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236592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviparous%20eelpout | Viviparous eelpout | The viviparous eelpout (Zoarces viviparus), also known as the, viviparous blenny and European eelpout is an eelpout in the family Zoarcidae. It is notable for giving birth to live larvae (hence the description "mother of eels"). It is a common soup ingredient in Mediterranean countries. The bones are of greenish colour, due to a harmless pigment. Their skin is slimy and the color is variable.
Viviparous eelpouts grow to a maximum length of and a maximum weight of . They typically live at water depths up to . The fish live to a maximum age of 10 years.
Description
The viviparous eelpout has a slim, tapering body and resembles a small burbot (Lota lota), a wide head and mouth and protuberant lips. It has long, ribbon-like dorsal and anal fins which continue on to unite with the arrowhead-shaped caudal fin. This distinguishes this fish from the two similar slim-bodied bottom-dwelling fish of the area, the rock gunnel (Pholis gunnellus) and the snake blenny (Ophidion barbatum). The average size of this fish is about . It is a brownish color with irregular dark brown markings and a yellowish belly. The pectoral, anal and caudal fins are tinged with orange which becomes a more intense hue during the breeding season. The bones are green.
Distribution and habitat
These eelpouts live in a temperate climate in the marine waters of the Northeast Atlantic including the seas such as the Baltic, Barents, Irish, North, and White Seas. They also live in some brackish inlets, such where the River Somme meets the English Channel. The fish stay towards the rocky shorelines and tidepools among the stones and algae. The fish are capable of living out of water under rocks and seaweed due to their ability to breathe air directly. The fish eat eggs and fry of fish and macroinvertebrates such as gastropods and crustaceans.
Biology
The viviparous eelpout feeds on bottom-dwelling invertebrates, such as crustaceans, and fish eggs and fry.
Adults mate during the months of August and September using internal fertilization. The fish are notably viviparous, giving birth to 30–400 live developed young. Unusually, it does so during winter when water temperatures are extremely cold. Among fish it has one of the longest known pregnancies, lasting approximately six months. It has been discovered that the eelpout suckles its young embryos while still within their mother's body, making it the only fish species to suckle its offspring. The embryos actually suckle from ovarian follicles, ingesting nutrients and gases from these internal structures. After depleting the egg's yolk reserves, the eelpouts attach their mouths to an ovarian follicle, which has a canal in its tip via which fluid and nutrients can flow. This follicle fluid is rich in proteins, fatty acids and glucose. It is also saturated in oxygen, which helps ventilate the gills of the developing fish. Each embryo latches onto a single follicle. This ensures an equal distribution of nutrients.
References
Zoarces
Fish described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Fish of the Arctic Ocean
Fish of the Atlantic Ocean
Fish of the Baltic Sea
Fish of the North Sea
Fish of Europe
Fish of Russia
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236594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus%20Labienus | Titus Labienus | Titus Labienus (c. 10017 March 45 BC) was a professional Roman soldier in the late Roman Republic. He served as tribune of the Plebs in 63 BC. Although remembered as one of Julius Caesar's lieutenants in Gaul, mentioned frequently in the accounts of his military campaigns, Labienus chose to oppose him during the Civil War and was killed at Munda. He was the father of Quintus Labienus.
Biography
Early career
As his praetorship was in 60 or 59 BC, Titus Labienus most likely was born around 100 BC. Many sources suggest that he came from the town of Cingulum in Picenum. His family was of equestrian status. He most likely had early ties with Pompey during his time as a patron for Picenum and his desire to rise in military rank. His early service was c. 78–75 BC in Cilicia under Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus fighting pirates and the Isaurian hill tribes.
Tribune of the Plebs, Trial of Gaius Rabirius
In 63 BC, Titus Labienus was a tribune of the Plebs with close ties to Pompey. Gaius Julius Caesar was also working closely with Pompey and therefore he and Labienus occasionally cooperated. These interactions were the seed that eventually developed into a friendship between Labienus and Caesar.
At Caesar's instigation, Labienus accused Gaius Rabirius of high treason (perduellio) for the murder of the tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus and of his uncle Titus Labienus in 100 BC. The purpose of this trial was to discredit the so-called "final decree of the Senate" (senatus consultum ultimum), an emergency measure of the senate commonly used against the Populares and the Roman assemblies. Labienus used the antiquated procedure of the duumviri, used in the early republic, against Rabirius. The procedure bypassed normal criminal law and Rabirius would be tried without defense. Since tribunes were sacrosanct, it was seen as an act against the gods to kill one. Thus punishment of the culprit was seen as more of a cleansing to appease the gods. The killing was seen as a pollution so profound that a normal criminal trial was unnecessary and immediate cleansing was necessary to avoid the wrath of the gods. The duumviri were assigned to accuse under the pretense of obvious guilt and cleanse the culprit through scourging.
Rabirius appealed to the Centuriate Assembly and Cicero spoke in his defense. However, before the assembly could vote, Metellus Celer used his powers as an augur to claim the sightings of bad omens and take down the flag in Janiculum. This postponed the trial. Rabirius was ultimately sentenced to exile, as he was unable to pay an unreasonable fine.
In the same year Labienus carried a plebiscite returning the elections of the pontifices to the people. This indirectly secured for Caesar the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, by his act of supporting Labienus in this cause (Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37).
Labienus was more a soldier than politician, and primarily used his office as a gateway to secure himself positions of high military command. After his term as tribune, Labienus served as Caesar's legate (second-in-command) in Gaul, meaning he took Caesar's place whenever he went to Rome.
Lieutenant under Caesar in Gaul
As Caesar's senior legate during his campaign in Gaul Labienus was the only legate mentioned by name in Caesar's writings about his first campaign. He was a skilled cavalry commander and could be considered a military genius.
Labienus commanded the winter quarters in Vesontio in 58 BC. He also had full command of the legions in Gaul during Caesar's absence, as his legatus pro praetore. He had this privilege when Caesar was administering justice in Cisalpine Gaul as well as during Caesar's second campaign in Britain (in 54 BC).
In 57 BC, during the Belgian campaign, in a battle against the Atrebates and Nervii near Sabis, Labienus, commanding the 9th and 10th legions, defeated the opposing Atrebates force and proceeded to take the enemy camp. From there he sent the 10th Legion against the rear of the Nervii line while they were engaged with the rest of Caesar's army, single-handedly turning the tide of battle and securing Caesar the victory.
Labienus is also credited with the defeat of the Treviri under Indutiomarus. Labienus spent days with his army fortified in their camp, while Indutiomarus harassed him daily in an attempt at intimidation and demoralization. Labienus waited for the right moment, when Indutiomarus and his forces were returning to their camp disorganized, to send out his cavalry through two gates. He gave them the orders to first kill Indutiomarus, then his trailing forces on their return. Labienus's men were successful, and with the death of their leader, the Treviri army scattered. The Treviri forces later regrouped under relatives of Indutiomarus and moved upon Labienus, setting up camp across the river from his legions, waiting for reinforcements from the Germans. Labienus feigned a withdrawal, enticing the Treviri to cross the river, after which he turned around and had his men attack. Being in such a disadvantageous position, the Treviri forces were shattered. After hearing this, the German reinforcements turned around.
Labienus's victory over the Parisii at Lutetia in the Battle of Lutetia is another example of his tactical genius. Sending five cohorts back towards Agedincum, and himself crossing the Sequana River with three legions, he tricked the enemy into thinking that he had divided his army and was crossing the river in three places. The enemy army split into thirds and pursued Labienus. The main body met Labienus which he subsequently surrounded with the rest of his legions. He then annihilated the reinforcements with his cavalry.
In September, 51 BC, Caesar made Labienus governor of Cisalpine Gaul.
Defection from Caesar, command under Pompey in Civil War
After Caesar crossed the Rubicon, Labienus left his post in Cisalpine Gaul and joined Pompey. He was rapturously welcomed on the Pompeian side, bringing some Gallic and German cavalry with him. He also brought an account on Caesar's military strength.
In the book, Biography of Titus Labienus, Caesar's Lieutenant in Gaul, Tyrrell notes that modern historians describe Labienus's actions as a defection from Caesar, and do not hesitate to call him a "deserter" or "renegade", possibly due to their liking for Caesar. Tyrrell recognizes that in the end, Labienus can be described as a man who "joined the legitimate government in its struggle against a revolutionary proconsul who placed his own dignitas above his country" (Tyrrell, 36). Tyrrell points out, however, that "Labienus had proved on every occasion his capacity for independent command. He could easily have felt himself Caesar's equal in the field. Although a praetorius since 59 or 58, a consulship with its subsequent provincial army was not forthcoming. The consulship with Caesar, even if seriously planned, would not have altered the balance of power between them. Antonius' election to the augurate, the first step to the consulship, showed the direction of Caesar's purposes. Caesar's enemies held out a new opportunity to gain an army. Three years later he could boast that he had won the loyalty of his troops (BAf. 19.3)." Beyond that, we cannot go.".
Pompey made Labienus commander of the cavalry (magister equitum). Labienus attempted to persuade Pompey to face Caesar in Italy and not retreat to Hispania (Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) to regroup, insisting that Caesar's army was thin and weakened after his campaign in Gaul.
But Labienus's ill fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success had been under Caesar. From the defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus, where he commanded the cavalry, he fled to Corcyra, and after hearing of the death of Pompey then proceeded to Africa. He created confidence in the followers of Pompey by lying to them, claiming that Caesar had received a mortal wound at the Battle of Pharsalus. He was able through sheer force of numbers to inflict a slight check upon Caesar at the Battle of Ruspina in 46 BC. By arranging his troops into dense formations, he tricked Caesar into thinking he had only foot soldiers, and was able to rout Caesar's cavalry and surround his army. However, Labienus was unable to defeat Caesar's forces, and was compelled to leave the field. After the defeat at the Battle of Thapsus, he joined the younger Gnaeus Pompeius in Hispania.
Death came to Labienus in the Battle of Munda, an evenly matched conflict between the armies of Caesar and the sons of Pompey. King Bogud, an ally of Caesar, approached the Pompeians with his army from the rear. Labienus was commanding the Pompeians' cavalry unit at the time, and seeing this, took the cavalry from the front lines to meet him. The Pompeian legions misinterpreted this as a retreat, became disheartened and began to break. Pompeians suffered massive casualties during the rout. This defeat ended Caesar's Civil War. Labienus was killed during the rout. According to Appian, (BC2.105), his head was brought to Caesar. Caesar then dispatched men to locate the body of his old friend, and buried Labienus with full honours.
Fictional accounts
Labienus is featured in The Gods of War, a novel by British author Conn Iggulden, though in a much reduced role, as his historical position as Caesar's second-in-command is filled instead by Marcus Junius Brutus, whose relationship with Caesar is conversely greatly expanded. He was also an important minor character in the earlier Masters of Rome novels by Australian author Colleen McCullough. In these, his first appearance is in the Trial of Rabirius, but this is placed rather later in the political year than it is usually stated as having been, orchestrated by Caesar as a reaction to Cicero's decision to have several Catiline conspirators executed without trial while the "Senatus Consultum Ultimum" is in force - rather than as a prior warning against such an action before the decree was even in place. He then falls on hard times because he had drawn the disfavour of Pompey for having an affair with his Picentine wife Mucia Tertia. He is portrayed latterly as a very capable but fierce and cruel soldier and commander, whose brilliance wins battles in Gaul, but whose brutality went some way towards alienating Caesar's Gallic allies and thus causing the battles in the first place. McCullough takes a somewhat different interpretation of the events, and has Caesar shunning Labienus, instead of Labienus defecting to Pompey. In the novels, Caesar disowns Labienus when it comes to civil war, not wanting him on his side because he is too cruel and unpredictable.
Labienus was also featured in the BBC One docudrama Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire.
Labienus is a significant character in S.J.A. Turney's series 'Marius' Mules'.
See also
Labiena (gens)
Notes
References
Caesar's Bellum Africum
Caesar's Bellum Civile
Caesar's Bellum Gallicum
Cassius Dio's Roman History
Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares
Sextus Julius Frontinus
Tyrrell, William B. Biography of Titus Labienus, Caesar's Lieutenant in Gaul. Diss. Michigan State Univ., 1970. 10 May 2007 <http://www.msu.edu/~tyrrell/Labienus.pdf >.
100 BC births
Year of birth uncertain
45 BC deaths
1st-century BC Romans
Ancient Roman generals
Ancient Roman soldiers
People of the Roman Republic
Roman generals killed in action
Roman governors of Hispania
Roman legates
Roman people of the Gallic Wars
Roman Republican praetors
Tribunes of the plebs
Labieni | [
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] |
236596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Monk | George Monk | George Monk may refer to:
George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle (1608–1670), English soldier and sailor
George William Monk (1838–1917), Canadian politician
See also
George Monks (disambiguation) | [
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236597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalement | Impalement | Impalement, as a method of torture and execution, is the penetration of a human by an object such as a stake, pole, spear, or hook, often by the complete or partial perforation of the torso. It was particularly used in response to "crimes against the state" and regarded across a number of cultures as a very harsh form of capital punishment and recorded in myth and art. Impalement was also used during times of war to suppress rebellions, punish traitors or collaborators, and punish breaches of military discipline.
Offences where impalement was occasionally employed included contempt for the state's responsibility for safe roads and trade routes by committing highway robbery or grave robbery, violating state policies or monopolies, or subverting standards for trade. Offenders have also been impaled for a variety of cultural, sexual, and religious reasons.
References to impalement in Babylonia and the Neo-Assyrian Empire are found as early as the 18th century BC.
Methods
Longitudinal impalement
Impaling an individual along the body length has been documented in several cases, and the merchant Jean de Thevenot provides an eyewitness account of this from 17th-century Egypt, in the case of a Jewish man condemned to death for the use of false weights:
Survival time
The length of time which one managed to survive upon the stake is reported as quite varied, from a few seconds or minutes to a few hours or even a few days. The Dutch overlords at Batavia seem to have been particularly proficient in prolonging the lifetime of the impaled, one witnessing a man surviving six days on the stake, another hearing from local surgeons that some could survive eight days or more. A critical determinant for survival length seems to be precisely how the stake was inserted: If it went into the "interior" parts, vital organs could easily be damaged, leading to a swift death. However, by letting the stake follow the spine, the impalement procedure would not damage the vital organs, and the person could survive for several days.
Transversal impalement
Alternatively, the impalement could be transversely performed, as in the frontal-to-dorsal direction, that is, from front (through abdomen, chest or directly through the heart) to back or vice versa.
In the Holy Roman Empire (and elsewhere in Central/Eastern Europe), women who killed their newborn babies were placed in open graves, and stakes were hammered into their hearts, particularly if their cases contained any implications of witchcraft. A detailed description of an execution that was carried out in this manner comes from 17th-century Košice (then in Hungary, now in eastern Slovakia). The case of a woman who was to be executed for infanticide involved an executioner and two assistants. First, a grave some one-and-a-half ell deep was dug. The woman was then placed within it, her hands and feet were secured by driving nails through them. The executioner placed a small thorn bush upon her face. He then placed, and held vertically, a wooden stave on her heart in order to mark its location, while his assistants piled earth on the woman, keeping her head free of earth at the behest of the clerics, because to do otherwise would have quickened the death process. Once the earth had been piled upon her, the executioner used a pair of tongs to grab a rod made of iron, which had been made red hot. He positioned the glowing iron rod beside the wooden stave, and as one of his assistants hammered the rod in, the other assistant emptied a trough of earth upon the woman's head. It is said that a scream was heard, and the earth moved upwards for a moment, before it was all over.
Variations
Gaunching
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, travelling on botanical research in the Levant 1700–1702, observed both ordinary longitudinal impalement, but also a method called "gaunching", in which the condemned is hoisted up by means of a rope over a row of sharp metal hooks. He is then released, and depending on how the hooks enter his body, he may survive in impaled condition for a few days.
Forty years earlier than de Tournefort, de Thévenot described much the same process, adding that it was seldom used because it was regarded as too cruel. Some 80 years prior to de Thevenot, in 1579, Hans Jacob Breuning von Buchenbach witnessed a variant of the gaunching ritual. A large iron hook was fixed on the horizontal cross-bar of the gallows and the individual was forced upon this hook, piercing him from the abdomen through his back, so that he hung from it, hands, feet and head downward. On top of the cross bar, the executioner situated himself and performed various torture on the impaled man below him.
Hooks in the city wall
While gaunching as de Tournefort describes involves the erection of a scaffold, it seems that in the city of Algiers, hooks were embedded in the city walls, and on occasion, people were thrown upon them from the battlements.
Thomas Shaw, who was chaplain for the Levant Company stationed at Algiers during the 1720s, describes the various forms of executions practised as follows:
According to one source, these hooks in the wall as an execution method were introduced with the construction of the new city gate in 1573. Before that time, gaunching as described by de Tournefort was in use. As for the actual frequency of throwing persons on hooks in Algiers, Capt. Henry Boyde notes that in his own 20 years of captivity there, he knew of only one case where a Christian slave who had murdered his master had met that fate, and "not above" two or three Moors besides. Taken captive in 1596, the barber-surgeon William Davies relates something of the heights involved when thrown upon hooks (although it is somewhat unclear if this relates specifically to the city of Algiers, or elsewhere in the Barbary States): "Their ganshing is after this manner: he sitteth upon a wall, being five fathoms [30 feet, or about 9m] high, within two fathoms [12 feet or about 3.6m] of the top of the wall; right under the place where he sits, is a strong iron hook fastened, being very sharp; then he is thrust off the wall upon this hook, with some part of his body, and there he hangeth, sometimes two or three days, before he dieth." Davies adds that "these deaths are very seldom", but that he had personally witnessed it.
Hanged by the ribs
A slightly variant way of executing people by means of impalement was to force an iron meat hook beneath a person's ribs and hang him up to die slowly. This technique was in 18th-century Ottoman-controlled Bosnia called the cengela, but the practice is also attested in 1770s Dutch Suriname as a punishment meted out to rebellious slaves.
Bamboo Torture
A recurring horror story on many websites and popular media outlets is that Japanese soldiers during World War II inflicted bamboo torture upon prisoners of war. The victim was supposedly tied securely in place above a young bamboo shoot. Over several days, the sharp, fast growing shoot would first puncture, then completely penetrate the victim's body, eventually emerging through the other side. However, no conclusive evidence exists that this form of impalement ever actually happened.
History
Antiquity
Mesopotamia and the ancient Near East
The earliest known use of impalement as a form of execution occurred in civilizations of the ancient Near East. The Code of Hammurabi, promulgated about 1772 BC by the Babylonian king Hammurabi specifies impaling for a woman who killed her husband for the sake of another man. In the late Isin/Larsa period, from about the same time, it seems that, in some city states, mere adultery on the wife's part (without murder of her husband mentioned) could be punished by impalement. From the royal archives of the city of Mari, most of it also roughly contemporary to Hammurabi, it is known that soldiers taken captive in war were on occasion impaled. Roughly contemporary with Babylonia under Hammurabi, king Siwe-Palar-huhpak of Elam made official edicts in which he threatened the allies of his enemies with impalement, among other terrible fates. For acts of perceived great sacrilege, some individuals, in diverse cultures, have been impaled for their effrontery. For example, roughly 1200 BC, merchants of Ugarit express deep concern to each other that a fellow citizen is to be impaled in the Phoenician town Sidon, due to some "great sin" committed against the patron deity of Sidon.
Pharaonic Egypt
During Dynasty 19, Merneptah had Libu prisoners of war impaled ("caused to be set upon a stake") to the south of Memphis, following an attempted invasion of Egypt during his Regnal Year 5. The relevant determinative for ḫt ("stake") depicts an individual transfixed through the abdomen. Other Egyptian kings employing impalements include Sobekhotep II, Akhenaten, Seti, and Ramesses IX.
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Evidence by carvings and statues is found as well from the Neo-Assyrian empire (c. 934–609 BCE). The image of the impaled Judeans is a detail from the public commemoration of the Assyrian victory in 701 BC after the siege of Lachish, under King Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC), who proceeded similarly against the inhabitants of Ekron during the same campaign. From Sennacherib's father Sargon II's time (r. 722–705 BCE), a relief from his palace at Khorsabad shows the impalement of 14 enemies during an attack on the city of Pazashi. A peculiarity about the "Neo-Assyrian" way of impaling was that the stake was "driven into the body immediately under the ribs", rather than along the full body length. For the Neo-Assyrians, mass executions seem to have been not only designed to instill terror and to enforce obedience, but also, it can seem, as proofs of their might that they took pride in. Neo-Assyrian King Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883–859 BC) was evidently proud enough of his bloody work that he committed it to monument and eternal memory as follows:
Paul Kern, in his (1999) "Ancient Siege Warfare", provides some statistics on how different Neo-Assyrian kings from the times of Ashurnasirpal II commemorated their punishments of rebels.
Although impalement of rebels and enemies is particularly well-attested from Neo-Assyrian times, the 14th-century BCE Mitanni king Shattiwaza charges his predecessor, the usurper Shuttarna III for having delivered unto the (Middle) Assyrians several nobles, who had them promptly impaled. Some scholars have said, though, that it is only with king Ashur-bel-kala (r. 1074–1056) that we have solid evidence that punishments like flaying and impaling came into use. From the Middle Assyrian period, we have evidence about impalement as a form of punishment relative to other types of perceived crimes as well. The law code discovered and deciphered by Dr. Otto Schroeder contains in its paragraph 51 the following injunction against abortion:
Achaemenid Persia
The Greek historian Herodotus recounts that, when Darius I, king of Persia, conquered Babylon, he impaled 3000 Babylonians. In the Behistun Inscription, Darius himself boasts of having impaled his enemies. Darius speaks proudly of the ruthlessness with which these revolts were put down. In Babylon Nidintu-Bel was impaled along with 49 of his companions:
In 522 BCE Phraortes proclaimed that he was a descendant of the Median king Cyaxares and took the throne, he seized Ecbatana, the capital of Media and rebelled against the Achamenied yoke, this revolt was suppressed by Darius king of Persia and Phraortes was captured and impaled:
Biblical evidence
A Bible passage in the Book of Esther concerning the fate of the 5th-century BC Persian minister Haman and his ten sons has been treated differently by different translators, leading to an ambiguity as to whether they were impaled or hanged. The passage explains that Haman conspired to have all the Jews in the empire killed but his plan was thwarted, and he was given the punishment he had thought to mete out to Mordecai. The English Standard Version of Esther 5:14 describes this as hanging, whereas The New International Reader's version opts for impalement.
The Assyriologist Paul Haupt opts for impalement in his 1908 essay "Critical notes on Esther", while Benjamin Shaw has an extended discussion of the topic on the website ligonier.org from 2012.
Other passages in the Bible may allude to the practice of impalement, such as II Samuel 21:9 concerning the fate of the sons of Saul, where some English translations use the verb "impale", but others use "hang".
Although we lack conclusive evidence either way for whether Hebrew law allowed for impalement, or for hanging (whether as a mode of execution or for display of the corpse), the Neo-Assyrian method of impalement as seen in carvings could, perhaps, equally easily be seen as a form of hanging upon a pole, rather than focusing upon the stake's actual penetration of the body.
Rome
From John Granger Cook, 2014: "Stipes is Seneca's term for the object used for impalement. This narrative and his Ep. 14.5 are the only two textually explicit references to impalement in Latin texts:"
Europe
Transversal impalement
Within the Holy Roman Empire, in article 131 of the 1532 Constitutio Criminalis Carolina, the following punishment was stated for women found guilty of infanticide. Generally, they should be drowned, but the law code allowed for, in particularly severe cases, that the old punishment could be implemented. That is, the woman would be buried alive, and then a stake would be driven through her heart. Similarly, burial alive, combined with transversal impalement is attested as an early execution method for people found guilty of adultery. The 1348 statutes of Zwickau allowed punishment of an adulterous couple in the following way: They were to be placed on top of each other in a grave, with a layer of thorns between them. Then, a single stake was to be hammered through them. A similar punishment by impalement for a proven male adulterer is mentioned in a 13th-century ordinance for Bohemian mining town Jihlava (then and German Iglau), whereas in a 1340 Vienna statute, the husband of a woman caught in flagrante in adultery could, if he wished to, demand that his wife and her lover be impaled, or alternatively demand a monetary restitution. Occasionally, women found guilty of witchcraft have been condemned to be impaled. In 1587 Kiel, 101-year-old Sunde Bohlen was, on being condemned as a witch, buried alive, and afterwards had a stake driven through her heart.
Rapists of virgins and children are also attested to have been buried alive, with a stake driven through them. In one such judicial tradition, the rapist was to be placed in an open grave, and the rape victim was ordered to make the three first strokes on the stake herself; the executioners then finishing the impalement procedure. Serving as an example of the fate of a child molester, in August 1465 in Zurich, Switzerland, Ulrich Moser was condemned to be impaled, for having sexually violated six girls between the ages four and nine. His clothes were taken off, and he was placed on his back. His arms and legs were stretched out, each secured to a pole. Then a stake was driven through his navel down into the ground. Thereafter, people left him to die.
Longitudinal impalement
Cases of longitudinal impalement typically occur in the context of war or as a punishment for robbery, the latter being attested to as the practice in Central and Eastern Europe.
Individuals accused of collaborating with the enemy have, on occasion, been impaled. In 1632 during the Thirty Years' War, the German officer Fuchs was impaled on suspicion of defecting to the Swedes, a Swedish corporal was likewise impaled for trying to defect to the Germans. The Swedes continued this practise during the Scanian War (1675-1679), especially in the case of deserters and those perceived as traitors. In 1654, under the Ottoman siege of the Venetian garrison at Crete, several peasants were impaled for supplying provisions to the besieged. Likewise in 1685, some Christians were impaled by the Hungarians for having provided supplies to the Turks.
In 1677, a particularly brutal German General Kops leading the forces of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I who wanted to keep Hungary dominated by the Germans, rather than allow it to become dominated by the Turks, began impaling and quartering his Hungarian subjects/opponents. An opposing general on the Hungarian side, , responded in kind, by flaying alive Imperial troops, and fixing sharp iron hooks in fortress walls, upon which he threw captured Germans to be impaled. Finally, Emperor Leopold I had enough of the mutual bloodshed, and banished Kops in order to establish a needed cessation of hostilities. After the Treaty of The Hague (1720), Sicily fell under Habsburg rule, but the locals deeply resented the German overlords. One parish priest (who exhorted his parishioners to kill the Germans) is said to have broken into joy when a German soldier arrived at his village, exclaiming that a whole eight days had gone by since he had last killed a German, and shot the soldier off his horse. The priest was later impaled. In the short-lived 1784 Horea Revolt against the Austrians and Hungarians, the rebels gained hold of two officers, whom they promptly impaled. On their side, the imperial troops got hold of Horea's 13-year-old son, and impaled him. That seems to have merely inflamed the rebel leader's determination, although the revolt was quashed shortly afterwards. After the revolt was crushed by early 1785, some 150 rebels are said to have been impaled.
