0.3243788778781891, 0.3462008535861969, 0.09485296159982681, -0.2738947868347168, 0.2572558522224426, 0.28356730937957764, 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236141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy%20Dudek	Jerzy Dudek	Jerzy Henryk Dudek (; born 23 March 1973) is a Polish former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. After beginning his career in his home country, he went on to have successful spells in the Netherlands and England, winning the Champions League with Liverpool in 2005 and appearing in 186 official matches for the club over six seasons. He also spent four years at Real Madrid. Dudek played 60 times for Poland – the second most-capped player in his position for several years – representing the nation at the 2002 World Cup. Club career Early years Born in Rybnik, Dudek began playing football at twelve for Górnik Knurów. Six years later, he made his senior debuts with Concordia Knurów in the third division, where he set a record of 416 minutes without conceding a goal. Dudek only played one season in the Ekstraklasa, appearing in roughly half of the matches for Sokół Tychy as the club finished in mid-table, making his first appearance in the competition against Legia Warsaw. Feyenoord Dudek left his country in 1996 at age 23, joining Feyenoord, but had to wait a year before he made his debut, proceeding to appear in all Eredivisie matches the following four campaigns combined. He won the national championship in 1998–99 along with the subsequent edition of the Johan Cruyff Shield, after a 3–2 win over Ajax. Dudek won the Dutch Golden Shoe award in 2000, becoming the first foreign player to win the award. He played his final game for the Rotterdam side against Ajax on 26 August 2001. Liverpool Dudek and fellow goalkeeper Chris Kirkland joined Liverpool in late August 2001. Despite the latter being the more expensive of the two, the former immediately replaced incumbent goalkeeper Sander Westerveld as coach Gérard Houllier's first-choice and, following a first season where his clean sheets and fine performances helped the club finish second in the Premier League behind double-winners Arsenal, he was nominated alongside Oliver Kahn and Gianluigi Buffon for the UEFA Goalkeeper of the Year award. The following campaign, Dudek rebounded from a series of errors in the league to win the League Cup with a player of the match performance against Manchester United in the final. Pope John Paul II, who was a goalkeeper in his youth, met personally with him in 2004, saying that he was his fan and followed Liverpool whenever they played; the player presented the Pope with a souvenir goalkeeper shirt, and would later dedicate Liverpool's UEFA Champions League success to the late pontiff. Dudek was a catalyst in Liverpool's 2005 Champions League victorious run, performing a double save against A.C. Milan's Andriy Shevchenko at the end of extra time in the final, after the team had rallied from a 0–3 deficit to tie the match 3–3. He saved from Andrea Pirlo and Shevchenko in the ensuing penalty shootout, won 3–2. During the shootout, he attempted to distract the opposing players with the "spaghetti legs" tactic that was used by former Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar in the 1984 European Cup Final. Being European Cup winners for the fifth time, the English kept the trophy and received a multiple-winner badge, and he became the third Polish footballer after Zbigniew Boniek (with Juventus) and fellow goalkeeper Józef Młynarczyk (Porto) to win the Champions League – he also received his second Goalkeeper of the Year nomination; a group of Liverpool fans, "The Trophy Boyz", recorded a novelty tribute single called "Du the Dudek", which became a top-40 hit in the United Kingdom. Profits from the sale of the track went to the family of Michael Shields, a club supporter who was imprisoned in Bulgaria in controversial circumstances following the match. Dudek lost his starting position to new acquisition Pepe Reina in 2005–06, following an arm injury, only making 12 more appearances for the Reds in the following two seasons combined (eight in the league). Despite courting controversy by accusing manager Rafael Benítez of "treating him like a slave", he insisted he had no ill feelings towards the club or anyone associated with it and only wanted to leave after failing to make Poland's World Cup squad, but still stayed on for another year at the manager's request. He was voted by fans at number 36 in the list of "100 Players Who Shook the Kop". In a poll conducted by UEFA.com, Dudek's double save from Shevchenko was voted the greatest Champions League moment of all time, ahead of Zinedine Zidane's left-footed volley against Bayer Leverkusen in the 2002 final and Ole Gunnar Solskjær's injury-time winner against Bayern Munich in 1999 for Manchester United. Real Madrid The 34-year-old Dudek moved to Real Madrid for 2007–08, but only played in two La Liga games in four years due to the presence of Iker Casillas. Nevertheless, his attitude and work ethic earned praise from his fans, teammates, coaching staff and several Spanish journalists; his man of the match performance in his debut, in the penultimate match of the season against Real Zaragoza, was hailed in the Spanish press, despite not being enough to earn selection for Poland's squad for UEFA Euro 2008. In Juande Ramos' first match as Madrid manager, in December 2008, Dudek was handed a rare start in a 3–0 home defeat of Zenit Saint Petersburg as the club was already qualified from the Champions League group stages. In a match where Madrid's attacking play made headlines, he made several fine saves and exuded an air of calm solidity and confidence, particularly on crosses, earning a clean sheet in the process. This performance earned glowing praise from the manager, who highlighted the goalkeeper's qualities and referred to him as a "magnificent player"; it would be his last appearance of the campaign, which also saw a 0–5 aggregate loss against former club Liverpool in the round of 16. Speculation was rife about Dudek's dissatisfaction with life at Real Madrid, and an end-of-season return to Feyenoord where he would work more closely with head coach Leo Beenhakker – his former boss at Feyenoord and also at the helm of the Polish national team – was a possibility. However, no move materialised, and with former teammate Jordi Codina leaving to join Getafe, the 36-year-old accepted a new one-year deal extension, while also speaking about his contentment. On 27 October 2009, Dudek saw his first action of the campaign in the first round of the Copa del Rey, in a 0–4 shock loss to minnows Alcorcón from Segunda División B, with the goalkeeper being one of the few on the losing end to perform well. He also appeared in the second leg, an insufficient 1–0 home win. On 10 April 2010, following news of the air crash which claimed the lives of 96 Polish people – including President of Poland Lech Kaczyński and several top government officials – the players of both Real Madrid and Barcelona agreed, at Dudek's request, to observe a minute's silence for the evening's El Clásico match. His teammates also agreed to wear black armbands for the match. On 15 July 2010, Dudek accepted another one-year contract to stay with Real Madrid. As manager José Mourinho was appointed, he worked with his fourth coach in as many seasons; on 30 November, he was fined €5,000 for his role in the controversial sendings-off of teammates Xabi Alonso and Sergio Ramos in the Champions League group stage match against Ajax. Dudek made his first start of 2010–11 in the same competition, against Auxerre on 8 December. However, after making two impressive saves, he saw his action terminated after sustaining a jaw injury in a clash with opposing forward Roy Contout just before half-time. He was successfully fitted with an intermaxillary fixation device and was out of action for six weeks before returning to training, and was also praised for his performance by stand-in manager Aitor Karanka. Dudek was named as a substitute in the 2010–11 Spanish Cup final, a 1–0 victory over Barcelona. He made his final appearance for the Merengues on 21 May 2011 in an 8–1 home rout of Almería, and was substituted in the 77th minute to a guard of honour from his Real Madrid teammates. International career Dudek received his first call-up for Poland in 1996 as an unused substitute during an exhibition game against Russia in Moscow. He won his first cap in February 1998 in another friendly with Israel, and also captained the team once in a friendly against Estonia. Dudek played nine of the national team's ten 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifiers as they finished top of their group, and started in the finals in Japan and South Korea, where they exited at the group stage. He also played in seven of his country's ten qualifying matches for the 2006 World Cup, but owing to a lack of appearances at club level during the season, he was dropped from the starting line-up in favour of Artur Boruc and left off the final squad as a result. Dudek's omission from the World Cup squad was greeted with shock among Polish fans and media alike, with one newspaper's headline reading, "Has Janas [national team manager] gone mad?!" During a warm-up match against Colombia, where both Boruc and Tomasz Kuszczak were at fault for each of the goals in a 1–2 home defeat, the angered Polish fans started to chant Dudek's name as a reminder of what they perceived as a mistake by Janas to drop him. It is worth noting that the goal Kuszczak conceded, which prompted the chants, was directly from a goal-kick from the opposing goalkeeper Neco Martínez. Following the World Cup, Dudek returned to the national team to play in two internationals under new boss Beenhakker, a 0–2 friendly defeat in Denmark and a 1–3 UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying loss against Finland at home, before being dropped yet again. Despite a period of three years "in the wilderness", he always believed that he would return to the national team and, in September 2009, he was called up to the squad for the 2010 World Cup qualifiers against the Czech Republic and Slovakia by interim manager Stefan Majewski; after being on the bench for the first match in Prague, which saw Poland's slim World Cup hopes shattered, he won his 59th cap against the latter on 14 October in the nation's final competitive game before Euro 2012. In a match which was played in heavy snow and in front of a near-empty Stadion Slaski in Chorzów, he was denied a clean sheet by an own goal from Seweryn Gancarczyk in a 0–1 defeat. Dudek played his last international on 4 June 2013, against Liechtenstein. He captained the team, wore number 60 on his shirt and came off just before half-time. Ambassadorship Dudek's status as an icon in Poland played a crucial role in securing the status of joint host nation for the Euro 2012 for his country. Along with his Champions League opponent Shevchenko of Ukraine, he was a part of the joint delegation and was involved in a presentation with the striker. Dudek was also named as the ambassador for the 2015 UEFA Europa League Final in Warsaw. Personal life Dudek and his wife, Mirella, have one son, Aleksander, and two daughters, Victoria and Natalia. His father was a miner and he spoke of himself having taken training to follow in his father's footsteps before his opportunity to play football came along. His younger brother, Dariusz, was also a footballer, and played mainly for Odra Wodzisław. Dudek refused to wear the 13 shirt for two seasons after arriving at Real Madrid, stating that Polish goalkeepers generally do not use 13; the numbers 1, 12 and 22 are traditionally used. He therefore took number 25 as it was the next best thing while Codina wore 13 until his departure. Dudek was #13 for 2009–10 under Manuel Pellegrini, but was handed back the 25 shirt under Mourinho. In his first season at Liverpool, he wore 12 because Westerveld was still in possession of the 1 squad number. In 2005, Dudek received the title of the honourable citizen of Knurów, during a charity match called "Jerzy Dudek & Friends." He also made his Polish television debut as an analyst for the 2005 UEFA Super Cup final between Liverpool and CSKA Moscow, which he missed due to injury. In 2006, while on summer vacation in Poland, his home on the Wirral Peninsula was burgled and several valuables and treasured football memorabilia were stolen. Thanks to the efforts of the Merseyside Police Department, his collection of shirts, medals and awards was recovered along with most of his valuables. Dudek also stated he would like to start a football academy in Poland with his brother after retiring from football. He settled with his family in Kraków. In 2014, Dudek completed his first full season in the Volkswagen Castrol Cup, a racing championship held at circuits around Eastern Europe during the summer months. Career statistics Club International Honours Feyenoord Eredivisie: 1998–99 Johan Cruyff Shield: 1999 Liverpool FA Cup: 2005–06 League Cup: 2002–03 FA Community Shield: 2006 UEFA Champions League: 2004–05 Real Madrid La Liga: 2007–08 Copa del Rey: 2010–11 Supercopa de España: 2008 Individual Dutch Golden Shoe: 2000 Dutch Goalkeeper of the Year: 1998–99, 1999–2000 Alan Hardaker Trophy: 2003 References External links Stats at Voetbal International Liverpool historic profile Official website 1973 births Living people People from Rybnik Sportspeople from Silesian Voivodeship Polish footballers Association football goalkeepers Ekstraklasa players GKS Tychy players Eredivisie players Feyenoord players Premier League players Liverpool F.C. players La Liga players Real Madrid CF players UEFA Champions League winning players Poland international footballers 2002 FIFA World Cup players Polish expatriate footballers Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands Expatriate footballers in England 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236147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute%20force	Brute force	Brute Force or brute force may refer to: Techniques Brute force method or proof by exhaustion, a method of mathematical proof Brute-force attack, a cryptanalytic attack Brute-force search, a computer problem-solving technique People Brute Force (musician) (born 1940), American singer and songwriter Arts and entertainment Film Brute Force (1914 film), a short silent drama directed by D. W. Griffith Brute Force (1947 film), a film noir directed by Jules Dassin Literature Brute Force, a 2008 Nick Stone Missions novel by Andy McNab Brute Force (Ellis book), a 1990 book by the historian John Ellis Brute Force: Cracking the Data Encryption Standard, a 2005 book by Matt Curtin Other media Brute Force (album), a 2016 record by the Algorithm Brute Force (comics), a comic by Simon Furman Brute Force (video game), a 2003 third-person shooter See also Force (disambiguation) Brute (disambiguation)	[ 0.23370733857154846, 0.20887072384357452, -0.9597581624984741, 0.26953059434890747, -0.06576783955097198, 0.2063646763563156, 0.5363343358039856, -0.14469894766807556, -0.41269227862358093, -0.22865404188632965, -0.46236613392829895, 0.6461997628211975, -0.1583983600139618, 0.05325635150074959, -0.7374679446220398, 0.5174902081489563, -0.01808314397931099, -0.1531674563884735, -0.36581289768218994, 0.18631857633590698, -0.28592997789382935, 0.19161471724510193, 0.41021719574928284, 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236148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin%20Empire%20%28disambiguation%29	Qin Empire (disambiguation)	Qin Empire or Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), was the first empire in Chinese history. Qin Empire may also refer to: The Qin Empire (TV series), a 2009 Chinese TV series The Qin Empire II: Alliance, a 2012 Chinese TV series The Qin Empire III, a 2017 Chinese TV series , a 2020 Chinese TV series	[ -0.1722925901412964, -0.1792169064283371, -0.594170331954956, 0.1282222419977188, -0.024976497516036034, 0.39587917923927307, -0.16040512919425964, 0.9450546503067017, -0.4232383966445923, -0.27753278613090515, 0.35031774640083313, -0.5234923958778381, -0.2773684859275818, 0.5522456169128418, -0.3917485475540161, 0.11475325375795364, 0.2852712571620941, 0.11106126755475998, -0.15563713014125824, 0.4212564527988434, -0.42446401715278625, 0.3597179055213928, 0.3139133155345917, 0.3752681612968445, 0.2694565951824188, -0.35518738627433777, 0.5936441421508789, -0.29134097695350647, 0.27125084400177, -0.7879202365875244, -0.2770421802997589, -0.09260059893131256, -0.33345359563827515, -0.5620439648628235, -0.6961770057678223, -0.5103986859321594, -0.15208423137664795, 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236149	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifeguard%20%28comics%29	Lifeguard (comics)	Lifeguard (Heather Cameron) is a fictional character, a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is primarily associated with the X-Men. Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Salvador Larroca, she first appeared in X-Treme X-Men #6 (Dec. 2001). She is a mutant, gaining whatever superhuman abilities are needed in a life-threatening situation. She and her brother Slipstream were briefly members of the segment of X-Men featured in the series X-Treme X-Men. Fictional character biography X-Treme X-Men Heather and Davis Cameron were a lifeguard and a surfer, respectively, living in Surfers Paradise in Australia. Unbeknownst to them, their father is an underworld crime lord known as Viceroy, and upon his death they were attacked. Together with Storm and Neal Shaara (the new Thunderbird), they managed to defeat their attackers. Heather discovered she was a mutant with the power to manifest whatever was necessary to save the life of someone in danger around her, including her own. Her power enabled her to manifest wings, golden armor, the ability to breathe underwater, and many other less noticeable adaptations. Heather soon joined the splinter team of X-Men, and formed a romance with Thunderbird. During a mission to infiltrate the ship of the intergalactic warlord, Khan, Heather's appearance changes to resemble the alien Shi'ar race, and it was theorized that she and Davis had some Shi'ar heritage. Jean Grey notes that the cranial markings on her head and the crest of feathers she had manifested indicated Heather is of Shi'ar royal ancestry. Also, an entry from Destiny's diary seems to imply that Heather and Davis were "Mothered by War," or Deathbird. The entry shows a picture of Deathbird and some of the X-Treme team. Her brother, unable to see past her new, alien appearance, leaves the team. Lifeguard and Thunderbird travel in search of him. The Xavier Institute Months later, Lifeguard and Thunderbird returned to the X-Men, apparently not locating Slipstream. Together with Thunderbird, she joined the X-Corporation. However this only lasted weeks, as there was a synchronized attack on several of the X-Corporation offices after the catastrophic events of M-Day, leading Cyclops to call for the disbanding of all offices. Heather is one of a handful of mutants to have retained her powers in the wake of House of M. Still involved with Thunderbird III, she wasn't active in any X-Men roster, though the 198 Files verified her location as residing at the Xavier Institute for Higher Learning. Utopia Heather later resurfaces after the events of Schism as a member of Cyclops' street team with Boom Boom and Dazzler in San Francisco and Utopia. Powers and abilities Heather's mutant power allows her body to react to any threat by transforming or manifesting a power to deal with the situation (similar to that of the X-Men's Darwin). In all of her appearances, she has only been shown to use this ability while defending herself and others. It is as yet unknown if she's able to use this ability for her own protection. She has a moderate level of control over this power and has sometimes been able to trigger it at will, although she has not displayed any control over the transformations or powers she manifests. Heather has mostly manifested physical changes such as extra arms, armored skin, wings, and a mermaid tail. However, in her first appearance, she also demonstrated hydrokinesis. The full extent of Lifeguard's abilities have yet to be revealed. In her most recent appearance with the emergence of her inherent Shi'ar genome, she appeared to be locked into her final transformation of gold skin, wings, and claws, still unable to control her powers and possibly unable to transform any further or reverse the change. Other versions X-Men: The End Lifeguard appears in X-Men: The End as a protector of Aliyah Bishop in the Shi'ar Imperium. She is ultimately killed sacrificing herself for Aliyah. Reception Comic Book Resources placed her as one of the superheroes Marvel wants you to forget. References External links MarvelDatabase:Lifeguard MarvelDatabase:Character Gallery Lifeguard Lifeguard on the Marvel Universe Character Bio Wiki UncannyXmen.net Character Profile on Lifeguard Characters created by Chris Claremont Characters created by Salvador Larroca Comics characters introduced in 2001 Fictional extraterrestrial–human hybrids Fictional lifeguards Fictional people from Queensland Marvel Comics aliens Marvel Comics characters who are shapeshifters Marvel Comics female superheroes Marvel Comics mutants	[ 0.24198944866657257, -0.16653990745544434, 0.05939570069313049, 0.12545964121818542, 0.40288159251213074, 0.24156077206134796, 0.23965339362621307, -0.14627626538276672, -0.38229233026504517, 0.15128324925899506, -0.32702672481536865, 0.678636908531189, -0.11467014998197556, -0.2627701759338379, -0.16643625497817993, 0.20363345742225647, 0.09916623681783676, 1.0649559497833252, -0.31384944915771484, -0.6764652132987976, -0.39721187949180603, -0.4531427323818207, 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236158	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster%20pack	Booster pack	In collectible card games, digital collectible card games and collectible miniature wargames, a booster pack is a sealed package of cards or figurines, designed to add to a player's collection. A box of multiple booster packs is referred to as a booster box. Booster packs contain a small number of randomly assorted items (8–15 for cards; 3–8 for figurines). Booster packs are the smaller, cheaper counterparts of starter decks, though many expansion sets are sold only as booster packs. While booster packs are cheaper than starter packs, the price per item is typically higher. Booster packs are generally priced to serve as good impulse purchases, with prices comparable to a comic book and somewhat lower than those of most magazines, paperback books, and similar items. In many games, there is a fixed distribution based on rarity, while others use truly random assortments. When the distribution is based on rarity, booster packs usually contain one or two rares, depending on the game, while the remainder are of lesser rarity. Examples of sizes from different games Magic: The Gathering In the expansions Legends, The Dark, Arabian Nights, Fallen Empires, and Antiquities, cards were sold in 8 card booster packs. In Limited Edition Alpha and Limited Edition Beta, as well as from Unlimited Edition onward, the cards were sold in 15 cards per booster: 11 commons, 1 rare, and 3 uncommons; Core Set boosters contain a basic land as one of the commons. Starting with the Shards of Alara block, booster packs for both Core Sets and expansions began to contain 1 land, 10 commons, 3 uncommons, either 1 rare (7/8 chance) or 1 mythic rare (1/8 chance), and either a tip card (which explains the new rules in the set, such as exalted in the Alara Block or Infect in the Scars of Mirrodin Block) or a token (which is of a type produced by a card in the set). Also, roughly one in every four booster packs contain a foil card, which can be of any rarity, including basic land. Since foil cards replace a common, no matter what the rarity of the foil, it means that there is a chance that a booster pack could contain 2 rares, a rare and a mythic rare, or even 2 mythic rares. Also, the presence of a foil card means that there is a chance that there are two of the same card in the booster pack (one foil and one regular), which would not occur otherwise. Note: Innistrad boosters, first released in September 2011, contain a slightly different proportion of cards due to the introduction of double-faced cards. In Innistrad boosters one of the 10 commons is replaced by a double-sided card. This double-sided card can be of any rarity and either regular or foil, with the likelihood of a specific card being present depending on its rarity. Also, there is roughly a 3/4 chance that the basic land will be replaced by a checklist. Finally, non-double-sided foil cards may still be present, probably still in roughly 1/4 of the boosters. 6 cards booster: 5 random cards which may be common, uncommon, rare, or mythic rare. Includes 1 basic land and either a card containing an explanation of a magic the gathering keyword (e.g., first strike, chroma, hybrid mana symbols) or a token creature card. The Spoils 13 cards per booster: 1 rare, 3 uncommons and 9 commons with each card available as a foil (randomly replacing a common) in each set except Seed 2. In Seed 2 there are still 13 cards per booster: 1 rare, 12 commons with the rare being randomly replaced with a foil version about 1 in every 6 packs. Seed 3 (TBA) will be a fix set, meaning there are no randomized boosters. This set will contain 30 cards. The following set (TBA) will resume randomized booster packs. Call of Cthulhu Collectible Card Game 11 cards per booster: 1 rare, 3 uncommons and 7 commons. Recently, the game switched to non-collectable expansions called Asylum Packs. The Lord of the Rings 11 cards per booster: 1 rare, 3 uncommons, 7 commons. There is a one in seven chance that a special foil card takes the place of the rare. Star Wars Miniatures 7 figures per booster, split: 4 commons, 2 un-commons and 1 rare or very rare. In some sets such as Universe, there will be a guaranteed 'Huge' figure, which may take the place of a very rare, rare or uncommon. Duel Masters 10 cards per booster: guaranteed to contain rare cards, 2 is also possible in a booster. If a booster does contain 2, one will be rare while the other will be very rare, or super rare. In the Japanese version, there are only 5 cards per booster pack and there is no guarantee to have rare cards, however, it is possible to get holographic cards of any type. HeroClix Recent sets use 5 figure boosters. A booster contains 2 or 3 commons, 1 or 2 uncommons, and 1 rare, but super-rare or chase figures may replace one of the other figures in the box (which is replaced varies based on the set). Prior to the Avengers set, HeroClix typically used 4 figure boosters with a much more complicated six-tier rarity scheme, with a few exceptions such as the Fantastic Forces set, which had three figures boosters because of the larger size of many of the pieces, and the 1 or 2 figure boosters formerly marketed at retail stores. My Little Pony 12 cards – 8 common, 3 uncommon, 1 rare. Booster packs have approximately a 1/4 of having a common swapped with a 'parallel foil' card and approximately a 1/12 chance (1/13 Premiere, 1/11 Canterlot Nights) of having a common swapped with an ultra rare (always foil). It seems as if you have some degree of safety in not receiving two of the same rare in a single booster box. No cards with the 'Fixed' rarity will be in booster packs, these are only found in the theme/starter decks. Pokémon Originally 11 cards per booster pack – 1 rare card, 3 uncommons, and 7 commons. With the release of the E-Series, it became 9 cards per booster – 5 commons, 2 uncommons, 1 reverse holo, and 1 rare. Became 10 cards after the release of Diamond and Pearl with 3 uncommons instead of 2. World of Warcraft 15 random cards – 10 commons, 3 uncommons, 1 rare or epic, and 1 hero card or loot card. Booster packs also have one UDE point card redeemable online (during the time Upper Deck Entertainment held the WoWTCG license). Boosters are available for all released card sets. Starting with "March of the Legion" expansion, Booster packs contained 19 random cards: 3 extra commons and 1 extra uncommon. The 15-card format returned by "Throne of the Tides" expansion. Yu-Gi-Oh! Normal OCG booster pack: 5 cards per booster, not guaranteed to have rare cards. Normal TCG booster pack: 9 cards per booster, 1 non-common card (can be rare, super rare, ultra rare, and in some cases, secret rare or ultimate rare) and 8 commons. From The Duelist Genesis onwards, the 100% guaranteed rare had NOT been substituted for a rarer card, rather instead replacing 1 of the common cards. In other words, there are still 9 cards in lucky packs: but with 7 commons, 1 rare, and 1 super, ultra, ultimate or secret rare. Doctor Who - Battles in Time Normally 9 cards per pack: 8 commons and 1 rare, with a 1 per 6 packs chance of a super-rare card, a 1 per 24 packs chance of an ultra-rare card, and a 1 per 1000 packs chance of the Golden Ticket. Chaotic Normally 9 cards, 2 rares (sometimes 1 super or ultra, then a rare) and an assortment of uncommons and commons. Hearthstone Normally 5 cards per pack, with at least 1 card being rare or better. There is a chance of getting epic (1 in 10) and legendary cards (1 in 40), with a significantly lower chance of getting golden versions of cards. Starter deck A starter deck (also known as an intro deck, battle box, and other terms) is a box of cards or figurines designed as an entry point into a CCG or collectible miniature game for beginners. Starter decks are typically pre-constructed though they can also be random. Non-random cards may sometimes be referred to as "fixed" cards. Typically they are intended as a launching point, with an encouragement for further purchases to modify and improve these decks or sets. Starter decks may contain any number of items, including rulebooks, playmats, counters, dice, storage boxes, and common cards such as "basic land" in Magic: The Gathering, and other items. Some starter decks are meant for two players, so that a single set can be used instead of each player buying one separately. References Card game terminology Collectible card games Digital collectible card games	[ 0.3496260643005371, -0.1880088746547699, -0.3398882746696472, 0.5882231593132019, 0.07985591143369675, -0.27340632677078247, -0.4487842917442322, -0.28627946972846985, -0.3948877155780792, 0.0323219932615757, -0.5683616995811462, -0.02386857569217682, -0.14508135616779327, -0.23989510536193848, -0.30100134015083313, 0.4165838956832886, 0.5647868514060974, 0.5170796513557434, -0.5705814361572266, -0.22454048693180084, -0.28030461072921753, -0.3501977324485779, 0.11440443247556686, -0.3064156770706177, -0.19950078427791595, 0.13631302118301392, 0.3044646978378296, -0.25344711542129517, -0.010145893320441246, 0.34723031520843506, 0.06620115786790848, 0.2801700234413147, 0.29852616786956787, -0.45045286417007446, -0.18565165996551514, -0.3939667344093323, -0.1325373351573944, -0.20781823992729187, 0.10290195047855377, -0.7609987854957581, 0.19513243436813354, -0.06130742281675339, 0.2529534697532654, 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236162	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alias	Alias	An alias is an alternative name, such as a pseudonym. Alias or aliasing may also refer to: People Florina Alías (1921-1999), Spanish writer Arts and entertainment Comics Alias (comics), an American comic book Alias Enterprises, a United States publishing company, including the Alias Comics division Film Alias (2002 film), a Belgian film starring Veerle Baetens Alias (2013 film), a 2013 Canadian documentary film Gaming Alias (board game), a Finnish board game Alias (Forgotten Realms), the heroine of the novel Azure Bonds set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting for the Dungeons & Dragons game Alias (video game), a 2004 video game based on the TV series of the same name Music Alias (band), a rock band Alias (album), an album by the band Alias Alias (musician) (1976–2018), Brendon Whitney, an American hip-hop artist Alias, the name used by singer songwriter Ryan Tedder when working as a producer Alias Records, a record label "Alias", a song from the album A Sense of Purpose by Swedish band In Flames Television Alias (TV series), an American television series Alias the Jester, a British TV-cartoon series starring a character of the same name Computing Alias (command), a shell command Alias (Mac OS), an icon linking to another file Alias (SQL), a feature of SQL Alias Systems Corporation (formerly Alias Wavefront) Aliasing, different continuous signals becoming indistinguishable when sampled Aliasing (computing), multiple names for the same data location Pointer aliasing Autodesk Alias, a CAD surface creation and editing program Email alias, a virtual email address PowerAnimator, an Alias Systems Corporation program also known as Alias Other uses Alias, Iran, a village Alias transformation, a passive transformation, i.e., that leaves the position of an object fixed See also Allias, a neighbourhood of Tirana, Albania	[ 0.5242812037467957, 0.016985071823000908, -0.3941054046154022, 0.16413912177085876, 0.08652548491954803, -0.20563474297523499, 0.42038679122924805, 0.26812121272087097, -0.3139331340789795, 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236164	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictyostelium	Dictyostelium	Dictyostelium is a genus of single- and multi-celled eukaryotic, phagotrophic bacterivores. Though they are Protista and in no way fungal, they traditionally are known as "slime molds". They are present in most terrestrial ecosystems as a normal and often abundant component of the soil microflora, and play an important role in the maintenance of balanced bacterial populations in soils. The genus Dictyostelium is in the order Dictyosteliida, the so-called cellular slime molds or social amoebae. In turn the order is in the infraphylum Mycetozoa. Members of the order are Protista of great theoretical interest in biology because they have aspects of both unicellularity and multicellularity. The individual cells in their independent phase are common on organic detritus or in damp soils and caves. In this phase they are amoebae. Typically, the amoebal cells grow separately and wander independently, feeding mainly on bacteria. However, they interact to form multi-cellular structures following starvation. Groups of up to about 100,000 cells signal each other by releasing chemoattractants such as cyclic AMP (cAMP) or glorin. They then coalesce by chemotaxis to form an aggregate that becomes surrounded by an extracellular matrix. The aggregate forms a fruiting body, with cells differentiating individually into different components of the final structure. In some species, the whole aggregate may move collectively – forming a structure known as a grex or "slug" – before finally forming a fruiting body. Basic processes of development such as differential cell sorting, pattern formation, stimulus-induced gene expression, and cell-type regulation are common to Dictyostelium and metazoans. For further detail see family Dictyostelid. Discovery The cellular slime mold was formerly considered to be fungi following their discovery in 1869 by Brefeld. Although they resemble fungi in some respects, they have been included in the kingdom Protista. Individual cells resemble small amoebae in their movement and feeding, and so are referred to as myxamoebae. D. discoideum is the most studied of the genus. Traits Most of its life, this haploid social amoeba undergoes a vegetative cycle, preying upon bacteria in the soil, and periodically dividing mitotically. When food is scarce, either the sexual cycle or the social cycle begins. Under the social cycle, amoebae aggregate in response to cAMP by the thousands, and form a motile slug, which moves towards light. Ultimately the slug forms a fruiting body in which about 20% of the cells die to lift the remaining cells up to a better place for sporulation and dispersal. When starved for their bacterial food supply and exposed to dark, moist conditions, heterothallic or homothallic strains can undergo sexual development that results in the formation of a diploid zygote. Heterothallic mating has been best studied in D. discoideum and homothallic mating has been best studied in Dictyostelium mucoroides (strain DM7). In the heterothallic sexual cycle, amoebae aggregate in response to cAMP and sex pheromones, and two cells of opposite mating types fuse, and then begin consuming the other attracted cells. Before they are consumed, some of the prey cells form a cellulose wall around the entire group. When cannibalism is complete, the giant diploid cell is a hardy macrocyst which eventually undergoes recombination and meiosis, and hatches hundreds of recombinants. In D. mucoroides (DM7) homothallic mating, cells are directed towards sexual development by ethylene. Scientists also found the collective cell migration could occur without the presence of cAMP oscillations at multicellular stages, and novel models have been proposed to interpret this interesting phenomenon. Social characteristics Professor John Tyler Bonner (1920-2019) spent a lifetime researching the slime molds and created a number of fascinating films in the 1940s to show the life cycle; he mostly studied D. discoideum. In the videos, intelligence appears to be observed as the single cells, after separation, regroup into a cellular mass. The time-lapse film captivated audiences; indeed, Bonner when giving conferences stated that the film "always stole the show". The video is available on YouTube. When the organisms congregate, the mass is made of genetically distinct cells. Through natural selection, it is determined which of the organisms' genetic information will be present in future generations. The conflict is evidenced by unequal representations of two genetically different clones in spores of a chimera, the reduction of functionality seen in migrating chimeras, and a differentiation inducing factor (DIF) system, akin to poison, that appears to by made of cells forcing others to cease output of genetic information. Species Taxonomy of Dictyostelium is complicated. It has also been confused by the different forms in the life cycle stages and by the similar Polysphondylium spp. Below are some reported examples. ?Dictyostelium annularibasimum Li, Liu & Zhao 2016 ?Dictyostelium arabicum Hagiwara 1991 ?Dictyostelium barbarae Stephenson et al. 2019 ?Dictyostelium culliculosum Li & He 2008 ?Dictyostelium dichotomum Vadell & Cavender 2007 ?Dictyostelium germanicum Cavender et al. 1995 ?Dictyostelium globisporum Li & Liu 2011 ?Dictyostelium insulinativitatis Stephenson et al. 2019 ?Dictyostelium irregularis Olive et al. 1967 ?Dictyostelium magnum Hagiw. 1983 ?Dictyostelium microsorocarpum Li & He 2010 ?Dictyostelium roseum van Tieghem 1880 ?Dictyostelium vermiformum Vadell & Cavender 2007 Dictyostelium ammophilum Romeralo et al. 2010 ex Baldauf, Sheikh & Thulin 2017 Dictyostelium aureocephalum Hagiwara 1991 Dictyostelium aureum Olive 1901 Dictyostelium austroandinum Vadell et al. 2011 Dictyostelium barbibulus Perrigo & Romeralo 2013 Dictyostelium brefeldianum Hagiw. 1984 Dictyostelium brevicaule Olive 1901 Dictyostelium brunneum Kawabe 1982 Dictyostelium capitatum Hagiwara 1983 Dictyostelium chordatum Vadell et al. 2011 Dictyostelium citrinum Vadell et al. 1995 Dictyostelium clavatum Hagiwara 1992 Dictyostelium crassicaule Hagiwara 1984 Dictyostelium dimigraformum Cavender 1970 Dictyostelium discoideum Raper 1935 Dictyostelium firmibasis Hagiwara 1971 Dictyostelium gargantuum Vadell et al. 2011 Dictyostelium giganteum Singh 1947 Dictyostelium implicatum Hagiwara 1984 Dictyostelium intermedium Cavender 1976 Dictyostelium leptosomopsis Vadell et al. 2011 Dictyostelium leptosomum Cavender et al. 2002 Dictyostelium longosporum Hagiwara 1983 Dictyostelium macrocephalum Hagiwara 1985 Dictyostelium medium Hagiwara 1992 Dictyostelium mucoroides Brefeld 1869 Dictyostelium pseudobrefeldianum Hagiwara 1996 Dictyostelium purpureum Olive 1901 Dictyostelium quercibrachium Cavender et al. 2002 Dictyostelium robustum Hagiwara 1996 Dictyostelium rosarium Raper & Cavender 1968 Dictyostelium septentrionale Cavender 1978 Dictyostelium sphaerocephalum (Oudem. 1885) Saccardo, Marchal & Marchal 1885 Dictyostelium valdivianum Vadell et al. 2011 References Mycetozoa Amoebozoa genera Taxa named by Julius Oscar Brefeld	[ 0.0366545245051384, 0.35060107707977295, -0.4569842219352722, -0.2906971275806427, -0.31471115350723267, 0.41552478075027466, 0.314549058675766, 0.34363889694213867, 0.7340322732925415, -0.19989416003227234, 0.024925246834754944, -0.1309671550989151, -0.8677950501441956, 0.5106630325317383, 0.24091950058937073, 0.7809510827064514, 0.02930654212832451, 0.7375361919403076, 0.23890604078769684, 0.1276111900806427, 0.02617216482758522, -0.4254218637943268, 0.25594258308410645, -0.08416327834129333, 0.1692609339952469, -0.12018126249313354, 0.5346937775611877, 0.4143996834754944, 0.7876530289649963, -0.46793854236602783, -0.10228891670703888, 0.4937469959259033, 0.4070528447628021, -0.03668627142906189, 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236166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosman%20ruling	Bosman ruling	Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association ASBL v Jean-Marc Bosman (1995) C-415/93 (known as the Bosman ruling) is a 1995 European Court of Justice decision concerning freedom of movement for workers, freedom of association, and direct effect of article 39 (now article 45 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union) of the TEC. The case was an important decision on the free movement of labour and had a profound effect on the transfers of footballers—and by extension players of other professional sports—within the European Union (EU). The decision banned restrictions on foreign EU players within national leagues and allowed players in the EU to move to another club at the end of a contract without a transfer fee being paid. The ruling was made in a consolidation of three separate legal cases, all involving Belgian player Jean-Marc Bosman: Belgian Football Association v Jean-Marc Bosman R.F.C. de Liège v Jean-Marc Bosman and others UEFA v Jean-Marc Bosman Facts Jean-Marc Bosman was a player for RFC Liège in the Belgian First Division whose contract had expired in 1990. He wanted to change teams and move to Dunkerque, a French club. However, Dunkerque refused to meet his Belgian club's transfer fee demand, so Liège refused to release Bosman. In the meantime, Bosman's wages were reduced by 70% as he was no longer a first-team player. He took his case to the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg and sued for restraint of trade, citing FIFA's rules regarding football, specifically Article 17. Judgment On 15 December 1995, the court ruled the system, as it was constituted, placed a restriction on the free movement of workers and was prohibited by Article 39(1) of the EC Treaty (now Article 45 (1) of the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union). Bosman and all other EU footballers were given the right to a free transfer at the expiration of their contracts, provided that they transfer from a club within one EU association to a club within another EU association. Significance to football Prior to the Bosman ruling, professional clubs in some parts of Europe (but not, for example, in Spain and France) were able to prevent players from joining a club in another country even if their contracts had expired. In the United Kingdom, Transfer Tribunals had been in place since 1981 to resolve disputes over fees between clubs when transferring players at the end of their contracts. The Bosman ruling meant that players could move to a new club at the end of their contract without their old club receiving a fee. Players can now agree a pre-contract with another club for a free transfer if the players' contract with their existing club has six months or less remaining. The Bosman ruling also prohibited domestic football leagues in EU member states, and also UEFA, from imposing quotas on foreign players to the extent that they discriminated against nationals of EU states. At that time, many leagues placed quotas restricting the number of non-nationals allowed on member teams. Also, UEFA had a rule that prohibited teams in its competitions, namely the Champions League, Cup Winners' Cup and UEFA Cup, from naming more than three "foreign" players in their squads for any game. After the ruling, quotas could still be imposed, but only used to restrict the number of non-EU players on each team. According to a 2021 study, the Bosman ruling increased the competitiveness of national team football because it encouraged greater talent development. However, it reduced competition in the Champions League, as non-established teams tended to sell their best players rather than compete against the best teams. Players Since the ruling came into effect throughout the EU in 1995, several notable players in European football have benefited from the ruling. In 1996, Edgar Davids became Europe's first high-profile player to benefit from the ruling when he moved from Ajax to Milan. Ex-Hibernian FC player, Paul Kane became the first UK Bosman transfer, moving from Aberdeen FC to Norwegian side Viking Stavanger in 1996. In 1999, Steve McManaman became the most lucrative transfer at the time in British football, as "Britain's first high-profile Bosman departure", when he moved from Liverpool to Real Madrid and the deal resulted in McManaman becoming the highest paid British player in history, from 1999 to 2001. Since Davids and McManaman, scores of other notable players became able to negotiate deals according to their market value when their contracts expired, a trend that continued into the 2000s and beyond. Clubs The ruling meant that clubs could no longer block a move or demand a fee, from the player or from the destination club, if the player left at the end of their contracts. The Bosman ruling coincided directly with a new era of financial gains in football. In 2005, UEFA declared it was seeking to repair aspects of the ruling because it was believed to be the cause of the increasing rich-poor gap between elite and smaller clubs. Significance in EU law Bosman confirmed the "rule of reason" approach of the courts used in the important Cassis de Dijon case as not only suitable for issues relating to movement of goods within the EU, but also for cases concerning the free movement of workers. If free movement is indistinctly applied (i.e. not just against foreign nationals) it could be justified if... The measures used were in pursuit of a legitimate aim That aim was justified by pressing reasons of public interest The case also alludes to the fact that Alpine Investments v Minister van Financiën provides a similar test for services, and Gebhard v Consiglio dell'Ordine degli Avvocati e Procuratori di Milano for establishment. Other cases The Bosman ruling was considered and distinguished in Lehtonen (2000), a similar case which involved a deadline imposed by FIBA after which basketball teams could not include players who had played for another team in the same season, where it was found that such a restriction was lawful. See also Retain and transfer system Free agent Kingaby v Aston Villa, a similar 1912 court case in England Eastham v Newcastle United, a similar 1963 court case in England Seitz decision, a similar 1975 arbitration case in the North American Major League Baseball Kolpak ruling, which extended Bosman to countries with an associate trading relationship with the EU, most notably the ACP countries Webster ruling, a post-Bosman ruling which formalised the 'buy-out' rules for disputed transfers of players still within their contract term 6+5 rule Meca-Medina ruling, the ruling that finally decided whether all sports federations and national leagues were obligated to follow the EU laws Notes External links Text of the ECJ Ruling EUR-Lex, Publications Office of the European Union Labour law Court of Justice of the European Union case law Association football terminology Sports law 1995 in case law Association football transfers 1993–94 in Belgian football 1994–95 in Belgian football 1993–94 in 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236175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu%20Sharma	Vishnu Sharma	Vishnu Sharma (Sanskrit: विष्णुशर्मन् / विष्णुशर्मा) was an Indian scholar and author who is believed to have written the Panchatantra, a collection of fables. Works Panchatantra is one of the most widely translated non-religious books in history. The Panchatantra was translated into Middle Persian/Pahlavi in 570 CE by Borzūya and into Arabic in 750 CE by Persian scholar Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa as Kalīlah wa Dimnah (). In Baghdad, the translation commissioned by Al-Mansur, the second Abbasid Caliph, is claimed to have become "second only to the Qu'ran in popularity." "As early as the eleventh century this work reached Europe, and before 1600 it existed in Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, German, English, Old Slavonic, Czech, and perhaps other Slavonic languages. Its range has extended from Java to Iceland." In France, "at least eleven Panchatantra tales are included in the work of Jean de La Fontaine." Legend The prelude to the Panchatantra identifies Vishnu Sharma as the author of the work. Since there is no other independent external evidence about him, "it is impossible to say whether he was the historical author . . .or is himself a literary invention". Based on analysis of various Indian recensions and the geographical features and animals described in the stories, Kashmir is suggested to be his birthplace by various scholars. The prelude narrates the story of how Vishnu Sharma supposedly created the Panchatantra. There was a king called Sudarshan who ruled a kingdom, whose capital was a city called Mahilaropya (महिलारोप्य), whose location on the current map of India is unknown. The king had three sons named Bahushakti, Ugrashakti and shakti. Though the king himself was both a scholar and a powerful ruler, his sons were "all dullards." The king despaired of his three princes' inability to learn, and approached his ministers for counsel. They presented him with conflicting advice, but the words of one, called Sumati, rang true to the king. He said that the sciences, politics and diplomacy were limitless disciplines that took a lifetime to master formally. Instead of teaching the princes scriptures and texts, they should somehow be taught the wisdom inherent in them, and the aged scholar Vishnu Sharma was the man to do it. Vishnu Sharma was invited to the court, where the king offered him a hundred land grants if he could teach the princes. Vishnu Sharma declined the promised award, saying he did not sell knowledge for money, but accepted the task of making the princes wise to the ways of politics and leadership within six months. Vishnu Sharma knew that he could never instruct these three students through conventional means. He had to employ a less orthodox way, and that was to tell a succession of animal fables – one weaving into another – that imparted to them the wisdom they required to succeed their father. Adapting stories that had been told for thousands of years in India, panchatantra was composed into an entertaining five part work to communicate the essence of diplomacy, relationships, politics and administration to the princes. These five discourses — titled "The Loss of Friends", "The Winning of Friends", "Of Crows and Owls", "Loss of Gains" and "Imprudence" — became the Panchatantra, meaning the five (pancha) treatises (tantra). References Ancient Indian writers Fabulists Indian male writers Indian Sanskrit scholars People whose existence is disputed Year of birth missing Year of death missing	[ 0.15299925208091736, 0.4959169328212738, -0.9475497007369995, -0.012717006728053093, -0.19678020477294922, 0.8563472032546997, 1.263053059577942, -0.294973760843277, -0.501226007938385, 0.14459484815597534, -0.035047709941864014, 0.3579474687576294, -0.32843151688575745, 0.09485580027103424, 0.1486952006816864, -0.155784010887146, 0.6818930506706238, -0.2506265640258789, 0.11681677401065826, 0.026221640408039093, -0.2792222499847412, 0.7974132299423218, 0.5476522445678711, -0.3622018098831177, 0.42043817043304443, 0.10447975993156433, 0.43945327401161194, -0.046940747648477554, -0.3568301796913147, -0.3911651074886322, -0.351601779460907, 0.3764509856700897, -0.15255004167556763, 0.0220200028270483, -0.298500120639801, -0.2924058139324188, -0.3615899980068207, -0.087715744972229, -0.614262044429779, 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236185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO%20Group%2C%20Inc.%20v.%20International%20Business%20Machines%20Corp.	SCO Group, Inc. v. International Business Machines Corp.	SCO Group, Inc. v. International Business Machines Corp., commonly abbreviated as SCO v. IBM, is a civil lawsuit in the United States District Court of Utah. The SCO Group asserted that there are legal uncertainties regarding the use of the Linux operating system due to alleged violations of IBM's Unix licenses in the development of Linux code at IBM. The lawsuit was filed in 2003, it has lingered on through the bankruptcy of SCO Group and the adverse result in SCO v. Novell, and was reopened for continued litigation by order of a new judge on June 14, 2013. Pursuant to the court order reopening the case, an IBM Motion for Summary Judgment was filed based upon the results of the Novell decision. On December 15, 2014, the judge granted most of IBM's motion, thereby narrowing the scope of the case, which remained open. On March 1, 2016, following a ruling against the last remaining claims, the judge dismissed SCO's suit against IBM with prejudice. SCO filed an appeal later that month. In February 2018, as a result of the appeal and the case being partially remanded to the circuit court, the parties restated their remaining claims and provided a plan to move toward final judgement. Summary On March 6, 2003, the SCO Group (formerly known as Caldera International and Caldera Systems) filed a $1 billion lawsuit in the United States against IBM for allegedly "devaluing" its version of the UNIX operating system. SCO retained Boies Schiller & Flexner for this, and related subsequent litigation. The amount of alleged damages was later increased to $3 billion, and then $5 billion. SCO claimed that IBM had, without authorization, contributed SCO's intellectual property to the codebase of the open source, Unix-like Linux operating system. In May 2003, SCO Group sent letters to members of the Fortune 1000 and Global 500 companies warning them of the possibility of liability if they use Linux. The claims and counter-claims made by both sides then escalated, with both IBM and Linux distributor Red Hat starting legal action against SCO, SCO threatening Linux users who do not take out SCO UNIX licenses, and SCO suing Novell (see also SCO-Linux controversies), AutoZone and DaimlerChrysler. On September 30, 2003, Judge Kimball (the presiding federal district judge) granted the SCO Group's request for a delay until February 4, 2004, "to file any amended pleadings or add parties to this action". The schedule was amended again on July 1, 2005. In December 2006 the trial date was vacated pending the resolution of SCO's litigation with Novell, all parties agreeing that SCO v. Novell would resolve issues relating to SCO v. IBM. In an "Order Granting in Part IBM's Motion to Limit SCO's Claims" dated June 28, 2006, Judge Brooke Wells (the federal magistrate judge presiding over discovery aspects of the case) barred SCO from asserting 187 of the 298 allegedly misused items that IBM had moved to exclude from the lawsuit for lack of specificity, stating "many of SCO's arguments and much of Mr. Rochkind's declaration miss the mark", and comparing SCO's tactics with those of an officer who accuses a citizen of theft, but will not disclose what the citizen is accused of stealing. "Certainly if an individual was stopped and accused of shoplifting after walking out of Neiman Marcus, they would expect to be eventually told what they allegedly stole. It would be absurd for an officer to tell the accused that 'you know what you stole I'm not telling.' Or, to simply hand the accused individual a catalog of Neiman Marcus' entire inventory and say 'it's in there somewhere, you figure it out.'" On August 10, 2007, Judge Kimball, who also presides over the SCO v. Novell case, ruled that Novell, not the SCO Group, is the rightful owner of the copyrights covering the Unix operating system. The court also ruled that "SCO is obligated to recognize Novell's waiver of SCO's claims against IBM and Sequent". After the ruling Novell announced they have no interest in suing people over Unix and stated "We don't believe there is Unix in Linux". In an order entered on September 21, 2007, Judge Kimball administratively closed the case of SCO v. IBM due to SCO filing for bankruptcy on September 14, 2007. This means that all action in SCO v. IBM is stayed until SCO emerges from bankruptcy proceedings. If and when it does, the case SCO v. IBM will resume where it left off. On August 24, 2009, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit reversed the portion of the August 10, 2007 district court summary judgment in SCO v. Novell that Novell owned the copyright to Unix. As a result, SCO was permitted to pursue its claim of ownership of the Unix copyrights at trial. On March 30, 2010, the jury returned a verdict in SCO v. Novell, finding that Novell owns the copyrights. SCO's claims SCO's lawsuit has been consistent only in its claim of breach of contract (since the abandonment in early 2004 of its claim of misappropriation of trade secrets). SCO's initial claims were: Misappropriation of trade secrets Unfair competition Interference with contract Breach of IBM Software Agreement On July 22, 2003, SCO amended its complaint. It added two new claims: Breach of IBM Sublicensing Agreement Breach of Sequent Software Agreement On February 27, 2004, SCO amended the complaint again, dropping the trade secrets claim, but added the following: Breach of Sequent Sublicensing Agreement Copyright infringement Interference with business relationships SCO's claims in press releases and interviews have changed repeatedly as the affair has progressed. SCO has also both claimed and denied that the alleged copyright violations involved the Linux kernel. Computerworld reported Chris Sontag of SCO as saying: SCO refuses to allow access to the samples of code containing the alleged copyright violations except under a non-disclosure agreement (NDA). SCO's NDA would not only require that the signer keep confidential which lines of code SCO contested, but would also require that they hold confidential any information SCO told them, even if they already knew that information before being informed of it by SCO; all Linux kernel developers have considered this to be far too restrictive, so none of them have signed it. However, at SCO's annual reseller's convention in August 2003, they revealed two short sections of code they alleged were copyright violations, and images of Darl McBride's presentation of this code were soon after published on German computer magazine publisher Heinz Heise's website. On May 30, 2003, SCO Group's CEO Darl McBride was quoted as saying that the Linux kernel contained "hundreds of lines" of code from SCO's version of UNIX, and that SCO would reveal the code to other companies under NDA in July. To put this into context, David Wheeler's SLOCCount estimates the size of the Linux 2.4.2 kernel as 2,440,919 source lines of code out of over 30 million physical source lines of code for a typical Linux distribution. Therefore, as per SCO's own estimate, the allegedly infringing code would make up about 0.001% of the total code of a typical Linux installation. SCO has since upwardly revised this figure to over a million lines of code, however. SCO's major claims have now been reported as relating to the following components of the Linux kernel: Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), Non-uniform memory access (NUMA) multiprocessing, the read-copy-update (RCU) locking strategy, This technique is widely believed to have been developed at Sequent Computer Systems, who were then bought by IBM, who holds several patents (including patent ) on this technique. SGI's Extended File System (XFS), IBM's JFS journaling file system These claims flow from the accusation of breach of contract. The contract between IBM and AT&T Corporation (to which SCO claims to be successor in interest) allows IBM to use the SVR4 code, but the SVR4 code, plus any derivative works made from that code, must be held confidential by IBM. According to IBM's interpretation of the contract, and the interpretation published by AT&T in their "$ echo" newsletter in 1985, "derivative works" means any works containing SVR4 code. But according to SCO's interpretation, "derivative works" also includes any code built on top of SVR4, even if that does not contain, or even never contained, any SVR4 code. Thus, according to SCO, any AIX operating system code that IBM developed must be kept confidential, even if it contains nothing from SVR4. Free software and open source community reaction The lawsuit caused moral indignation and outrage in the free software and open source communities, who consider SCO's claims to be without merit and even cynically dishonest. Open source advocates' arguments include: that SCO does not even own the code in question. SCO has often called themselves "The owner of the UNIX operating system". But that claim is dubious at best. SCO certainly has no clear claim to SVR4 code. This view is now supported by the jury verdict in SCO v. Novell. that the Linux operating system was unlikely to contain UNIX code, as it had been written from scratch by hundreds of collaborators, with a well-documented provenance and revision history that was entirely in the public view; that it made no technical sense to incorporate SCO UNIX code in Linux, as Linux had the technical features that are claimed to have been appropriated already implemented before SCO UNIX had them; that even if Linux and SCO UNIX had some code in common, this did not necessarily mean that this code was copied to Linux from SCO UNIX—perhaps the common pieces of code had been legitimately copied from another open source operating system, perhaps a BSD-derived one, or one of the historical UNIX versions previously released by SCO; that Caldera Systems had begun as a Linux company before buying SCO's UNIX business and certain assets related to it, and has added many Linux-like features to SCO UNIX, and any common code may have in fact been copied from Linux into SCO UNIX: and furthermore, that if such reverse copying from Linux itself had occurred, that the distribution of SCO UNIX binaries containing GPL'd contributions may therefore require SCO either to remove their product from the market until GPL'd code has been removed, or to release their source code under the GPL to their users; that even if Linux did contain copied SCO UNIX code, the UNIX source code had already been made widely available without a non-disclosure agreement, and therefore had no trade secret status (as a judge found in USL v. BSDi); that even if Linux did contain some UNIX code, the SCO Group had lost any right to sue IBM for trade secret or other intellectual property infringement by distributing Linux itself (their Caldera OpenLinux distribution) under the GNU General Public License (GPL), both before and after their announcement, which precludes them from pursuing any other user of Linux. SCO and its officers have been the subject of much criticism by the free software community, some of whom have stated that SCO's behavior may amount to illegal conduct. SEC filings show that senior SCO executives dumped their personal holdings in SCO shortly after counter-suits were filed by IBM and Red Hat. SCO Group's CEO Darl McBride has been the subject of particular criticism, because of his extreme statements to the press. On March 10, 2003, the Open Source Initiative (OSI) released a position paper on the SCO v. IBM complaint, written by Eric S. Raymond, president of the OSI and author of The Cathedral and the Bazaar. On May 16, 2003, Groklaw, a website founded by journalist/paralegal Pamela Jones, began covering the SCO litigation on a daily basis, and became a voice for the community to express its views of SCO's claims, as well as being an experiment in applying Open Source principles to legal research. The SCO Group has singled the site out as a particular thorn in its side. On May 30, 2003, Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, was quoted as saying, regarding the case: The Inquirer reported on June 15, 2003, that an unnamed Linux kernel programmer has written to SCO, threatening action based on their distribution of a Linux distribution that, according to their own claims, contains code not licensed under the GPL. According to the letter reproduced there, the programmer claimed that SCO's doing so was an infringement of his own copyright. SCO's response to this letter is not known. In an interview on June 23, 2003, Torvalds responded to SCO's allegation that Linux development had no process for vetting kernel contributions: On June 27, 2003, Eben Moglen, the counsel for the Free Software Foundation, released a more complete statement regarding the SCO lawsuit. In this statement, he reiterates many of the points made above, and states that: On July 31, 2003, the Open Source Development Labs released a position paper on the ongoing conflict, written by the FSF's Eben Moglen. Accusations of creating fear, uncertainty and doubt A number of Linux supporters have characterized SCO's actions as an attempt to create fear, uncertainty and doubt about Linux. Many believe that SCO's aim is to be bought out by IBM. Others have pointed to Microsoft's subsequent licensing of the SCO source code as a possible quid pro quo for SCO's action. Univention GmbH, a Linux integrator, reported on May 30, 2003, it was granted an injunction by a Bremen court under German competition law that prohibits the SCO Group's German division from claiming that Linux contains illegally obtained SCO intellectual property. If the SCO Group continued to express this position, they would have to pay a fine of €250,000. A similar injunction was sought around the same time in Poland. On July 23, 2003, Open Source Victoria announced that it had filed a complaint with the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission, "asking the ACCC to investigate the SCO Group's activities in light of their unsubstantiated claims and their extortive legal threats for money against possibly hundreds of thousands of Australians". SCO Group then filed subpoenas for Richard Stallman and Linus Torvalds on November 13, 2003. The GPL issue Within a few months of the filing of the lawsuit, Eben Moglen, the Free Software Foundation's legal counsel, stated that SCO's suit should not concern Linux users other than IBM. In an interview with internetnews.com, he was reported as saying: Apparently noticing the incongruity of their selling a Linux distribution while suing IBM for stealing their intellectual property and giving it to the developers of that operating system, the SCO Group then announced on May 14, 2003, that they would no longer distribute Linux. According to a press release, SCO said that it would "continue to support existing SCO Linux and Caldera OpenLinux customers and hold them harmless from any SCO intellectual property issues regarding SCO Linux and Caldera OpenLinux products". SCO currently claims: Any code belonging to SCO that might have been GPL'd was done by SCO employees without proper legal authorization, and thus is not legally GPL'd. That for code to be GPL'd, the code's copyright owner must put a GPL notice before the code, but since SCO itself was not the one to add the notices, the code was never GPL'd. GPL and the US Constitution During a certain period of its litigation against IBM, SCO alleged that the GPL violates the United States Constitution. This allegation was dropped however from SCO's claims in April 2004 in "SCO's Answer to IBM's Second Amended Counterclaims". SCO originally based its views on the following considerations: Section 8 of Article One of the United States Constitution states that Since the GNU General Public License for the most part disclaims exclusive rights, SCO claimed that its use violates this clause. SCO's argument asks the court to limit both Congress's discretion in implementing the copyright clause, which the Supreme Court refused to do in Eldred v. Ashcroft, and copyright holders' discretion over the enjoyment of their exclusive rights. The GPL specifically prohibits, in section 7, distribution of software in jurisdictions where the laws are incompatible with the GPL, so a ruling that upheld SCO's constitutional argument would prevent distribution of Linux (and other copylefted software) in the United States. Other commentators disagree however. One such commentator, Tom Carey, partner and chairman of a Boston intellectual property law firm, even went so far as to say "Attacks on the GPL are far-fetched and a little bit desperate". Stacey Quandt, principal analyst at Quandt Analytics, remarked, "SCO's prior claim that the GPL was unconstitutional was equivalent to Microsoft's claims about open source being un-American—totally ridiculous.". Professor Eben Moglen, on leave from the Columbia University law faculty for the year 2006–2007, speaking as counsel to the Free Software Foundation (FSF) who is responsible for drafting the GPL, also takes this view. He says, "I believe the constitutionality attack on the GPL is not a tenable legal argument but is rather a public relations argument." In a talk at Harvard in February, he addressed the issue of constitutionality by referring to Congress' recent extension of copyright term limits. "It turns out that there's no such thing as an unconstitutional copyright rule," he said, "if Congress passes it, and if it observes the distinction between expression and idea." Novell enters the controversy Novell entered the controversy by publishing on May 28, 2003, a press release concerning the SCO Group's ownership of UNIX. "To Novell's knowledge, the 1995 agreement governing SCO's purchase of UNIX from Novell does not convey to SCO the associated copyrights," a letter to the SCO Group's CEO Darl McBride said in part. "We believe it unlikely that SCO can demonstrate that it has any ownership interest whatsoever in those copyrights. Apparently you share this view, since over the last few months you have repeatedly asked Novell to transfer the copyrights to SCO, requests that Novell has rejected." SCO later claimed to have discovered an amendment to their contract with Novell transferring partial ownership to SCO. Novell stated that the amendment "appears to bear a valid Novell signature, and the language, though