From 1748 onwards, German regiments organized manhunts on "robbers" in Hungary/Croatia, impaling those who were caught.
Heinous murderers
Occasionally, individual murderers were perceived to have been so heinous that standard punishments like beheading or being broken on the wheel were regarded as incommensurate with their crimes, and extended rituals of execution that might include impalement were devised. An example is that of Pavel Vašanský (Paul Waschansky in German transcript), who was executed on 1 March 1570 in Ivančice in present-day Czech Republic, on account of 124 confessed murders (he was a roaming highwayman). He underwent a particularly gruelling execution procedure: first, his limbs were cut off and his nipples were ripped off with glowing pincers; he was then flayed, impaled and finally roasted alive. A pamphlet that purports to give Wasansky's verbatim confession, does not record how he was apprehended, nor what means of torture was used to extract his confessions.
Other such accounts of "heinous murderers" in which impalement is a prominent element include cases in 1504 and 1519, the murderer nicknamed Puschpeter executed in 1575 for killing thirty people, including six pregnant women whose unborn children he ate in the hope of thereby acquiring invisibility, the head of the Pappenheimer family in 1600, and an unnamed murderer executed in Breslau in 1615, who under torture had confessed to 96 acts of murder by arson.
Vlad the Impaler
During the 15th century, Vlad III ("Dracula"), Prince of Wallachia, is credited as the first notable figure to prefer this method of execution during the late medieval period, and became so notorious for its liberal employment that among his several nicknames he was known as Vlad the Impaler. After being orphaned, betrayed, forced into exile and pursued by his enemies, he retook control of Wallachia in 1456. He dealt harshly with his enemies, especially those who had betrayed his family in the past, or had profited from the misfortunes of Wallachia. Though a variety of methods were employed, he has been most associated with his use of impalement. The liberal use of capital punishment was eventually extended to Saxon settlers, members of a rival clan, and criminals in his domain, whether they were members of the boyar nobility or peasants, and eventually to any among his subjects that displeased him. Following the multiple campaigns against the invading Ottoman Turks, Vlad would never show mercy to his prisoners of war. After The Night Attack of Vlad Țepeș in mid-June 1462 failed to assassinate the Ottoman sultan, the road to Târgoviște, the capital of Vlad's principality of Wallachia, eventually became inundated in a "forest" of 20,000 impaled and decaying corpses, and it is reported that Mehmet II's invading army of Turks turned back to Constantinople in 1462 after encountering thousands of impaled corpses along the Danube River. Woodblock prints from the era portray his victims impaled from either the frontal or the dorsal or the rectal impalement method which consisted of a wood or metal pole being inserted through the body either front to back, or vertically, through the rectum or vagina. The exit wound could be near the victim's neck, shoulders or mouth.
Ottoman Empire
Longitudinal impalement is an execution method often attested within the Ottoman Empire, for a variety of offenses, it was done mostly as a warning to others or to terrify.
Siege of Constantinople
The Ottoman Empire used impalement during, and before, the last siege of Constantinople in 1453. During the buildup phase to the great siege the year before, in 1452, the sultan declared that all ships sailing up or down through the Bosphorus had to anchor at his fortress there, for inspection. One Venetian captain, Antonio Rizzo, sought to defy the ban, but his ship was hit by a cannonball. He and his crew were picked up from the waters, the crew members to be beheaded (or sawn asunder according to Niccolò Barbaro), whereas Rizzo was impaled. In the early days of the siege in May 1453, contingents of the Ottoman army made mop-up operations at minor fortifications like Therapia and Studium. The surrendered soldiers, some 40 individuals from each place, were impaled.
Civil crimes
Within the Ottoman Empire, some civil crimes (rather than rebel activity/treasonous behavior), such as highway robbery, might be punished by impalement. For some periods at least, executions for civil crimes were claimed to have been rather rare in the Ottoman Empire. Aubry de La Motraye lived in the realm for 14 years from 1699 to 1713 and claimed that he had not heard of twenty thieves in Constantinople during that time. As for highway robbers, who surely had been impaled, Aubry heard of only 6 such cases during his residence there. Staying at Aleppo from 1740–54, Alexander Russell notes that in the 20 years gone by, there were no more than "half a dozen" public executions there. Jean de Thévenot, traveling in the Ottoman Empire and its territories like Egypt in the late 1650s, emphasizes the regional variations in impalement frequency. Of Constantinople and Turkey, de Thévenot writes that impalement was "not much practised" and "very rarely put in practice." An exception he highlighted was the situation of Christians in Constantinople. If a Christian spoke or acted out against the "Law of Mahomet", or consorted with a Turkish woman, or broke into a mosque, then he might face impalement unless he converted to Islam. In contrast, de Thévenot says that in Egypt impalement was a "very ordinary punishment" against the Arabs there, whereas Turks in Egypt were strangled in prison instead of being publicly executed like the natives. Thus, the actual frequency of impalement within the Ottoman Empire varied greatly, not only from time to time, but also from place to place, and between different population groups in the empire.
Highway robbers were still impaled into the 1830s, but one source says the practice was rare by then. Travelling to Smyrna and Constantinople in 1843, Stephen Massett was told by a man who witnessed the event that "just a few years ago", a dozen or so robbers were impaled at Adrianople. All of them, however, had been strangled prior to impalement. Writing around 1850, the archaeologist Austen Henry Layard mentions that the latest case he was acquainted with happened "about ten years ago" in Baghdad, on four rebel Arab sheikhs.
Impalement of pirates, rather than highway robbers, is also occasionally recorded. In October 1767 Hassan Bey, who had preyed on Turkish ships in the Euxine Sea for a number of years, was captured and impaled, even though he had offered 500,000 ducats for his pardon.
Klephts and rebels in Greece
During the Ottoman rule of Greece, impalement became an important tool of psychological warfare, intended to inflict terror into the peasant population. By the 18th century, Greek bandits turned guerrilla insurgents (known as klephts) became an increasing annoyance to the Ottoman government. Captured klephts were often impaled, as were peasants that harbored or aided them. Victims were publicly impaled and placed at highly visible points, and had the intended effect on many villages who not only refused to help the klephts, but would even turn them in to the authorities. The Ottomans engaged in active campaigns to capture these insurgents in 1805 and 1806, and were able to enlist Greek villagers, eager to avoid the stake, in the hunt for their outlaw countrymen.
Impalement was, on occasion, aggravated with being set over a fire, the impaling stake acting as a spit, so that the impaled victim might be roasted alive. Among other severities, Ali Pasha, an Albanian-born Ottoman noble who ruled Ioannina, had rebels, criminals, and even the descendants of those who had wronged him or his family in the past, impaled and roasted alive. Thomas Smart Hughes, visiting Greece and Albania in 1812–13, says the following about his stay in Ioannina:
During the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832), Greek revolutionaries and civilians were tortured and executed by impalement. A German witness of the Constantinople massacre (April 1821) narrates the impalement of about 65 Greeks by a Turkish mob. In April 1821, thirty Greeks from the Ionian island of Zante (Zakynthos) had been impaled in Patras. This was recorded in the diary of the French consul Hughes Pouqueville and published by his brother François Pouqueville.
Athanasios Diakos, a klepht and later a rebel military commander, was captured after the Battle of Alamana (1821), near Thermopylae, and after refusing to convert to Islam and join the Ottoman army, he was impaled. Diakos became a martyr for a Greek independence and was later honored as a national hero. Non-combatant Greeks (elders, monks, women etc.) were impaled around Athens during the first year of the revolution (1821).
Occurrences in genocides
Aurora Mardiganian, a survivor of the Armenian genocide of 1915–1923, said that impalement of girls was used in that genocide.
References and notes
Bibliography
Books
Newspapers, magazines and periodicals
Web resources
Execution methods | [
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236599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cujo | Cujo | Cujo () is a 1981 psychological horror novel by American writer Stephen King about a rabid Saint Bernard. The novel won the British Fantasy Award in 1982 and was made into a film in 1983.
Background
Cujo's name was based on the alias of Willie Wolfe, one of the men responsible for orchestrating Patty Hearst's kidnapping and indoctrination into the Symbionese Liberation Army. Stephen King discusses Cujo in On Writing, referring to it as a novel he "barely remembers writing at all." King wrote the book during the height of his struggle with alcohol addiction. King goes on to say he likes the book and wishes he could remember enjoying the good parts as he put them on the page.
According to King, the novel was partly inspired by his trip to a mechanic during the spring of 1977. In a 2006 interview with The Paris Review, King describes how issues with his motorcycle led him to visit an auto shop on the northern outskirts of Bridgton, Maine. He claims his motorcycle died when he arrived at the shop, and moments after, a Saint Bernard emerged from the garage, growling at him and eventually lunging for his hand. Although the mechanic stopped the dog from harming King by hitting the dog's hindquarters with a wrench, King was still startled by the encounter. This incident, as well as a story published in a Portland, Maine, newspaper about a young child who was killed by a Saint Bernard, provided inspiration for the novel. King also owned a dysfunctional Ford Pinto at the time, which is the same car model the novel's protagonist, Donna Trenton, drives to the auto garage where she encounters the rabid Cujo.
Plot
The story takes place in the setting for many King stories: the fictional town of Castle Rock, Maine. Revolving around two local families, the narrative is interspersed with vignettes from the seemingly mundane lives of various other residents. There are no chapter headings, but breaks between passages indicate when the narration switches to a different perspective.
In the summer of 1980, the middle-class Trentons have recently moved to Castle Rock from New York City, bringing with them their four-year-old son, Tad. Vic Trenton discovers his wife, Donna, has recently had an affair with a tennis player named Steve Kemp. In the midst of this household tension, Vic's advertising agency, Ad Worx, is failing due to a scandal over a cereal called Red Razberry Zingers. Vic, and his business partner Roger Breakstone, are forced to travel out of town, leaving Tad and Donna at home alone.
The blue-collar Cambers, meanwhile, are longtime residents of Castle Rock. Joe Camber is a mechanic who dominates and abuses his wife, Charity, and their ten-year-old son, Brett. Charity wins a $5,000 lottery prize and uses the proceeds to trick Joe into allowing her to take Brett on a trip to visit Charity's sister, Holly, in Connecticut. Joe acquiesces and secretly plans to use the time to take a pleasure trip to Boston with his friend, alcoholic WW2 veteran Gary Pervier.
While the Cambers are getting ready for their respective trips, their dog Cujo, a large good-natured Saint Bernard, chases a wild rabbit in the fields around their house and inserts his head in the entrance to a small limestone cave. A bat bites him on the nose and infects him with rabies. Charity and Brett leave town, and while they are gone, Cujo kills Gary, and eventually Joe as well.
Donna, home alone with Tad, takes their failing Ford Pinto to Joe for repairs. The car breaks down in the Cambers' dooryard, and as Donna attempts to find Joe, Cujo appears and attacks her. She climbs back in the car as Cujo starts to attack. Donna and Tad are trapped in their vehicle, the interior of which becomes increasingly hot in the summer sun. During one escape attempt, Donna is bitten in the stomach and leg, but manages to survive and escape back into the car. She plans to run for the house but abandons the idea because she fears the door will be locked and that she will be subsequently killed by Cujo, leaving her son alone.
Vic returns to Castle Rock after several failed attempts to contact Donna and learns from the police that Steve Kemp, the man with whom Donna was having an affair, is suspected of ransacking his home and possibly kidnapping Donna and Tad. To explore all leads, the state police send Castle Rock Sheriff George Bannerman out to the Cambers' house, but Cujo attacks and kills him. Donna, after witnessing the attack and realizing Tad is in danger of dying of dehydration, battles Cujo and kills him. Vic arrives on the scene with the authorities soon after, but Tad has already died from dehydration and heatstroke. Donna is rushed to the hospital, and Cujo's head is removed for a biopsy to check for rabies prior to the cremation of his remains.
The novel ends several months later with both the Trenton and Camber families trying to move on with their lives. Donna has completed her treatment for rabies and her marriage to Vic has survived. Charity gives Brett a new, vaccinated puppy named Willie. A postscript says that the hole Cujo chased the rabbit into was not discovered. It also reminds the reader that Cujo was a good dog who always tried to keep his owners happy, but the ravage of rabies drove him to violence.
Characters
Cujo: a friendly Saint Bernard that becomes murderous after contracting rabies from a bat bite.
Donna Trenton: wife of Vic Trenton. She becomes trapped in the car after arriving at the auto shop where the rabid Cujo lurks.
Vic Trenton: Donna's husband. He is on a work-related trip when his wife and son encounter Cujo at the Camber auto shop.
Tad Trenton: son of Donna and Vic. He becomes trapped in the car with Donna at the auto shop.
Gary Pervier: the next-door neighbor and poker buddy of Joe Camber. A sixty-year-old army veteran who looks like a hermit. He is the first victim of Cujo.
Joe Camber: mechanic and owner of the auto shop where Donna and Tad encounter Cujo.
Charity Camber: wife of Joe Camber. She and her son leave Cujo behind while on a trip to visit Charity's sister.
Brett Camber: son of Joe and Charity. Cujo is Brett's dog.
Frank Dodd: a former Castle Rock police officer who was discovered to be the "Castle Rock Strangler", a serial killer traumatizing Castle Rock during the 1970s (see The Dead Zone). Cujo makes many references to Dodd throughout the story.
George Bannerman: the current Castle Rock sheriff. He once worked with Dodd and discovered Dodd's guilt in the Castle Rock murders. He is killed by Cujo in his attempt to save Donna and Tad.
Steve Kemp: The man with whom Donna has had an affair. He breaks into and vandalizes Donna's house after learning she wants to end the affair.
Roger Breakstone: Vic's friend and coworker. He accompanies Vic on his work-related trip.
Critical reception
Upon its initial release in 1981, the novel earned and maintained a high position on bestseller lists in the United States. Some critics have criticized the novel for its ending. The 1983 film adaptation of the novel featured a more optimistic conclusion.
Cujo received the following accolades:
Locus Award Nominee for Best Fantasy Novel (1982)
Balrog Award Nominee for Best Novel (1982)
British Fantasy Award for Best Novel (August Derlith Fantasy Award) (1982)
Despite the above, according to the American Library Association, Cujo was the 49th most banned and challenged book in the United States between 1990 and 1999.
Allusions and connections to other King novels
There are allusions to Cujo in King's other works, which often reference the Saint Bernard and refer generally to the incident of the summer of 1980 when the rabid dog killed three people in Castle Rock, Maine.
On the official Stephen King website, Cujo is listed as a character in numerous other novels, including Needful Things, The Body, The Dark Half, and Pet Sematary.
References
External links
Stephen King.com: Cujo
1981 American novels
Adultery in novels
American horror novels
American novels adapted into films
Fictional dogs
Fiction set in 1980
Novels about mental health
Novels by Stephen King
Novels set in Maine
Rabies in popular culture
Viking Press books
Novels about dogs
Third-person narrative novels | [
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236600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil%20Empire | Evil Empire | An evil empire is a speculative fiction trope in which a powerful, technologically advanced empire tries to conquer the world.
Evil Empire may also refer to:
Evil Empire speech, given by U.S. President Ronald Reagan referring to the Soviet Union in 1983
Evil Empire (album), a 1996 album by Rage Against the Machine
Evil Empire (company), French game studio split from Motion Twin to support their 2018 video game Dead Cells
Evil Empire Tour, the tour promoting the album
Evil empire, a nickname for the New York Yankees and New England Patriots
The Evil Empire: 101 Ways That England Ruined the World, a book written by Steven Grasse in 2007
"Evil Empire", a video game in the Action 52 series
"Evil Empire", a song by Joe Jackson from his album Blaze of Glory
Evil Empire: A Talk by Chalmers Johnson, a 2007 film
Evil Empire, a video game development studio created by Motion Twin to take over the development of the game Dead Cells
See also
Evil Emperor (disambiguation) | [
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236605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus%20Lutatius%20Catulus%20%28consul%20102%20BC%29 | Quintus Lutatius Catulus (consul 102 BC) | Quintus Lutatius Catulus (149–87 BC) was a consul of the Roman Republic in 102 BC. His consular colleague was Gaius Marius. During their consulship the Cimbri and Teutones marched south again and threatened the Republic. While Marius marched against the Teutones in Gaul, Catulus had to keep the Cimbri from invading Italy. In this he failed; the Cimbri succeeded in invading the Po Valley. In 101 BC Catulus, as proconsul, continued the war against the Cimbri. Marius, elected consul for the fifth time, joined him and together they campaigned against the Germanic invaders in the Po Valley. At the Battle of Vercellae Marius and Catulus decisively defeated the Cimbri and ended the Germanic invasion. After Vercellae the two feuded, and Catulus consequently committed suicide following Marius's victory in the civil war of 87 BC.
As general
During Catulus' consulship, the Romans found out the wandering Cimbri and Teutones were planning to invade Italy. Catulus, as junior consul, was sent to defend the passes through the Alps from Noricum against the Cimbri while the senior consul, Gaius Marius, campaigned against the Teutones and their allies the Ambrones in Gaul. While he was up in the Alps, Catulus pacified much of the territory's tribes with the help of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who served Catulus as a legate. Catulus found his task impractical, because there were multiple passes and he would have to divide and weaken his army; he decided to retreat to a more defensible position. During the retreat Catulus became worried the Cimbri would corner his army; therefore he decide to attempt to score a minor victory in order to extricate his troops from the region. He led his army onto a mountain, which overlooked the Cimbri camp, and then ordered his men to remain ready for battle while he had a camp raised in view of the barbarians. When night fell Catulus attacked the Cimbri, then used the chaos this caused to cross a stream and continue his march southwards. Catulus marched until he reached the Atesis River; there he ordered his men to construct fortifications on both sides of the river with a bridge between them. When the Cimbri arrived, they made camp and investigated Catulus' defences. Their scouts reported they could not cross the river anywhere in the immediate area, so they decided to dam the Atesis by throwing earth, rocks, and trees into the stream creating a makeshift dam. Unnerved by the diminishing water flow the Romans started to break camp. Catulus unsuccessfully tried to get his troops back to their stations. When the Cimbri finally launched their assault, they found just one cohort defending the camp on the far side of the river. These men fought with courage and somehow managed to escape. Catulus had retreated in the face of the enemy twice, but he had kept his army intact. The following year (101) his command was prolonged and he was given proconsular powers.
The Cimbri, who had advanced into the Po Valley, were eventually defeated on the Raudine plain, near Vercellae, by the combined armies of Catulus and Gaius Marius. Catulus commanded the Roman centre during the battle and redeemed himself by leading his men to victory. For his part in the victory over the Cimbri he was awarded a Triumph. Despite their joint success, the two commanders regarded each other as bitter rivals and after the war built competing temples to demonstrate divine favour.
When the chief honour for victory over the Cimbri was given to Marius, Catulus turned vehemently against his former co-commander and sided with Sulla to expel Marius, Cornelius Cinna and their supporters from Rome. When Cinna and Marius regained control of the city in 87 BC, Catulus was prosecuted by Marius's nephew, Marcus Marius Gratidianus. Rather than accept the inevitable guilty verdict, he committed suicide.
As author
Catulus was a distinguished orator, poet and prose writer, and was well versed in Greek literature. He wrote a history of his consulship (De consulatu et de rebus gestis suis) in the manner of Xenophon. A non-extant epic on the Cimbrian War, sometimes attributed to him, was more likely written by Archias. Catulus's contributions to Latin poetry are considered his most significant literary achievements. He is credited with introducing the Hellenistic epigram to Rome and fostering a taste for short, personal poems that comes to fruition with the lyric oeuvre of Valerius Catullus in the 50s BC. Among his circle of literary friends, who ranged widely in social position and political sympathies, were Valerius Aedituus, Aulus Furius, and Porcius Licinius.
Pliny lists him among distinguished men who wrote short poems that were less than austere (versiculi parum severi). Only two epigrams by Catulus have been preserved, both directed at men. Cicero preserves one of Catulus's couplets on the celebrated actor Roscius, who is said to make an entrance like a sunrise: "though he is human, he seems more beautiful than a god."
The other epigram, modelled directly after Callimachus, is quoted by Aulus Gellius and may be paraphrased in prose as follows:
"The willingness of a member of the highest Roman aristocracy to toss off imitations of Hellenistic sentimental erotic poetry (homosexual at that)," notes Edward Courtney, "is a new phenomenon in Roman culture at this time."
As builder
Catulus was a man of great wealth, which he spent in beautifying Rome. Two buildings were known as Monumenta Catuli: the Temple of Fortuna Huiusce Diei (the "Fortune of This Day"), to commemorate the day of Vercellae, and the Porticus Catuli, built from the sale of the Cimbrian spoils.
Family
Catulus' mother Popillia later married a Lucius Julius Caesar and by him was mother to Lucius Julius Caesar and Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo. Cicero lauded Catulus for the panegyric he delivered on the death of his mother, describing it as the first time a Roman matron had been so honoured.
Three wives are attested for Catulus:
Domitia of the Ahenobarbi, the mother of his son Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus (consul 78, censor 65 BC).
Servilia of the Caepiones, who was mother of his daughter Lutatia, the wife of the great orator Quintus Hortensius (consul 69).
Claudia, of uncertain family but probably of the Marian aligned branch of Claudi Marcelli, likely a daughter of Marius' friend and legate Marcus Claudius Marcellus. This was probably Catulus' longest marriage (c. 103-87 BC), if, as seems likely, he wed her to secure Marian support for his election as a consul, which he only belatedly achieved at the comitia in 103 for 102 BC. However, she is only attested as his wife at the time of his death at the end of 87 BC. There is no record of any children by this match.
An approximate chronology of the marital affairs of Catulus:
c. 126 BC: Married Domitia
125 or 124 BC: Birth of Catulus Capitolinus
c. 111 BC: Death or divorce of Domitia
c. 109 BC: Praetor, married Servilia. She was probably the eldest daughter (born around 124 BC) of his coeval, and colleague as praetor, Quintus Servilius Caepio (cos. 106 BC). The latter's apparently promiscuous daughters were harshly abused as whores by Timagenes of Alexandreia.
c. 108 BC: Birth of Lutatia (mother of Hortensia Oratrix and Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, the poet and Caesarian)
105 BC: Arausio disaster, and disgrace and imprisonment of Quintus Servilius Caepio
104 BC: Caepio escaped into exile and Catulus divorces Caepio's daughter Servilia
103 BC: Catulus married Claudia and is finally elected consul for 102 BC after three previous defeats.
In fiction
Catulus appears in Colleen McCullough's Masters of Rome novels. Rather than a half brother to Caesar Strabo and Lucius Caesar, McCullough depicts Catulus as having been born a Caesar and adopted into the Lutatius Catulus family; she names him "Catulus Caesar" according to the custom of retaining the former name.
This version of Catulus is a pompous aristocrat and an inept general during his consulship with Marius in The First Man in Rome. When fighting the Cimbri his senior legate, Sulla, forces him, on threat of mutiny, to retreat to a more defensible position.
See also
Hortensius (Cicero)
References
Citations
Sources
Plutarch, Life of Marius and Life of Sulla
Appian, Bellum Civile i. 74
Velleius Paterculus ii. 21
Florus iii. 21
Valerius Maximus vi. 3, ix. 13
Cicero, De Oratore iii. 8 and Brutus 35
Aulus Gellius, i, 11, 16 and xix, 9, 10
149 BC births
87 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Roman consuls
1st-century BC Romans
Ancient LGBT history
Ancient Roman generals
LGBT history in Italy
LGBT people from Italy
Catulus, Quintus
Old Latin-language writers
People of the Cimbrian War | [
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236606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm%20pump | Diaphragm pump | A diaphragm pump (also known as a Membrane pump) is a positive displacement pump that uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or teflon diaphragm and suitable valves on either side of the diaphragm
(check valve, butterfly valves, flap valves, or any other form of shut-off valves) to pump a fluid.
There are three main types of diaphragm pumps:
Those in which the diaphragm is sealed with one side in the fluid to be pumped, and the other in air or hydraulic fluid. The diaphragm is flexed, causing the volume of the pump chamber to increase and decrease. A pair of non-return check valves prevent reverse flow of the fluid.
Those employing volumetric positive displacement where the prime mover of the diaphragm is electro-mechanical, working through a crank or geared motor drive, or purely mechanical, such as with a lever or handle. This method flexes the diaphragm through simple mechanical action, and one side of the diaphragm is open to air.
Those employing one or more unsealed diaphragms with the fluid to be pumped on both sides. The diaphragm(s) again are flexed, causing the volume to change.
When the volume of a chamber of either type of pump is increased (the diaphragm moving up), the pressure decreases, and fluid is drawn into the chamber. When the chamber pressure later increases from decreased volume (the diaphragm moving down), the fluid previously drawn in is forced out. Finally, the diaphragm moving up once again draws fluid into the chamber, completing the cycle. This action is similar to that of the cylinder in an internal combustion engine. Diaphragm Pumps deliver a hermetic seal between the drive mechanism and the compression chamber, allowing the pump to transfer, compress, and evacuate the medium without a lubricant.
An elastomeric diaphragm can be used as a versatile dynamic seal that removes many of the limitations found with other sealing methods. They do not leak, offer little friction, and can be constructed for low pressure sensitivity. With the right material consideration, diaphragms can seal over a wide range of pressures and temperatures without needing lubrication or maintenance.
Characteristics
Diaphragm pump characteristics:
have good suction lift characteristics, some are low pressure pumps with low flow rates; others are capable of higher flow rates, dependent on the effective working diameter of the diaphragm and its stroke length. They can handle sludges and slurries with a relatively high amount of grit and solid content.
pump design separates pump fluids from potentially sensitive internal pump parts
internal pump parts are often suspended and isolated within oil, to promote pump longevity
suitable for abrasive, corrosive solutions
suitable for discharge pressure up to 1,200 bar
have good dry running characteristics.
can be used to make artificial hearts.
are used to make air pumps for the filters on small fish tanks.
can be up to 97% efficient.
have good self priming capabilities.
can handle highly viscous liquids. A viscosity correction chart can be used as a tool to help prevent under-sizing AOD pumps
Air compressors
Small mechanically activated diaphragm pumps are also used as air compressors and as a source of low-grade vacuum. Compared to other compressors, compressed ones are quiet, cheap and, most importantly, have no moving parts in the airstream. This allows them to be used without added lubrication in contact with the air, so the compressed air produced can be guaranteed clean.
References
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236609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coracle | Coracle | A coracle is a small, rounded, lightweight boat of the sort traditionally used in Wales, and also in parts of the West Country and in Ireland, particularly the River Boyne, and in Scotland, particularly the River Spey. The word is also used of similar boats found in India, Vietnam, Iraq and Tibet. The word "coracle" is an English spelling of the original Welsh cwrwgl, cognate with Irish and Scottish Gaelic currach, and is recorded in English text as early as the sixteenth century. Other historical English spellings include corougle, corracle, curricle and coricle.
Structure
The structure is made of a framework of split and interwoven willow rods, tied with willow bark. The outer layer was originally an animal skin such as horse or bullock hide (corium), with a thin layer of tar to waterproof it – today replaced by tarred calico, canvas, or fibreglass. The Vietnamese/Asian version of the coracle is made of interwoven bamboo and waterproofed by using resin and coconut oil. Oval in shape and very similar to half a walnut shell, the coracle has a keel-less flat bottom to evenly spread the load across the structure and to reduce the required depth of water – often to only a few inches. This structure helps to make the boat more maneuverable and less likely to snag when used on narrow and/or shallow slow-running waterways.
Each coracle is tailored to the local river conditions. In general there is one design per river, but this is not always the case. The Teifi coracle, for instance, is flat-bottomed, as it is designed to negotiate shallow rapids, common on the river in the summer, while the Carmarthen coracle is rounder and deeper, because it is used in tidal waters on the Tywi, where there are no rapids. Teifi coracles are made from locally harvested wood – willow for the laths (body of the boat), hazel for the weave ( in Welsh – the bit round the top) – while Tywi coracles have been made from sawn ash for a long time. The working boats tend to be made from fibreglass these days. Teifi coracles use no nails, relying on the interweaving of the laths for structural coherence, whilst the Carmarthen ones use copper nails and no interweaving.
They are an effective fishing vessel because, when powered by a skilled person, they hardly disturb the water or the fish, and they can be easily manoeuvred with one arm, while the other arm tends to the net; two coracles to a net. The coracle is propelled by means of a broad-bladed paddle, which traditionally varies in design between different rivers. It is used in a sculling action, the blade describing a figure-of-eight pattern in the water. The paddle is used towards the front of the coracle, pulling the boat forward, with the paddler facing in the direction of travel.
The Welsh Coracle is intended to be carried on the back; Welsh saying is (load of a man is his coracle).
History
Designed for use in swiftly flowing streams, the coracle has been in use in the British Isles for millennia, having been noted by Julius Caesar in his invasion of Britain in the mid first century BC, and used in his military campaigns in Spain. Remains interpreted as a possible coracle were found in an Early Bronze Age grave at Barns Farm near Dalgety Bay, and others have been described, from Corbridge and from near North Ferriby.
Where coracle fishing is performed by two coraclers the net is stretched across the river between the two coracles. The coraclers will paddle one handed, dragging the net in the other, and draw the net downstream. When a fish is caught, each hauls up an end of the net until the two boats are brought to touch, and the fish is then secured, using a priest (or knocker – a small block of wood) to stun the fish.
In the 1920s and 30s James Hornell visited hundreds of rivers in the British Isles to talk with remaining coracle makers and users. He documented the tradition in his book British Coracles and the Curraghs of Ireland (The Society for Nautical Research, 1938) containing drawings, diagrams and construction details gleaned from regular makers.
Today
Coracles are now seen regularly only in tourist areas of West Wales, and irregularly in Shropshire on the River Severn—a public house in Sundorne, Shrewsbury called "The Coracle" has a pub sign featuring a man using a coracle on a river. The Welsh rivers Teifi and Tywi are the most common places to find coracles in Wales. On the Teifi they are most frequently seen between Cenarth, and Cilgerran and the village of Llechryd.
In 1974, a Welsh coracle piloted by Bernard Thomas (c. 1923–2014) of Llechryd crossed the English Channel to France in hours. The journey was undertaken to demonstrate how the Bull Boats of the Mandan Indians of North Dakota could have been copied from coracles introduced by Prince Madog in the 12th century.
For many years until 1979, Shrewsbury coracle maker Fred Davies achieved some notability amongst football fans; he would sit in his coracle during Shrewsbury Town FC home matches at Gay Meadow, and retrieve stray balls from the River Severn. Although Davies died in 1994, his legend is still associated with the club.
The Coracle Society
The Coracle Society is a UK-based organisation was founded in 1990 by its former president, Sir Peter Badge (1921–2020). The five founding aims of the Society were:
To promote the knowledge of coracles, curraghs and allied craft, their making and use, and also their study and collection,
To take all reasonable steps to support the continuance of fishing involving the use of coracles and to encourage the holding of coracle regattas, races and the like,
To publish a newsletter as a means of communication between all those interested in coracles,
To use its best endeavours to obtain supplies of materials for the construction of coracles, and
To promote demonstrations, courses, exhibitions, discussions and lectures relating to coracles.
The current president of the Society is Irving Finkel, Assistant Keeper in the Department of the Middle East at the British Museum, who is known for decoding a cuneiform tablet detailing Noah's Ark – the description of which resembles a very large coracle. The current Society chairperson is Jude Pilgrim, a committee member of the Heritage Lottery Fund. She recently played an instrumental part in setting up the Ironbridge Coracle Trust, formed to save the Eustace Rogers coracle hut in Ironbridge from demolition.
There are many Society members across the country who demonstrate at events and/or run coracle building courses, helping meet the Society's founding aims. A list of some of this year's events can be found on the official Coracle Society website.
The Society was present at the 2005 Shrewsbury River Festival, where they displayed various coracles on the River Severn. There is also an annual coracle regatta held in Ironbridge on the August Bank Holiday Monday every year. Organised by the Green Wood Centre until 2014 and the Ironbridge Coracle Trust from 2015, it is run on an informal basis whereby anyone with a coracle can take part in the event. Each year new entrants come with coracles made on the Bank Holiday weekend at the Green Wood Centre.
Members of the Society support the annual world championship coracle races in Shrewsbury, which raises funds in support of Macmillan Cancer Support.
In 2010, the Society celebrated its 20th anniversary with a number of events, including a morning of talks at the National Coracle Centre in Cenarth. In 2015, the Society celebrated its 25th anniversary at its founding home of St Fagans National History Museum. Events included a talk from Irving Finkel about his experiences decoding the Noah tablet and making the accompanying Channel 4 documentary. The Society also supported the return of coracles and coracle regattas to Welshpool in 2015.
Safety
The design of the coracle makes it an unstable craft. Because it sits "on" the water, rather than "in" it, the vessel can easily be carried by currents and the wind. The Coracle Society has published guidelines for safely using coracles.
Similar craft
The oldest instructions yet found for construction of a coracle are contained in precise directions on a four-thousand-year-old cuneiform tablet supposedly dictated by the Mesopotamian god Enki to Atra-Hasis on how to build a round "ark". The tablet is about 2,250 years older than previously discovered accounts of flood myths, none of which contain such details. These instructions depict a vessel that is today known as a , or Iraqi coracle.
Many scholars believe that the basket that baby Moses was cast adrift in on the Nile (in Exodus 2:3) was in fact a coracle or quffa, based on the similarity of that passage to Neo-Assyrian legends depicting infants cast adrift on rivers in .
The Irish curach (also currach or curragh) is a similar, but larger, vessel still in use today. Curachs were also used in the west of Scotland:
The currachs in the River Spey were particularly similar to Welsh coracles. Other related craft include:
India – parisal
Iraq – or
Native American societies – bull boat
Tibet – ku-dru and kowas
Vietnam – thúng chai or thuyền thúng
Indian coracle
Indian coracles (Tamil:பரிசல் (parisal), Kannada:ಹರಗೋಲು,ತೆಪ್ಪ, (Haragōlu, tep – "crab")) are commonly found on the rivers Kaveri and Tungabhadra in Southern India. Coracles are primitive, light, bowl-shaped boats with a frame of woven grasses, reeds, or saplings covered with hides. Indian coracles are considered to have been in existence since prehistoric times, and are a major tourist attraction at the Hogenakkal falls on the Kaveri river. Although these boats were originally designed for general transport, they have recently been used mostly for giving tourists rides.
Types
The coracles found in the Hogenakkal are of two types, which differ mainly in size. The smaller ones are about 6.2 feet (1.9 metres) in diameter, and are used primarily for fishing. The larger ones, which measure up to 8.4 feet (2.6 metres) in diameter, are used for tourists.
Design
Indian coracles are either saucer or bowl shaped and circular, with the greatest diameter across the mouth. The circular coracles in Iraq are very similar, but they have convexly curved sides, and thus the mouth is not the widest part. Indian coracles are on average about 7.3 feet (2.24 metres) in diameter, but can still hold eight people at a time. Other kinds of coracles usually can only hold one person. Indian coracles, and coracles in general, are made of bamboo and take about a day to build, given all the necessary materials. The bottoms of the boats are covered in hides, or sometimes with sheets of plastic, in order to make them waterproof. In modern times, a sheet of LDPE plastic is often embedded between two layers of bamboo. Sometimes the bottom of the craft is tarred to make it waterproof. Coracles are steered and propelled using a single paddle from the front of the boat in the direction of travel, making them unique.
Construction
The boats are made primarily from bamboo. The first step in construction is a basic framework woven from bamboo sticks. Then the bottom is further reinforced with the addition of more bamboo sticks, making the boat's base sturdy. Once the bottom is structurally sound, the lowest points of the sides are defined by a circumferential band of three flat strips of bamboo woven into the existing lattice. The sides of the boat are then made with 20 to 30 adjacent strips of bamboo. Finally this framework is again strengthened by lightweight bamboo, making sure that the sides are not heavier than the base.
The boats had earlier been waterproofed by using hides of animals, but these days plastic sheets are used for this purpose as they are cheaper as well as easily available. The waterproofing is further enhanced by a layer of tar, a feature which is common in most contemporary coracles.
Local names
, sometimes spelt – Tamil
or – Kannada
in Telugu
in Malayalam
Iraqi coracle
Iraqi coracles, called or (Arabic: قفة), have been used as ferries, lighters, fishing vessels, and water taxis on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers since at least the 9th century BC. They share details with the myriad types of coracle used across Eurasia. Modern can be up to 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter and carry four to five tons. Modern are of similar size and construction as their ancient counterparts, with both being made from woven bundles of reeds or basketry waterproofed with bitumen.
See also
Currach
Fishing coracle
Kuphar
Kayak
Umiak
References
External links
The official website of The Coracle Society
BBC Legacies – Coracles article
World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Parisal from Tamil Nadu, Southern India
Historical note from the Coracle Society of Wales
Brief history and design principles
Boat types
Indigenous boats
History of Wales
Transport in Wales
History of Shropshire
River Severn
Traditional boats
Celtic culture | [
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236613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyra%20Banks | Tyra Banks | Tyra Lynne Banks (born December 4, 1973), also known as BanX, is an American television personality, model, businesswoman, producer, actress, and writer. Born in Inglewood, California, she began her career as a model at the age of 15, and was the first African-American woman to be featured on the covers of GQ and the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, on which she appeared three times. She was a Victoria's Secret Angel from 1997 to 2005. By the early 2000s, Banks was one of the world's top-earning models.
Banks began acting on television in the sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (1993), and made her film debut in the drama Higher Learning (1995). In 2000, she had major film roles, such as Eve in Disney Channel's Life-Size and Zoe in the box-office hit Coyote Ugly. Banks had small roles in the romantic sports film Love & Basketball (2000), the horror film Halloween: Resurrection (2002), and in the television series Gossip Girl (2009) and Glee (2013).
In 2003, Banks created the long-running reality television series America's Next Top Model, which she executive produced and presented for the first twenty-two seasons, until the series' cancellation in October 2015. She remained executive producer for the revival of the series in 2016 and enlisted Rita Ora as host for the twenty-third cycle before reassuming the duties herself for the twenty-fourth cycle. Banks was the co-creator of True Beauty (2009–2010), and had her own television talk show, The Tyra Banks Show (2005–2010), which aired on The CW won two Daytime Emmy awards for Outstanding Talk Show Informative. In 2015, she co-hosted the talk show FABLife for two months. In 2017, Banks was the host of America's Got Talent for its 12th season. In 2020, she was the host of Dancing with the Stars for its 29th season, also serving as an executive producer.
In 2010, Banks published a young adult novel titled Modelland, based on her life as a model, which topped The New York Times Best Seller list in 2011. She also has her own production company, Bankable Productions, which produced The Tyra Banks Show, America's Next Top Model. and the 2008 film The Clique. Banks is one of four African Americans and seven women to have repeatedly been ranked among the world's most influential people by Time magazine. She is also one of only seventeen models to be ranked as a Legendary Supermodel by MODELS.com.
Early life and education
Tyra Lynne Banks was born in Inglewood, California, on December 4, 1973. Her mother, Carolyn London (now London-Johnson), is a medical photographer, and her father, Donald Banks, is a computer consultant. She has a brother, Devin, who is five years older. In 1979, when Banks was six years old, her parents divorced. Banks attended John Burroughs Middle School, and graduated in 1991 from Immaculate Heart High School in Los Angeles. Banks has said that while growing up, she was teased for her appearance and considered an "ugly duckling"; when Banks was 11 years old, she grew three inches and lost 30 pounds in three months. On America's Next Top Model, Banks discussed the results of an Ancestry.com genealogical DNA test that gave her "79% African, 14% British, and 6% Native American" results. In an interview, she added that she is also "1% Finnish", saying: "I'm 14% British, 6% Native American, 1% Finnish, and all the rest African."
In February of 2012, Banks completed a nine-week course at Harvard University’s Owner/President Management non-degree extension program.
Modeling career
When Banks was 15 years old, she started modeling while attending school in Los Angeles. She was rejected by four modeling agencies before she was signed by L.A. Models. She switched to Elite Model Management at age 16. When she got the opportunity to model in Europe, she moved to Milan. In her first runway season, she booked 25 shows in the 1991 Paris Fashion Week. Banks appeared in editorials for American, Italian, French, and Spanish Vogue; American, French, German, and Spanish Elle; American, German, and Malaysian Harper's Bazaar; V; W and Vanity Fair.
She appeared on the covers of magazines such as Elle; Harper's Bazaar; Spanish Vogue; Cosmopolitan; Seventeen and Teen Vogue. She walked in fashion shows for Chanel, Oscar de la Renta, Yves Saint Laurent, Anna Sui, Christian Dior, Donna Karan, Calvin Klein, Perry Ellis, Marc Jacobs, Givenchy, Herve Leger, Valentino, Fendi, Isaac Mizrahi, Giorgio Armani, Sonia Rykiel, Michael Kors and others. She appeared in advertising campaigns for Yves Saint Laurent, Dolce & Gabbana, Escada, Tommy Hilfiger, Ralph Lauren, Halston, H&M, XOXO, Swatch, Versace, Christian Lacroix, Victoria's Secret, Got Milk?, Pepsi and Nike. In 1993, Banks signed a contract with CoverGirl cosmetics, launching advertising campaigns for the cosmetics company. She was one of only a few Black models to achieve Supermodel status. In the mid-1990s, Banks returned to America to do more commercial modeling.
Banks was the first woman on the cover of Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue and the first African-American woman on the cover of GQ. In 1997, she received the VH1 award for "Supermodel of the Year". That year, she was the first African American chosen for the cover of the Victoria's Secret catalog, and became a Victoria's Secret Angel. In 2010, Banks re-signed with her former modeling agency IMG Models. Banks is now a contributor of the Vogue Italia website. In 2013, Banks transformed herself into 15 supermodels, in collaboration with fashion photographer Udo Spreitzenbarth.
In 2019, Banks came out of her modeling retirement to pose for one of the three 2019 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue covers; the other cover models being Camille Kostek and Alex Morgan. It marked her third cover for the publication, 22 years after her first. She also announced that she will now go by the modeling name BanX.
Television and film career
Banks's television career began on the fourth season of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, in which she played lead character Will Smith's old friend Jackie Ames. She made seven appearances in the series. Other TV credits include Felicity, All That, MADtv, Nick Cannon's Wild 'n Out (in which she was featured as a special guest host and team captain) and The Price Is Right (guest-starring as a "Barker's Beauty"). She also appeared as a guest in the animated talk show Space Ghost Coast to Coast in an episode entitled "Chinatown".
Banks started her production company, "Ty Ty Baby Productions" — soon afterward changed to Bankable Productions — which produced The Tyra Banks Show, America's Next Top Model and the 2008 movie The Clique.
Banks is the executive producer and former presenter and judge of America's Next Top Model. In addition, she hosted The Tyra Banks Show, a daytime talk show aimed at younger women, which premiered on September 12, 2005, and ran until May 28, 2010.
In 2008, Banks won the Daytime Emmy Award for her work and production on The Tyra Banks Show, and won for the second time in a row for outstanding, informative talkshow in 2009.
Banks's first big screen role came in 1994, when she co-starred in the drama Higher Learning. She then co-starred with Lindsay Lohan in the Disney film Life-Size, playing a doll named Eve who comes to life. Other films she has starred in include Love Stinks (1999), Love & Basketball (2000), Coyote Ugly (2000), Halloween: Resurrection (2002) and Hannah Montana: The Movie (2009).
Banks appeared in the fourth episode of the third season of Gossip Girl playing Ursula Nyquist, a larger-than-life actress. She also appeared on the Disney Channel show Shake It Up as a school librarian.
In 2012, Deadline Hollywood reported that Banks would co-create and produce an ABC comedy series based on her teenage years titled Fivehead. In 2015, Banks starred in the round table lineup talk show FABLife alongside model Chrissy Teigen, fashion stylist Joe Zee, interior designer Lauren Makk, and YouTube personality Leah Ashley. Banks quit the series after less than three months to focus on her cosmetics company. In 2018, Banks returned to acting for her starring role in Life-Size 2, which premiered on Freeform on December 2. Banks will also star and executive produce Beauty, a documentary series for Quibi. In 2018, she signed a deal with Universal Television.
In July 2020, it was announced that Banks would be the new host of Dancing with the Stars. In August 2020, Banks signed a deal with ABC Signature.
Other ventures
Cosmetics
In 2014, Banks founded the cosmetics brand Tyra Beauty, which she completed a non-degree certificate program at Harvard Business School specifically for. Tyra Beauty uses a multi-level marketing system to recruit sales distributors, who are called "beautytainers" by the company. Banks held a casting call to find faces for her line, eventually selecting Melody Parra, Monique Hayward, Katy Harvey and Top Model Norge contestant Marita Gomsrud as the cosmetic line's original beauty models.
In March 2011, Banks launched her fashion and beauty website called "typeF.com", which she co-created with Demand Media. In 2015, she launched "tyra.com", an interactive cosmetic e-commerce site.
Music
Banks has appeared in several music videos, including Michael Jackson's "Black or White", Mobb Deep's "Trife Life", Tina Turner's "Love Thing", George Michael's "Too Funky" (with models Linda Evangelista, Estelle Lefébure, Emma Sjoberg and Nadja Auermann) and Lionel Richie's "Don't Wanna Lose You". In 2004, she recorded her first single, "Shake Ya Body", which had a music video featuring contestants from cycle 2 of America's Next Top Model. The video premiered on UPN.
Banks released a single with NBA player Kobe Bryant, entitled "K.O.B.E.", which was performed on NBA TV. She also had a single on the Life-Size (2000) soundtrack called "Be a Star". Banks recorded a song with musician Todrick Hall for his 2021 album Femuline, entitled "Fashón".
Writing
In 1998, Banks co-authored a book entitled Tyra's Beauty, Inside and Out. She announced in May 2010 that she would be writing a novel, titled Modelland, loosely based on her own modelling experience. It was published in September 2011, intended to be the first of a planned three-part series; Modelland topped The New York Times Best Seller list in October 2011. In 2018, Banks and her mother, Carolyn London, co-authored a book entitled "Perfect is Boring".
Teaching
In August 2016, Banks accepted a position as a personal branding guest lecturer at Stanford University.
Personal life
Banks dated Norwegian photographer Erik Asla during the 2010s, and in January 2016 they had a biological son born via surrogacy. Banks has stated that she tends to avoid drinking and has never used other recreational drugs.
Banks has spoken out about abusive relationships in her past. In 2005, when asked about her relationship history, she stated, "I won't be using a lot of names on the show, but a specific relationship had not just cheating but emotional abuse. It was really bad, but that made me strong." In 2009, she opened up about her past relationships when she made a guest appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, hosting alongside Oprah Winfrey. The episode was dedicated to dating violence in response to the assault of Rihanna by Chris Brown.
Education
In 2011, Banks enrolled in the nine-week Owner/President Management Program (OPM) at Harvard Business School. Banks completed the executive education training program in February 2012, earning a certificate. She has come under criticism for implying she is a Harvard graduate. Jenna Sauers, writing for Jezebel, referred to her statements on Harvard as "disingenuous", and called upon her to "stop lying" about Harvard. As of 2012, Harvard professor Rohit Deshpande was preparing a case study on Banks's company, Bankable Productions, for use in future coursework in the OPM program.
Philanthropy
Banks established the TZONE program, which aimed at leadership and life skills development. She has also established the Tyra Banks Scholarship, a fund aimed at providing African-American girls the opportunity to attend her alma mater, Immaculate Heart High School. In 2005, TZONE transformed from a camp into a public charity, the Tyra Banks TZONE.
Filmography
Film
Television
Music videos
Bibliography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
The Tyra Banks Show website
The New York Times Profile/Interview
1973 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
Activists from California
Actresses from Los Angeles
African-American actresses
African-American businesspeople
African-American Christians
African-American female models
African-American game show hosts
African-American models
African-American television personalities
African-American television talk show hosts
African-American women in business
African-American women singers
American businesspeople in retailing
American cosmetics businesspeople
American female models
American film actresses
American game show hosts
American people of British descent
American philanthropists
American television actresses
American television talk show hosts
American women activists
American women television producers
Alumni of Immaculate Heart High School, Los Angeles
Businesspeople from Los Angeles
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Female models from California
LGBT rights activists from the United States
Musicians from Los Angeles
People from Inglewood, California
Singers from California
Singers from Los Angeles
Television personalities from California
Television producers from California
Victoria's Secret Angels
Women civil rights activists | [
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236614 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus%20Gabinius | Aulus Gabinius | Aulus Gabinius (by 101 BC – 48 or 47 BC) was a Roman statesman and general. He was an avid supporter of Pompey who likewise supported Gabinius. He was a prominent figure in the latter days of the Roman Republic.
Career
In 67 BC, when tribune of the plebs, Gabinius brought forward the law (Lex Gabinia) which gave Pompey the command in the war against the Pirates of the Mediterranean, with extensive powers that gave him absolute control over the sea and the coasts for 50 miles inland. Through Gabinius' two other measures, loans of money to foreign ambassadors in Rome were made actionable (as a check on the corruption of the Senate) and the Senate was ordered to give audiences to foreign envoys on certain fixed days (February 1-March 1) each year.
During the Third Mithridatic War Gabinius served Pompey as a legate. In 65 BC he marched with two legions into Northern Mesopotamia to pressure the Parthian king, Phraates III into a treaty with Pompey.
In 61 BC, Gabinius, then a praetor, tried to win public favour by providing games on a scale of unusual splendour. In 59 BC Gabinius ran for one of the consulships for 58 and managed to get himself elected, although not without the suspicion of bribery. He was consul alongside Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Caesar's father-in-law. During his term of office he aided Publius Clodius Pulcher in bringing about the exile of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Gabinius also managed to secure Syria as his proconsular province.
In 57 BC Gabinius started his term as proconsular governor of Syria. Shortly after his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus II in the high-priesthood of Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, introduced important changes in the government of Judaea and rebuilt several towns. He also supported Mithridates IV in his struggle against his brother Orodes but abandoned Mithridates when the more lucrative offer of restoring Ptolemy XII Auletes to the Egyptian throne reached him.
In 55 BC Pompey convinced Gabinius to march to Egypt to restore Ptolemy XII to his throne. Gabinius did so without the consent of the Senate. He succeeded after a short successful campaign, in which he was supported by the young cavalry officer Mark Antony. He left some of his troops, the so-called Gabiniani, in Egypt to protect Ptolemy XII. These Gabiniani fought against rebellious subjects of the king and later, after the king's death, against Gaius Julius Caesar.
During Gabinius's time in Egypt, Syria had been devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus II of the high-priesthood. Gabinius marched into Judea and defeated Alexander near Mount Tabor killing 10,000 of Alexander's men. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order in Syria, and in 54 BC handed over the province to his successor, Marcus Licinius Crassus. The Roman equites (knights), who as tax collectors had suffered heavy losses during the disturbances in Syria, were greatly embittered against Gabinius, and, when he appeared in the Senate to give an account of his governorship, he was brought to trial on three counts, all involving a capital offence.
On the charge of maiestas (high treason) incurred by having left his province for Egypt without the consent of the Senate and in defiance of the Sibylline Books, Gabinius was acquitted. It was said that the judges were bribed, and even Cicero, an enemy of Gabinius, was persuaded by Pompey to say as little as he could. On the second charge, that of repetundae (extortion during the administration of his province), with special reference to the 10,000 talents paid by Ptolemy XII for his restoration, he was found guilty, in spite of evidence offered on his behalf by Pompey and witnesses from Alexandria and the eloquence of Cicero, who had been induced to plead his cause. Nothing but Cicero's wish to do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to take on the task. Commentators hint that the half-heartedness of Cicero's defence contributed to Gabinius's condemnation. The third charge, that of ambitus (illegalities committed during his canvassing for the consulship), was consequently dropped. Gabinius went into exile and his property was confiscated.
After the outbreak of Caesar's Civil War, Gabinius was recalled by Gaius Julius Caesar in 49 BC and entered his service, but took no active part against his old patron, Pompey. After the Battle of Pharsalus, he was commissioned to transport some recently levied troops to Illyricum. On his way overland, he was attacked by the Dalmatians and with difficulty made his way to Salona (Dalmatia). There Gabinius defended himself against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus Octavius, but a few months later died of illness (48 BC or the beginning of 47 BC).
Marriage and children
Gabinius married a Roman noblewoman called Lollia from the Lollia gens, perhaps a daughter of Marcus Lollius Palicanus, tribune of the plebs in 71 BC. Lollia bore him a son called Aulus Gabinius Sisenna.