convoluted, seems to support SCO's claim that ownership of some copyrights for Unix did transfer to SCO"; Novell also said that it could not find its own copy of the amendment. But in subsequent letters to SCO that Novell released as part of a press release on December 22, 2003, Joseph LaSala Jr., Novell's general counsel, argued that the amendment provided for a copyright transfer only under certain conditions that SCO has allegedly failed to meet. SCO was quick to dismiss Novell's claims. The same day, during a conference call to discuss SCO's quarterly financial results, SCO CEO Darl McBride said "We see this as a fraudulent filing of copyright notices...and we'll take the appropriate measures as necessary with our legal team". SCO made good on this threat on January 20, 2004, when it filed SCO v. Novell. On August 10, 2007, Judge Kimball issued a ruling which says in part "the court concludes that Novell is the owner of the UNIX and UnixWare copyrights." This decision is expected to impact the SCO v. IBM since the ruling states that Novell "is entitled, at its sole discretion, to direct SCO to waive its claims against IBM and Sequent". IBM's AIX license Reuters reported that the SCO Group intended to revoke IBM's license to use UNIX code in their AIX operating system on June 13, 2003, if no resolution is reached before then. IBM responded that they believe that SCO has no power to do so, as their license is "irrevocable". On the following Monday, June 16, 2003, CNET reported that SCO had announced it had terminated IBM's license. IBM continues to distribute and support AIX, and the SCO Group now states that they will be seeking an injunction to force IBM not only to stop selling and supporting AIX, but also to return to the SCO Group or destroy all copies of the AIX operating system. IBM's continued distribution of AIX is the basis of SCO's copyright claim. On June 9, however, Novell privately conversed with SCO expressing their belief that SCO did not have rights to terminate the license. Three days later, Novell cited Section 4.16(b) of their Asset Purchase Agreement (APA) with SCO that gave Novell the ability to intercede in the dispute between SCO and IBM and waived SCO's rights to terminate the license. On August 10, 2007, Judge Kimball ruled that Novell was the owner of UNIX and thus could waive SCO's termination of IBM's license. IBM counterclaims against SCO On August 6, 2003, IBM filed its counterclaims against SCO. It made 10 counterclaims: Breach of contract Lanham Act violation Unfair competition Intentional interference with prospective economic relations Unfair and deceptive trade practices Breach of the GNU General Public License and four counts of patent infringement In response to these counterclaims, SCO asserted that the GPL is unenforceable, void, and violates the United States Constitution, but later dropped that claim. If these claims were true, then the GPL'd applications that SCO continued to distribute (like Samba) were being distributed without the permission of the copyright owners of those applications (since the permission was the GPL itself), which would be illegal. On September 25, 2003, IBM amended its counterclaims bringing the total number of counterclaims to 13. The new counterclaims were: Copyright infringement This counterclaim involved an alleged copyright infringement by SCO of GPL-licensed IBM code in the Linux kernel. Some commentators had pointed out that if SCO managed to invalidate the GPL, they were highly likely to be caught by this counterclaim, as it is of the same form as their claim against IBM. Promissory estoppel Declaratory judgment On March 29, 2004, IBM amended its counterclaims again. It dropped one of the patent infringement claims, but added two new Declaratory judgments of Noninfringement of Copyrights. One of these sought a declaration that IBM's AIX-related activities did not infringe any of SCO's copyrights. The other one sought a similar declaration about IBM's Linux-related activities. Discovery The discovery portion of the lawsuit lasted several years. The basis for SCO's suit is that any code developed on top of SVRX is a derivative work of SVRX (which would include AIX), and that IBM has publicly admitted to contributing AIX code to the Linux kernel. Since SCO has never seen the AIX code, it has, as part of the discovery process, deposed IBM for the AIX code, so that it can compare AIX code to Linux kernel code. IBM, rejecting SCO's concept of derivative work, has deposed SCO for which lines of code it claims are infringing. SCO has responded that it can't determine which code is infringing until it has had the chance to look at the AIX code. On December 5, 2003, in the first oral arguments relating to the discovery process, a judge granted IBM's two motions to compel against SCO, and deferred consideration of SCO's motions until later. This gave SCO a 30-day deadline to provide "with specificity" which lines of code in Linux they claim form the basis of their case. This was widely regarded as a first-round victory for IBM. On June 28, 2006, Judge Brooke Wells granted IBM's motion to strike most of SCO's evidence, citing in part SCO's inability to provide the specificity required by the court: SCO appealed to Judge Kimball and asked for a de novo review of Judge Wells' order. On November 29, 2006, Judge Dale Kimball affirmed Judge Wells' order in its entirety. Controversial code At a reseller show in August 2003, SCO revealed a sample of alleged copied code. This was later shown to be originally released under a BSD License. The code (atealloc) had been in the IA-64 version of Linux for a short period of time, but had already been removed on July 4, 2003, for technical reasons and because "it's ugly as hell." UNIX creator Dennis Ritchie confirmed that either he or Ken Thompson wrote the atealloc code, which is released under the BSD license. It is claimed that SCO removed the original license text from Unix source (such as the Berkeley packet filter), allegedly violating the BSD license. Copyright claims and DMCA notices In late December 2003, new developments involving copyright claims emerged. Novell registered their claim to the copyright of original UNIX source code, effectively challenging SCO's registration of the same code. SCO Group claimed in a press release to have sent DMCA notification letters alleging copyright infringement. Alleged copies of these letters were posted online. The letters give the names of 65 files in the Linux source code tree which supposedly incorporate "copyrighted binary interfaces". Linus Torvalds then posted a rebuttal on Groklaw. See also Groklaw Red Hat v. SCO SCO v. AutoZone SCO v. DaimlerChrysler SCO v. Novell SCO–SGI code dispute of 2003 References External links Documents Caldera's announcement for the licensing of certain Unix versions under the BSD license Groklaw's list of unsealed court documents as of October 10, 2006 Analysis Greg Lehey's analysis of the code that SCO alleges is in violation of their copyright Bruce Perens' analysis of the code that SCO alleges is in violation of their copyright Eric Raymond's analysis of the code that SCO alleges is in violation of their copyright SCO's 294 Alleged Violations Photographs Photograph of a piece of controversial code, taken at SCO Forum Photograph of a piece of controversial code, taken at SCO Forum News articles, press releases and responses The FSF's / Eben Moglen's reply to SCO's claims that the GPL is invalid OSDL press release for a Q&A paper written by Lawrence Rosen SCO press release: "The SCO Group Announces Final Termination of IBM / Sequent's Contract to Use or License Dynix Software" Lawsuits SCO–Linux disputes United 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236187	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshmana	Lakshmana	Lakshmana (, IAST: lakṣmaṇa, lit. he who has the signs of fortune), also spelled as Laxman or Lakhan, was the younger brother of the god Rama and his aide in the Hindu epic Ramayana. He is also known by other names- Saumitra ( IAST: saumitra, lit. son of Sumitra), Ramanuja ( IAST: rāmānuja, lit. younger brother of Rama) and Bharatanuja ( IAST: bharatānuja, lit. younger brother of Bharata). He was the twin of Shatrughna. Birth and marriage King Dasharatha of Ayodhya had three wives: Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He performed a sacrifice to beget sons and as a result, his queens became pregnant. Lakshmana and his brother Shatrughna were born to Sumitra, while Rama and Bharata were born to Kausalya and Kaikeyi. In the Puranas, Lakshmana is described as an incarnation of Shesha, the multiple-headed nāga (serpent) upon whom rests the god Vishnu, whose avatar Rama is considered. When sage Vishwamitra asked Rama to kill the demons in the forest, Lakshmana accompanied them and went to Mithila with them. Lakshmana was especially attached to Rama. When Rama married Sita, Lakshmana married Sita's younger sister, Urmila. They had two sons: Angada and Chandraketu. Later, when Rama was exiled for fourteen years on the insistence of Kaikeyi, Lakshmana left his wife Urmila and joined Rama and Sita in exile. Resemblance with Yudhisthira The role of Yudhisthira in the Mahabharata resembles Lakshman in the Ramayana. Though Lakshman was devoted to Rama since birth and was closest brother of Rama but the difference in Mahabharata and Ramayana is created by Karna not being with the Pandavas.In the midst of Dyuta Sabha, Yudhisthira's anger was relieved on seeing the feet of Karna which he always yearned to touch those feets. Since the beginning Rangbhoomi itself, Yudhisthira felt a close connection with Karna and devoted to truth and not being a blind praiser of Arjuna at that time, he praised Karna. Unlike Drona and Bhishma, who blindly praised Arjuna but Yudhisthira was devoted to truth and knew the reality of Arjuna that he was not even equal to 1/16th of Karna. He was finally confirmed on the 17th day when Arjuna had to flee from Karna leaving his army to die. Rama's exile Lakshmana served Rama and Sita reverently during the exile. In Panchvati, Lakshmana also built a hut for Rama and Sita to live in. Lakshmana cut off Ravana's sister Surpanakha's nose in anger when she tried to seduce Rama and insulted Sita. He played an important role in the war with Ravana and slew Ravana's sons Indrajit and Atikaya. When Sita asked Rama to fetch a magical golden deer for her, Rama asked Lakshmana to stand guard as he sensed danger and evil. The golden deer was in fact the demon Maricha, who distracted Rama. When Rama killed Maricha, he cried out in his own voice for help. Although Lakshmana knew that Rama was invincible and beyond any danger, Sita panicked and frantically ordered Lakshmana to go to Rama's aid immediately. Unable to disobey Sita, Lakshmana drew a perimeter line (Lakshmana Rekha or Lakshmana's line), which Sita must not cross and went in search of Rama. Sita, however, out of compulsion of religious duty and compassion for Ravana, who was disguised as a poor brahmin, crossed the line to give him alms, following which she was abducted. Lakshmana Rekha has become a metaphor in situations where a certain limit must not be transgressed by human beings in any circumstance whatsoever. During the war between Rama and Ravana, Lakshmana killed Indrajit and Atikaya, who were the sons of Ravana. Before he killed Indrajit, Lakhshmana and Rama were twice defeated by Indrajit, and on both occasions, Hanuman's intervention saved them from certain death. After the war, when Rama asked Sita to give a test of her purity, Lakshmana for the first time got angry with Rama and opposed him. After exile After the end of the Lanka war, Rama was crowned king of Ayodhya, and Bharata became the crown prince. Rama had offered to make Lakshmana the crown prince, but he refused, saying Bharata was elder than him and more deserving of the title. Rama, hearing this, was very pleased and said "O Lakshmana, in this birth, you served me so well and did your duties as a younger brother, so I will do the same in my next birth as your younger brother". Thus, in the next birth, Rama became Krishna and Lakshmana became Balarama, Krishna's elder brother. Lakshmana was the one who left Sita in the forests near sage Valmiki's ashram after she expressed her desire to leave the kingdom. Lakshmana remained loyal to his brother and fought against Rama's sons Lava and Kusha later on. Abandonment of life Sage Durvasa appeared at Rama's doorstep, and seeing Lakshmana guarding the door, demanded an audience with Rama. At the time, Rama was having a private conversation with Yama. Before the conversation began, Yama gave Rama strict instructions that their dialogue was to remain confidential, and anyone who entered the room was to be relieved of their life. Rama agreed and entrusted Lakshmana with the duty of guarding his door. When Durvasa made his demand, Lakshmana politely refused. The sage grew angry and threatened to curse all of Ayodhya if Lakshmana did not immediately inform Rama of his arrival. Lakshmana, in a dilemma, decided it would be better that he alone die to save all of Ayodhya from falling under Durvasa's curse and so interrupted Rama's meeting to inform him of the sage's arrival. Durvasa cursed him that he should go to heaven alive. Rama quickly concluded his meeting with Yama and received the sage with due courtesy. In order to fulfil his brother's promise, Lakshmana went to the banks of the river Sarayu, resolved on giving up the world by drowning himself in the Sarayu. From there, Indra removed Lakshmana from the water and took him alive to heaven Legacy Lakshmana was depicted by the Ramayana as a man with unwavering loyalty, love and commitment to his elder brother, through times of joy and adversity alike. Bandhavgarh Fort at Madhya Pradesh (bandhav as brother, garh as fort) was said to have been given by Rama to his brother Lakshmana to keep watch on Lanka. Military officers given the rank equivalent of admirals in navies in the Malay Archipelago, including Malaysia and Indonesia, are titled "Lakshmana" (Jawi script: ) after the figure. Descendants The community members of an imperial dynasty of Gurjara-Pratiharas (The word Gurjara represents gujarat and the word Pratihar represents gate keeper) claimed that they were called Pratihara as their ancestor, who Lakshmana served as a door-keeper to his elder brother Rama. They ruled much of Northern India from the mid 7th to the 11th century. The first Pratihara inscription to discuss the origin of the Pratihara dynasty was the Jodhpur inscription of Bauka Pratihara 837 CE, It also gave its name to the dynasty, as the ancestors from Lakshmana, who worked as a gatekeeper for his brother Ramachandra. Laxman's son Angad, who was the ruler of Karpath (Rajasthan and Punjab), mention King Shri Harichandra Pratihara in the 126th generation of this dynasty (590 AD). Jain version Lakshmana is referred to as Vasudeva in the Jain Ramayana. According to the Jain Ramayana, it was Lakshmana who killed Ravana, not Rama. 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236191	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychosocial%20model	Biopsychosocial model	The biopsychosocial model is an inter-disciplinary model that looks at the interconnection between biology, psychology, and socio-environmental factors. The model specifically examines how these aspects play a role in topics ranging from health and disease, to human development. The model was first advocated by George L. Engel in 1977, and has become an alternative to the biomedical dominance of many health care systems. History The biopsychosocial model was first proposed by George L. Engel and Jon Romano of the University of Rochester in 1977. As opposed to the biomedical approach, Engel strived for a more holistic approach by recognizing that each patient has their own thoughts, feelings, and history. In developing the model, Engel framed this model for both illnesses and psychological problems. The biopsychosocial model reflects the development of illness through the complex interaction of biological factors (genetic, biochemical, etc.), psychological factors (mood, personality, behaviour, etc.) and social factors (cultural, familial, socioeconomic, medical, etc.). For example, a person may have a genetic predisposition for depression, but they must have social factors such as extreme stress at work and family life and psychological factors such as a perfectionistic tendencies which all trigger this genetic code for depression. A person may have a genetic predisposition for a disease, but social and cognitive factors must trigger the illness. Specifically, Engel revolutionized medical thinking by re-proposing a separation of body and mind. The idea of mind–body dualism goes back at least to René Descartes, but was forgotten during the biomedical approach. Engel emphasized that the biomedical approach is flawed because the body alone does not contribute to illness. Instead, the individual mind (psychological and social factors) plays a significant role in how an illness is caused and how it is treated. Engel proposes a dialogue between the patient and the doctor in order to find the most effective treatment solution. Similarly, materialistic and reductionist ideas proposed with the biomedical model are flawed because they cannot be verified on a cellular level (according to Engel). Instead, the proposed model focuses on the research of past psychologists such as Urie Bronfenbrenner, popularized by his belief that social factors play a role in developing illnesses and behaviors. Simply, Engel used Bronfenbrenner's research as a column of his biopsychosocial model and framed this model to display health at the center of social, psychological, and biological aspects. After publication, the biopsychosocial model was adopted by the World Health Organization in 2002 as a basis for the International Classification of Function (ICF). Current model Twenty-five years after Engel's publication, the biopsychosocial model is still widely used as a psychological model. The biological, psychological, and social categories have expanded into bigger categories: specifically, the social aspect has greatly expanded through ideas such as spirituality and culture. Even though many psychologists may not completely accept this model as their own, it is known for interconnecting three important categories. Even if all aspects do not apply to the situation, the biopsychosocial model is widely used to organize one's thoughts. It shows that a person's problems are all connected, and they may be more complex than previously imagined. Relevant theories and theorists George L. Engel, who originally developed the biopsychosocial model, is often considered a primary theorist associated with the model. Engel used this model to offer an alternative to the more readily used biomedical model of the time. Engel felt the biopsychosocial model allows physicians to better understand their patients' subjective view of their illness and suffering. Potential applications When Engel first proposed the biopsychosocial model it was for the purpose of better understanding health and illness. While this application still holds true the model is relevant to topics such as health, medicine, and development. Firstly, as proposed by Engel, it helps physicians better understand their whole patient. Considering not only physiological and medical aspects but also psychological and sociological well-being. Furthermore, this model is closely tied to health psychology. Health psychology examines the reciprocal influences of biology, psychology, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness. One application of the biopsychosocial model within health and medicine relates to pain, such that several factors outside an individual's health may affect their perception of pain. For example, a 2019 study linked genetic and biopsychosocial factors to increased post-operative shoulder pain. Future studies are needed to model and further explore the relationship between biopsychosocial factors and pain. The developmental applications of this model are equally relevant. One particular advantage of applying the biopsychosocial model to developmental psychology is that it allows for an intersection within the nature versus nurture debate. This model provides developmental psychologists a theoretical basis for the interplay of both hereditary and psychosocial factors on an individuals' development. Criticisms and achievements There have been a number of criticisms of the biopsychosocial model. Benning summarized the arguments against the model including that it lacked philosophical coherence, was insensitive to patients' subjective experience, was unfaithful to the general systems theory that Engel claimed it be rooted in, and that it engendered an undisciplined eclecticism that provides no safeguards against either the dominance or the under-representation of any one of the three domains of bio, psycho, or social. A number of these criticisms have been addressed over recent years. For example, the BPS-Pathways model describes how it is possible to conceptually separate, define, and measure biological, psychological, and social factors, and thereby seek detailed interrelationships among these factors. See also Bodymind Coping (psychology) Diathesis–stress model Environmental sensitivity Psychoneuroimmunology Psychosomatic medicine Social model of disability References Medical sociology Psychological models Medical models	[ 0.31285667419433594, -0.010229086503386497, -0.4095373749732971, 0.07940498739480972, 0.13022921979427338, 0.07744931429624557, 0.2705409824848175, -0.11307791620492935, 0.046645794063806534, -0.5493311882019043, -0.07754955440759659, 0.7647730112075806, -0.473215788602829, -0.10040409117937088, -0.31861478090286255, 0.6197299957275391, 0.46119049191474915, 0.46258261799812317, 0.19502508640289307, -0.6265963912010193, -0.2950303554534912, 0.009833588264882565, 0.2303345948457718, 0.13072136044502258, -0.10063066333532333, -0.02780463919043541, 0.35435715317726135, 0.12319602817296982, 0.18690985441207886, 0.14566496014595032, 0.23560039699077606, 0.5649092793464661, -0.20702329277992249, -0.1705615371465683, 0.16039912402629852, 0.39996257424354553, 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236203	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20wars%20involving%20Finland	List of wars involving Finland	This is a list of wars involving the Republic of Finland. The combat in Finland from 1939 through 1945 is considered part of the Second World War. List See also Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland Military history of Finland List of Finnish treaties Early Finnish wars History of Finland List of Swedish wars Finland Guard Regiment References Citations Bibliography Finland Wars	[ -0.13462328910827637, 0.3959067761898041, -0.5162937641143799, 0.28000882267951965, -0.3325660228729248, 0.3603772222995758, 0.9129971861839294, 0.5730351209640503, -1.0956225395202637, -0.0783628448843956, -0.011215509846806526, -0.16274958848953247, -0.3133443593978882, 0.868105947971344, -0.1624438464641571, 0.5045360922813416, -0.12156768143177032, 0.7932242155075073, 0.4390435218811035, -0.17812949419021606, -0.03568965941667557, 0.12104305624961853, 0.8433241844177246, 0.1549023985862732, -0.1483653485774994, -0.10898343473672867, 0.8995625376701355, 0.4692527949810028, -0.5830673575401306, -0.06286732852458954, -0.337856650352478, 0.4776632487773895, 0.13746517896652222, -0.009966261684894562, -0.20489858090877533, -0.1894288808107376, 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236205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO%20Group	SCO Group	SCO, The SCO Group, and The TSG Group are the various names of an American software company in existence from 2002 to 2012 that became known for owning Unix operating system assets that had belonged to the Santa Cruz Operation (original SCO), including the UnixWare and OpenServer technologies, and then, under CEO Darl McBride, pursuing a series of high-profile legal battles known as the SCO-Linux controversies. The SCO Group began in 2002 with a renaming of Caldera International, accompanied by McBride becoming CEO and a major change in business strategy and direction. The SCO brand was re-emphasized and new releases of UnixWare and OpenServer came out. The company also attempted some initiatives in the e-commerce space with the SCOBiz and SCOx programs. In 2003, the SCO Group claimed that the increasingly popular free Linux operating system contained substantial amounts of Unix code that IBM had improperly put there. The SCOsource division was created to monetize the company's intellectual property by selling Unix license rights to use Linux. The SCO v. IBM lawsuit was filed, asking for billion-dollar damages and setting off one of the top technology battles in the history of the industry. By a year later, four additional lawsuits had been filed involving the company. Reaction to SCO's actions from the free and open source software community was intensely negative and the general IT industry was not enamored of the actions either. SCO soon became, as Businessweek headlined, "The Most Hated Company In Tech". SCO Group stock rose rapidly during 2003, but then SCOsource revenue became erratic and the stock began a long fall. Despite the industry's attention to the lawsuits, SCO continued to maintain a product focus as well, putting out a major new release of OpenServer that incorporated the UnixWare kernel inside it. SCO also made a major push in the burgeoning smartphones space, launching the Me Inc. platform for mobility services. But despite these actions, the company steadily lost money and shrank in size. In 2007, SCO suffered a major adverse ruling in the SCO v. Novell case that rejected SCO's claim of ownership of Unix-related copyrights and undermined much of the rest of its legal position. The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection soon after and attempted to continue operations. Its mobility and Unix software assets were sold off in 2011, to McBride and UnXis respectively. Renamed to The TSG Group, the company converted to Chapter 7 bankruptcy in 2012. A portion of the SCO v. IBM case continued on until 2021, when a settlement was reached for a tiny fraction of what The SCO Group had initially sued for. Initial history Background The Santa Cruz Operation had been an American software company, founded in 1979 in Santa Cruz, California, that found success during the 1980s and 1990s selling Unix-based operating system products for Intel x86-based server systems. SCO built a large community of value-added resellers that eventually became 15,000 strong and many of its sales of its SCO OpenServer product to small and medium-sized businesses went through those resellers. In 1995, SCO bought the System V Release 4 and UnixWare business from Novell (which had two years earlier acquired the AT&T-offshoot Unix System Laboratories) to improve its technology base. But beginning in the late 1990s, SCO faced increasingly severe competitive pressure, on one side from Microsoft's Windows NT and its successors and on the other side from the free and open source Linux. In 2001, the Santa Cruz Operation sold its rights to Unix and its SCO OpenServer and UnixWare products to Caldera International. Caldera, based in Lindon, Utah, had been in the business of selling its OpenLinux product but had never been profitable. It attempted to make a combined business out of Linux and Unix but failed to make headway and had suffered continuing financial difficulties. By June 2002 its stock was facing a second delisting notice from NASDAQ and the company had less than four months' cash for operations. As Wired magazine later wrote, the company "faced a nearly hopeless situation." On June 27, 2002, Caldera International had a change in management, with Darl McBride, formerly an executive with Novell, FranklinCovey, and several start-ups, taking over as CEO from Caldera co-founder Ransom Love. Back to a SCO name; SCOBiz and SCOx Change under McBride happened quickly. On August 26, 2002, he announced at the company's annual Forum conference in Las Vegas that Caldera International was changing its name to The SCO Group. He did this via a multimedia display in which an image of Caldera was shattered and replaced by The SCO Group's logo, which was a slightly more stylized version of the old Santa Cruz Operation logo. The attendees at the conference, most of whom were veteran SCO partners and resellers, responded to the announcement with enthusiastic applause. McBride announced, "SCO is back from the dead," and a story in The Register began, "SCO lives again." As part of this, the company adopted SCOX as its trading symbol. (The final legal aspects of the name change did not become complete until May 2003.) The change back to a SCO-based name reflected recognition of the reality that almost all of the company's revenue was coming from Unix, not Linux, products. For instance, McDonald's had recently expanded its usage of OpenServer from 4,000 to 10,000 stores; indeed, both OpenServer and UnixWare were strong in the replicated sites business. Furthermore the SCO brand was better known than the Caldera one, especially in Europe, and SCO's large, existing reseller and partner channel was resistant to switching to Caldera's product priorities. McBride emphasized that the OpenServer product was still selling: "What is it with the OpenServer phenomenon? We can't kill it. One customer last month bought $4 million in OpenServer licenses. The customers want to give us money for it. Why don't we just sell it?" As a historical comparison for his strategy of building back up the brand and being more responsive to customers, McBride used a model of the revival of the Harley-Davidson brand in the 1980s. Besides McBride, other company executives, including new senior vice president of technology Opinder Bawa, were heavily involved in the change of direction. The product name Caldera OpenLinux became "SCO Linux powered by UnitedLinux" and all other Caldera branded names were changed as well. In particular, the longstanding UnixWare name – which Caldera had changed to Open UNIX – was restored, such that what had been called Open UNIX 8 was now named in proper sequence as UnixWare 7.1.2. Announcements were made that a new OpenServer release, 5.0.7, and a new UnixWare release, 7.1.3, would appear at the end of the year or beginning of the next. Moreover, through a new program called SCO Update, more frequent updates of capabilities were promised beyond that. Caldera's Volution Messaging Server product was retained and renamed SCOoffice Server, but the other Caldera Volution products were split off under the names Volution Technologies, Center 7, and finally Vintela. Software releases and e-commerce initiatives In addition to reviving SCO's longtime operating system products, The SCO Group also announced a new venture, SCOBiz. This was a collaboration with the Bellingham, Washington-based firm Vista.com, founded in 1999 by John Wall, in which SCO partners could sell Vista.com's online, web-based e-commerce development and hosting service targeted at small and medium-sized businesses. More importantly, as part of SCOBiz, the two companies would develop a SOAP- and XML-based web services interface to enable Vista.com e-commerce front-ends to communicate with existing back-end SCO-based applications. Industry analysts were somewhat skeptical of the chances for SCOBiz succeeding, as the market was already crowded with application service provider offerings and the dot-com bubble had already burst by that point. Finally, SCO announced a new program for partners, called SCOx, the key feature of which was that it included a buy-out option that would allow SCOx solution providers to sell their businesses back to SCO. McBride said that the program gave partners a chance at "living the American dream." The company's financial hole was emphasized when it released its results for the fiscal year ending October 31, 2002 – it lost $25 million on revenues of $64 million. First there was a Linux release. Caldera International had been one of the founders of the United Linux initiative, along with SuSE, Conectiva, and Turbolinux, and the now-named SCO Linux 4 came out in November 2002, in conjunction with each of the other vendors releasing their versions of the United Linux 1.0 base. The SCO product was targeted towards the small-to-medium business market, whereas the SuSE product was aimed at the enterprise segment and the other two were intended mostly for South American and Asian markets. The common United Linux base (which mostly came from a SuSE code origin), and the promise of common certification across all four products, did attract some support from hardware and software vendors such as IBM, HP, Computer Associates, and SAP. An assessment of SCO Linux 4 in eWeek found that it was a capable product, although the reviewer felt that its Webmin configuration tool was inferior to SuSE's YaST. In terms of service and support, SCO pledged to field a set of escalation engineers that would only be handling SCO Linux issues. The new Unix operating system releases then come out. UnixWare 7.1.3 was released in December 2002, which featured improved Java support, an included Apache Web Server, and improvements to the previously developed Linux Kernel Personality (LKP) for running Linux applications. In particular, the SCO Group stated that due to superior multiprocessor performance and reliability, Linux applications could run better on UnixWare via LKP than they could on native Linux itself, a stance that dated back to Santa Cruz Operation/Caldera International days. One review, that found UnixWare 7.1.3 lacking in a number of respects, called LKP "the most impressive of UnixWare's capabilities." And SCO OpenServer 5.0.7 was released in February 2003; the release emphasized enhanced hardware support, including new graphic, network and HBA device drivers, support for USB 2.0, improved and updated UDI support, and support for several new Intel and Intel-compatible processors. The SCOx software framework was announced in April 2003; its aim was to enable SCO's developer and reseller community to be able to connect web services and web-based presentation layers to the over 4,000 different applications that ran small and midsize businesses and branch offices. The web services aspect of SCOx included bundled SOAP/XML support for the Java, C, C++, PHP, and Perl languages. A primary target of the SCOx framework was SCOBiz e-commerce integration, although other uses were possible as well. The planned SCOx architecture overall was composed of layers for e-business services, web services, SSL-based security, a mySCO reseller portal, hosting services, and a software development kit. But by then, these software releases and e-commerce initiatives had become overshadowed. In the courts A focus on intellectual property As soon as McBride became the head of Caldera International, he became interested in what intellectual property the company possessed. He had been a manager at Novell in 1993 when Novell had bought Unix System Laboratories, and all of its Unix assets, including copyrights, trademarks, and licensing contracts, for $335 million. Novell had subsequently sold its Unix business to the Santa Cruz Operation, which had then sold it to Caldera. So in 2002, McBride said he had thought: "In theory, there should be some value to that property – somewhere between a million and a billion [dollars], right? I just wanted to know what real, tangible intellectual property value the company held." Shortly before the name change to SCO, Caldera went through its existing license agreements, found some that were not being collected upon, and came to arrangements with those licensees representing some $600,000 in annual revenue. In particular, from the start of his time as CEO, McBride had considered the possibility of claiming ownership of some of the code within Linux. Outgoing Caldera CEO Ransom Love had told him, "Don't do it. You don't want to take on the entire Linux community." During the August 2002 name change announcement, Bawa stated, "We own the source to UNIX; it's that simple. If we own the source, we are entitled to collect the agreed license fees." But at the time, McBride said he had no intention of taking on Linux. By October 2002, McBride had created an internal organization "to formalize the licensing of our intellectual property"; this effort was provisionally called SCO Tech. Senior vice president Chris Sontag was put in charge of it. By the end of 2002, McBride and SCO had sought out the services of David Boies of the law firm Boies, Schiller and Flexner as part of an effort to litigate against what it saw was unrightful use of its intellectual property. Boies had gained fame in the industry for leading the U.S. federal government's successful prosecution of Microsoft in United States v. Microsoft Corp.; as McBride subsequently said, "We went for the biggest gun we could find." (Boies' record in other cases was mixed, however, including a high-visibility loss in the 2000 Bush v. Gore Florida election dispute.) News of the SCO Group's intent to take action regarding Linux first broke on January 10, 2003, in a column by technology reporter Maureen O'Gara of Linuxgram that appeared in Client Server News and Linux Business Week. She wrote that a draft press release concerning SCO's plans had been in the works for several weeks and had been quietly circulated to other companies in the industry. The O'Gara report, unconfirmed as it was, caused some amount of consternation in the Linux community. On January 22, 2003, creation of the SCOsource division of the company, to manage the licensing of the company's Unix-related intellectual property, was officially announced, as was the hiring of Boies to investigate and oversee legal protection of that property. As the Wall Street Journal reported, Linux users had generally assumed that Linux was created independently of Unix proprietary code, and Linux advocates were immediately concerned that SCO was going to ask large companies using Linux to pay SCO licensing fees to avoid a lawsuit. The first announced license program within SCOsource was called SCO System V for Linux, which was a set of shared libraries intended to allow SCO Unix programs to be run legally on Linux without a user needing to license all of SCO OpenServer or UnixWare as had theretofore been necessary. The company continued to lose money, on revenues of $13.5 million in the first fiscal quarter of 2003, but McBride was enthusiastic about the prospects for the new SCOsource division, telling investors on a February 26 earnings call that he expected it to bring in $10 million alone in the second fiscal quarter. Lawsuits begin On March 6, 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM, claiming that the computer giant had misappropriated trade secrets by transferring portions of its Unix-based AIX operating system into Linux, and asked for at least $1 billion in damages. (The amount was subsequently raised to $3 billion, and later still to $5 billion. The suit initially coincided with SCO's existing relationship with IBM to sell UnixWare on IBM Netfinity systems.) The complaint also alleged breach of contract and tortious interference by IBM against the Santa Cruz Operation for its part in the failed Project Monterey of the late 1990s. Overall, SCO maintained that Linux could not have caught up to "Unix performance standards for complete enterprise functionality" so quickly without coordination by a large company, and that this coordination could have happened through the taking of "methods or concepts" even if not a single line of Unix code appeared within Linux. The SCO v. IBM case was underway; it would come to be considered one of the top technology battles of all time. Many industry analysts were not impressed by the lawsuit, with one saying, "It's a fairly end-of-life move for the stockholders and managers of that company. ... This is a way of salvaging value out of the SCO franchise they can't get by winning in the marketplace." Other analysts pointed to the deep legal resources IBM had for any protracted fight in the courts, but McBride professed to be nonplussed: "If it takes a couple of years, we're geared to do that." For his part, Boies said he liked David versus Goliath struggles, and his firm would see a substantial gain out of any victory. In mid-May 2003, SCO sent a letter to some 1,500 companies, cautioning them that using Linux could put them in legal jeopardy. As part of this, SCO proclaimed that Linux contained substantial amounts of Unix System V source code and that, as such, "We believe that Linux is, in material part, an unauthorized derivative of Unix." As CNET wrote, the move "dramatically broaden[ed]" the scope of the company's legal actions. At the same time, SCO announced it would stop selling its own SCO Linux product. A casualty of this stance was SCO's participation in the United Linux effort, and in turn United Linux itself. While the formal announcement that United Linux had ended did not come until January 2004, in reality the project stopped doing any tangible work soon after SCO filed its lawsuit against IBM. A few days later, Microsoft – which had long expressed disdain for Linux – said it was acquiring a Unix license from SCO, in order to ensure interoperability with its own products and to ward off any questions about rights. The action was a boon to SCO, which to this point had received little support in the industry for its licensing initiative. Another major computer company, Sun Microsystems, bought an additional level of Unix licensing from SCO to add to what it had originally obtained a decade earlier. On May 28, 2003, Novell counterattacked, saying its sale of the Unix business to the Santa Cruz Operation back in 1995 did not include the Unix software copyrights, and thus that the SCO Group's legal position was empty. Jack Messman, the CEO of Novell, accused SCO of attempting an extortion plan against Linux users and distributors. Unix has a complex corporate history, with the SCO Group a number of steps removed from the Bell Labs origins of the operating system. Novell and the SCO Group quickly fell into a vocal dispute that revolved around the interpretation of the 1995 asset-transfer agreement between them. That agreement had been uncertain enough at the time that an amendment to it had to be signed in October 1996, and even that was insufficiently unambiguous to now preclude an extended battle between the two companies. In July 2003, SCO began offering UnixWare licenses for commercial Linux users, stating that "SCO will hold harmless commercial Linux customers that purchase a UnixWare license against any past copyright violations, and for any future use of Linux in a run-only, binary format." The server-based licenses were priced at $699 per machine, and if they were to become mandatory for Linux users, would represent a tremendous source of revenue for SCO. The potential for this happening was certainly beneficial to SCO's stock price, which during one three-week span in May 2003 tripled in value. Another counterattack came in August 2003, when Red Hat, Inc. v. SCO Group, Inc. was filed by the largest of the Linux distribution companies. The SCO Group received a major boost in October 2003 when BayStar Capital, a technology-focused venture capital firm, made a $50 million private placement investment in SCO, to be used towards the company's legal costs and general product development efforts. In December 2003, SCO sent letters to 1,000 Linux customers that in essence accused them of making illegal use of SCO's intellectual property. Novell continued to insist that it owned the copyrights to Unix. While Novell no longer had a commercial interest in Unix technology itself, it did want to clear the way for Linux, having recently purchased SuSE Linux, the second largest of commercial Linux distributions at the time. On January 20, 2004, the SCO Group filed a slander of title suit against Novell, alleging that Novell had exhibited bad faith in denying SCO's intellectual property rights to Unix and UnixWare and that Novell had made false statements in an effort to persuade companies and organizations not to do business with SCO. The SCO v. Novell court case was underway. Lawsuits against two Linux end users, SCO Group, Inc. v. DaimlerChrysler Corp. and SCO v. AutoZone were filed on March 3, 2004. The first alleged that Daimler Chrysler had violated the terms of the Unix software agreement it had with SCO, while the second claimed that AutoZone was running versions of Linux that contained unlicensed source code from SCO. As a strategy this move was met by criticism; as Computerworld later sarcastically wrote, "Faced with a skeptical customer base, SCO did what any good business would do to get new customers: sue them for money." In any case, the stage was set for the next several years' worth of court filings, depositions, hearings, interim rulings, and so on. Vultus acquisition and a change in SCOx The SCOsource division got off to a quick start, bringing in $8.8 million during the company's second fiscal quarter, which led to the SCO Group turning a profit for the first time in its Caldera-origined history. In July 2003, the SCO Group announced it had acquired Vultus Inc. for an unspecified price. Vultus was a start-up company, also based in Lindon, Utah, and the Lindon-based Canopy Group was a major investor in Vultus just as it was the SCO Group. Vultus made the WebFace Solution Suite, a web-based application development environment with a set of browser-based user interface elements that provided a richer UI functionality without the need for Java applets or other plug-ins. Indeed, in putting together WebFace, Vultus was a pioneer in AJAX techniques before that term was even coined. The acquisition of Vultus resulted in a shift of emphasis in the company's web services initiative, with an announcement being made in August 2003 at SCO Forum that SCOx would now be a web services-based Application Substrate, featuring a combination of tools and APIs from Vultus's WebFace suite and from Ericom Software's Host Publisher development framework. A year later, in September 2004, this idea materialized when the SCOx Web Services Substrate (WSS) was released for UnixWare 7.1.4. Its aim was to give existing SCO customers a way to "webify" their applications via Ericom's tool and then make the functionality of those applications available via web services. However, as McBride later conceded, the SCOx WSS failed to gain an audience, and it was largely gone from company mention a year later. Views on infringement claims In the keynote address at its SCO Forum conference in August 2003, held at the MGM Grand Las Vegas, the SCO Group made an expansive defense of its legal actions. Framed by licensed-from-MGM James Bond music and film clips, McBride portrayed SCO as a valiant warrior for the continuance of proprietary software, saying they were in "a huge raging battle around the globe", that the GNU General Public License that Linux was based on was "about destroying value", and saying that like Bond, they would be thrown into many battles but come out the victor in the end. Linux advocates had repeatedly asked SCO to enumerate and show the specific areas of code in Linux that SCO thought were infringing on Unix. An analyst for IDC said that if SCO were more forthcoming on the details, "the whole discussion might take a different tone." However, SCO was reluctant to show any such code in public, preferring to keep it secret – a strategy that was commonly adopted in intellectual property litigation. However during Forum, SCO did publicly show several alleged examples of illegal copying of copyright code in Linux. Until that time, these examples had only been available to people who signed a non-disclosure agreement, which had prohibited them from revealing the information shown to them. SCO claimed the infringements were divided into four separate categories: literal copying, obfuscation, derivative works, and non-literal transfers. The example used by SCO to demonstrate literal copying became known as the atemalloc example. While the name of the original contributor was not revealed by SCO, quick analysis of the code in question pointed to SGI. At this time it was also revealed that the code had already been removed from the Linux kernel, because it duplicated already existing functions. By early 2004, the small amount of evidence that had been presented publicly was viewed as inconclusive by lawyers and software professionals who were not partisan to either side. As Businessweek wrote, "While there are similarities between some code that SCO claims it owns and material in Linux, it's not clear to software experts that there's a violation." The legal considerations involved were complex, and resolved around subtleties such as how the notion of derivative works should be applied. Furthermore, Novell's argument that it had never transferred copyrights to the Santa Cruz Operation placed a cloud over the SCO Group's legal campaign. Most, but not all, industry observers felt that SCO was unlikely to win. InfoWorld drily noted that Las Vegas bookmakers were not giving odds on the battle, but the three analysts it polled gave odds of 6-to-4 against SCO, 200-to-1 against SCO, and 6-to-4 for SCO. In any case, while Linux customers may not have been happy about the concerns and threats that the SCO Group was raising, it was unclear whether that was slowing their adoption of Linux; some business media reports indicated that it was, or that it might, while others indicated that it was not. "The Most Hated Company In Tech" The stakes were high in the battle the SCO Group had started, involving the future of Unix, Linux, and open source software in general. If SCO were to win its legal battles, the results could be extremely disruptive to the IT industry, especially if SCO's notion of derivative works were to be construed broadly by the courts. Furthermore a SCO victory would be devastating to the open source movement, especially if the legal validity of the GPL license were to be called into question. Conversely, a clear SCO loss would clarify any intellectual property concerns related to Linux, make corporate IT managers feel more relaxed about adopting Linux as a solution, and potentially bolster corporate enthusiasm for the open source movement as a whole. Linux advocates were incensed by SCO's actions, accusing the company of trying reap financial gain by sowing fear, uncertainty, and doubt (FUD) about Linux within the industry. Linux creator Linus Torvalds said, "I'd dearly love to hear exactly what they think is infringing, but they haven't told anybody. Oh, well. They seem to be more interested in FUD than anything else." Open source advocate Bruce Perens said of SCO, "They don't care who or what they hurt." Industry analyst and open source advocate Gordon Haff said that SCO had thrown a dirty bomb into the Linux user community. Many Linux enthusiasts approached the issue with a moralistic fervor. By August 2003, McBride said that pickets had been seen at SCO offices. McBride tended to compare Linux to Napster in the music world, a comparison that could be understood by people outside the technology industry. The assault on open source produced intense feelings in people; Ralph Yarro, chairman of SCO and head of the Canopy Group, and the person characterized by some as the mastermind behind SCO v. IBM, reported that back in his home area in Utah, "I have had friends, good friends, tell me they can't believe what we're doing." Internet message boards such as Slashdot saw many outraged postings. The Yahoo! Finance discussion boards, a popular site at the time for investors, were full of messages urging others to sell SCO stock. SCO suffered a distributed denial-of-service attack against its website in early May 2003, the first of several times the website would be shut down by hackers. One that began in late January 2004 became the most prolonged, when a denial-of-service attack coming out of the Mydoom computer worm prevented access to the sco.com domain for over a month. The general IT industry was not pleased with what SCO was doing either. The September 22, 2003 issue of InfoWorld had a dual-orientation cover that, if read right side up, had thumbs-up picture with the text "If SCO Loses", and if read upside down, had a thumbs-down picture with the text "If SCO Wins". By February of the following year, Businessweek was headlining that the SCO Group was "The Most Hated Company In Tech". A similar characterization was made by the Robert X. Cringely-bylined column in InfoWorld, which in March 2004 called SCO "the Most Despised Technology Company". The cover of a May 2014 issue of Fortune magazine had a photograph of McBride accompanied by the large text "Corporate Enemy No. 1". SCO's actions in suing Linux end users was especially responsible for some forms of corporate distaste towards it. The company that had previously held that title, Microsoft, had by February 2004 spent a reported $12 million on Unix licenses from SCO. The industry giant said the licenses were taken out as part of normal intellectual property compliance for their Windows Services for UNIX product, which provided a Unix compatibility environment for higher-end Windows systems. Linux advocates, however, saw the move as Microsoft looking for a way to fund SCO's lawsuits in an attempt to damage Linux, a view that was shared by some other large industry rivals such as Oracle Corporation's Larry Ellison. Indeed, Linux advocates had seen Microsoft's hand in the SCO Group's actions from almost the beginning; as Bruce Perens wrote in May 2003: "Who really benefits from this mess? Microsoft, whose involvement in getting a defeated Unix company to take on the missionary work of spreading FUD ... about Linux is finally coming to light." The open source community's antipathy towards Microsoft only increased when it became apparent that Microsoft had played at least some role in introducing the SCO Group to BayStar Capital as a potential investment vehicle (both BayStar and Microsoft said there was no stronger role by Microsoft than that). The distaste for SCO's actions seeped into evaluations of SCO's product line and technical initiatives as well. Software Development Times acknowledged at one point that "many writers in the tech media, which has a pro-open-source, pro-Linux bias, are subtly or overtly hostile to SCO." As an instance, in July 2003 a columnist for Computerworld examined the SCO Group acquisition of Vultus and concluded that the purpose was not to acquire its technology or staff but rather that Canopy was playing "a shell game ... to move its companies around" in order to exploit and cash in on the SCO Group's rising stock price. As an analyst for RedMonk stated, "Regardless of the technology they have, there are a lot of enterprises that are going to be ticked off with them. Some of them are receiving these letters (demanding license fees for Linux). There's a perception among companies we've spoken to that SCO is really out to get acquired or to make their money off of licensing schemes rather than technologies. That's an obstacle to adoption of their products." This kind of attitude was exemplified by an apologetic review of UnixWare 7.1.3 in OSNews in December 2003 that acknowledged that SCO had "earned their now nefarious reputation of pure evil" but that "SCO does actually sell a product" and that the reviewer had to assess it objectively. Another group of people who found the actions of the SCO Group distasteful were some of those familiar with the Santa Cruz Operation, including those who had worked there and those who had written about it; they became protective of that earlier company's reputation, especially given the possible name confusion regarding the two. In an eWeek column entitled "SCO: When Bad Things Happen to Good Brands", technology journalist David Coursey wrote that "SCO was a good company with a good reputation. In some ways, SCO was Linux before Linux, popularizing Unix on low-cost Intel machines. ... It's a good brand name that deserves better, or at least a decent burial and a wake. But instead, its memory is being trashed by people who don't and maybe can't appreciate the fondness many of us still have for the old Santa Cruz Operation." Science fiction author Charles Stross, who had worked as a tech writer in the original SCO's office in England in the early-mid-1990s, called the SCO Group "the brain-eating zombie of the UNIX world" that had done little more than "play merry hell with the Linux community and take a copious metaphorical shit all over my resumé." More simply, former original SCO employee turned journalist and publisher Sara Isenberg, in writing about the history of tech companies in the Santa Cruz area, wrote about The SCO Group, "I'll spare you the sordid legal details, but by then, it was no longer our SCO." To be sure, not all former original-SCO employees necessarily felt that way. The company still had developers and other staff at the original Santa Cruz location, as well as at the Murray Hill, New Jersey office that dated back not just to the original SCO but to Novell and Unix System Laboratories and AT&T before that. There was also a development office in Delhi, India, as well as regional offices that in many cases came from original SCO. And in 2006, Santa Cruz Operation co-founder Doug Michels made a return to the SCO Forum stage, with McBride presenting him an award for lifetime achievement. A major factor in the SCO–Linux battle was the Groklaw website and its author, paralegal Pamela Jones. The site explained in depth the legal principles and procedures that would be involved in the different court cases – giving technology-oriented readers a level of understanding of legal matters they would otherwise not have – and pulled together in an easily browsed form a massive number of official court documents and filings. Additionally, some Groklaw readers attended the court hearings in person and posted their detailed observations afterward. Accompanying these valuable data points on Groklaw was an interpretative commentary, from both Jones and her readers, that was relentlessly pro-open source and anti-SCO, to the point where journalist Andrew Orlowski of The Register pointed out that Groklaw sometimes suffered badly from an online echo chamber effect. In any case, such was Groklaw's influence that SCO made thinly veiled accusations that Jones was, in fact, working on behest of IBM, something that she categorically denied. The personification of the SCO–Linux battle was no doubt McBride, who was viewed by many as a villain. Columnist Maureen O'Gara, generally seen as at least somewhat sympathetic to SCO's position, characterized McBride as "the most hated man in the computer industry". McBride acknowledged, "I know people want us to go away, but we are not going to go away. We're going to see this through." The Sunday New York Times business section's "Executive Life" feature ran a self-profile of McBride in February 2004, in which he reflected upon his no-nonsense father raising him on a ranch and the difficulties of being a Mormon missionary in Japan and later a Novell executive there, and concluded, "I am absolutely driven by people saying I can't do something." McBride received death threats serious enough to warrant extra security during his public appearances. Asked in May 2004 to reflect upon what the preceding year had been like, McBride said "This is like ... nothing ... nothing compares to what's happened in the last year." Financial aspects SCO's legal campaign coincided with the best financial results it would have, when in fiscal 2003 they had revenues of $79 million and a profit of $3.4 million. The campaign was also initially very beneficial to its stock price. The stock had been under $1.50 in December 2002 and reached a high of $22.29 during mid-October 2003. In some cases jumps in the price occurred when stock analysts initiated coverage of the stock and gave optimistic price targets for it. But the stock began a downward slide soon after that, and by the end of 2003 about a quarter of all outstanding shares were controlled by short sellers. SCOsource revenue was erratic, with the first half of fiscal 2004 being especially poor. The SCO group had 340 employees worldwide when the lawsuits were first underway in 2003. By a year later, this count had fallen somewhat to 305 employees. During 2004, SCO and BayStar had a falling out, in part due to the investment firm being unhappy with SCO's constant presence in the headlines and the passionate arguments it was involved in with open source advocates, and in part due to the ongoing expenses of running a struggling software products business. Both BayStar and Royal Bank of Canada, which had been part of the initial placement, bought out of the investment by mid-year. Nevertheless, by the calculation of the Deseret News, SCO had gained a net $37 million out of the arrangement. Legal actions were a large expense, costing the SCO Group several million dollars each quarter and hurting financial results. For its third quarter of fiscal 2004, for instance, the company reported revenue of $11.2 million and a loss of $7.4 million, of which $7.2 million was legal expenses. To that point, the company had spent a total of some $15 million on such costs. Accordingly, in August 2004, SCO renegotiated its deal with its lawyers to put into place a cap on legal expenses at $31 million, in return for which Boise, Schiller & Flexner would receive a larger share of any eventual settlement. McBride continued to come up with new ideas; at the 2004 Forum show he talked about the SCO Marketplace Initiative, which would set up an online exchange where developers could bid on work-for-hire jobs for SCO Unix enhancements that were otherwise not on the SCO product roadmap. Besides helping SCO out, this would set up an alternative to the open source model, one where programmers could "develop-for-fee" rather than "develop-for-free". McBride ultimately envisioned it becoming "an online distribution engine for business applications from a wide variety companies and solution providers." The SCO Marketplace began operation a couple of months later, with jobs posted including the writing of device drivers. The stock slide continued, and by September 2004 had fallen below the $4 level. The company had some 230 employees worldwide at that point. During the latter portion of 2004, the California office of the company moved out of Santa Cruz proper, as its longtime 400 Encinal Street office building was mostly empty. The thirty employees still remaining took new space on Scotts Valley Drive in nearby Scotts Valley, California. By early 2005, the SCO Group was in definite financial trouble. Its court case against IBM did not seem to be going well. Sales for fiscal 2004 dropped by 46 percent compared to the year prior, to less than $43 million, and losses rose by a factor of three to over $16 million. Results for the full fiscal 2004 year were bad: revenues dropped by 46 percent compared to the year prior, falling to around $43 million, and there was a loss on that of over $28 million. The company had to restate three of its quarterly earnings statements due to accounting mistakes and was at risk of being delisted by NASDAQ. During the previous year it had laid off around 100 people, constituting a third of its workforce, and by August 2005 the headcount had fallen to under 200. The company became independent of The Canopy Group in March 2005, after the settlement of a lawsuit between the Noorda family and Yarro. As part of the settlement, Canopy transferred all of its shares to Yarro. Meanwhile, products Company emphasis While there was an industry impression that the SCO Group was far more focused on lawsuits than bringing forward new and improved products, throughout this period, the large majority of SCO employees were not involved with the legal battle but rather were working on software products. This was a point that McBride never hesitated to point out, for instance saying in August 2005 that the company was spending "98 percent of our resources" on new product development, and only two percent on the active cases in court with AutoZone, IBM, and Novell. The idea of the SCO Group becoming a lawsuits-only company had been proposed by BayStar but it was not something McBride wanted to do. Indeed, McBride expressed at least public optimism that the company could survive on its Unix and other product business even if it lost the court cases. Nevertheless, there were significant challenges in the product space, as operating system revenue had been falling. SCO still had a market presence in some of its traditional strongholds, such as pharmacy chains and fast-food restaurants. But to some extent, the reliability and stability of products such as OpenServer (and the applications they were typically used for) worked against SCO, as customers did not feel an urgent need to upgrade. UnixWare 7.1.4 was released in June 2004, with major new features including additional hardware support, improved security, and the abovementioned SCOx web services components. A review in Network World found that the operating system showed strength in terms of server performance and support for Apache and related open source components, but suffered in terms of hardware discovery and ease of installation. The Linux Kernel Personality (LKP), which had earlier been a major selling point of UnixWare 7, was now removed from the product due to the ongoing legal complications. But UnixWare 7.1.4 did come with the OpenServer Kernel Personality (OKP), which allowed OpenServer-built binary applications to run on the more powerful UnixWare platform without modification, and which had earlier been released as an add-on to UnixWare 7.1.3. SCO announced a Unix roadmap along with the UnixWare release, intending to convince the market that it was making a strong push in software products. Among the items talked about was Smallfoot, a toolkit for developing customized, small-footprint versions of UnixWare for use as an embedded operating system, and an upgrade to the SCOoffice mail and messaging product. But a constant concern was that SCO had difficulty in attracting independent software vendors to support its operating system platform. Perhaps the biggest such hurdle was the lack of support for current versions of the Oracle Database product. Of the problem in general, a manager at a longtime SCO replicated-site customer, Shoppers Drug Mart in Canada, that was migrating to UnixWare 7.1.4 and was otherwise happy with the product's reliability and performance, said: "[Big ISVs] are pushing SCO down to a tier-three vendor. We need a tier-one or a tier-two vendor that will do current ports and certification. We listen to vendors and watch their roadmaps and when SCO disappears that will be a signal [to move on]." The new SCOoffice release, SCOoffice Server 4.1 for OpenServer 5.0.7, came out in August 2004. SCOoffice consisted of a mixture of proprietary code and open source components and was marketed as a drop-in alternative to Microsoft Exchange Server for small-to-medium businesses, one that would be compatible with Microsoft Outlook (and other common mail clients) but would be less expensive in total cost, be built upon on a more reliable operating system, and have a management interface that could be used by non-technical administrators. Some of the specific technology in the product for interacting with Outlook functions came from Bynari. A review of the SCOoffice technology in PCQuest in 2002 found its ease of installation and features to be good and that it was "a decent package for companies looking for a mail server solution." When originally built by Caldera International, the messaging product had been based on Linux (and UnixWare via LKP), but following the SCO Group's legal actions against Linux it was changed to be based on OpenServer instead, with some disruption to the components that could be included within it. The 4.1 release also contained office collaboration tools for meetings, contacts, and the like. SCOoffice was a consistent product for the SCO Group; at least one, and usually more than one, breakout session about it was held at every Forum conference during the SCO Group era. "Legend" By 2005, more than 60 percent of SCO's revenue was still coming from its OpenServer product line and associated support services. This was despite the fact that there had been no major releases to the product in the time since the Santa Cruz Operation and Caldera Systems had merged in 2000. Accordingly, the SCO Group devoted a large effort, consisting of extensive research and development as well as associated product management activities, into producing the more modern OpenServer Release 6, code-named "Legend". After a couple of slips from announced target dates, it was made generally available in June 2005. The key idea behind Legend was to update to transplant the UnixWare SVR5 kernel into the OpenServer everything else. This gave OpenServer 6 the ability to support 1TB file sizes, the lack of which had become a major limitation of OpenServer 5. In addition, OpenServer 6 could support up to 32 processors, up to 64GB of RAM, had various new security capabilties such as SSH, an IPFilter-based firewall, and IPsec for secure VPNs, and had faster throughput for applications which could make use of real multiple threading. The launch event was held on June 22, 2005, at Yankee Stadium in New York City. (This prompted a few industry publication headlines of the "SCO Goes To Bat With OpenServer 6" variety.) Hewlett-Packard noted its support for OpenServer 6 on its ProLiant systems. Some SCO partners were quoted as saying they intended to migrate to it. While some analysts, such as those for IDS and Quandt Analytics, expressed the belief that the release could help SCO upgrade and hold onto its existing customer base, an analyst for Illuminata Inc. was not so optimistic, saying, "In a word, no. Looked at in isolation, there's a lot to like about the new OpenServer. It adds a lot of new capabilities and it finally largely merges the OpenServer and UnixWare trees. But OpenServer is in wild decline – the victim of Windows, Linux and years of SCO mismanagement. Today's SCO is a pariah of the IT industry ... OpenServer is a niche product; SCO needs a miracle." In practice, despite the good reviews it got from a technical perspective, sales of OpenServer 6 were modest. The company continued to do poorly financially, with fiscal 2005 producing revenues of $36 million and a loss on that of almost $11 million, while fiscal 2006 saw revenues of $29 million together with a loss of over $16 million. Reductions in staff continued and the Scotts Valley office was shut down in late 2006. Mobility and Me Inc. The SCO Group's biggest initiative to find a new software business came with what it called Me Inc., first announced at a DEMO conference in California in September 2005. Me Inc. sought to capitalize on the emergence of smartphones in that it would provide both mobile apps that would run on the phones and an architecture involving a network "edge processor" that would offload processing and storage from the phones themselves and handle authentication, session management, and aggregation of data requests. In such an approach, Me Inc. represented a hosted software as a service (SaaS) offering, with the edge processor representing what would later become referred to as both edge computing and mobile backend as a service. Some of the engineering effort behind Me Inc. came from former Vultus staff, following the failure of the prior SCOx efforts to find a market. Me Inc. initially targeted the Palm Treo line of smartphones. Subsequent support was put into place for the Windows Mobile line of smartphones and some others. The first services from Me Inc. were Shout, in which users could broadast text or voice messages from a phone to large groups; Vote, in which users could post surveys to large groups and quickly receive a tally back; and Action, in which users could post tasks for others to do and monitor their statuses. An early user of the Shout service was Utah State University, which used it for broadcasting messages to members of its sports booster organization. Me Inc. services were subsequently used by other Utah organizations as well, including the Utah Jazz, the BYU Cougars, and Mayor of Provo Lewis Billings. In February 2006, SCO announced that the edge processor had the product name EdgeClick. The development environment for it was branded the EdgeBuilder SDK. In addition, a website EdgeClickPark.com was announced, that would act as an Internet ecosystem for the development and selling of mobile applications and services. As SCO marketing executive Tim Negris said, the idea of EdgeClickPark was to provide a mechanism for "individuals and organizations of all kinds to participate in developing, selling and using digital services." Many of these services would come not from SCO itself but from SCO partners, resellers, and ISVs, a channel it was familiar with from the original SCO era. This was reminiscent of McBride's goal for the pre-lawsuits SCOBiz and the post-lawsuits SCO Marketplace Initiative, and McBride had similarly large ambitions for Me Inc. and EdgeClickPark, envisioning it having the same role for mobile software that iTunes had at the time for digital music. McBride, who had been looking at various new business opportunities for SCO to enter, saw the company's mobility initiative as something that could become a big success in both the business and consumer spaces, saying "We don't know for sure, but we have a little bit of a spark in our eyes that this will be a big deal." The SCO Group's chief technology officer, Sandy Gupta, stated that for the company, "this is clearly a big switch in paradigm." Industry analysts thought that Me Inc. was aimed at something there was clearly a large market for. As one said, "The operating system market is an increasingly difficult place to compete. SCO Group really does need more diversity [and] these recent pushes represent significant diversification of their product portfolio." Software Development Times commended SCO for coming up with the EdgeClickPark idea, saying that it showed an "interesting flair" in providing a place for partnerships and business development. The company also undertook the proposing of customized mobile applications for various businesses and organizations, using the Me Inc. platform as a starting point. However, the SCO Group being able to succeed in these efforts faced somewhat long odds, in part due to their being up against many kinds of competition in the mobile space and in part due to the negative feelings about SCO that their campaign against Linux had engendered. Nevertheless, it was all viewed as a positive development; as Software Development Times summarized in a subheading, "Strategy shift to mobile seen as better 'than suing people'". SCO's mobility initiative was a main theme of the 2006 instance of its SCO Forum conference, held at The Mirage in Las Vegas. McBride said, "Today is the coming out party for Me Inc. Over the next few years, we want to be a leading provider of mobile application software to the marketplace. ... This is a seminal moment for us." The Forum 2006 schedule, subtitled "Mobility Everywhere", held some nineteen different breakout and training sessions related to Me Inc. and EdgeClick, compared to twenty-six sessions for operating system related topics. Eager to drum up interest in the EdgeClick infrastructure and to get developers to attend the 2006 instance of SCO Forum, McBride offered a prize to the developer of the best application built from the EdgeBuilder SDK: a 507-horsepower, V10-engined BMW M5 sports sedan. One new mobility offering, HipCheck, which allowed the remote monitoring and administration of business-critical servers on smartphones, was given its debut announcement and demonstration at Forum. The HipCheck service, which gave system administrators the ability to conduct secure actions from their phone to correct some kinds of server anomalies or respond to user requests such as resetting passwords, was officially made available in October 2006, with support for monitoring agents running on various levels of Windows and Unix systems. Several upgrades to HipCheck were subsequently made available. Developed by SCO for FranklinCovey, a Utah-based company that had a line of paper-based planning and organizational products, FCmobilelife was an app for handling personal and organizational task and goal management. (In 2006, SCO had been building a similar app for Day-Timer named DT4, but that collaboration fell through.) In particular, the FCmobilelife app emulated FranklinCovey's methodologies for planning and productivity. Initial versions were released for the Windows Mobile and BlackBerry phones; an app for the iPhone was released in mid-2009. In October 2008, during SCO Tec Forum 2008, the last Forum ever held, the SCO Mobile Server platform was announced, which was a bundling of the Edgeclick server-side functionality and Me Inc. client development kit on top of a UnixWare 7 or Openserver 6 system. By then UnixWare itself, the company's flagship product, had not seen a new release in some four years. In the end, despite the company's efforts, the mobile services offerings did not attract that much attention or revenues in the marketplace. Life in bankruptcy An adverse ruling On August 10, 2007, SCO suffered a major adverse ruling in the SCO v. Novell case that rejected SCO's claim of ownership of Unix-related copyrights and undermined much of the rest of its overall legal position. Judge Dale A. Kimball of the United States District Court for the District of Utah issued a 102-page summary judgment which found that Novell, not the SCO Group, was the owner of the Unix copyrights; that Novell could force SCO to drop its copyrights-based claims against IBM; and most immediately from a financial perspective, that SCO owed Novell 95 percent of the revenues generated by the licensing of Unix to companies such as Microsoft and Sun. The only SCO claims left intact by Kimball's judgment were ones against IBM related to contractual provisions from Project Monterey. As the Utah Valley-based Daily Herald newspaper subsequently wrote, Kimball's ruling was "a massive legal setback" for SCO. An appeal was filed. Meanwhile, the company had few options left, as it had not been doing well anyway – by mid-2007, SCO Group stock had fallen to around $1.56 in value – and it now potentially owed Novell more money than it could pay. On September 14, 2008, the SCO Group filed a voluntary petition for reorganization under Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code. Development work continued on both the operating system and mobility fronts, but selling a technology product while in bankruptcy was challenging. And from this point on, many of SCO's actions were dependent upon the approval of the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware. Annual results for fiscal 2007 showed yet another decline for the company, with revenues falling to $22 million and a loss of nearly $7 million. And because of the bankruptcy filing, SCO was delisted from NASDAQ on December 27, 2007. Downsizing continued, and the New Jersey development office was moved to smaller space in Florham Park, New Jersey in late 2008. Potential buyers The interest of Stephen Norris Capital Partners in the SCO Group started in February 2008, when it put forward a $100 million reorganization and debt financing plan for the company, which it would then take private. Stephen L. Norris had been a co-founder of the large and well-known private equity firm The Carlyle Group. There was also an unnamed Middle East partner in the proposed deal; the Associated Press reported that Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal of Saudi Arabia was involved. But after a couple of months of due diligence investigation of SCO's operations, finances, and legal situation, Stephen Norris Capital Partners considered a different course of action, instead proposing to purchase SCO assets outright. Norris appeared on stage at Forum in October 2008, where possible acquisition and investments plans were shown to attendees. The company continued to have declining financial performance; the yearly results for fiscal 2008 showed revenues falling to $16 million and a loss of $8.7 million. In January 2009, the SCO Group asked the bankruptcy court to approve a plan wherein its Unix and mobility assets for would be put up for public auction. That plan did not materialize, and instead in June 2009 a new proposal emerged from a combination of Gulf Capital Partners, of which Stephen Norris was an investor, and MerchantBridge, a London-based, Middle East-focused private equity group, to create an entity called UnXis, which would then buy SCO's software business assets for $2.4 million. At that point the SCO Group had fewer than 70 employees left. This latest plan, too, did not move forward. Virtualization The SCO Group's last significant engineering effort revolved around capitalizing on a resurgence of industry interest in hardware virtualization. In this case, such virtualization allowed SCO operating systems to run on newer, more powerful hardware even if SCO did not have support or certification for that hardware, and also allowed SCO customers to take advantage of server consolidation and other benefits of a virtual environment. The initial such release, SCO OpenServer 5.0.7V, came out in August 2009, with support for running on VMware ESX/ESXi hypervisors. The technical changes involved included adding enhanced virtual drivers for storage, networking, and peripherals to the operating system as well as tuning its memory management strategies for the virtual environment. The virtualization push also included a change in SCO's licensing infrastructure, wherein now licensing would be done on an annual subscription basis. The company said it would make similar 'V' releases for UnixWare 7.1.4 and OpenServer 6 in the future, but no such releases took place during the SCO Group's lifetime. However, support for the Microsoft Hyper-V hypervisor for OpenServer 5.0.7V was added in early 2010. Trustee and trial On August 25, 2009, Edward N. Cahn, a former United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania and a counsel for the law firm of Blank Rome, was appointed Chapter 11 trustee for The SCO Group. In October 2009, a restructuring requested by trustee Cahn led to the termination of McBride and the elimination of the CEO position; the existing COO, Jeff Hunsaker, became the top executive in the company. Perhaps the kindest industry press assessment of McBride's tenure came in a column from Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols in Computerworld, who wrote, "You have to give McBride credit. While I dislike SCO, he did an amazing job of fighting a hopeless battle. It's a pity he was working so hard and so well for such a fundamentally wrong cause." SCO had appealed the August 2007 summary judgment against it in SCO v. Novell and eventually an appeals court had ruled that a trial had to be held on the issue. A three-week trial was held in March 2010, at the conclusion of which the jury reached a unanimous verdict that the Novell did not transfer the Unix copyrights to the Santa Cruz Operation in 1995. The decision spelled the end for the large majority of the SCO Group's legal offensive, leaving only contractual claims against IBM to possibly still pursue. Sale of assets In April 2010, SCO's mobility software assets were sold to former CEO McBride for $100,000. In September 2010 the SCO Group finally put up the remainder of its non-lawsuit assets for public auction. Thus in February 2011, another proposal was made, this time for $600,000, with this iteration of a purchasing company being backed by Norris, MerchantBridge, and Gerson Global Advisors. The bankruptcy court approved this proposal, as the only other bid submitted was for $18. The sale was closed on April 11, 2011, with Stephen Norris Capital Partners and MerchantBridge being the final buyers, and UnXis was formed. In particular, UnXis took over the product names, ownership, and maintenance of The SCO Group's flagship operating system products, OpenServer and UnixWare. It also took over some service contracts for existing SCO Group customers; these customers represented some 82 countries and business segments such as finance, retail, fast food, and governmental entities. It would be up to UnXis to hire SCO Group employees, of whom, after years of layoffs and attrition, only handfuls were still left at various locations (for instance, at the Lindon, Utah site, only 7 or 8 people still worked, compared with 115 as recently as February 2008). The SCO Group's litigation rights against IBM and Novell did not transfer, as UnXis said it had no involvement or interest in such activities. What was left of The SCO Group renamed itself to The TSG Group. Aftermath The TSG Group The TSG Group did not have employees per se; any at the Utah site not hired by UnXis were let go. The jury trial verdict was appealed, but in August 2011 the U.S. 10th Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the verdict and the judge's orders following it, thus bringing to a final end SCO v. Novell. However, in November 2011 the bankruptcy trustee decided to go on with the surviving contractual claims against IBM, saying that "the Novell ruling does not impact the viability of the estate's claims against IBM." The SCO v. IBM case had previously been closed pending the result of the SCO v. Novell case. Nonetheless, there was no actual business being conducted by the TSG Group, and in August 2012 they filed to convert their status from Chapter 11 reorganization to Chapter 7 liquidation, stating that "there is no reasonable chance of 'rehabilitation'". In June 2013, a judge granted the motion of the brankruptcy trustee and reopened consideration of SCO v. IBM. The revived case moved slowly, with a ruling in 2016 being in the favorable direction to IBM, but one in 2017 favorable towards continuing the SCO claims. Industry publications greeted these developments with headlines of the "What is dead may never die" variety. UnXis changed its name to Xinuos in 2013, and despite SCO v. IBM having been reopened in the courts, reiterated that it had no interest in litigation. Instead Xinuos focused on continuing support for UnixWare and OpenServer customers as well as releasing OpenServer 10, a FreeBSD-based product that legacy customers could migrate to. McBride turned his purchase of SCO's mobility assets into a company called Shout TV Inc., which was founded in late 2011 and provided social media engagment for sports fans during live events by offering trivia games and prize contests. By 2015, Shout TV had experienced some success, especially in partnership with the Spanish football club Real Madrid. The assets of Shout TV were transferred to a company known as MMA Global Inc. in 2018. Final conclusion of lawsuits In August 2021, word came of a possible final settlement in the SCO v. IBM case, wherein documents filed in the case indicated that the bankruptcy trustee for TSG Group and IBM appeared to be on the verge of settling the outstanding, Project Monterey-based, claims in the matter for $14.25 million. While the amount was far less than the SCO Group had originally sought when it began the lawsuits, the trustee recommended accepting the settlement, because "ultimate success of the Trustee's claims against IBM is uncertain" and that pursuing the matter further would be expensive and that "the Settlement Agreement provides an immediate and substantial monetary recovery and creates important liquidity for the benefit of all creditors and claimants." As part of this, the trustee would give up any future related claims against IBM. The matter lay with the U.S. Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware, which had been handling the case all along. On November 8, 2021, the settlement was so made under those terms, with IBM paying the TSG bankruptcy trustee $14.25 million and the trustee giving up all future claims and with each party paying their own legal costs. After 18½ years, SCO v. IBM was finally over. As it happened, another suit against IBM was still now active, from Xinuos, which earlier in 2021 had reversed direction from their past disavowals of ligitation interest and had filed suit against both IBM and Red Hat, re-alleging old SCO claims about IBM and Project Monterey and alleging new claims that IBM and Red Hat had cornered the operating system market for cloud computing. Unlike the SCO–Linux battles, however, in this case few people in the industry paid the Xinuos action much attention. In any case, the story of The SCO Group was complete. Products SCO UnixWare, a Unix operating system. UnixWare 2.x and below were direct descendants of Unix System V Release 4.2 and was originally developed by AT&T, Univel, Novell and later on The Santa Cruz Operation. UnixWare 7 was sold as a Unix OS combining UnixWare 2 and OpenServer 5 and was based on System V Release 5. SCO OpenServer, another Unix operating system, which was originally developed by The Santa Cruz Operation. SCO OpenServer 5 was a descendant of SCO UNIX, which is in turn a descendant of XENIX. OpenServer 6 is, in fact, an OpenServer compatibility environment running on a modern SVR5-based Unix kernel. Smallfoot, an operating system and GUI created specifically for point of sale applications. SCOBiz, a web-based e-commerce development and hosting site with web services-based integration to existing legacy applications. SCOx Web Services Substrate, a web services-based framework for modernizing legacy applications. WebFace, a development environment for rich-UI browser-based Internet applications. SCOoffice Server, an e-mail and collaboration solution, based on a mixture of open-source and closed-source software. SCO Marketplace Initiative, an online exchange offering pay-per-project development opportunities. Me, Inc., a mobile services platform with services including Shout, HipCheck, and FCmobilelife. List of SCO lawsuits SCO v. IBM (The SCO Group, Inc. vs. International Business Machines, Inc., case number 2:03cv0294, United States District Court for the District of Utah) Red Hat v. SCO SCO v. Novell SCO v. AutoZone SCO v. DaimlerChrysler See also SCO Forum References External links The SCO Group, Inc. (archived web site caldera.com from 2002-09-14 to 2004-09-01 and sco.com from 2001-05-08) Groklaw: News and Commentary about SCO lawsuits and Other Related Legal Information SCOX Bankruptcy information and documents Financial information for The SCO Group (SCOXQ) Yahoo! — The SCO Group, Inc. company profile, archive reference History of The SCO Group at Encyclopedia.com, 2006 Caldera (company) Defunct software companies of the United States Defunct companies based in Utah SCO–Linux disputes Software companies established in 2002 2002 establishments in Utah Software companies disestablished in 2011 2012 disestablishments in Utah Companies that have filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2007 pl:SCO	[ -0.02720532938838005, -0.04145899415016174, -0.015855776146054268, 0.19389040768146515, 0.11973515152931213, -0.23329271376132965, -0.6355270743370056, 0.30550363659858704, -0.22291749715805054, 0.4372875392436981, -0.2622881233692169, 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236207	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkey%20%28TV%20series%29	Monkey (TV series)	, also known by its English title Monkey, is a Japanese television drama based on the 16th-century Chinese novel Journey to the West by Wu Cheng'en. Filmed in Northwest China and Inner Mongolia, the show was produced by Nippon TV and and broadcast from 1978 to 1980 on Nippon TV. Release Two 26-episode seasons ran in Japan: the first season ran from October 1978 to April 1979, and the second one from November 1979 to May 1980, with screenwriters including Mamoru Sasaki, Isao Okishima, Tetsurō Abe, Kei Tasaka, James Miki, Motomu Furuta, Hiroichi Fuse, Yū Tagami, and Fumio Ishimori. Saiyūki was dubbed into English from 1979, with dialogue written by David Weir. The dubbed version was broadcast under the name Monkey and broadcast in the United Kingdom by the British Broadcasting Corporation, in New Zealand by Television New Zealand and in Australia by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Only 39 of the original 52 episodes were originally dubbed and broadcast by the BBC: all 26 of series 1 and 13 of series 2. In 2004, the remaining 13 episodes were dubbed by Fabulous Films Ltd using the original voice acting cast, following a successful release of the English-dubbed series on VHS and DVD; later, these newly dubbed episodes were broadcast by Channel 4 in the UK. A Spanish-dubbed version of Monkey aired in Mexico, Costa Rica, Peru, Argentina, Uruguay and the Dominican Republic in the early 1980s. While the BBC-dubbed Monkey never received a broadcast in the United States, the original Japanese-language version, Saiyūki, was shown on local Japanese-language television stations in California and Hawaii in the early 1980s. Plot summary , the title character, is described in the theme song as being "born from an egg on a mountain top", a stone egg, and thus he is a stone monkey, a skilled fighter who becomes a brash king of a monkey tribe, who, the song goes on to claim, was "the punkiest monkey that ever popped". He achieved a little enlightenment, and proclaimed himself "Great Sage, Equal of Heaven". After demanding the "gift" of a magical staff from a powerful dragon king, and to quiet the din of his rough antics on Earth, Monkey is approached by Heaven to join their host, first in the lowly position of Master of the Stable (manure disposal), and then—after his riotous complaints—as "Keeper of the Peach Garden of Immortality". Monkey eats many of the peaches, which have taken millennia to ripen, becomes immortal and runs amok. Having earned the ire of Heaven and being beaten in a challenge by an omniscient, mighty, but benevolent, cloud-dwelling , Monkey is imprisoned for 500 years under a mountain in order to learn patience. Eventually, Monkey is released by the monk , who has been tasked by the to undertake a pilgrimage from China to India to fetch holy scriptures (implied to be the region of Gandhāra in the song over the closing credits). The pair soon recruit two former members of the Heavenly Host who were cast out and turned from angels to "monsters" as a result of Monkey's transgressions: , the water monster and ex-cannibal, expelled from Heaven after his interference caused Heaven's precious jade cup to be broken (his birthname is also later revealed to be Shao Chin, having been abducted as a child, but meets his long-lost father, in "The Beginning of Wisdom"), and , a pig monster consumed with lust and gluttony, who was expelled from Heaven after harassing the Star Princess Vega—the Jade Emperor's mistress—for a kiss. A dragon, , who was set free by Guanyin after being sentenced to death, eats Tripitaka's horse. On discovering that the horse was tasked with carrying Tripitaka, it assumes the horse's shape to carry the monk on his journey. Later in the story he occasionally assumes human form to assist his new master, although he is still always referred to as "Horse". Monkey can also change form, for instance into a hornet. In Episode 3, The Great Journey Begins, Monkey transforms into a girl to trick Pigsy. Monkey's other magic powers include: summoning a cloud upon which he can fly; his use of the magic wishing staff which he can shrink and grow at will and from time to time, when shrunk, store in his ear, and which he uses as a weapon; and the ability to conjure monkey warriors by blowing on hairs plucked from his chest. The pilgrims face many perils and antagonists both human, such as and supernatural. Monkey, Sandy, and Pigsy are often called upon to battle demons, monsters, and bandits, despite Tripitaka's constant call for peace. Many episodes also feature some moral lesson, usually based upon Buddhist and/or Taoist philosophies, which are elucidated by the narrator at the end of various scenes. Soundtrack The songs in the series were performed by the five-piece Japanese band Godiego. In Japan, the first series' ending theme , which was named after the ancient kingdom of Gandhara, was released by Columbia Music Entertainment on 1 October 1978, backed with "Celebration". This was followed by the release of the opening theme "Monkey Magic" on 25 December 1978, with "A Fool" on the B-side. Godiego also released the soundtrack album Magic Monkey on 25 October 1978, comprising all of the songs that the band had composed for the first series. The album became one of the group's highest-charting releases, staying at #1 on the Oricon chart for a total of eight weeks from January through March 1979 (it was unseated for most of January by the Japanese release of Grease: The Original Soundtrack from the Motion Picture), and it was ultimately the #1 LP for 1979. For the second series, the ending theme of "Gandhara" was replaced with "Holy and Bright", which was released on 1 October 1979 (the two sides of the single featured a Japanese-language version on one side and an English-language version on the other). In the UK, BBC Records released "Gandhara" as a single in 1979 (RESL 66), with "The Birth of the Odyssey" and "Monkey Magic" on the B-side. The single reached #56 on the UK Singles Chart, eventually spending a total of seven weeks on the chart. A second BBC single was released in 1980 (RESL 81), this time featuring an edited version of "Monkey Magic", along with "Gandhara" and "Thank You Baby", but this single failed to chart. The BBC releases of "Gandhara" have one verse sung in Japanese and the other in English. BBC Records also released the Magic Monkey album under the simplified title of Monkey (REB 384) in 1980 but it failed to chart. Masaaki Sakai, who plays Monkey in the series, also performed several of the songs for the series: "SONGOKU", , , a Japanese version of Godiego's "Thank You Baby", and . Cult appeal Monkey is considered a cult classic in countries where it has been shown, reaching as far as South America. Among the features that have contributed to its cult appeal are the theme song, the dubbed dialogue spoken in a variety of over-the-top "oriental" accents, the reasonably good synchronization of dubbing to the actors' original dialogue, the memorable battles which were for many Western youngsters their first exposure to Asian-style fantasy action sequences, and the fact that the young priest Tripitaka was played by a woman, despite being male. In 1981, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation debuted the BBC-dubbed Monkey at 6pm on week-nights. Since then, the show has been frequently repeated on the ABC, notably during the contemporary youth TV show Recovery which aired episodes of Monkey weekly from 1996 to 2000. When Recovery was put on hiatus, it was replaced with three hours of Monkey. The radio station Triple J often made references to Monkey and interviewed the original BBC voice actors on several occasions. The British folk pop band Monkey Swallows the Universe took their name from an episode of Monkey. Characters Production crew Series 1 Journey to the West Planning Tsuneo Hayakawa Writer David Weir Screenplay Mamoru Sasaki Isao Okishima Tetsuro Abe Hirokazu Fuse Motoo Nagai James Miki Yu Tagami Eiichiro Shiba Fumio Ishinomori Kei Tasaka Motomu Furuta Yoichi Onaka Yuuchiro Yamane English Dub Director Michael Bakewell Directors Yusuke Watanabe Jun Fukuda Daisuke Yamazaki Yasutaka Tanaka Kazuo Ikehiro Yoshiyuki Kuroda Crew Producers Muneo Yamada Tadahiro Nagatomi Satoshi Katori Kazuo Morikawa Ken Kumagai Film Cameraman Yukio Yada Studio Lighting Nobuo Maehara Film Sound Worldwide Sound Designer Masatoshi Kato Incidental Music Mickey Yoshino Songs by Godiego Additional Music & Special Sound by BBC Radiophonic Workshop (Uncredited) Film editor Yasuo Hiraki Music Selecting Shigeru Yamakawa Sound effects Miyata Sound Sound coordinator Hiroshi Toyoda Assistant director (director for Episodes 21, 22) Satoshi Aoki Chief of operations Takatsune Nishijima Costume designer Kotaro Maki Period verification Karajun Stunt Arranger Kanzo Uni Visual effects Visual Effects Designers Koichi Takano Kiyoshi Suzuki Kazuo Sagawa Teruyoshi Nakano Shinichi Kanzawa Visual effects Cameraman Shohei Sekiya Lighting Teruo Iida Designer Akihiko Iguchi Wire operator Eiji Shirakuma Special photographic effects Minoru Nakano Takeshi Miyanishi Assistant directors Yoshiyuki Yoshimura Shinichi Kanzawa Kenji Suzuki Chief of Production Ichizo Koike Produced in association with Tsuburaya Productions Tanabe Agency KHK Arts Takatsu Decorating and Art Toho Costumes Kawaguchi Wigs VFX Den Film Effects Toho Visual and Art Special thanks to Shinjuku Mitsui Building/Mandarin Palace Building, Seiunsha Film processing IMAGICA Sponsored by People's Republic of China, Central Hirose Business Bureau Produced by International Telefilms BBC 1 Series 2 Journey to the West II Planned by Tsuneo Hayakawa Adr Director Michael Bakewell George Roubicek Series written by David Weir Story James Miki Rokuo Yamashita Hirokazu Fuse Motomu Furuta Yuu Tagami Yasuhiro Sakurai Takayuki Kase Directed by Jun Fukuda Satoshi Aoki Showa Ota Masahiro Takase Yoshiyuki Kuroda Kazuo Ikehiro Akira Inoue Staff Producers Muneo Yamada Satoshi Katori Kazuo Morikawa Sadamasa Arikawa Incidental Music Mickey Yoshino Performed and Sung by Godiego "SONGOKU" Sung by Masaaki Sakai Film Cameramen Hajime Koizumi Shinichi Ooka Studio Lighting Kenjiro Konaka Sound Worldwide Sound Designer Masatoshi Kato Film editor Yasuo Hiraki Music selecting by Shigeru Yamakawa Sound effects Miyata Sound Sound coordinator Hiroshi Toyoda Assistant director Shin Hanada Chief of operations Takatsune Nishijima Costume designer Kotaro Maki Period verification Junki Tou VFX unit Visual Effects Designers Kiyoshi Suzuki Kazuo Sagawa Koichi Kawakita Teruyoshi Nakano Miniature Photography Shohei Sekiya Lighting Yoshiaki Matsumaru Designer Akihiko Iguchi Wirework Eiji Shirakuma Shuichi Kishiura Electronic Effects Takeshi Miyanishi Director's Assistant Kiyotaka Matsumoto Casting by Tanabe Agency Produced in association with Toho Image and Design Apparatus and set decorations KHK Arts Takatsu Decorating & Art Costumes and wigs Toho Costumes Kawaguchi Wigs Film processing IMAGICA Special thanks to Shinjuku Mitsui Building / Mandarin Palace Building Seiunsha Made on Location by International Television Films Produced by BBC 1 Fabulous Films, Channel 4 (Episodes 3~25) Episode list Monkey Goes Wild About Heaven Monkey Turns Nursemaid The Great Journey Begins Monkey Swallows the Universe The Power of Youth Even Monsters Can Be People The Beginning of Wisdom Pigsy Woos A Widow What Monkey Calls The Dog-Woman Pigsy's in The Well The Difference Between Night And Day Pearls Before Swine The Minx and the Slug Catfish, Saint and the Shape-Changer Monkey Meets The Demon Digger The Most Monstrous Monster Truth and the Grey Gloves Devil Land for the Locusts Vampire Master Outrageous Coincidences Pigsy, King and God Village of the Undead Two Little Blessings The Fires of Jealousy The Country of Nightmares The End of The Way Pigsy's Ten Thousand Ladies The Dogs of Death The Foolish Philosopher Who Am I? What is Wisdom? The Fountain of Youth A Shadow So Huge Keep on Dancing Give and Take Such A Nice Monster Pretty As a Picture Mothers At the Top of The Mountain The other half of series 2 was not originally dubbed into English. These were done in 2004 with as much of the original cast as possible. See also List of media adaptations of Journey to the West Monkey (novel) The New Legends of Monkey (2018 TV series reboot) References External links Monkey – Great Sage equal of Heaven – fansite Includes synopses of 52 episodes, and descriptions of the characters, demons, and gods. Monkey Heaven – fansite Includes short synopses and detailed summaries of 52 episodes, airdates, and more. Monkey at the Internet Movie Database (IMDb) What was Monkey Magic all about? – BBC News article assessing the show's lasting popularity 1978 Japanese television series debuts 1980 Japanese television series endings 1978 British television series debuts 1980 British television series endings BBC Television shows Television shows based on Journey to the West Tsuburaya Productions Nippon TV dramas Japanese action television series Japanese comedy television series Japanese fantasy television series Television shows written by James Miki Television series set in Ancient India	[ -0.553334653377533, -0.10042522102594376, -0.18518777191638947, -0.2554360628128052, -0.16962824761867523, 0.348054438829422, 0.6846268177032471, -0.03488815575838089, -0.7280411720275879, 0.05776289105415344, -0.3859750032424927, -0.08206623047590256, -0.3043827712535858, 0.44877195358276367, -0.31820642948150635, 0.11241930723190308, 0.851215660572052, 0.11620447784662247, -0.17956840991973877, 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236210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown%20prince	Crown prince	A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wife of the person styled crown prince. Crown prince as a descriptive term has been used throughout history for the prince who is first-in-line to a throne and is expected to succeed (i.e. the heir apparent), barring any unforeseen future event preventing this. In certain monarchies, a more specific substantive title may be accorded and become associated with the position of heir apparent (e.g. Prince of Wales in the United Kingdom). In these monarchies, the term crown prince may be used less often than the substantive title (or never). Until the late twentieth century, no modern monarchy adopted a system whereby females would be guaranteed to succeed to the throne (i.e. absolute primogeniture). A crown princess would therefore be more likely to refer to the spouse of a crown prince. She would be styled crown princess, not in her own right but by courtesy. Description The term crown prince is not used in European monarchies where the hereditary sovereign holds a title below that of king/queen or emperor/empress (such as grand duke or prince), although it is sometimes used as a synonym for heir apparent. In Europe, where primogeniture governed succession to all monarchies except those of the Papacy and Andorra, the eldest son or (more recently) eldest child of the current monarch fills the role of crown prince or princess, depending upon whether females of the dynasty enjoy personal succession rights. Male precedence has been abolished in Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The eldest living child of a monarch is sometimes not the heir apparent or crown prince, because that position can be held by a descendant of a deceased older child who, by "right of representation", inherits the same place in the line of succession that would be held by the ancestor if he or she were still living (for example, Carl Gustaf, Duke of Jämtland was the crown prince of Sweden from 1950 to 1973, as the senior grandson by male primogeniture of King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden, although the former Prince Sigvard, Duke of Uppland was Gustaf VI Adolf's eldest living son, and Prince Bertil, Duke of Halland his eldest living dynastic son during those years). In some monarchies, those of the Middle East for example, in which primogeniture is not the decisive factor in dynastic succession, a person may not possess the title or status of crown prince by right of birth, but may obtain (and lose) it as a result of an official designation made on some other legal or traditional basis, such as former crown prince Hassan bin Talal of Jordan. Compare heir apparent and heir presumptive. In Scandinavian kingdoms, the heir presumptive to the crown may hold a different title from an heir apparent: hereditary prince (German: Erbprinz, French: prince héréditaire). It is also the title borne by the heir apparent of Liechtenstein, as well as the heir apparent or presumptive of Monaco. In Luxembourg, the heir apparent bears the title of hereditary grand duke (German: Erbgroßherzog, Luxembourgish: ierfgroussherzog); along with hereditary prince, it was also the title borne by the heirs apparent to the thrones of the grand duchies, sovereign duchies and principalities, and of mediatized princely families in the German monarchies abolished in 1918. Christian/Western traditional titles Many monarchies use or did use substantive titles for their heirs apparent, often of historical origin: Dauphin (Kingdom of France) Duke of Brabant (Belgium) Duke of Braganza (Kingdom of Portugal) Duke of Cornwall (Kingdom of England), currently one of the titles of the Prince of Wales Duke of Rothesay (Kingdom of Scotland), currently used by the Prince of Wales in place of his Welsh title when in Scotland Grand Prince (Grand Duchy of Tuscany) Margrave of Moravia (Kingdom of Bohemia) Prince of Asturias (Castile & Spain), also used by heir presumptives Prince of Girona (Aragon & Spain) Prince Imperial or Prince Napoléon (French Empire) Prince Imperial (Empire of Brazil) Prince Imperial (Mexican Empire) Prince of Orange (Netherlands), whether or not the equivalent title is held by the spouse of the titleholder is decided by the Dutch parliament (e.g., Queen Máxima of the Netherlands was never titled Princess of Orange by marriage for this reason) Prince of Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia, and then Kingdom of Italy, when it was alternated with Prince of Naples) once conferred by King Joseph Bonaparte Prince Royal (France in 1789–1791 and the July Monarchy, and Portugal since 1815) Prince of Turnovo (Kingdom of Bulgaria) Prince of Viana (Navarre & Spain) Rex iunior (Kingdom of Hungary), lit. junior king as he was crowned during the life of the incumbent king Tsesarevich (Russia) Some monarchies have used (although not always de jure) a territorial title for heirs apparent which, though often perceived as a crown princely title, is not automatically hereditary. It generally requires a specific conferral by the sovereign, which may be withheld. Current and past titles in this category include: Caesar or Kaisar (Roman and early Byzantine Empires) in honor of Gaius Julius Caesar, distinguished from the senior Augustus Symbasileus (late Byzantine Empire), lit. co-emperor but still distinguished from the senior who was addressed as Autocrator Aetheling (Anglo-Saxon England) and edling (Welsh kingdoms), lit. of the royal family Duke of Estonia and Lolland (Denmark; during, at least, reigns of Christopher II and Valdemar IV) Prince of Norway (Denmark-Norway); in 15th–19th centuries Duke of Valentinois, used by several heirs to the Monégasque throne Prince of Wales (England, Great Britain, United Kingdom) King of the Romans (Holy Roman Empire) – an elective, rather than an inherited title, for the designated successor—usually the son, but sometimes the brother—of the Emperor King of Rome (First French Empire) Duke of Sparta (Kingdom of Greece); used briefly, within Greece, only by Prince Constantine, during the reign of his father King George I Marquess of Baux, used by several heirs to the Monégasque throne Prince of Brazil (title of the Portuguese heir from 1645 to 1815) Duke of Scania (Sweden during the time when Magnus IV of Sweden also was King of Terra Scania) Prince of Ani (Kingdom of West Armenia) Prince of Alba Iulia (Kingdom of Romania) Grand Voivode of Grahovo (Kingdom of Montenegro) Prince of Venice (see Prince Eugène de Beauharnais); for the heir presumptive to Napoleon I in his Kingdom of Italy Duke of Calabria (Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies); prior to the accession of King Robert the title of the Neapolitan heir was Prince of Salerno Modern Crown Princes and Princesses Currently, the following states use the term "crown prince" (or "crown princess") for the heirs apparent to their thrones: Princedom of Adjara, Akhaltsikhe & Duke of Kakheti in Eastern Georgia: Crown Prince & Duke Cemil Khimshiashvili (H.Oglu) Khimshiashvili Bahrain – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Belgium – Crown Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant Brunei – Crown Prince (Pengiran Muda Mahkota) Al-Muhtadee Billah Eswatini – (position of Crown Prince currently vacant) Denmark – (Kronprins) Crown Prince Frederik, Count of Montpezat Jordan – (Wali al-Ahd) Crown Prince Hussein Kuwait – (Wali al-Ahd) (Crown Prince) Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Malaysia: Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong) Nazrin Shah of Perak Johor – Crown Prince (Tunku Mahkota) Tunku Ismail Idris ibni Sultan Ibrahim Ismail Kedah – Crown Prince (Raja Muda) Tunku Sarafuddin Badlishah Sultan Sallehuddin Kelantan – Crown Prince (Tengku Mahkota) Tengku Muhammad Faiz Petra ibni Sultan Ismail Petra Negeri Sembilan – Crown Prince (Tunku Besar) Tunku Ali Redhauddin ibni Tuanku Muhriz Pahang – Crown Prince (Tengku Mahkota) Tengku Hassanal Ibrahim Alam Shah ibni Al-Sultan Abdullah Perak – Crown Prince (Raja Muda) Raja Jaafar ibni Raja Muda Musa Perlis – Crown Prince (Raja Muda) Tuanku Syed Faizuddin Putra Jamalullail Selangor – Crown Prince (Raja Muda) Tengku Amir Shah ibni Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah Terengganu – Crown Prince (Yang di-Pertuan Muda) Tengku Muhammad Ismail ibni Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin Morocco – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Moulay Hassan Norway – (Kronprins) Crown Prince Haakon Oman – Theyazin bin Haitham,Crown Prince of Oman Saudi Arabia – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Mohammed bin Salman Spain - (Princesa de Asturias) Leonor, Princess of Asturias, heir presumptive Sweden – (Kronprinsessa) Crown Princess Victoria, Duchess of Västergötland Thailand – (position of Crown Prince currently vacant) Tonga – Crown Prince Tupoutoʻa ʻUlukalala United Arab Emirates: each of the constituent emirates of the U.A.E. uses the title of 'Crown Prince' for their heirs apparent: Abu Dhabi – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan Dubai – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Hamdan bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Fujairah – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Mohammed bin Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi Ajman – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Ammar bin Humaid Al Nuaimi Ras Al-Khamiah – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Muhammed bin Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi Sharjah – Crown Prince (Wali al-Ahd) Sultan bin Muhammad bin Sultan Al Qasimi Umm al-Quwain – Crown Prince (Wali al Ahd) Rashid bin Saud bin Rashid Al Mua'lla In addition; the following heirs apparent to deposed monarchies use the title of Crown Prince as a title used by international courtesy: Ahmad Shah Khan, Crown Prince of Afghanistan Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece. Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran. Paras, Crown Prince of Nepal Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Other specific traditions Ancient Egypt, Prince of the Sa'id, meaning Prince of Upper Egypt In Islamic tradition, the title is Wali al-Ahd. In Persia (Iran), during the Pahlavi dynasty and Qajar dynasty, the full style was Vala Hazrat-i-Humayun Vali Ahd, Shahzada (given name), (in Persian: والاحضرت همایون ولایتعهد) i.e. His August Imperial Highness the Heir Apparent, Prince ...; The title was adopted by many oriental monarchies, even some non-Muslim, e.g. Walet as alternative title for the Nepali (Hindu) royal heir apparent; first used Crown Prince Trailokya in the middle of the nineteenth century, taken from the Mughal title 'Vali Ahd' Hindu tradition (Indian subcontinent): Yuvaraja was part of the full title in many princely states of India, e.g. in Jammu and Kashmir, the heir apparent was styled Maharaj Kumar Shri Yuvaraj (personal name) Singhji BahadurTika Nepal, where the King was styled Maharajadhiraja: the heir apparent was styled: Sri Sri Sri Sri Sri Yuvarajadhiraj ('Young King of Kings', i.e. Crown Prince) (personal name) Bir Bikram Shah Deva; the eldest son of the heir apparent was styled: Sri Sri Sri Sri Sri Nava Yuvaraj ('Young Crown Prince') (personal name) Bir Bikram Shah DevaEast Asian traditions: The cognates of Chinese Huang Taizi (皇太子, "Great Imperial Son") – if a son of the reigning emperor, and Huang Taisun'' (皇太孫, Great Imperial Grandson) – if a grandson of the emperor: The crown prince of an emperor was sometimes referred as Dong-gong (東宮, 'East Palace') due to the location of his residence from the main palace. If the crown prince is the son of a king, he was called 世子 (Shizi). The crown prince was not necessarily the first-born son. During the Joseon Dynasty in Korea, the crown prince was often referred as Dong-gung (동궁, 東宮, 'East Palace') or wangseja (王世子 왕세자); The first-born son was called wonja (元子 원자). Southeast Asian traditions: Siam Makutrajakuman (สยามมกุฎราชกุมาร) in Thailand since 1886. Krom Phrarajawangboworn Sathanmongkol or Phra Maha Uparaja or commonly called Wang Na (or Front Palace) in Thailand prior to 1886. Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Anom in Yogyakarta sultanate and Surakarta, Indonesia. Raja Muda or Tengku Mahkota in the Malay sultanates of Malaysia. Pengiran Muda Mahkota in Brunei Equivalents in other cultures: Jaguar Prince (Mesoamerica) Ka Haku O Hawaii or "The Lord of Hawaii" in the Hawaiian language. Aremo, "First Son and Heir" in the Yoruba language of West Africa, used as a royal title in many of the kingdoms of the region. Lee Jae-yong, South Korean billionaire and Chairman of Samsung referred to as the "Crown Prince of Samsung" Crown Cardinal the Crown Prince or Crown Princess See also Caesar (title) (since the tetrarchy) and Consors imperii Princeps iuventutis Prince of the blood "Crown Prince Party" of the People's Republic of China List of heirs apparent Taizi Yuvraj Notes and references Notes References Royal titles Noble titles Heirs to the throne Kings Crown prince	[ -0.10825387388467789, 0.1665787696838379, 0.07203178107738495, 0.35234197974205017, -0.046307273209095, -0.4097359776496887, 0.7099378705024719, 0.15948811173439026, -0.5294522643089294, -0.3912025988101959, -1.2064989805221558, -0.09365002065896988, -0.08016547560691833, 0.3752473294734955, -0.058986637741327286, 0.10158059746026993, 0.48215579986572266, 0.5839012265205383, -0.08701486885547638, -0.7149921655654907, -0.1635211855173111, 0.37845227122306824, 0.13750529289245605, -0.12039829045534134, 0.7089332342147827, 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236211	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huddersfield%20Town%20A.F.C.	Huddersfield Town A.F.C.	Huddersfield Town Association Football Club is an English professional football club based in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire. Founded on 15 August 1908, it entered the Football League in 1910. The team currently compete in the Championship, the second tier of English football. Huddersfield became the first English club to win three successive English league titles in 1925–26. The first two league titles were won under manager and pioneer Herbert Chapman, who also led the team to an FA Cup win in 1922. They have been runners-up in the First Division thrice, and FA Cup runners-up four times. Town were the second team, after Blackpool, to have won all three divisional play-offs. In the late 1950s, the club was managed by Bill Shankly, and featured Denis Law and Ray Wilson. Following relegation from the First Division in 1972, Huddersfield spent 45 years in the second, third and fourth tiers of English football, before returning to the top flight in 2017. They were relegated back to the Championship in 2019. The team have played home games at the Kirklees Stadium since 1994, which replaced their former home of Leeds Road. The club colours of blue and white stripes were adopted in 1916. Their nickname "The Terriers" was taken in 1969. Huddersfield's current emblem is based on the town's coat of arms. The team have long-standing rivalries with nearby clubs Bradford City and Leeds United, with whom they contest the West Yorkshire derby. History Early years and golden days (1908–1945) The club was founded in 1908. The founders bought a site on Leeds Road for £500, and joined the North Eastern League. The following season they joined the Midland Football League in order to reduce travelling costs. In an effort to gain entry into the Football League, the club invited Scottish architect Archibald Leitch to reconstruct Leeds Road. A 4,000-seat stand was to be constructed, and terracing was also planned, to provide an overall capacity of 34,000. After the plans went through, Huddersfield directors successfully applied to become members of the Football League in 1910, and development of Leeds Road began immediately. However, the development costs were too high, and attendances sunk below 7,000. Huddersfield went into liquidation in 1912, after which a new limited company was formed to take over the club’s assets. Huddersfield Town were reportedly £25,000 in debt in 1919, and attendances fell to around 3,000. Chairman John Hilton Crowther planned to merge Town with newly formed Leeds United and to relocate to Leeds. The reports galvanised supporters to start fundraising to stave off the move. Shares of £1 had been released, converting the club to a public ownership. After a month of acquiring funds and negotiations, the club stayed in Huddersfield. The team then reached the 1920 FA Cup Final and won promotion to First Division for the first time. During their first season in the top flight, former Leeds City manager Herbert Chapman was brought in (after Huddersfield helped him overturn his ban) as the new assistant to Ambrose Langley. Chapman replaced Langley in March 1921, and led the team to a 17th-place finish. In the summer of 1921, playmaker Clem Stephenson and the club's all-time top goal scorer George Brown were acquired. Chapman's tactics were based upon the principles of a strong defence and a fast, counter-attacking response, with the focus on quick, short passing and mazy runs from his wingers. He is regarded as the first manager to successfully employ the counter-attack. Other progressive ideas included a disciplined fitness regime for the players, and the practice of reserve and youth teams playing the same style as the senior team. He employed a wide-ranging scouting network to find the right players for his tactical system. The team won their first ever major honour, the FA Cup, after Preston North End were beaten 1–0 in the 1922 FA Cup Final. Huddersfield also won the 1922 Charity Shield, defeating Liverpool 1–0. Town finished in third place in 1922–23, before winning their first ever First Division championship in 1923–24. The team fought off Cardiff City, although it was by the narrowest of margins. They both finished on 57 points, but Huddersfield won it by a difference of 0.024 in goal average. Huddersfield won 3–0 against Nottingham Forest in the last match, and Cardiff drew 0–0 at Birmingham City and missed a penalty. The team retained their First Division title in 1924–25 after only one loss in the last 27 league matches. Huddersfield only conceded 28 goals and never conceded more than two per game; the first time a team accomplished this feat. Another notable feat was achieved in October 1924, as Billy Smith became the first player in history to score directly from a corner. After winning successive league titles, Chapman left for Arsenal, which offered to double his wages and attracted larger crowds than Huddersfield. Cecil Potter was brought in as his successor. Under Potter, Town became the first club to win three successive English League titles in 1925–26. The team came close to winning a fourth consecutive title the following season, but only won one of their last seven matches and thus handed the title to Newcastle United. Town won the "wrong double" in the 1927–28 season; they finished runners-up in both the league and lost the FA Cup Final. In March 1928, an international match between England and Scotland featured five Town players. Tom Wilson, Bob Kelly, Billy Smith, and Roy Goodall started for England; Alex Jackson played for Scotland. Jackson scored a hat-trick as Scotland, later nicknamed "The Wembley Wizards", defeated England 5–1. Huddersfield's ageing squad was not adequately replaced. A deterioration of their league position followed, although they finished runners-up in 1933–34, and two more FA Cup Finals were reached under new manager Clem Stephenson. Town were defeated in 1930 by Chapman's Arsenal, and in 1938 by Preston North End after extra time, which was the first FA Cup Final to be broadcast on television. A record home attendance of 67,037 was achieved in 1932 during an FA Cup sixth round tie against Arsenal. Decline and recovery (1945–1992) Town were relegated for the first time in the 1951–52 season. Stockport County manager Andy Beattie was appointed in April 1952, and managed Stockport and Huddersfield in three divisions in the same month. He also had two horseshoes nailed to his office wall for luck. The team finished second in the Second Division in 1952–53 and made an immediate return. They finished in third place in their first season back in the top flight. After Town were relegated in 1955–56, Beattie resigned as manager in November 1956, and Bill Shankly succeeded him. In December 1957, the team led 5–1 with 30 minutes remaining against Charlton Athletic, but lost 7–6. Shankly left in December 1959 to manage Liverpool. Floodlights were installed at Leeds Road in 1961, which were financed by the British record transfer fee of £55,000 of Denis Law to Manchester City, and became known as the "Denis Law Lights". Huddersfield continued to play in the second tier during the 1960s. They reached the semi-final of the League Cup in 1967–68, but lost on aggregate to Arsenal. In 1969, the club adopted the nickname "The Terriers". Town won the Second Division in 1969–70 under the guidance of Ian Greaves. The team stayed up in their first season back in the first tier, but were relegated in 1971–72, which was followed by another relegation to the Third Division for the first time the season after. Huddersfield were relegated to the Fourth Division for the first time in 1974–75. Former Town manager Tom Johnston returned to the club as general manager in 1975. The club later returned to all-blue shirts that he had introduced in the mid-1960s. Johnston replaced Bobby Collins as manager in December 1975. During the 1976–77 season, John Haselden became the manager with Johnston returning to his previous role. This, however, did not last, as Johnston demoted Haselden in September 1977 and gave himself the job. He managed Town to their lowest ever league position of 11th at the end of the 1977–78 season. A recovery started under manager Mick Buxton, who was appointed in 1978. Huddersfield won the Fourth Division in 1979–80, scoring 101 goals in the process. Town finished just outside the promotion places the following season. The team won promotion to the Second Division in 1982–83 by a third-place finish. Due to Huddersfield languishing at the bottom of the division, declining home attendances, and the resulting financial pressure, Buxton was sacked in December 1986. Steve Smith succeeded him, and became the first (and as of , only) permanent manager in the club's history to hail from Huddersfield. The team stayed up by three points that season, but were relegated back to the third tier in 1987–88. Town only won six matches, conceded 100 goals, and lost 10–1 against Manchester City. Huddersfield reached the 1991–92 Third Division play-offs, but lost the semi-final against Peterborough United by an aggregate score of 4–3. New stadium, on the brink of extinction, and a return to the top flight (1992–present) The team avoided relegation to the Third Division (renamed from the Fourth Division after the introduction of the Premier League) in 1992–93, following a run of only three defeats in their last 17 league games, to finish in 15th place. Manager Neil Warnock took over from Ian Ross for the 1993–94 season. Town reached the 1994 Football League Trophy Final, but lost against Swansea City on penalties. Huddersfield Town played their final match at Leeds Road on 30 April 1994, beating Blackpool 2–1, which was watched by a near capacity crowd of 16,195. They moved into the new Kirklees Stadium (then named as the Alfred McAlpine Stadium) for the 1994–95 season. During the first season at the new stadium, Huddersfield were promoted to the second tier via the play-offs after a 2–1 win against Bristol Rovers at Wembley. Warnock left the club that summer, and was replaced by Brian Horton, who guided the Town to an eighth place finish the following season. Horton was sacked in October 1997, with Huddersfield without a win in their first nine games. Former Huddersfield player Peter Jackson was given the job. They only scored one point in Jackson's first five games, but Huddersfield finally won in their 15th match, by beating Stoke City 3–1. Unbeaten runs mixed with winless runs followed, and Town managed to stay up by a 16th-place finish. In January 1999, the club was bought by local businessman Barry Rubery, who targeted to reach the Premier League. Steve Bruce succeeded Jackson in May 1999. Huddersfield topped the table in December, but their form plummeted after striker Marcus Stewart was sold in the January transfer window to First Division rivals Ipswich Town. They finished the season in eighth place, just outside the play-offs. Bruce was sacked in October 2000. Rubery accused Bruce of "wasting £3m", arguing that the money would have been "spent more wisely by a more experienced manager without an ego to feed". He was replaced by Lou Macari, who was unable to halt the slide as relegation to the third tier followed at the end of the season. Huddersfield reached the play-offs in 2001–02, but lost 2–1 to Brentford in the semi-final. Around this time, the club had debts of 20 million pounds following relegation and the collapse of ITV Digital. The players went months without being paid, and manager Mick Wadsworth was sacked in January 2003, only to be reinstated because the club did not have any money for his pay-off. Wadsworth was eventually sacked in March and replaced by Mel Machin, who oversaw relegation to the fourth tier. The club was put into administration, but Ken Davy bought the club in the summer of 2003 and rescued Town from liquidation. Manager Peter Jackson only had four senior players on the books before the beginning of the 2003–04 season, after which many youngsters from the academy setup were added. Huddersfield finished in a surprising fourth place, and defeated Mansfield Town in the play-off Final to return to the third tier. The team reached the play-offs in 2005–06, but were eliminated by Barnsley in the semi-final, after further seasons in League One followed. Dean Hoyle took over as chairman, and majority shareholder, of the club in June 2009. Town reached the play-offs in 2009–10 under manager Lee Clark, but lost against Millwall in the semi-final. The team again qualified for the play-offs the following season, however, Peterborough United were victorious in the Final. Huddersfield set a Football League record of 43 matches unbeaten (not including the play-off matches), which was previously set by Nottingham Forest, in November 2011. Clark was sacked in February 2012 following a 1–0 home defeat to Sheffield United, and was replaced by former Leeds United manager Simon Grayson. He led Town to the play-off Final against Sheffield United. The game finished 0–0 after extra time, before Huddersfield were victorious after 22 penalties (8–7). Despite this success, Grayson was sacked in January 2013, being succeeded by Mark Robins. Huddersfield avoided relegation on the last day, after a draw with Barnsley. German Borussia Dortmund II coach David Wagner became the first person born outside the British Isles to manage the club in November 2015. He implemented the "Gegenpressing" style of play. In 2016–17, Town finished fifth with a negative goal difference, and qualified for the play-offs. After defeating Sheffield Wednesday on penalties in the semi-final, they faced Reading in the Final. Another penalty shoot-out followed, and Huddersfield were again victorious. Promotion to the Premier League meant a return to the first tier for the first time since 1972. Huddersfield also became the second club, after Blackpool, to have won all three divisional play-offs. The team finished 16th and stayed up on their return, but were relegated after a 20th-place finish in 2018–19. Wagner left the club by mutual consent in January 2019, and was replaced by Borussia Dortmund II manager Jan Siewert, but Town were relegated in March with six matches remaining. The team amassed only three wins and 16 points by the end of the season. Chairman Hoyle announced his departure in May 2019, selling the club to businessman Phil Hodgkinson, relinquishing the post due to poor health. Siewert was replaced by Lincoln City manager Danny Cowley in September of that year, who guided the club to survival in the Championship before being sacked. Leeds United assistant coach Carlos Corberán was appointed as the club's new head coach in July 2020. Badge and colours The club spent over eight years debating what colour the kit should be, with suggestions ranging from salmon pink to plain white or all-blue to white with blue yoke. Eventually, in 1916, the club adopted the striped blue and white jersey that remains to this day. The club badge is based on the coat of arms of Huddersfield. Town first used a badge on its shirts for the 1920 FA Cup Final based on the Huddersfield coat of arms. It appeared again with a Yorkshire Rose for the 1922 FA Cup Final and again for the finals of 1928, 1930 and 1938. The club's main colours of blue and white are evident throughout the badge both in the mantling and in the shield, in the form of stripes. Two Yorkshire Roses and Castle Hill form part of the history of the club and the area. Town stuck with the same principal design (blue and white stripes) until 1966, when Scottish manager Tom Johnston introduced all-blue shirts. A new badge was also adopted that year, when the vertical monogram "HTFC" adorned the all-blue shirts. When the club adopted the nickname "The Terriers" for the 1969–70 season, the blue and white stripes returned and with it a red terrier with the words "The Terriers". After relegation to the Fourth Division, Huddersfield returned to all-blue shirts and the vertical monogram crest with the return of Tom Johnston in 1975. Stripes returned in the 1977–78 season and have been the club's home kit ever since. In 1980, Town adopted what remains their badge today. It combined elements of the old town coat of arms with modern motifs, such as blue and white stripes and a terrier with a football. In 2000, Huddersfield changed its badge to a circular design, but that was never popular with the fans, and soon returned to the heraldic-style badge. The badge was further redeveloped with a small adaptation in 2005. The club took the decision to remove "A.F.C." from the text, leaving only the wording "Huddersfield Town". This eased problems with embroidery on shirts and club merchandise, and also gave the printwork a standard look. The club adopted a Terriers logo in 2018. It was used solely on the strip and did not replace the heraldic crest, which continued to appear on all official media and documents. In 2019, Town agreed to have Paddy Power shirt sponsorship in a striking beauty queen style diagonal sash design. Within days, the club were contacted by The Football Association for their "observations" about the kit. Shortly after, it was revealed that the shirt was a prank envisioned by Paddy Power, and that the club would play in shirts without a sponsor. as part of their "Save Our Shirt" campaign. Huddersfield returned to a updated version of their heraldic-style crest in 2019. The three stars (representing their hat-trick of league titles in the 1920s) were moved inside the shield. Furthermore, a single Yorkshire Rose was placed at the top of the blue and white stripes, above the three stars. The shield was also modernized by moving away from the more rounded version. The Terrier was incorporated into the crest, at the top of the shield, and the club's founding date was introduced on either side of Castle Hill. Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors Source: Stadium Leeds Road (1908–1994) Kirklees Stadium (1994–present) Named "Alfred McAlpine Stadium" (1994–2004) Named "Galpharm Stadium" (2004–2012) Named "John Smith's Stadium" (2012–present) Huddersfield were the first team to have played at each of the four professional levels of English football at two different grounds. Supporters and rivalries Since 1920, Huddersfield's club song has been "Smile A While". The anthem was created by G. W. Chappell of Longwood, Huddersfield, before the 1920 FA Cup Final against Aston Villa. It was an adapted version of the popular First World War song "Till We Meet Again". Chappell's creation was originally called "The Town Anthem", and was sung by Town supporters ahead of the Final. The anthem is still sung by Huddersfield supporters at home matches. In 2014, a group of Town fans formed a collective called "North Stand Loyal". Its aim was "to improve the atmosphere around the stadium on matchdays", and the members were "inspired by fan groups of continental Europe and other parts of the world". In 2017, the group renamed themselves "Cowshed Loyal". The group is located in the South Stand, which is shared with away fans. The club also has various overseas supporters' groups, with clubs in Australia, Canada, Northern Ireland, Norway, Republic of Ireland, Singapore, Slovakia, and United States. Notable fans over the years have included Prime Minister Harold Wilson, who was born in the town, and actor Sir Patrick Stewart, who became president of the Huddersfield Town Academy in 2010. Huddersfield Town's main rivals are considered to be West Yorkshire clubs Bradford City and Leeds United. Town hold the better head-to-head record against City; 21 matches have been won, 17 drawn, and 14 lost. Including games against United's predecessor team Leeds City, Huddersfield have won 36 of the 90 derbies between the two sides, with 20 draws and 34 Leeds wins. There are smaller rivalries with South Yorkshire clubs Barnsley and Sheffield Wednesday, and there is a Roses rivalry with Oldham Athletic. Huddersfield also have a rivalry with Cambridgeshire club Peterborough United, largely fuelled by the play-off meetings in 1992 and 2011. Players First-team squad Huddersfield Town B Players out on loan Notable former players Full internationals Only players who have gained caps while at the club are included. Australia Jason Davidson Aaron Mooy Benin Steve Mounié Bermuda Nahki Wells Canada David Edgar Curaçao Juninho Bacuna DR Congo Elias Kachunga Denmark Mathias Jørgensen Egypt Ramadan Sobhi England Pat Beasley George Brown Fred Bullock Austen Campbell Jack Cock Roy Goodall Harold Hassall Bob Kelly Bill McGarry Vic Metcalfe Michael O'Grady Billy Smith Ron Staniforth Clem Stephenson Ted Taylor Hugh Turner Sam Wadsworth Ken Willingham Ray Wilson Tom Wilson Alf Young Jamaica Jermaine Beckford Theo Robinson Kosovo Florent Hadergjonaj Luxembourg Danel Sinani Montserrat Junior Mendes Netherlands Terence Kongolo Northern Ireland / Harry Baird / Laurie Cumming / Peter Doherty / Charlie Gallogly / Bill Hayes / James Macauley / Johnny McKenna Jimmy Nicholson Oliver Norwood Martin Paterson Republic of Ireland Mick Fairclough / Bill Hayes Kevin Kilbane Mick Meagan Pat Saward Scotland Paul Dixon Joe Harper Alex Jackson Denis Law Jordan Rhodes David Steele Jimmy Watson United States John Thorrington Danny Williams Wales Marcus Browning Dai Evans Emyr Huws Steve Jenkins Joey Jones Dick Krzywicki Wilf Lewis Joel Lynch Charlie Morris Jazz Richards Iwan Roberts Sorba Thomas English Football Hall of Fame members Several ex-players/managers associated with Huddersfield Town are represented in the English Football Hall of Fame, which was created in 2002, as a celebration of those who have made an outstanding contribution to the game. To be considered for induction players/managers must be 30 years of age or older and have played/managed for at least five years in England. Herbert Chapman Peter Doherty Denis Law Bill Shankly Clem Stephenson Ray Wilson Football League 100 Legends The Football League 100 Legends is a list of "100 legendary football players" produced by the Football League in 1998, to celebrate the 100th season of league football. Three former Huddersfield players made the list. Clem Stephenson Peter Doherty Denis Law Player of the Year (Hargreaves Memorial Trophy) As voted by members of the official Huddersfield Town supporters club. Managers Personnel Club officials Source: First team technical staff Source: Honours Huddersfield Town were the second team, after Blackpool, to have won all three divisional play-offs. The club's honours include the following: League First Division (first tier) Champions (3): 1923–24, 1924–25, 1925–26 Runners-up (3): 1926–27, 1927–28, 1933–34 Second Division/Championship (second tier) Champions (1): 1969–70 Runners-up (2): 1919–20, 1952–53 Play-off winners (1): 2017 Third Division/Division Two/League One (third tier) Promoted (1): 1982–83 Play-off winners (2): 1995, 2012 Fourth Division/Division Three (fourth tier) Champions (1): 1979–80 Play-off winners (1): 2004 Cup FA Cup Winners (1): 1921–22 Runners-up (4): 1919–20, 1927–28, 1929–30, 1937–38 FA Charity Shield Winners (1): 1922Football League Trophy''' Runners-up (1): 1993–94 Notes Sources References Bibliography External links Supporters Trust HTAFC Patrons Huddersfield Town Blog Football clubs in England Football clubs in West Yorkshire 1908 establishments in England Association football clubs established in 1908 FA Cup winners Premier League clubs English Football League clubs North Eastern League Midland 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236213	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helots	Helots	The helots (; , heílotes) were a subjugated population that constituted a majority of the population of Laconia and Messenia – the territories comprising Sparta. There has been controversy since antiquity as to their exact characteristics, such as whether they constituted an Ancient Greek tribe, a social class, or both. For example, Critias described helots as "slaves to the utmost", whereas according to Pollux, they occupied a status "between free men and slaves". Tied to the land, they primarily worked in agriculture as a majority and economically supported the Spartan citizens. The number of helots in relation to Spartan citizens varied throughout the history of the Spartan state; according to Herodotus, there were seven helots for each Spartan at the time of the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Thus the need to keep the helot population in check and prevent rebellion was one of the main concerns of the Spartans. Helots were ritually mistreated, humiliated and even slaughtered: every autumn the Spartans would declare war on the helots so they could be killed by a member of the Crypteia without fear of religious repercussion. Uprisings and attempts to improve the lot of the helots did occur, such as the Conspiracy of Cinadon. Etymology Several theories exist regarding the origin of the name "helot". According to Hellanicus, the word relates to the village of Helos, in the south of Sparta. Pausanias thus states, "Its inhabitants became the first slaves of the Lacedaemonian state, and were the first to be called helots". This explanation is, however, not very plausible in etymological terms. Linguists have associated the word with the root , wel-, as in , halískomai, "to be captured, to be made prisoner". In fact, some ancient authors did not consider the term ethnic, but rather an indication of servitude: Antiochus of Syracuse writes: "those of the Lacedaemonians who did not take part in the expedition were adjudged slaves and were named helots",<ref>Geography Trans. by H.L. Jones (1924), Accessed: 11 June 2006. Apud Strabo 6, 3, 2.