References
Sources
Cassius Dio xxxvi. 23–36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63
Plutarch, Pompey, 25. 48
Josephus, Antiq. xiv. 4-6
Appian, Illyrica, 12, Bell. Civ. ii. 24. 59
Cicero, ad Atti. vi. 2, ad Q. Fratrem, ii. 13, Post reditum in senatu, 4–8, Pro lege Manilia, 17, 18, 19
exhaustive article by Bähr in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopädie
Giuseppe Stocchi, Aulo Gabinio e i suoi processi (1892)
2nd-century BC births
40s BC deaths
1st-century BC Roman governors of Syria
1st-century BC Roman consuls
Ancient Roman generals
Aulus
People acquitted of treason
Roman Republican praetors
Year of birth unknown | [
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236616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic | Logarithmic | Logarithmic can refer to:
Logarithm, a transcendental function in mathematics
Logarithmic scale, the use of the logarithmic function to describe measurements
Logarithmic spiral,
Logarithmic growth
Logarithmic distribution, a discrete probability distribution
Natural logarithm | [
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236617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC%20Cobra | AC Cobra | The AC Cobra, sold in the United States as the Shelby Cobra and AC Shelby Cobra, is a sports car manufactured by British company AC Cars, with a Ford V8 engine. It was produced intermittently in both the United Kingdom and later the United States since 1962.
History and development
Like many British manufacturers, AC Cars had been using the Bristol straight-6 engine in its small-volume production, including its AC Ace two-seater roadster. This had a hand-built body with a steel tube frame, and aluminium body panels that were made using English wheeling machines. The engine was a pre-World War II design by BMW which by the 1960s was considered dated. In 1961 Bristol decided to cease production of its engine.
In September 1961, American retired race car driver and automotive designer Carroll Shelby wrote to AC asking if they would build him a car modified to accept a V8 engine. Bristol engines for the AC Ace two-seater sports car had recently been discontinued so AC agreed, provided a suitable engine could be found. Shelby went to Chevrolet to see if they would provide him with engines, but not wanting to add competition to the Corvette they said no. However, Ford wanted a car that could compete with the Corvette and they happened to have a brand new engine which could be used in this endeavor: the Windsor engine – a new lightweight, thin-wall cast small-block V8. Ford provided Shelby with two engines.
AC Ace 3.6
In January 1962 mechanics at AC Cars in Thames Ditton, Surrey designed the "AC Ace 3.6" prototype with chassis number CSX2000.
AC had already made most of the modifications needed for the small-block V8 when they installed the inline 6 Ford Zephyr engine, including the extensive rework of the AC Ace's front end bodywork. The only modification of the front end of the first Cobra from that of the "AC Ace 2.6" was the steering box, which had to be moved outward to clear the wider V8 engine.
The most important modification was the fitting of a stronger rear differential to handle the increased engine power. A Salisbury 4HU unit with inboard disc brakes to reduce unsprung weight was chosen instead of the old E.N.V. unit. It was the same unit used on the Jaguar E-Type.
After testing and modification, the engine and transmission were removed and the chassis was air-freighted to Shelby in Los Angeles on 2 February 1962, By this time the small-block's displacement was increased to .
Shelby's team paired this engine along with a transmission into CSX2000, in less than eight hours at Dean Moon's shop in Santa Fe Springs, California, and began road-testing.
Production
(CSX/CS 2001–2602)
A few changes were made to the production version:
The inboard brakes were moved outboard to reduce cost.
The fuel tank filler was relocated from the fender to the center of the trunk. The trunk lid had to be shortened to accommodate this change.
AC exported completed, painted, and trimmed cars (less engine and gearbox) to Shelby who then finished the cars in his workshop in Los Angeles by installing the engine and gearbox and correcting any bodywork flaws caused by the car's passage by sea. A small number of cars were also completed on the East Coast of the US by Ed Hugus in Pennsylvania, including the first production car; CSX2001.
The first 75 Cobra Mk1 models (including the prototype) were fitted with the . The remaining 51 Mk1 models were fitted with a larger version of the Windsor Ford engine, the V8.
In late 1962, Alan Turner, AC's chief engineer completed a major design change of the car's front end to accommodate rack and pinion steering while still using transverse leaf spring suspension (with the leaf spring doubling as the upper suspension link). The new car entered production in early 1963 and was designated Mark II. The steering rack was borrowed from the MGB while the new steering column came from the VW Beetle. About 528 Mark II Cobras were produced from 1963 to the summer of 1965 (the last US-bound Mark II was produced in November 1964).
European model
(COB/COX 6001–6062)
In 1963 to keep production focused on producing cars for Shelby American Inc., the Ruddspeed Ace was discontinued. To supply cars to the European market, AC began to market and sell the Cobra in Europe. Advertisements from the time state that the Cobra was designed to meet the requirements of Shelby American Inc.
390 Big Block Cobra
Shelby experimented with a larger Ford FE engine, of in chassis number CSX2196. Unfortunately, the car was not able to receive the development it needed, as resources were aimed at taking the crown from Ferrari in the GT class. Ken Miles drove and raced the FE-powered Mark II at Sebring and pronounced the car virtually undrivable, naming it "The Turd". It failed to finish with the engine expiring due to damper failure.
CSX2196 was revised for the showdown at Nassau which allowed a more relaxed class division of racing. This allowed the Cobras to run with a prototype Ford GT40, GM Grand Sport Corvettes and a Lola Mk6. An aluminium engine was used. By the end of the first lap, the Cobra had a lead of the length of the start-finish straight. However, the car failed to finish due to brake problems.
Cobra 427
A new chassis was required, developed, and designated Mark III. The new car was designed in cooperation with Ford in Detroit. A new chassis was built using main chassis tubes, up from and coil spring suspension all around (an especially significant change up front, where the previously-used transverse leaf spring had done double duty as the top link). The new car also had wide fenders and a larger radiator opening. It was powered by the "side oiler" Ford FE engine equipped with a single 4-barrel 780 CFM Holley carburetor rated at at 6000 rpm and at 3700 rpm of torque, which provided a top speed of in the standard model. The more powerful tune of with a top speed of in the semi-competition (S/C) model.
Competition models (CSX/CSB 3001–3100)
Cobra Mark III production began on 1 January 1965; two prototypes had been sent to the United States in October 1964. Cars were sent to the US as unpainted rolling chassis, and they were finished in Shelby's workshop.
Unfortunately, The MK III missed homologation for the 1965 racing season and was not raced by the Shelby team. Only 56 of the 100 planned cars were produced. Of those, 31 unsold competition models were detuned and fitted with windscreens for street use. Called S/C for semi-competition, an original example can currently sell for US$1.5 million, making it one of the most valuable Cobra variants.
Production models (CSX/CSB 3101–3360)
Some Cobra 427s were actually fitted with Ford's engine, a long stroke, smaller bore, lower cost engine, intended for road use rather than racing. The AC Cobra was a financial failure that led Ford and Carroll Shelby to discontinue importing cars from England in 1967.
AC 289 Sports
(COB/COX 6101–6132)
AC Cars kept producing the coil-spring AC Roadster with narrow fenders and a small block Ford 289. It was built and sold in Europe until late 1969.
Packages
Dragon Snake
Shelby offered a drag package, known as the Dragon Snake, which won several NHRA National events with Bruce Larson or Ed Hedrick at the wheel of CSX2093.
Only six 289 Dragon Snake Cobras were produced by the factory. 2019, 2357 as factory team cars. 2248, 2416, 2427, 2472 as private team cars.
One 427 Dragon Snake, 3198.
Cobras were also prepared by customers using the drag package. Examples include: 2075, 2093, 2109, 2353, and 3159 "King Cobra."
Slalom Snake
Designed for auto-cross events, only two examples were produced. Both had white exterior paint (with red racing strings) and red leather interiors.
CSX2522 "Slalom Special"
CSX2537 "Slalom Snake"
Equipped almost identically to CSX2522, this second example had aluminum valve covers, a tuned air cleaner, a Smiths heater, seat belts, front and rear brake cooling ducts, a hood scoop, brake cooling scoops, side exhausts and a painted roll bar (2522's roll bar was chromed). Suspension options included Koni shock absorbers, front and rear anti-sway bars, unpolished six-inch magnesium pin-drive wheels, and Goodyear Blue Streak Sports Car Special tires.
Super Snake
In 1966, CSX 3015 S/C was selected and converted into a special model called the Supersnake the "Cobra to End All Cobras." Originally part of a European promotional tour before its conversion. This conversion called for making the original racing model street legal with mufflers, a windshield and bumpers amongst other modifications. But some things were not modified, including the racing rear end, brakes and headers. The most notable modification is the addition of Twin Paxton Superchargers, TPS.
Shelby crafted a second model, CSX 3303, from a street version. CSX 3303 was given to comedian Bill Cosby, his close friend. When Cosby attempted to drive CSX3303, he found that it was very difficult to keep under control; he later recounted the experience on his 1968 stand-up comedy album 200 M.P.H.. Cosby gave the car back to Shelby, who then shipped it out to one of his company's dealers in San Francisco, S&C Ford on Van Ness Avenue. S&C Ford then sold it to customer Tony Maxey. Maxey, suffering the same issues as Cosby did with the car, had his throttle stick while leaving a traffic stop, lost control and drove it off a cliff, landing in the Pacific Ocean waters.
Shelby used his CSX 3015 as a personal car over the years, sometimes entering it into local races like the Turismos Visitadores Cannonball-Run race in Nevada, where he was "waking [up] whole towns, blowing out windows, throwing belts and catching fire a couple of times, but finishing." CSX3015 was auctioned on 22 January 2007, at the Barrett-Jackson Collector Car Event in Scottsdale, Arizona, for $5 million plus commission (£2.8 million), a record for a vehicle made in the U.S.
Adaptations
(CF/CFX 01–80)
AC also produced the AC 428 Frua on a stretched Cobra 427 MK III coil spring chassis. The steel body was designed and built by Pietro Frua until 1973.
(EF/EFX 501–508)
The American Electric Car Company used an even further modified chassis for their vehicles.
GHIA SPYDER
(CSX 5001–5002)
One prototype chassis (CSX 3063) was shipped to Ghia in Italy in 1965 for a body styling exercise. This vehicle was first displayed during a European car show with a Cobra license tag. An article about the car was written up in the Winter 65/66 edition of "Style Quarterly" magazine. Shelby American internal production records show that the car was shipped to Shelby American for Evaluation and review. AC Cars Ltd internal production records show that Shelby American placed an order for two 96-inch chassis (CSX 5001–5002) in 1966. AC labeled these chassis as "GHIA CONVERTIBLE" in their factory ledger.
FORD XD COBRA
(CSX 3001)
Shelby American internal production records show that the car was shipped to Shelby American for evaluation and review in early 1966. The vehicle was returned to Ford and now resides in the Detroit Historical Museum.
AutoKraft
Autokraft manufactured an AC 289 continuation car called the Autokraft Mk IV, basically a Mk III with a Ford V8 and Borg Warner T5 Transmission. The Mk IV also received an independent suspension.
In 1986, Autokraft (as a joint venture with Ford joining in 1987) purchased AC Cars, and produced the AC Mk IV Cobra, with a at 4,200 rpm, Ford V8, which provided a top speed of and in 5.2 seconds.
At the 1990 Geneva Salon the Lightweight version was presented: weight was down to (compared to ) and power was up to at 5,750 rpm thanks to alloy heads, a Holley four-barrel carburettor, and no catalytic converter. While the Lightweight did not meet US federal regulations, the Mk IV did, and 480 cars of all versions were built until 1996.
AC Car Group
In 1996 the company was purchased by Pride Automotive. Two new 'Cobra' style cars were launched in 1997, the 'Superblower', an aluminium-bodied car with a supercharged Ford V8 providing and the cheaper 'Carbon Road Series' (CRS) with a carbonfibre body and a version of the Ford V8 engine. 22 Superblowers and 37 CRSs were built between 1997 and 2001.
In 1999, a limited edition run of 25 289 FIA Cobras were planned. Only 1 example was manufacturered, chassis number COB 1001.
A further variant, 'the 212 S/C' with a twin-turbocharged Lotus V8 engine was introduced in 2000, but only two examples were built.
In 2001, the company relocated its factory to Frimley, Surrey. By August 2002, the company was in a financial low and briefly acquired by Private Corp, who closed operations in October 2003. Only two models were produced, a FIA 289 (COX 2610), and a 427 Cobra (COX 3361). The cars were intended to be sold in the US market, through a new company, AC Cars USA, in Florida. Both cars were numbered following where the original ledger entries left off during the 1960s.
AC Motor Holdings Ltd
On 8 July 2002, a new company was formed in Malta named AC Motor Holdings and was responsible for the branding of the company.
In late 2003, the Frimley factory was under the control of AC Motor Holdings.
On 4 December 2003, Shelby and AC announced a co-production of the CSX1000 and CSX 7500 series. Only 14 CSX1000, and 2 CSX 7500 cars were built by 2007.
Between 2004 and 2007, AC Motor Holdings produced the AC Mk V in their Malta factory. However, only 3 right-hand drive and 2 left-hand drive carbon-fibre AC Mk Vs powered by Ford V8 engines were built before the Maltese operation closed.
Acedes Holdings Llc
On 20 April 2008, AC announced its Heritage Series, the UK operations were granted to Brooklands Motor Company, dba AC Heritage. The US operations were granted to AC AutoKraft, Llc, of Michigan.
Both companies are licensed to produce traditional aluminum-body models: Ruddspeed, 289, and 427 continuation Aces and Cobras.
In 2009, AC licensed Gullwing GmbH in Germany, dba AC-Automotive, to produce the AC MK VI, with an aluminium coated composite body and powered by a LS3 Chevrolet engine, or a supercharged version.
In 2012, the AC Mrk II Classic was released. Available in either aluminum or fiberglass bodies.
In 2017, the AC Mrk1 260 Legacy edition was released in a limited production of nine cars. Also released was the AC 378 a newer composite body version of the Cobra.
Shelby Daytona Coupé
In an effort to improve top speed along the legendary Mulsanne Straight at the 24 Hours of Le Mans race, a number of enclosed, coupe variations were constructed using the leafspring chassis and running gear of the AC/Shelby Cobra Mark II. The most famous and numerous of these were the official works Shelby Daytona Cobra Coupes. Six were constructed, each being subtly different from the rest.
AC Cars also produced a Le Mans coupé. The car was a one-off and was nearly destroyed after a high-speed tire blow-out at the 1964 Le Mans race. The car was qualified conservatively second in GT. The race started well with the AC, chassis number A98, maintaining its position in the top two in GT and even leading the class for a time. This was not to last as an act of sabotage (newspaper in the fuel tank) began to block the fuel filter. The car lost time until this was diagnosed and cleaned out. The car proceeded on at the predetermined conservative lap time and for the next stint remained trouble free. The car was able to match the Shelby Daytona's speed despite running a higher differential ratio (2.88 instead of 3.07) and a lower state of engine tune for reliability ( instead of the Daytona's ).
The Willment race team became interested in Shelby's Cobra-based coupe and inquired on purchasing one. Shelby turned down the offer, but supplied the drawings to Willment. Dubbed the Willment Cobra Coupe, this car was fully built by the JWA racing team and numbered 2131 on the frame.
427 Super Coupes
A prototype (CSX 3027) was to become 427 Coupe, but since the focus was shifted towards the GT program, this project received little attention. The bodywork and chassis were soon scrapped.
Two further chassis were ordered number CSX 3054 and CSX 3055. This project was also abandoned with just CSX 3054 receiving a body. CSX 3055 was sold to the Willment Race Team and was fitted with a Fiat body designed by Ghia.
Counterfeit Cobras
In 1993, the Los Angeles Times exposed a scheme by Shelby to counterfeit his own cars. With the price of an original 427 c.i. Cobra skyrocketing, Shelby had requested the California Department of Motor Vehicles (the government agency responsible for titling vehicles and issuing operator permits) to issue 43 duplicate titles for vehicles that did not officially exist in company records. A letter from AC Cars confirmed the fact that the chassis numbers for which Shelby had obtained titles were never manufactured, at least not by AC Cars. Only 55 427 c.i. Cobras had been originally produced out of a block of serial numbers reserved for 100 vehicles. Shelby had taken advantage of a loophole in the California system that allowed one to obtain a duplicate title for a vehicle with only a written declaration, without the vehicle identification number appearing in the DMV's database or the declarant ever presenting an actual vehicle for inspection. Shelby admitted that the chassis had been manufactured in 1991 and 1992 by McCluskey Ltd, an engineering firm in Torrance, California, and were not original AC chassis, however Shelby denied having misled anyone and said he was a victim of a campaign by Brian Angliss, a British competitor, who owned AC at the time and was also building Cobras from the original tooling and wished to enhance his sales by smearing Shelby's car.
Continuation Cars
Since the late 1980s onwards, various companies have built what are known in the hobby as "Continuation Cars".
Shelby authorized continuations of the original AC-built Cobra series. Produced in Las Vegas, Nevada, these cars retain the general style and appearance of their original 1960s ancestors, but are fitted with modern amenities. The initial version for continuation was a 427 S/C model which was represented in the CSX4000 series. This was meant to continue where the last 427 S/C production left off, at approximately serial number CSX3360 in the 1960s.
The initial CSX4000 series cars were completed from the chassis built by Mike McCluskey with NOS and reconditioned parts. Based in Torrance, Calif., McCluskey had been Shelby’s personal mechanic since the 1960s and was a well-established restorer and fabricator. Given the value of the vehicle many "extra" cars have appeared over the years, even some sharing the same chassis number. Gradually as the vintage parts supply ran low, newly constructed frames and body panels were obtained from a variety of suppliers. The production of chassis numbers CSX4001 to CSX4999 took roughly 20 years and many different business relationships to complete.
In 2009, CSX4999 was produced, concluding the 4000 series. Production has continued with the CSX6000 serial numbers, featuring "coil over" suspension.
The 289 FIA "leaf spring" race version of the car is reproduced as CSX7000, and the original "slab side" leaf spring street car is the CSX8000 series. The Daytona Coupe is reproduced as the CSX 9000 series.
To date most continuations are produced in fiberglass, with some ordering cars with aluminium or carbon-fibre bodywork.
In 2004, at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Ford unveiled a concept for a modernized AC Cobra. The Ford Shelby Cobra Concept was a continuation of Ford's effort to bring back the retro sports cars that had been successful in the 1960s, including the Ford GT40 and the fifth generation Ford Mustang.
In 2014, Shelby American announced a limited edition production of 50 cars for the 50th anniversary of the original 427 Shelby Cobra.
During the continuation period, Kirkham Motorsports were contracted by Shelby to produce rolling Cobra body/chassis units but this did not end amicably. Pete Brock said in a Hot Rod magazine interview "Like the Kirkhams, even when they were supplying most of Shelby’s Cobra parts. Shelby would go to them and say he would buy their entire year’s worth of production and sign a contract. They called me and asked if they should do it and I said, "As long as you get the money up front, but if you let a car out the door, you’ll lose money." Shelby paid that way for two years and then finally [Kirkhams] got a great big order and Shelby's truck driver said he forgot to bring the check. He went back with a bunch of cars on the transporter and Shelby told them he wasn't going to pay them—that they owed it to him. That almost put [Kirkhams] out of business."
See also
Timeline of most powerful production cars
Bill Thomas Cheetah, the 1963-started, Chevrolet Corvette-based private-venture challenger to the Cobra
James Heffel's Shelby Cobra converted to hydrogen
The Snake and the Stallion
References
Notes
External links
Shelby Automobiles Inc., Las Vegas, Nevada
thecobraferrariwars.com
AC Cars website
AC Heritage website
AC Cobra 427 (1969) Exterior and Interior in 3D 4K UHD
1960s cars
Cobra
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cobra
Roadsters
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236625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Adolph%20Gjellerup | Karl Adolph Gjellerup | Karl Adolph Gjellerup (2 June 1857 – 11 October 1919) was a Danish poet and novelist who together with his compatriot Henrik Pontoppidan won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1917. He is associated with the Modern Breakthrough period of Scandinavian literature. He occasionally used the pseudonym Epigonos.
Biography
Youth and debut
Gjellerup was the son of a vicar in Zealand who died when his son was three years. Karl Gjellerup was raised then by the uncle of Johannes Fibiger, he grew up in a national and romantic idealistic atmosphere. In the 1870s he broke with his background and at first he became an enthusiastic supporter of the naturalist movement and Georg Brandes, writing audacious novels about free love and atheism. Strongly influenced by his origin he gradually left the Brandes line and 1885 he broke totally with the naturalists, becoming a new romanticist. A central trace of his life was his Germanophile attitude, he felt himself strongly attracted to German culture (his wife was a German) and 1892 he finally settled in Germany, which made him unpopular in Denmark on both the right and left wing. As years passed he totally identified with the German Empire, including its war aims 1914–18.
Among the early works of Gjellerup must be mentioned his most important novel (1882, i.e. The Germans' Apprentice), a partly autobiographic tale of the development of a young man from being a conformist theologian to a pro-German atheist and intellectual, and (1889), on the surface, a love story but more of a study in woman's psychology. Some Wagnerian dramas show his growing romanticist interests. An important work is the novel (1896, i. e. The Mill), a sinister melodrama of love and jealousy.
Later years
In his last years he was clearly influenced by Buddhism and Oriental culture. His critically acclaimed work / (1906, i.e. The Pilgrim Kamanita) has been called 'one of the oddest novels written in Danish'. It features the journey of Kamanita, an Indian merchant's son, from earthly prosperity and carnal romance, through the ups and downs of the world's way, a chance meeting with a stranger monk (who, unbeknownst to Kamanita, was actually Gautama Buddha), death, and reincarnation towards nirvana. In Thailand, which is a Buddhist country, the Thai translation of The Pilgrim Kamanita co-translated by Phraya Anuman Rajadhon was formerly used as part of the school textbooks.
(1907, i.e. The wife of the perfect) is a versified drama, inspired by Dante's Divine Comedy, about Buddha's earthly life as Siddharta, being inhibited in his spiritual efforts by his wife, Yasodhara. The giant novel (1910, i.e. The world roamers) takes its contemporary starting point in a German female academic on a study tour in India, but evolves across chronological levels, in which characters re-experience what has happened in former eons, thus featuring souls roaming from one incarnation to another.
(1913, i.e. The country practice of [physician] Rudolph Sten) is set in the rural Zealand of Gjellerup's youth. The main character develops from a liberal, superficial outlook on life, including youthful romantical conflicts, through years of reflection and ascetic devotion to duty towards a more mature standpoint, hinting at the author's own course of life.
(1919, i.e. The holiest animal) was Gjellerup's last work. Having elements of self-parody, it is regarded as his only attempt at humour. It is a peculiar mythological satire in which animals arrive at their own Elysium after death. These include the snake that killed Cleopatra, Odysseus' dog Argos, Wisvamitra (the holy cow of India), the donkey of Jesus and the horses of various historical commanders in field. The assembly select, after discussion, Buddha's horse Kantaka as the holiest of animals, but it has left without a trace to follow its master to nirvana.
Aftermath
In Denmark, Gjellerup's Nobel award was received with little enthusiasm. He had long been regarded as a German writer. During various stages of his career, he had made himself unpopular with both the naturalist left surrounding Georg Brandes and the conservative right. His nomination for the Nobel award was, however, supported from Danish side for several times. Because Sweden was neutral during World War I, the divided prize did not arouse political speculations about partial decision, but showed on the other hand allegiance between the Nordic neighbors.
Today Gjellerup is almost forgotten in Denmark. In spite of this, however, literary historians normally regard him as an honest seeker after truth.
Gjellerup's works have been translated into several languages, including German (often translated by himself), Swedish, English, Dutch, Polish, Thai and others. The Pilgrim Kamanita is his most widely translated book, having been published in several European countries and the United States. In Thailand, a Buddhist country, the first half of the Thai translation of Kamanita have been used in secondary school textbooks.
Biographies
Georg Nørregård: , 1988 (in Danish)
Olaf C. Nybo: , 2002 (in German)
Article in Vilhelm Andersen: , 1924–34 (in Danish)
Article in Hakon Stangerup: , 1964–66 (in Danish)
External links
Knud B. Gjesing: Karl Gjellerup, portrait of the author, Archive for Danish Literature, Danish Royal Library (in Danish) (pdf)
List of Works
1857 births
1919 deaths
People from Faxe Municipality
20th-century Danish novelists
20th-century Danish poets
Danish male poets
Danish atheists
Danish Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates in Literature
Danish male novelists | [
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236628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%27xet | Ta'xet | Ta'xet is the Haida god of violent death. He is considered to be one half of a duality; his counterpart is Tia, the goddess of peaceful death.
Folklore
According to Haidan folklore, the raven stole the moon from Ta'xet during earth's creation and placed it in the sky to nourish humanity. If humanity was to ever displease the raven by altering the earth's environment, he will return the moon to Ta'xet and stop protecting humanity from Ta'xet's wrath. In folklore, it is also said that the souls of those who meet a violent death go to Ta'xet's house without a warning, while Tia leaves signs before she takes her victims.
References
Gods of the indigenous peoples of North America
Death gods
Haida gods | [
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236629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Keokuk%20%281862%29 | USS Keokuk (1862) | USS Keokuk was an experimental ironclad screw steamer of the United States Navy named for the city of Keokuk, Iowa. She was laid down in New York City by designer Charles W. Whitney at J.S. Underhill Shipbuilders, at the head of 11th Street. She was originally named Moodna (sometimes incorrectly spelled "Woodna"), but was renamed while under construction, launched in December 1862 sponsored by Mrs. C. W. Whitney, wife of the builder, and commissioned in early March 1863 with Commander Alexander C. Rhind in command.
Design
Keokuk was one of the first warships to be of completely iron construction, with wood used only for deck planks and filler in the armor cladding. Her hull construction consisted of five iron box keelsons and one hundred 1-inch-thick (some sources report the thickness as 3/4 inch) by 4-inch-deep iron frames spaced 18 inches between centers. The frames included integral iron cross beams for the decks, with no transverse wood timbers as used on the Monitor. Her bow and stern sections were flooding spaces to allow raising and lowering her waterline.
Her two stationary, conical gun towers, each pierced with three gun ports, housed one 11-inch Dahlgren shell gun each on a shortened and rounded rotating wooden slide carriage (the tower shape often causing her to be mistaken for a double-turreted monitor). Her tower and casemate armor was made up from 1-inch-thick by 4-inch-deep horizontal iron bars alternating with planks of yellow pine of the same dimensions, sheathed with layers of overlapping, flush-bolted -inch rolled iron plates. A total thickness of this composite armor, including the hull skin proper, was 5.75 inches (146 mm). The deck was made of 5-inch wood planks overlaid with -inch-thick iron plate. She had two twin-cylinder main propulsion engines, each 250 hp. In total, Keokuk had nine steam engines providing power to various systems.