</ref> while Theopompus (fragment 122), cited by Athenaeus (VI, 416c), states, "...and the one nation called their slaves helots and the others called them penestae..." "In all of these texts, the naming of the group as helots is the central and symbolic moment of their reduction to serfhood. They are thus institutionally distinguished from the anonymous douloi (slaves)." Certainly conquest comprised one aspect of helotism; thus Messenians, who were conquered in the Messenian Wars of the 8th century BC, become synonymous in Herodotus with helots. The situation seems less clear in the case of the earliest helots, who, according to Theopompus, were descended from the initial Achaeans, whom the Dorians had conquered. But not all Achaeans were reduced to helotism: the city of Amyclae, home of the Hyacinthia festival, enjoyed special status, as did others. Contemporary authors propose alternative theories: according to Antiochus of Syracuse, helots were the Lacedaemonians who did not participate in the Messenian Wars; for Ephorus of Cyme, they were the perioeci ("dwellers in surrounding communities") from Helos, reduced to slavery after a failed revolt. Characteristics Relationship to Spartans From at least the classical period, the number of Spartans was very small in comparison to that of the helots. In a celebrated passage, Thucydides stresses that "most Spartan institutions have always been designed with a view to security against the Helots". Aristotle compares them to "an enemy constantly sitting in wait of the disaster of the Spartans". Consequently, fear seems to be an important factor governing relations between Spartans and Helots. According to tradition, the Spartiates always carried their spears, undid the straps of their bucklers only when at home lest the Helots seize them, and locked themselves in their homes. They also took active measures, subjecting them to what Theopompus describes as "an altogether cruel and bitter condition". According to Myron of Priene, an anti-Spartan historian of the middle 3rd century BC: Plutarch also states that Spartans treated the Helots "harshly and cruelly": they compelled them to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous—wine usually being diluted with water) "... and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs..." during syssitia (obligatory banquets). However, he notes that this rough treatment was inflicted only relatively late, after the 464 BC earthquake. Some modern scholars advocate a reevaluation of ancient evidence about helots. It has been argued that the kunē was not actually made of dogskin, and that the diphthera (literally, "leather") was the general attire of the poor peasant class. The obligation of masters to prevent fatness amongst their helots is actually deemed implausible: as the Spartiates lived separately, dietary intake could not be rigorously controlled; as manual labour was an important function of the Helots (for example, being used to carry their master's arms and armour on campaign), it would make sense to keep them well fed. Besides, the rations mentioned by Thucydides for the Helots on Sphacteria are close to normal. Myron's evidence is interpreted as an extrapolation from actions performed on symbolic representatives. In short, Grote writes that "the various anecdotes which are told respecting [Helot] treatment at Sparta betoken less of cruelty than of ostentatious scorn". He has been followed recently by J. Ducat (1974 and 1990), who describes Spartan treatment of the Helots as a kind of ideological warfare, designed to condition the Helots to think of themselves as inferiors. This strategy seems to have been successful at least for Laconian Helots: when the Thebans ordered a group of Laconian helot prisoners to recite the verses of Alcman and Terpander (national poets of Thebes), they refused on the grounds that it would displease their masters. Other modern scholars consider then, "although the details may be fanciful, [Myron's evidence] does reflect accurately the general Spartiate attitude towards helots". It has also been proposed that contempt alone could hardly explain the organized murder of Helots mentioned by several ancient sources. According to Aristotle, the ephors annually declared war on the Helots, thereby allowing Spartans to kill them without fear of religious pollution. This task was apparently given to the kryptes, graduates of the difficult agoge who took part in the crypteia. This lack of judicial protection is confirmed by Myron of Priene, who mentions killing as a standard mode of regulation of the Helot population. According to a passage in Thucydides, helots were massacred in a carefully staged event in 425 BC or earlier: Thus Paul Cartledge claims that "the history of Sparta (...) is fundamentally the history of the class struggle between the Spartans and the Helots". Helots and klēroi Helots, whose name meant "captives" were assigned to citizens to carry out domestic work or to work on their klēroi, or portions. The klēroi, were the original divisions of Messenia after its conquest by Sparta. Various sources mention such servants accompanying this or that Spartan. Plutarch has Timaia, the wife of King Agis II, "being herself forward enough to whisper among her helot maid-servants" that the child she was expecting had been fathered by Alcibiades, and not her husband, indicating a certain level of trust. According to some authors, in the 4th century BC, citizens also used chattel-slaves for domestic purposes. However, this is disputed by others. Some helots were also servants to young Spartans during their agoge, the Spartan education; these were the μόθωνες / móthōnes (see below). Finally, helots, like slaves, could be artisans or tradesmen. They were required to hand over a predetermined portion of their harvest ( / apophorá), with the helots keeping the surplus. According to Plutarch, this portion was 70 medimnoi of barley for a man, 12 for a woman, as well as a quantity of oil and wine corresponding to an amount reasonable for the needs of a warrior and his family, or a widow, respectively. The existence of the apophorá is contested by Tyrtaeus: "Secondly, though no fixed tribute was imposed on them, they used to bring the half of all the produce of their fields to Sparta.... Like asses worn by their great burdens, bringing of dire necessity to their masters the half of all the fruits the corn-land bears." Pausanias is describing the period immediately after the first Messenian War, when conditions were probably more severe. Also, since taking a percentage of the produce would have required constantly overseeing the helots, it is unlikely such a tax could be implemented upon the relatively distant Messenia. With Tyrtaeus being a poet, the amount might well have been a poetic figure of speech, similar to the modern "half a kingdom". In fact, it is debated whether the quote refers to helots in the first place, since Tyrtaeus' description of the Second Messenian War refers to enemy phalanxes, indicating the first war could have ended with the Messenian people becoming a vassal state of Sparta rather than helots. Having paid their tribute, the helots could often live rather well; the lands of Laconia and Messenia were very fertile, and often permitted two crops per year. It seems they could enjoy some private property: in 425 BC, some helots had their own boats. A certain amount of wealth was achievable: in 223 BC, 6,000 helots purchased their freedom for 500 drachmas each, a considerable sum at the time. Demography Helots lived in family units and could, at least de facto, contract unions among themselves. Since helots were much less susceptible than other slaves in Greek antiquity to having their family units dispersed, they could reproduce themselves, or at least maintain their number. Probably not insignificant to begin with, their population increased in spite of the crypteia, other massacres of helots (see below), and losses in war. Simultaneously, the population of Spartiate citizens declined. The absence of a formal census prevents an accurate assessment of the helot population, but estimates are possible. According to Herodotus, helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans during the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. The long Peloponnesian War drained Sparta of so many of its citizens that by the time of the conspiracy of Cinadon, the beginning of the 4th century BC, only forty Peers, or citizens, could be counted in a crowd of 4,000 at the agora (Xenophon, Hellenica, III, 3, 5). The total population of helots at that time, including women, is estimated as 170,000–224,000. Since the helot population was not technically chattel, their population was reliant on native birth rates, as opposed to prisoners of war or purchased slaves. Helots were encouraged by the Spartans to impose a eugenics doctrine similar to that which they, themselves, practiced. This would, according to Greek beliefs of the period, ensure not only genetic but also acquired favourable characteristics be passed along to successive generations. Tempering these selective factors was the crypteia, during which the strongest and fittest helots were the primary targets of the kryptes; to select soft targets would be interpreted as a sign of weakness. This theoretically removed the strongest and most able potential rebels while keeping the general populace fit and efficient. What is more, the Spartans used helot women to satisfy the state's human personnel needs: the 'bastards' (nothoi) born of Spartan fathers and helot women held an intermediary rank in Lacedaemonian society (cf. mothakes and mothones below) and swelled the ranks of the citizen army. It is difficult to determine whether these births were the results of voluntary liaisons (at least on the part of the father) or part of a formal state program. It is unknown what happened to girls born of such unions, as they served no military purpose. It is possible they were abandoned at birth and left to die, or lived to remain helots. Emancipation According to Myron of Priene, cited by Athenaeus, the emancipation of helots was "common" ( / pollákis). The text suggests that this is normally associated with completion of military service. The first explicit reference to this practice in regards to the helots occurs in Thucydides (IV, 26, 5). This is on the occasion of the events at Sphacteria, when Sparta had to relieve their hoplites, who were besieged on the island by the Athenians: "The fact was, that the Lacedaemonians had made advertisement for volunteers to carry into the island ground corn, wine, cheese, and any other food useful in a siege; high prices being offered, and freedom promised to any of the helots who should succeed in doing so". Thucydides reports that the request met with some success, and the helots got supplies through to the besieged island. He does not mention whether or not the Spartans kept their word; it is possible that some of the helots later executed were part of the Sphacterian volunteers but later said they kept their word. Another such call came during the Theban invasion of Laconia in one of the decisive battles of Peloponnese wars. Xenophon in Hellenica (VI, 5, 28) states that the authorities agreed to emancipate all the helots who volunteered. He then reports that more than 6,000 heeded the call, leading to some embarrassment for the Spartans, who were initially overwhelmed by the number. Xenophon states that the Spartans' fears were assuaged when they received aid from their allies and Boeotian mercenary forces. All the same, in 424 BC, the 700 helots who served Brasidas in Chalcidice were emancipated, and they were henceforth known as the "Brasidians". It was also possible to purchase freedom, or achieve it by undergoing the traditional Spartan education. Generally, emancipated helots were referred to as "neodamodes" ( / neodamōdeis): those who rejoined the / dễmos (Deme) of the Perioeci. Moses Finley underscores that the fact helots could serve as hoplites constituted a grave flaw in the system. In effect, the hoplite system was a strict method of training to ensure that discipline was maintained in the phalanx. The Spartans gained considerable reputation as hoplites, due to tactical capabilities developed through constant training. In addition to this military aspect, to be a hoplite was a key characteristic of Greek citizenship. To introduce helots to this system thus led to inevitable social conflict. A special case: mothakes and mothones Phylarchus mentions a class of men that were at the same time free and non-citizens: the / mothakes, who had undergone the '''agoge', the Spartan educational system. Classical historiography recognizes that the helots comprised a large portion of these mothakes. Nevertheless, this category poses a number of problems, firstly that of vocabulary. The classical authors used a number of terms which appear to evoke similar concepts: / mothakes: a connotation of freedom, Phylarchos affirmed that they were free (eleutheroi), Claudius Aelianus (Varia Historia, 12, 43) that they could be citizens; / mothōnes: a connotation of servility, the word designates slaves born to the home; / trophimoi: pupils, adopted children, whom Plutarch classified among the xenoi (strangers); / syntrophoi: literally, "they who were raised with", that is to say, milk-siblings, given by Phylarchus as equivalent to mothakes; / paratrephonoi : literally, "those who were fed near you", signification rather different from the preceding (this word also applied to domestic animals). The situation is somewhat complicated by a gloss of Hesychios of Alexandria which attests that mothakes were slave children ( / doũloi) raised at the same time as the children of citizens. Philologists resolve this quandary in two ways: they insist on reading / mothãnes, as a hapax for (Arnold J. Toynbee); the hypothesis that douloi has been interpolated by a copyist who confounded mothakes and mothônes. In any case, the conclusion needs to be treated carefully: the mothônes were young servants charged with domestic tasks for young Spartans during their education (Aristotle, I, 633c), they remained slaves on reaching adulthood; the mothakes were an independent freeborn group of helots. Helots as troops in conflict Herodotus makes multiple accounts of Helots accompanying Spartans as servants and soldiers in battles such as Thermopylae and Plataea, often lightly equipped compared to their hoplite counterparts. In his reports on Plataea, he makes multiple accounts of Helots which accompanied the Spartans on the battlefield and made up the mass of the army. In Greek military practice, the standard depth of the army's phalanx was eight men, having known this, Herodotus deducted that there was a soldier ratio of seven Helots to one Spartan at Plataea. Historians have confirmed that Herodotus' accounts of both Helot and Spartan soldiers is exaggerated, it is however confirmed that Helots were present on the battlefield due to Herodotus alluding to a grave which was constructed for the Helots. Helots may have also had other roles at Plataea besides forming the ranks in battle, some historians believe that Helots were also designated with guarding supply lines for the armies. Helot revolts The Pausanias plot The first helot attempt at revolt which is historically reported is that provoked by general Pausanias in the 5th century BC. Thucydides reports: Besides, they were informed that he was even intriguing with the helots; and such indeed was the fact, for he promised them freedom and citizenship if they would join him in insurrection, and would help him to carry out his plans to the end. These intrigues did not however lead to a helot uprising; Thucydides indeed implies that Pausanias was turned in by the helots (I, 132, 5 - ...the evidence even of the helots themselves.) Perhaps the promises made by Pausanias were too generous to be believed by the helots; not even Brasidas, when he emancipated his helot volunteers, offered full citizenship. Massacre at Taenarus The massacre of Cape Taenarus, the promontory formed by the southernmost tip of Taygetus, is also reported by Thucydides: The Lacedaemonians had once raised up some helot suppliants from the temple of Poseidon at Taenarus, led them away and slain them; for which they believe the great earthquake at Sparta to have been a retribution. This affair, recalled by the Athenians in responding to a Spartan request to exile Pericles—who was an Alcmaeonid on his mother's side—is not dated. Historians know only that it happened before the disastrous earthquake of 464 BC. Thucydides here is the only one to implicate the helots: Pausanias speaks rather about Lacedaemonians who had been condemned to death. Nor does the text allow us to conclude that this was a failed uprising of helots, only that there was an attempt at escape. Additionally, a helot revolt in Laconia is unlikely, and Messenians would not likely have taken refuge at Cape Taenarus. Third Messenian War The uprising coincident with the earthquake of 464 BC is soundly attested to, although Greek historians do not agree on the interpretation of this event. According to Thucydides, the helots and perioeci of Thouria and Aithaia took advantage of the earthquake to revolt and establish a position on Mt. Ithome. He adds that most of the rebels were of Messenian ancestry—confirming the appeal of Ithome as a historical place of Messenian resistance—and focuses attention on the perioeci of Thouria, a city on the Messianian coast. Conversely, historians could deduce that a minority of the helots were Laconian, thus making this the one and only revolt of their history. Commentators such as Stephanus of Byzantium suggest that this Aithaia was in Laconia, thus indicating a large-scale uprising in the region. The version of events given by Pausanias is similar. Diodorus Siculus (XI, 63,4 – 64,1), probably influenced by Ephorus of Cyme, attributed the uprising equally to the Messenians and the helots. This version of events is supported by Plutarch. Finally, some authors make responsibility for the uprising with the helots of Laconia. This is the case of Plutarch in his Life of Cimon: the helots of the Eurotas River valley want to use the earthquake to attack the Spartans whom they think are disarmed. The intervention of Archidamus II, who calls the Lacedaemonians to arms, simultaneously saves them from the earthquake and the helot attack. The helots fold, but revert to open warfare joined by the Messenians. It is difficult to reconcile these versions. It is nevertheless clear that in any case the revolt of 464 BC represented a major traumatic event for the Spartans. Plutarch indicates that the Crypteia and other poor treatments of the helots were instituted after this revolt. If there is any doubt in these affirmations, they at least underscore the immediate Spartan reaction: gathering allies and pursuing war with the same Athens that would later be faced in the Peloponnesian War. After all, the rebellion represented an early indication of souring relations between the Athenians and the Spartans. The Spartans spuriously expelled an Athenian army sent to assist in putting down the rebellion, and the Athenians assisted in the resettlement of helots onto the island of Naupactus. Athenian outposts During the same war and after the capitulation of the Spartans besieged in Sphacteria, the Athenians installed a garrison in Pylos composed of Messenians from Naupactus. Thucydides underlines that they had hoped to exploit the patriotism of the latter in order to pacify the region. Though the Messenians may not have triggered full-blown guerrilla warfare, they nevertheless pillaged the area and encouraged helot desertion. Sparta was forced to dedicate a garrison to controlling this activity; this was the first of the / epiteikhismoí ("ramparts"), outposts planted by the Athenians in enemy territory. The second such outpost was at Kythera. This time, the Athenians set their sights on the helots of Laconia. Again, pillaging and desertion did occur, but not on the scale hoped for by the Athenians or feared by the Spartans: there was no uprising like that which accompanied the earthquake. See also Classicide Slavery in Ancient Greece Trophimoi Sciritae References Sources Cartledge, Paul. Sparta and Lakonia. A Regional History 1300 to 362 BC. Routledge, New York, 2002 (2nd edn). Ducat, Jean: "Le Mépris des Hilotes", in Annales ESC, Number 29 (1974), pp. 1451–1564 "Aspects of Helotism", in Ancient Society, Number 9 (1978), pp. 5–46 Les Hilotes. Athènes : École française d'Athènes, Bulletin de correspondence hellénique, suppl. XX, 1990. Finley, Moses. "Sparte et la société spartiate", Économie et société en Grèce ancienne, Seuil, "Points Histoire" collection, 1984. Garlan, Yvon: "Greek slaves in time of war", in Actes du Colloque d'histoire, Besançon, 1970 Slaves in Ancient Greece, La Découverte, coll. "Textes à l'appui" collection, Paris, 1995. Lévy, Edmond. Sparte : histoire politique et sociale jusqu’à la conquête romaine. Seuil, "Points Histoire" collection, Paris, 2003. Oliva, Pavel. Sparta and her Social Problems, Academia, Prague, 1971 Pomeroy, Sarah B. Spartan Women, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002. Talbert, R.J.A. "The Role of the Helots in the Class Struggle at Sparta", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 38, No. 1 (1st Qtr., 1989), pp. 22–40. Plutarch, Lycurgus 28 External links Helots by Jona Lendering A Prosperous Economy: Spartiates, Perioikoi, And Helots In One Of The Richest City-States Of Ancient Greece Slavery in ancient Greece Social classes of Sparta	[ -0.007456095423549414, 0.007425514981150627, -0.8904941082000732, 0.4594774544239044, -0.4425602853298187, 1.3749020099639893, 0.35008764266967773, 0.3278941214084625, -0.6913067698478699, -0.04343074932694435, -0.15884163975715637, -0.07120119035243988, -0.6428375244140625, 0.04171508550643921, -0.21561142802238464, 0.5032080411911011, 0.287966251373291, 0.22564518451690674, -0.2104133814573288, -0.6169705390930176, 0.38218751549720764, 0.04300147294998169, 0.018078671768307686, 0.549264132976532, -0.11571355164051056, 0.015042186714708805, 0.20156191289424896, 0.22272388637065887, -0.1499156355857849, -0.7383604049682617, -0.12923374772071838, 0.4418882429599762, -0.24148839712142944, -0.6558782458305359, -0.062194887548685074, 0.20876659452915192, 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236216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy%3A%20An%20American%20Novel	Democracy: An American Novel	Democracy: An American Novel is a political novel written by Henry Brooks Adams and published anonymously in 1880. Only after the writer's death in 1918 did his publisher reveal Adams's authorship although, upon publication, the novel had immediately become popular. Contemporaneous conjecture placed the book under the joint authorship of Clarence King, John Hay and Henry Adams and their spouses who lived side by side on H street in Washington, D.C. and were collectively sometimes called "the Five of Hearts." In January 2005, the Washington National Opera premiered Democracy: An American Comedy, an opera by Scott Wheeler and Romulus Linney based upon Henry Adams' book. Democracy is a novel about political power, its acquisition, use and abuse. It is set at the beginning of a new administration, with the election campaign just over and the new President of the United States just having been elected. However, all the characters depicted are entirely fictitious. The new president's Christian name is Jacob, while his full name is never revealed. In a 1961 foreword to the novel, Henry D. Aiken states that the U.S. president of the novel "bears some resemblance to Andrew Johnson, to Garfield, and to Grant". Dates are never mentioned either, but internal evidence (at one point a 25-year-old woman says that she was "almost an infant" during the Civil War) suggests it is set in the late 1870s. Plot summary Madeleine Lee, the daughter of an eminent clergyman, is a 30-year-old widow of independent means living in New York City. Five years ago she lost, in quick succession, her husband and her baby. She used to be "a rather fast New York girl" before her marriage but now is virtually unable to get over the great loss she has suffered. Bored stiff by New York society, Madeleine Lee decides to go to Washington to be close to the hub of politics. Together with her sister Sybil Ross, she arrives in the capital, and in no time her salon becomes the meeting place of important people in the city. Although she has no intention of becoming romantically involved, two men eventually emerge from the group gathering around her, both of whom would very much like to marry her: John Carrington, who is truly and deeply in love with her; and Silas P. Ratcliffe, whose marriage to Madeleine Lee would help him advance his political career. Over the months, Madeleine Lee gains insight into the machinations at the center of political life. Seeing his chances fade, Ratcliffe devises a sophisticated scheme to get rid of John Carrington: he secures a post abroad for his rival, who—as the job is rather well-paid and his family has little money—cannot but accept the offer. Ratcliffe manoeuvres Madeleine Lee into a difficult position in which he thinks the only choice left to her will be to marry him. Carrington, however, has left behind a sealed letter in which he accuses Ratcliffe of being corrupt. In particular, he accuses Ratcliffe of having taken graft during the election campaign eight years ago. All evidence, Carrington adds, has been destroyed, so it is his word against Ratcliffe's. Ratcliffe denies all allegations, but Madeleine Lee is so shocked at the revelation that she turns down Ratcliffe's proposal of marriage. Furious, Ratcliffe leaves Madeleine's house, only to be accosted and ridiculed by his arch-enemy Baron Jacobi, the Bulgarian minister. A brief scene of physical violence ensues between the two, and at the very last moment Ratcliffe, whose career would be ruined otherwise, is able to keep his wrath in check. Disillusioned by politics, Madeleine Lee now wants to go abroad, preferably to Egypt. Sybil, who has become Carrington's confidante, writes him a letter in which she tells him he should try again to win her sister's heart once they have returned from their tour. Major themes When, on December 1, Madeleine Lee boards the train that takes her from New York to the capital she wants to find "the mysterious gem which must lie hidden somewhere in politics". However, what she encounters both in her parlour and elsewhere is an ill-assorted group of men corrupted by greed, money and power; protégés and office-seekers; and, generally, people who, for various reasons, are wholly unsuited for any political office. Her suitor, 50-year-old Silas P. Ratcliffe, is a case in point. A former governor of Illinois, he now serves as Senator from that state but is toying with the idea of running for president in four years' time. A widower, he thinks it may be helpful to have a loving and caring wife at his side and focuses his attention on Madeleine Lee. He views politics from its practical side only: Frankly admitting that, for him, the pleasure of politics lies in the possession of power, he categorically denies the existence of anything remotely resembling political philosophy. Ratcliffe is presented as a "practical man" with very little general knowledge or learning. He may "know" his political business, but that seems to be worlds apart from academic knowledge or the ability to reason theoretically. Reflecting upon his career and his ambitions for the future, Ratcliffe admits that he goes to church mainly because he needs the churchgoers' votes. Once in church, however, his mind regularly wanders off, and he thinks about politics only. Yet Ratcliffe is proud of himself and his achievements: as a lobbyist, he has often been able in the past to bring together hostile interests and to combine them to (almost) everyone's advantage. Accepting the good as well as the evil things in life, he rephrases the old (but wrong) dictum that the end justifies the means by stating that "if virtue won't answer our purpose, we must use vice, or our opponents will put us out of office." When Mrs. Lee asks him, "Are we for ever to be at the mercy of thieves and ruffians? Is a respectable government impossible in a democracy?", Ratcliffe's reply is as pragmatic as it is simple: "No representative government can long be much better or much worse than the society it represents. Purify society and you purify government." In Democracy, the newly elected President of the United States is depicted as the epitome of provincialism, incompetence and corruption. Aged 60, he is an ex-governor, but basically "a plain Indiana farmer", one of "nature's noblemen". One of his nicknames is "Old Granite" and, just because it sounds similar, "Old Granny". Already at the first evening reception they give at the White House, the president and his wife are ridiculed as "automata", as wooden puppets, and as "aping royalty". The president's wife is at least as bad and unsuitable for the job as First Lady as her husband is for that of president, the only driving forces behind her actions being envy, jealousy, and the will to exercise and demonstrate her newly found power. On March 4, the inauguration of the new president takes place. The president's plan concerning his arch-enemy (although of the same party) Ratcliffe is that he "must be made to come into a Cabinet where every other voice would be against him." But very soon, it turns out that the president's plan has backfired and that he is becoming increasingly dependent on Ratcliffe, who is even commissioned to write the president's Inaugural address. One of the programmatic promises of the new president during the election campaign was that there would be no "wholesale removals from office". But this is exactly what happens: All the President's friends are "stuffed in somewhere", whereas the few able and competent "office-seekers" do not get jobs in the new administration. A considerable part of the novel is dedicated to the discussion of topical political issues, including universal suffrage ("Democracy asserts the fact that the masses are now raised to higher intelligence than formerly"), communism, Darwinism and, generally, whether the future is something one should be looking forward to. As Mrs. Lee puts it, "Half of our wise men declare that the world is going straight to perdition; the other half that it is fast becoming perfect. Both cannot be right. [...] I must know whether America is right or wrong." Opposed to reform in general, Ratcliffe does not have any faith in the "new dogmas" such as science or the theory of evolution, succumbing to the common misconception that what it is all about is that man "descended from monkeys". He emphasizes man's "divine nature" (rather than his human nature) where there is no place for survival of the fittest, while at the same time arguing like one of "nature's true noblemen", a kind of noble savage indigenous to North America. As one such specimen, he brings every discussion down to his level. Mrs. Lee refuses his proposal in the end and she goes to Egypt to get away from the corrupt world. Quotes "Any woman will, under the right conditions, marry any man at any time, provided her 'higher nature' is properly appealed to." "Men are creatures made for women to dispose of." "... no representative government can long be much better or much worse than the society it represents. Purify society and you purify the government. But try to purify the government artificially and you only aggravate failure." 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236236	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation	Counter-Reformation	The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, also known as the Protestant Revolution. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and largely ended with the conclusion of the European wars of religion in 1648. Initiated to address the effects of the Protestant Reformation, the Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort composed of apologetic and polemical documents and ecclesiastical configuration as decreed by the Council of Trent. The last of these included the efforts of Imperial Diets of the Holy Roman Empire, heresy trials and the Inquisition, anti-corruption efforts, spiritual movements, and the founding of new religious orders. Such policies had long-lasting effects in European history with exiles of Protestants continuing until the 1781 Patent of Toleration, although smaller expulsions took place in the 19th century. Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ, including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. It also involved political activities that included the Spanish Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition in Goa and Bombay-Bassein etc. A primary emphasis of the Counter-Reformation was a mission to reach parts of the world that had been colonized as predominantly Catholic and also try to reconvert nations such as Sweden and England that once were Catholic from the time of the Christianisation of Europe, but had been lost to the Reformation. Various Counter-Reformation theologians focused only on defending doctrinal positions such as the sacraments and pious practices that were attacked by the Protestant reformers, up to the Second Vatican Council in 1962–1965. Key events of the period include: the Council of Trent (1545–63); the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570), the codification of the uniform Roman Rite Mass (1570), and the Battle of Lepanto (1571), occurring during the pontificate of Pius V; the construction of the Gregorian observatory, the founding of the Gregorian University, the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, and the Jesuit China mission of Matteo Ricci under Pope Gregory XIII; the French Wars of Religion; the Long Turkish War and the execution of Giordano Bruno in 1600, under Pope Clement VIII; the birth of the Lyncean Academy of the Papal States, of which the main figure was Galileo Galilei (later put on trial); the final phases of the Thirty Years' War (1618–48) during the pontificates of Urban VIII and Innocent X; and the formation of the last Holy League by Innocent XI during the Great Turkish War. Documents Confutatio Augustana The 1530 Confutatio Augustana was the Catholic response to the Augsburg Confession. Council of Trent Pope Paul III (1534–49) is considered the first pope of the Counter-Reformation, and he also initiated the Council of Trent (1545–63), tasked with institutional reform, addressing contentious issues such as corrupt bishops and priests, the sale of indulgences, and other financial abuses. The council upheld the basic structure of the medieval church, its sacramental system, religious orders, and doctrine. It recommended that the form of Mass should be standardised, and this took place in 1570, when Paul V made the Tridentine Mass obligatory. It rejected all compromise with Protestants, restating basic tenets of the Catholic Faith. The council upheld salvation appropriated by grace through faith and works of that faith (not just by faith, as the Protestants insisted) because "faith without works is dead", as the Epistle of James states (2:22–26). Transubstantiation, according to which the consecrated bread and wine are held to have been transformed really and substantially into the body, blood, soul and divinity of Christ, was also reaffirmed, as were the traditional seven sacraments of the Catholic Church. Other practices that drew the ire of Protestant reformers, such as pilgrimages, the veneration of saints and relics, the use of venerable images and statuary, and the veneration of the Virgin Mary were strongly reaffirmed as spiritually commendable practices. The council, in the Canon of Trent, officially accepted the Vulgate listing of the Old Testament Bible, which included the deuterocanonical works (called apocrypha by Protestants) on a par with the 39 books found in the Masoretic Text. This reaffirmed the previous Council of Rome and Synods of Carthage (both held in the 4th century AD), which had affirmed the Deuterocanon as scripture. The council also commissioned the Roman Catechism, which served as authoritative Church teaching until the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992). While the traditional fundamentals of the Church were reaffirmed, there were noticeable changes to answer complaints that the Counter-Reformers were, tacitly, willing to admit were legitimate. Among the conditions to be corrected by Catholic reformers was the growing divide between the clerics and the laity; many members of the clergy in the rural parishes had been poorly educated. Often, these rural priests did not know Latin and lacked opportunities for proper theological training. Addressing the education of priests had been a fundamental focus of the humanist reformers in the past. Parish priests were to be better educated in matters of theology and apologetics, while Papal authorities sought to educate the faithful about the meaning, nature and value of art and liturgy, particularly in monastic churches (Protestants had criticised them as "distracting"). Notebooks and handbooks became more common, describing how to be good priests and confessors. Thus, the Council of Trent attempted to improve the discipline and administration of the Church. The worldly excesses of the secular Renaissance Church, epitomized by the era of Alexander VI (1492–1503), intensified during the Reformation under Pope Leo X (1513–21), whose campaign to raise funds for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica by supporting use of indulgences served as a key impetus for Martin Luther's 95 Theses. The Catholic Church responded to these problems by a vigorous campaign of reform, inspired by earlier Catholic reform movements that predated the Council of Constance (1414–17): humanism, devotionalism, legalism and the observantine tradition. The council, by virtue of its actions, repudiated the pluralism of the secular Renaissance that had previously plagued the Church: the organization of religious institutions was tightened, discipline was improved, and the parish was emphasized. The appointment of bishops for political reasons was no longer tolerated. In the past, the large landholdings forced many bishops to be "absent bishops" who at times were property managers trained in administration. Thus, the Council of Trent combated "absenteeism", which was the practice of bishops living in Rome or on landed estates rather than in their dioceses. The Council of Trent gave bishops greater power to supervise all aspects of religious life. Zealous prelates, such as Milan's Archbishop Carlo Borromeo (1538–84), later canonized as a saint, set an example by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards. Index Librorum Prohibitorum The 1559–1967 Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a directory of prohibited books which was updated twenty times during the next four centuries as books were added or removed from the list by the Sacred Congregation of the Index. It was divided into three classes. The first class listed heretical writers, the second class listed heretical works, and the third class listed forbidden writings which were published without the name of the author. The Index was finally suspended on 29 March 1967. Roman Catechism The 1566 Roman Catechism was an attempt to educate the clergy. Nova ordinantia ecclesiastica The 1575 Nova ordinantia ecclesiastica was an addendum to the Liturgia Svecanæ Ecclesiæ catholicæ & orthodoxæ conformia, also called the "Red Book". This launched the Liturgical Struggle, which pitted John III of Sweden against his younger brother Charles. During this time, Jesuit Laurentius Nicolai came to lead the Collegium regium Stockholmense. This theatre of the Counter-Reformation was called the Missio Suetica. Defensio Tridentinæ fidei The 1578 Defensio Tridentinæ fidei was the Catholic response to the Examination of the Council of Trent. Unigenitus The 1713 papal bull Unigenitus condemned 101 propositions of the French Jansenist theologian Pasquier Quesnel (1634–1719). Jansenism was a Protestant-leaning or mediating movement within Catholicism that was criticized for being Crypto-Protestant. After Jansenism was condemned it led to the development of the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands. Politics British isles The Netherlands When the Calvinists took control of various parts of the Netherlands in the Dutch Revolt, the Catholics led by Philip II of Spain fought back. The king sent in Alexander Farnese as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese led a successful campaign 1578–1592 against the Dutch Revolt, in which he captured the main cities in the south Spanish – Belgium and returned them to the control of Catholic Spain. He took advantage of the divisions in the ranks of his opponents between the Dutch-speaking Flemish and the French-speaking Walloons, using persuasion to take advantage of the divisions and foment the growing discord. By doing so he was able to bring back the Walloon provinces to an allegiance to the king. By the treaty of Arras in 1579, he secured the support of the 'Malcontents', as the Catholic nobles of the south were styled. The seven northern provinces as well as the County of Flanders and Duchy of Brabant, controlled by Calvinists, responded with the Union of Utrecht, where they resolved to stick together to fight Spain. Farnese secured his base in Hainaut and Artois, then moved against Brabant and Flanders. City after city fell: Tournai, Maastricht, Breda, Bruges and Ghent opened their gates. Farnese finally laid siege to the great seaport of Antwerp. The town was open to the sea, strongly fortified, and well defended under the leadership of Marnix van St. Aldegonde. Farnese cut off all access to the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt. Antwerp surrendered in 1585 as 60,000 citizens (60 per cent of the pre-siege population) fled north. All of the southern Netherlands was once more under Spanish control. In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, he proved his mettle. His strategy was to offer generous terms for surrender: there would be no massacres or looting; historic urban privileges were retained; there was a full pardon and amnesty; return to the Catholic Church would be gradual. Meanwhile, Catholic refugees from the North regrouped in Cologne and Douai and developed a more militant, Tridentine identity. They became the mobilizing forces of a popular Counter-Reformation in the South, thereby facilitating the eventual emergence of the state of Belgium. Germany The Augsburg Interim was a period where Counter-Reformation measures were exacted upon defeated Protestant populations following the Schmalkaldic War. During the centuries of Counter Reformation, new towns, collectively termed , were founded especially as homes for refugees fleeing the Counter-Reformation. Supporters of the Unity of the Brethren settled in parts of Silesia and Poland. Protestants from the County of Flanders often fled to the Lower Rhine region and northern Germany. French Huguenots crossed the Rhineland to Central Germany. Most towns were named either after the ruler who established them or as expressions of gratitude, e.g. Freudenstadt ("Joy Town"), Glückstadt ("Happy Town"). A list of Exulantenstädte: Altona, Hamburg Bad Karlshafen Freudenstadt Friedrichsdorf Glückstadt Hanau Johanngeorgenstadt Krefeld Neu-Isenburg Neusalza-Spremberg Cologne The Cologne War (1583–89) was a conflict between Protestant and Catholic factions that devastated the Electorate of Cologne. After Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, the archbishop ruling the area, converted to Protestantism, Catholics elected another archbishop, Ernst of Bavaria, and successfully defeated Gebhard and his allies. Belgium Bohemia and Austria In the Habsburg hereditary lands, which had become predominantly Protestant except for Tyrol, the Counter-Reformation began with Emperor Rudolf II, who began suppressing Protestant activity in 1576. This conflict escalated into the Bohemian Revolt of 1620. Defeated, the Protestant nobility and clergy of Bohemia and Austria were expelled from the country or forced to convert to Catholicism. Among these exiles were important German poets such as Sigmund von Birken, Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg, and Johann Wilhelm von Stubenberg. This influenced the development of German Baroque literature, especially around Regensburg and Nuremberg. Some lived as crypto-Protestants. Others moved to Saxony or the Margraviate of Brandenburg. The Salzburg Protestants were exiled in the 18th century, especially to Prussia. The Transylvanian Landlers were deported to the eastern part of the Habsburg domain. As heir to the throne, Joseph II spoke vehemently to his mother, Maria Theresa, in 1777 against the expulsion of Protestants from Moravia, calling her choices "unjust, impious, impossible, harmful and ridiculous." His 1781 Patent of Toleration can be regarded as the end of the political Counter-Reformation, although there were still smaller expulsions against Protestants (such as the Zillertal expulsion). In 1966, Archbishop Andreas Rohracher expressed regret about the expulsions. France Huguenots (French Reformed Protestants) fought a series of wars in France with Catholics, resulting in millions of deaths and the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685 which revoked their freedom of religion. In 1565, several hundred Huguenot shipwreck survivors surrendered to the Spanish in Florida, believing they would be treated well. Although a Catholic minority in their party was spared, all of the rest were executed for heresy, with active clerical participation. Italy Poland and Lithuania Spain Eastern Rites Middle East Ukraine The effects of the Council of Trent and the counter-reformation also paved the way for Ruthenian Orthodox Christians to return to full communion with the Catholic Church while preserving their Byzantine tradition. Pope Clement VIII received the Ruthenian bishops into full communion on February 7, 1596. Under the Treaty of the Union of Brest, Rome recognized the Ruthenians' continued practice of Byzantine liturgical tradition, married clergy, and consecration of bishops from within the Ruthenian Christian tradition. Moreover, the treaty specifically exempts Ruthenians from accepting the Filioque clause and Purgatory as a condition for reconciliation. Areas affected The Counter-Reformation succeeded in diminishing Protestantism in Poland, France, Italy, Ireland, and the vast lands controlled by the Habsburgs including Austria, southern Germany, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic), the Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium), Croatia, and Slovenia. Noticeably, it failed to succeed completely in Hungary, where a sizeable Protestant minority remains to this day, though Catholics still are the largest Christian denomination. Precursors The 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries saw a spiritual revival in Europe, in which the question of salvation became central. This became known as the Catholic Reformation. Several theologians harkened back to the early days of Christianity and questioned their spirituality. Their debates expanded across most of the Western Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries, whilst secular critics also examined religious practice, clerical behavior and the church's doctrinal positions. Several varied currents of thought were active, but the ideas of reform and renewal were led by the clergy. The reforms decreed at Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512–1517) had only a small effect. Some doctrinal positions got further from the Church's official positions, leading to the break with Rome and the formation of Protestant denominations. Even so, conservative and reforming parties still survived within the Catholic Church even as the Protestant Reformation spread. Protestants decisively broke from the Catholic Church in the 1520s. The two distinct dogmatic positions within the Catholic Church solidified in the 1560s. The Catholic Reformation became known as the Counter-Reformation, defined as a reaction to Protestantism rather than as a reform movement. The historian Henri Daniel-Rops wrote: The regular orders made their first attempts at reform in the 14th century. The 'Benedictine Bull' of 1336 reformed the Benedictines and Cistercians. In 1523, the Camaldolese Hermits of Monte Corona were recognized as a separate congregation of monks. In 1435, Francis of Paola founded the Poor Hermits of Saint Francis of Assisi, who became the Minim Friars. In 1526, Matteo de Bascio suggested reforming the Franciscan rule of life to its original purity, giving birth to the Capuchins, recognized by the pope in 1619. This order was well known to the laity and played an important role in public preaching. To respond to the new needs of evangelism, clergy formed into religious congregations, taking special vows but with no obligation to assist in a monastery's religious offices. These regular clergy taught, preached and took confession but were under a bishop's direct authority and not linked to a specific parish or area like a vicar or canon. In Italy, the first congregation of regular clergy was the Theatines founded in 1524 by Gaetano and Cardinal Gian Caraffa. This was followed by the Somaschi Fathers in 1528, the Barnabites in 1530, the Ursulines in 1535, the Jesuits, canonically recognised in 1540, the Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of Lucca in 1583, the Camillians in 1584, the Adorno Fathers in 1588, and finally the Piarists in 1621. In 1524, a number of priests in Rome began to live in a community centred on Philip Neri. The Oratorians were given their constitutions in 1564 and recognized as an order by the pope in 1575. They used music and singing to attract the faithful. Religious orders New religious orders were a fundamental part of the reforms. Orders such as the Capuchins, Discalced Carmelites, Discalced Augustinians, Augustinian Recollects, Cistercian Feuillants, Ursulines, Theatines, Barnabites, Congregation of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri, and especially Jesuits worked in rural parishes and set examples of Catholic renewal. The Theatines undertook checking the spread of heresy and contributed to a regeneration of the clergy. The Capuchins, an offshoot of the Franciscan order notable for their preaching and for their care for the poor and the sick, grew rapidly. Capuchin-founded confraternities took special interest in the poor and lived austerely. Members of orders active in overseas missionary expansion expressed the view that the rural parishes often needed Christianizing as much as the heathens of Asia and the Americas. The Ursulines focused on the special task of educating girls, the first order of women to be dedicated to that goal. Devotion to the traditional works of mercy exemplified the Catholic Reformation's reaffirmation of the importance of both faith and works and salvation through God's grace and repudiation of the maxim sola scriptura emphasized by Protestants sects. Not only did they make the Church more effective, but they also reaffirmed fundamental premises of the medieval Church. The Jesuits were the most effective of the new Catholic orders. An heir to the devotional, observantine, and legalist traditions, the Jesuits organized along military lines. The worldliness of the Renaissance Church had no part in their new order. Loyola's masterwork Spiritual Exercises showed the emphasis of handbooks characteristic of Catholic reformers before the Reformation, reminiscent of devotionalism. Jesuits participated in the expansion of the Church in the Americas and Asia, by their missionary activity. Loyola's biography contributed to an emphasis on popular piety that had waned under political popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X. After recovering from a serious wound, he took a vow to "serve only God and the Roman pontiff, His vicar on Earth." The emphasis on the Pope is a reaffirmation of the medieval papalism, while the Council of Trent defeated conciliarism, the belief that general councils of the Church collectively were God's representative on Earth rather than the Pope. Taking the Pope as an absolute leader, the Jesuits contributed to the Counter-Reformation Church along a line harmonized with Rome. Devotion and mysticism The Catholic Reformation was not only a political and Church policy oriented movement, but it also included major figures such as Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross, Francis de Sales, and Philip Neri, who added to the spirituality of the Catholic Church. Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross were Spanish mystics and reformers of the Carmelite Order, whose ministry focused on interior conversion to Christ, the deepening of prayer, and commitment to God's will. Teresa was given the task of developing and writing about the way to perfection in her love and unity with Christ. Thomas Merton called John of the Cross the greatest of all mystical theologians. The spirituality of Filippo Neri, who lived in Rome at the same time as Ignatius, was practically oriented, too, but totally opposed to the Jesuit approach. Said Filippo, "If I have a real problem, I contemplate what Ignatius would do ... and then I do the exact opposite". As a recognition of their joint contribution to the spiritual renewal within the Catholic reformation, Ignatius of Loyola, Filippo Neri, and Teresa of Ávila were canonized on the same day, March 12, 1622. The Virgin Mary played an increasingly central role in Catholic devotions. The victory at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 was accredited to the Virgin Mary and signified the beginning of a strong resurgence of Marian devotions. During and after the Catholic Reformation, Marian piety experienced unforeseen growth with over 500 pages of mariological writings during the 17th century alone. The Jesuit Francisco Suárez was the first theologian to use the Thomist method on Marian theology. Other well-known contributors to Marian spirituality are Lawrence of Brindisi, Robert Bellarmine, and Francis of Sales. The sacrament of penance was transformed from a social to a personal experience; that is, from a public community act to a private confession. It now took place in private in a confessional. It was a change in its emphasis from reconciliation with the Church to reconciliation directly with God and from emphasis on social sins of hostility to private sins (called "the secret sins of the heart"). Baroque art The Catholic Church was a leading arts patron across much of Europe. The goal of much art in the Counter-Reformation, especially in the Rome of Bernini and the Flanders of Peter Paul Rubens, was to restore Catholicism's predominance and centrality. This was one of the drivers of the Baroque style that emerged across Europe in the late sixteenth century. In areas where Catholicism predominated, architecture and painting, and to a lesser extent music, reflected Counter-Reformation goals. The Council of Trent proclaimed that architecture, painting and sculpture had a role in conveying Catholic theology. Any work that might arouse "carnal desire" was inadmissible in churches, while any depiction of Christ's suffering and explicit agony was desirable and proper. In an era when some Protestant reformers were destroying images of saints and whitewashing walls, Catholic reformers reaffirmed the importance of art, with special encouragement given to images of the Virgin Mary. Decrees on art The Last Judgment, a fresco in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo (1534–1541), came under persistent attack in the Counter-Reformation for, among other things, nudity (later painted over for several centuries), not showing Christ seated or bearded, and including the pagan figure of Charon. Italian painting after 1520, with the notable exception of the art of Venice, developed into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated style striving for effect, that concerned many Churchmen as lacking appeal for the mass of the population. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to have great impact on the development of Catholic art. Previous Catholic councils had rarely felt the need to pronounce on these matters, unlike Orthodox ones which have often ruled on specific types of images. The decree confirmed the traditional doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image, and further instructed that: Ten years after the decree Paolo Veronese was summoned by the Holy Office to explain why his Last Supper, a huge canvas for the refectory of a monastery, contained, in the words of the Holy Office: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" as well as extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast. Veronese was told that he must change his painting within a three-month period. He just changed the title to The Feast in the House of Levi, still an episode from the Gospels, but a less doctrinally central one, and no more was said. The number of such decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, as did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian Molanus, Charles Borromeo and Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, often going into minute detail on what was acceptable. Much traditional iconography considered without adequate scriptural foundation was in effect prohibited, as was any inclusion of classical pagan elements in religious art, and almost all nudity, including that of the infant Jesus. According to the great medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the death of medieval art", but it paled in contrast to the Iconclasm present in some Protestant circles and did not apply to secular paintings. Some Counter Reformation painters and sculptors include Titian, Tintoretto, Federico Barocci, Scipione Pulzone, El Greco, Peter Paul Rubens, Guido Reni, Anthony van Dyck, Bernini, Zurbarán, Rembrandt and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. Church music Reforms before the Council of Trent The Council of Trent is believed to be the apex of the Counter-Reformation's influence on Church music in the 16th century. However, the council's pronouncements on music were not the first attempt at reform. The Catholic Church had spoken out against a perceived abuse of music used in the Mass before the Council of Trent ever convened to discuss music in 1562. The manipulation of the Creed and using non-liturgical songs was addressed in 1503, and secular singing and the intelligibility of the text in the delivery of psalmody in 1492. The delegates at the council were just a link in the long chain of Church clergy who had pushed for a reform of the musical liturgy reaching back as far as 1322. Probably the most extreme move at reform came late in 1562 when, instructed by the legates, Egidio Foscarari (bishop of Modena) and Gabriele Paleotti (archbishop of Bologna) began work on reforming religious orders and their practices involving the liturgy. The reforms prescribed to the cloisters of nuns, which included omitting the use of an organ, prohibiting professional musicians, and banishing polyphonic singing, were much more strict than any of the council's edicts or even those to be found in the Palestrina legend. Fueling the cry for reform from many ecclesial figures was the compositional technique popular in the 15th and 16th centuries of using musical material and even the accompanying texts from other compositions such as motets, madrigals, and chansons. Several voices singing different texts in different languages made any of the text difficult to distinguish from the mixture of words and notes. The parody mass would then contain melodies (usually the tenor line) and words from songs that could have been, and often were, on sensual subjects. The musical liturgy of the Church was being more and more influenced by secular tunes and styles. The Council of Paris, which met in 1528, as well as the Council of Trent were making attempts to restore the sense of sacredness to the Church setting and what was appropriate for the Mass. The councils were simply responding to issues of their day. Reforms during the 22nd session The Council of Trent met sporadically from December 13, 1545, to December 4, 1563, to reform many parts of the Catholic Church. The 22nd session of the council, which met in 1562, dealt with Church music in Canon 8 in the section of "Abuses in the Sacrifice of the Mass" during a meeting of the council on September 10, 1562. Canon 8 states that "Since the sacred mysteries should be celebrated with utmost reverence, with both deepest feeling toward God alone, and with external worship that is truly suitable and becoming, so that others may be filled with devotion and called to religion: ... Everything should be regulated so that the Masses, whether they be celebrated with the plain voice or in song, with everything clearly and quickly executed, may reach the ears of the hearers and quietly penetrate their hearts. In those Masses where measured music and organ are customary, nothing profane should be intermingled, but only hymns and divine praises. If something from the divine service is sung with the organ while the service proceeds, let if first be recited in a simple, clear voice, lest the reading of the sacred words be imperceptible. But the entire manner of singing in musical modes should be calculated not to afford vain delight to the ear, but so that the words may be comprehensible to all; and thus may the hearts of the listeners be caught up into the desire for celestial harmonies and contemplation of the joys of the blessed." Canon 8 is often quoted as the Council of Trent's decree on Church music, but that is a glaring misunderstanding of the canon; it was only a proposed decree. In fact, the delegates at the council never officially accepted canon 8 in its popular form but bishops of Granada, Coimbra, and Segovia pushed for the long statement about music to be attenuated and many other prelates of the council joined enthusiastically. The only restrictions actually given by the 22nd session was to keep secular elements out of the music, making polyphony implicitly allowed. The issue of textual intelligibility did not make its way into the final edicts of the 22nd session but were only featured in preliminary debates. The 22nd session only prohibited "lascivious" and "profane" things to be intermingled with the music but Paleotti, in his Acts, brings to equal importance the issues of intelligibility. The idea that the council called to remove all polyphony from the Church is widespread, but there is no documentary evidence to support that claim. It is possible, however, that some of the Fathers had proposed such a measure. The emperor Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor has been attributed to be the "saviour of Church music" because he said polyphony ought not to be driven out of the Church. But Ferdinand was most likely an alarmist and read into the council the possibility of a total ban on polyphony. The Council of Trent did not focus on the style of music but on attitudes of worship and reverence during the Mass. Saviour-Legend The crises regarding polyphony and intelligibility of the text and the threat that polyphony was to be removed completely, which was assumed to be coming from the council, has a very dramatic legend of resolution. The legend goes that Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525/26–1594), a Church musician and choirmaster in Rome, wrote a Mass for the council delegates in order to demonstrate that a polyphonic composition could set the text in such a way that the words could be clearly understood and that was still pleasing to the ear. Palestrina's Missa Papae Marcelli (Mass for Pope Marcellus) was performed before the council and received such a welcoming reception among the delegates that they completely changed their minds and allowed polyphony to stay in use in the musical liturgy. Therefore, Palestrina came to be named the "saviour of Church polyphony". This legend, though unfounded, has long been a mainstay of histories of music. The saviour-myth was first spread by an account by Aggazzari and Banchieri in 1609 who said that Pope Marcellus was trying to replace all polyphony with plainsong. Palestrina's "Missa Papae Marcelli" was, though, in 1564, after the 22nd session, performed for the Pope while reforms were being considered for the Sistine Choir. The Pope Marcellus Mass, in short, was not important in its own day and did not help save Church polyphony. What is undeniable is that despite any solid evidence of his influence during or after the Council of Trent, no figure is more qualified to represent the cause of polyphony in the Mass than Palestrina. Pope Pius IV upon hearing Palestrina's music would make Palestrina, by Papal Brief, the model for future generations of Catholic composers of sacred music. Reforms following the Council of Trent Like his contemporary Palestrina, the Flemish composer Jacobus de Kerle (1531/32–1591) was also credited with giving a model of composition for the Council of Trent. His composition in four-parts, Preces, marks the "official turning point of the Counter Reformation's a cappella ideal." Kerle was the only ranking composer of the Netherlands to have acted in conformity with the council. Another musical giant on equal standing with Palestrina, Orlando di Lasso (1530/32–1594) was an important figure in music history though less of a purist than Palestrina. He expressed sympathy for the council's concerns but still showed favor for the "Parady chanson Masses." Despite the dearth of edicts from the council regarding polyphony and textual clarity, the reforms that followed from the 22nd session filled in the gaps left by the council in stylistic areas. In the 24th session the council gave authority to "Provincial Synods" to discern provisions for Church music. The decision to leave practical application and stylistic matters to local ecclesiastical leaders was important in shaping the future of Catholic church music. It was left then up to the local Church leaders and Church musicians to find proper application for the council's decrees. Though originally theological and directed towards the attitudes of the musicians, the Council's decrees came to be thought of by Church musicians as a pronouncement on proper musical styles. This understanding was most likely spread through musicians who sought to implement the council's declarations but did not read the official Tridentine pronouncements. Church musicians were probably influenced by order from their ecclesiastical patrons. Composers who reference the council's reforms in prefaces to their compositions do not adequately claim a musical basis from the council but a spiritual and religious basis of their art. The Cardinal Archbishop of Milan, Charles Borromeo, was a very important figure in reforming Church music after the Council of Trent. Though Borromeo was an aide to the pope in Rome and was unable to be in Milan, he eagerly pushed for the decrees of the council to be quickly put into practice in Milan. Borromeo kept in contact with his church in Milian through letters and eagerly encouraged the leaders there to implement the reforms coming from the Council of Trent. In one of his letters to his vicar in the Milan diocese, Nicolo Ormaneto of Verona, Borromeo commissioned the master of the chapel, Vincenzo Ruffo (1508–1587), to write a Mass that would make the words as easy to understand as possible. Borromeo also suggested that if Don Nicola, a composer of a more chromatic style, was in Milan he too could compose a Mass and the two be compared for textural clarity. Borromeo was likely involved or heard of the questions regarding textual clarity because of his request to Ruffo. Ruffo took Borromeo's commission seriously and set out to compose in a style that presented the text so that all words would be intelligible and the textual meaning be the most important part of the composition. His approach was to move all the voices in a homorhythmic manner with no complicated rhythms, and to use dissonance very conservatively. Ruffo's approach was certainly a success for textual clarity and simplicity, but if his music was very theoretically pure it was not an artistic success despite Ruffo's attempts to bring interest to the monotonous four-part texture. Ruffo's compositional style which favored the text was well in line with the council's perceived concern with intelligibility. Thus the belief in the council's strong edicts regarding textual intelligibility became to characterize the development of sacred Church music. The Council of Trent brought about other changes in music: most notably developing the Missa brevis, Lauda and "Spiritual Madrigal" (Madrigali Spirituali). Additionally, the numerous sequences were mostly prohibited in the 1570 Missal of Pius V. The remaining sequences were Victimae paschali laudes for Easter, Veni Sancte Spiritus for Pentecost, Lauda Sion Salvatorem for Corpus Christi, and Dies Irae for All Souls and for Masses for the Dead. Another reform following the Council of Trent was the publication of the 1568 Roman Breviary. Calendrical studies More celebrations of holidays and similar events raised a need to have these events followed closely throughout the dioceses. But there was a problem with the accuracy of the calendar: by the sixteenth century the Julian calendar was almost ten days out of step with the seasons and the heavenly bodies. Among the astronomers who were asked to work on the problem of how the calendar could be reformed was Nicolaus Copernicus, a canon at Frombork (Frauenburg). In the dedication to De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543), Copernicus mentioned the reform of the calendar proposed by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512–1517). As he explains, a proper measurement of the length of the year was a necessary foundation to calendar reform. By implication, his work replacing the Ptolemaic system with a heliocentric model was prompted in part by the need for calendar reform. An actual new calendar had to wait until the Gregorian calendar in 1582. At the time of its publication, De revolutionibus passed with relatively little comment: little more than a mathematical convenience that simplified astronomical references for a more accurate calendar. Physical evidence suggesting Copernicus's theory regarding the earth's motion was literally true promoted the apparent heresy against the religious thought of the time. As a result, during the Galileo affair, Galileo Galilei was placed under house arrest, served in Rome, Siena, Arcetri, and Florence, for publishing writings said to be "vehemently suspected of being heretical." His opponents condemned heliocentric theory and temporarily banned its teaching in 1633. Similarly, the Academia Secretorum Naturae in Naples had been shut down in 1578. As a result of clerical opposition, heliocentricists emigrated from Catholic to Protestant areas, some forming the Melanchthon Circle. Major figures Teresa of Ávila (1515–1582) Robert Bellarmine Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) Charles Borromeo Peter Canisius (1521–1597) Erasmus John Fisher John of the Cross Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (1578–1637) Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1640–1705) Louis XIV (1638–1715) Ignatius of Loyola Mary I of England (1553–1558) Catherine de' Medici Thomas More Péter Pázmány (1570–1637) Philip II of Spain (1527–1598) Philip Neri (1515–1595) Pope Leo X (1513–1521) Pope Pius III (1503) Pope Paul III (1534–1549) Pope Julius III (1550–55) Pope Paul IV (1555–59) Pope Pius IV (1559–65) Pope Pius V (1566–72) Pope Gregory XIII (1572–85) Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642) Francis de Sales Sigismund the Old of Poland (1467–1548) Sigismund III of Poland (1566–1632) Francis Xavier (1506–1552) Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) William V, Duke of Bavaria (1548–1626) See also Anti-Papalism Anti-Protestantism Catholic-Protestant relations Corpus Catholicorum (series) Counter-Reformation in Poland Crusades European wars of religion History of the Catholic Church League for Catholic Counter-Reformation Second scholasticism Spanish Inquisition Footnotes Further reading General works Bauer, Stefan. The Invention of Papal History: Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform (2020). Bireley, Robert. The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450–1700: A Reassessment of the Counter Reformation (1999) excerpt and text search Dickens, A. G. The Counter Reformation (1979) expresses the older view that it was a movement of reactionary conservatism. Harline, Craig. "Official Religion: Popular Religion in Recent Historiography of the Catholic Reformation", Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (1990), Vol. 81, pp 239–262. Jones, Martin D. W. The Counter Reformation: Religion and Society in Early Modern Europe (1995), emphasis on historiography Jones, Pamela M. and Thomas Worcester, eds. From Rome to Eternity: Catholicism and the Arts in Italy, ca. 1550–1650 (Brill 2002) online Lehner, Ulrich L. The Catholic Enlightenment (2016) Mourret, Fernand. History of the Catholic Church (vol 5 1931) online free; pp. 517–649; by French Catholic scholar Mullett, Michael A. The Catholic Reformation (Routledge 1999) online O'Connell, Marvin. Counter-reformation, 1550–1610 (1974) Ó hAnnracháin, Tadhg. Catholic Europe, 1592–1648: Centre and Peripheries (2015). . Ogg, David. Europe in the Seventeenth Century (6th ed., 1965). pp 82–117. Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, 1495–1540 (Fordham University Press, 1992) online O’Malley, John W. Trent and All That: Renaming Catholicism in the Early Modern Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000). Pollen, John Hungerford. The Counter-Reformation (2011) excerpt and text search Soergel, Philip M. Wondrous in His Saints: Counter Reformation Propaganda in Bavaria. Berkeley CA: University of California Press, 1993. Unger, Rudolph M. Counter-Reformation (2006). Wright, A. D. The Counter-reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-christian World (2nd ed. 2005), advanced. Primary sources Luebke, David, ed. The Counter-Reformation: The Essential Readings (1999) excerpt and text search Historiography Bradshaw, Brendan. "The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation", History Today (1983) 33#11 pp. 42–45. Marnef, Guido. "Belgian and Dutch Post-war Historiography on the Protestant and Catholic Reformation in the Netherlands", Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009) Vol. 100, pp. 271–292. Menchi, Silvana Seidel. "The Age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Italian Historiography, 1939–2009", Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009) Vol. 100, pp. 193–217. 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236255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Guest%20%28communist%29	David Guest (communist)	David Guest (6 January 1911– 28 July 1938) was a British mathematician and philosopher who volunteered to fight for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War and was killed in Spain in 1938. Biography Guest was the son of Leslie Haden-Guest, 1st Baron Haden-Guest. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1929 and studied from 1930 to 1931 in Göttingen in Germany, where he was sentenced to two weeks in prison for anti-Nazi political activity. On his return he joined the Communist Party at Cambridge in 1931. There Guest became the head of a party cell that included John Cornford, Guy Burgess, Donald Maclean, Victor Kiernan and James Klugmann. This enabled dons such as Maurice Dobb and John Bernal to take a back-seat. It was claimed that David Guest would "stride into hall at Trinity wearing a hammer and sickle pin in his lapel." In 1933, after leaving Cambridge Guest moved to Battersea, South London, where he lectured in mathematics and worked for the Communist party at the Peoples' Bookshop in Lavender Hill. He soon became active in Battersea Young Communist League. While working at the bookshop he joined the shop workers union. In May 1935, he organised a Youth Peace Parade of fifty young people, some dressed as nurses, others with gas masks and with stretchers, to warn of war. For a short period of time he taught at a secondary school for English-speaking children in Moscow, but returned to England to lecture at University College in Southampton. In 1938 he left his post as a lecturer at University College in Southampton to volunteer for the International Brigades fighting in Spain. He wrote of his decision: Today we have certainly entered a period of crisis, when the arguments of 'normal times' no longer apply, when considerations of most immediate usefulness come in. That is why I have decided to take the opportunity of going to Spain. Guest arrived in Spain on 31 March 1938 and joined the British Battalion of the International Brigades. The Battalion went into action at the Battle of the Ebro which began on 25 July 1938. Three days later, on 28 July, Guest was killed on Hill 481 at Gandesa by a sniper as he read a newspaper. After his death, notes he had made while lecturing at the Marx Memorial Workers' School were published as A Text Book of Dialectical Materialism in 1939. Publications Guest, David, (1939) A Text Book of Dialectical Materialism, Lawrence And Wishart (republished as Lectures on Marxist Philosophy (1963)) References External links Further reading Guest, Carmel Hayden (1939) David Guest – A Scientist Fights For Freedom 1911–1938, Lawrence and Wishart. 1911 births 1938 deaths 20th-century British mathematicians Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge British Jews British Marxists British people of the Spanish Civil War Communist Party of Great Britain members International Brigades personnel Jewish philosophers Jewish socialists Military personnel killed in the Spanish Civil War David 20th-century British philosophers	[ -0.2940722703933716, 0.3751160800457001, -0.43695729970932007, -0.2064276784658432, -0.25391459465026855, 0.39800864458084106, 0.6676891446113586, -0.3386040925979614, -0.024356164038181305, 0.04497046023607254, -0.5180038809776306, -0.1349182426929474, -0.28038135170936584, 0.23348404467105865, 0.10999855399131775, 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236262	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director%20of%20Public%20Prosecutions	Director of Public Prosecutions	The Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) is the office or official charged with the prosecution of criminal offences in several criminal jurisdictions around the world. The title is used mainly in jurisdictions that are or have been members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Australia Australia has a Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions, which was set up by the Director of Public Prosecutions Act 1983 and started operations in 1984. The eight States and territories of Australia also have their own DPPs. The Office of DPP operates independently of Government. Ultimate authority for authorising prosecutions lies with the Attorney General. However, since that is a political post, and it is desired to have a non-political (public service) post carry out this function in most circumstances, the prosecutorial powers of the AG are normally delegated to the DPP. It is common for those who hold the office of Commonwealth or State DPP later to be appointed to a high judicial office. Examples include Mark Weinberg, now a justice of the Court of Appeal in the Supreme Court of Victoria; Michael Rozenes, Chief Judge of the County Court of Victoria from 2002 to 2015; Brian Martin, now Chief Justice of the Northern Territory; John McKechnie, now a justice of the Supreme Court of Western Australia; and Paul Coghlan, now a justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria. Belize The Director of Public Prosecutions of Belize is the official responsible for the prosecution of criminal offences. He or she heads the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions. Canada In Canada, each province's Crown Attorney Office is responsible for the conduct of criminal prosecutions. In Ontario, the local Crown Attorney's Office in the Criminal Law Division is in charge of criminal cases. Only British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and Quebec (a civil code jurisdiction) have a Director of Public Prosecutions office per se. The Public Prosecution Service of Canada (PPSC) is a federal government organisation, created on 12 December 2006, when the Director of Public Prosecutions Act, enacted as part of the Federal Accountability Act, came into force. The Act split the conduct of federal prosecutions from the Department of Justice and created the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions (officially called the Public Prosecution Service of Canada). The PPSC fulfills the responsibilities of the Attorney General of Canada in the discharge of the Attorney General's criminal law mandate by prosecuting criminal offences under federal jurisdiction. In this regard, the PPSC assumes the role played within the Department of Justice by the former Federal Prosecution Service (FPS). The PPSC takes on additional responsibilities for prosecuting new fraud offences under the Financial Administration Act, as well as offences under the Canada Elections Act. Unlike the FPS, which was part of the Department of Justice, the PPSC is an independent organisation, reporting to Parliament through the Attorney General of Canada. The PPSC is responsible for prosecuting offences under more than 50 federal statutes and for providing prosecution-related legal advice to law enforcement agencies. Cases prosecuted by the PPSC include those involving drugs, organised crime, terrorism, tax law, money laundering and proceeds of crime, crimes against humanity and war crimes, Criminal Code offences in the territories, and a large number of federal regulatory offences. The creation of the PPSC reflects the decision to make transparent the principle of prosecutorial independence, free from any improper influence. The mandate of the PPSC is set out in the Director of Public Prosecutions Act. The act calls on the PPSC to provide prosecutorial advice to law enforcement agencies, and to act as prosecutor in matters prosecuted by the Attorney General of Canada on behalf of the Crown. In addition, the mandate includes initiating and conducting prosecutions on behalf of the Crown with respect to offences under the Canada Elections Act. The PPSC reports to Parliament through the Attorney General of Canada. The Director of Public Prosecutions Act states that the Director of Public Prosecutions acts "under and on behalf of the Attorney General of Canada." The relationship between the attorney general and the director is premised on the principles of respect for the independence of the prosecution function and the need to consult on important matters of general interest. Safeguarding the director's independence is the requirement that all instructions from the attorney general be in writing and published in the Canada Gazette. In turn, the director must inform the attorney general of any prosecution or planned intervention that may raise important questions of general interest, allowing the attorney general the opportunity to intervene in, or assume conduct of, a case. Additionally, the PPSC must provide the attorney general with an annual report for tabling in Parliament. The first director of the PPSC was Brian J. Saunders. The current director of the PPSC is Kathleen Roussel. Hong Kong The Director of Public Prosecutions () of Hong Kong heads the Prosecutions Division of the Department of Justice, which is responsible for prosecuting trials and appeals on behalf of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, providing legal advice to law enforcement agencies on investigations, acting on behalf of the Secretary for Justice in the institution of criminal proceedings, and providing advice to bureaux and departments on measures to reform the criminal law. The DPP is superintended by the Secretary for Justice, a political appointee, who is also accountable for the decisions of the DPP. The position title was until the handover of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 Crown Prosecutor. The Secretary for Justice and the Department of Justice were, until 1997, named the Attorney General and the Legal Department, respectively. Ireland The Director of Public Prosecutions has been responsible for prosecution of all indictable criminal offences in Ireland since the enactment of the Prosecution of Offences Act 1974. Before 1974 all crimes and offences were prosecuted at the suit of (after action taken by) the attorney general. The DPP may also issue a certificate that a case should be referred to the Special Criminal Court, a juryless trial court usually reserved for terrorists and organised criminals. The current director is Claire Loftus. James Hamilton, who had served as DPP for 12 years, announced in July 2011 that he would be taking early retirement and stepped down in November 2011. List of DPPs since 1974: 1974–1999 Eamonn Barnes 1999–2011 James Hamilton 2011–2021 Claire Loftus 2021–present Catherine Pierse The agency's headquarters is located on the southern edge of Phoenix Park, Dublin; in a group of historic buildings that used to be the Royal Military Infirmary before independence. Mauritius The current DPP is Satyajit Boolell S.C, who has occupied the post since 2009. Norway In Norway the Director of Public Prosecutions (Riksadvokaten) is the head of the Norwegian Prosecuting Authority. The director has the coordinative leadership as well as the highest authority to prosecute criminal offences. The director is directly involved only in certain cases, such as crimes for which the maximum penalty is 21 years in prison. The director is subordinate to the Government Cabinet, however, the cabinet has never reversed a decision of the Director of Public Prosecutions. Jørn Sigurd Maurud is the current director and has been in that position since November 2019. South Africa In South Africa public prosecutions are conducted by the National Director of Public Prosecutions (NDPP), the head of the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA). The NDPP is supported by a Chief Executive Officer, Deputies, Provincial Directors of Public Prosecutions, and several Special Directors. United Kingdom England and Wales In England and Wales, the office of Director of Public Prosecutions was first created in 1880 as part of the Home Office, and had its own department from 1908. The DPP was responsible for the prosecution of only a small number of major cases until 1986 when responsibility for prosecutions was transferred to a new Crown Prosecution Service with the DPP as its head. The Director is appointed by the Attorney General for England and Wales. The current DPP, since 1 November 2018, is Max Hill QC. Scotland Under Scots law the public prosecutor is the Lord Advocate who heads up the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service. All investigations by the police are nominally under the direction of the Lord Advocate and local Procurators Fiscal, and all prosecutions are carried out in the name of the Lord Advocate. The current Lord Advocate is Dorothy Bain QC. Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland a similar situation existed, and the Director of Public Prosecutions for Northern Ireland now heads the Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland. The current DPP is Stephen Herron, who was appointed in 2017. British Overseas Territories In the Turks and Caicos Islands, the position of Director of Public Prosecutions was newly created by the 2011 Constitution. Prior to this, the Attorney-General had control over criminal prosecutions. The current director of Public Prosecutions is Jillian Williams. See also Attorney General – Commonwealth and United States District Attorney – United States Crown Attorney – Canada, excluding Alberta Crown Prosecutor – Australia and England & Wales, Alberta References External links www.eatoncounty.org/prosecutor/pa-world.htm — indexes DPP web sites throughout the world The National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa (NPA) The Crown Prosecution Service — website of public prosecution in England and Wales Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions — website of the Irish Director of Public Prosecutions Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions — website of the Australian federal Director of Public Prosecutions — website of the Public Prosecution Service of Canada Prosecution Lawyers by type	[ 0.38771572709083557, 0.25227418541908264, -0.3864290118217468, 0.17754267156124115, -0.3189750015735626, 0.1381581872701645, 0.39952293038368225, 0.1247062087059021, -0.7719214558601379, 0.18115393817424774, -0.41712117195129395, 0.7444977760314941, 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236263	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20Autumn	To Autumn	"To Autumn" is a poem by English Romantic poet John Keats (31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821). The work was composed on 19 September 1819 and published in 1820 in a volume of Keats's poetry that included Lamia and The Eve of St. Agnes. "To Autumn" is the final work in a group of poems known as Keats's "1819 odes". Although personal problems left him little time to devote to poetry in 1819, he composed "To Autumn" after a walk near Winchester one autumnal evening. The work marks the end of his poetic career, as he needed to earn money and could no longer devote himself to the lifestyle of a poet. A little over a year after the publication of "To Autumn", Keats died in Rome. The poem has three eleven-line stanzas which describe a progression through the season, from the late maturation of the crops to the harvest and to the last days of autumn when winter is nearing. The imagery is richly achieved through the personification of Autumn, and the description of its bounty, its sights and sounds. It has parallels in the work of English landscape artists, with Keats himself describing the fields of stubble that he saw on his walk as conveying the warmth of "some pictures". The work has been interpreted as a meditation on death; as an allegory of artistic creation; as Keats's response to the Peterloo Massacre, which took place in the same year; and as an expression of nationalist sentiment. One of the most anthologised English lyric poems, "To Autumn" has been regarded by critics as one of the most perfect short poems in the English language. Background During the spring of 1819, Keats wrote many of his major odes: "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "Ode on Indolence", "Ode on Melancholy", "Ode to a Nightingale", and "Ode to Psyche". After the month of May, he began to pursue other forms of poetry, including the verse tragedy Otho the Great in collaboration with friend and roommate Charles Brown, the second half of Lamia, and a return to his unfinished epic Hyperion. His efforts from spring until autumn were dedicated completely to a career in poetry, alternating between writing long and short poems, and setting himself a goal to compose more than fifty lines of verse each day. In his free time he also read works as varied as Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy, Thomas Chatterton's poetry, and Leigh Hunt's essays. Although Keats managed to write many poems in 1819, he was suffering from a multitude of financial troubles throughout the year, including concerns over his brother, George, who, after emigrating to America, was badly in need of money. Despite these distractions, on 19 September 1819 he found time to write "To Autumn". The poem marks the final moment of his career as a poet. No longer able to afford to devote his time to the composition of poems, he began working on more lucrative projects. Keats's declining health and personal responsibilities also raised obstacles to his continuing poetic efforts. On 19 September 1819, Keats walked near Winchester along the River Itchen. In a letter to his friend John Hamilton Reynolds written on 21 September, Keats described the impression the scene had made upon him and its influence on the composition of "To Autumn": "How beautiful the season is now – How fine the air. A temperate sharpness about it [...] I never lik'd stubble fields so much as now [...] Somehow a stubble plain looks warm – in the same way that some pictures look warm – this struck me so much in my sunday's walk that I composed upon it." Not everything on Keats's mind at the time was bright; the poet knew in September that he would have to finally abandon Hyperion. Thus, in the letter that he wrote to Reynolds, Keats also included a note saying that he abandoned his long poem. Keats did not send "To Autumn" to Reynolds, but did include the poem within a letter to Richard Woodhouse, his publisher and friend, and dated it on the same day. The poem was revised and included in Keats's 1820 collection of poetry titled Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. Although the publishers Taylor and Hessey feared the kind of bad reviews that had plagued Keats's 1818 edition of Endymion, they were willing to publish the collection after the removal of any potentially controversial poems to ensure that there would be no politically motivated reviews that could give the volume a bad reputation. Poem Themes "To Autumn" describes, in its three stanzas, three different aspects of the season: its fruitfulness, its labour and its ultimate decline. Through the stanzas there is a progression from early autumn to mid autumn and then to the heralding of winter. Parallel to this, the poem depicts the day turning from morning to afternoon and into dusk. These progressions are joined with a shift from the tactile sense to that of sight and then of sound, creating a three-part symmetry which is not present in Keats's other odes. As the poem progresses, Autumn is represented metaphorically as one who conspires, who ripens fruit, who harvests, who makes music. The first stanza of the poem represents Autumn as involved with the promotion of natural processes, growth and ultimate maturation, two forces in opposition in nature, but together creating the impression that the season will not end. In this stanza the fruits are still ripening and the buds still opening in the warm weather. Stuart Sperry says that Keats emphasises the tactile sense here, suggested by the imagery of growth and gentle motion: swelling, bending and plumping. In the second stanza, Autumn is personified as a harvester, to be seen by the viewer in various guises performing labouring tasks essential to the provision of food for the coming year. There is a lack of definitive action, all motion being gentle. Autumn is not depicted as actually harvesting but as seated, resting or watching. In lines 14–15 the personification of Autumn is as an exhausted labourer. Near the end of the stanza, the steadiness of the gleaner in lines 19–20 again emphasises a motionlessness within the poem. The progression through the day is revealed in actions that are all suggestive of the drowsiness of afternoon: the harvested grain is being winnowed, the harvester is asleep or returning home, the last drops issue from the cider press. The last stanza contrasts Autumn's sounds with those of Spring. The sounds that are presented are not only those of Autumn but essentially the gentle sounds of the evening. Gnats wail and lambs bleat in the dusk. As night approaches within the final moments of the song, death is slowly approaching alongside the end of the year. The full-grown lambs, like the grapes, gourds and hazelnuts, will be harvested for the winter. The twittering swallows gather for departure, leaving the fields bare. The whistling red-breast and the chirping cricket are the common sounds of winter. The references to Spring, the growing lambs and the migrating swallows remind the reader that the seasons are a cycle, widening the scope of this stanza from a single season to life in general. Of all of Keats's poems, "To Autumn", with its catalogue of concrete images, most closely describes a paradise as realized on earth while also focusing on archetypal symbols connected with the season. Within the poem, autumn represents growth, maturation and finally an approaching death. There is a fulfilling union between the ideal and the real. Scholars have noted a number of literary influences on "To Autumn", from Virgil's Georgics, to Edmund Spenser's "Mutability Cantos", to the language of Thomas Chatterton, to Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "Frost at Midnight", to an essay on autumn by Leigh Hunt, which Keats had recently read. "To Autumn" is thematically connected to other odes that Keats wrote in 1819. For example, in his "Ode to Melancholy" a major theme is the acceptance of the process of life. When this theme appears later in "To Autumn", however, it is with a difference. This time the figure of the poet disappears, and there is no exhortation of an imaginary reader. There are no open conflicts, and "dramatic debate, protest, and qualification are absent". In process there is a harmony between the finality of death and hints of renewal of life in the cycle of the seasons, paralleled by the renewal of a single day. Critics have tended to emphasize different aspects of the process. Some have focused on renewal; Walter Jackson Bate points to the theme of each stanza including "its contrary" idea, here death implying, though only indirectly, the renewal of life. Also, noted by both Bate and Jennifer Wagner, the structure of the verse reinforces the sense of something to come; the placing of the couplet before the end of each stanza creates a feeling of suspension, highlighting the theme of continuation. Others, like Harold Bloom, have emphasized the "exhausted landscape", the completion, the finality of death, although "Winter descends here as a man might hope to die, with a natural sweetness". If death in itself is final, here it comes with a lightness, a softness, also pointing to "an acceptance of process beyond the possibility of grief." The progress of growth is no longer necessary; maturation is complete, and life and death are in harmony. The rich description of the cycle of the seasons enables the reader to feel a belonging "to something larger than the self", as James O'Rourke expresses it, but the cycle comes to an end each year, analogous to the ending of single life. O'Rourke suggests that something of a fear of that ending is subtly implied at the end of the poem, although, unlike the other great odes, in this poem the person of the poet is entirely submerged, so there is at most a faint hint of Keats's own possible fear. According to Helen Vendler, "To Autumn" may be seen as an allegory of artistic creation. As the farmer processes the fruits of the soil into what sustains the human body, so the artist processes the experience of life into a symbolic structure that may sustain the human spirit. This process involves an element of self-sacrifice by the artist, analogous to the living grain's being sacrificed for human consumption. In "To Autumn", as a result of this process, the "rhythms" of the harvesting "artist-goddess" "permeate the whole world until all visual, tactile, and kinetic presence is transubstantiated into Apollonian music for the ear," the sounds of the poem itself. In a 1979 essay, Jerome McGann argued that while the poem was indirectly influenced by historical events, Keats had deliberately ignored the political landscape of 1819. Countering this view, Andrew Bennett, Nicholas Roe and others focused on what they believed were political allusions actually present in the poem, Roe arguing for a direct connection to the Peterloo Massacre of 1819. Later, Paul Fry argued against McGann's stance when he pointed out, "It scarcely seems pertinent to say that 'To Autumn' is therefore an evasion of social violence when it is so clearly an encounter with death itself [...] it is not a politically encoded escape from history reflecting the coerced betrayal [...] of its author's radicalism. McGann thinks to rescue Keats from the imputation of political naïveté by saying that he was a radical browbeaten into quietism". More recently, in 2012, a specific probable location of the cornfield that inspired Keats was discussed in an article by Richard Marggraf Turley, Jayne Archer and Howard Thomas, which draws upon new archival evidence. Traditionally, the water-meadows south of Winchester, along which Keats took daily leisurely walks, were assumed to have provided the sights and sounds of his ode. Marggraf Turley, Archer and Thomas argue that the ode was more directly inspired by Keats's visit to St Giles's Hill—site of a new cornfield—at the eastern extremity of the market city. The land, previously a copse, had recently been turned over to food production to take advantage of high bread prices. This new topography, the authors argue, enables us to see hitherto unsuspected dimensions to Keats's engagement with contemporary politics in particular as they pertained to the management of food production and supply, wages and productivity. In his 1999 study of the effect on British literature of the diseases and climates of the colonies, Alan Bewell read "the landscape of 'To Autumn as "a kind of biomedical allegory of the coming into being of English climatic space out of its dangerous geographical alternatives." Britain's colonial reach over the previous century and a half had exposed the mother country to foreign diseases and awareness of the dangers of extreme tropical climates. Keats, with medical training, having suffered chronic illness himself, and influenced like his contemporaries by "colonial medical discourse", was deeply aware of this threat. According to Bewell, the landscape of "To Autumn" presents the temperate climate of rural England as a healthful alternative to disease-ridden foreign environments. Though the "clammy" aspect of "fever", the excessive ripeness associated with tropical climates, intrude into the poem, these elements, less prominent than in Keats's earlier poetry, are counterbalanced by the dry, crisp autumnal air of rural England. In presenting the particularly English elements of this environment, Keats was also influenced by contemporary poet and essayist Leigh Hunt, who had recently written of the arrival of autumn with its "migration of birds", "finished harvest", "cyder [...] making" and migration of "the swallows", as well as by English landscape painting and the "pure" English idiom of the poetry of Thomas Chatterton. In "To Autumn", Bewell argues, Keats was at once voicing "a very personal expression of desire for health" and constructing a "myth of a national environment". This "political" element in the poem, Bewell points out, has also been suggested by Geoffrey Hartman, who expounded a view of "To Autumn" as "an ideological poem whose form expresses a national idea". Thomas McFarland, on the other hand, in 2000 cautioned against overemphasizing the "political, social, or historical readings" of the poem, which distract from its "consummate surface and bloom". Most important about "To Autumn" is its concentration of imagery and allusion in its evocation of nature, conveying an "interpenetration of livingness and dyingness as contained in the very nature of autumn". Structure "To Autumn" is a poem of three stanzas, each of eleven lines. Like others of Keats's odes written in 1819, the structure is that of an odal hymn, having three clearly defined sections corresponding to the Classical divisions of strophe, antistrophe, and epode. The stanzas differ from those of the other odes through use of eleven lines rather than ten, and have a couplet placed before the concluding line of each stanza. "To Autumn" employs poetical techniques which Keats had perfected in the five poems written in the Spring of the same year, but departs from them in some aspects, dispensing with the narrator and dealing with more concrete concepts. There is no dramatic movement in "To Autumn" as there is in many earlier poems; the poem progresses in its focus while showing little change in the objects it is focusing on. There is, in the words of Walter Jackson Bate, "a union of process and stasis", "energy caught in repose", an effect that Keats himself termed "stationing". At the beginning of the third stanza he employs the dramatic Ubi sunt device associated with a sense of melancholy, and questions the personified subject: "Where are the songs of Spring?" Like the other odes, "To Autumn" is written in iambic pentameter (but greatly modified from the very beginning) with five stressed syllables to a line, each usually preceded by an unstressed syllable. Keats varies this form by the employment of Augustan inversion, sometimes using a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable at the beginning of a line, including the first: "Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness"; and employing spondees in which two stressed syllables are placed together at the beginnings of both the following stanzas, adding emphasis to the questions that are asked: "Who hath not seen thee...", "Where are the songs...?" The rhyme of "To Autumn" follows a pattern of starting each stanza with an ABAB pattern which is followed by rhyme scheme of CDEDCCE in the first verse and CDECDDE in the second and third stanzas. In each case, there is a couplet before the final line. Some of the language of "To Autumn" resembles phrases found in earlier poems with similarities to Endymion, Sleep and Poetry, and Calidore. Keats characteristically uses monosyllabic words such as "...how to load and bless with fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run." The words are weighted by the emphasis of bilabial consonants (b, m, p), with lines like "...for Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells." There is also an emphasis on long vowels which control the flow of the poem, giving it a slow measured pace: "...while barred clouds bloom the soft dying day". Between the manuscript version and the published version of "To Autumn" Keats tightened the language of the poem. One of Keats's changes emphasised by critics is the change in line 17 of "Drows'd with red poppies" to "Drows'd with the fume of poppies", which emphasises the sense of smell instead of sight. The later edition relies more on passive, past participles, as apparent in the change of "While a gold cloud" in line 25 to "While barred clouds". Other changes involve the strengthening of phrases, especially within the transformation of the phrase in line 13 "whoever seeks for thee may find" into "whoever seeks abroad may find". Many of the lines within the second stanza were completely rewritten, especially those which did not fit into a rhyme scheme. Some of the minor changes involved adding punctuation missing from the original manuscript copy and altering capitalisation. Critical reception Critical and scholarly praise has been unanimous in declaring "To Autumn" one of the most perfect poems in the English language. A.C. Swinburne placed it with "Ode on a Grecian Urn" as "the nearest to absolute perfection" of Keats's odes; Aileen Ward declared it "Keats's most perfect and untroubled poem"; and Douglas Bush has stated that the poem is "flawless in structure, texture, tone, and rhythm"; Walter Evert, in 1965, stated that "To Autumn" is "the only perfect poem that Keats ever wrote – and if this should seem to take from him some measure of credit for his extraordinary enrichment of the English poetic tradition, I would quickly add that I am thinking of absolute perfection in whole poems, in which every part is wholly relevant to and consistent in effect with every other part." Early reviews of "To Autumn" focused on it as part of Keats's collection of poems Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. An anonymous critic in the July 1820 Monthly Review claimed, "this writer is very rich both in imagination and fancy; and even a superabundance of the latter faculty is displayed in his lines 'On Autumn,' which bring the reality of nature more before our eyes than almost any description that we remember. [...] If we did not fear that, young as is Mr K., his peculiarities are fixed beyond all the power of criticism to remove, we would exhort him to become somewhat less strikingly original,—to be less fond of the folly of too new or too old phrases,—and to believe that poetry does not consist in either the one or the other." Josiah Conder in the September 1820 Eclectic Review mentioned, "One naturally turns first to the shorter pieces, in order to taste the flavour of the poetry. The following ode to Autumn is no unfavourable specimen." An anonymous reviewer in The Edinburgh Magazine for October 1820 added to a discussion of some of Keats's longer poems the afterthought that "The ode to 'Fancy,' and the ode to 'Autumn,' also have great merit." Although, after Keats's death, recognition of the merits of his poetry came slowly, by mid century, despite widespread Victorian disapproval of the alleged "weakness" of his character and the view often advanced "that Keats's work represented mere sensuality without substance", some of his poems began to find an appreciative audience, including "To Autumn". In an 1844 essay on Keats's poetry in the Dumfries Herald, George Gilfillian placed "To Autumn" among "the finest of Keats' smaller pieces". In an 1851 lecture, David Macbeth Moir acclaimed "four exquisite odes,—'To a Nightingale,' 'To a Grecian Urn,' 'To Melancholy,' and 'To Autumn,'—all so pregnant with deep thought, so picturesque in their limning, and so suggestive." In 1865, Matthew Arnold singled out the "indefinable delicacy, charm, and perfection of [...] Keats's [touch] in his Autumn". John Dennis, in an 1883 work about great poets, wrote that "the 'Ode to Autumn', ripe with the glory of the season it describes—must ever have a place among the most precious gems of lyrical poetry." The 1888 Britannica declared, "Of these [odes] perhaps the two nearest to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to human words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn". At the turn of the 20th century, a 1904 analysis of great poetry by Stephen Gwynn claimed, "above and before all [of Keats's poems are] the three odes, To a Nightingale, On a Grecian Urn, and To Autumn. Among these odes criticism can hardly choose; in each of them the whole magic of poetry seems to be contained." Sidney Colvin, in his 1917 biography, pointed out that "the ode To Autumn [...] opens up no such far-reaching avenues to the mind and soul of the reader as the odes To a Grecian Urn, To a Nightingale, or On Melancholy, but in execution is more complete and faultless than any of them." Following this in a 1934 analysis of Romantic poetry, Margaret Sherwood stated that the poem was "a perfect expression of the phase of primitive feeling and dim thought in regard to earth processes when these are passing into a thought of personality." Harold Bloom, in 1961, described "To Autumn" as "the most perfect shorter poem in the English language." Following this, Walter Jackson Bate, in 1963, claimed that "[...] each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English." Later, in 1973, Stuart Sperry wrote, To Autumn' succeeds through its acceptance of an order innate in our experience – the natural rhythm of the seasons. It is a poem that, without ever stating it, inevitably suggests the truth of 'ripeness is all' by developing, with a richness of profundity of implication, the simple perception that ripeness is fall." In 1981, William Walsh argued that "Among the major Odes [...] no one has questioned the place and supremacy of 'To Autumn', in which we see wholly realized, powerfully embodied in art, the complete maturity so earnestly laboured at in Keats's life, so persuasively argued about in his letters." Literary critic and academic Helen Vendler, in 1988, declared that "in the ode 'To Autumn,' Keats finds his most comprehensive and adequate symbol for the social value of art." In 1997, Andrew Motion summarised the critical view on "To Autumn": "it has often been called Keats's 'most ... untroubled poem' [...] To register the full force of its achievement, its tensions have to be felt as potent and demanding." Following in 1998, M. H. Abrams explained, To Autumn' was the last work of artistic consequence that Keats completed [...] he achieved this celebratory poem, with its calm acquiescence to time, transience and mortality, at a time when he was possessed by a premonition [...] that he had himself less than two years to live". James Chandler, also in 1998, pointed out that "If To Autumn is his greatest piece of writing, as has so often been said, it is because in it he arguably set himself the most ambitious challenge of his brief career and managed to meet it." Timothy Corrigan, in 2000, claimed that To Autumn' may be, as other critics have pointed out, his greatest achievement in its ability [...] to redeem the English vernacular as the casual expression of everyday experience, becoming in this his most exterior poem even in all its bucolic charm." In the same year, Thomas McFarland placed "To Autumn" with "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "The Eve of St. Agnes" and Hyperion as Keats's greatest achievement, together elevating Keats "high in the ranks of the supreme makers of world literature". In 2008, Stanley Plumly wrote, "history, posterity, immortality are seeing 'Ode to a Nightingale,' 'Ode on a Grecian Urn,' and 'To Autumn' as three of the most anthologized lyric poems of tragic vision in English." Notes References Abrams, M. H. "Keats's Poems: The Material Dimensions". In The Persistence of Poetry. Ed. Robert Ryan and Ronald Sharp. Amherst: University of Mass. Press, 1998. Arnold, Matthew. Lectures and Essays in Criticism. Ed. R.H. Super. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1962. Bate, Walter Jackson. John Keats. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963. Bate, Walter Jackson. The Stylistic Development of Keats. New York: Humanities Press, 1962. (Originally published 1945.) Baynes, Thomas (Ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica Vol XIV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1888. Bennett, Andrew. Keats, Narrative and Audience. Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Bewell, Alan. Romanticism and Colonial Disease. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Blades, John. John Keats: the poems. Macmillan, 2002. Bloom, Harold. The Visionary Company. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993. (Originally published 1961; revised and enlarged edition 1971.) Bloom, Harold. "The Ode To Autumn". In Keats's Odes. Ed. Jack Stillinger. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968, pp. 44–47. Chandler, James. England in 1819. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. Colvin, Sidney. John Keats: His Life and Poetry. London: Macmillan, 1917. Corrigan, Timothy. "Keats, Hazlitt and Public Character". In Challenge of Keats. Ed. Allan Christensen, Lilla Jones, Giuseppe Galigani, and Anthony Johnson. Atlanta: Rodopi, 2000. Dennis, John. Heroes of Literature, English Poets. New York: E. & J. B. Young, 1883. . Evert, Walter. Aesthetic and Myth in the Poetry of Keats. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965. Flesch, William. Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century. Facts on File, 2009. Fry, Paul. A Defense of Poetry. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995. Gittings, Robert. John Keats. London: Heinemann, 1968. Gwynn, Stephen. The Masters of English Literature. London: Macmillan, 1904. Hartman, Geoffrey. "Poem and Ideology: A Study of 'To Autumn (1975), in John Keats: Modern Critical Views. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House, 1985, pp. 87–104. Keats, John. . Editor Ernest de Sélincourt. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1905. Keats, John. The Life and Letters of John Keats. Ed. Richard Houghton (reprint). Read Books, 2008. Matthews, G. M. (ed.). Keats: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge, 1971. McFarland, Thomas. The Masks of Keats: The Endeavour of a Poet. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. McGann, Jerome. "Keats and the Historical Method in Literary Criticism". MLN 94 (1979): 988–1032. Motion, Andrew. Keats. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. O'Rourke, James. Keats's Odes and Contemporary Criticism. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998. Plumly, Stanley. Posthumous Keats. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008. Ridley, Maurice. Keats' Craftsmanship. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933. Sherwood, Margaret. Undercurrents of Influence in English Romantic Poetry. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1934. Sperry, Stuart. Keats the Poet. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973. Strachan, John. A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of John Keats. London: Routledge, 2003. Vendler, Helen. The Music of What Happens. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. Wagner, Jennifer. A Moment's Monument. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. Walsh, William. Introduction to Keats. London: Methuen, 1981. External links Audio: Listen to Robert Pinsky read "To Autumn" by John Keats (via poemsoutloud.net) British poems Poetry by John Keats 1819 poems	[ -0.6623761057853699, -0.09037554264068604, -0.3978140950202942, -0.7097464799880981, 0.02874762937426567, 0.7274041175842285, 0.4423312842845917, 0.4817587733268738, -0.21491608023643494, -0.25963732600212097, -0.43853309750556946, -0.2251390516757965, 0.09432633966207504, 0.3831695318222046, 0.03492950648069382, -0.06614343076944351, -0.015555035322904587, -0.2007424235343933, 0.35098791122436523, -0.3831220269203186, -0.16242198646068573, 0.3671663999557495, 0.5830920934677124, -0.6374739408493042, 0.9249246120452881, -0.6760833263397217, 0.43594714999198914, -0.042640846222639084, 0.3632943034172058, -0.16719414293766022, -0.8445935845375061, 0.5062556862831116, -0.14272412657737732, -0.3278106451034546, 0.041413940489292145, -0.43492090702056885, -0.27753308415412903, -0.41513025760650635, -0.5667979717254639, -0.07294975221157074, 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236268	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer%20plaque	Pioneer plaque	The Pioneer plaques are a pair of gold-anodized aluminum plaques that were placed on board the 1972 Pioneer 10 and 1973 Pioneer 11 spacecraft, featuring a pictorial message, in case either Pioneer 10 or 11 is intercepted by intelligent extraterrestrial life. The plaques show the nude figures of a human male and female along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft. The Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft were the first human-built objects to achieve escape velocity from the Solar System. The plaques were attached to the spacecraft's antenna support struts in a position that would shield them from erosion by interstellar dust. History The original idea, that the Pioneer spacecraft should carry a message from mankind, was first mentioned by Eric Burgess when he visited the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, during the Mariner 9 mission. He approached Carl Sagan, who had lectured about communication with intelligent extraterrestrials at a conference in Crimea. Sagan was enthusiastic about the idea of sending a message with the Pioneer spacecraft. NASA agreed to the plan and gave him three weeks to prepare a message. Together with Frank Drake he designed the plaque, and the artwork was prepared by Linda Salzman Sagan, who was Sagan's wife at the time. Both plaques were manufactured at Precision Engravers, San Carlos, California. The first plaque was launched with Pioneer 10 on March 2, 1972, and the second followed with Pioneer 11 on April 5, 1973. In May 2017 a limited edition of 200 replicas engraved from the original master design at Precision Engravers was made available in a Kickstarter Campaign, which also offered laser-engraved replicas. Physical properties Material: 6061 T6 gold-anodized aluminium Width: Height: Thickness: Mean depth of engraving: Mass: approx. Symbolism Hyperfine transition of neutral hydrogen At the top left of the plaque is a schematic representation of the hyperfine transition of hydrogen, which is the most abundant element in the universe. The spin-flip transition of a hydrogen atom's electron has a frequency of about 1420.405 MHz, which corresponds to a period of 0.704 ns. Light at this frequency has a vacuum wavelength of (which is also the distance the light travels in that time period). Below the symbol, the small vertical line—representing the binary digit 1—specifies a unit of length (21 cm) as well as a unit of time (0.7 ns). Both units are used as measurements in the other symbols. Figures of a man and a woman On the right side of the plaque, a nude man and woman are shown in front of the spacecraft. Between the brackets that indicate the height of the woman, the binary representation of the number 8 can be seen (1000). In units of the wavelength of the hyperfine transition of hydrogen this means 8 × 21 cm = . The small defect in the first zero is only in reproductions of the plaque (like here) and not on the original. It probably dates back to a printing error in the original article "A Message from Earth" which is the primary source for many of the copies of the engraving. In the replicas from the 2017 Kickstarter campaign mentioned above the delineation is correct. The right hand of the man is raised as a sign of good will. Although this gesture may not be understood, it offers a way to show the opposable thumb and how the limbs can be moved. Originally Sagan intended the humans to be shown holding hands, but soon realized that an extraterrestrial might perceive them as a single creature rather than two organisms. The original drawings of the figures were based on drawings by Leonardo da Vinci and Greek sculptures. The woman's genitals are not depicted in detail; only the Mons pubis is shown. It has been claimed that Sagan, having little time to complete the plaque, suspected that NASA would have rejected a more intricate drawing and therefore made a compromise just to be safe. Sagan said that the decision to not include the vertical line on the woman's genitalia (pudendal cleft) which would be caused by the intersection of the labia majora was due to two reasons. First, Greek sculptures of women do not include that line. Second, Sagan believed that a design with such an explicit depiction of a woman's genitalia would be considered too obscene to be approved by NASA. According to the memoirs of Robert S. Kraemer, however, the original design that was presented to NASA headquarters included a line which indicated the woman's vulva, and this line was erased as a condition for approval of the design by John Naugle, former head of NASA's Office of Space Science and the agency's former chief scientist. Sun and galactic landmarks The radial pattern on the left of the plaque shows 15 lines emanating from the same origin. Fourteen of the lines have corresponding long binary numbers, which stand for the periods of pulsars, using the hydrogen spin-flip transition frequency as the unit. Since these periods will change over time, the epoch of the launch can be calculated from these values. The lengths of the lines show the relative distances of the pulsars to the Sun. A tick mark at the end of each line gives the Z coordinate perpendicular to the galactic plane. If the plaque is found, only some of the pulsars may be visible from the location of its discovery. Showing the location with as many as 14 pulsars provides redundancy so that the location of the origin can be triangulated even if only some of the pulsars are recognized. The data for one of the pulsars is misleading. When the plaque was designed, the frequency of pulsar "1240" (now known as J1243-6423) was known to only three significant decimal digits: 0.388 second. The map lists the period of this pulsar in binary to much greater precision: 100000110110010110001001111000. Rounding this off at about 10 significant bits (100000110100000000000000000000) would have provided a hint of this uncertainty. This pulsar is represented by the long line pointing down and to the right. The fifteenth line on the plaque extends to the far right, behind the human figures. This line indicates the Sun's relative distance to the center of the galaxy. The pulsar map and hydrogen atom diagram are shared in common with the Voyager Golden Record. Solar System At the bottom of the plaque is a schematic diagram of the Solar System. A small picture of the spacecraft is shown, and the trajectory shows its way past Jupiter and out of the Solar System. Both Pioneers 10 and 11 have identical plaques; however, after launch, Pioneer 11 was redirected toward Saturn and from there it exited the Solar System. In this regard the Pioneer 11 plaque is somewhat inaccurate. The Saturn flyby of Pioneer 11 would also greatly influence its future direction and destination as compared to Pioneer 10, but this fact is not depicted in the plaques. Saturn's rings could give a further hint to identifying the Solar System. Rings around the planets Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune were unknown when the plaque was designed; however, unlike Saturn, the ring systems on these planets are not so easily visible and apparent as Saturn's. Pluto was considered to be a planet when the plaque was designed; in 2006 the IAU reclassified Pluto as a dwarf planet. Other large bodies classed as dwarf planets, such as Eris, are not depicted, as they were unknown at the time the plaque was made. The binary numbers above and below the planets show the relative distance to the Sun. The unit is of Mercury's orbit. Rather than the familiar "1" and "0", "I" and "–" are used. Silhouette of the spacecraft Behind the figures of the human beings, the silhouette of the Pioneer spacecraft is shown in the same scale so that the size of the human beings can be deduced by measuring the spacecraft. Criticism One of the parts of the diagram that is among the easiest for humans to understand may be among the hardest for potential extraterrestrial finders to understand: the arrow showing the trajectory of Pioneer. Ernst Gombrich criticized the use of an arrow because arrows are an artifact of hunter-gatherer societies like those on Earth; finders with a different cultural heritage may find the arrow symbol meaningless. Art critic and activist Craig Owens said that sexual bias is exhibited by the choice to make the man in the diagram perform the wave gesture to greet the extraterrestrials while the woman in the diagram has her hands at her sides. Feminists also took issue with this choice for the same reason. Carl Sagan regretted that the figures in the finished engraving failed to look panracial. Although this was the intent, the final figures were criticised for looking too white. In the original drawing, the man was drawn with an "Afro" haircut, so an additional African physical trait would be included in the man to make the figures look more panracial, but that detail was changed to a "non-African Mediterranean-curly haircut" in the finished engraving. Furthermore, Carl Sagan said that Linda Sagan intended to portray both the man and woman as having brown hair, but the hair being only outlined rather than being both outlined and shaded made the hair appear blonde instead. Other people had different interpretations of the race of people depicted by the figures. White people, black people and East-Asian people each tended to think that the figures resembled their own racial group, so, although some people were proud that their race appeared to have been selected to represent all of humankind, others viewed the figures as "terribly racist" for "the apparently blatant exclusion" of other races. Linda Sagan decided to make the figures nude to address the problem of the type of clothes they should wear to represent all of humanity and to make the figures more anatomically educational for extraterrestrials, but some viewed their nudity as pornographic. According to astronomer Frank Drake, there were many negative reactions to the plaque because the human beings were displayed naked. When images of the final design were published in American newspapers, one newspaper published the image with the man's genitalia removed and another newspaper published the image with both the man's genitalia and the woman's nipples removed. In one letter to a newspaper, a person angrily wrote that they felt that the nudity of the images made the images obscene. In contrast, in another letter to the same newspaper, a person was critical of the prudishness of the people who found depictions of nudity to be obscene. There have also been criticisms of the censorship of the female figure's genitals. Scientist and artist Joe Davis protested the depiction with his Poetica Vaginal project wherein he used an MIT radar dish to transmit the recordings of a vaginal detector. See also Alien language Arecibo message Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence Lunar plaque Pioneer program Search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) Voyager Golden Record References Notes Citations Sources External links – recording from 1994 interview Reading the Pioneer/Voyager Pulsar Map (Wm. Robert Johnston), updated 11 March 2003. 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236271	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich%20School%20of%20painters	Norwich School of painters	The Norwich School of painters was the first provincial art movement established in Britain, active in the early 19th century. Artists of the school were inspired by the natural environment of the Norfolk landscape and owed some influence to the work of landscape painters of the Dutch Golden Age such as Hobbema and Ruisdael. History The Norwich Society of Artists was founded in 1803 by John Crome and Robert Ladbrooke as a club where artists could meet to exchange ideas. Its aims were "an enquiry into the rise, progress and present state of painting, architecture, and sculpture, with a view to point out the best methods of study to attain the greater perfection in these arts." The society's first meeting was in "The Hole in the Wall" tavern; two years later it moved to premises which allowed it to offer members work and exhibition space. Its first exhibition opened in 1805, and was such a success that it became an annual event until 1825. The building was demolished but the society re-opened three years later, in 1828, as "The Norfolk and Suffolk Institution for the Promotion of the Fine Arts" at a different venue and exhibitions continued until 1833.<ref>Holme, Geoffrey (Ed.). The Norwich School (The Studio Ltd., 1920). p. 1.</ref> The leading light of the movement was John Crome who attracted many friends and pupils until his death in 1821. The mantle of leadership then fell on John Sell Cotman, a member of the society since 1807, who continued to keep the society together until he left Norwich for London in 1834. The society effectively ceased to exist from that date. The Norwich School's great achievement was that a small group of self-taught working class artists were able to paint with vitality the hinterland surrounding Norwich, assisted by meagre local patronage. Far from creating pastiches of the Dutch 17th century, Crome and Cotman, along with Joseph Stannard, established a school of landscape painting which deserves greater fame; the broad washes of J.S. Cotman's water-colours anticipate French impressionism. One reason the Norwich School artists are not so well known as other painters of the period, notably Constable and Turner, is because the majority of their canvases were collected by the industrialist J. J. Colman (of Colman's mustard fame), and have been on permanent display in Norwich Castle Museum since the 1880s. This lack of wider exposure was remedied in 2001, when many of the school's major works were exhibited outside Norwich for the first time at the Tate Gallery, London in 2000. Gallery Members and associates Henry Bright James Bulwer Joseph Clover Samuel David Colkett and Victoria Susannah Colkett Edwin Cooper Daniel Coppin Frederick George Cotman John Joseph Cotman John Sell Cotman Miles Edmund Cotman John Crome ("Old Crome") John Berney Crome ("Young Crome") Edward Thomas Daniell Robert Dixon William Philip Barnes Freeman Joseph Geldart Charles Hodgson David Hodgson John Cantiloe Joy and William Joy Frederick Ladbrooke John Berney Ladbrooke Robert Ladbrooke Robert Leman Thomas Lound Horace Beevor Love Maria Margitson John Middleton Henry Ninham John Ninham Alfred Priest Anthony Sandys Frederick Sandys Obadiah Short James Sillett Alfred Stannard Alfred George Stannard Eloise Harriet Stannard Emily Stannard (Emily Coppin) Joseph Stannard Arthur James Stark James Stark John Thirtle George Vincent References Further reading External links The Norwich School (Andrew Graham Dixon, Sunday Telegraph'' features) Norfolk Museums service 1803 establishments in England 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236274	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comptroller%20and%20Auditor%20General%20%28United%20Kingdom%29	Comptroller and Auditor General (United Kingdom)	The Comptroller and Auditor General (C&AG) in the United Kingdom is the government official responsible for supervising the quality of public accounting and financial reporting. The C&AG is an officer of the House of Commons who is the head of the National Audit Office, the body that scrutinises central government expenditure. Under the Budget Responsibility and National Audit Act 2011, the C&AG is appointed by the monarch by letters patent upon an address of the House of Commons presented by the Prime Minister with the agreement of the chairman of the Public Accounts Committee, and can only be removed from office by the monarch upon an address of both Houses of Parliament. The full title of the office is Comptroller General of the Receipt and Issue of Her Majesty's Exchequer and Auditor General of Public Accounts. The current C&AG is Gareth Davies (not the MP). History The office of C&AG was created by the Exchequer and Audit Departments Act 1866 which combined the functions of the Comptroller General of the Exchequer (who had responsibility for authorising the issue of public monies from the Treasury to government departments) with those of the Commissioners of Audit (who had traditionally presented the government accounts to the Treasury). Under the terms of the Act, the C&AG continued to authorise the issue of money to departments (the comptroller function) and was given the new task of examining departmental accounts and reporting the results to Parliament. The role has since been replicated in many Commonwealth and foreign countries. List of Comptrollers and Auditors General 1867 - Sir William Dunbar, 7th Baronet 1888 - Sir Charles Lister Ryan 1896 - Richard Mills 1900 - Douglas Close Richmond 1904 - Sir John Arrow Kempe 1911 - Sir Henry James Gibson 1921 - Sir Malcolm Graham Ramsay 1931 - Sir Gilbert Charles Upcott 1946 - Sir Frank Newton Tribe 1958 - Sir Edmund Compton 1966 - Sir Bruce Fraser 1971 - Sir David Pitblado 1976 - Sir Douglas Henley 1981 - Sir Gordon Downey 1988 - Sir John Bourn 2008 - Tim Burr 2009 - Sir Amyas Morse 2019 - Gareth Davies Devolved administrations Wales The Auditor General for Wales is the public official in charge of Audit Wales, the body responsible for auditing the Welsh Government and £20 billion of taxpayers' money each year. It is a statutory appointment made by Her Majesty the Queen, in accordance with the provisions of Schedule 8 to the Government of Wales Act 2006. Scotland The role of Auditor General for Scotland was held by Caroline Gardner who replaced the first Auditor General, Robert Black, in July 2012 until July 2020 when Stephen Boyle was appointed. Northern Ireland The Comptroller and Auditor General for Northern Ireland is the head of the Northern Ireland Audit Office (NIAO) with responsibility for public audit in Northern Ireland. Other Comptrollers and Auditors General Bangladesh: Comptroller and Auditor General of Bangladesh India: Comptroller and Auditor General of India Ireland: Comptroller and Auditor General (Ireland) Ghana: Auditor-General of Ghana New Zealand: Controller and Auditor-General of New Zealand See also Auditor general Comptroller Notes and references Government audit Officers of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom Management occupations Comptroller	[ 0.5930605530738831, 0.9589183926582336, 0.15285181999206543, -0.25540798902511597, 0.023848410695791245, 0.20050328969955444, -0.007303818594664335, 0.4955477714538574, -0.4863826036453247, 0.30933305621147156, -0.669524610042572, 0.6134573221206665, 0.11145369708538055, 0.3615054488182068, -0.01070489827543497, -0.02248224802315235, 0.6843324899673462, 0.5754814743995667, 0.6869333982467651, -0.7473260164260864, -0.2934441566467285, -0.21040192246437073, -0.08494560420513153, -0.0026387469843029976, 0.008001774549484253, 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236279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20poetry	Canadian poetry	Canadian poetry is poetry of or typical of Canada. The term encompasses poetry written in Canada or by Canadian people in the official languages of English and French, and an increasingly prominent body of work in both other European and Indigenous languages. Although English Canadian poetry began to be written soon after European colonization began, many of English-speaking Canada’s first celebrated poets come from the Confederation period of the mid to late 19th century. In the 20th century, Anglo-Canadian poets embraced European and American poetic innovations, such as Modernism, Confessional poetry, Postmodernism, New Formalism, Concrete and Visual poetry, and Slam, but always turned to a uniquely Canadian perspective. The minority French Canadian poetry, primarily from Quebec, blossomed in the 19th century, moving through Modernism and Surrealism in the 20th century, to develop a unique voice filled with passion, politics and vibrant imagery. Montreal, with its exposure to both English and French poetry, became a hotbed of poetic progress with movements such as the Montreal Group and Les Automatistes, and notable poets such as Irving Layton and Leonard Cohen. Toronto (centered on the Bohemian Embassy Coffee House and bpNichol’s grOnk) and Vancouver (with the Downtown Poets and the TISH group) also developed as important poetry centers. In the later 20th century, a growing awareness of Native identity coupled with the struggle for Indigenous rights, fostered the growth of writing by Native Canadians. English-Canadian poetry Beginnings The earliest works of poetry, mainly written by visitors, described the new territories in optimistic terms, mainly targeted at a European audience. One of the first works was Robert Hayman's Quodlibets, composed in Newfoundland and published in 1628. With the growth of English language communities near the end of the 18th century, poetry aimed at local readers began to appear in local newspapers. These writings were mainly intended to reflect the prevailing cultural values of the time and were modeled after English poetry of the same period. Oliver Goldsmith's long poem The Rising Village appeared in 1825. It was a response to The Deserted Village by his namesake and great-uncle Oliver Goldsmith. In the first half of the 19th century, poetic works began to reflect local subjects. Acadia by Joseph Howe and The Saint Lawrence and the Saguenay by Charles Sangster are examples of this trend. Early nationalistic verses were composed by writers including Thomas D'Arcy McGee. Many "regional" poets also espoused the British political and aesthetic jingoism of the period. For example, High Tory loyalist & occasional poet Thomas H. Higginson of Vankleek Hill, Ontario, produced paeans to Sir Francis Bond Head (Wm. Lyon Mackenzie's opponent) and the British war effort in the Crimea (such as Sonnet to Florence Nightingale and others), while producing some interesting nature verse exemplifying the all-pervasive influence of Wordsworth's view of nature and the sublime. In 1857, Charles Heavysege attracted international (British and American) attention for his verse drama Mari na de Saul. Confederation The first book of poetry published in Canada following the formation of the new Dominion of Canada in 1867 was Dreamland by Charles Mair (1868). A group of poets now known as the "Confederation Poets", including Charles G. D. Roberts, Archibald Lampman, Bliss Carman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and William Wilfred Campbell, came to prominence in the 1880s and 1890s. Choosing the world of nature as their inspiration, their work was drawn from their own experiences and, at its best, written in their own tones. Isabella Valancy Crawford, Frederick George Scott, and Francis Sherman are also sometimes associated with this group. During this period, E. Pauline Johnson and William Henry Drummond were writing popular poetry - Johnson's based on her part-Mohawk heritage, and Drummond, the Poet of the Habitant, writing dialect verse. Early 20th century In 1907 Robert W. Service's Songs of a Sourdough, Kipling-type verse about the Klondike Gold Rush, became enormously popular: the book would go on to sell more than three million copies in the 20th century. His success would be inspired many other poets, such as Tom MacInnes. Marjorie Pickthall received much critical attention in this period. In 1915, John McCrae, serving as a surgeon in the Canadian Army, wrote the famous war poem "In Flanders Fields". After the war, in Newfoundland, E. J. Pratt described the struggle to make a living from the sea in poems about maritime life and the history of Canada; while in central Canada, poets such as Ralph Gustafson and Raymond Knister were moving away from traditional verse forms. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Montreal Group (a circle of young poets which included A.J.M. Smith, A.M. Klein, and F. R. Scott) helped inspire the development of modernist poetry in Montreal through the McGill Fortnightly Review and the 1936 anthology New Provinces. The "new poetry" valued intellect over sentimentality, or as some have put it, logic over human emotions. Under the literary editorship of Earle Birney, the Canadian Forum helped promote similar developments in Toronto. Dorothy Livesay, born in Manitoba, was an important contributor to the Toronto movement. The Maritimes remained a holdout for traditional verse. The Song Fishermen of Halifax were a magnet for new poetic talent in the late 1920s due to having Bliss Carman and Charles G.D. Roberts as members. The most notable of the new poets were the sonneteers Kenneth Leslie and Robert Norwood. The Canadian Poetry Magazine was founded by Pelham Edgar of the Canadian Authors Association in 1936. Traditional verse was what sold in Canada all through this period; and it was what Canadian Poetry Magazine emphasized. Wilson MacDonald was a top selling Canadian poet of the time. Post-war Following World War II, a new breed of poets appeared, writing for a well-educated audience. These included James Reaney, Jay Macpherson and Leonard Cohen. Meanwhile, some maturing authors such as Irving Layton, Raymond Souster, Harold Standish and Louis Dudek, moved in a different direction, adopting colloquial speech in their work. In the 1960s, a renewed sense of nation helped foster new voices: Margaret Atwood, Michael Ondaatje, Leonard Cohen, Eli Mandel and Margaret Avison. Others such as Al Purdy, Milton Acorn, and Earle Birney, already published, produced some of their best work during this period. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw greater experimentation from poets such as bpNichol, David UU, Joe Rosenblatt, Steve McCaffery, Judith Copithorne and bill bissett. The TISH Poetry movement in Vancouver brought about poetic innovation from Jamie Reid, George Bowering, Fred Wah, Frank Davey, Daphne Marlatt, David Cull, and Lionel Kearns. Since the 1990s, several Governor General's Award-winning poets, in particular Jan Zwicky and Tim Lilburn, have been engaged in nonfiction writing that maps the relationships between poetry and philosophy. Zwicky's "Lyric Philosophy" and "Wisdom and Metaphor", as well as Lilburn's collection "Thinking and Singing", are representative works. A younger generation of Canadian poets has been expanding the boundaries of originality: Brian Brett, Ken Babstock, Karen Solie, Lynn Crosbie, Patrick Lane, Stuart Ross, Sonnet L'Abbé, George Elliott Clarke and Barry Dempster have all imprinted their unique consciousnesses onto the map of Canadian imagery. A notable anthology of Canadian poetry is The New Oxford book of Canadian Verse, edited by Margaret Atwood (). Literary prizes Notable literary prizes for English Canadian poetry include the Governor General's Awards, the Griffin Poetry Prize, the Gerald Lampert Award, and the Pat Lowther Award. Uniquely Canadian forms Jackpine Sonnet The Jackpine Sonnet is a form devised by Milton Acorn, designed to be as irregular and spikey (and Canadian) as a jack pine tree, but with internal structure and integrity. Of no fixed length and with erratic line lengths, the Jackpine Sonnet depends on interweaving internal rhymes, assonance and occasional end-rhymes. Mirelle Tom MacInnes reportedly invented "a five-line stanza of his own he called the 'mirelle'." Viator The Viator poem form was invented by Canadian author and poet Robin Skelton. It consists of any stanzaic form in which the first line of the first stanza is the second line of the second stanza and so on until the poem ends with the line with which it began. The term, Viator comes from the Latin for traveller. An example of Skelton's form may be found in his excellent reference book, The Shapes of our Singing, and is entitled Dover Beach Revisited. French-Canadian poetry Early verse The first book written in verse by a Canadian was Maryadharaman Épîtres, Satires, Chansons, Épigrammes et Autres Pièces de vers by Michel Bibaud, published in 1830. Mouvement littéraire A group of French-speaking poets and authors belonging to the Mouvement littéraire came to Ottawa from Quebec City when the civil service moved to Ottawa in 1870. This group included Alfred Garneau, Antoine Gerin-Lajoie, Achilles Frechette and others. They are considered some of the most important poets and writers in 19th Century French Canada. End of 19th century Octave Crémazie is considered the father of French Canadian poetry. His poetry and that of his follower Louis Fréchette are romantic of form and patriotic in inspiration. At the same time, Pamphile Le May was writing intimist poetry about the simple farm life and Alfred Garneau wrote his feelings. The Montreal School L'École littéraire de Montréal was not a literary school but a group of poets that met regularly. In reaction to the earlier following of the romantic Victor Hugo, they took later schools (such as the Parnassian or symbolism) as their masters. The group included Émile Nelligan, a young poet who stopped writing at only 19 years of age due to mental illness. The terroir Outside Montreal, other poets, such as Nérée Beauchemin (1850-1931) continued Pamphile Le May's depiction of the life of the habitants, followed by Alfred Desrochers (1901-1978), a precursor to the "pays" school of poetry of Gaston Miron and John Paul Ambas. In 1937, Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau published the first book of modernist poetry in French Canada, Regards et Jeux dans l'espace. Garneau's reputation increased in the 1950s after publication of his Complete Poems (1949) - as would that of his cousin, poet Anne Hébert (1916-2000). Surrealism In 1944, Surrealist André Breton travelled to Québec, where he wrote Arcane 17. His visit had a profound effect on Québec literature and provided the impetus for the first Surrealist poetry published in Canada, Les Sables du rêve (The Sands of Dream) by Thérèse Renaud, with drawings by Jean-Paul Mousseau, published by Les Cahiers de la files indienne in 1946. This was followed by the formation of Les Automatistes movement, a militant group of poets, painters and dancers, and the Surrealist-inspired manifesto Refus Global of 1948. A strong Surrealist influence continued in Québec, culminating in the work of Montreal poet Leonard Cohen. See also Alberta Poetry Yearbook Canadian Gaelic Dusty Owl, poetry collective The Four Horsemen (poetry) Irish language in Newfoundland List of Canadian poets League of Canadian Poets Uvavnuk Notes References Further reading External links "Poetry in English" at the Canadian Encyclopedia. "Poetry in French" at the Canadian Encyclopedia. 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236281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Creeley	Robert Creeley	Robert White Creeley (May 21, 1926 – March 30, 2005) was an American poet and author of more than sixty books. He is usually associated with the Black Mountain poets, though his verse aesthetic diverged from that school. He was close with Charles Olson, Robert Duncan, Allen Ginsberg, John Wieners and Ed Dorn. He served as the Samuel P. Capen Professor of Poetry and the Humanities at State University of New York at Buffalo. In 1991, he joined colleagues Susan Howe, Charles Bernstein, Raymond Federman, Robert Bertholf, and Dennis Tedlock in founding the Poetics Program at Buffalo. Creeley lived in Waldoboro, Buffalo, and Providence, where he taught at Brown University. He was a recipient of the Lannan Foundation Lifetime Achievement Award. Early life Creeley was born in Arlington, Massachusetts and grew up in Acton. He and his sister, Helen, were raised by their mother. At the age of two, he lost his left eye. He attended the Holderness School in New Hampshire. In 1943, he entered Harvard University, but left to serve in the American Field Service in Burma and India in 1944–1945. He returned to Harvard in 1946, but eventually earned his BA from Black Mountain College in 1955, teaching some courses there as well. After teaching in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Creeley visited San Francisco for two months in the spring of 1956, having heard from Kenneth Rexroth about a local poetic "renaissance" underway. There he met Allen Ginsberg, who had recently completed Howl, and befriended Jack Kerouac. Creeley later met and befriended Jackson Pollock at the Cedar Tavern in New York City. He was a chicken farmer briefly in Littleton, New Hampshire before becoming a teacher in 1949. The story goes that he wrote to Cid Corman, whose radio show he heard on the farm, and Corman had him read on the show, which is how Charles Olson first heard of Creeley. Work From 1951 to 1955, Creeley and his wife, Ann, lived with their three children on the Spanish island of Mallorca. They went there at the encouragement of their friends, British writer Martin Seymour-Smith and his wife, Janet. There they started Divers Press and published works by Paul Blackburn, Robert Duncan, Charles Olson, and others. Creeley wrote about half of his published prose while living on the island, including a short-story collection, The Gold Diggers, and a novel, The Island. He said that Martin and Janet Seymour-Smith are represented by Artie and Marge in the novel. During 1954 and 1955, Creeley traveled back and forth between Mallorca and his teaching position at Black Mountain College. He also saw to the printing of some issues of Origin and Black Mountain Review on Mallorca, because the printing costs were significantly lower there. In 1960, Creeley earned an MA from the University of New Mexico. He began his academic career by teaching at the prestigious Albuquerque Academy starting in 1958 until about 1960 or 1961. In 1957, he met Bobbie Louise Hawkins; they lived together, common law marriage, until 1975, having two children, Sarah and Katherine. He dedicated his book For Love to Bobbie. Creeley read at the 1963 Vancouver Poetry Festival and at the 1965 Berkeley Poetry Conference. Afterward, he wandered about a bit before settling into the English faculty of "Black Mountain II" at the university at Buffalo in 1967. He would stay at this post until 2003, when he received a post at Brown University. From 1990 to 2003, he lived with his family in Black Rock, in a converted firehouse at the corner of Amherst and East Streets. At the time of his death, he was in residence with the Lannan Foundation in Marfa, Texas. Creeley first received fame in 1962 from his poetry collection For Love. He would go on to win the Bollingen Prize, among others, and to hold the position of New York State Poet laureate from 1989 until 1991. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2003. In 1968, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. In his later years he was an advocate of, and a mentor to, many younger poets, as well as to others outside of the poetry world. He went to great lengths to be supportive to many people regardless of any poetic affiliation. Being responsive appeared to be essential to his personal ethics, and he seemed to take this responsibility extremely seriously, in both his life and his craft. In his later years, when he became well-known, he would go to lengths to make strangers, who approached him as a well-known author, feel comfortable. In his last years, he used the Internet to keep in touch with many younger poets and friends. Death Robert Creeley died in the morning of March 30, 2005, in Odessa, Texas of complications from pneumonia. He is buried in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2016, a short documentary was made about Robert Creeley's son, Will Creeley, in which Will shared stories of his father's legacy and their relationship. The film was entitled, "For Will". Poetry Arthur L. Ford in his book Robert Creeley (1978, p. 25) describes the poet, Le Fou, Creeley's first book, was published in 1952, and since then, according to his publisher, barely a year passed without a new collection of poems. The 1983 entry, titled Mirrors, had some tendencies toward concrete imagery. It was hard for many readers and critics to immediately understand Creeley's reputation as an innovative poet, for his innovations were often very subtle; even harder for some to imagine that his work lived up to the Black Mountain tenet—which he articulated to Charles Olson in their correspondence, and which Olson popularized in his essay "Projective Verse,"—that "form is never more than an extension of content," for his poems were often written in couplet, triplet, and quatrain stanzas that break into and out of rhyme as happenstance appears to dictate. An example is "The Hero," from Collected Poems, also published in 1982 and covering the span of years from 1945 to 1975. "The Hero" is written in variable isoverbal ("word-count") prosody; the number of words per line varies from three to seven, but the norm is four to six. Another technique to be found in this piece is variable rhyme—there is no set rhyme scheme, but some of the lines rhyme and the poem concludes with a rhymed couplet. All of the stanzas are quatrains, as in the first two: Despite these obviously formal elements various critics continue to insist that Creeley wrote in "free verse", but most of his forms were strict enough so that it is a question whether it can even be maintained that he wrote in forms of prose. This particular poem is verse-mode, not prose-mode. M. L. Rosenthal in his book The New Poets quoted Creeley's "preoccupation with a personal rhythm in the sense that the discovery of an external equivalent of the speaking self is felt to be the true object of poetry," and went on to say that this speaking self serves both as the center of the poem's universe and the private life of the poet. "Despite his mask of humble, confused comedian, loving and lovable, he therefore stands in his own work's way, too seldom letting his poems free themselves of his blocking presence" (p. 148). When he used imagery, Creeley could be interesting and effective on the sensory level. In an essay titled "Poetry: Schools of Dissidents," the academic poet Daniel Hoffman wrote, in The Harvard Guide to Contemporary American Writing, which he edited, that as he grew older, Creeley's work tended to become increasingly fragmentary in nature, even the titles subsequent to For Love: Poems 1950–1960 hinting at the fragmentation of experience in Creeley's work: Words, Pieces, A Day Book. In Hoffman's opinion, "Creeley has never included ideas, or commitments to social issues, in the repertoire of his work; his stripped-down poems have been, as it were, a proving of Pound's belief in 'technique as the test of a man's sincerity'" (p. 533). In 1979 jazz bassist Steve Swallow released the album Home (ECM) featuring poems by Creeley set to music, and Creeley later collaborated with Swallow on three further albums, including So There (ECM, 2005). Early work by Creeley appeared in the avant garde little magazine Nomad at the beginning of the 1960s. Posthumous publications of Creeley's work have included the second volume of his Collected Poems, which was published in 2006, and The Selected Letters of Robert Creeley edited by Rod Smith, Kaplan Harris and Peter Baker, published in 2014 by the University of California Press. Bibliography Le Fou (Columbus, Ohio: Golden Goose Press, 1952) The Immoral Proposition (Karlsruhe-Durlach/Baden, Germany: Jonathan Williams, 1953) The Kind of Act Of (Palma de Mallorca, Spain: Divers Press, 1953) The Gold Diggers (Palma de Mallorca, Spain: Divers Press, 1954). A Snarling Garland of Xmas Verses, anonymous (Palma de Mallorca, Spain: Divers Press, 1954) All That Is Lovely in Men (Asheville, N.C.: Jonathan Williams, 1955) If You (San Francisco: Porpoise Bookshop, 1956) The Whip (Worcester, England: Migrant Books, 1957; Highland, N.C.: Jonathan Williams, 1957) A Form of Women (New York: Jargon Books in association with Corinth Books, 1959; Fontwell, Arundel, Sussex, England: Centaur, 1960) For Love: Poems 1950–1960 (New York: Scribners, 1962) The Island (New York: Scribners, 1963; London: John Calder, 1964) Words (Rochester, Mich.: Perishable Press, 1965; enlarged as Words New York: Scribners, 1967) The Gold Diggers and Other Stories (London: John Calder, 1965; New York: Scribners, 1965) Poems 1950–1965 (London: Calder and Boyars, 1966) The Charm: Early and Uncollected Poems (Mt. Horeb, Wisc.: Perishable Press, 1967) Robert Creeley Reads (London: Turret Books/Calder and Boyars, 1967) A Sight (London, Cape Goliard, 1967) Divisions and Other Early Poems (Mt. Horeb, Wisc.: Perishable Press, 1968) The Finger (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1968). 5 Numbers (New York: Poets Press, 1968) Numbers (Stuttgart, Germany: Edition Domberger / Düsseldorf, Germany: Galerie Schmela, 1968) Pieces (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1968; New York: Scribners, 1969) Mazatlan: Sea (San Francisco: Poets Press, 1969) The Finger: Poems 1966–1969 (London: Calder and Boyars, 1970) In London (Bolinas, Calif.: Angel Hair Books, 1970) A Quick Graph: Collected Notes and Essays, edited by Donald Allen (San Francisco: Four Seasons Foundation, 1970) 1234567890, illustrations by Arthur Okamura (Berkeley: Shambhala Publications; San Francisco: Mudra, 1971) St. Martin's (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1971) A Day Book (Berlin: Graphis, 1972); expanded edition including "In London," (New York: Scribners, 1972) Listen (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1972) A Sense of Measure (London: Calder and Boyars, 1972) The Class of '47, with Joe Brainard (New York: Bouwerie Editions, 1973) Contexts of Poetry: Interviews 1961–1971, edited by Donald Allen (Bolinas, Calif.: Four Seasons Foundation, 1973) reprinting with others the Unmuzzled OX interview by Michael Andre Sparrow 6: The Creative (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1973) For my mother: Genevieve Jules Creeley, April 8, 1887 – October 7, 1972 (Rushden, England: Sceptre Press, 1973) His Idea (Toronto: Coach House Press, 1973) Sparrow 14: Inside Out (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1973) Thirty Things (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1974) Backwards (Knotting, England: Sceptre Press, 1975) The Door: Selected Poems (Düsseldorf/München, Germany: S Press, 1975) Away (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Black Sparrow Press, 1976) Hello (Christchurch, New Zealand: Hawk Press, 1976) Mabel, A Story: and Other Prose (London: Marion Boyars, 1976) Presences: A Text for Marisol (New York: Scribners, 1976). Selected Poems (New York: Scribners, 1976) Sparrow 40: Was That a Real Poem or Did You Just Make It Up Yourself (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Black Sparrow Press, 1976). Mabel: A Story (Paris: Editions de l'Atelier Crommelynck, 1977)*Myself (Knotting, Bedfordshire, England: Sceptre Press, 1977) Thanks (Old Deerfield, Mass.: The Deerfield Press; Dublin, Ireland: The Gallery Press, 1977) Hello: A Journal, February 29 – May 3, 1976 (New York: New Directions, 1978; London: Marion Boyars, 1978) Later: A Poem (West Branch, Iowa: Toothpaste Press, 1978) Desultory Days (Knotting, Bedfordshire, England: Sceptre Press, 1978) Was That a Real Poem and Other Essays, edited by Donald Allen with a chronology by Mary Novik (Bolinas, Calif.: Four Seasons Foundation, 1979) Later (New York: New Directions, 1979; London: Marion Boyars, 1980) Corn Close (Knotting, Bedfordshire, England: Sceptre Press, 1980) Mother's Voice (Santa Barbara. Calif.: Am Here Books/Immediate Editions, 1981). Olson, Charles; Creeley, Robert; Butterick, George F. (editor). Charles Olson and Robert Creeley: The Complete Correspondence. 10 vols. (Santa Barbara: Black Sparrow Press, 1980–1996) The Collected Poems of Robert Creeley, 1945–1975 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). Echoes (West Branch, Iowa: Toothpaste Press, 1982) A Calendar 1984 (West Branch, Iowa: Toothpaste Press, 1983) Mirrors (New York: New Directions, 1983) The Collected Prose of Robert Creeley (New York and London: Marion Boyars, 1984; corrected edition, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); current edition, Normal: Dalkey Archive Press, 2001, Memory Gardens (New York: New Directions, 1986) The Company (Providence: Burning Deck, 1988) Window (Buffalo: The Poetry/Rare Books Collection, university at Buffalo, 1988) 7 & 6 (Albuquerque: Hoshour Gallery, 1988) Dreams (New York: Periphery / Salient Seedling Press, 1989) It (Zürich, Switzerland: Bruno Bischofberger, 1989) Robert Creeley: a Selection, 1945–1987 (New York: Dia Art Foundation, 1989) Autobiography (Madras, India and New York: Hanuman, 1990) Have a Heart (Boise: Limberlost Press, 1990) Places (Buffalo: Shuffaloff Press, 1990) Windows (New York: New Directions, 1990) Gnomic Verses (La Laguna, Canary Islands: Zasterle Press, 1991) The Old Days (Tarzana, Calif.: Ambrosia Press, 1991) Selected Poems (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991) Life & Death (New York: Gagosian Gallery, 1993) Echoes (New York: New Directions, 1994) Loops: Ten Poems (Kripplebush, NY: Nadja, 1995) So There: Poems 1976–83 (New York: New Directions, 1998) Life & Death (New York: New Directions, 1998) Daybook of a Virtual Poet (Spuyten Duyvil, 1999) Just in Time: Poems 1984–1994 (New York: New Directions, 2001) If I Were Writing This (New York: New Directions, 2003) On Earth: Last Poems and an Essay (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) Collected Poems of Robert Creeley 1975–2005, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) Allen, Donald M. and Robert Creeley. New American Story (Grove Press, 2001) Reznikoff, Charles and Robert Creeley. The Manner Music Selected Poems, 1945–2005, edited by Benjamin Friedlander; (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008) Spanish translations: En la tierra: últimos poemas y un ensayo (México: Textofilia Ediciones, 2008) Film appearances Creeley (directed by Bruce Jackson and Diane Christian), 1988. Poetry in Motion (directed by Ron Mann), 1982. Black Mountain Blues (work-in-progress directed by Colin Still of Optic Nerve), 2017. "For Will" short (directed by Grayson Goga and Grace Stalley), 2016 See also Robert Creeley Foundation References Research resources Faas, Ekbert (1990) Irving Layton and Robert Creeley: The Complete Correspondence 1953-1978. McGill-Queen's University Press. Faas, Ekbert (2001) Robert Creeley: A Biography. McGill-Queen's University Press. Robert Creeley Papers, 1950–2005 (432 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries The Robert Creeley Papers at Washington University in St. Louis Records of Robert Creeley are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books External links Readings and talks (audio files) Audio recordings of Robert Creeley, from the Woodberry Poetry Room, Harvard University Robert Creeley Poetry Reading at Berkeley Poetry Conference, July 22, 1965, from Maryland Institute College of Art's Decker Library, Internet Archive Robert Creeley Poetry Reading, April 18, 1985, from Maryland Institute College of Art's Decker Library, Internet Archive "Black Mountain Blues", various readings directed by Colin Still of Optic Nerve [Work in Progress] Interviews Robert Creeley Interview with Hedwig Gorski transcript included in special Robert Creeley Issue, Journal of American Studies of Turkey (JAST), No. 27, Spring 2008. 20 Questions with Robert Creeley at Milk Magazine Interview by Robert Arnold Sites, exhibits, artist pages Robert Creeley: Profile, Poems, Essay, Audio at Poets.org Poems by Creeley at PoetryFoundation.org includes links to over two dozen poems, an extensive bibliography, a perspicacious biography, and suggestions for further reading Kerouac Alley: Robert Creeley this feature is a A Directory of the Beat Generation & Literature and includes selected poems, a multimedia & internet directory, live feeds, and other resources Others on Creeley including retrospectives, essays, tributes Drive he sd – or did he??? Poet Aram Saroyan describes a personal and anecdotal reading of Creeley's famous poem 'I Know A Man', based in part on a conversation with Creeley himself "Writers' program adds color to Marfa" a brief capsule of Creeley's last days at a writer's colony in West Texas where he died in March 2005, already ill with emphysema. Feature: Robert Creeley (1926–2005) this feature, edited by Michael Kelleher, with contributions by Amiri Baraka & Susan Howe among others "ON WORDS: A Conference on the Life and Work of Robert Creeley" article about this Conference which was held Oct. 12–14, 2006 in Buffalo, NY. Reviews and critical perspectives On Words: Reasserting the Power of Robert Creeley's Verse article by Michael Kelleher at Art Voice site. Critical Review evaluations of Professor Creeley Of Accumulation: The Collected Poems of Robert Creeley by poet Ben Lerner, this appeared in the print journal boundary 2 Online poetry, poems and artist collaborations Anamorphosis: Collaboration with Francesco Clemente at 2River American Dream: Collaboration with Robert Indiana Still Life: Collaboration with Donald Sultan "Add-Verse" a poetry-photo-video project Creeley participated in 1926 births 2005 deaths People from Arlington, Massachusetts American male poets Beat Generation poets American tax resisters Black Mountain poets Brown University faculty Black Mountain College alumni Harvard University alumni University at Buffalo faculty People from Waldoboro, Maine Poets Laureate of New York (state) Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Deaths from pneumonia in Texas Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery Bollingen Prize recipients 20th-century American poets Fulbright Distinguished Chairs American Book Award winners 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236283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20%282002%20film%29	Secretary (2002 film)	Secretary is a 2002 American erotic black comedy romantic drama film directed by Steven Shainberg and written by Erin Cressida Wilson, based on the short story Secretary by Mary Gaitskill. Starring Maggie Gyllenhaal and James Spader, the film explores the intense relationship between a dominant lawyer and his submissive secretary, who indulge in various types of BDSM activity such as erotic spanking and Petplay. Plot Lee Holloway, the socially awkward and emotionally sensitive youngest daughter of a dysfunctional family, adjusts to normal life after having been hospitalized to a mental hospital following an incident of dangerous self-harm. She learns to type and applies for a job as a secretary for an eccentric yet demanding attorney, E. Edward Grey. Grey explains she is overqualified for the job (having scored higher than anyone he has ever interviewed) and that it is "very dull work" as they only use typewriters; Lee, however, agrees to work under these conditions. Though at first Grey appears to be highly irritated by Lee's typos and other mistakes, it soon becomes apparent that he is sexually aroused by her obedient behavior. When Grey discovers her propensity for self-harm, he confronts her and commands that she never hurt herself again. Soon the two embark on a BDSM relationship from their typical employer-employee relationship. However, Lee experiences a sexual and personal awakening through the sadomasochistic sexual encounters with Grey, and she falls deeply in love with him. Conversely, Grey displays insecurity concerning his feelings for Lee, as well as shame and disgust over his sexual habits. During this period of exploration with Grey, Lee has also been attempting to have a more conventional boyfriend in Peter, even engaging in lukewarm sex with him. After a sexual encounter in Grey's office, Grey fires Lee. Peter then proposes to Lee, who reluctantly agrees to marry him. However, while trying on her wedding gown, she leaves and runs to Grey's office to declare her love for him. Grey, still uncertain about their relationship, tests Lee by commanding her to sit in his chair without moving her hands or feet until he returns. Lee willingly complies, despite being forced to wet her dress since she is not allowed to use the toilet. Hours pass, as several family members and acquaintances individually visit Lee to alternately attempt to dissuade or encourage her while Grey watches from afar, completely taken by Lee's compliance. Her refusal to leave the office draws the attention of the media, which they believe to be a hunger strike. Three days later, Grey returns to the office and takes Lee to a room upstairs where he bathes and feeds her. The pair marry and happily continue their dominant–submissive relationship. Cast Production Many changes were made from Mary Gaitskill's original short story, which was significantly expanded and given greater depth to be made into a feature-length film. Lines of dialogue were changed; Lee's statement "I'm so stupid" became the fantasy-sequence cry "I'm your secretary", which the director thought far more "celebratory." Additionally, the ending of the story was changed to give a more positive outcome to the relationship. Steven Shainberg stated that he wished to show that BDSM relationships can be normal and was inspired by the film My Beautiful Laundrette, which he feels normalized gay relationships for audiences in the 1980s. A central component to the film, the office spaces of Edward and Lee, took form after two years of planning by Shainberg and production designer Amy Danger, who had collaborated with Shainberg on several projects. The desire to have the office feel homemade and express Edward's interest in the growing of plants led Danger to juxtapose a natural decor in the office with a predominantly artificial outside world. Speaking of her choices, Danger compares the office with the rest of the film's locations: "All the materials I used [in the office] were natural: natural wood, bamboo, ironwork ... If I wasn't using natural materials, it was natural colors, like [in] the botanical wallpaper." In contrast, "everything [in the larger world] was fake ... I covered Lee's house in plastic sheeting, and used artificial, manufactured colors." Although the interior sets were carefully constructed, the filmmakers did face some location-related challenges. Notably, in one instance the filmmakers accidentally obtained shooting rights for the wrong park. Gyllenhaal encouraged them to hastily shoot the required park scene anyway, without permission, while crew members distracted the local police. Speaking about Secretarys tone and atmosphere, Danger says "With this S&M material, we could go into a dark place... Steve and I wanted the total opposite: that the nature of this relationship freed [the characters] to be their natural selves." Because of this atmosphere, Danger says "Everybody kept saying, 'When are we going back to the office?' It was funny, because the rooms weren't any smaller in the house, and it wasn't any more difficult to shoot. It was because you wanted to be in that space." Filming Despite being set in Florida, filming took place in Los Angeles. Release Theatrical The film was initially screened at several 2002 film festivals and had its domestic theatrical release on September 20, 2002, and in various foreign markets in 2003 and 2004. Home media The film's region 1 DVD was released on April 1, 2003. In the UK, a version by Tartan Video was released on January 5, 2004, followed by a budget edition by Prism Leisure on February 7, 2005. A UK Blu-ray Disc release was scheduled for September 13, 2010. Special editions of the DVD include the film's trailer and TV spots, cast and director interviews, a behind-the-scenes documentary, cast and director "Curricula Vitae" and an audio commentary by director Steven Shainberg and writer Erin Cressida Wilson. Reception Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 77% based on 156 reviews, with an average rating of 6.80/10. The site's consensus states: "Maggie Gyllenhaal impresses in this romantic comedy with a kinky twist." Many critics noted the film's original take on themes of sadomasochism, with Roger Ebert saying that the film "approaches the tricky subject ... with a stealthy tread, avoiding the dangers of making it either too offensive, or too funny". Ain't It Cool News commented: "Perhaps there is something bold about saying that pain can bring healing as long as it's applied by the right hand, but even that seems obvious and even normal thanks to Gyllenhaal." Box office The film grossed $4.1 million in the U.S and Canada, and $9.3 million worldwide. Accolades Secretary was nominated for a number of awards and won several, with numerous wins for Maggie Gyllenhaal's breakthrough performance. Soundtrack The film's soundtrack album was released on CD on October 8, 2002, with an MP3 download version released on July 11, 2006. The soundtrack album contains Angelo Badalamenti's score as well as two songs that were notably featured over erotic montages in the film: Leonard Cohen's "I'm Your Man" and Lizzie West's "Chariots Rise". The song "Chariots Rise" was changed slightly for the film, with the lyric "what a fool am I, to fall so in love" changed to "what grace have I, to fall so in love". Track listing All tracks by Angelo Badalamenti unless otherwise stated. "I'm Your Man" – Leonard Cohen "Main Title" "Feelin' Free" "Snow Dome Dreams" "Bathing Blossom" "Seeing Scars" "Loving to Obey" "Office Obligations" "The Loving Tree" "Orchids" "Secretary's Secrets" "Chariots Rise" – Lizzie West See also Sadism and masochism in fiction Nudity in film Notes References Further reading External links 2002 films 2002 black comedy films 2002 romantic comedy-drama films 2000s erotic drama films 2000s sex comedy films American black comedy films American erotic drama films American erotic romance films American films American romantic comedy-drama films American sex comedy films BDSM in films 2000s English-language films Films about dysfunctional families Films based on short fiction Films directed by Steven Shainberg Films scored by Angelo Badalamenti Lionsgate films Self-harm in films	[ -0.6996880769729614, 0.327195942401886, 0.07670900225639343, 0.09662141650915146, 0.22505000233650208, 0.4658077657222748, -0.008710211142897606, -0.334151953458786, 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236284	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Scottish%20writers	List of Scottish writers	This list of Scottish writers is an incomplete alphabetical list of Scottish writers who have a Wikipedia page. Those on the list were born and/or brought up in Scotland. They include writers of all genres, writing in English, Lowland Scots, Scottish Gaelic, Latin, French or any other language. Please help by adding new names, using the present entry format as far as possible. Writers put on the list who are still without a Wikipedia page have been transferred to the "No-pagers" section on the Talk page. Abbreviations used: awa = also writes/wrote as, b. = born, c. = circa, fl. = floruit (flourished), or. = originally, RC = Roman Catholic, SF = science fiction, YA = young-adult. This is a subsidiary list to the List of Scots. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U W Y See also List of Scottish dramatists List of Scottish novelists List of Scottish poets List of Scottish science fiction writers List of Scottish short story writers Lists of writers Scottish literature Writers' Museum	[ -0.1425325721502304, 0.2792239487171173, -0.2159833014011383, -0.8570180535316467, -0.33556073904037476, 0.19652284681797028, 1.038641095161438, 0.7894944548606873, -1.0297695398330688, -0.18366344273090363, -0.47252774238586426, -0.04679913818836212, -0.1123894453048706, 0.579959511756897, 0.3405183255672455, 0.3372584879398346, 0.1289380043745041, 0.8392537832260132, -0.16859063506126404, -0.5286897420883179, -0.1922326236963272, -0.08418779820203781, 0.6059353947639465, -0.29760318994522095, 0.3268292546272278, -0.03140905499458313, 0.6944693326950073, -0.6068687438964844, -0.29730290174484253, -0.32503974437713623, -0.23562654852867126, 0.7028765678405762, 0.48279303312301636, 0.2671865224838257, -0.05027458071708679, 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236286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20literature	Scottish literature	Scottish literature is literature written in Scotland or by Scottish writers. It includes works in English, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Brythonic, French, Latin, Norn or other languages written within the modern boundaries of Scotland. The earliest extant literature written in what is now Scotland, was composed in Brythonic speech in the sixth century and has survived as part of Welsh literature. In the following centuries there was literature in Latin, under the influence of the Catholic Church, and in Old English, brought by Anglian settlers. As the state of Alba developed into the kingdom of Scotland from the eighth century, there was a flourishing literary elite who regularly produced texts in both Gaelic and Latin, sharing a common literary culture with Ireland and elsewhere. After the Davidian Revolution of the thirteenth century a flourishing French language culture predominated, while Norse literature was produced from areas of Scandinavian settlement. The first surviving major text in Early Scots literature is the fourteenth-century poet John Barbour's epic Brus, which was followed by a series of vernacular versions of medieval romances. These were joined in the fifteenth century by Scots prose works. In the early modern era royal patronage supported poetry, prose and drama. James V's court saw works such as Sir David Lindsay of the Mount's The Thrie Estaitis. In the late sixteenth century James VI became patron and member of a circle of Scottish court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band. When he acceded to the English throne in 1603 many followed him to the new court, but without a centre of royal patronage the tradition of Scots poetry subsided. It was revived after union with England in 1707 by figures including Allan Ramsay and James Macpherson. The latter's Ossian Cycle made him the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. He helped inspire Robert Burns, considered by many to be the national poet, and Walter Scott, whose Waverley Novels did much to define Scottish identity in the nineteenth century. Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations, including Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald. In the twentieth century there was a surge of activity in Scottish literature, known as the Scottish Renaissance. The leading figure, Hugh MacDiarmid, attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature. Members of the movement were followed by a new generation of post-war poets including Edwin Morgan, who would be appointed the first Scots Makar by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004. From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with writers including James Kelman and Irvine Welsh. Scottish poets who emerged in the same period included Carol Ann Duffy, who was named as the first Scot to be UK Poet Laureate in May 2009. Middle Ages Early Middle Ages After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century, four major circles of political and cultural influence emerged in Northern Britain. In the east were the Picts, whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the river Forth to Shetland. In the west were the Gaelic (Goidelic)-speaking people of Dál Riata, who had close links with Ireland, from where they brought with them the name Scots. In the south were the British (Brythonic-speaking) descendants of the peoples of the Roman-influenced kingdoms of "The Old North", the most powerful and longest surviving of which was the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Finally, there were the English or "Angles", Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia (later the northern part of Northumbria), which reached into what are now the Lothians and the Scotiish Borders in the south-east. To these Christianisation, particularly from the sixth century, added Latin as an intellectual and written language. Modern scholarship, based on surviving placenames and historical evidence, indicates that the Picts spoke a Brythonic language, but none of their literature seems to have survived into the modern era. However, there is surviving literature from what would become Scotland in Brythonic, Gaelic, Latin and Old English. Much of the earliest Welsh literature was actually composed in or near the country we now call Scotland, in the Brythonic speech, from which Welsh would be derived, which was not then confined to Wales and Cornwall, although it was only written down in Wales much later. These include The Gododdin, considered the earliest surviving verse from Scotland, which is attributed to the bard Aneirin, said to have been resident in Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin in the sixth century. It is a series of elegies to the men of the Gododdin killed fighting at the Battle of Catraeth around 600 AD. Similarly, the Battle of Gwen Ystrad is attributed to Taliesin, traditionally thought to be a bard at the court of Rheged in roughly the same period. There are religious works in Gaelic including the Elegy for St Columba by Dallan Forgaill, c. 597 and "In Praise of St Columba" by Beccan mac Luigdech of Rum, c. 677. In Latin they include a "Prayer for Protection" (attributed to St Mugint), c. mid-sixth century and Altus Prosator ("The High Creator", attributed to St Columba), c. 597. What is arguably the most important medieval work written in Scotland, the Vita Columbae, by Adomnán, abbot of Iona (627/8–704), was also written in Latin. The next most important piece of Scottish hagiography, the verse Life of St. Ninian, was written in Latin in Whithorn in the eighth century. In Old English there is The Dream of the Rood, from which lines are found on the Ruthwell Cross, making it the only surviving fragment of Northumbrian Old English from early Medieval Scotland. It has also been suggested on the basis of ornithological references that the poem The Seafarer was composed somewhere near the Bass Rock in East Lothian. High Middle Ages Beginning in the later eighth century, Viking raids and invasions may have forced a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns that culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) in the 840s, which brought to power the House of Alpin and the creation of the Kingdom of Alba. Historical sources, as well as place name evidence, indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic, Old English and later Norse. The Kingdom of Alba was overwhelmingly an oral society dominated by Gaelic culture. Our fuller sources for Ireland of the same period suggest that there would have been filidh, who acted as poets, musicians and historians, often attached to the court of a lord or king, and passed on their knowledge and culture in Gaelic to the next generation. From the eleventh century French, Flemish and particularly English became the main languages of Scottish burghs, most of which were located in the south and east. At least from the accession of David I (r. 1124–53), as part of a Davidian Revolution that introduced French culture and political systems, Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was probably replaced by French. After this "de-gallicisation" of the Scottish court, a less highly regarded order of bards took over the functions of the filidh and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century. They often trained in bardic schools, of which a few, like the one run by the MacMhuirich dynasty, who were bards to the Lord of the Isles, existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland, until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century. Members of bardic schools were trained in the complex rules and forms of Gaelic poetry. Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century. It is possible that more Middle Irish literature was written in medieval Scotland than is often thought, but has not survived because the Gaelic literary establishment of eastern Scotland died out before the fourteenth century. Thomas Owen Clancy has argued that the Lebor Bretnach, the so-called "Irish Nennius", was written in Scotland, and probably at the monastery in Abernethy, but this text survives only from manuscripts preserved in Ireland. Other literary work that has survived includes that of the prolific poet Gille Brighde Albanach. About 1218, Gille Brighde wrote a poem—Heading for Damietta—on his experiences of the Fifth Crusade. In the thirteenth century, French flourished as a literary language, and produced the Roman de Fergus, the earliest piece of non-Celtic vernacular literature to survive from Scotland. Many other stories in the Arthurian Cycle, written in French and preserved only outside Scotland, are thought by some scholars including D. D. R. Owen, to have been written in Scotland. There is some Norse literature from areas of Scandinavian settlement, such as the Northern Isles and the Western Isles. The famous Orkneyinga Saga however, although it pertains to the Earldom of Orkney, was written in Iceland. In addition to French, Latin too was a literary language, with works that include the "Carmen de morte Sumerledi", a poem which exults triumphantly the victory of the citizens of Glasgow over Somairle mac Gilla Brigte and the "Inchcolm Antiphoner", a hymn in praise of St. Columba. Late Middle Ages In the late Middle Ages, Middle Scots, often simply called English, became the dominant language of the country. It was derived largely from Old English, with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French. Although resembling the language spoken in northern England, it became a distinct dialect from the late fourteenth century onwards. It began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French. By the fifteenth century it was the language of government, with acts of parliament, council records and treasurer's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards. As a result, Gaelic, once dominant north of the River Tay, began a steady decline. Lowland writers began to treat Gaelic as a second class, rustic and even amusing language, helping to frame attitudes towards the highlands and to create a cultural gulf with the lowlands. The first surviving major text in Scots literature is John Barbour's Brus (1375), composed under the patronage of Robert II and telling the story in epic poetry of Robert I's actions before the English invasion till the end of the war of independence. The work was extremely popular among the Scots-speaking aristocracy and Barbour is referred to as the father of Scots poetry, holding a similar place to his contemporary Chaucer in England. In the early fifteenth century these were followed by Andrew of Wyntoun's verse Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland and Blind Harry's The Wallace, which blended historical romance with the verse chronicle. They were probably influenced by Scots versions of popular French romances that were also produced in the period, including The Buik of Alexander, Launcelot o the Laik and The Porteous of Noblenes by Gilbert Hay. Much Middle Scots literature was produced by makars, poets with links to the royal court, which included James I (who wrote The Kingis Quair). Many of the makars had university education and so were also connected with the Kirk. However, Dunbar's Lament for the Makaris (c.1505) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk now largely lost. Before the advent of printing in Scotland, writers such as Robert Henryson, William Dunbar, Walter Kennedy and Gavin Douglas have been seen as leading a golden age in Scottish poetry. In the late fifteenth century, Scots prose also began to develop as a genre. Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose, such as the Auchinleck Chronicle, the first complete surviving work includes John Ireland's The Meroure of Wyssdome (1490). There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s, including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secretorum, an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle's advice to Alexander the Great. The establishment of a printing press under royal patent in 1507 would begin to make it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity. The first Scottish press was established in Southgait in Edinburgh by the merchant Walter Chepman (c. 1473–c. 1528) and the bookseller Andrew Myllar (f. 1505–08). Although the first press was relatively short lived, beside law codes and religious works, the press also produced editions of the work of Scottish makars before its demise, probably about 1510. The next recorded press was that of Thomas Davidson (f. 1532–42), the first in a long line of "king's printers", who also produced editions of works of the makars. The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Gavin Douglas's version of Virgil's Aeneid, the Eneados, which was the first complete translation of a major classical text in the Scots language and the first successful example of its kind in any Anglic language. It was finished in 1513, but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden. Early modern era Sixteenth century As a patron of poets and authors James V (r. 1513–42) supported William Stewart and John Bellenden, who translated the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Hector Boece, into verse and prose. David Lyndsay (c. 1486–1555), diplomat and the head of the Lyon Court, was a prolific poet. He wrote elegiac narratives, romances and satires. George Buchanan (1506–82) had a major influence as a Latin poet, founding a tradition of neo-Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century. Contributors to this tradition included royal secretary John Maitland (1537–95), reformer Andrew Melville (1545–1622), John Johnston (1570?–1611) and David Hume of Godscroft (1558–1629). From the 1550s, in the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots (r. 1542–67) and the minority of her son James VI (r. 1567–1625), cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil. The Kirk, heavily influenced by Calvinism, also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature. Nevertheless, poets from this period included Richard Maitland of Lethington (1496–1586), who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar; John Rolland (fl. 1530–75), who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister Alexander Hume (c. 1556–1609), whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and epistolary verse. Alexander Scott's (?1520–82/3) use of short verse designed to be sung to music, opened the way for the Castilan poets of James VI's adult reign. In the 1580s and 1590s James VI strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots. His treatise, Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody, published in 1584 when he was aged 18, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, to which he applied Renaissance principles. He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians, later called the Castalian Band, which included William Fowler (c. 1560–1612), John Stewart of Baldynneis (c. 1545–c. 1605), and Alexander Montgomerie (c. 1550–98). They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms, including sonnets and short sonnets, for narrative, nature description, satire and meditations on love. Later poets that followed in this vein included William Alexander (c. 1567–1640), Alexander Craig (c. 1567–1627) and Robert Ayton (1570–1627). By the late 1590s the king's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne. Lyndsay produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540, which satirised the corruption of church and state, and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation. Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre with plays such as Jepheths and Baptistes, which influenced Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and through them the neo-classical tradition in French drama, but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium. The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play (before 1568) and Philotus (published in London in 1603), are isolated examples of surviving plays. The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors, probably designed for court performance for Mary, Queen of Scots or James VI. The same system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland, but James VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in 1599. Seventeenth century Having extolled the virtues of Scots "poesie", following his accession to the English throne, James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England. In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English Authorised King James Version of the Bible. In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now "not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther". Jenny Wormald, describes James as creating a "three-tier system, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top". The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature. A number of Scottish poets, including William Alexander, John Murray and Robert Aytoun accompanied the king to London, where they continued to write, but they soon began to anglicise their written language. James's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the English court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign, but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined. The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king's departure was William Drummond of Hawthornden (1585–1649). As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined, a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge. While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century, the vernacular continued to develop. In contrast to the Classical tradition, which used syllabic metre, vernacular poets tended to use stressed metre. However, they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and role, as the verse was still often panegyric. A number of these vernacular poets were women, such as Mary MacLeod of Harris (c. 1615–1707). The tradition of neo-Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum (1637), published in Amsterdam by Arthur Johnston (c. 1579–1641) and Sir John Scott of Scotstarvet (1585–1670) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan. This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets. Elizabeth Melville's (f. 1585–1630) Ane Godlie Dream (1603) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland. Anna Hume, daughter of David Hume of Godscroft, adapted Petrarch's Triumphs as Triumphs of Love: Chastitie: Death (1644). This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland. Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century, including "Sir Patrick Spens" and "Thomas the Rhymer", but which are not known to have existed until the eighteenth century. They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed, often as broadsides and as part of chapbooks, later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including Robert Burns and Walter Scott. From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors including Robert Sempill (c. 1595–c. 1665), Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw (1627–1727) and Lady Grizel Baillie (1645–1746). The loss of a royal court also meant there was no force to counter the kirk's dislike of theatre, which struggled to survive in Scotland. However, it was not entirely extinguished. The kirk used theatre for its own purposes in schools and was slow to suppress popular folk dramas. Surviving plays for the period include William Alexander's Monarchicke Tragedies, written just before his departure with the king for England in 1603. They were closet dramas, designed to be read rather than performed, and already indicate Alexander's preference for southern English over the Scots language. There were some attempts to revive Scottish drama. In 1663 Edinburgh lawyer William Clerke wrote Marciano or the Discovery, a play about the restoration of a legitimate dynasty in Florence after many years of civil war. It was performed at the Tennis-Court Theatre at Holyrood Palace before the parliamentary high commissioner John Leslie, Earl of Rothes. Thomas Sydsurf's Tarugo's Wiles or the Coffee House, was first performed in London in 1667 and then in Edinburgh the year after and drew on Spanish comedy. A relative of Sydsurf, physician Archibald Pitcairne (1652–1713) wrote The Assembly or Scotch Reformation (1692), a ribald satire on the morals of the Presbyterian kirk, circulating in manuscript, but not published until 1722, helping to secure the association between Jacobitism and professional drama that discouraged the creation of professional theatre. Eighteenth century After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England, the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education. Nevertheless, Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working-class Scots. Literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) was the most important literary figure of the era, often described as leading a "vernacular revival". He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, publishing The Ever Green (1724), a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period. He led the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza, which would be later be used by Robert Burns as a poetic form. His Tea-Table Miscellany (1724–37) contained poems old Scots folk material, his own poems in the folk style and "gentilizings" of Scots poems in the English neo-classical style. His pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era. He would also play a leading role in supporting drama in Scotland and the attempt to found a permanent theatre in the capital. Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English. These included William Hamilton of Gilbertfield (c. 1665–1751), Robert Crawford (1695–1733), Alexander Ross (1699–1784), the Jacobite William Hamilton of Bangour (1704–54), socialite Alison Rutherford Cockburn (1712–94), and poet and playwright James Thompson's (1700–48), most famous for the nature poetry of his Seasons. Tobias Smollett (1721–71) was a poet, essayist, satirist and playwright, but is best known for his picaresque novels, such as The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748) and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751) for which he is often seen as Scotland's first novelist. His work would be a major influence on later novelists such as Thackeray and Dickens. The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures included Rob Donn Mackay (1714–78) and Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir (Duncan Ban MacIntyre) (1724–1812). The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (Alasdair MacDonald) (c. 1698–1770). His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald's Gallery. He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands, including Thompson's Seasons, which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic, which was not focused on their relations to human concerns. James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, claiming to have found poetry written by Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal written in 1762 was speedily translated into many European languages, and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German, literature, influencing Herder and Goethe. Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience. Robert Burns was highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge of Classical, Biblical, and English literature, as well as the Scottish Makar tradition. Burns was skilled in writing not only in the Scots language but also in the Scottish English dialect of the English language. Some of his works, such as "Love and Liberty" (also known as "The Jolly Beggars"), are written in both Scots and English for various effects. His themes included republicanism, Radicalism, Scottish patriotism, anticlericalism, class inequalities, gender roles, commentary on the Scottish Kirk of his time, Scottish cultural identity, poverty, sexuality, and the beneficial aspects of popular socialising. Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg (1770–1835), Allan Cunningham (1784–1842) and John Galt (1779–1839), as well as claims for the Scottish origins of one of the most significant figures of the Romantic movement in Lord Byron, who was brought up in Scotland until he acquired his English title. Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such as Catherine Trotter (1679–1749), born in London to Scottish parents and later moving to Aberdeen. Her plays and included the verse-tragedy Fatal Friendship (1698), the comedy Love at a Loss (1700) and the history The Revolution in Sweden (1706). David Crawford's (1665–1726) plays included the Restoration comedies Courtship A-la-Mode (1700) and Love at First Sight (1704). These developed the character of the stage Scot, often a clown, but cunning and loyal. Newburgh Hamilton (1691–1761), born in Ireland of Scottish descent, produced the comedies The Petticoat-Ploter (1712) and The Doating Lovers or The Libertine (1715). He later wrote the libretto for Handel's Samson (1743), closely based on John Milton's Samson Agonistes. James Thompson's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings, included Sophonisba (1730), Agamemnon (1738) and Tancrid and Sigismuda (1745), the last of which was an international success. David Mallet's (c. 1705–65) Eurydice (1731) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play and his later work indicates opposition to the Walpole administration. The opera Masque of Alfred (1740) was a collaboration between Thompson, Mallet and composer Thomas Arne, with Thompson supplying the lyrics for his most famous work, the patriotic song "Rule, Britannia!". In Scotland performances were largely limited to performances by visiting actors, who faced hostility from the Kirk. The Edinburgh Company of Players were able to perform in Dundee, Montrose, Aberdeen and regular performances at the Taylor's Hall in Edinburgh under the protection of a Royal Patent. Ramsay was instrumental in establishing them in a small theatre in Carruber's Close in Edinburgh, but the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and the theatre soon closed. A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (1762–1851), often influenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism. Nineteenth century Scottish poetry is often seen as entering a period of decline in the nineteenth century, with a descent of into infantalism as exemplified by the highly popular Whistle Binkie anthologies (1830–90). However, Scotland continued to produce talented and successful poets, including weaver-poet William Thom (1799–1848), Lady Margaret Maclean Clephane Compton Northampton (d. 1830), William Edmondstoune Aytoun (1813–65) and Thomas Campbell (1777–1844), whose works were extensively reprinted in the period 1800–60. Among the most influential poets of the later nineteenth century were James Thomson (1834–82) and John Davidson (1857–1909), whose work would have a major impact on modernist poets including Hugh MacDiarmid, Wallace Stevens and T. S. Eliot. The Highland Clearances and widespread emigration significantly weakened Gaelic language and culture and had a profound impact on the nature of Gaelic poetry. The best poetry in this vein contained a strong element of protest, including Uilleam Mac Dhun Lèibhe's (William Livingstone, 1808–70) protest against the Islay and Seonaidh Phàdraig Iarsiadair's (John Smith, 1848–81) condemnation of those responsible for the clearances. The best known Gaelic poet of the era was Màiri Mhòr nan Óran (Mary MacPherson, 1821–98), whose evocation of place and mood has made her among the most enduring Gaelic poets. Walter Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel. It launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century. Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. The existing repertoire of Scottish-themed plays included John Home's Douglas (1756) and Ramsay's The Gentle Shepherd (1725), with the last two being the most popular plays among amateur groups. Scott was keenly interested in drama, becoming a shareholder in the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh. Baillie's Highland themed Family Legend was first produced in Edinburgh in 1810 with the help of Scott, as part of a deliberate attempt to stimulate a national Scottish drama. Scott also wrote five plays, of which Hallidon Hill (1822) and MacDuff's Cross (1822), were patriotic Scottish histories. Adaptations of the Waverley novels, largely first performed in minor theatres, rather than the larger Patent theatres, included The Lady in the Lake (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1819), and Rob Roy, which underwent over 1,000 performances in Scotland in this period. Also adapted for the stage were Guy Mannering, The Bride of Lammermoor and The Abbot. These highly popular plays saw the social range and size of the audience for theatre expand and helped shape theatre-going practices in Scotland for the rest of the century. Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, The Edinburgh Review, founded in 1802 and Blackwood's Magazine, founded in 1817. Together they had a major impact on the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism. In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations. Robert Louis Stevenson's work included the urban Gothic novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like Kidnapped and Treasure Island. Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction. The "kailyard tradition" at the end of the century, brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like J. M. Barrie, most famous for his creation of Peter Pan and George MacDonald whose works including Phantastes played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre. 20th century to the present In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance. The leading figure in the movement was Hugh MacDiarmid (the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve). MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including "A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle" (1936), developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms. Other writers that emerged in this period, and are often treated as part of the movement, include the poets Edwin Muir and William Soutar, the novelists Neil Gunn, George Blake, Nan Shepherd, A. J. Cronin, Naomi Mitchison, Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon, and the playwright James Bridie. All were born within a fifteen-year period (1887–1901) and, although they cannot be described as members of a single school they all pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues. This period saw the emergence of a tradition of popular or working class theatre. Hundreds of amateur groups were established, particularly in the growing urban centres of the Lowlands. Amateur companies encouraged native playwrights, including Robert McLellan. Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots, including Robert Garioch and Sydney Goodsir Smith. Others demonstrated a greater interest in English language poetry, among them Norman MacCaig, George Bruce and Maurice Lindsay. George Mackay Brown from Orkney, and Iain Crichton Smith from Lewis, wrote both poetry and prose fiction shaped by their distinctive island backgrounds. The Glaswegian poet Edwin Morgan became known for translations of works from a wide range of European languages. He was also the first Scots Makar (the official national poet), appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004. The shift to drama that focused on working class life in the post-war period gained momentum with Robert McLeish's The Gorbals Story and the work of Ena Lamont Stewart, Robert Kemp and George Munro. Many major Scottish post-war novelists, such as Muriel Spark, James Kennaway, Alexander Trocchi, Jessie Kesson and Robin Jenkins spent much or most of their lives outside Scotland, but often dealt with Scottish themes, as in Spark's Edinburgh-set The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1961) and Kennaway's script for the film Tunes of Glory (1956). Successful mass-market works included the action novels of Alistair MacLean, and the historical fiction of Dorothy Dunnett. A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Shena Mackay, Alan Spence, Allan Massie and the work of William McIlvanney. From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers focused around meetings in the house of critic, poet and teacher Philip Hobsbaum. Also important in the movement was Peter Kravitz, editor of Polygon Books. Members of the group that would come to prominence as writers included James Kelman, Alasdair Gray, Liz Lochhead, Tom Leonard and Aonghas MacNeacail. In the 1990s major, prize winning, Scottish novels that emerged from this movement included Irvine Welsh's Trainspotting (1993), Warner's Morvern Callar (1995), Gray's Poor Things (1992) and Kelman's How Late It Was, How Late (1994). These works were linked by a sometimes overtly political reaction to Thatcherism that explored marginal areas of experience and used vivid vernacular language (including expletives and Scots). Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists including Val McDermid, Frederic Lindsay, Christopher Brookmyre, Quintin Jardine, Denise Mina and particularly the success of Edinburgh's Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels. Scottish play writing became increasingly internationalised, with Scottish writers such as Liz Lochhead and Edwin Morgan adapting classic texts, while Jo Clifford and David Greig investigated European themes. This period also saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage, including Don Paterson, Kathleen Jamie, Douglas Dunn, Robert Crawford, and Carol Ann Duffy. Glasgow-born Duffy was named as Poet Laureate in May 2009, the first woman, the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post. See also Association for Scottish Literary Studies Books in the "Famous Scots Series" Golden Treasury of Scottish Poetry History of the Scots language Literature in the other languages of Britain Modern Scottish Poetry (Faber) English literature G. Ross Roy founding editor of the journal Studies in Scottish Literature References Notes Bibliography Beasley, J. C., Tobias Smollett: Novelist (University of Georgia Press, 1998), . 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Brown, ed., The Edinburgh Companion to Scottish Drama (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011), . Carruthers, G., Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), . Chedgzoy, K., Women's Writing in the British Atlantic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), . Clancy, T. O., "Scotland, the 'Nennian' recension of the Historia Brittonum, and the Lebor Bretnach", in S. Taylor, ed., Kings, Clerics and Chronicles in Scotland, 500–1297 (Dublin/Portland, 2000), . Clancy, T. O., "Scottish literature before Scottish literature", in G. Carruthers and L. McIlvanney, eds, The Cambridge Companion to Scottish Literature (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2012), . Clancy, T. O., and Márkus, G., The Triumph Tree: Scotland's Earliest Poetry, 550–1350 (Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 1998), .. Corbett, J., McClure, D., and Stuart-Smith, J., "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds, The Edinburgh Companion to Scots (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2003), . Crawford, R., Scotland's Books: a History of Scottish Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), . Davidson, N., The Origins of Scottish Nationhood (Pluto Press, 2008), , p. 136. Duncan, A. A. M., ed., The Brus (Canongate, 1997), . Frazer, W. O. and Tyrrell A., Social Identity in Early Medieval Britain (London: Continuum, 2000), . Fry, M., Edinburgh (London: Pan Macmillan, 2011), . Garlick, G., "Theatre outside London, 1660–1775", in J. Milling, P. Thomson and J. Donohue, eds, The Cambridge History of British Theatre, Volume 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), . Grant, A., Independence and Nationhood, Scotland 1306–1469 (Baltimore: Edward Arnold, 1984). Grant, I. F., The Lordship of the Isles: Wanderings in the Lost Lordship (Mercat, 1982), . 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Jarrels, A., "'Associations respect[ing] the past': Enlightenment and Romantic historicism", in J. P. Klancher, A Concise Companion to the Romantic Age (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), . Jayapalan, N., History of English Literature (Atlantic, 2001), . Jones, C., A Language Suppressed: The Pronunciation of the Scots Language in the 18th Century (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1993). Koch, J. T., Celtic Culture: a Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-CLIO, 2006), . Lambdin, R. T., and Lambdin, L. C., Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature (London: Greenwood, 2000), . Lindsay, M. and Duncan, L., The Edinburgh Book of Twentieth-century Scottish Poetry (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005), ,. Lyle, E., Scottish Ballads (Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 2001), . MacDonald, J., "Gaelic literature" in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), . 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236287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode%20to%20a%20Nightingale	Ode to a Nightingale	"Ode to a Nightingale" is a poem by John Keats written either in the garden of the Spaniards Inn, Hampstead, London or, according to Keats' friend Charles Armitage Brown, under a plum tree in the garden of Keats' house at Wentworth Place, also in Hampstead. According to Brown, a nightingale had built its nest near the house that he shared with Keats in the spring of 1819. Inspired by the bird's song, Keats composed the poem in one day. It soon became one of his 1819 odes and was first published in Annals of the Fine Arts the following July. The poem is one of the most frequently anthologized in the English language. "Ode to a Nightingale" is a personal poem which describes Keats's journey into the state of negative capability. The tone of the poem rejects the optimistic pursuit of pleasure found within Keats's earlier poems and, instead, explores the themes of nature, transience and mortality, the latter being particularly relevant to Keats. The nightingale described experiences a type of death but does not actually die. Instead, the songbird is capable of living through its song, which is a fate that humans cannot expect. The poem ends with an acceptance that pleasure cannot last and that death is an inevitable part of life. In the poem, Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead—as a "sod" over which the nightingale sings. The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man sitting in his garden, is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination. The presence of weather is noticeable in the poem, as spring came early in 1819, bringing nightingales all over the heath. Background Of Keats's six major odes of 1819, "Ode to Psyche", was probably written first and "To Autumn" written last. Sometime between these two, he wrote "Ode to a Nightingale". It is possible that "Ode to a Nightingale" was written between 26 April and 18 May 1819, based on weather conditions and similarities between images in the poem and those in a letter sent to Fanny Brawne on May Day. The poem was composed at the Hampstead house Keats shared with Brown, possibly while sitting beneath a plum tree in the garden. According to Keats' friend Brown, Keats finished the ode in just one morning: "In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house. Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast-table to the grass-plot under a plum-tree, where he sat for two or three hours. When he came into the house, I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand, and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books. On inquiry, I found those scraps, four or five in number, contained his poetic feelings on the song of the nightingale." Brown's account is personal, as he claimed the poem was directly influenced by his house and preserved by his own doing. However, Keats relied on both his own imagination and other literature as sources for his depiction of the nightingale. The exact date of "Ode to a Nightingale", as well as those of "Ode on Indolence", "Ode on Melancholy", and "Ode on a Grecian Urn", is unknown, as Keats dated all as 'May 1819'. However, he worked on the four poems together, and there is a unity in both their stanza forms and their themes. The exact order the poems in which the poems were written is also unknown, but they form a sequence within their structures. While Keats was writing "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and the other poems, Brown transcribed copies of the poems and submitted them to Richard Woodhouse. During this time, Benjamin Haydon, Keats' friend, was given a copy of "Ode to a Nightingale", and he shared the poem with the editor of the Annals of the Fine Arts, James Elmes. Elmes paid Keats a small sum of money, and the poem was published in the July issue. The poem was later included in Keats' 1820 collection of poems Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes, and Other Poems. Structure "Ode to a Nightingale" was probably the first of the middle set of four odes that Keats wrote following "Ode to Psyche", according to Brown. This is further evidenced by the poems' structures. Keats experimentally combines two different types of lyrical poetry: the odal hymn and the lyric of questioning voice that responds to the odal hymn. This combination of structures is similar to that in "Ode on a Grecian Urn". In both poems, the dual form creates a dramatic element within the text. The stanza form of the poem is a combination of elements from Petrarchan sonnets and Shakespearean sonnets. Keats incorporates a pattern of alternating historically "short" and "long" vowel sounds in his ode. In particular, line 18 ("And purple-stained mouth") has the historical pattern of "short" followed by "long" followed by "short" and followed by "long". This alternation is continued in longer lines, including line 31 ("Away! away! for I will fly to thee") which contains five pairs of alternations. However, other lines, such as line 3 ("Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains") rely on a pattern of five "short" vowels followed by "long" and "short" vowel pairings until they end with a "long" vowel. These are not the only combination patterns present, and there are patterns of two "short" vowels followed by a "long" vowel in other lines, including 12, 22, and 59, which are repeated twice and then followed up with two sets of "short" and then "long" vowel pairs. This reliance on vowel sounds is not unique to this ode, but is common to Keats's other 1819 odes and his Eve of St. Agnes. The poem incorporates a complex reliance on assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds—in a conscious pattern, as found in many of his poems. Such a reliance on assonance is found in very few English poems. Within "Ode to a Nightingale", an example of this pattern can be found in line 35 ("Already with thee! tender is the night"), where the "ea" of "Already" connects with the "e" of "tender" and the "i" of "with" connects with the "i" of "is". This same pattern is found again in line 41 ("I cannot see what flowers are at my feet") with the "a" of "cannot" linking with the "a" of "at" and the "ee" of "see" linking with the "ee" of "feet". This system of assonance can be found in approximately a tenth of the lines of Keats's later poetry. When it comes to other sound patterns, Keats relies on double or triple caesuras in approximately 6% of lines throughout the 1819 odes. An example from "Ode to a Nightingale" can be found within line 45 ("The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild") as the pauses after the commas are a "masculine" pause. Furthermore, Keats began to reduce the amount of Latin-based words and syntax that he relied on in his poetry, which in turn shortened the length of the words that dominate the poem. There is also an emphasis on words beginning with consonants, especially those that begin with "b", "p" or "v". The first stanza relies heavily on these three consonants, and they are used as a syzygy to add a musical tone within the poem. Compared to his earlier verse, spondees are relatively abundant in his 1819 odes and other late poems. In "Ode to a Nightingale" they are used in just over 8% of his lines (compared to a mere 2.6% in Endymion). Examples include: / × / / × × / / × / Cool'd a long age in the deep-delvèd earth (line 12) × / × / × / / / / / Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last, grey hairs (line 25) To Walter Jackson Bate, the use of spondees in lines 31–34 creates a feeling of slow flight, and "in the final stanza . . . the distinctive use of scattered spondees, together with initial inversion, lend[s] an approximate phonetic suggestion of the peculiar spring and bounce of the bird in its flight." Poem The first and sixth stanzas exemplify the juxtaposition of rapture and morbidity in the poem: Themes "Ode to a Nightingale" describes a series of conflicts between reality and the Romantic ideal of uniting with nature. In the words of Richard Fogle, "The principal stress of the poem is a struggle between ideal and actual: inclusive terms which, however, contain more particular antitheses of pleasure and pain, of imagination and common sense reason, of fullness and privation, of permanence and change, of nature and the human, of art and life, freedom and bondage, waking and dream." Of course, the nightingale's song is the dominant image and dominant "voice" within the ode. The nightingale is also the object of empathy and praise within the poem. However, the nightingale and the discussion of the nightingale is not simply about the bird or the song, but about human experience in general. This is not to say that the song is a simple metaphor, but it is a complex image that is formed through the interaction of the conflicting voices of praise and questioning. On this theme, David Perkins summarizes the way "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn" perform this when he says, "we are dealing with a talent, indeed an entire approach to poetry, in which symbol, however necessary, may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry, any more than it could with Shakespeare, but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions". However, there is a difference between an urn and a nightingale in that the nightingale is not an eternal entity. Furthermore, in creating any aspect of the nightingale immortal during the poem the narrator separates any union that he can have with the nightingale. The nightingale's song within the poem is connected to the art of music in a way that the urn in "Ode on a Grecian Urn" is connected to the art of sculpture. As such, the nightingale would represent an enchanting presence and, unlike the urn, is directly connected to nature. As natural music, the song is for beauty and lacks a message of truth. Keats follows Coleridge's belief, as found in "The Nightingale", in separating from the world by losing himself in the bird's song. Although Keats favours a female nightingale over Coleridge's masculine bird, both reject the traditional depiction of the nightingale as related to the tragedy of Philomela. Their songbird is a happy nightingale that lacks the melancholic feel of previous poetic depictions. The bird is only a voice within the poem, but it is a voice that compels the narrator to join with in and forget the sorrows of the world. However, there is tension in that the narrator holds Keats's guilt regarding the death of Tom Keats, his brother. The song's conclusion represents the result of trying to escape into the realm of fancy. Like Percy Bysshe Shelley's "To a Skylark", Keats's narrator listens to a bird song, but listening to the song within "Ode to a Nightingale" is almost painful and similar to death. The narrator seeks to be with the nightingale and abandons his sense of vision in order to embrace the sound in an attempt to share in the darkness with the bird. As the poem ends, the trance caused by the nightingale is broken and the narrator is left wondering if it was a real vision or just a dream. The poem's reliance on the process of sleeping is common to Keats's poems, and "Ode to a Nightingale" shares many of the same themes as Keats' Sleep and Poetry and Eve of St. Agnes. This further separates the image of the nightingale's song from its closest comparative image, the urn as represented in "Ode on a Grecian Urn". The nightingale is distant and mysterious, and even disappears at the end of the poem. The dream image emphasizes the shadowiness and elusiveness of the poem. These elements make it impossible for there to be a complete self-identification with the nightingale, but it also allows for self-awareness to permeate throughout the poem, albeit in an altered state. Midway through the poem, there is a split between the two actions of the poem: the first attempts to identify with the nightingale and its song, and the second discusses the convergence of the past with the future while experiencing the present. This second theme is reminiscent of Keats's view of human progression through the Mansion of Many Apartments and how man develops from experiencing and wanting only pleasure to understanding truth as a mixture of both pleasure and pain. The Elysian fields and the nightingale's song in the first half of the poem represent the pleasurable moments that overwhelm the individual like a drug. However, the experience does not last forever, and the body is left desiring it until the narrator feels helpless without the pleasure. Instead of embracing the coming truth, the narrator clings to poetry to hide from the loss of pleasure. Poetry does not bring about the pleasure that the narrator original asks for, but it does liberate him from his desire for only pleasure. Responding to this emphasis on pleasure, Albert Guerard, Jr. argues that the poem contains a "longing not for art but a free reverie of any kind. The form of the poem is that of progression by association, so that the movement of feeling is at the mercy of words evoked by chance, such words as fade and forlorn, the very words that, like a bell, toll the dreamer back to his sole self." However, Fogle points out that the terms Guerard emphasizes are "associational translations" and that Guerard misunderstands Keats's aesthetic. After all, the acceptance of the loss of pleasure by the end of the poem is an acceptance of life and, in turn, of death. Death was a constant theme that permeated aspects of Keats poetry because he was exposed to death of his family members throughout his life. Within the poem, there are many images of death. The nightingale experiences a sort of death and even the god Apollo experiences death, but his death reveals his own divine state. As Perkins explains, "But, of course, the nightingale is not thought to be literally dying. The point is that the deity or the nightingale can sing without dying. But, as the ode makes clear, man cannot—or at least not in a visionary way." With this theme of a loss of pleasure and inevitable death, the poem, according to Claude Finney, describes "the inadequacy of the romantic escape from the world of reality to the world of ideal beauty". Earl Wasserman essentially agrees with Finney, but he extended his summation of the poem to incorporate the themes of Keats's Mansion of Many Apartments when he says, "the core of the poem is the search for the mystery, the unsuccessful quest for light within its darkness" and this "leads only to an increasing darkness, or a growing recognition of how impenetrable the mystery is to mortals." With these views in mind, the poem recalls Keats's earlier view of pleasure and an optimistic view of poetry found within his earlier poems, especially Sleep and Poetry, and rejects them. This loss of pleasure and incorporation of death imagery lends the poem a dark air, which connects "Ode to a Nightingale" with Keats' other poems that discuss the demonic nature of poetic imagination, including Lamia. In the poem, Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead—he uses an abrupt, almost brutal word for it—as a "sod" over which the nightingale sings. The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man, sitting in his garden, is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination. Reception Contemporary critics of Keats enjoyed the poem, and it was heavily quoted in their reviews. An anonymous review of Keats's poetry that ran in the August and October 1820 Scots Magazine stated: "Amongst the minor poems we prefer the 'Ode to the Nightingale'. Indeed, we are inclined to prefer it beyond every other poem in the book; but let the reader judge. The third and seventh stanzas have a charm for us which we should find it difficult to explain. We have read this ode over and over again, and every time with increased delight." At the same time, Leigh Hunt wrote a review of Keats's poem for the 2 August and 9 August 1820 The Indicator: "As a specimen of the Poems, which are all lyrical, we must indulge ourselves in quoting entire the 'Ode to a Nightingale'. There is that mixture in it of real melancholy and imaginative relief, which poetry alone presents us in her 'charmed cup,' and which some over-rational critics have undertaken to find wrong because it is not true. It does not follow that what is not true to them, is not true to others. If the relief is real, the mixture is good and sufficing." John Scott, in an anonymous review for the September 1820 edition of The London Magazine, argued for the greatness of Keats's poetry as exemplified by poems including "Ode to a Nightingale": The injustice which has been done to our author's works, in estimating their poetical merit, rendered us doubly anxious, on opening his last volume, to find it likely to seize fast hold of general sympathy, and thus turn an overwhelming power against the paltry traducers of talent, more eminently promising in many respects, than any the present age has been called upon to encourage. We have not found it to be quite all that we wished in this respect—and it would have been very extraordinary if we had, for our wishes went far beyond reasonable expectations. But we have found it of a nature to present to common understandings the poetical power with which the author's mind is gifted, in a more tangible and intelligible shape than that in which it has appeared in any of his former compositions. It is, therefore, calculated to throw shame on the lying, vulgar spirit, in which this young worshipper in the temple of the Muses has been cried-down; whatever questions may still leave to be settled as to the kind and degree of his poetical merits. Take for instance, as proof of the justice of our praise, the following passage from an Ode to the Nightingale:--it is distinct, noble, pathetic, and true: the thoughts have all chords of direct communication with naturally-constituted hearts: the echoes of the strain linger bout the depths of human bosoms. In a review for the 21 January 1835 London Journal, Hunt claimed that while Keats wrote the poem, "The poet had then his mortal illness upon him, and knew it. Never was the voice of death sweeter." David Moir, in 1851, used The Eve of St Agnes to claim, "We have here a specimen of descriptive power luxuriously rich and original; but the following lines, from the 'Ode to a Nightingale,' flow from a far more profound fountain of inspiration." At the end of the 19th century, Robert Bridges's analysis of the poem became a dominant view and would influence later interpretations of the poem. Bridges, in 1895, declared that the poem was the best of Keats's odes but he thought that the poem contained too much artificial language. In particular, he emphasised the use of the word "forlorn" and the last stanza as being examples of Keats's artificial language. In "Two odes of Keats's" (1897), William C Wilkinson suggested that "Ode to a Nightingale" is deeply flawed because it contains too many "incoherent musings" that failed to supply a standard of logic that would allow the reader to understand the relationship between the poet and the bird. However, Herbert Grierson, arguing in 1928, believed Nightingale to be superior to "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "Ode on Melancholy", and "Ode to Psyche", arguing the exact opposite of Wilkinson as he stated that "Nightingale", along with "To Autumn", showed a greater amount of logical thought and more aptly presented the cases they were intended to make. 20th-century criticism At the beginning of the 20th century, Rudyard Kipling referred to lines 69 and 70, alongside three lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Kubla Khan, when he claimed of poetry: "In all the millions permitted there are no more than five—five little lines—of which one can say, 'These are the magic. These are the vision. The rest is only Poetry.'" In 1906, Alexander Mackie argued: "The nightingale and the lark for long monopolised poetic idolatry—a privilege they enjoyed solely on account of their pre-eminence as song birds. Keats's Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley's Ode to a Skylark are two of the glories of English literature; but both were written by men who had no claim to special or exact knowledge of ornithology as such." Sidney Colvin, in 1920, argued, "Throughout this ode Keats's genius is at its height. Imagination cannot be more rich and satisfying, felicity of phrase and cadence cannot be more absolute, than in the several contrasted stanzas calling for the draft of southern vintage […] To praise the art of a passage like that in the fourth stanza […] to praise or comment on a stroke of art like this is to throw doubt on the reader's power to perceive it for himself." Bridges' view of "Ode to a Nightingale" was taken up by H. W. Garrod in his 1926 analysis of Keats's poems. As Albert Gerard would argue later in 1944, Garrod believed that the problem within Keats's poem was his emphasis on the rhythm and the language instead of the main ideas of the poem. When describing the fourth stanza of the poem, Maurice Ridley, in 1933, claimed, "And so comes the stanza, with that remarkable piece of imagination at the end which feels the light as blown by the breezes, one of those characteristic sudden flashes with which Keats fires the most ordinary material." He later declared of the seventh stanza: "And now for the great stanza in which the imagination is fanned to yet whiter heat, the stanza that would, I suppose, by common consent be taken, along with Kubla Khan, as offering us the distilled sorceries of 'Romanticism'". He concluded on the stanza that "I do not believe that any reader who has watched Keats at work on the more exquisitely finished of the stanzas in The Eve of St. Agnes, and seen this craftsman slowly elaborating and refining, will ever believe that this perfect stanza was achieved with the easy fluency with which, in the draft we have, it was obviously written down." In 1936, F. R. Leavis wrote, "One remembers the poem both as recording, and as being for the reader, an indulgence." Following Leavis, Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren, in a 1938 essay, saw the poem as "a very rich poem. It contains some complications which we must not gloss over if we are to appreciate the depth and significance of the issues engaged." Brooks would later argue in The Well-Wrought Urn (1947) that the poem was thematically unified while contradicting many of the negative criticisms lodged against the poem. Richard Fogle responded to the critical attack on Keats's emphasis on rhyme and language put forth by Garrod, Gerard, and others in 1953. His argument was similar to Brooks: that the poem was thematically coherent and that there is a poet within the poem that is different from Keats the writer of the poem. As such, Keats consciously chose the shift in the themes of the poem and the contrasts within the poem represent the pain felt when comparing the real world to an ideal world found within the imagination. Fogle also responded directly to the claims made by Leavis: "I find Mr. Leavis too austere, but he points out a quality which Keats plainly sought for. His profusion and prodigality is, however, modified by a principle of sobriety." It is possible that Fogle's statements were a defense of Romanticism as a group that was both respectable in terms of thought and poetic ability. Wasserman, following in 1953, claimed that "Of all Keats' poems, it is probably the 'Ode to a Nightingale' that has most tormented the critic [...] in any reading of the 'Ode to a Nightingale' the turmoil will not down. Forces contend wildly within the poem, not only without resolution, but without possibility of resolution; and the reader comes away from his experience with the sense that he has been in 'a wild Abyss'". He then explained, "It is this turbulence, I suspect, that has led Allen Tate to believe the ode 'at least tries to say everything that poetry can say.' But I propose it is the 'Ode on a Grecian Urn' that succeeds in saying what poetry can say, and that the other ode attempts to say all that the poet can." Later critical responses Although the poem was defended by a few critics, E. C. Pettet returned to the argument that the poem lacked a structure and emphasized the word "forlorn" as evidence of his view. In his 1957 work, Pettet did praise the poem as he declared, "The Ode to a Nightingale has a special interest in that most of us would probably regard it as the most richly representative of all Keats's poems. Two reasons for this quality are immediately apparent: there is its matchless evocation of that late spring and early summer season […] and there is its exceptional degree of 'distillation', of concentrated recollection". David Perkins felt the need to defend the use of the word "forlorn" and claimed that it described the feeling from the impossibility of not being able to live in the world of the imagination. When praising the poem in 1959, Perkins claimed, "Although the "Ode to a Nightingale" ranges more widely than the "Ode on a Grecian Urn," the poem can also be regarded as the exploration or testing out of a symbol, and, compared with the urn as a symbol, the nightingale would seem to have both limitations and advantages." Walter Jackson Bate also made a similar defense of the word "forlorn" by claiming that the world described by describing the impossibility of reaching that land. When describing the poem compared to the rest of English poetry, Bate argued in 1963, "Ode to a Nightingale" is among "the greatest lyrics in English" and the only one written with such speed: "We are free to doubt whether any poem in English of comparable length and quality has been composed so quickly." In 1968, Robert Gittins stated, "It may not be wrong to regard [Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy] as Keats's earlier essays in this [ode] form, and the great Nightingale and Grecian Urn as his more finished and later works." From the late 1960s onward, many of the Yale School of critics describe the poem as a reworking of John Milton's poetic diction, but, they argued, that poem revealed that Keats lacked the ability of Milton as a poet. The critics, Harold Bloom (1965), Leslie Brisman (1973), Paul Fry (1980), John Hollander (1981) and Cynthia Chase (1985), all focused on the poem with Milton as a progenitor to "Ode to a Nightingale" while ignoring other possibilities, including Shakespeare who was emphasised as being the source of many of Keats's phrases. Responding to the claims about Milton and Keats's shortcomings, critics like R. S. White (1981) and Willard Spiegelman (1983) used the Shakespearean echoes to argue for a multiplicity of sources for the poem to claim that Keats was not trying to respond just to Milton or escape from his shadow. Instead, "Ode to a Nightingale" was an original poem, as White claimed, "The poem is richly saturated in Shakespeare, yet the assimilations are so profound that the Ode is finally original, and wholly Keatsian". Similarly, Spiegelman claimed that Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream had "flavored and ripened the later poem". This was followed in 1986 by Jonathan Bate claiming that Keats was "left enriched by the voice of Shakespeare, the 'immortal bird'". Focusing on the quality of the poem, Stuart Sperry, argued in 1973, "'Ode to a Nightingale' is the supreme expression in all Keats's poetry of the impulse to imaginative escape that flies in the face of the knowledge of human limitation, the impulse fully expressed in 'Away! away! for I will fly to thee.'" Wolf Hirst, in 1981, described the poem as "justly celebrated" and claimed that "Since this movement into an eternal realm of song is one of the most magnificent in literature, the poet's return to actuality is all the more shattering." Helen Vendler continued the earlier view that the poem was artificial but added that the poem was an attempt to be aesthetic and spontaneous that was later dropped. In 1983, she argued, "In its absence of conclusiveness and its abandonment to reverie, the poem appeals to readers who prize it as the most personal, the most apparently spontaneous, the most immediately beautiful, and the most confessional of Keats's odes. I believe that the 'events' of the ode, as it unfolds in time, have more logic, however, than is usually granted them, and that they are best seen in relation to Keats's pursuit of the idea of music as a nonrepresentational art." In a review of contemporary criticism of "Ode to a Nightingale" in 1998, James O'Rouke claimed that "To judge from the volume, the variety, and the polemical force of the modern critical responses engendered, there have been few moments in English poetic history as baffling as Keats's repetition of the word 'forlorn'". When referring to the reliance of the ideas of John Dryden and William Hazlitt within the poem, Poet Laureate Andrew Motion, in 1999, argued "whose notion of poetry as a 'movement' from personal consciousness to an awareness of suffering humanity it perfectly illustrates." In fiction F. Scott Fitzgerald took the title of his novel Tender is the Night from the 35th line of the ode. According to Ildikó de Papp Carrington, Keats' wording, "when, sick for home, / She stood in tears amid the alien corn", seems to be echoed in by Alice Munro's Save the Reaper (1998), the end of which reads: "Eve would lie down [...] with nothing in her head but the rustle of the deep tall corn which might have stopped growing now but still made its live noise after dark" (book version). The Dutch folk band The Black Atlantic took the name of their 2012 EP "Darkling I listen" from the start line 51. The poem is quoted in Chapter 1 of P. G. Wodehouse's novel Full Moon (1947): "'Coming here? Freddie?'.A numbness seemed to be paining his sense, as though of hemlock he had drunk." Part of the poem is quoted in an episode of Penny Dreadful, when Lucifer appears to Vanessa Ives to tempt her, and quotes the poem in his conversation. The poem inspired Tennessee Williams to name his first play Not About Nightingales. In music "Ode to a Nightingale" is the subject matter for Ben Moore's piece of the same name, a song-cycle written for baritone in 2010, commissioned by Bruce and Suzie Kovner. This song-cycle uses the entirety of the work with the cycles' eight songs based on the eight stanzas of the poem. Nearly all the songs in the cycle have preludes, interludes and postludes, possibly hinting at a Schumann-like effect, where the piano is the main voice and the sung part merely adds decoration. There is also a very fine setting by Hamilton Harty, set for soprano and orchestra. It was first performed at the Cardiff Festival in 1907, and later magnificently recorded by Heather Harper. A setting of the poem by Stephen Douglas Burton, for soprano and orchestra, was completed in 1962. Notes References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 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236289	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tay%20Bridge%20Disaster	The Tay Bridge Disaster	"The Tay Bridge Disaster" is a poem written in 1880 by the Scottish poet William McGonagall, who has been recognized as the worst poet in history. The poem recounts the events of the evening of 28 December 1879, when, during a severe gale, the Tay Rail Bridge at Dundee collapsed as a train was passing over it with the loss of all on board. The number of deaths was actually 75, not 90 as stated in the poem. The foundations of the bridge were not removed and are alongside the newer bridge. The poem is among McGonagall's most well-known works, and has been lampooned by critics as one of the worst poems in the English language. It begins: "Beautiful railway bridge of the silv'ry Tay Alas! I am very sorry to say That ninety lives have been taken away On the last sabbath day of 1879 Which will be remember'd for a very long time." And it ends: "Oh! Ill-fated bridge of the silv'ry Tay, I now must conclude my lay By telling the world fearlessly without the least dismay, That your central girders would not have given way, At least many sensible men do say, Had they been supported on each side with buttresses At least many sensible men confesses, For the stronger we our houses do build, The less chance we have of being killed." William McGonagall wrote two other poems about the Tay bridges. The first one, written before the disaster about the first bridge, begins as follows: The Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: "Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay! With your numerous arches and pillars in so grand array, And your central girders, which seem to the eye To be almost towering to the sky" And it ends: "Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay! I hope that God will protect all passengers By night and by day, And that no accident will befall them while crossing The Bridge of the Silvery Tay, For that would be most awful to be seen Nearby Dundee and the Magdalen Green. Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay! And prosperity to Messrs Bouche and Grothe, The famous engineers of the present day, Who have succeeded in erecting the Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay, Which stands unequalled to be seen Nearby Dundee and the Magdalen Green." After the original bridge collapsed, a new one was built, providing the opportunity for another poem, which begins: An Address to the New Tay Bridge "BEAUTIFUL new railway bridge of the Silvery Tay, With your strong brick piers and buttresses in so grand array, And your thirteen central girders, which seem to my eye Strong enough all windy storms to defy." See also List of United Kingdom disasters by death toll References External links Tay Bridge Disaster poem in full Scottish poems Victorian poetry 1879 in Scotland 1880 poems River Tay	[ -0.1555299013853073, 0.4857087731361389, -0.027131076902151108, -0.5743662714958191, 0.011116660200059414, 0.6028032898902893, 0.4221171736717224, 0.14897868037223816, 0.009074791334569454, -0.421485960483551, -0.007473255041986704, 0.017844183370471, -0.7917371392250061, 0.6997076272964478, 0.2621946334838867, 0.2601485848426819, 0.04575715586543083, -0.5142470002174377, -0.10418830066919327, -0.428453266620636, -0.273385226726532, 0.2112615704536438, 0.6247970461845398, 0.03551336005330086, 0.40853753685951233, -0.3863924443721771, 0.484015554189682, 0.28937748074531555, 0.08388781547546387, 0.32712745666503906, 0.40540722012519836, 0.6040036082267761, 0.33168527483940125, -0.2763274610042572, -0.5568153262138367, 0.046615879982709885, -0.6403533816337585, -0.47595685720443726, -0.33118587732315063, 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236293	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoot%20Suit%20Riots	Zoot Suit Riots	The Zoot Suit Riots were a series of riots on June 3–8, 1943 in Los Angeles, California, United States, involving American servicemen stationed in Southern California and young Latino and Mexican American city residents. It was one of the dozen wartime industrial cities that suffered race-related riots in the summer of 1943, along with Mobile, Alabama; Beaumont, Texas; Detroit, Michigan; and New York City. American servicemen and white Angelenos attacked and stripped children, teenagers, and youths who wore zoot suits, ostensibly because they considered the outfits, which were made from large amounts of fabric, to be unpatriotic during World War II. Rationing of fabrics and certain foods was required at the time for the war effort. While most of the violence was directed toward Mexican American youth, African American, and Filipino American youths who were wearing zoot suits were also attacked. The Zoot Suit Riots were related to fears and hostilities aroused by the coverage of the Sleepy Lagoon murder trial, following the killing of a young Latino man in what was then an unincorporated commercial area near Los Angeles. The riot appeared to trigger similar attacks that year against Latinos in Chicago, San Diego, Oakland, Evansville, Philadelphia, and New York City. The defiance of zoot suiters became inspirational for Chicanos during the Chicano Movement. Background Mexicans in Los Angeles California was originally part of Mexico, before becoming part of the United States. Due to this history, there has always been a large Latino population in California. During the early 20th century, many Mexicans immigrated for work to US border states which needed workers, such areas as Texas, Arizona, and California. They were recruited by farmers for work on the large farms and also worked throughout those states in non-agricultural jobs. During the Great Depression, in the early 1930s, the United States deported between 500,000 and 2 million people of Mexican descent (including the illegal expulsion of up to 1.2 million U.S. citizens) to Mexico (see Mexican Repatriation), in order to reduce demands on limited American economic resources. By the late 1930s, about three million Mexican Americans resided in the United States. Los Angeles had the highest concentration of ethnic Mexicans outside Mexico. Job discrimination in Los Angeles forced minorities to work for below-poverty level wages. The Los Angeles newspapers described Mexicans with racially inflammatory propaganda, suggesting a problem with juvenile delinquency. These factors caused much racial tension between Mexican immigrants, those of Mexican descent, and European Americans. During this time Los Angeles was going through an expansion. The city planners did not plan the expansion well, as it caused disruptions in communal sites, family sites, and family patterns of social interactions. One major decision that was made was to put a Naval school for the Naval Reserve Armory in the Chavez Ravine which was primarily a Mexican-American area. This would later be a hot spot for encounters between the zoot suiters and sailors. Lalo Guerrero became known as the father of Chicano music, as the young people adopted a music, language, and dress of their own. Young men wore zoot suits—a flamboyant long jacket with baggy pegged pants, sometimes accessorized with a pork pie hat, a long watch chain, and shoes with thick soles. They called themselves "pachucos." In the early 1940s, arrests of Mexican-American youths and negative stories in the Los Angeles Times fueled a perception that these pachuco gangs were delinquents who were a threat to the broader community. In the summer of 1942, the Sleepy Lagoon murder case made national news. Nine teenage members of the 38th Street Gang were accused of murdering a civilian man named José Díaz in an abandoned quarry pit. The nine defendants were convicted at trial and sentenced to long prison terms. Eduardo Obregón Pagán wrote, Many Angelenos saw the death of José Díaz as a tragedy that resulted from a larger pattern of lawlessness and rebellion among Mexican American youths, discerned through their self-conscious fashioning of difference, and increasingly called for stronger measures to crack down on juvenile delinquency. The convictions of the nine young men were ultimately overturned, but the case generated much animosity within the United States toward Mexican Americans. The police and press characterized all Mexican youths as "pachuco hoodlums and baby gangsters." World War II With the entry of the United States into World War II in December 1941 following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the nation had to deal with the restrictions of rationing and the prospects of conscription. In March 1942, the War Production Board (WPB) regulated the manufacture of men's suits and all clothing that contained wool. To achieve a 26% cut-back in the use of fabrics, the WPB issued regulations for the manufacture of what Esquire magazine called, "streamlined suits by Uncle Sam." The regulations effectively forbade the manufacture of the wide-cut zoot suits and full women's skirts or dresses. Most legitimate tailoring companies ceased to manufacture or advertise any suits that fell outside the War Production Board's guidelines. But the demand for zoot suits did not decline; a network of bootleg tailors based in Los Angeles and New York City continued to produce the garments. Youths also continued to wear clothes which they already owned. Meanwhile, American soldiers, sailors, and Marines from across the country went to Los Angeles in large numbers as part of the war effort; they were given leave while awaiting to be shipped out to the Pacific theater. Servicemen and zoot suiters in Los Angeles were both immediately identifiable by their dress. Some servicemen and others in the community felt that the continued wearing of zoot suits represented the youths' public flouting of rationing regulations. Officials began to cast wearing of zoot suits in moral terms and associated it with the commission of petty crime, violence and the snubbing of national wartime rules. In 1943, many servicemen resented the sight of young Latinos wearing zoot suits after clothing restrictions had been published, especially as most came from areas of the country with little experience or knowledge of Mexican-American culture. While Mexican-Americans were over-represented in the armed forces, they were not common or respected enough to defuse these tensions. One of the first conflicts between the sailors and the zoot suiters was in August 1942, near Chinatown. The sailors who trained in the Chavez Ravine went to Chinatown on leave. A sailor and his girlfriend were walking when four zoot suiters blocked the sidewalk in front of them. The zoot suiters refused to let them pass and pushed the sailor into the street. The young zoot-suiter and the sailor stood their ground in silence until finally, the sailor backed away. Zoot suits Zoot suit fashion found its origins in the urban black scene during the 1940s. This style of clothing cultivated a sense of racial pride and significance; however, the fashion statement soon made its way into the wardrobes of young Southern Californian Mexican Americans, Italians and Filipinos, who became the quintessential wearers of the zoot suit. The transfer and sharing of the zoot suit fashion indicated a growing influence of African American popular culture on young Mexican American, Italian American and Filipino Americans. Additionally, “analysis of the Los Angeles zoot-suit riot and journalists' and politicians' in and the outfit's connections with race relations, slang, jazz music and dance permit an understanding of the politics and social significance of what is trivial in itself -- popular culture and its attendant styles.” The zoot suit was originally a statement about creating a new wave of music and dress, but it also held significant political meaning. The flamboyant and colorful material indicated a desire to express oneself against the boring and somber slum lifestyle. The zoot suit provided young African American and Mexican youth a sense of individualistic identity within their cultures and society as they discovered “highly charged emotional and symbolic meaning” through the movement, music, and dress. The zoot suit typically included bright colored fabric, long suit coats that often reached the knees, wide shoulders, and gathered or tapered pants. The arm and ankle areas were often much tighter than the rest of the fabric, giving the whole look a triangular shape. Often the suit was paired with accessories such as chains and leather soled-shoes, which were typically worn to exaggerate and prove a point of rebellion standing against the wealth and status that many of these youth were unable to access due to their economic and racial identities. Pachucas and Chicanas The urban, Mexican-American youth often called themselves "pachucos." The female parallels were called "pachucas" and wore tight sweaters and relatively full, flared skirts, often paired with high hair-dos, large earrings, and heavy makeup. Many young Mexican-American women who were not pachucas avoided these clothing styles and hairstyles in order to avoid being seen as troublemakers by white people. Some women even reported that they had heard of pachucas hiding knives in their hair. Pachucas formed their own gangs, joined the male pachuco gangs, and carried weapons. This behavior was often said to have been a divergence from the expected feminine beauty and manners of the middle-class. Often, for parents of Mexican-American females, the pachucas "embodied not only a dissident femininity but a threatening, distinctly American identity as well." For some young women, the characteristics of the style promoted a sense of social mobility and "cultural hybridity" that was expressed through "increased interracial/ethnic relations, bilingualism, and pachuco slang." Pachucas and Chicanas were less referred to in the media, partly because they threatened the gender and sexuality norms that existed at the time. When acknowledged, they were regarded mainly as secondary members to the male gang members. Many scholars exclude the pachuca narrative in major events in the Chicano movement. Events like the Sleepy Lagoon Incident of 1942 and Zoot Suit Riots of 1943 have been described as "a boyish fight over a pretty girl" and a brawl involving "homeboys". However, records show that many women also participated in these events and had important roles in shaping their outcomes. Both men and women were attacked by the so-called "Downey Boys," and both pachucos and pachucas came back to the 38th Street neighborhood where they had been beaten and moved onward to Williams Ranch when they found an empty 38th Street. Claims have asserted that there were women screaming and yelling as the fighting ensued. Continuing into the end of World War II, Mexican-American women were at the center of much conflict between Anglo-American servicemen and Mexican American youths. In the weeks before the riots, servicemen reported that pachucos had been harassing, molesting, raping, and insulting their wives, girlfriends, and relatives. One local Los Angeles newspaper included a story of two young women who had allegedly been abducted in downtown and raped in a "zoot suit orgy". Many of these reports began building up and was one of the major instigators of the coming riots, as servicemen had declared that they will take matters into their own hands since the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) had supposedly done nothing to stop the attacks from pachucos on their women. On the contrary, Horace R. Cayton, a writer for the Pittsburgh Courier, "attributed the riots to non-Mexican servicemen, who he claimed envied Mexican American male zooters and desired the 'pretty brown creatures' with whom they consorted". However, the press was dominated by the stories which often claimed that "loose . . . girls of the Los Angeles Mexican quarter" were responsible for taking advantage of unaware sailors who had money. Prelude Following the Sleepy Lagoon case, U.S. service personnel got into violent altercations with young Mexican Americans in zoot suits in San Jose, Oakland, San Diego, Delano, Los Angeles, and smaller cities and towns in California. During this period, the immense war buildup attracted tens of thousands of new workers to factories and shipyards in the West Coast, including African Americans from the South in the second wave of the Great Migration. The most serious ethnic conflicts erupted in Los Angeles. Two altercations between military personnel and zoot suiters catalyzed the larger riots. The first occurred on May 30, 1943, at around 8:00 p.m., four days before the start of the riots. A dozen sailors, including Seaman Second Class Joe Dacy Coleman, were walking down Main Street in Los Angeles when they spotted a group of Mexican women on the opposite side. The group, except for Coleman, crossed the street to speak to the women. Coleman continued, walking past two zoot suiters; one of them raised his arm, and the sailor turned and grabbed it. Riots Attacks begin On the night of June 3, 1943, about eleven sailors got off a bus and started walking along Main Street in Downtown Los Angeles. Encountering a group of young Mexicans in zoot suits, they got into an argument. The sailors later told the LAPD that they were jumped and beaten by this gang, while the zoot suiters claimed the altercation was started by the sailors. The LAPD responded to the incident, including many off-duty officers who identified as the Vengeance Squad. The officers went to the scene "seeking to clean up Main Street from what they viewed as the loathsome influence of pachuco gangs." The next day, 200 sailors got a convoy of about 20 taxicabs and headed for East Los Angeles, the center of Mexican-American settlement. The sailors spotted a group of young zoot suiters and assaulted them with clubs. They stripped the boys of the zoot suits and burned the tattered clothes in a pile. They attacked and stripped everyone they came across who were wearing zoot suits. Media coverage of the incidents then started to spread, inducing more people to join in the mayhem. Attacks spread During the next few days, thousands of servicemen and residents joined the attacks, marching abreast down streets, entering bars and movie houses, and assaulting any young Mexican American males they encountered. In one incident, sailors dragged two zoot suiters on-stage as a film was being screened, stripped them in front of the audience, and then urinated on their suits. Although police accompanied the rioters, they had orders not to arrest any, and some of them joined in the rioting. After several days, more than 150 people had been injured, and the police had arrested more than 500 Mexican American civilians on charges ranging from "rioting" to "vagrancy". A witness to the attacks, journalist Carey McWilliams wrote, Marching through the streets of downtown Los Angeles, a mob of several thousand soldiers, sailors, and civilians, proceeded to beat up every zoot suiter they could find. Pushing its way into the important motion picture theaters, the mob ordered the management to turn on the house lights and then ran up and down the aisles dragging Mexicans out of their seats. Streetcars were halted while Mexicans, and some Filipinos and Negroes, were jerked from their seats, pushed into the streets and beaten with a sadistic frenzy. The local press lauded the attacks, describing them as having a "cleansing effect" to rid Los Angeles of "miscreants" and "hoodlums". As the riots progressed, the media reported the arrest of Amelia Venegas, a female zoot suiter charged with carrying a brass knuckleduster. While the revelation of female pachucos' (pachucas) involvement in the riots led to frequent coverage of the activities of female pachuca gangs, the media suppressed any mention of the white mobs that were also involved. The Los Angeles City Council approved a resolution criminalizing the wearing of "zoot suits with reat pleats within the city limits of LA" with the expectation that Mayor Fletcher Bowron would sign it into law. Councilman Norris Nelson had stated, "The zoot suit has become a badge of hoodlumism." No ordinance was approved by the City Council or signed into law by the Mayor, but the council encouraged the WPB to take steps "to curb illegal production of men's clothing in violation of WPB limitation orders." While the mobs had first targeted only pachucos, they also attacked African Americans in zoot suits who lived in the Central Avenue corridor area. The Navy and Marine Corps command staffs intervened on June 8 to reduce the attacks, confining sailors and Marines to barracks and ordering that Los Angeles be declared off-limits to all military personnel; this was enforced by Navy Shore Patrol personnel. Their official position was that their men were acting in self-defense. Reactions As the riots subsided, the most urgent concern of officials was relations with Mexico, as the economy of Southern California relied on the importation of cheap Mexican labor to assist in the harvesting of California crops. After the Mexican Embassy lodged a formal protest with the State Department, Governor Earl Warren of California ordered the creation of the McGucken Committee (headed by Los Angeles bishop Joseph McGucken) to investigate and determine the cause of the riots. In 1943, the committee issued its report; it determined racism to be a central cause of the riots, further stating that it was "an aggravating practice (of the media) to link the phrase zoot suit with the report of a crime." The governor appointed the Peace Officers Committee on Civil Disturbances, chaired by Robert W. Kenny, president of the National Lawyers Guild to make recommendations to the police. Human relations committees were appointed, and police departments were required to train their officers to treat all citizens equally. At the same time, Mayor Bowron came to his own conclusion. The riots, he said, were caused by Mexican juvenile delinquents and by white Southerners. The latter came from a region in which both overt legal and socially sanctioned racial discrimination held sway. Racial prejudice in Los Angeles, according to Bowron, was not a factor. On June 16, 1943, a week after the riots, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt commented on the riots in her newspaper column. "The question goes deeper than just suits. It is a racial protest. I have been worried for a long time about the Mexican racial situation. It is a problem with roots going a long way back, and we do not always face these problems as we should." The Los Angeles Times published an editorial the next day expressing outrage: it accused Mrs. Roosevelt of having communist leanings and stirring "race discord". On June 21, 1943, the State Un-American Activities Committee, under state senator Jack Tenney, arrived in Los Angeles with orders to "determine whether the present Zoot Suit Riots were sponsored by Nazi agencies attempting to spread disunity between the United States and Latin-American countries." Although Tenney claimed he had evidence the riots were "[A]xis-sponsored", no evidence was ever presented to support this claim. Japanese propaganda broadcasts accused the U.S. government of ignoring the brutality of U.S. Marines toward Mexicans. In late 1944, ignoring the findings of the McGucken committee and the unanimous reversal of the convictions by the appeals court in the Sleepy Lagoon case on October 4, the Tenney Committee announced that the National Lawyers Guild was an "effective communist front." Later scholars generally characterize the Zoot Suit riots as a "pogrom against the Mexican American community". Many post-war civil rights activists and authors, such as Luis Valdez, Ralph Ellison, and Richard Wright, have said they were inspired by the Zoot Suit Riots. Cesar Chavez and Malcolm X were both zoot suiters as young men and later became political activists. See also Battle of Brisbane, Australia, 1942 Battle of Manners Street in Wellington, New Zealand, 1943 History of the Mexican Americans in Los Angeles List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States National Synarchist Union, a political party which some have attempted to link to the unrest. References Further reading Alvarez, Luis. The Power of the Zoot: Youth Culture and Resistance During World War II (University of California Press, 2008) Mazon, Maurizio. The Zoot-Suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX. 2002 Zoot Suit Riots. American Experience series, produced by Joseph Tovares. WGBH Boston, 2001. 60 mins. PBS Video. External links Zoot Suit Riots. American Experience. A list of newspaper articles written about the Zoot Suit Riots. Images and primary source documents about the Zoot Suit Riots, from the University of California 1943 riots 1943 in the United States 1943 crimes in the United States Hispanic and Latino American working class History of youth Riots and civil disorder in California Mexican-American history Mexican-American culture in Los Angeles White American riots in the United States Clothing controversies 1940s fashion 1943 in California History of racism in California Crimes in Los Angeles June 1943 events Racially motivated violence against Hispanic and Latino Americans	[ 0.6215645670890808, -0.00394977955147624, -0.7267377376556396, -0.1414247304201126, 0.12327860295772552, 0.13077779114246368, 0.06951139867305756, 0.12265942245721817, -0.21728277206420898, 0.04749025031924248, -0.5229578614234924, 0.43685808777809143, -0.5066980123519897, 0.5889092087745667, -0.5094386339187622, 0.13949336111545563, 0.7457879185676575, 0.1468483805656433, 0.39015278220176697, -0.045309487730264664, 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236294	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20Adequacy%20Directive	Capital Adequacy Directive	The Capital Adequacy Directive was a European directive that aimed to establish uniform capital requirements for both banking firms and non-bank securities firms, first issued in 1993 and revised in 1998. These was superseded by the Capital Requirements Directives starting in 2006. History The original 93/6/EEC (CAD1) directive was amended by 98/31/EEC (CAD2), to incorporate banks' own estimate of capital using value-at-risk techniques. Annex 1 models were virtually unchanged by CAD2, so there has been no change in the CAD1 regime. A third revision of the directive 2006/49/EC was issued on 14 June 2006 and would use the new name of Capital Requirements Directive (CRD) . This came into force together with recast of a related banking directive on 20 July 2006. The main change was the adoption of Basel II guidelines into the directive. In 2009, 2010, and 2013, three further revisions were issued known as CRD II, CRD III, and CRD IV. The legislation on this matter current is known as the CRD IV package (Capital Requirements Regulation and Directive). References External links For further information see the European Commission web site: Free movement of services / Financial Services / Banking / Regulatory Capital Banking in the European Union Financial regulation European Union directives Capital requirement	[ 0.15653783082962036, -0.06818758696317673, 0.1941947191953659, -0.1300860494375229, 0.0830485001206398, -0.04445257410407066, -0.39113256335258484, -0.1596972942352295, -0.12355022877454758, 0.1845906376838684, -0.08938293159008026, 0.9774858355522156, -0.2146053910255432, 0.3698909878730774, 0.2163151502609253, 0.31168901920318604, 0.523306667804718, 0.11892932653427124, 0.2426181584596634, -0.48735496401786804, -0.13751591742038727, 0.16406142711639404, 0.8772885203361511, 0.09699048101902008, 0.5696651339530945, -0.07315357774496078, 0.39084911346435547, 0.2552190124988556, -0.45816531777381897, -0.22516022622585297, 0.38676026463508606, 0.5167396068572998, -0.3166315257549286, 0.1284036785364151, 0.7294198274612427, 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236295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis%20Metaxas	Ioannis Metaxas	Ioannis Metaxas (; ; 12 April 187129 January 1941) was a Greek military officer and politician, serving as Prime Minister of Greece from 1936 until his death in 1941. He governed constitutionally for the first four months of his tenure, and thereafter as the strongman of the 4th of August Regime. Born to an aristocratic family in Ithaca, Metaxas took part in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 and the Balkan Wars (1912–13), quickly rising through the ranks of the Hellenic Army. A Monarchist during the National Schism, Metaxas unsuccessfully opposed Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos and Greece's entry in World War I; as a result, he was exiled to Corsica in 1917. On his return, Metaxas moved into politics and founded the Freethinkers' Party, but had only limited success under the Hellenic Republic. The Greek monarchy was restored in 1935, and Metaxas was appointed Prime Minister in April 1936. On 4 August 1936, with the support of King George II, Metaxas initiated a self-coup and established an authoritarian, nationalist and anti-communist regime. Metaxas attempted to maintain Greek neutrality early in the Second World War. On 28 October 1940, Metaxas rejected an ultimatum imposed by the Italians to surrender, committing Greece to the Allies and bringing the country into the war. He died in January 1941, before the German invasion and subsequent fall of Greece. Military career Ioannis Metaxas was born in Ithaca in 1871. His family was inscribed in the Libro d'Oro of the Ionian islands, previously a Venetian possession, while its roots originated in the Byzantine nobility. The Metaxas family were entered into the Libro d'Oro in the 17th century. Metaxas was very proud of his aristocratic family and throughout his life, he had rather snobbish views towards ordinary Greeks, observing that their ancestors were not notable enough to be included in the Libro d'Oro. Following studies at the Hellenic Military Academy, he became a career military officer, being sworn as an Engineers 2nd Lieutenant on 10 August 1890. He first saw action in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 attached to the staff of the Greek commander-in-chief, Crown Prince Constantine. Metaxas became a protege of Constantine and much of his rise up the ranks of the Hellenic Army was due to the patronage of the Crown Prince. Greece was characterised by clientist system at the time, and having a powerful patron in the form of Constantine was a powerful boost to Metaxas's career. After the war he continued his military studies in the Berlin War Academy in 1899–1903. Metaxas was very close to Constantine, and he was personally selected by the Crown Prince to go to Berlin. During his time in Berlin, Metaxas received consistently high marks from his German instructors with one writing that he was "ein kleiner Moltke (" a little Moltke"-a reference to Metaxas's short stature). Metaxas's time in Germany made him into an admirer of Prussian militarism. In his diary in March 1900, he wrote: "I have no other ambition than to fulfill my duty to my king and crown prince...I consider the king the representative of the past, present and future of the nation. All opposition to him from whatever quarter I reject and find repulsive". Metaxas also expressed his opposition to the "intemperate parliamentarism" of Greece, preferring the authoritarian German system where the Chancellor was responsible to the Emperor, not the Reichstag. On his return in 1904 he joined the newly formed General Staff Corps. He was part of the modernizing process of the Greek Army before the Balkan Wars (1912–13). However he opposed the Goudi coup. As the Military League that staged the coup of 1909 were opposed to Constantine and the other princes holding positions of command, for Metaxas the coup represented an attack on everything he valued. Balkan Wars In 1910 he was appointed by Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, who had also assumed the post of Minister of Military Affairs, as his adjutant. Venizelos appointed Metaxas as part of an effort at rapprochement with the monarchy. Despite Venizelos's efforts to reach out, the Germanophile Metaxas was strongly opposed to his decision to have a French military mission arrive to train the Greek Army, and almost resigned in protest. In 1912, just before the Balkan Wars, Venizelos appointed Metaxas to negotiate the military treaty between Greece and Bulgaria, sending him to Sofia. He participated in the First Balkan War as a Captain in the operations staff of the Army of Thessaly, before joining Venizelos as a military expert in the London Conference of 1912–13 in December 1912. In May 1913, as military plenipotentiary, he negotiated the military terms of the Greek–Serbian Alliance. He took part in the Second Balkan War when he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. After the end of the Balkan Wars, he was appointed director of the 1st (Operations) Directorate of the Army Staff Service, and became deputy head of the Staff Service in January 1915. In October 1913, he was awarded by the King with the Golden Cross of the Redeemer. Greco-Turkish crisis of 1914 In the spring and summer of 1914, Greece found itself in a confrontation with the Ottoman Empire over the status of the eastern Aegean islands, which had been occupied by Greece in the First Balkan War, and were finally awarded to Greece on 31 January 1914 by the Great Powers. The Ottomans refused to accept this, leading to a naval arms race between the two countries and persecutions of the Greeks in Asia Minor. On 29 May, the Greek government issued an official protest to the Sublime Porte, threatening a breach of relations and even war, if the persecutions were not stopped. On 6 June 1914, Metaxas, as the de facto head of the Staff Service, presented a study on the military options against the Ottoman Empire: the only truly decisive manoeuvre, a landing of the entire Greek army in Asia Minor, was impossible due to the hostility of Bulgaria; instead, Metaxas proposed the sudden occupation of the Gallipoli Peninsula, without a prior declaration of war, the clearing of the Dardanelles, and the occupation of Constantinople so as to force the Ottomans to negotiate. However, on the previous day, the Ottoman government had suggested mutual talks, and the tension eased enough for Prime Minister Venizelos and the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Said Halim Pasha, to meet in Brussels in July. World War I and the National Schism Following the outbreak of World War I, the prospect of Greece's possible entry into the war emerged, especially given the obligation to provide military assistance to Serbia based on the Greek–Serbian Alliance. Already on 12 July 1914, the Serbian government had requested Greece's aid by the terms of the alliance, in the case of an Austrian and Bulgarian attack. Greece rejected the request on the grounds that Serbia had undertaken to provide 150,000 troops in the area of Gevgelija to guard against a Bulgarian attack; in addition, if Greece sent her army to fight the Austrians along the Danube, this would only incite a Bulgarian attack against both countries, with insufficient forces left to oppose it. Clash with Venizelos over Greece's entry in the war A German request on 14 July to join the Central Powers was rejected by both Venizelos and King Constantine, but on 1 August, Venizelos sounded out the Entente Powers, Britain, France, and Russia. The Entente governments were lukewarm to Venizelos' proposals, since they hoped to entice Bulgaria on their side, even offering territorial concessions at the expense of Serbia, Greece, and Romania. Russia in particular considered her interests best served if Greece remained neutral. On 19 November, Serbia repeated its request for Greek assistance, supported by the Entente. Venizelos asked Metaxas for an evaluation of the situation; the opinion of the latter was that without a simultaneous entry of Romania into the war on the side of the Allies, Greece's position was too risky. Following the firm refusal of Romania to be drawn into the conflict at this time, the proposal was scuttled. On 11 January 1915, the British offered Greece "significant territorial concessions in Asia Minor" if it would enter the war to support Serbia, and in exchange for satisfying some of the Bulgarian territorial demands in Macedonia (Kavala, Drama, and Chrysoupolis) in exchange for Bulgarian entry into the war on the side of the Entente. Venizelos argued in favour of the proposal, but again the opinion of Metaxas was negative, for reasons which he laid down in a memorandum on 20 January: the Austrians were likely to defeat the Serbian army before a Greek mobilization could be completed, Bulgaria was likely to flank any Greek forces fighting against the Austrians, while a Romanian intervention would not be decisive. Metaxas judged that even if Bulgaria joined the Entente, it still would not suffice to shift the balance in Central Europe, and recommended the presence of four Allied army corps in Macedonia as the minimum necessary force for any substantial aid to the Greeks and Serbs. Furthermore, Metaxas argued that a Greek entry into the war would once again expose the Greeks of Asia Minor to Turkish reprisals. Venizelos rejected this report, and recommended entry into the war in a memorandum to the King, provided that Bulgaria and Romania also joined the Entente. By that time, however, it was clear that Bulgaria was edging towards the Central Powers, and Romania's determination to remain neutral led the Greek government to again refuse. However, in February 1915, the Entente attack on Gallipoli began. Venizelos decided to offer an army corps and the entire Greek fleet to assist the Entente, making an official offer on 16 February, despite the King's reservations. This caused Metaxas to resign on the next day in protest, basing his argument on the loss of the element of surprise, the fortification of the straits, the fact that a single army corps was insufficient to alter the balance of forces, and the uncertain and opportunistic stance of Bulgaria. Metaxas insisted that the campaign had been mishandled thus far, and that even if the Entente captured Gallipoli, the Turks still fielded 12 divisions in Eastern Thrace. Shaken by Metaxas' resignation, Venizelos convened meetings of the Crown Council (the King, Venizelos, and the living former prime ministers) on 18 and 20 February, but they proved indecisive. King Constantine decided to keep the country neutral, whereupon Venizelos submitted his resignation on 21 February 1915. Venizelos won the May 1915 elections, and formed a new government on 17 August. When Bulgaria signed a treaty of alliance with Germany and mobilized against Serbia, Venizelos ordered a Greek counter-mobilization (10 September 1916). As part of the mobilization, Metaxas was recalled to active duty as deputy chief of staff. After Venizelos condoned the landing of British and French troops in Thessaloniki to aid the collapsing Serbian army, Venizelos presented his case for participation in the war to Parliament, securing 152 votes in favour to 102 against in a dramatic vote in the early hours 22 September. On the next day, however, King Constantine dismissed Venizelos, and called upon Alexandros Zaimis to form a government. "Reservists" and Noemvriana This dismissal solidified the rift between monarchists and Venizelists, creating the "National Schism" or National Divide that would plague Greek politics for decades. In May and August 1916, Constantine and the General Staff allowed the Fort Roupel and parts of eastern Macedonia to be occupied, without opposition, by the Central Powers (Germany and Bulgaria), as a counterbalance to the Allied presence in Thessaloniki. This caused popular anger, especially in Greek Macedonia, and among Venizelist officers. In August 1916, Venizelist officers launched a revolt in Greece's northern city of Thessaloniki, which resulted in the establishment of a separate "Government of National Defence" under Venizelos. The new government, with the Allied support, expanded its control over half the country and entered the war on the Allies' side. Meanwhile, the official Greek state and the royal government remained neutral. King Constantine and Metaxas were accused as pro-German by their Venizelist opponents. However they kept negotiating with the Allies a possible entry with their side. Metaxas was later creator and head of the monarchist paramilitary Epistratoi (reservists) forces during the Noemvriana events in Athens. When the French/British were landed in Athens and demanded the surrender of material equal lost to Fort Rupel (as guarantee for Greece's neutrality), they met resistance. In June 1917, under Allied pressure, King Constantine finally was deposed, Alexander became King and Venizelos came to power, declaring war officially on behalf of the whole country on 29 June 1917. Exile and Interwar political career With the coming of Venizelos in power, in summer 1917, Metaxas with other notable antivenizelists, were exiled to Corsica, from where he escaped to Sardinia (with Gounaris and Pesmazoglou) and later found himself with his family to Siena, Italy, while King Constantine with the royal family left for Switzerland. In January 1920, Metaxas was sentenced to death in absentia for his role in the Noemvriana. He returned to Greece in November 1920, after the electoral defeat of Eleftherios Venizelos. He was reinstated in the army with the rank of Major General, but as he opposed the continued Greek campaign in Asia Minor, he resigned and went into retirement on 28 December 1920. He subsequently repeatedly rejected the military leadership of the Greek army offered to him by Constantine. As a soldier, Metaxas argued that Greece did not have logistical capacity nor the economic resources to support an army in the interior of Anatolia, and the decision by his patron, King Constantine, to continue the war against Turkey caused a rift between the two. Following the defeat of Greek forces in Asia Minor, King Constantine was again forced into exile by the 11 September 1922 Revolution, this time led by Col. Nikolaos Plastiras. Metaxas moved into politics and founded the Freethinkers' Party on 12 October 1922. However, his association with the failed Monarchist Leonardopoulos-Gargalidis coup attempt in October 1923 forced him to flee the country again. Soon after, King George II (son of Constantine I) was also forced into exile. The monarchy was abolished, and the Second Hellenic Republic was proclaimed, in March 1924. Metaxas returned to Greece soon after, publicly stating his acceptance of the Republic regime. Despite a promising start, and his status as one of the most prominent Monarchist politicians, Metaxas' foray into politics was not very successful. In the 1926 elections, his Freethinkers' Party claimed 15.78% of the vote and 52 seats in Parliament, putting it almost on a par with the other main Monarchist party, the People's Party. As a result, Metaxas became Communications Minister in the "ecumenical government" formed under Alexandros Zaimis. However, infighting within the party and the departure of many members plunged the party to 5.3% and a single seat in the 1928 elections. The 1932 and 1933 elections saw the percentage drop to 1.59%, although the party still returned three MPs, and Metaxas became Interior Minister in the Panagis Tsaldaris cabinet. Metaxas was regarded as the most intransigent and extreme of all the Monarchist politicians and his open hostility to parliamentary government as useless might perhaps explain the relative failure of his parliamentary career. By 1933, even the officially monarchist Populist Party had tacitly came to accept the republic as much as the Liberals as both the Populist and Liberal leaders wanted a system that guaranteed the possibility of orderly change and the rule of law, and Metaxas's call for something resembling an absolute monarchy put him out of the mainstream of Greek politics. In 1933, there was a failed assassination attempt against Venizelos, which Metaxas praised in his newspaper Hellenki, expressing regret only that the attempt failed. The would-be assassins were never arrested, but Metaxas's editorial stance led to widespread suspicions both at the time and since that he was involved, through no definitive evidence has ever emerged. On 1 March 1935, in Thessaloniki there was an attempted coup d'état by Venizelist officers ostensibly over the slow pace of the investigation into the attempted assassination, which almost succeeded. Thessaloniki together with the rest of Greek Macedonia had taken in the bulk of the about 1.3 million Greeks expelled from Turkey in the compulsory population exchange of 1923, and the majority of the refugees lived in extreme poverty with those living in rural areas making their living picking tobacco. The collapse of international tobacco prices in the Great Depression lowered living conditions even more and Macedonia was the region of Greece hit worse by the Depression. As it was under the leadership of King Constantine that Greece was defeated in 1922, the refugees tended to be very hostile towards the House of Glücksburg and Thessaloniki was known as a "hotbed of republicanism". The failed coup with its connotations of social unrest and protest alarmed the Greek elite and led to a swing towards the right among the elite, through not the Greek people. As a result of the failed coup, the Liberals came to be viewed within the elite as the party of insurgency and chaos while many Populists frightened by the prospect of a revolution swung behind Metaxas's viewpoint. In response to the fears of the impoverished Greek people rising up in a revolution, Metaxas called for a fascist "new order" in Greece, arguing that the Great Depression proved the failure of democracy and fascism was the solution. Under pressure from the newly empowered and more extreme Monarchists like Metaxas, Tsaldaris announced for the first time his intention to hold a referendum on restoring the monarchy. In the 1935 elections, he cooperated in a union with other small Monarchist parties, returning seven MPs, a performance repeated in the 1936 elections. Tsaldaris had called early elections in 1935 as a way of putting off the pressure to hold a referendum on restoring the monarchy, and his decisive victory in an election boycotted by the Liberals for the moment seemed to strengthened his hand. In the Peloponnese region, which was the traditional center of Greek royalism, Metaxas's party had fared poorly, but he won 20% of the vote in Athens, mostly in middle class and upper-class neighborhoods as the well off looked towards Metaxas as the best man to "impose order" on Greece. When the War Minister, General Georgios Kondylis, until then a republican and one of the founders of the First Hellenic Republic in 1924, pronounced himself in favor of restoring the monarchy on 3 July 1935, he demoralised the republicans and the more opportunistic republicans started to defect over to the monarchist camp, though Metaxas drew little benefit electorally. Kondylis pronounced himself an admirer of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, and based his call to end the republic he himself had helped to found under the grounds that restoring the monarchy would permanently shift the center of the political gravity in Greece to the right. Under strong pressure from Kondylis, Tsaldaris finally brought the necessary legislation for a referendum to a vote on the floor of parliament on 10 July 1935. From June to October 1935, there was a crisis atmosphere in Greece as the Army was purged of Venizelist officers, rumors swirled of coups being planned, Metaxas spoke openly of the possibility of a civil war and most politicians were fearful of being caught on the losing side as alliances were rapidly made and unmade. Adding to the crisis atmosphere was a wave of strikes and protests all across the country in both urban and rural areas as the unemployed demanded social reforms that would address the Great Depression. Despite his unpopularity with the Greek people, from August 1935 politicians began to openly visit the former King George II in his exile in London to assure him of their loyalty. On 8 October 1935 and 10 October 1935, the Foreign Minister Dimitros Maximos who was in Geneva attending a session of the League of Nations, telephoned George to tell him that Tsaldaris was preparing a National Council resolution calling for a constitutional monarchy. In both telephone calls, Maximos asked George to publicly commit himself to obeying the National Council resolution asking him to behave strictly as a constitutional monarch who would uphold democracy and the rule of law. Both times George refused under the grounds that as a king he was above "procedures" and he would rule Greece whatever way he liked. On 10 October 1935, the "Thunder General" as Kondylis was known carried out a coup d'état in the name of a "revolutionary committee" that deposed Tsaldaris. On 3 November 1935, the monarchy was restored and George returned to Greece to reclaim his crown. The American Embassy in Athens reported that public opinion was firmly against the king, and that it would take a "miracle" for George to keep his throne again as he lacked any popular support. Prime Minister and the 4th of August Regime After a heavily rigged plebiscite, George II returned to take the throne in 1935. The extent of the voting fraud could be seen in that Crete, the homeland of Venizelos, an island that was well known for its republicanism, showed 50,655 votes for restoring the monarchy and only 1,276 votes for retaining the republic, a figure that was widely regarded at the time as laughable. On 11 December 1935, the king met with Ernst Eisenlohr, the German envoy in Athens, who in his account of the conversation reminded him that Germany was Greece's largest trading partner and that: "the fact of a constant active balance in Greece's favour arising from the exchange of goods made it possible for Greece to obtain commodities from Germany which she could not purchase from other countries for lack of sufficient supplies of foreign exchange. In discussing economic changes, I endeavored to make clear to the King that Greece could not live without her German customers and that, in particular, a reduction or cessation of our purchases of tobacco must lead to the impoverishment of the Macedonian peasants and thus to grave disturbances in Greek domestic politics [emphasis in the original]. Careful fostering of these relationships (between Germany and Greece) was therefore as much a political as an economic imperative." To stay in the good graces of the Reich, Eisenlohr told the king that he must "bind the armed forces to his person and thus provide himself with a reliable bulwark for his throne in the ever-changing currents of internal politics"; through Eisenlohr did not mention Metaxas by name, it is clear that he was the "reliable bulwark" that he wanted the king to rely upon. At the time, the Romanian foreign minister Nicolae Titulescu was seeking to link the Little Entente of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia together with the Balkan Pact of Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece and Turkey, which Eisenlohr vehemently objected to, saying he wanted the king to appoint as prime minister someone who was friendly towards Germany who would veto Titulescu's plan, which was aimed at building an alliance against Germany. After the elections on 26 January 1936, Venizelists and anti-Venizelists could not form a government mainly on the question of the return of the democratic officers of the 1935 movement to the army. In 1936 elections, the Venizelists won 141 seats while the Populists loyal to Tsaldaris won 72 seats, another faction of the Populists loyal to Ioannis Theotokis won 38 seats, the followers of Kondylis won 12 seats and Metaxas's Eleftherophrones party won only 7 seats, making Metaxas in electoral terms the weakest of the right-wing leaders. The greatest surprise of the 1936 elections was the breakthrough of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) which won 15 seats, settling off a hysterical reaction on the right that this presaged a Communist revolution as the fears were voiced that the great masses of the unemployed would rally to the KKE. In 1935, the Comintern had ordered Communist parties around the world to engage in "popular fronts" against fascism, allying themselves with other left-wing parties. Following the Comintern's orders, the KKE declared itself in favor of a "popular front" to unite all left-wing parties against fascism, and called for an alliance with the Venizelists. Faced with a parliament evenly divided between left and right, the Liberals entered negotiations for Communist support for a Liberal government. The chief of the Army General Staff, General Alexandros Papagos, told the king that the Army would carry out an immediate coup d'état if the Liberals made an alliance with the KKE, saying he would never allow the Communists to form a government or even have any role in the government. Contrary to expectations, George had not taken sides in the 1936 election and remained neutral, behaving for once as a constitutional monarch. The king had expected the Liberals to lose, and with the Venizelists forming the largest bloc in Parliament, he faced demands that the Venizelist officers dismissed in 1935 be restated, which led to warnings from the right-wing parties that the king risked being sent into exile again if any of the dismissed officers received their commissions again. There was considerable anger within right-wing circles at the king for "stacking" the election in favor of the Venizelists (i.e. being neutral), and the king was faced with a situation where his loyalist supporters were on the verge of turning against him. Tsaldaris wanted to compromise on the issue of the Venizelist officers, agreeing that some would have their commissions returned, but Theotokis was against any compromise, and thus it was a dispute between Tsaldaris vs. Theotokis as opposed to the dispute between the Venizelists vs. the anti-Venzelists that really paralyzed parliament. Though it was Kondylis who was instrumental in restoring the monarchy in 1935, George greatly distrusted him as he had not forgotten that it was Kondylis who had deposed and exiled him in 1924. George had often mused that if he was to play the role of King Victor Emmanuel III, he wanted his Mussolini to be a man who was loyal to the monarchy, which ruled out Kondylis and led the king to turn to Metaxas. In a series of initiatives, King George II was able to play a decisive role in shaping the political scene. On 5 March, George II appointed Metaxas the Minister of Defence, a post in which he would remain until his death in 1941. The political significance of this appointment was great since Metaxas was not only a dedicated Monarchist but one of the few politicians who had supported openly the imposition of an authoritarian, non-parliamentary regime in Greece. On 14 March, the Demertzis government was sworn in, and Ioannis Metaxas was appointed Vice-President of the government and Minister of Defence. Demertzis died suddenly on 13 April. That same day, the king appointed Metaxas Prime Minister. The very first action of Metaxas was to announce his opposition to Titulescu's plan, saying he was opposed to Greece being allied with any non-Balkan power, which killed Titulescu's plan which required the unanimous approval of all the Balkan Pact states. Following a failure by the Liberals (Venizelists) to come to an agreement with the anti-Venizelist parties, the Metaxas government secured a vote of confidence from the House of Parliament on 27 April with 241 votes in favour, 4 abstentions and 16 against. Three days later, the House of Parliament resolved and suspended its work for five months, authorizing the government to issue legislative decrees on all matters, with the agreement of a parliamentary committee which never operated. The appointment of Metaxas as prime minister caused a strike wave all across the country with Macedonia being the center of the protests and strikes. On 29 April 1936, the tobacco farmers of Macedonia went on a strike to protest his appointment and on 9 May a general strike began in Thessaloniki. Widespread industrial unrest gave Metaxas justification to declare a state of emergency on 4 August 1936 with the excuse of the "communist danger". With the King's support, he adjourned parliament indefinitely and suspended various articles of the constitution guaranteeing civil liberties. In a national radio address, Metaxas declared that for the duration of the state of emergency, he would hold "all the power I need for saving Greece from the catastrophes which threaten her." The regime created as a result of this self-coup became known as the "4th of August Regime" after the date of its proclamation. The regime's propaganda presented Metaxas as "the First Peasant", "the First Worker" and "the National Father" of the Greeks. Metaxas adopted the title of Arkhigos, Greek for "leader" or "chieftain", and claimed a "Third Hellenic Civilization", following ancient Greece and the Christian Byzantine Empire of the Middle Ages. State propaganda portrayed Metaxas as a "Saviour of the Nation", bringing unity to a divided country. Internal policies Patterning his regime on other authoritarian European governments of the day (most notably Fascist Italy), Metaxas banned political parties (including his own), prohibited strikes and introduced widespread censorship of the media. National unity was to be achieved by the abolition of the previous political parliamentary system, which was seen as having left the country in chaos (see National Schism). Metaxas disliked the old parties of the political landscape, including traditional conservatives. Along with anti-parliamentarism, anti-communism formed the second major political agenda of the 4th of August regime. Minister of Security Konstantinos Maniadakis quickly infiltrated and practically dissolved the Communist Party of Greece by seizing its archives and arresting Communist leader Nikos Zachariadis. Metaxas himself became Minister of Education in 1938 and had all school texts re-written to fit the regime's ideology. Suppressing Communism was followed by a campaign against "anti-Greek" literature viewed as dangerous to the national interest. Book burnings targeted authors such as Goethe, Shaw and Freud, and several Greek writers. Arthur Koestler, who visited Athens in 1938, noted that even Plato's "Republic" was on Metaxas' list of prohibited books—which in Koestler's view made the Metaxas dictatorship "stupid as well as vicious". At that time Koestler met secretly with members of the underground opposition, hearing from them "horrifying stories of police brutality, especially the case of unspeakable torture inflicted on a young girl who was communist". There had been rumors about the use of castor oil to political prisoners, just like in fascist Italy. Trying to build a corporatist state and secure popular support, Metaxas adopted or adapted many of Fascist Italy's institutions: a National Labor Service, the eight-hour workday, mandatory improvements to working conditions, and the Social Insurance Institute (, IKA), still the biggest social security institution in Greece. In terms of symbolism, the Roman salute and the Minoan double-axe, the labrys, were introduced. Unlike Mussolini, however, Metaxas lacked the support provided by a mass political party; indeed, he deliberately positioned himself as being above politics. The regime's only mass organization was the National Organisation of Youth (EON), whose literature and magazines were promoted in schools. Throughout his rule, Metaxas' power rested primarily upon the army and the support of King George II. Foreign policy and the war with Italy In foreign policy Metaxas followed a neutral stance, trying to balance between the UK and Germany. Ever since the Corfu incident of 1923, the Greeks had regarded Italy as the principal enemy, and as long as Italy and Germany were divided by the "Austrian Question", Metaxas saw Germany as a counterweight to Italy. The British historian D. C. Watt described Metaxas as living "in a paranoiac world" as he was convinced that Britain was seeking his overthrow, seeing plots against him everywhere. The emergence of the "Rome-Berlin Axis" in 1936 greatly upset Metaxas's calculations and forced him to reevaluate Greece's foreign policy alignments, though he continued to hope for a long time that Germany would restrain Italy in the Balkans. In the late 1930s, as with the other Balkan countries, Germany became Greece's largest trading partner. To break the German dominance of the Balkans, the British agreed to launch an "economic offensive" into the Balkans in November 1938, though the question of whatever Britain should buy the Greek tobacco crop led to much debate within the British government as objections were made that British smokers, accustomed to Canadian and American tobacco, should not have to smoke Greek tobacco. Metaxas himself had a reputation as a Germanophile dating back to his studies in Germany and his role in the National Schism. The regime's literature gave praise to fellow European authoritarian states, especially those of Francisco Franco, Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. In October 1938, Metaxas asked Michael Palairet, the British minister in Athens, for an alliance out of the hope that the British would turn him down (as they did), thereby justifying Greek neutrality if another world war should break out. However, events gradually drove Metaxas to lean toward France and Britain. King George and most of the country's elites were staunchly anglophile, and the predominance of the British Royal Navy in the Mediterranean could not be ignored by a maritime country such as Greece. Furthermore, the expansionist goals of Mussolini's Italy pushed Greece to lean towards the Franco-British alliance. On 4 April 1939, Italy annexed Albania and as Mussolini had committed 20 divisions to occupy Albania, which was far more men than was necessary to occupy a small nation like Albania, Metaxas become convinced that an Italian invasion of Greece was imminent. On 8 April 1939, Metaxas summoned Palairet for a meeting at midnight to tell him that Greece would fight to the death if Italy should invade and asked for British assistance. The fact that Germany had supported Italy's annexation of Albania showed Hitler was supporting Italian ambitions in the Balkans, leaving Metaxas with no choice, but to turn to Britain as a counterweight to Italy. On 13 April 1939, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain speaking in the House of Commons and Édouard Daladier speaking in the Chamber of Deputies announced a joint Anglo-French guarantee of Romania and Greece. On the same day, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen, the British ambassador in Turkey, asked the Turks to open staff talks with the Greeks so that the Turks could come to Greece's aid in the event of an Italian invasion. Though Greece declared neutrality in September 1939, Metaxas's acceptance of the Anglo-French "guarantee" in April 1939 associated Greece with the Allied side. Regarding Turkey, Metaxas continued the policy of friendship and good relations, started by Venizelos. The Italian presence and ambitions in Aegean left no other choice. On the day of Atatürk's death, Metaxas addressed a letter and speech of condolence. Metaxas' efforts to keep Greece out of World War II came undone when Mussolini demanded occupation rights to strategic Greek sites. When the Italian ambassador Emanuele Grazzi visited Metaxas' residence and presented these demands on the night of 28 October 1940, Metaxas curtly replied in French (the language of diplomacy), "Alors, c'est la guerre" ("Then it is war"). A popular story, promoted by Metaxas's widow Lela, was he simply told Grazzi Ochi!" ("No!") and the image of Metaxas shouting "ochi!" upon the presentation of the Italian ultimatum made the previously unpopular prime minister into a national hero. A few hours later, Italy invaded Greece from Albania and started the Greco-Italian War. The next days Metaxas called for a private press conference. He stated to the journalists to be careful about the news during the war, that the Axis powers could not win the war and that Greece would be on the side of the winners. He said that until then, he followed a policy of neutrality (just like King Constantine during WWI), but after the Italian attack on Greece, he has to follow the policy of Venizelos. The Hellenic Army was able to mount a successful defence and counteroffensive, forcing the Italians back and occupying large parts of southern Albania, usually called by the Greeks "Northern Epirus". In April 1941 Germany invaded Greece. Death and legacy Metaxas never saw the joint Fascist-Nazi invasion of Greece during the Battle of Greece because of his death in Athens on 29 January 1941 due to a phlegmon of the pharynx, which subsequently led to incurable toxaemia. He was succeeded by Alexandros Koryzis. After the death of Metaxas, the invading forces had to take into account the fortifications constructed by Metaxas in Northern Greece. These fortifications were constructed along the Bulgarian border and were known as the Metaxas Line. To this day Metaxas remains a highly controversial figure in Greek history. He is reviled by some for his dictatorial rule, such as his stance during WWI, and admired by others for his patriotism and defiance to aggression during WWII. Until the Greek military junta of 1967–1974, Metaxas was honoured as a patriot and leader of the war against Italy. During the junta, with the exception of a small number of supporters of his regime (namely the banned "4th of August" organization) and few members of the government, no major projects honouring Metaxas were undertaken. Some busts of Metaxas were put up in small towns and the periphery of Athens, mostly after local initiatives. An idea of erecting a Metaxas statue in central Athens was not accepted by the government and Georgios Papadopoulos, who preferred to identify with Eleftherios Venizelos instead, inaugurated in Athens a large statue of the latter. In the last years of junta, some minor local officials of the regime, disappointed by the liberalization steps planned by Papadopoulos, erected busts of Metaxas in some towns, in order to upset Papadopoulos. In the meantime, during and shortly after the dictatorship, an imagined ideological connection between the 1967 junta, and the Metaxas regime and fascism was constructed, by means of books and works of art, such as the books of Spyros Linardatos on the 4th of August regime (1965 and 1966) and the film Days of '36 by Theo Angelopoulos. This concept was adopted by the antidictatorial struggle and had a profound impact on subsequent historical production. A resistance group blew up a bust of Metaxas in a Piraeus suburb in 1972. The concept became mainstream after 1974. The microhistory of Metaxas’ statues is examined by Kouki K. and Antoniou D. in a study on the construction of an ideological commonality between Metaxas, the 1967 junta and fascism in modern Greek history. In the modern era (21st century) Metaxas is remembered by the Golden Dawn party, viewing his regime as the ideal for Greece. See also Metaxism References Sources Joachim, Joachim G. Ioannis Metaxas: The Formative Years 1871–1922, Verlag Franz Philipp Rutzen, External links 1871 births 1941 deaths 4th of August Regime 19th-century Greek people 20th-century prime ministers of Greece Chiefs of the Hellenic Army General Staff Communications ministers Conservatism in Greece Critics of Marxism Deaths from sepsis Infectious disease deaths in Greece Fascism in Greece Fascist rulers Finance ministers of Greece Foreign ministers of Greece Government ministers of Greece Greek anti-communists Greek exiles Greek fascists Greek military personnel of the Balkan Wars Greek monarchists Greek nationalists Greek people of World War I Greek people of World War II Hellenic Army generals Ioannis Ministers of Military Affairs of Greece Ministers of National Education and Religious Affairs of Greece Ministers of the Interior of Greece People from Ithaca People sentenced to death in absentia Prime Ministers of Greece World War II political leaders	[ 0.05172531306743622, 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236298	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbo%20%28programming%20language%29	Limbo (programming language)	Limbo is a programming language for writing distributed systems and is the language used to write applications for the Inferno operating system. It was designed at Bell Labs by Sean Dorward, Phil Winterbottom, and Rob Pike. The Limbo compiler generates architecture-independent object code which is then interpreted by the Dis virtual machine or compiled just before runtime to improve performance. Therefore all Limbo applications are completely portable across all Inferno platforms. Limbo's approach to concurrency was inspired by Hoare's communicating sequential processes (CSP), as implemented and amended in Pike's earlier Newsqueak language and Winterbottom's Alef. Language features Limbo supports the following features: modular programming concurrent programming strong type checking at compile and run-time interprocess communication over typed channels automatic garbage collection simple abstract data types Virtual machine The Dis virtual machine that executes Limbo code is a CISC-like VM, with instructions for arithmetic, control flow, data motion, process creation, synchronizing and communicating between processes, loading modules of code, and support for higher-level data-types: strings, arrays, lists, and communication channels. It uses a hybrid of reference counting and a real-time garbage-collector for cyclic data. Aspects of the design of Dis were inspired by the AT&T Hobbit microprocessor, as used in the original BeBox. Examples Limbo uses Ada-style definitions as in: name := type value; name0,name1 : type = value; name2,name3 : type; name2 = value; Hello world implement Command; include "sys.m"; sys: Sys; include "draw.m"; include "sh.m"; init(nil: ref Draw->Context, nil: list of string) { sys = load Sys Sys->PATH; sys->print("Hello World!\n"); } Books The 3rd edition of the Inferno operating system and Limbo programming language are described in the textbook Inferno Programming with Limbo (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2003), by Phillip Stanley-Marbell. Another textbook The Inferno Programming Book: An Introduction to Programming for the Inferno Distributed System, by Martin Atkins, Charles Forsyth, Rob Pike and Howard Trickey, was started, but never released. See also The Inferno operating system Alef, the predecessor of Limbo Plan 9 from Bell Labs Go (programming language), similar language from Google AT&T Hobbit, a processor architecture which inspired the Dis VM References External links Vita Nuova page on Limbo A Descent into Limbo by Brian Kernighan The Limbo Programming Language by Dennis M. Ritchie and Addendum by Vita Nuova. Inferno Programming with Limbo by Phillip Stanley-Marbell Threaded programming in the Bell Labs CSP style . . . C programming language family Concurrent programming languages Free compilers and interpreters Inferno (operating system) Virtual machines	[ 0.1993340253829956, 0.07873764634132385, 0.03143732249736786, 0.06734910607337952, -0.10001020133495331, -0.5304890275001526, 0.20636902749538422, -0.025254426524043083, -0.1864597350358963, -0.06686019897460938, -0.22746379673480988, 0.6201092004776001, -0.7217732667922974, -0.34601086378097534, 0.3195948600769043, 0.19303980469703674, 0.026739787310361862, 0.30956074595451355, -0.3513573110103607, -0.23828214406967163, 0.15985848009586334, -0.17531338334083557, 0.009603406302630901, -0.14087092876434326, -0.3388408124446869, 0.39165541529655457, 0.04661191254854202, 0.8550883531570435, -0.6898512244224548, 0.18159577250480652, -0.037964463233947754, 0.37169376015663147, -0.016493553295731544, -0.7453849911689758, -0.12144891917705536, 0.056133780628442764, -0.1403457522392273, 0.3817850649356842, -0.135904461145401, -1.0293275117874146, 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236299	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudodoxia%20Epidemica	Pseudodoxia Epidemica	Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Enquiries into very many received tenents and commonly presumed truths, also known simply as Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Vulgar Errors, is a work by Thomas Browne challenging and refuting the "vulgar" or common errors and superstitions of his age. It first appeared in 1646 and went through five subsequent editions, the last revision occurring in 1672. The work includes evidence of Browne's adherence to the Baconian method of empirical observation of nature, and was in the vanguard of work-in-progress scientific journalism during the 17th-century scientific revolution. Throughout its pages frequent examples of Browne's subtle humour can also be found. Browne's three determinants for obtaining truth were firstly, the authority of past authors (scholarly works), secondly, the act of reason, and lastly, empirical experience (the scientific method). Each of these determinants is employed upon subjects ranging from common folklore to the cosmological. Subjects covered in Pseudodoxia Epidemica are arranged in accordance to the time-honoured Renaissance scale of creation; the learned doctor essaying on the nature of error itself (Book 1), continuing with fallacies in the mineral, vegetable (Book 2), and animal (Book 3) kingdoms onto errors concerning Man (Book 4), Art (Book 5), Geography and History (Book 6), and finally Astronomy and the Cosmos (Book 7). Popular science Pseudodoxia Epidemica was a valuable source of information which found itself upon the shelves of many homes in seventeenth century England. Being in the vanguard of the scientific writing, it paved the way for much subsequent popular scientific journalism and began a decline in the belief in mythical creatures. Its science includes many examples of Browne's 'at-first-hand' empiricism as well as early examples of the formulation of scientific hypothesis. The second of Pseudodoxia Epidemica'''s seven books entitled Tenets concerning Mineral and Vegetable Bodies includes Browne's experiments with static electricity and magnetism — the word electricity being one of hundreds of neologisms including medical, pathology, hallucination, literary, and computer contributed by Browne into the vocabulary of the early scientific revolution. Editions The popularity of Pseudodoxia in its day is confirmed by the fact that it went through no fewer than six editions. The first appeared in 1646 during the reign of Charles I and during the English Civil War; four during the interregnum, in 1650, 1658 (two), and 1659; and the final edition in 1672, during the reign of Charles II, and when the scientific revolution was well under way. Pseudodoxia was subsequently translated and published in French, Dutch, Latin and German throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The German Christian Cabalist Christian Knorr von Rosenroth translated the book into German in 1680. Evaluation by other writers Today there is considerable confusion how best to define Sir Thomas Browne's scientific methodology, which is described by E. S. Merton thus: William P. Dunn summarised the ambiguities of Browne's scientific view-point thus: Robert Sencourt succinctly defined Browne's relationship to scientific enquiry as "an instance of a scientific reason, lit up by mysticism, in the Church of England". The 1651 book Arcana Microcosmi, by Alexander Ross, attempted to rebut many of Browne's claims. Sources A detailed edition of Pseudodoxia Epidemica in 2 volumes was published by Oxford University Press in 1986, edited and comprehensively annotated by Robin Robbins. See also Browne's Index to Pseudodoxia Epidemica: entitled An Alphabetical Table, records the wide spectrum of subjects covered Library of Sir Thomas Browne Francis BaconNaturalis Historia'' Popular science References External links Online edition Facsimile of 4th edition 1646 books 1672 books Works by Thomas Browne	[ 0.1908217817544937, 0.3374631404876709, -0.7557280659675598, -0.2914465367794037, 0.03231792151927948, 0.6732048988342285, 0.5783027410507202, 0.33722084760665894, -0.047838713973760605, -0.2671325206756592, -0.030601410195231438, 0.1757832020521164, -0.4143138825893402, 0.43748125433921814, -0.11462818086147308, 0.08394704759120941, 0.7918557524681091, 0.3341112434864044, -0.04079373925924301, 0.21523134410381317, -0.24628722667694092, 0.11806000024080276, -0.09219784289598465, -0.4162193238735199, -0.24576418101787567, -0.19296817481517792, 0.46167564392089844, -0.5218091607093811, -0.2716679275035858, -0.38476064801216125, 0.1472095549106598, 0.49197688698768616, 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236300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morning%20sickness	Morning sickness	Morning sickness, also called nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP), is a symptom of pregnancy that involves nausea or vomiting. Despite the name, nausea or vomiting can occur at any time during the day. Typically the symptoms occur between the 4th and 16th week of pregnancy. About 10% of women still have symptoms after the 20th week of pregnancy. A severe form of the condition is known as hyperemesis gravidarum and results in weight loss. The cause of morning sickness is unknown but may relate to changing levels of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin. Some have proposed that morning sickness may be useful from an evolutionary point of view. Diagnosis should only occur after other possible causes have been ruled out. Abdominal pain, fever, or headaches are typically not present in morning sickness. Taking prenatal vitamins before pregnancy may decrease the risk. Specific treatment other than a bland diet may not be required for mild cases. If treatment is used the combination of doxylamine and pyridoxine is recommended initially. There is limited evidence that ginger may be useful. For severe cases that have not improved with other measures methylprednisolone may be tried. Tube feeding may be required in women who are losing weight. Morning sickness affects about 70–80% of all pregnant women to some extent. About 60% of women experience vomiting. Hyperemesis gravidarum occurs in about 1.6% of pregnancies. Morning sickness can negatively affect quality of life, result in decreased ability to work while pregnant, and result in health-care expenses. Generally, mild to moderate cases have no effect on the fetus, and most severe cases also have normal outcomes. Some women choose to have an abortion due to the severity of symptoms. Complications such as Wernicke encephalopathy or esophageal rupture may occur, but very rarely. Signs and symptoms About 66% of women have both nausea and vomiting while 33% have just nausea. Cause The cause of morning sickness is unknown but may relate to changing levels of estrogen and the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin. Some have proposed that morning sickness may be useful from an evolutionary point of view, arguing that morning sickness may protect both the pregnant woman and the developing embryo just when the fetus is most vulnerable. Diagnosis should only occur after other possible causes have been ruled out. Abdominal pain, fever, or headaches are typically not present in morning sickness. Nausea and vomiting may also occur with molar pregnancy. Morning sickness is related to diets low in cereals and high in sugars, oilcrops, alcohol and meat. Pathophysiology Hormone changes An increase in the circulating level of the hormone estrogen. However, there is no consistent evidence of differences in estrogen levels and levels of bilirubin between women that experience sickness and those that do not. Related to increased estrogen levels, a similar form of nausea is also seen in some women who use hormonal contraception or hormone replacement therapy. An increase in progesterone relaxes the muscles in the uterus, which prevents early childbirth, but may also relax the stomach and intestines, leading to excess stomach acids and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). An increase in human chorionic gonadotropin. It is probably not the HCG itself that causes the nausea. More likely, it is the HCG stimulating the maternal ovaries to secrete estrogen, which in turn causes the nausea. Defense mechanism Morning sickness may be an evolved trait that protects the fetus against toxins ingested by the mother. Evidence in support of this theory includes: Morning sickness is very common among pregnant women, which argues in favor of its being a functional adaptation and against the idea that it is a pathology. Fetal vulnerability to toxins peaks at around 3 months, which is also the time of peak susceptibility to morning sickness. There is a good correlation between toxin concentrations in foods, and the tastes and odors that cause revulsion. Women who have no morning sickness are more likely to miscarry. This may be because such women are more likely to ingest substances that are harmful to the fetus. In addition to protecting the fetus, morning sickness may also protect the mother. A pregnant woman's immune system is suppressed during pregnancy, presumably to reduce the chances of rejecting tissues of her own offspring. Because of this, animal products containing parasites and harmful bacteria can be especially dangerous to pregnant women. There is evidence that morning sickness is often triggered by animal products including meat and fish. If morning sickness is a defense mechanism against the ingestion of toxins, the prescribing of anti-nausea medication to pregnant women may have the undesired side effect of causing birth defects or miscarriages by encouraging harmful dietary choices. Also morning sickness is a defense mechanism because when analyzing embryonic growth, several critical periods are identified in which there is mass proliferation and cell division resulting in the development of the heart and central nervous system that are very sensitive. In that period, the fetus is most at risk from damage to toxins and mutagens. These developments occur through week 6-18 which is in the same time frame in which the most nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP) occurs. This relationship between the time at which the embryo is most susceptible to toxins lines up exactly with when the most severe NVP symptoms are seen, suggesting that this NVP is an evolutionary response developed in the mother, to indicate the sensitivity of the fetus hence making her wary to her health and in turn protecting the fetus. Treatments There is a lack of good evidence to support the use of any particular intervention for morning sickness. Medications A number of antiemetics are effective and safe in pregnancy including: pyridoxine/doxylamine, antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine), metoclopramide, and phenothiazines (such as promethazine). With respect to effectiveness it is unknown if one is superior to another. In the United States and Canada, the doxylamine-pyridoxine combination (as Diclegis in US and Diclectin in Canada) is the only approved pregnancy category "A" prescription treatment for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Ondansetron may be beneficial, but there are some concerns regarding an association with cleft palate, and there is little high quality data. Metoclopramide is also used and relatively well tolerated. Evidence for the use of corticosteroids is weak. Alternative medicine Some studies support the use of ginger, but overall the evidence is limited and inconsistent. Safety concerns have been raised regarding its anticoagulant properties. History Thalidomide Thalidomide was originally developed and prescribed as a cure for morning sickness in West Germany, but its use was discontinued when it was found to cause birth defects. The United States Food and Drug Administration never approved thalidomide for use as a cure for morning sickness. References Health issues in pregnancy Vomiting Gynaecology Obstetrics Midwifery Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate	[ -0.18415045738220215, 0.08045259118080139, -0.303866446018219, -0.3761538863182068, -0.20098961889743805, 0.018328584730625153, 0.34137824177742004, 0.2981204390525818, -0.5903822183609009, -0.2559579610824585, -0.28572869300842285, 0.15766821801662445, -0.4111996591091156, 0.5375129580497742, -0.4835876524448395, 0.5002039670944214, 0.9092744588851929, 0.7182199358940125, -0.06786780804395676, -0.2924250662326813, -0.26540401577949524, -0.39779946208000183, 0.047578051686286926, 0.24161961674690247, -0.2036062628030777, -0.3907577395439148, 0.2220235913991928, -0.209314227104187, 0.13936808705329895, -0.6888535022735596, -0.2831204831600189, 0.10449248552322388, 0.7660174369812012, 0.24294400215148926, -0.022139322012662888, 0.4351314604282379, -0.20907820761203766, -0.2413373589515686, -0.5905942916870117, -0.3864859342575073, -0.7210195660591125, 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236301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riley%20Finn	Riley Finn	Riley Finn is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon for the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Portrayed by Marc Blucas, Riley was introduced in the 1999 season four premiere episode, "The Freshman", and Blucas was part of the series credited cast for the second part of season four and the first part of season five. Most notably, Riley is one of three long-term romantic interests for series' heroine Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar). Whedon intended Riley to be the antithesis of Buffy's boyfriend of the past three seasons, Angel (David Boreanaz), who now headed his own spin-off show. In stark contrast to broody, often pensive Angel, Riley is optimistic, trustworthy and reliable, and in theory presents Buffy with her first opportunity for a "normal" romantic relationship. However, Riley also leads a double life: he is both teaching assistant at UC Sunnydale and a member of The Initiative, a government-sponsored special operations team which both researches and combats the demons which roam Sunnydale. This allows him to interact with Buffy both in her civilian life and assist her with her duties as a Slayer; while Buffy has supernatural powers associated with her role, Riley must rely instead on his extensive military training. In the show's fifth season, writers experimented with making Riley a more complex character, and so depicted Riley beginning to "fray around the edges". This storyline culminated in Riley being written out of the series in 2000. In 2002, Blucas returned for a final televised appearance in the show's sixth season, where he is seen to have moved on from Buffy and married. Subsequently, the character appears in Expanded Universe material such as the canonical comic book continuation to the series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight (2007–11). In Season Eight, the precise nature of Riley's role in the storyline is unclear for much of the story; writer Jane Espenson, however, wrote a Riley one-shot comic book focusing on Riley and his wife. Character history A native of Huxley, Iowa, Riley is Buffy Summers' boyfriend for parts of seasons four and five. He is first introduced as Professor Walsh's TA in a psych class Buffy and Willow are in. Riley realizes his feelings for Buffy after punching Parker Abrahams for an inappropriate comment Parker makes regarding their night together. Even though he leads a double life as part of a secret government organization known as The Initiative, Buffy finds some normalcy in Riley as a regular college guy and someone to whom she could relate. Initially, each keeps the other from knowing their respective secret lives, but the truth comes out during the events in the Emmy-nominated episode "Hush". Buffy and Riley fight demons together and continue saving each other's lives and the world, although Riley is never quite let into Buffy's inner circle. Initially, Riley automatically assumes that all demons are evil, but discovers that demons are capable of both good and evil just as humans are after assisting in saving Oz from the Initiative complex. Having been torn between the Scooby Gang and the Initiative for some time, Riley decides to leave the Initiative upon discovering the extent of its corruption, and spends the remainder of the season in hiding within the ruins of Sunnydale High. The Initiative was destroyed at the end of Season Four, and Riley is relieved of his military standing. He is left at loose ends, and his behavior becomes reckless. Over time, Riley begins to see himself as below Buffy in strength, and begins to push his body well past its limits. In "Out of My Mind", it is discovered that the drugs that Professor Walsh had secretly fed him are causing Riley's pain receptors to shut down and his heartbeat to spike, and could eventually have killed him. Even with this knowledge, Riley initially refuses to accept medical treatment from the government out of paranoia, though Buffy eventually convinces him to do so. Rendered a normal human by the procedure, Riley's insecurities and feelings of weakness only increase, and he becomes increasingly frustrated with Buffy's seeming inability to open up to and be honest with him. Seeking thrills, and wondering what Buffy seems to find so appealing about vampires – Buffy having allowed both Angel and Dracula to drink from her – Riley begins to let vampires feed from him, which Buffy discovers in the episode "Into the Woods" when Spike reveals Riley at the vampire's nest. His behavior, as well as Spike's manipulations and a sense that Buffy would never truly love him, lead to their breakup. Riley leaves Sunnydale to join another black ops army unit fighting demons elsewhere. Riley returns in the season six episode "As You Were", in which he shows up unexpectedly with his new wife, fellow demon hunter Sam (Ivana Miličević), tracking a demon about to hatch eggs that could wipe out Sunnydale. When Riley learns that Buffy has been sleeping with Spike, he consoles her on her struggles with her life, and forgives her after she apologizes for what happened between them. The battle done, Riley leaves Sunnydale, never to return again. He is, however, mentioned in the season seven episode "The Killer in Me" where Buffy attempts to contact him for advice on the malfunctioning chip in Spike's head. Riley then contacts soldiers from the Initiative, who help diagnose Spike's condition and then discuss with Buffy her decision to remove the chip in order to save Spike's life. In canonical comic book continuation Season Eight issue "Time of Your Life, Part IV", it is revealed that Riley is one of villain Twilight's followers, as he is present in the laboratory with Warren Mears, Amy Madison, and Twilight, and bears his mark. Samantha Finn did not appear in Season Eight. Pretending to be Buffy's "inside man", he arranged for their rendezvous in New York City. Later, seen in "Retreat, Part II", Riley is with Twilight and his other followers as they try and track the Scooby Gang through their use of magic; Riley tries to convince Twilight that the results could be a mistake of the scanning technology. He is also intrigued by Twilight's remark that he "knows" Buffy. During a large battle between the Slayers and Twilight's forces, Buffy recovers an injured Riley, revealing to the other characters that Riley was a double agent for her in an attempt to figure out Twilight's plans and identity. Riley also appears in the first issue of the follow-up series Season Nine (2011–2013); the structure of "Freefall, Part I" suggests that Riley—like Spike, Xander, Willow and others—could have been Buffy's possible one-night stand after the party she hosts at her apartment in San Francisco. Riley remains married to Sam. With the end of magic, Riley now uses his military resources to watch for ordinary terrorists. It is later revealed in "Apart (of Me)" that Buffy did not have sex with anyone. Riley does not appear for the rest of the season. Concurrent with Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten, in Angel & Faith #4 (2014), Faith attempts to leave San Francisco but is contacted by her boss, the Slayer Kennedy, with a mission to find Riley, who has been reported missing in a South American jungle. In the next arc "Lost & Found" Faith finds both Sam and Riley. Riley is willing to forgive her after she saved his life from the tribal vampires in the jungle and says she should stop focusing on seeking forgiveness to make herself feel better and just be the kind of person who would not do those things anymore. He also suggests she talk over the past with Buffy. Writing and acting Marc Blucas was asked how the character was described to him during the audition process, he replied that "They said that Riley is a nice, charming guy, and there's going to be some kind of dichotomy, some kind of double role going on. But that was never really specified." In contrast to both Angel and Spike, Riley held out the possibility of normality in Buffy's life. He is also notable in that he is the only boyfriend of Buffy who was accepted by and developed a friendship with Xander Harris, who usually displayed jealousy of the males in her life. Whedon defended the character of Riley Finn, "The important thing for us was to find a character that was the anti-Angel and to have Buffy go through something very different, part of which was the question, 'How do I get over Angel?' That was the same thing the audience was going through. We knew it wasn't going to be easy and it was very hard trying to find somebody. But Marc [Blucas] has a quality that I love very much: he has sort of an un-David-like, firm, strong, trustworthy quality. I always think of him as Gary Cooper." During Season Five, writer/co-executive producer, Marti Noxon, noted that they were making Riley a more tortured complex character, "He's starting to fray around the edges. That's very compelling to me – that this straight guy is starting to get a little strange." Actor Christian Kane also auditioned for Riley Finn. Kane went on to play the role of Lindsey McDonald on the spin-off show Angel. Kane says he played his audition for Riley "perhaps a little less than wholesome", which he feels resulted in Joss Whedon later casting him as a darker character. Appearances Canonical appearances Riley has appeared in: Buffy the Vampire Slayer Riley was introduced in the show's fourth season as a recurring character and became a regular in the episode "Doomed" and continued on as a regular until season five's "Into the Woods", and appeared once afterward. He appeared in 31 episodes. His guest appearances include: Season 4: "The Freshman", "Fear, Itself", "Beer Bad", "Wild at Heart", "The Initiative", "Pangs", "Something Blue", "Hush" Season 6: "As You Were" Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight Riley has also appeared in the canonical comic book continuation. He has appeared in the issues: "Time of Your Life, Part IV", "Retreat, Part II", "Turbulence", "Riley: Commitment through Distance, Virtue through Sin" Notes and references Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters Fictional United States Army personnel Fictional American secret agents Fictional commanders Fictional vampire hunters Fictional characters with superhuman strength Fictional characters from Iowa Fictional special forces personnel Fictional private military members Television characters introduced in 1999 Fictional demon hunters Fictional schoolteachers American male characters in television	[ 0.2260061800479889, -0.008704102598130703, -0.9017007946968079, -0.07223118096590042, 0.3681528866291046, 0.8218324780464172, 0.6198290586471558, -0.006004806142300367, 0.5126083493232727, -0.2370578795671463, -0.2425529956817627, 0.06729088723659515, -0.11810848116874695, -0.23228320479393005, -0.12446153163909912, 0.16234548389911652, 0.36785510182380676, 0.3569610118865967, 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236303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religio%20Medici	Religio Medici	Religio Medici (The Religion of a Doctor) by Sir Thomas Browne is a spiritual testament and early psychological self-portrait. Published in 1643 after an unauthorized version was distributed the previous year, it became a European best-seller which brought its author fame at home and abroad. Themes Religion Structured upon the Christian virtues of Faith and Hope (part 1) and Charity (part 2), Browne expresses his beliefs in the doctrine of sola fide, the existence of hell, the Last Judgment, the resurrection and other tenets of Christianity. Science and religion Throughout Religio Medici Browne uses scientific imagery to illustrate religious truths as part of his discussion on the relationship of science to religion, a topic which has lost none of its contemporary relevance., , Reception and influence A rare surviving contemporary review by Guy Patin, a distinguished member of the Parisian medical faculty, indicates the considerable impact Religio Medici had upon the intelligentsia abroad: Throughout the seventeenth century Religio Medici spawned numerous imitative titles, including John Dryden's great poem, Religio Laici, but none matched the frank, intimate tone of the original in which Browne shares his thoughts, as well as the idiosyncrasies of his personality with his reader. Samuel Pepys in his diaries complained that the Religio was cried up to the whole world for its wit and learning. A translation into German of the Religio was made in 1746 and an early admirer of Browne's spiritual testament was Goethe's one-time associate Lavater. In the early nineteenth century Religio Medici was "re-discovered" by the English Romantics. Charles Lamb introduced it to Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who after reading it, exclaimed,- O to write a character of this man! Thomas de Quincey in his Confessions of an English Opium-Eater also praised it, stating: The book strongly influenced the prominent physician William Osler in his early years. Osler, who is considered the "father of modern medicine", is said to have learned it by heart. In Virginia Woolf's opinion Religio Medici paved the way for all future confessionals, private memoirs and personal writings. In the twentieth century, the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung used the term Religio Medici several times in his writings. Literary allusions Dorothy L. Sayers in her novel Gaudy Night has Harriet Vane discover that Peter Wimsey is reading Religio Medici. It helps her better understand his character and motivations. Patricia Highsmith’s novel Strangers on a Train references a morocco-bound copy of the work, and Guy reflects on his favorite passages. References External links Text of Religio Medici (1643 edition, 1645 edition) A Religio Medici bibliography (1905) 1643 books Philosophy books British non-fiction literature Works by Thomas Browne Books about Christianity	[ -0.09545986354351044, 0.07038671523332596, -0.14805704355239868, -0.22664731740951538, 0.05960872769355774, 0.7089633941650391, 0.7991357445716858, -0.37420377135276794, -0.3205246925354004, -0.7464622855186462, -0.25346839427948, 0.39123275876045227, 0.004355054814368486, 0.17440040409564972, -0.21880951523780823, 0.257040798664093, 0.5537770390510559, -0.22458329796791077, -0.3851073980331421, -0.3113318085670471, -0.01751106232404709, -0.1272340565919876, -0.07586483657360077, 0.1561449021100998, 0.06448981910943985, -0.016036076471209526, 0.2766352891921997, -0.6075138449668884, -0.34736180305480957, -0.1305614411830902, 0.24028253555297852, -0.045241087675094604, 0.08146011084318161, -0.3170434236526489, -0.19226737320423126, -0.18747539818286896, 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236305	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggy%20bank	Piggy bank	Piggy bank (sometimes penny bank or money box) is the traditional name of a coin container normally used by children. The piggy bank is known to collectors as a "still bank" as opposed to the "mechanical banks" popular in the early 20th century. These items are also often used by companies for promotional purposes. The use of the name 'piggy bank' gave rise to its widely recognized 'pig' shape, and many financial service companies use piggy banks as logos for their savings products. Piggy banks are usually made of ceramic or porcelain. They are generally painted and serve as a pedagogical device to teach the rudiments of thrift and savings to children; money can be easily inserted. Many piggy banks have a rubber plug located on the underside; others are made of vinyl and have a removable nose for easy coin access. Some incorporate electronic systems which calculate the amount of money deposited. Some piggy banks do not have an opening besides the slot for inserting coins, which will lead to smashing the piggy bank with a hammer or by other means, to obtain the money within. Origins The oldest Western find of a money box dates from 2nd century BC Greek colony Priene, Asia Minor, and features the shape of a miniature Greek temple with a slit in the pediment. Money boxes of various forms were also excavated in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and appear quite frequently on late ancient provincial sites, particularly in Roman Britain and along the Rhine. Pig-shaped money box The earliest known pig-shaped money containers date to the 12th century on the island of Java. The Javanese term cèlèngan (ꦕꦺꦭꦺꦔꦤ꧀; literally "likeness of a wild boar", but used to mean both "savings" and "piggy bank") is also in the modern Indonesian language. A large number of boar-shaped piggy banks were discovered at the large archaeological site surrounding Trowulan, a village in the Indonesian province of East Java and possible site of the capital of the Majapahit Empire. There are a number of folk etymologies regarding the English language term "piggy bank," but in fact, there is no clear origin for the phrase, which dates only to the 1940s. It is believed that the popularity of the Western piggy banks originates in Germany, where pigs were revered as symbols of good fortune. The oldest German piggy bank dates to the 13th century and was recovered during construction work in Thuringia. The earliest known use of "pig bank" in English is the 1903 book An American Girl in Mexico, which describes them as a Mexican souvenir. In Mexico, piggy banks are called alcancía, a term originating from Andalusian Arabic. Uses The general use of piggy banks is to store loose change in a quaint, decorative manner. Modern piggy banks are not limited to the likeness of pigs, and may come in a range of shapes, sizes and colors. They are most commonly used by temples and churches because they are locked money boxes with a narrow opening to drop cash or coins. The box is opened via a plug underneath it at regular intervals, when the collected money is counted and recorded. Piggy banks in popular culture Rachel, the unofficial mascot of Pike Place Market in Seattle, Washington, is a bronze cast piggy bank that weighs nearly , located at the corner of Pike Place under the "Public Market Center" sign. Rachel was designed by local artist Georgia Gerber. The Disney/Pixar animated franchise Toy Story feature a character named Hamm, a wisecracking, animated piggy bank voiced by John Ratzenberger. The Price Is Right pricing game Any Number uses a piggy bank icon to represent the game's consolation prize, that amount in dollars and cents. Let's Make a Deal has a game, "Smash for Cash", in which a contestant asks announcer Jonathan Magnum to smash piggy banks. A contestant who earns enough cash ($1, $2, or Zonks in each piggy bank) can win a cash bonus of $20,000, but cannot find both Zonks. In the version hosted by Monty Hall, one of the three doors in the day's Big Deal sometimes hid "Monty's Piggy Bank", which contained a cash award. See also Maneki-neko Tudor money box Image gallery Notes References External links What's the origin of the piggy bank? 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236306	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAR%20syndrome	TAR syndrome	TAR syndrome (thrombocytopenia with absent radius) is a rare genetic disorder that is characterized by the absence of the radius bone in the forearm and a dramatically reduced platelet count. Signs and symptoms Presents with symptoms of thrombocytopenia, or a lowered platelet count, leading to bruising and potentially life-threatening hemorrhage. Absence of the radius bone in the forearm with preservation of the thumb. Other common links between people with TAR syndrome include anemia, heart problems, kidney problems, knee joint problems, and frequently milk allergy. Different cases with leukemia in patients with TAR are described in. Genetics This condition requires mutations in both chromosomes. The first mutation is inheritance of a 1q21.1 deletion and the second is in the remaining in the RBM8A gene. Approximately 95% of TAR patients have one non-functional copy of the RBM8A gene. Treatment Treatments range from platelet transfusions to surgery aimed at either centralizing the hand over the ulna to improve functionality of the hand or aimed at 'normalizing' the appearance of the arm, which is much shorter and 'clubbed'. There is some controversy surrounding the role of surgery. The infant mortality rate has been curbed by new technology, including platelet transfusions, which can even be performed in utero. The critical period is the first and sometimes second year of life. For most people with TAR, platelet counts improve as they grow out of childhood. Epidemiology The incidence is 0.42 per 100,000 live births. History In 1929 Greenwald and Sherman{{ described the first patient with TAR Syndrome. 40 years later Hall collected 40 cases and introduced the name "Thrombocytopenia with absent radius". In 1988 Hedberg published an article with 100 cases. References Further reading External links Thrombocytopenia Absent Radii research study of Inherited Bone Marrow Failure Syndromes (IBMFS) GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Thrombocytopenia Absent Radius Syndrome Autosomal monosomies and deletions Syndromes with dysmelia Syndromes affecting blood Rare syndromes	[ 0.13188813626766205, 0.396720826625824, -0.6823964715003967, -0.252151221036911, -0.27990585565567017, 0.17567360401153564, 0.6139627695083618, 0.40843507647514343, -0.37949442863464355, -0.40402036905288696, -0.05091039463877678, 0.4483242630958557, -0.21458037197589874, 0.6182228326797485, -0.358599990606308, 0.8913920521736145, 0.26887789368629456, 0.29687681794166565, -0.4148651957511902, -0.17776575684547424, 0.09998121857643127, -0.9377862215042114, 0.6111072897911072, -0.40414488315582275, -0.43820756673812866, -0.20552702248096466, 0.3753646910190582, 0.3375697135925293, -0.13140659034252167, -0.0632980465888977, -0.3985031247138977, 0.18389689922332764, 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