Service history
The new ironclad departed New York on March 11, 1863 and steamed south to join the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron for the attack on Charleston, South Carolina, and arrived at Newport News, Virginia, two days later. She got underway again on March 17 but returned to Hampton Roads for repairs when her port propeller became fouled in a buoy anchor line. She stood out of Hampton Roads again on March 22 and arrived at Port Royal, South Carolina on March 26. A soldier who saw the Keokuk wrote of her in a letter home: "...The iron clad battery Keokuk steamed by me yesterday and I have heard that she was bound to Charleston S.C. It was a curious looking affair I assure you it had two turrets with two guns [sic] in each. It looked a little like this [reasonably accurate sketch in letter] but of course I am not an artist..."
As the day of attack on Charleston approached, Keokuk and were busy laying buoys to guide Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont's ironclad flotilla, which included , seven monitors (Weehawken, Passaic, Montauk, Patapsco, Catskill, Nantucket, and Nahant), and Keokuk, into the strongly fortified Confederate harbor. The Union ships crossed the Stono Bar on April 6 but were prevented from attacking that day by hazy weather which obscured targets and blinded pilots.
The First Battle of Charleston Harbor began at noon on April 7, but difficulties in clearing torpedoes from the path of Du Pont's ironclads slowed their progress. Shortly after 3 p.m., they came within range of Fort Moultrie and Fort Sumter; and the battle began. Southern obstructions and a strong flood tide made the ironclads virtually unmanageable, while accurate fire from the forts played upon them at will. With the Union formation scrambled, Keokuk was compelled to run ahead of crippled to avoid her in the narrow channel after Nahants pilot was killed and helmsman wounded by a Confederate shot striking the pilothouse. This brought her less than 600 yards (550 m) from Fort Sumter, where she remained for half an hour receiving the undivided attention of the Confederate guns.
[[File:Gun battery, Fort Sumter (13147754703).jpg|thumb|The Gun battery at Fort Sumter responsible for the Keokuk'''s sinking]]Keokuk was struck by about ninety projectiles, many of which hit at or below her waterline. Commander Rhind reported his ship as being hit by a combination of solid shot, bolts, and possibly hot shot. As predicted by her chief engineer, her thin composite armor was completely inadequate to protect her from this onslaught and she was "completely riddled" in the words of Commander Rhind. However, she was able to withdraw under her own power and anchor out of range, thanks in part to the skills of her black pilot, Robert Smalls, a former slave and pilot of CSS Planter. Her crew kept her afloat through the night, but when a breeze came up on the morning of April 8, 1863, Keokuk began taking on more water, filled rapidly, and sank off Morris Island. She had given one month of commissioned service. One of Keokuk's sailors, Quartermaster Robert Anderson, was awarded the Medal of Honor in part for his actions during the battle. In all, 14 of Keokuks crew were injured in the battle, including Captain Rhind with a contusion to his leg. Acting Ensign Mackintosh, one of the gun captains, later died from his wounds.
Salvage of Keokuk guns
A Federal survey of the wreck shortly after the battle determined that the Keokuk could not be refloated or destroyed, as she was almost completely filled with sand. The two 11-inch Dahlgren guns could be easily replaced from stockpiles and were abandoned as unsalvageable.
To Confederate forces, these two guns represented an opportunity to obtain badly needed artillery. The Confederacy possessed only 150 to 200 naval and coastal defense guns, none of them as large as the sunken Dahlgrens. P.G.T. Beauregard, commander of the Charleston defenses, authorized an immediate salvage operation led by a civilian, Adolphus W. LaCoste. A modified lightship Rattlesnake Shoals was towed into place as a salvage platform. To avoid attracting the attention of Union forces, work was done at night, during low tide, with the Confederate ironclads Palmetto State and Chicora providing protection. The Union did not suspect this activity until it was announced in the Charleston Mercury after the guns were recovered.
The Keokuk guns served the Confederacy for the remainder of the war. One was destroyed, probably during the evacuation of Charleston in 1865. The other gun tube can still be seen on the Charleston waterfront at White Point Garden, mounted on an incorrect iron fortress carriage. In the image, the Keokuk gun is in the background.
Notes
References
Coker, P. C., III. Charleston's Maritime Heritage, 1670–1865: An Illustrated History. Charleston, S.C.: Coker-Craft, 1987. 314 pp.
Browning, Robert M. Jr., Success is all that was expected: the South Atlantic blockading squadron during the Civil War.'' Washington, D.C. : Brassey’s, 2002.
External links
Photo gallery at Naval Historical Center
Ironclad warships of the Union Navy
Ships built in New York City
Shipwrecks of the Carolina coast
Shipwrecks of the American Civil War
1862 ships
Maritime incidents in April 1863 | [
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236630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tia%20%28goddess%29 | Tia (goddess) | Tia is the goddess of peaceful death in the Haida mythology. She is considered to be part of a duality. Her counterpart is Ta'xet, the Haida God of violent death.
References
Goddesses of the indigenous peoples of North America
Death goddesses
Haida goddesses | [
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236636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Spitteler | Carl Spitteler | Carl Friedrich Georg Spitteler (24 April 1845 – 29 December 1924) was a Swiss poet who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1919 "in special appreciation of his epic, Olympian Spring". His work includes both pessimistic and heroic poems.
Biography
Spitteler was born in Liestal. His father was an official of the government, being Federal Secretary of the Treasury from 1849–56. Young Spitteler attended the gymnasium at Basel, having among his teachers philologist Wilhelm Wackernagel and historian Jakob Burckhardt. From 1863 he studied law at the University of Zurich. In 1865–1870 he studied theology in the same institution, at Heidelberg and Basel, though when a position as pastor was offered him, he felt that he must decline it. He had begun to realize his mission as an epic poet and therefore refused to work in the field for which he had prepared himself.
Later he worked in Russia as tutor, starting from August 1871, remaining there (with some periods in Finland) until 1879. Later he was elementary teacher in Bern and La Neuveville, as well as journalist for the Der Kunstwart and as editor for the Neue Zürcher Zeitung. In 1883 Spitteler married Marie op der Hoff, previously his pupil in Neuveville.
In 1881 Spitteler published the allegoric prose poem Prometheus and Epimetheus, published under the pseudonym Carl Felix Tandem, and showing contrasts between ideals and dogmas through the two mythological figures of the titles. This 1881 edition was given an extended psychological exegesis by Carl Gustav Jung in his book Psychological Types (published in 1921). Late in life, Spitteler reworked Prometheus and Epimetheus and published it under his true name, with the new title Prometheus der Dulder (Prometheus the Sufferer, 1924).
In 1882 he published his Extramundana, a collection of poems. He gave up teaching in 1885 and devoted himself to a journalistic career in Basel. Now his works began to come in rapid succession. In 1891 there appeared Friedli, der Kalderi, a collection of short stories, in which Spitteler, as he himself says, depicted Russian realism. Literarische Gleichnisse appeared in 1892, and Balladen in 1896.
In 1900–1905 Spitteler wrote the powerful allegoric-epic poem, in iambic hexameters, Olympischer Frühling (Olympic Spring). This work, mixing fantastic, naturalistic, religions and mythological themes, deals with human concern towards the universe. His prose works include Die Mädchenfeinde (Two Little Misogynists, 1907), about his autobiographical childhood experiences, the dramatic Conrad der Leutnant (1898), in which he show influence from the previously opposed Naturalism, and the autobiographical novella Imago (1906), examining the role of the unconscious in the conflict between a creative mind and the middle-class restrictions with internal monologue.
During World War I he opposed the pro-German attitude of the Swiss German-speaking majority, a position put forward in the essay "Unser Schweizer Standpunkt". In 1919 he won the Nobel Prize. Spitteler died at Lucerne in 1924.
Carl Spitteler's estate is archived in the Swiss Literary Archives in Bern, in the Zürich Central Library and in the Dichter- und Stadtmuseum in Liestal.
Pop Culture
Carl Jung claimed his idea of the archetype of the Anima was based upon what Spitteler described as 'My Lady Soul'. Musician David Bowie, who famously described himself as Jungian, wrote a song in 1973 entitled "Lady Grinning Soul".
Works
Prometheus und Epimetheus (1881)
Extramundana (1883, seven cosmic myths)
Schmetterlinge ("Butterflies", 1889)
Der Parlamentär (1889)
Literarische Gleichnisse ("Literary Parables”, 1892)
Gustav (1892)
Balladen (1896)
Conrad der Leutnant (1898)
Lachende Wahrheiten (1898, essays)
Der olympische Frühling (1900–1905, revised 1910)
Glockenlieder ("Grass and Bell Songs", 1906)
Imago (1906, novel)
Die Mädchenfeinde (Two Little Misogynists, 1907)
Meine frühesten Erlebnisse ("My Earliest Experiences", 1914, biographical)
Prometheus der Dulder ("Prometheus the Suffering”, 1924)
References
www.dichtermuseum.ch
External links
Literary estate of Carl Spitteler in the archive database HelveticArchives of the Swiss National Library
Publications by and about Carl Spitteler in the catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library
Official Site of the Carl Spitteler Foundation
List of Works
People associated with the University of Zurich
University of Zurich alumni
Nobel laureates in Literature
Swiss Nobel laureates
Swiss Protestants
Swiss writers
Swiss writers in German
People from Basel-Stadt
People from Basel-Landschaft
1845 births
1924 deaths
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236637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%20Du%C5%A1an | Stefan Dušan | Stefan Uroš IV Dušan (, ), known as Dušan the Mighty (; circa 1308 – 20 December 1355), was the King of Serbia from 8 September 1331 and Tsar (or Emperor) and autocrat of the Serbs and Greeks (or Romans) from 16 April 1346 until his death in 1355.
Dušan conquered a large part of southeast Europe, becoming one of the most powerful monarchs of the era. Under Dušan's rule, Serbia was the major power in the Balkans, and an Eastern Orthodox multi-ethnic and multi-lingual empire that stretched from the Danube in the north to the Gulf of Corinth in the south, with its capital in Skopje. He enacted the constitution of the Serbian Empire, known as Dušan's Code, perhaps the most important literary work of medieval Serbia. Dušan promoted the Serbian Church from an archbishopric to a patriarchate, finished the construction of the Visoki Dečani monastery (now a UNESCO site), and founded the Monastery of the Holy Archangels, among others. Under his rule, Serbia reached its territorial, political, economic, and cultural peak.
Dušan died in 1355, seen as the end of resistance against the advancing Ottoman Empire and the subsequent fall of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the region.
Background
In 1314, Serbian King Stefan Milutin quarreled with his son, Stefan Dečanski. Milutin sent Dečanski to Constantinople to have him blinded, though he was never totally blinded. Dečanski wrote to Danilo, the bishop of Hum, asking him to intervene with his father. Danilo wrote to Archbishop Nicodemus of Serbia, who spoke with Milutin and persuaded him to recall his son. In 1320 Dečanski was permitted to return to Serbia and was given the appanage of 'Budimlje' (modern Berane), while his half-brother, Stefan Konstantin, held the province of Zeta.
Milutin became ill and died on 29 October 1321, and Konstantin was crowned king. Civil war erupted immediately, as Dečanski and his cousin, Stefan Vladislav II, claimed the throne. Konstantin refused to submit to Dečanski, who then invaded Zeta, defeating and killing Konstantin. Dečanski was crowned king on 6 January 1322 by Nicodemus, and his son, Stefan Dušan, was crowned "young king". Dečanski later granted Zeta to Dušan, indicating him as the intended heir. Since April 1326 Dušan appears in written sources as the "young king" and ruler in Zeta and Zahumlje. From that fact and the "Old Serbian genealogies and annals", in recent works, some Serbian historians write that Dusan was 14 years old probably in March, or April 1326, and that he was born in 1312, not around 1308.
In the meantime, Vladislav II mobilized local support from Rudnik, the former appanage of his father, Stefan Dragutin. Vladislav proclaimed himself king, and he was supported by the Hungarians, consolidating control over his lands and preparing for battle with Dečanski. As was the case with their fathers, Serbia was divided by the two independent rulers; in 1322 and 1323 Ragusan merchants freely visited both lands.
In 1323, war broke out between Dečanski and Vladislav. Rudnik had fallen to Dečanski by the end of 1323, and Vladislav appeared to have fled north. Vladislav was defeated in battle in late 1324 and fled to Hungary, leaving the Serbian throne to Dečanski as undisputed "king of All Serbian and Maritime lands".
Biography
Youth and usurpation
Dušan was the eldest son of King Stefan Dečanski and Theodora Smilets, the daughter of emperor Smilets of Bulgaria. He was born circa 1308, or in 1312 in Serbia, but with the exile Dušan's father in 1314, the family lived in Constantinople until 1320, when his father was allowed to return. In Constantinople he learned Greek, gained an understanding of Byzantine life and culture, and became acquainted with the Byzantine Empire. He took a lot interest in arts of war; in his youth he fought exceptionally in two battles: in 1329 he defeated the ban Stephen II Kotromanić during the War of Hum, and in 1330 the Bulgarian emperor Michael III Shishman in the Battle of Velbužd. Dečanski appointed his nephew Ivan Stephen (through Anna Neda) to the throne of Bulgaria in August 1330.
Dečanski's decision not to attack the Byzantines after the victory at Velbazhd, when he had an opportunity, resulted in the alienation of many nobles, who sought to expand to the south. By January or February 1331, Dušan was quarreling with his father, perhaps pressured by the nobility. According to contemporary pro-Dušan sources, advisors turned Dečanski against his son, and he decided to seize and exclude Dušan from his inheritance. Dečanski sent an army into Zeta against his son; the army ravaged Skadar (modern Shkodër), but Dušan had crossed the Bojana river. A brief period of anarchy took place in parts of Serbia before father and son concluded peace in April 1331. Three months later, Dečanski ordered Dušan to meet him. Dušan feared for his life and his advisors persuaded him to resist, so Dušan marched from Skadar to Nerodimlje, where he besieged his father. Dečanski fled, and Dušan captured the treasury and family. He then pursued his father, catching up with him at Petrich. On 21 August 1331 Dečanski surrendered, and on the advice or insistence of Dušan's advisors, he was imprisoned. Dušan was crowned King of All Serbian and Maritime lands in the first week of September.
The civil war had prevented Serbia from aiding Ivan Stephen and Anna Neda in Bulgaria, who were deposed in March 1331, taking refuge in the mountains. Emperor Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria feared Serbia, as the situation there had settled, and he immediately sought peace with Dušan. As Dušan wanted to move against richer Byzantium, the two made peace and an alliance in December 1331. It was sealed with Dušan's marriage to Ivan Alexander's sister Helena.
Personal traits
Contemporary writers described Dušan as unusually tall and strong, "the tallest man of his time", very handsome, and a rare leader full of dynamism, quick intelligence, and strength, bearing "a kingly presence". According to contemporary depictions, he had dark hair and brown eyes; in adult age he grew a beard and longer hair.
Early reign
Serbia made some raids into the Macedonia region in late 1331, but a planned major attack on Byzantium was delayed as Dušan had to suppress revolts in Zeta in 1332. Dušan's ingratitude toward those who had aided his rise – the Zetan nobility may have been neglected their promised reward and greater influence – may have been the cause of the rebellion, which was suppressed in the course of the same year.
Dušan began to fight against the Byzantine Empire in 1334, and warfare continued with interruptions of various duration until his death in 1355. Twice he became involved in larger conflicts with the Hungarians, but these clashes were mostly defensive. Dušan's armies were initially defeated by Charles I of Hungary's 80,000-strong royal armies in Šumadija in 1336. As the Hungarians advanced south towards a hostile terrain, Dušan's cavalry launched several attacks in the narrow open fields, resulting in a rout of Hungarian troops, which retreated to the north of Danube. Charles I was wounded by an arrow but survived. As a result, the Hungarians lost Mačva and Belgrade. Dušan then focused his attention on the internal affairs of his country, writing, in 1349, the first statute book of the Serbs.
To the west, Dušan scored victories over Hungarian leader Louis the Great that gave him eastern half of modern Bosnia, and his coins were minted at Kotor. Dušan was also successful against Louis' vassals: he defeated the armies of the Croatian ban and the forces of Hungarian voivodes. He was at peace with tsar Ivan Alexander Bulgaria, who even helped him on several occasions, and he is said to have visited Ivan Alexander at his capital. Serbia became temporarily dominant state between 1331 and 1365.
Dušan exploited the civil war in the Byzantine Empire between the regent of the minor Emperor John V Palaiologos, Anna of Savoy, and his father's general John Kantakouzenos. Dušan and Ivan Alexander picked opposite sides in the conflict but remained at peace with each other, taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war to secure gains for themselves.
Dušan's systematic offensive began in 1342, and in the end he conquered all Byzantine territories in the western Balkans as far as Kavala, except for the Peloponnesus and Thessaloniki, which he could not besiege due to his small fleet. There has been speculation that Dušan's ultimate goal was no less than to conquer Constantinople and replace the declining Byzantine Empire with a united Orthodox Greco-Serbian Empire under his control. In May 1344, his commander Preljub was stopped at Stephaniana by a Turkic force of 3,100. The Turks won the battle, but the victory was not enough to thwart the Serbian conquest of Macedonia. Faced with Dušan's aggression, the Byzantines sought allies in the Ottoman Turks, whom they brought into Europe for the first time.
In 1343, Dušan added "of Romans (Greeks)" to his self-styled title "King of Serbia, Albania and the coast". In another instance, in a charter issued to the fortified city of Krujë, Dušan referred to himself as "King of the Bulgarians". In 1345 he began calling himself tsar, equivalent of Emperor, as attested in charters to two athonite monasteries, one from November 1345 and the other from January 1346, and around Christmas 1345 at a council meeting in Serres, which was conquered on 25 September 1345, he proclaimed himself "Tsar of the Serbs and Romans" (Romans is equivalent to Greeks in Serbian documents).
Imperial coronation and autocephaly of the Serbian church
On 16 April 1346 (Easter), Dušan convoked a huge assembly at Skopje, attended by the Serbian Archbishop Joanikije II, the Archbishop of Ochrid Nikolas I, the Bulgarian Patriarch Simeon, and various religious leaders of Mount Athos. The assembly and clerics agreed upon, and then ceremonially performed, the raising of the autocephalous Serbian Archbishopric to the status of Serbian Patriarchate. The Archbishop from then on was titled Serbian Patriarch, although some documents called him Patriarch of Serbs and Romans, with the seat at the Monastery of Peć. The first Serbian Patriarch Joanikije II solemnly crowned Dušan as "Emperor and autocrat of Serbs and Romans" (Greek ). Dušan had his son Uroš crowned King of Serbs and Greeks, giving him nominal rule over the Serbian lands, and although Dušan was governing the whole state, he had special responsibility for the Eastern Roman lands.
A further increase in the Byzantinization of the Serbian court followed, particularly in court ceremonial and titles. As Emperor, Dušan could grant titles only possible as an Emperor. In the years that followed, Dušan's half-brother Symeon Uroš and brother-in-law Jovan Asen became despotes. Jovan Oliver already had the despot title, granted to him by Andronikos III. His brother-in-law Dejan Dragaš and Branko Mladenović were granted the title of sebastocrator. The military commanders (voivodes) Preljub and Vojihna received the title of caesar. The raising of the Serbian Patriarch resulted in the same spirit as bishoprics became metropolitans, as for example the Metropolitanate of Skopje.
Serbian Patriarchate took over sovereignty on Mt. Athos and the Greek eparchies under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, while the Archbishopric of Ohrid remained autocephalous. For those acts he was excommunicated by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1350.
Epirus and Thessaly
In 1347, Dušan conquered Epirus, Aetolia and Acarnania, appointing his half-brother, despot Simeon Uroš as governor of those provinces. In 1348, Dušan also conquered Thessaly, appointing Preljub as governor. In eastern regions of Macedonia, he appointed Vojihna as governor of Drama. Once Dušan conquered Byzantine possessions in western regions, he sought to obtain Constantinople. To acquire the city, he needed a fleet. Knowing that fleets of southern Serbian Dalmatian towns were not strong enough to overcome Constantinople, he opened negotiations with Venice, with which he maintained fairly good relations. Venice feared a reduction of privileges in the Empire if Serbs became the masters of Constantinople over the weakened Byzantines. But if the Venetians had allied with Serbia, Dushan would have examined existing privileges. Once he became master of all Byzantine lands (especially Thessalonika and Constantinople) the Venetians would have gained privileges. But Venice chose to avoid a military alliance. While Dušan sought Venetian aid against Byzantium, the Venetians sought Serbian support in the struggle against the Hungarians over Dalmatia. When sensing that Serbian aid would result in a Venetian obligation to Serbia, Venice politely turned down Dušan's offers of help.
While Dušan launched the Bosnian campaign (absent the Serbian troops in Macedonia and Thessaly), Kantakouzenos tried to regain lands Byzantium had lost. In his support, the Constantinopolitan patriarch Kallistos excommunicated Dušan to discourage the Greek population in Dušan's Greek provinces from supporting the Serbian administration and thereby assist the Kantakouzenos campaign. The excommunication did not stop Dušan's relations with Mount Athos, which still addressed him as Emperor, though rather as Emperor of Serbs than Emperor of Serbs and Greeks.
Kantakouzenos raised a small army and took the Chalcidic peninsula, then Veria and Voden. Veria was the richest town in the Bottiaea region. Dušan had earlier replaced many Greeks with Serbs, including a Serb garrison. However, the remaining locals were able to open the gates for Kantakouzenos in 1350. Voden resisted Kantakouzenos but was taken by assault. Kantakouzenos then marched toward Thessaly but was stopped at Servia by Caesar Preljub and his army of 500 men. The Byzantine force retired to Veria, and the aiding Turk contingent went off plundering, reaching Skopje. Once news of the Byzantine campaign reached Dušan in Hum, he quickly reassembled his forces from Bosnia and Hum and marched for Thessaly.
War with the Bosnian principality
Dušan evidently wanted to expand his rule over the provinces that had earlier been in the hands of Serbia, such as Hum, which was annexed by the Hungarian protégé and Bosnian Ban Stephen II Kotromanić in 1326. In 1329, Ban Stephen II launched an attack on Lord Vitomir, who held Travunia and Konavle. The Bosnian army was defeated at Pribojska Banja by Dušan, when he was still Young King. The Ban soon took over Nevesinje and the rest of Bosnia. Petar Toljenović, the Lord of "seaside Hum" and a distant relative of Dušan, sparked a rebellion against the new ruler, but he was soon captured and died in prison.
In 1350, Dušan attacked Bosnia, seeking to regain the previously lost land of Hum and stop raids on his tributaries at Konavle. Venice sought a settlement between the two but failed. In October he invaded Hum, with an army said to be of 80,000 men, and successfully occupied part of the disputed territory. According to Orbini, Dušan had secretly been in contact with various Bosnian nobles, offering them bribes for support. Many nobles, chiefly of Hum, were ready to betray the Ban, such as the Nikolić family, which was kin to the Nemanjić dynasty. The Bosnian Ban avoided any major confrontation and did not meet Dušan in battle; he instead retired to the mountains and made small hit-and-run actions. Most of Bosnia's fortresses held out, but some nobles submitted to Dušan. The Serbs ravaged much of the countryside. With one army they reached Duvno and Cetina; another reached Krka, on which lay Knin (modern Croatia); and another took Imotski and Novi, where they left garrisons and entered Hum. From this position of strength, Dušan tried to negotiate peace with the Ban, sealing it by the marriage of Dušan's son Uroš with Stephen's daughter Elizabeth, who would receive Hum as her dowry – restoring it to Serbia. The Ban was not willing to consider this proposal.
Dušan may have also launched the campaign to aid his sister, Jelena, who married Mladen III Subic of Omis, Klis and Skradin, in 1347. Mladen died from Black Death (bubonic plague) in 1348, and Jelena sought to maintain the rule of the cities for herself and her son. She was challenged by Hungary and Venice, so the dispatch of Serbian troops to western Hum and Croatia may have been for her aid, as operations in this region were unlikely to help Dušan conquer Hum. If Dušan had intended to aid Jelena, rising trouble in the East precluded this. Pope Clement VI in 1335 addresses to King Stefan Dušan and request him to stop the persecution and that to the bishop of Kotor which is responsible for Roman Catholic Diocese of Trebinje return monasteries, churches, islands and villages, which some kings of Raška before him overtook.
Death
Dušan had grand intentions to hold Belgrade, Mačva and Hum, conquer Durrës, Phillipopolis, Adrianople, Thessalonica, and Constantinople, and to place himself at the head of a grand crusading army to drive the Muslim Turks from Europe. His premature death created a large power vacuum in the Balkans, that ultimately enabled Turkish invasion and Turkish rule until the early 20th century. While mounting a crusade against the Turks, he fell ill (possibly poisoned) and died of a fever on 20 December 1355. He was buried in his foundation, the Monastery of the Holy Archangels near Prizren.
His empire slowly crumbled. His son and successor Stefan Uroš V could not keep the integrity of the Empire intact for long, as several feudal families immensely increased their power, though nominally acknowledging Uroš V as Emperor. Simeon Uroš, Dušan's half-brother, had proclaimed himself Emperor after the death of Dušan, ruling a large area of Thessaly and Epirus, which he had received from Dušan earlier.
Today Dušan's remains are in the Church of Saint Mark in Belgrade. Dušan is the only monarch of the Nemanjić dynasty who has not been canonised as a saint.
Religious activity
Much like his ancestors, Emperor Dušan was very active in renovating churches and monasteries, and also for founding new ones. First, he cared for the monasteries in which his parents were buried. Both the Banjska monastery, built by King Milutin, where his mother was buried, and the monastery of Visoki Dečani, an endowment of his father, were generously looked after. The monastery was built for eight years and it is certain that the Emperor's role in the building process was huge. Between 1337 and 1339, the emperor became ill, and he gave his word that if he survived, he would build a church and monastery in Jerusalem. At the time, there was one Serbian monastery in Jerusalem, dedicated to Archangel Michael (believed to be founded by King Milutin), and a number of Serbian monks at the Sinai Peninsula.
His greatest endowment was the Saint Archangels Monastery, located near the town of Prizren, in which he was originally buried. Dušan gave many possessions to this monastery, including the forest of Prizren which was supposed to be a special property of the monastery where all precious goods and relics were to be stored.
His son, Stefan Uroš V, did not make peace with the Constantinopolitan Patriarch. The first initiative was made by despot Uglješa in 1368, which resulted that the areas under his rule were restored to Constantinople. The final initiative for reconciliation between the churches came from Prince Lazar in 1375. There is no evidence of an existing cult of Emperor Dušan in the decades after his death. Dušan's charter to Ragusa (Dubrovnik) served as a statute in the future trade between Serbia and Ragusa, and its regulations were deemed inviolable. Emperor Dušan's legacy was esteemed in Ragusa. Later folk tradition in Serbia included various attitudes toward Dušan, mostly negative, made under the influence of the church.
Church policy
With the raising of the Serbian Archbishopric to a Patriarchate, serious changes in the organization of the church followed. Joanikije II became Patriarch. Bishoprics (Eparchies) were raised to Metropolitanates, and new territories of the Ochrid Archbishopric and Ecumenical Constantinople were added to the jurisdiction of the Serbian church. The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople had Dušan excommunicated in 1350, although this did not affect the religious organization.
Under Serbian jurisdiction came one of the foremost centers of spirituality – Mount Athos. As of November 1345, Athonite monks accept his supreme rule, and Dušan guaranteed autonomy, also giving a row of economic privileges, with tremendous gifts and endowments. The monks of Chilandar (the cradle of the Serbian church, founded by Saint Sava, his ancestor) came at the front of the ecclesiastical community.
In his codex, Dušan accentuates his role as a protector of Christianity and points out the independence of the church. From the codex we can also see care that the parishes are equally arranged both in cities and villages. He was also taking care of few churches and monasteries from Bari to the west, to Jerusalem to the east.
Besides Orthodox Christians, there were many Catholics in the Empire, mostly in the coastal cities, Cattaro, Alessio (modern Lezhë) etc. In the court of Dušan there were also Catholics (servants from Cattaro and Ragusa, mercenaries, guests etc.). In the central parts, Saxons were in areas active in mining and trading. Serbia under Dušan claimed its identity through Orthodoxy, and opposition to Catholicism. Catholics were persecuted, especially Catholic Albanians.
Reign
Royal ideology
Some historians consider that the goal of Emperor Dušan was to establish a new, Serbian-Greek Empire, replacing the Byzantine Empire. Ćirković considered his initial ideology as that of the previous Bulgarian emperors, who had envisioned co-rulership. However, starting in 1347, relations with John VI Kantakouzenos worsened, Dušan allied himself with rival John V Palaiologos.
Dušan was the first Serbian monarch who wrote most of his letters in Greek, also signing with the Imperial red ink. He was the first to publish prostagma, a kind of Byzantine document, characteristic for Byzantine rulers. In his royal title, Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks, his claim as Eastern Roman (Byzantine) successor is clear. He also gave Byzantine court titles to his nobility, something that would continue into the 16th century.
Lawmaker
The most lasting monument to Dušan's rulership was a law code. For the purposes of Dušan's Code, a wealth of charters were published, and some great foreign works of law were translated to Serbian; however, the third section of the Code was new and distinctively Serbian, albeit with Byzantine influence and attention to a long legal tradition in Serbia. Dušan explained the purpose of his Code in one of in his charters; he intimated that its aims were spiritual and that the code would help his people to save themselves for the afterlife. The Code was proclaimed on 21 May 1349. in Skopje, and contained 155 clauses, while 66 further clauses were added at Serres in 1353 or 1354. The authors of the code are not known, but they were probably members of the court who specialised in law.
Dušan's Code proclaims on subjects both secular and ecclesiastic, the more so because Serbia had recently achieved full ecclesiastic autonomy as an independent Orthodox Church under a Patriarchate. The first 38 clauses relate to the church and they deal with issues that the Medieval Serbian Church faced, while the next 25 clauses relate to the nobility. Civil law is largely excluded, since it was covered in earlier documents, namely Saint Sava's Nomokamon and in Corpus Juris Civilis. Dušan's Code originally dealt with criminal law, with heavy emphasis on the concept of lawfulness, which was mostly taken directly from Byzantine law.
The original manuscript of Dušan's Code does not survive. The Code continued as a de facto constitution under the rule of Dušan's son, Stefan Uroš V, and after the fall of the Serbian Empire in 1371, it was used in all the successor provinces. It was officially used in the successor state, Serbian Despotate, until its annexation by the Ottoman Empire in 1459. The Code was used as a reference for Serbian communities under Turkish rule, which exercised considerable legal autonomy in civil cases. The Code was also used in the Serbian autonomical areas under the Republic of Venice, like Grbalj and Paštrovići. It also served as the base of the Kanun of Albanian prince Leka Dukagjini (1410–1481), a set of customary laws in northern Albania that existed until the 20th century.
Military tactics
Serbian tactics favored wedge shaped heavy cavalry attacks with horse archers on the flanks. Many foreign mercenaries were in the Serbian army in the 14th century, mostly German knights and Catalan halberdiers. Dušan had his personal mercenary guard on his disposal, consisting of German knights lead by Palman, commander of the Serbian "Alemannic Guard", who upon crossing Serbia to Jerusalem in 1331, became leader of all mercenaries in the Serbian army. The main strength of the Serbian army were their heavy cavalry, feared for their ferocious charge and staying power. The imperial army of Stefan Dušan was built on existing military administration of Byzantium. Although Vlach cavalry of Thessaly was disbanded his army include Serbian feudal forces, Albanians and Greeks. Dušan recruited light cavalry composed of 15,000 Albanians, armed with spears and swords.
The Serbian expansion in the former territory of Byzantine Empire proceeded without a single major battle, it was based on besieging Greek fortifications.
Name, epithets and titles
He was crowned Young King as heir apparent on 6 January 1322 but he was too young to really rule with his father 1322. and later in April 1326 Dušan appears as the co-ruler in Zeta and Zahumlje. He was entitled the rule of Zeta; thus he ruled as "King of Zeta". In 1331 he succeeded his father as "King of all Serbian and Maritime Lands". In 1343 his title was "King of Serbia, Greeks, Albania and the coast". In 1345 he began calling himself tsar, Emperor, and in 1345 he proclaimed himself "Emperor of Serbs and Eastern Romans ". On 16 April 1346 he was crowned Emperor of Serbs and Greeks. This title was soon enlarged into "Emperor and Autocrat of the Serbs and Greeks, the Bulgarians and Albanians".
His epithet Silni (Силни) is translated into the Mighty, but also the Great, the Powerful or the Strong.
Legacy
Stefan Dušan was the most powerful Serbian ruler in the Middle Ages and remains a folk hero to Serbs. Dušan, a contemporary of England's Edward III, is regarded with the same reverence as the Bulgarians feel for Tsar Simeon, the Poles for Sigismund I the Old, and the Czechs for Charles IV. According to Steven Runciman, he was "perhaps the most powerful ruler in Europe" during the 14th century. His state was a rival to the regional powers of Byzantium and Hungary, and it encompassed a large territory, which would also be his empire's greatest weakness. By nature a soldier and a conqueror, Dušan also proved to be very able but nonetheless feared ruler. His empire however, slowly crumbled at the hands of his son, as regional aristocrats distanced from the central rule.
The aim of restoring Serbia as an Empire it once was, was one of the greatest ideals of Serbs, living both in the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian lands. In 1526, Jovan Nenad, in the style of Dušan, proclaimed himself Emperor, when ruling a short-lived state of Serbian provinces under the crown of Hungary.
The Realm of the Slavs, written by Ragusian historian Mavro Orbin (l. ca. 1550–1614), saw Emperor Dušan's actions and works positively. The book served as the primary source about early history of South Slavs at the time and most of the western historians drew their information on the Slavs from it. Early Serbian historians, even though they wrote according to the sources, were influenced by the ideas of the time they lived in. They made efforts to harmonize with two different traditions: one from brevets and public documents and other from genealogies and narrative writings. Of early historians, most information came from Jovan Rajić (1726–1801), who wrote fifty pages about Dušan's life. Rajić's work had great influence on Serbian culture of that time, and for decades it was the main source of information about Serbian history.
After the restoration of Serbia in the 19th century, continuity with the Serbian Middle Ages was accentuated, particularly of its greatest moment – during Emperor Dušan. A political agenda, as with a restoration of his Empire, would find its place in the political programmes of the Principality of Serbia, notably the Načertanije by Ilija Garašanin.
Family
By his wife, Helena of Bulgaria, Emperor Dušan had at least one child, Stefan Uroš V, who succeeded his father as Emperor, r. 1355–1371. According to contemporary Byzantine historian Nicephorus Gregoras, Dušan also had a daughter, Theodora.
According to Gregoras, Dušan was negotiating a potential alliance with Orhan, which would have involved marrying off his daughter to Orhan himself or one of Orhan's sons in 1351. However, these negotiations broke down after the Serbian emissaries were attacked by Nikephoros Orsini – the marriage proposal was withdrawn and Serbia and the Ottoman Empire resumed hostilities. Theodora most likely died between 1352 and 1354.
Some historians speculate that the couple had another child, a daughter. J. Fine suggested that it might be "Irene", the wife of caesar Preljub (governor of Thessaly, d. 1355–1356), mother of Thomas Preljubović (Ruler of Epirus, 1367–1384). In one theory, she married Radoslav Hlapen, Governor of Voden and Veria and Lord of Kastoria, after her first husband's death in 1360. This hypothesis is not widely accepted.
Foundations
Saint Archangels Monastery
Podlastva monastery
Duljevo monastery
Monumental church (27x14m) found near Aranđelovac in 2020
Reconstructions:
Visoki Dečani
In fiction
Epic folk song "Ženidba Cara Dušana" ("Emperor Dušan's wedding").
1875 historical three-tome novel "Car Dušan" ("Emperor Dušan") by Dr Vladan Đorđević.
1987 historical novel "Stefan Dušan" by Slavomir Nastasijević.
2002 historical novel "Dušan Silni" ("Dušan the Great") by Mile Kordić.
See also
Serbian Empire
Serbian Patriarchate of Peć
Serbian Despotate
Serbia in the Middle Ages
Byzantine civil war of 1341–47
Lesnovo monastery
Danilo's anonymous pupil
Notes
References
Vizantološki institut, Zbornik radova Vizantološkog instituta, (Naučno delo, 1996), 194.
Alexander Soloviev "Selected Monuments of Serbian Law from the 12th to 15th centuries" (1926)
Alexander Soloviev "Legislation of Stefan Dušan, emperor of Serbs and Greeks" (1928)
Alexander Soloviev "Dušan's Code in 1349 and 1354" (1929)
Alexander Soloviev "Greek charters of Serbian rulers" Soloviev and Makin {1936}
Harris, Jonathan, The End of Byzantium. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010.
Pirivatrić Srđan, Entering of Stefan Dušan into the Empire, Zbornik radova Vizantološkog instituta 2007, Issue 44, Pages: 381–409,
(in Serbian)
(in Serbian)
External links
Historical library:Stefan Dušan
1308 births
1355 deaths
Serbian Empire
14th-century Serbian emperors
14th-century Serbian monarchs
14th-century Serbian people
Nemanjić dynasty
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Burials at St. Mark's Church, Belgrade
Medieval Serbia
Medieval legislators
Legal history of Serbia
Rulers in medieval Macedonia
Characters in Serbian epic poetry
Ktetors
Founders of Christian monasteries
Serbian people of Bulgarian descent
Founding monarchs
14th-century deaths from plague (disease)
Rebellious princes
Christian monarchs | [
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236641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median%20test | Median test | In statistics, Mood's median test is a special case of Pearson's chi-squared test. It is a nonparametric test that tests the null hypothesis that the medians of the populations from which two or more samples are drawn are identical. The data in each sample are assigned to two groups, one consisting of data whose values are higher than the median value in the two groups combined, and the other consisting of data whose values are at the median or below. A Pearson's chi-squared test is then used to determine whether the observed frequencies in each sample differ from expected frequencies derived from a distribution combining the two groups.
Relation to other tests
The test has low power (efficiency) for moderate to large sample sizes. The Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney U two-sample test or its generalisation for more samples, the Kruskal–Wallis test, can often be considered instead. The relevant aspect of the median test is that it only considers the position of each observation relative to the overall median, whereas the Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney test takes the ranks of each observation into account. Thus the other mentioned tests are usually more powerful than the median test. Moreover, the median test can only be used for quantitative data.
It is crucial to note, however, that the null hypothesis verified by the Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney U (and so the Kruskal–Wallis test) is not about medians. The test is sensitive also to differences in scale parameters and symmetry. As a consequence, if the Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney U test rejects the null hypothesis, one cannot say that the rejection was caused only by the shift in medians. It is easy to prove by simulations, where samples with equal medians, yet different scales and shapes, lead the Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney U test to fail completely.
However, although the alternative Kruskal-Wallis test does not assume normal distributions, it does assume that the variance is approximately equal across samples. Hence, in situations where that assumption does not hold, the median test is an appropriate test. Moreover, Siegel & Castellan (1988, p. 124) suggest that there is no alternative to the median test when one or more observations are "off the scale."
See also
Sign test – a paired alternative to the median test.
References
Corder, G.W. & Foreman, D.I. (2014). Nonparametric Statistics: A Step-by-Step Approach, Wiley. .
Siegel, S., & Castellan, N. J. Jr. (1988, 2nd ed.). Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. New York: McGraw–Hill.
Friedlin, B. & Gastwirth, J. L. (2000). Should the median test be retired from general use? The American Statistician, 54, 161–164.
Statistical tests
Nonparametric statistics | [
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236642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik%20Axel%20Karlfeldt | Erik Axel Karlfeldt | Erik Axel Karlfeldt (20 July 1864 – 8 April 1931) was a Swedish poet whose highly symbolist poetry masquerading as regionalism was popular and won him the Nobel Prize in Literature posthumously in 1931 after he had been nominated by Nathan Söderblom, member of the Swedish Academy. It has been rumored that he had been offered the award already in 1919 but refused it, at least in part because of his position as permanent secretary to the Swedish Academy, which awards the prize.
Biography
Karlfeldt was born into a farmer's family in Karlbo, in the province of Dalarna. Initially, his name was Erik Axel Eriksson, but he assumed his new name in 1889, wanting to distance himself from his father, who had suffered the disgrace of a criminal conviction. He studied at Uppsala University, simultaneously supporting himself by teaching school in several places, including Djursholms samskola in the Stockholm suburb of Djursholm and at a school for adults. After completing his studies, he held a position at the Royal Library of Sweden, in Stockholm, for five years.
In 1904, Karlfeldt was elected a member of the Swedish Academy and held chair number 11. In 1905, he was elected a member of the Nobel Institute of the Academy, and, in 1907, of the Nobel Committee. In 1912, he was elected permanent secretary of the Academy, a position he held until his death.
Uppsala University, Karlfeldt's alma mater, awarded him the title of Doctor honoris causae in 1917.
Works in English
Modern Swedish Poetry Part 1 (1929) – (trans. by C. D. Locock)
Arcadia Borealis (1938) – (trans. by Charles Wharton Stork)
The North! To the North! (2001) – (trans. by Judith Moffett, five poets including Karlfeldt)
References
External links
Short biography at nobel-winners.com
List of Works
Karlfeldt's collected works and a facsimile of a 1956 edition, both at Project Runeberg
1864 births
1931 deaths
People from Avesta Municipality
Writers from Dalarna
Members of the Swedish Academy
Nobel laureates in Literature
Swedish-language poets
Uppsala University alumni
Swedish Nobel laureates
Posthumous Nobel laureates | [
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] |
236646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain%20man | Mountain man | A mountain man is an explorer who lives in the wilderness. Mountain men were most common in the North American Rocky Mountains from about 1810 through to the 1880s (with a peak population in the early 1840s). They were instrumental in opening up the various emigrant trails (widened into wagon roads) allowing Americans in the east to settle the new territories of the far west by organized wagon trains traveling over roads explored and in many cases, physically improved by the mountain men and the big fur companies originally to serve the mule train based inland fur trade.
They arose in a natural geographic and economic expansion that was driven by the lucrative earnings available in the North American fur trade, in the wake of the various 1806–07 published accounts of the Lewis and Clark Expeditions' findings about the Rockies and the Oregon Country where they flourished economically for over three decades. By the time two new international treaties in early 1846 and early 1848 officially settled new western coastal territories in the United States and spurred a large upsurge in migration, the days of mountain men making a good living by fur trapping had largely ended. The fur industry was failing because of reduced demand and over trapping. With the rise of the silk trade and quick collapse of the North American beaver-based fur trade in the 1830s–1840s, many of the mountain men settled into jobs as Army scouts or wagon train guides or settled throughout the lands which they had helped open up. Others, like William Sublette, opened fort-trading posts along the Oregon Trail to service the remnant fur trade and the settlers heading west.
History
Mountain men were most common in the North American Rocky Mountains from about 1810 through to the 1880s (with a peak population in the early 1840s). Approximately 3,000 mountain men ranged the mountains between 1820 and 1840, the peak beaver-harvesting period. While there were many free trappers, most mountain men were employed by major fur companies. The life of a company man was almost militarized. The men had mess groups, hunted and trapped in brigades, and always reported to the head of the trapping party. This man was called a "boosway", a bastardization of the French term bourgeois. He was the leader of the brigade and the head trader.
Donald Mackenzie, representing the North West Company, held a rendezvous in the Boise River Valley in 1819. The rendezvous system was later implemented by William Henry Ashley of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, whose company representatives would haul supplies to specific mountain locations in the spring, engage in trading with trappers, and bring pelts back to communities on the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, like St. Louis, in the fall. Ashley sold his business to the outfit of Smith, Jackson, and Sublette. He continued to earn revenue by selling that firm their supplies. This system of rendezvous with trappers continued when other firms, particularly the American Fur Company owned by John Jacob Astor, entered the field.
The annual rendezvous was often held at Horse Creek on the Green River, now called the Upper Green River Rendezvous Site, near present-day Pinedale, Wyoming. Another popular site in the same general area was Pierre's Hole. By the mid-1830s, it attracted 450–500 men annually, essentially all the American trappers and traders working in the Rockies, as well as numerous Native Americans. In the late 1830s, the Canadian-based Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) instituted several policies designed to undercut the American fur trade. The HBC's annual Snake River Expedition was transformed into a trading enterprise. Beginning in 1834, it visited the American rendezvous to buy furs at low prices. The HBC was able to offer manufactured trade goods at prices far below that with which American fur companies could compete. Combined with a decline in demand for and supply of beaver, by 1840 the HBC had effectively put all American fur traders out of business. The last rendezvous was held in 1840. During the same years, fashion in Europe shifted away from the formerly popular beaver hats; at the same time, the animal had become over-hunted. After achieving an American monopoly by 1830, Astor got out of the fur business before its decline.
By 1841, the American Fur Company and the Rocky Mountain Fur Company were in ruins. By 1846, only some 50 American trappers still worked in the Snake River country, compared to 500–600 in 1826. Soon after the strategic victory by the HBC, the Snake River route was used by emigrants as the Oregon Trail, which brought a new form of competition. Former trappers earned money as guides or hunters for the emigrant parties.
A second fur trading and supply center grew up in Taos in what is today New Mexico. This trade attracted numerous French Americans from Louisiana and some French Canadian trappers, in addition to Anglo-Americans. Some New Mexican residents also pursued the beaver trade, as Mexican citizens initially had some legal advantages. Trappers and traders in the Southwest covered territory that was generally inaccessible to the large fur companies. It included parts of New Mexico, Nevada, California and central and southern Utah. After the decline in beaver and the fur trade, with some emigrants to the West using the Mormon Trail, former trappers found work as guides and hunters for the traveling parties.
After the short-lived Pacific Fur Company was liquidated, British-Canadian companies controlled the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest, first under the North West Company (NWC) and then the HBC. Both companies undertook numerous measures to prevent American fur traders from competing with them west of the Rocky Mountains, especially in the upper Snake River country. After the HBC took over operations in the Pacific Northwest in 1821, American fur traders in the Snake River country quickly went out business and moved on.
This halted American expansion into the region. After 1825, few American trappers worked west of the Rocky Mountains, and those who did generally found it unprofitable. According to historian Richard Mackie, this policy of the HBC forced American trappers to remain in the Rocky Mountains, which gave rise to the term "mountain men".
Mountain men were instrumental in opening up the various emigrant trails (widened into wagon roads) allowing Americans in the east to settle the new territories of the far west by organized wagon trains traveling over roads explored and in many cases, physically improved by the mountain men and the big fur companies originally to serve the mule train based inland fur trade. By the time two new international treaties in early 1846 and early 1848 officially settled new western coastal territories on the United States and spurred a large upsurge in migration, the days of mountain men making a good living by fur trapping had largely ended. The fur industry was failing because of over-trapping. Fortuitously, America's ongoing western migration by wagon trains with the goal of claiming cheap lands in the west was building rapidly from a trickle of settlers from 1841's opening of the Oregon Trail to a flood of emigrants headed west by 1847–49 and thereafter well into the later 1880s.
By the time the fur trade began to collapse in the 1840s, motivating them to change jobs, the trails they had explored and turned into reliable mule trails and improved gradually into wagon-capable freight roads combined to allow them to work as guides and scouts. As the fur trade declined, mountain man Robert Newell told Jim Bridger: "[W]e are done with this life in the mountainsdone with wading in beaver dams, and freezing or starving alternatelydone with Indian trading and Indian fighting. The fur trade is dead in the Rocky Mountains, and it is no place for us now if ever it was." At the same time the great push west along the newly opened Oregon Trail built up from a trickle of settlers in 1841 to a steady stream in 1844–46 and then became a flood as the highly organized Mormon migration exploited the road to the Great Salt Lake discovered by mountain man Jim Bridger in 1847–48. The migration would explode in 1849's "The Forty-Niners" in response to the discovery of gold in California in 1848.
Mode of living
The life of a mountain man was rugged; many did not last more than several years in the wilderness. They faced many hazards, especially when exploring unmapped areas: biting insects and other wildlife, bad weather, diseases of all kinds, injuries and hostile tribes presented constant physical dangers. Grizzly bears were one of the mountain men's greatest enemies. Winters could be brutal with heavy snowstorms and low temperatures.
In order to stay alive, the men needed keen senses and knowledge of herbal remedies and first aid, among other skills. In summer, they could catch fish, build shelter, and hunt for food and skins. The mountain men dressed in deer skins that had stiffened after being left outdoors for a time; this suit of stiffened deer skin gave him some protection against the weapons of particular enemies. There were no doctors in the regions where mountain men worked; these men had to set their own broken bones, tend their wounds, and nurse themselves back to good health.
Fur trappers
A fur trapper was a mountain man who, in today's terms, would be called a free agent. He was independent and traded his pelts to whoever would pay him the best price. This contrasts with a "company man", typically indebted to one fur company for the cost of his gear, who traded only with them (and was often under the direct command of company representatives). Some company men who paid off their debt could become free traders using the gear they had earned. They might sell to the same company when the price was agreeable/convenient.
Historical reenactment
Historical reenactment of the dress and lifestyle of a mountain man, sometimes known as buckskinning, allows people to recreate aspects of this historical period. Today's Rocky Mountain Rendezvous and other reenacted events are both history-oriented and social occasions. Some modern men choose a lifestyle similar to that of historical mountain men. They may live and roam in the mountains of the West or in the swamps of the southern United States.
Notable mountain men
Jim Beckwourth (1798–1866) was born into slavery, arrived in Missouri with his parents and was freed by his father. He started working with the Ashley expedition, signed on with the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, and became a well-known mountain man. He lived with the Crow for years and became a war chief. He was the only African American in the West to have his life story published (1856). He was credited with the discovery of Beckwourth Pass in the Sierra Nevada in 1850 and improved a Native American path creating what became known as the Beckwourth Trail through the mountains to Marysville, California.
Jim Bridger (1804–1881) went west in 1822 at age 17 as a member of Ashley's Hundred exploring the Upper Missouri River area. He was among the first non-natives to see the geysers and other natural wonders of the Yellowstone region. He is also considered one of the first men of European descent, along with Étienne Provost, to see the Great Salt Lake, which because of its salinity, he first believed was an arm of the Pacific Ocean. In 1830, Bridger purchased shares in the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. He established Fort Bridger in southwestern Wyoming and was well known as a teller of tall tales. Fort Bridger later figured in the history of the Donner Party.
Kit Carson (1809–1868) achieved notability for his later exploits, but he got his start and gained some early recognition as a trapper. Carson explored the west to California and north through the Rocky Mountains. He lived among and married into the Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes. He was hired by John C. Fremont ("the Pathfinder") as a guide and led him through much of California, Oregon, and the Great Basin area, and achieved national fame through Fremont. Stories of his life as a mountain man turned him into a frontier hero-figure, the prototypical mountain man of his time.
Mansel Carter (1902-1987), a.k.a. "Man of the Mountain" was a businessman and gold prospector. In 1987, Phoenix Magazine named him one of "Arizona Legends". His gravesite in the Gold Mountain of the San Tan Mountain Regional Park in Queen Creek, Arizona, is a tourist attraction.
John Colter (1774–1812 or 1813), one of the first mountain men, was a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He later became the first European man to enter Yellowstone National Park and to see what is now Jackson Hole and the Teton Mountain Range. His description of the geothermal activity there seemed so outrageous to some that the area was mockingly referred to as Colter's Hell. Colter's narrow escape following capture by Blackfeet, leaving him naked and alone in the wilderness, became a legend known as "Colter's Run".
George Drouillard (1774 or 1775–1810) was a hunter, interpreter, and sign-talker on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, often considered one of Lewis' two most appreciated members (with John Colter). Born to a French Canadian father and a Shawnee mother in Detroit, Drouillard proved to be the most skillful hunter on the expedition, notably during the harsh wintering in Fort Clatsop. He went on trapping in today's Wyoming and Montana after the expedition, working for Manuel Lisa's Missouri Fur Company, where he had signed on in 1807. Often venturing out alone like John Colter, notably to the headwaters of the Big Horn River from the Yellowstone and around the Three Forks of the Missouri, Drouillard was killed in May 1810 by Blackfoot Indians in the Three Forks area.
Sylvan "Buckskin Bill" Hart (1906–1980), known as the "Last of the Mountain Men," lived along the Salmon River in the Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness in Idaho from 1932–1980.
John "Liver-Eating" Johnson (1824–1900) was one of the more notable latter-day mountain men. Johnson worked in Wyoming and Montana, trapping for beaver, buffalo, and wolf hides. Unaffiliated with a company, Johnson bargained independently to sell his hides. Elements of his story were portrayed in the film Jeremiah Johnson, and Dennis McLelland wrote a biography about him.
Joseph Meek (1810–1875) was a trapper, law enforcement official, and politician in the Oregon Country and later Oregon Territory. A pioneer involved in the fur trade before settling in the Tualatin Valley, Meek played a prominent role at the Champoeg Meetings of 1843, where he was elected as a sheriff. Later he served in the Provisional Legislature of Oregon before being selected as the United States Marshal for the Oregon Territory.
Jedediah Smith (1799–1831) was a hunter, trapper, and fur trader whose explorations were significant in opening the American West to settlement by Europeans and Americans. Smith is considered the first man of European descent to cross the future state of Nevada; the first to traverse Utah from north to south and from west to east; and the first American to enter California by an overland route. He was also first to scale the High Sierra and explore the area from San Diego to the banks of the Columbia River. He was a successful businessman and a full partner in the Rocky Mountain Fur Company after Ashley's departure. Smith had notable facial scarring from a grizzly bear attack.
William Sublette (1798–1845) was a fur trapper, pioneer, and mountain man who, with his brothers after 1823, became an agent of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company (and later one of its owners), exploiting the riches of the Oregon Country, which helped settle the best routes later improved into the Oregon Trail.
See also
Coureur des bois
Fort Laramie
James "Grizzly" Adams
Noble savage
Overmountain Men
Scottish Indian trade
Voyageurs
James Ohio Pattie
References
Further reading
Coleman, Jon T. Here Lies Hugh Glass: A Mountain Man, a Bear, and the Rise of the American Nation, Hill and Wang (2012).
Gowans, Fred. Rocky Mountain Rendezvous: A History of The Fur Trade 1825–1840. Gibbs M. Smith, Layton, Utah 2005. 13. .
Hafen, LeRoy R., editor. Fur Trappers and Traders of the Far Southwest. 1965, Utah State University Press, Logan, Utah, (1997 reprint). .
Orville C. Loomer, "Fort Henry," Fort Union Fur Trade Symposium Proceedings September 13–15, 1990 (Williston, Friends of Fort Union Trading Post, 1994), 79.
Maguire, James H., Peter Wild, and Donald Barclay (eds.) A Rendezvous Reader: Tall, Tangled, and True Tales of the Mountain Men, 1805–1850. University of Utah Press. 1997.
McLelland, Dennis. The Avenging Fury of the Plains, John "Liver-Eating" Johnston, Exploding the Myths - Discovering the Man,
Morgan, Dale L. Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the American West. Bison Books, University of Nebraska Press, 1964.
Hampton Sides. Blood and Thunder: The Epic Story of Kit Carson and the Conquest of the American West. Anchor Books, 2006.
DeVoto, Bernard, Across Wide Missouri, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA. 1947.
Russell, Carl P. Firearms, Traps, and Tools of the Mountain Man. New York: Alfred A. Knope, Inc. 1967.
External links
Mountain Men and the Fur Trade: Sources of the History of the Fur Trade of the Rocky Mountain West, Mountain Men
Mountain Men: Pathfinders of the West 1810–1860, University of Virginia
Mountain Men, The Overland Trail
Mountain men of the Gila, Southern New Mexico
"Neighbor Ephraim", a Mountain Man story and podcast from Muzzleloader Magazine
Museum of the Mountain Man
Museum of the Fur Trade
Explorers of the United States
American hunters
Male stock characters
American folklore
History of the Rocky Mountains
American culture
Western (genre) staples and terminology | [
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236647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic%20massage | Erotic massage | Erotic massage is the use of massage techniques by one person on another person's erogenous zones for their sexual pleasure. The process may achieve or enhance the recipient's sexual excitation or arousal and sometimes achieve orgasm. The person providing the massage is called a masseur (male) or masseuse (female). Massages have been used for medical purposes for a very long time, and their use for erotic purposes also has a long history. In the case of women, the two focal areas are the breasts and pubis, while in case of men, the focal area is the male genitals. When the massage is of a partner's genitals, the act is usually referred to as a handjob in the case of men and fingering in the case of women.
Today, erotic massage is used by some people on occasion as a part of sex, either as foreplay or as the final sex act, or as part of sex therapy. There is also a large commercial erotic massage industry in some countries and cities, which may call their establishments massage parlours, spas, or saunas.
Commercial erotic and sexual massage
An erotic and sexual massage may be provided by independent providers, providers of broader sexual services, through erotic massage agencies, organized massage parlors or brothels. It takes many forms, from massage techniques that aim to integrate the sexual, spiritual and physical, to massage whose purpose is the achievement of an orgasm through a handjob, oral sex, or sexual intercourse.
A 'happy ending' is a colloquial term for the practice of a provider offering sexual release to a client. This is sometimes offered as an addition to any other type of massage, typically in the form of a handjob. The 2009 documentary Happy Endings? follows women who worked in Asian massage parlors in Rhode Island. The film focuses on "full service" massage parlors, although "rub and tug" massage parlors (where only handjobs are offered) are also covered. Prostitution in Rhode Island was legal at the time of filming.
Legality
In many jurisdictions, an erotic and sexual massage is regarded as a sexual service, the legality of which varies between jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, an erotic massage may be legal, while prostitution is not.
Sex therapy
Erotic massage may be used in sex therapy as a means of stimulating the libido or increasing the ability of a person to respond positively to sensual stimulus. In some cases, erotic massage can be a form of foreplay without sexual gratification, intended to heighten the sensitivity of an individual prior to another engagement where sexual arousal and fulfillment is intended. In other cases, erotic massage may be used professionally to help men address issues of premature ejaculation. Methods employed may teach the recipient to relax the musculature of his pelvis and thus prolong arousal and increase pleasure.
Use in medicine
Alleged practice by midwives
According to Rachel P. Maines, in the Western medical tradition, genital massage of a woman to orgasm by a physician or midwife was a standard treatment for female hysteria, an ailment considered common and chronic in women. In 1653, Pieter van Foreest advised the technique of genital massage for a disease called "womb disease" to bring the woman into "hysterical paroxysm". Such cases were quite profitable for physicians, since the patients were at no risk of death but needed constant treatment. However, the vaginal massage procedure (generally referred to as "pelvic massage") was tedious and time-consuming for physicians. The technique was difficult for a physician to master and could take hours to achieve "hysterical paroxysm". Referral to midwives, which had been common practice, meant a loss of business for the physician, and, at times, husbands were asked to assist.
However, Maines’ depiction has been contested by other scholars, including Helen King, and Hallie Lieberman and Eric Schatzberg, claiming the idea false. In reality, many practitioners of the pelvic massage were aware of the possibility of a sexual stimulation during the procedure and, like the Finnish physician Georg Asp (1834–1901), made it clear that the sexual excitation shall be circumvented and the clitoris studiously avoided.
Development of the vibrator
A solution was the invention of massage devices, which shortened the needed treatment from hours to minutes, removing the need for midwives and increasing a physician's treatment capacity. Already at the turn of the century, hydrotherapy devices were available at Bath, and by the mid-19th century, they were popular at many high-profile bathing resorts across Europe and in America. By 1870, a clockwork-driven vibrator was available for physicians. In 1873, the first electromechanical vibrator was used at an asylum in France for the treatment of hysteria. While physicians of the period acknowledged that the disorder stemmed from sexual dissatisfaction, they seemed unaware of or unwilling to admit the sexual purposes of the devices used to treat it. In fact, the introduction of the speculum was far more controversial than that of the vibrator. By the turn of the 20th century, the spread of home electricity brought the vibrator to the consumer market. The appeal of cheaper treatment in the privacy of one's own home understandably made the vibrator a popular early home appliance. In fact, the electric home vibrator was on the market before many other home appliance "essentials": nine years before the electric vacuum cleaner and 10 years before the electric iron. A page from a Sears catalog of home electrical appliances from 1918 includes a portable vibrator with attachments, billed as "very useful and satisfactory for home service".
See also
Nuru (massage)
Prostate massage
Tantra massage
References
Sex industry
Non-penetrative sex | [
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236648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20work | Sex work | Sex work is "the exchange of sexual services, performances, or products for material compensation. It includes activities of direct physical contact between buyers and sellers as well as indirect sexual stimulation". Sex work only refers to voluntary sexual transactions; thus the term does not refer to human trafficking and other coerced or nonconsensual sexual transactions such as child prostitution. The transaction must take place between consenting adults who are of the legal age and mental capacity to consent and must take place without any methods of coercion, other than payment. The term emphasizes the labor and economic implications of this type of work. Furthermore, some prefer the use of the term because it seemingly grants more agency to the sellers of these services.
Due to the legal status of some forms of sex work and the stigma associated with sex work, the population is difficult to access; thus there has been relatively little academic research done on the topic. Furthermore, the vast majority of academic literature on sex work focuses on prostitution, and to a lesser extent, exotic dancing; there is little research on other forms of sex work. These findings cannot necessarily be generalized to other forms of sex work. Nonetheless, there is a long documented history of sex work and its personal and economic nature.
Types
In 2004, a Medline search and review of 681 "prostitution" articles was conducted in order to create a global typology of types of sex work using arbitrary categories. 25 types of sex work were identified in order to create a more systematic understanding of sex work as a whole. Prostitution varies by forms and social contexts including different types of direct and indirect prostitution. This study as conducted in order to work towards improving the health and safety of sex workers.
Types of sex work include various consensual sexual services or erotic performances, involving varying degrees of physical contact with clients:
Webcam modeling and pornographic modelling. The former is often done via a camming site, the latter may or may not make use of an adult content-subscription service.
Exotic dancing
Pole dancing.
Phone sex operators: have sexually-oriented conversations with clients, and may do verbal sexual roleplay
Go-go dancing
Erotic dancing
Neo-burlesque
Twerking
Striptease / Table dance
Erotic massage
Grinding
Lap dancing
Pornographic film acting
Peepshow performers
Escort services / Girlfriend experience / Sugar baby
Sexual surrogates: work with psychoanalysts to engage in sexual activity as part of therapy with their clients.
Street prostitution
Indoor prostitution (brothel work, massage parlor-related prostitution, bar or casino prostitution)
Legal framework
Full criminalization of sex work is the most widely practiced legal strategy for regulating transactional sex. Full criminalization is practiced in China, Russia, and the majority of countries in Africa. In the United States, in which each state has its own criminal code, full contact sex work is illegal everywhere, sex work using a condom is legal only in parts of Nevada; non-contact sex work is a gray and confused area. Under full criminalization the seller, buyer, and any third party involved is subject to criminal penalties. This includes anyone who profits from commercial sex in any location or physical setting. Criminalization has been linked to higher rates of sexually transmitted infections, partner violence, and police harassment. Fear of legal ramifications can deter sex workers from seeking proper sexual health care services, and discourage them from reporting crimes of which they were the victim. According to research conducted by Human Rights Watch, criminalization makes sex workers more vulnerable to rape, murder, and discrimination due to their marginalized position and ability to be prosecuted by the police even if they come forward as a victim.
Partial criminalization allows for the legalization of both the buying and selling of sex between two consenting parties but prohibits the commercial selling of sex within brothels or public settings such as street solicitation. This has the unintended consequence that it criminalizes the coalition of sex workers, forcing them to work alone and in less safe conditions. Partial criminalization ranges from a variety of legal models such as abolitionism, neo-abolitionism and the Swedish-Nordic Model.
Legalization is currently practiced in parts of South America, Australia, Europe, and in certain counties in the U.S. state of Nevada. The Red Light District in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, is an example of full legalization, where all aspects of sex work are allowed as long as they are registered with the government. Since the registration process is often expensive and time-consuming, requires legal residence, and may involve regular medical exams, the most marginalized sex workers have to remain illegal, and usually charge less, because they cannot comply with the regulations. This is most common among minority groups, immigrants, and low-income workers.
Decriminalization is the most supported solution by sex workers themselves. Decriminalization is the only legal solution that offers no criminalization of any party involved in the sex work industry and additionally has no restrictions on who can legally participate in sex work. The decriminalization of sex work would not remove any legal penalties condemning human trafficking. There is no reliable evidence to suggest that decriminalization of sex work would encourage human trafficking. New Zealand was the first country to decriminalize sex work in 2003, with the passage of the Prostitution Reform Act. This is the most advocated for by sex workers because it allows them the most negotiating power with their clients. With full protection under the law they have the ability to determine their wages, method of protection, and protect themselves from violent offenders. Sex work is one of the oldest professions in existence and even though sex work is criminalized in most places in order to regulate it, the profession has hardly changed at all over time. Those who work in sex trade are more likely to be exploited, trafficked, and victims of assault when sex work is criminalized. Starting in August 2015, Amnesty International, a global movement free of political, religious, or economic interests to protect people from abuse, introduced a policy that requested that all countries decriminalized sex work. Amnesty International stated in this policy that decriminalizing sex work would decrease human trafficking through promotion of the health and safety of sex workers by allowing them to be autonomous with protection of the government. This policy gained a large amount of support worldwide from the WHO, UNAIDS, GAATW, and several others, but has not been adopted universally yet.
History
Sex work, in many different forms, has been practiced since ancient times. It is reported that even in the most primitive societies, there was transactional sex. Prostitution was widespread in ancient Egypt and Greece, where it was practiced at various socioeconomic levels. Hetaera in Greece and geisha in Japan were seen as prestigious members of society for their high level of training in companionship. Attitudes towards prostitution have shifted through history.
During the Middle Ages prostitution was tolerated but not celebrated. It was not until the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century that attitudes turned against prostitution on a large scale and bodies began to be regulated more heavily. These moral reforms were to a large extent directed towards the restriction of women's autonomy. Furthermore, enforcement of regulations regarding prostitution disproportionately impacted the poor.
Sex work has a long history in the United States, yet laws regulating the sale of sex are relatively new. In the 18th century, prostitution was deeply rooted from Louisiana to San Francisco. Despite its prevalence, attitudes towards prostitutes were negative and many times hostile. Although the law did not directly address prostitution at this time, law enforcement often targeted prostitutes. Laws against lewdness and sodomy were used in an attempt to regulate sex work. Red-light districts formed in the 19th century in major cities across the country in an attempt by sex workers to find spaces where they could work, isolated from outside society and corresponding stigma.
Ambiguity in the law allowed for prostitutes to challenge imprisonment in the courts. Through these cases prostitutes forced a popular recognition of their profession and defended their rights and property. Despite sex workers' efforts, social reformers looking to abolish prostitution outright began to gain traction in the early 20th century. New laws focused on the third-party businesses where prostitution took place, such as saloons and brothels, holding the owners culpable for the activities that happened within their premises. Red-light districts began to close. Finally, in 1910 the Mann Act, or "White Slave Traffic Act" made illegal the act of coercing a person into prostitution or other immoral activity, the first federal law addressing prostitution. This act was created to address the trafficking of young, European girls who were thought to have been kidnapped and transported to the United States to work in brothels, but criminalized those participating in consensual sex work. Subsequently, at the start of the First World War, a Navy decree forced the closure of sex-related businesses in close proximity to military bases. Restrictions and outright violence led to the loss of the little control workers had over their work. In addition to this, in 1918, the Chamberlain-Kahn Act made it so that any woman found to have a sexually transmitted infection (STI) would be quarantined by the government. The original purpose of this act was to stop the spread of venereal diseases among U.S. soldiers. By 1915 under this act, prostitutes, or those perceived to be prostitutes could be stopped, inspected, and detained or sent to a rehabilitation facility if they were found to test positive for any venereal disease. During World War I, an estimated 3,000 women were detained and examined. The state had made sex workers into legal outcasts. During the Great Depression, black women in New York City accounted for more than 50% of arrests for prostitution.
Types of sex work expanded in the 21st century. Film and later the Internet provided new opportunities for sex work. In 1978, Carol Leigh, a sex worker and activist, coined the term "sex work" as it is now used. She looked to combat the anti-porn movement by coining a term that reflected the labor and economic implications of the work. The term came into popular use in the 1980s. (bayswan). COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) and other similar groups formed in the 1970s and 80s to push for women's sexual freedom and sex workers' rights. A rift formed within feminism that continues today, with some arguing for the abolishment of sex work and others working for acceptance and rights for sex works.
Stigmas are negative and often derogatory ideas and labels that are placed on one or more members of a community. A prevalent stigma of sex workers that is circulated through various media platforms is the "whore" stigma in which sex workers are labelled as "whores" due to the nature and abundance of client relationships.
A history of media narratives of sex workers was studied to yield the top three most common storylines shown in media about sex works. First, sex workers are shown as carriers and sources of disease. Second, sex work is shown as a social problem that varies in severity. And third, sex work is almost always portrayed in media to occur outdoors, which adds to negative social perceptions that associate sex work to be dirty or public. Across all of these narratives, we typically see a gendered hierarchy in which women of various ages are shown as the sex workers and men are portrayed as the authoritative role of pimps, clients, and law enforcers.
A study in 2006 from the University of Victoria found that when compared to media representations of sex work, first hand experiences of sex workers were far from similar. It was found that even though inaccurate, media portrayals of sex work are formed from rigid social and cultural scripts that perpetuate stigma and provide influence to news coverage and negative perceptions of sex work.
The HIV/AIDS epidemic presented a new challenge to sex workers. The criminalization of exposing others to HIV/AIDS significantly impacted sex workers. Harm reduction strategies were organized providing testing, counseling, and supplies to stop the spread of the disease. This experience organizing helped facilitate future action for social justice. The threat of violence persists in many types of sex work. Unionization of legal types of sex work such as exotic dancers, lobbying of public health officials and labor officials, and human rights agencies has improved conditions for many sex workers. Nonetheless, the political ramifications of supporting a stigmatized population make organizing around sex work difficult. Despite these difficulties, actions against violence and for increased visibility and rights persist drawing hundreds of thousands of participants. Women in the sex trade are more susceptible to experiencing more stigma and discrimination than men. This stigma and discrimination is attributed to the negative social connotation of the job title "sex worker" and social perspective that sex workers have closer exposure to sexually transmitted diseases like HIV and AIDS. These stigmas influence how society interacts with sex workers. In 2011, many sex workers in Hong Kong reported having a verbally or physically abusive interaction with a police officer or healthcare official, which prompted a negative impact on overall health and unequal access to healthcare.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, contact professions (which includes many forms of sex work, amongst others) had been banned (temporarily) in some countries. This has resulted in a reduction in Europe of certain forms of sex work. In addition, there has been a greater adoption of forms of sex work which do not require physical contact (virtual sexual services). Examples of sex work that do not require physical contact include webcam modelling and adult content-subscription services (e.g. OnlyFans).
Some sex workers have carried on regardless however, also because some virtual sexual services may require an official bank account (or other means of receiving money digitally) and an own private room. The COVID-19 pandemic has heightened pre-existing marginalization, inequality, and criminalization of sex workers. With increased global health risks associated with the pandemic, sex workers' in-person services were suspended, posing more financial stressors to an already poverty-stricken population. COVID-19 regulations have specifically posed more threats to the physical and financial safety of socially-disadvantaged sex workers who are undocumented, transgender, and of color.
Sex work empowerment
International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers
Dr. Annie Sprinkle and the Sex Workers Outreach Project USA first observed the International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers on December 17, 2003, and has been continuously recognized for the last 17 years. Sprinkle and the Sex Workers Outreach Project USA first observed this day in memory of victims of the Green River Killer in Seattle Washington and has since evolved into an annual, international recognition for other cities who have lost many lives of sex workers, those who experience and have experienced violence, and to empower sex workers. During the week of December 17, the International Day to End Violence Against Sex workers calls attention to hate crimes around the world and social justice organizations work side-by-side with sex worker communities to hold memorials and stage actions to raise awareness of violence by focusing on condemnation of transphobia, xenophobia, racism, criminalization of drug use as well as stigma of sex work in order for sex work to be a safe, non criminalized practice.
Adult content-subscription services
In adult content-subscription services (e.g. OnlyFans) social media creators can be paid for their content. This content can include selfies, tips, information, tutorials, as well as sex work. OnlyFans creators make a lucrative profit from subscribers who purchase access to their exclusive account every month. The experience is curated for each individual subscriber versus a broad audience like the content provided by Pornhub/brazzers/xxxvideos/etc. OnlyFans has changed sex work in a way that has made it more powerful for the creator, and safer for them to control how they perform their sex work. Many OnlyFans creators that focus on sex work, have reported that they receive more subscribers as they post more frequently. It is irrelevant if the posts are "explicit" or not. Several of the women who perform sex work on OnlyFans have regulars that they know everything about from their job description, to children/husband/wives names, to when their surgical procedures are. Although these creators are often paid for and may assist in their subscribers orgasms: this act is not prostitution. Subscribers to OnlyFans accounts where they receive sex work, have stated that they can get porn for free anywhere, and that they are paying for a service catered to their personal needs. These subscribers are paying for people to be an online significant other who occasionally help them achieve an orgasm.
Emotional labor
Emotional labor is an essential part of many service jobs, including many types of sex work. Through emotional labor sex workers engage in different levels of acting known as surface acting and deep acting. These levels reflect a sex worker's engagement with the emotional labor. Surface acting occurs when the sex worker is aware of the dissonance between their authentic experience of emotion and their managed emotional display. In contrast deep acting occurs when the sex worker can no longer differentiate between what is authentic and what is acting; acting becomes authentic.
Sex workers engage in emotional labor for many different reasons. First, sex workers often engage in emotional labor to construct performances of gender and sexuality. These performances frequently reflect the desires of a clientele which is mostly composed of heterosexual men. In the majority of cases, clients value women who they perceive as normatively feminine. For women sex workers, achieving this perception necessitates a performance of gender and sexuality that involves deference to clients and affirmation of their masculinity, as well as physical embodiment of traditional femininity. The emotional labor involved in sex work may be of a greater significance when race differences are involved. For instance Mistress Velvet, a black, femme dominatrix, advertises herself using her most fetishized attributes. She makes her clients, who are mostly white heterosexual men, read Black feminist theory before their sessions. This allows the clients to see why their participation, as white heterosexual men, contributes to the fetishization of black women.
Both within sex work and in other types of work, emotional labor is gendered in that women are expected to use it to construct performances of normative femininity, whereas men are expected to use it to construct performances of normative masculinity. In both cases, these expectations are often met because this labor is necessary to maximizing monetary gain and potentially to job retention. Indeed, emotional labor is often used as a means to maximize income. It fosters a better experience for the client and protects the worker thus enabling the worker to make the most profit.
In addition, sex workers often engage in emotional labor as a self-protection strategy, distancing themselves from the sometimes emotionally volatile work. Finally, clients often value perceived authenticity in their transactions with sex workers; thus, sex workers may attempt to foster a sense of authentic intimacy.
Health care for sex workers
Mental health care
Traumatic sexual events and violence put sex workers at a higher risk for mental health disorders. Women in sex work have a higher chance of suffering mental health disorders, and the chance is even greater for those who are women in minority groups including the LGBTQ+ community. A study performed in 2010 concluded that women in sex work were more likely to exhibit signs of PTSD (13%), anxiety (33.7%), and depression (24.4%). Women in sex work experience more obstacles and barriers to gaining mental health care despite their increased risk due to stigma, lack of access to insurance, lack of trust from health care professionals and misogyny. A study examining the institutionalized barriers to healthcare faced by female sex workers was conducted in Canada in 2016. The study yielded the finding that about 70% of female sex workers experience one or more institutional barriers to healthcare. These institutional barriers included long wait times, limited hours of operation, and biased treatment or discrimination on behalf of health care providers.
Primary health care
Sex workers are less likely to seek health care or be eligible to seek health care due to negative stigma. Women in sex work are disproportionally treated worse in health care settings. It is a minimal necessity that women in sex work have access to frequent STD/STI testing and treatment, but it is essential that sex workers have the equal access for regular primary care for other ailments as non-sexworkers. UNAIDS researched the percentage rates of accessible prevention services for sex workers in 2010 around the world and concluded that 51% did not have access. Another obstacle for sex workers to gain health care services is that many are unable to, or unwilling to disclose their profession on required medical paperwork making them ineligible to receive medical care.
The population of sex workers has been targeted by the public health industry as a population that has a high risk of HIV infection. This concept is used to strategize marketing materials to sex workers about health resources, but it has been found to actually add to stigma and discrimination of sex workers, further delegitimize prostitution as a source of income, hinder effective health interventions, and perpetuate the idea that being a sex worker is a risk factor for disease. Public health care initiatives that prioritize HIV prevention among sex workers and portray sex workers as a vulnerable population overshadow the rights of sex workers and the legitimacy of sex work as a functional occupation. The title "sex worker" itself was introduced in an attempt to break the association by healthcare industries that links female prostitutes with dirty, immoral, and diseased identities.
Intimate relationships
A study in Melbourne, Australia, found that sex workers typically experience relationship difficulties as a result of their line of work. This primarily stems from the issue of disclosure of their work in personal relationships. Some sex workers noted that dating ex-clients is helpful as they have had contact with sex workers and they are aware of their employment.
Although a majority of women in sex work reported that their profession negatively affected them, those that stated a positive effects reported that they had increases sexual self esteem and confidence. There is very little empirical evidence characterizing clients of sex workers, but they may share an analogous problem. A Scientific American article on sex buyers summarizes a limited field of research which indicates that Johns have a normal psychological profile matching the makeup of the wider male population but view themselves as mentally unwell.
Commodified intimacy
In clients' encounters with prostitutes or exotic dancers (and potentially other sex workers as well), many seek more than sexual satisfaction. They often seek, via their interactions with sex workers, an affirmation of their masculinity, which they may feel is lacking in other aspects of their lives. This affirmation comes in the form of (a simulation of) affection and sexual desire, and "smooth, intimate, affective space, wherein the way that time is managed is governed only by mutual desire and enjoyment." Partly because they are engaged in work during these interactions, prostitutes' experience and interpretation of time tends to be structured instead by desires to maximize income, avoid boredom, and/or avoid detriment to self-esteem.
For sex workers, commodified intimacy provides different benefits. In Brazil, sex workers prioritize foreign men over local men in terms of forming intimate relationships with sex workers. This is a result of local men regarding sex workers as having no worth beyond their occupation. In contrast, foreign men are often accompanied by wealth and status, which are factors that can help a sex worker become independent. Hence sex workers in Brazil are more likely to seek out "ambiguous entanglements" with the foreign men they provide services for, rather than the local men.
Gender differences
Interviews with men and women escorts illuminate gender differences in these escorts' experiences. On average, women escorts charged much more than men. Compared to traditional women escorts, women in niche markets charged lower rates. However, this disparity in rates did not exist for men escorts. Men escorts reported widespread acceptance in the gay community; they were much more likely than women to disclose their occupation. This community acceptance is fairly unusual to the gay community and not the experience of many women sex workers. Also, heterosexual men prostitutes are much more likely than heterosexual women prostitutes to entertain same-gender clients out of necessity, because the vast majority of clients are men. In general, there is a greater social expectation for women to engage in emotional labor than there is for men; there are also greater consequences if they do not.
Risks
The potential risks sex work poses to the worker vary greatly depending on the specific job they occupy. Compared to outdoor or street-based sex workers, indoor workers are less likely to face violence. Street sex workers may also more likely to use addictive drugs, to have unprotected sex, and to be the victim of sexual assault. HIV affects large numbers of sex workers, of all genders, who engage in prostitution globally. Rape and violence, poverty, stigma, and social exclusion are all common risks faced by sex workers in many different occupations. A study of violence against women engaged in street prostitution found that 68% reported having been raped. Sex workers are also at a high risk of murder. According to Salfati's study, sex workers are 60 to 120 times more likely to be murdered than nonprostitute females. Although these features tend to apply more to sex workers who engage in full service sex work, stigma and safety risks are pervasive for all types of sex work, albeit to different extents. Because of the varied legal status of some forms of sex work, sex workers in some countries also face the risk of incarceration, flogging and even the death penalty.
Feminist/liberalist debate
Feminist debates on sex work (see Feminist views of pornography and prostitution) focus primarily on pornography and prostitution. Feminist arguments against these occupations tend to be founded in the notion that these types of work are inherently degrading to women, perpetuate the sexual objectification of women, and/or perpetuate male supremacy. In response, proponents of sex work argue that these claims deny women sex workers' agency, and that choosing to engage in this work can be empowering. They contend that the perspectives of anti-sex work feminists are based on notions of sexuality constructed by the patriarchy to regulate women's expressions sexuality. In fact, many feminists who support the sex industry claim that criminalizing sex work causes more harm to women and their sexual autonomy. An article in the Touro Law Review 2014, focuses on the challenges faced by prostitutes in the U.S and the need for prostitution reform. "[By criminalizing prostitution] women lose the choice to get paid for having consensual sex. A woman may have sex for free, but once she receives something of value for her services, the act becomes illegal". Those who see this as an attack on a women's sexual autonomy also worry about the recent attacks on liberal social policy, such as same sex marriage and abortion on demand, in the U.S. Some liberals also argue that since a disproportionate share of those who choose sex work as a means of income are the poor and disadvantaged, public officials should focus on social policies improving the lives of those choosing to do so rather than condemnation of the "private" means which those victims of society employ.
Debates on sex worker agency
The topic of sexual labor is often contextualized within opposing abolitionist and sex-positive perspectives. The abolitionist perspective typically defines sex work as an oppressive form of labor. According to opponents of prostitution, it is not only the literal purchase of a person's body for sexual exploitation, it also constitutes exertion of power over women both symbolically and materially. This perspective views prostitution and trafficking as directly and intimately connected and therefore calls for the abolition of prostitution in efforts to eliminate the overall sexual exploitation of women and children. Opponents also refute the idea of consent among sex workers by claiming that such consent is merely a submissive acceptance of the traditional exploitation of women. For these reasons, opponents believe that decriminalizing sex work would utterly harm women as a class by maintaining their sexual and economic exploitation while "serving the interests of pimps, procurers and prostitutors".
Some sex-positive feminists recognize sex workers as situated within a modern Western sexual hierarchy where a married man and woman are respected while LGBT people, fetishists, and sex workers such as prostitutes and porn models are viewed as sexual deviants. According to sex positive feminists, sex law incorporates a prohibition against mixing sex and money in order to sustain this hierarchy. Therefore, the individuals who practice these "deviant" sexual acts are deemed as criminals and have limited institutional support and are subjected to economic sanctions. Sex-positive perspectives challenge this hierarchy by appreciating sexual diversity and rejecting any notion of "normal" sex. With this understanding, people who choose to engage in criminalized sex acts are seen as autonomous sexual beings rather than victims of the sex industry. For black women, agency is viewed as contextual due to historical considerations, and can be regarded as one facet of a complex system of ideals that encompass black women's sexuality over time. One result of this is the way that race relations impact the mobility of black people in the sex industry.
Some liberal feminists believe that a "democratic morality" should judge sexual activity (as if the proclivities of the majority, as well as their proficiency in providing sexual pleasures, should determine the direction of a society's moral compass) "by the way partners treat one another, the presence or absence of coercion, and the quantity and quality of the pleasures they provide". They propound that it should not be an ethical concern whether sex acts are coupled or in groups, same or mixed sex, with or without consensual acts of violence or video, commercial or free.
Relevant television series and films
The Client List
The Client List (TV series)
The Deuce (TV series)
The Girlfriend Experience (TV series)
Sand Dollars
Nights of Cabiria
The Florida Project
Top of the Lake
Whores' Glory
Mamma Roma
Buying Sex
Meet the Fokkens
Relevant advocacy groups
African Sex Workers Alliance
Global Network Of Sex Work Projects
Sex Workers Outreach Project USA
EMPOWER
RedTraSex
Caribbean Sex Workers Coalition
See also
Sex worker
Sex workers' rights
Sex industry
Sex-positive feminism
Decriminalization of sex work
List of sex worker organizations
Prostitution
Migrant sex work
Transgender sex worker
References
Prostitution
Human sexuality
Organized crime activity
Sex industry
Human trafficking | [
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236651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallrats | Mallrats | Mallrats is a 1995 American
buddy comedy film written and directed by Kevin Smith and starring Jason Lee, Jeremy London, Shannen Doherty, Claire Forlani, Ben Affleck, Jason Mewes, Joey Lauren Adams, Michael Rooker, and Smith himself. It is the second film in the View Askewniverse after 1994's Clerks, although, chronologically, Mallrats takes place a day before.
As in the other Askewniverse films, the characters Jay and Silent Bob feature prominently, and characters and events from other films are discussed. Several cast members, including Jason Lee, Ben Affleck and Joey Lauren Adams, have gone on to work in several other Smith films. Comic-book icon Stan Lee appeared, as did Brian O'Halloran, the star of Smith's breakout feature Clerks.
Despite failing at the box office and receiving a lukewarm critical reception, Mallrats has since become a cult classic. Plans for a sequel film titled MallBrats were announced in March 2015. By the following year, the project was proposed to be a television miniseries, but by February 2017, Smith announced that he had not been able to sell the series to any network. In January 2020, Smith revealed that development on a sequel film has started again, this time under the title Twilight of the Mallrats.
Mallrats has had three versions released, with the main version being released amongst an extended version and a theatrical version. The theatrical release has a total of 100 differences between the extended and original version.
Plot
College student T.S. Quint is preparing for a trip to Universal Studios Florida in Orlando with Brandi Svenning, during which he plans to propose to her; however, Brandi tells him she cannot go due to having volunteered to fill in as a contestant on Truth or Date, her father's dating game show, because the original contestant had died from an embolism bursting in her brain while swimming 700 laps at the local Y.M.C.A following T.S.'s comment regarding her weight. T.S. dismisses the blame, and they argue over this and break up. T.S. turns to his best friend Brodie Bruce, who has been dumped by his girlfriend Rene, and Brodie suggests the two might find comfort at the local mall.
In the extended version, T.S. is dressed up for a play recital and is holding a prop musket when speaking to Brandi, subsequently his musket gets caught in her hair before accidentally firing, T.S. is misinterpreted as a sniper attempting to assassinate the governor, whom Brandi's father Jared, works for.
T.S. finds himself surrounded by news reporters before finding refuge in Brodie's mother's basement where Brodie eventually suggests they go to the mall and hide in plain sight.
The Truth or Date show, which was to be hosted by Jared, was referenced within the first scene of the extended version.
Brodie and T.S. discover Truth or Date is being filmed at the same mall, through their friend Willam, who throughout the film tries to see a sailboat in a Magic Eye poster (which ironically, has no sailboat in it but just some rows of random geometric shapes). The two ask local slackers Jay and Silent Bob to destroy the show's stage, a task for which they devise elaborate, but ultimately unsuccessful plans. Brodie and T.S. run into Tricia Jones, a 15-year-old senior who is writing a book on the sex drive of men ages 14–30, for which she has sex with various men as research and films every encounter. She then reveals that the previous night she had sex with Shannon Hamilton, a 25-year-old clothing-store manager who hates Brodie because of his "lack of a shopping agenda."
Brodie then learns that Rene has begun a relationship with Shannon. Brodie confronts Rene to find out more about the relationship, and the two have sex in an elevator. Brodie is later abducted and attacked by Shannon, who intends to have sex with Rene in a "very uncomfortable place". As a result of this incident, Jay and Silent Bob assault the mall's Easter Bunny, under the incorrect assumption that he attacked Brodie.
Brandi's father Jared has Brodie and T.S. arrested on false charges of drug possession at the mall. Jay and Silent Bob are able to rescue Brodie and T.S., and they hide out at a local flea market, where they meet topless fortune teller Ivannah, who gives them both advice on their relationship problems. T.S. decides to win Brandi back and the two return to the mall.
Before the show begins, Brodie meets famed Marvel legend Stan Lee, who gives him advice on romance, this was revealed immediately after to be a request by T.S. who somehow knows Stan Lee. After this, Brodie requests that his friend Tricia Jones retrieve footage of her having sex with Shannon. Meanwhile, T.S. also persuades Jay to get two of the game show contestants stoned, which allows him and Brodie to replace them on Truth or Date.
During the show, Brandi recognizes the voices of Brodie and T.S., and an on-air argument between them ensues. Brodie ultimately gets the two to stop arguing, explaining that T.S. has been pining for Brandi all day. Then T.S. proposes to Brandi, and she accepts. As the police arrive to arrest T.S. and Brodie after the show is over, Silent Bob plays a sex tape of Shannon and Tricia, resulting in his arrest for statutory rape. Brodie and Rene renew their relationship as a result.
The conclusion reveals that T.S. marries Brandi at Universal Studios while on a Jaws attraction, Tricia's book is a bestseller, Shannon is imprisoned (and subsequently raped), Willam eventually does see the sailboat, Brodie becomes the host of The Tonight Show (with Rene as his bandleader), and that Jay and Silent Bob get an orangutan named Susanne.
Cast
Shannen Doherty as Rene Mosier
Jeremy London as T.S. Quint
Jason Lee as Brodie Bruce
Claire Forlani as Brandi Svenning
Ben Affleck as Shannon Hamilton
Joey Lauren Adams as Gwen Turner
Renee Humphrey as Tricia Jones
Jason Mewes as Jay
Kevin Smith as Silent Bob
Ethan Suplee as Willam
Stan Lee as himself
Elizabeth Ashley (Extended Edition) as Governor Dalton
Priscilla Barnes as Miss Ivannah
Michael Rooker as Jared Svenning
Sven-Ole Thorsen as LaFours
Scott Mosier as Roddy
Walt Flanagan as Walt "Fanboy" Grover
Bryan Johnson as Steve-Dave Pulasti
Brian O'Halloran as Gill Hicks, Suitor #3
Art James as Bob Summers, host of Truth or Date
Luke Wilson as a member of the audience watching Truth or Date (uncredited)
Ethan Flower as Guy Contestant #1
Production
After the success of the independent hit Clerks, writer/director Kevin Smith and his best friend/producer Scott Mosier began to make their second film. After a screening of Clerks, producer James Jacks approached them to do another film for Universal Studios. Smith soon finished the script for this new film, and casting began.
Jeremy London, an actor with a TV series and a few films to his credit, was cast as T.S.; Henry Thomas was the finalist of the role. Shannen Doherty was the most famous cast member after her appearances in several films and the hit TV show Beverly Hills, 90210. Jason Lee was cast with no prior acting experience; before the film, Lee was a professional skateboarder, and Adam Sandler and Steve Zahn were the finalists for the role of Brodie Bruce. Ben Affleck, who was a relative unknown at the time, was cast as Shannon Hamilton. Joey Lauren Adams was cast as Gwen Turner; she later dated Smith, and during that time, he wrote the main character in Chasing Amy for her. Ethan Suplee was cast as Willam Black. Scott Mosier was supposed to reprise the role, but Smith and the film's producers were so impressed with Suplee that they cast him, instead. The most troublesome role to cast was Jay, as Universal did not want Jason Mewes to have the role, despite the fact that he played it in Clerks and the character of Jay is based on him. Mewes had to audition for the part against actors such as Seth Green and Breckin Meyer.
Ties to New Jersey
Rahway State Prison is mentioned at the end of the film
Brodie wears a Henry Hudson Regional High School shirt at the beginning of the film. Kevin Smith and Jason Mewes attended that school in Highlands, New Jersey.
Smith wanted to shoot the film in Seaview Square Mall in Ocean Township, New Jersey, but filmed it at Eden Prairie Center mall in Eden Prairie, Minnesota instead due to lower production costs.
The exterior shot showing T.S. and Brodie's arrival at the flea market was of the now-demolished Route 1 Flea Market in New Brunswick, New Jersey.
The Menlo Park Mall, located in Edison, New Jersey, is mentioned in the Easter Bunny beating scene. Brodie tells Jay and Silent Bob that the Easter Bunny assaulted him because "all I said was the Easter Bunny in the Menlo Park Mall was more convincing."
Reception
The film grossed $400,000 on its Friday gross on 800 screens. The film made $1.2 million its opening weekend. The film grossed $2,122,561 at the box office.
Mallrats was the subject of much critical derision when it was released, with many critics comparing it unfavorably to Smith's first film, Clerks. In his negative review of the film, critic Roger Ebert gave the film 1 1/2 stars out of 4 and said "Before Mallrats was released, I chaired a panel that Smith participated in and Kevin Smith cheerfully said he'd be happy to do whatever the studios wanted, if they'd pay for his films. At the time, I thought he was joking." Kevin Smith responded by apologizing for Mallrats at the 1996 Independent Spirit Awards, though he later stated that the apology was made in jest. Despite all that, the film developed a cult following after it was released on video.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes lists a 57% positive rating for Mallrats based on 46 reviews with a rating average of 5.6/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Mallrats colorfully expands the View Askewniverse, even if its snootchie has lost a few of the bootchies boasted by its beloved predecessor."
Home media
In 1996 MCA/Universal Home Video released the movie on VHS and Laserdisc (the latter in widescreen format).
A DVD was released in 1999 including 1.85:1 Anamorphic widescreen picture & 5.1 Dolby surround sound (both of which the movie was in for the Laserdisc release). Bonus features include:
Audio commentary with director Kevin Smith, cast members Ben Affleck, Jason Lee, and Jason Mewes, and producers Scott Mosier & Vincent Pereira
Deleted scenes
Featurette-View Askew's Look Back At Mallrats
Music Video-Build Me Up Buttercup by The Goops (Directed by Kevin Smith)
Theatrical trailer
Extended cut
In 2005, a 10th anniversary DVD was released, containing the original version of the film, features from the previous DVD release, and an all new extended cut of the movie with over 30 minutes of additional footage and subplots.
An alternate opening scene, in which Mr. Svenning hosts a Ball for the Governor of New Jersey (played by Elizabeth Ashley). In this scene, T.S. (dressed as a colonial musketman), accidentally gets his musket tangled up in Brandi's hair, then accidentally shoots at the Governor on the roof of a school, which ends up costing Mr. Svenning his reputation as well as a big pay raise. This explains the reason why Svenning shows an intense dislike for T.S. and why Brandi is so intent on breaking up with him. This scene also makes no mention of Julie Dwyer's death, as the theatrical cut did. (That cut subplot was referenced in the final cut of the movie, where the TV execs mention to Svenning that they do not want a repeat of the Governor's Ball.)
Multiple lines throughout the movie are restored, related to T.S.'s "attempted assassination" of the governor. Many of these have wildly different reasons for having seen T.S. on the news, such as Shannon's claim that he had tried to kidnap the President's daughter.
An extended sequence at Brodie's house, where T.S. is hounded by the media as a result of his actions at the Governor's Ball, including several TV movie offers.
Included scenes where T.S. also makes it known to Brandi that he proposed to marry her.
A scene in which Brodie and T.S. arrive outside of Mr. Svenning's home, so T.S. can try and reconcile, and during the confusion, thanks to a news crew chasing T.S., then interviewing Brodie (who then implies that Mr. Svenning and Brandi take part in Satanic rituals), the news crew records footage of Svenning doing martial arts in a bath-towel. (Some of the footage of Mr. Svenning was re-edited in the theatrical release into the new intro.)
A shot that shows the Quick Stop from Clerks.
A new subplot of Brodie showing intentions of wanting to be on television, which explains his surprised look during his appearance on Truth or Date.
The scene with Miss Ivannah has several restored lines.
An extended arrest scene in which LaFours wants to put Brodie and T.S. into jail for an extended period of time, rather than "overnight" when the pair were initially arrested.
An extended fight scene between Brodie and Shannon Hamilton, in which Hamilton tells Brodie to forget Rene.
An extended rant from Mr. Svenning, a result of T.S. letting it slip that he intended to propose to Brandi.
The scene where Mr. Svenning meets with Brodie before he has both Brodie and T.S. removed by LaFours has several restored lines and ends with more finger- and hand-licking of the melty pretzel chocolate by Mr. Svenning after the boys are removed.
A scene after Truth or Date in which Mr. Svenning demands to have T.S. and Brodie arrested, but instead he is the one who is arrested. It turns out that since Svenning was the producer of the show, he faces multiple FCC fines for Brodie's antics.
An extended "Where are they now?" ending sequence, in which Mr. Svenning is shown at his job at the network as a janitor (along with his production assistant, still wearing his headset), and Shannon Hamilton is shown screaming after his rape in prison.
A scene that showed Tricia flirting and having sex with LaFours in order to distract him from catching Jay and Silent Bob. This explains the final segment in the 'where are they now' ending sequence, showing LaFours kissing Tricia during the book signing.
As explained by Kevin Smith in the introduction, most of the scenes were reworked because of the test audience's negative reaction. Some of the dialogue had been re-dubbed in the theatrical release, but is restored in this version. (For example, the man who runs up to and is subsequently punched by T.S. outside the mall near the end originally asked if he had seen T.S. on CNN, whereas in the theatrical cut, he asks T.S. if he was the one who broke up with Brandi Svenning.) Other extended scenes have notable jump cuts.
The original DVD's deleted scenes reel also featured the first draft opening sequence (in script form); here, T.S. is competing on a collegiate game show produced by Mr. Svenning; he accidentally mispronounces an answer ("Bay of Bisquake" instead of Bay of Biscay); his team loses, and in the confusion, T.S. accidentally damages a camera, and he must now pay Mr. Svenning for the damages. Brandi then breaks up with him, and a man on a bus mistakenly thinks that T.S. will kill him after seeing him in a news report. Several alternate openings, with different voiceover spiels from Brodie (including one which has him recounting the events up to him nearly getting assaulted by Hamilton on the Truth or Date stage) were also seen in that reel.
The film was released on Blu-ray in 2014 and it used digital noise reduction and edge enhancement (as part of Universal's 1990's Best of the Decade collection); the menus were replaced with Universal-mandated menus, the Focus Features logo replaced the Universal logo at the start of the film, and some copies also included a code for a digital streaming version to be redeemed at Universal's online UltraViolet service, and iTunes.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack album was released in October 1995. It features mainly alternative rock from the 90s along with dialogue from the film. The ordering of the songs on the soundtrack album is not the order they appear as in the film. For example, Squirtgun's "Social" opens the film, while Weezer's "Susanne" ends the film, with Wax's "Mallrats" playing over the end credits. The song "Boogie Shoes" by KC and the Sunshine Band makes an appearance, when Brodie and T.S. drive to the flea market. However, it was excluded from the soundtrack album. A music video for The Goops' version of "Build Me Up Buttercup" was directed by Smith and featured both Smith and Mewes.
Sequel
On March 13, 2015, Kevin Smith confirmed that Mallrats 2 was being written and was slated to begin shooting in summer 2016. In April 2015, Smith announced that Mallrats 2 would be his next film, instead of Clerks III as originally intended, and would begin filming in 2015. From April 2015 to July 2016, Smith made a series of announcements regarding the proposed sequel, some regarding casting and some announcing delays in production. During this time, the planned film became a planned 10-episode television miniseries.
In February 2017, Smith announced that pitches to six different networks resulted in no one willing to produce the TV series, but expressed his hope that interest in the series would spike after the release of the film Jay and Silent Bob Reboot.
In January 2020, Smith announced that development on a Mallrats sequel film has started up again, under a new title Twilight of the Mallrats. On April 24, Smith stated that he has officially completed the first draft of the script and that the original cast will return. On May 12, 2020, Smith revealed that Aparna Brielle, who played Jihad in Jay and Silent Bob Reboot, has been set to lead the film as Banner, the daughter of Brodie, and that Shannen Doherty would return to reprise her role of Rene Mosier.
References
External links
Mallrats at View Askew Productions
1995 films
1995 comedy films
1990s buddy comedy films
American films
American buddy comedy films
Depictions of Stan Lee on film
English-language films
Films directed by Kevin Smith
Films produced by James Jacks
Films set in 1993
Films set in New Jersey
Films set in shopping malls
Films shot in Minnesota
Films shot in New Jersey
Films with screenplays by Kevin Smith
View Askew Productions films
View Askewniverse films
Universal Pictures films
Films scored by Ira Newborn
Gramercy Pictures films
Prequel films
Films produced by Scott Mosier
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236654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20Group%20Management%20Protocol | Internet Group Management Protocol | The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a communications protocol used by hosts and adjacent routers on IPv4 networks to establish multicast group memberships. IGMP is an integral part of IP multicast and allows the network to direct multicast transmissions only to hosts that have requested them.
IGMP can be used for one-to-many networking applications such as online streaming video and gaming, and allows more efficient use of resources when supporting these types of applications.
IGMP is used on IPv4 networks. Multicast management on IPv6 networks is handled by Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) which is a part of ICMPv6 in contrast to IGMP's bare IP encapsulation.
Architecture
A network designed to deliver a multicast service using IGMP might use this basic architecture:
IGMP operates between a host and a local multicast router. Switches featuring IGMP snooping also derive useful information by observing these IGMP transactions. Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) is then used between the local and remote multicast routers to direct multicast traffic from hosts sending multicasts to hosts that have registered through IGMP to receive them.
IGMP operates on the network layer (layer 3), just the same as other network management protocols like ICMP.
The IGMP protocol is implemented on hosts and within routers. A host requests membership to a group through its local router while a router listens for these requests and periodically sends out subscription queries. A single router per subnet is elected to perform this querying function. Some multilayer switches include an IGMP querier capability to allow their IGMP snooping features to work in the absence of an IGMP-capable router in the layer 2 network.
IGMP is vulnerable to some attacks, and firewalls commonly allow the user to disable it if not needed.
Versions
There are three versions of IGMP. IGMPv1 is defined by , IGMPv2 is defined by and IGMPv3 was initially defined by . updates both IGMPv3 and MLDv2 to better support source-specific multicast. IGMPv2 improves IGMPv1 by adding the ability for a host to signal desire to leave a multicast group. IGMPv3 improves IGMPv2 by supporting source-specific multicast and introduces membership report aggregation.
These versions are backwards compatible. A router supporting IGMPv3 can support clients running IGMPv1, IGMPv2 and IGMPv3. IGMPv1 uses a query-response model. Queries are sent to 224.0.0.1. Membership reports are sent to the group's multicast address. IGMPv2 accelerates the process of leaving a group and adjusts other timeouts. Leave-group messages are sent to 224.0.0.2. A group-specific query is introduced. Group-specific queries are sent to the group's multicast address. A means for routers to select an IGMP querier for the network is introduced. IGMPv3 introduces source-specific multicast capability. Membership reports are sent to 224.0.0.22.
Messages
There are several types of IGMP messages:
General membership queries
Sent by multicast routers to determine which multicast addresses are of interest to systems attached to the network(s) they serve to refresh the group membership state for all systems on its network.
Group-specific membership queries
Used for determining the reception state for a particular multicast address
Group-and-source-specific queries
Allow the router to determine if any systems desire reception of messages sent to a multicast group from a source address specified in a list of unicast addresses
Membership reports
Sent by multicast receivers in response to a membership query or asynchronously when first registering for a multicast group
Leave group messages
Sent by multicast receivers when specified multicast transmissions are no longer needed at the receiver
IGMP messages are carried in bare IP packets with IP protocol number 2. Similar to the Internet Control Message Protocol, there is no transport layer used with IGMP messaging.
IGMPv2 messages
Where:
Type Indicates the message type as follows
{| class="wikitable"
|+IGMP message type values
|-
!Message
!Type value
|-
| Membership Query
|0x11
|-
| IGMPv1 Membership Report
| 0x12
|-
| IGMPv2 Membership Report
| 0x16
|-
| IGMPv3 Membership Report
| 0x22
|-
| Leave Group
| 0x17
|}
Max Resp Time Specifies the required responsiveness of replies to a Membership Query (0x11). This field is meaningful only in Membership Query; in other messages it is set to 0 and ignored by the receiver. The field specifies time in units of 0.1 second (a field value of 10 specifies 1 second). Larger values reduce IGMP traffic burstiness and smaller values improve protocol responsiveness when the last host leaves a group.
Group Address This is the multicast address being queried when sending a Group-Specific or Group-and-Source-Specific Query. The field is zeroed when sending a General Query.
The message is sent using the following IP destination addresses:
IGMPv3 membership query
Where:
Max Resp Code This field specifies the maximum time (in 1/10 second increments) allowed before sending a responding report. If the number is below 128, the value is used directly. If the value is 128 or more, it is interpreted as an exponent and mantissa.
Checksum This is the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of the entire IGMP message.
Group Address This is the multicast address being queried when sending a Group-Specific or Group-and-Source-Specific Query. The field is zeroed when sending a General Query.
Resv This field is reserved. It should be zeroed when sent and ignored when received.
S (Suppress Router-side Processing) Flag When this flag is set, it indicates to receiving routers that they are to suppress the normal timer updates.
QRV (Querier's Robustness Variable) If this is non-zero, it contains the Robustness Variable value used by the sender of the query. Routers should update their Robustness Variable to match the most recently received query unless the value is zero.
QQIC (Querier's Query Interval Code) This code is used to specify the Query Interval value (in seconds) used by the querier. If the number is below 128, the value is used directly. If the value is 128 or more, it is interpreted as an exponent and mantissa.
Number of Sources (N) This field specifies the number of source addresses present in the query. For General and Group-Specific Queries, this value is zero. For Group-and-Source-Specific Queries, this value is non-zero, but limited by the network's MTU.
Source Address [i] The Source Address [i] fields are a vector of n IP unicast addresses, where n is the value in the Number of Sources (N) field.
Implementations
The FreeBSD, Linux and Windows operating systems support IGMP at the host side.
See also
Internet Group Management Protocol with Access Control
Notes
References
Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Internet layer protocols
Network layer protocols | [
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] |
236662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body%20contact | Body contact | Body contact may refer to:
Body Contact (film), a 1987 film by Bernard Rose
Body contact (electricity), an electrical fault
See also
Touch (disambiguation) | [
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236666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen | Androgen | An androgen (from Greek andr-, the stem of the word meaning "man") is any natural or synthetic steroid hormone that regulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors. This includes the embryological development of the primary male sex organs, and the development of male secondary sex characteristics at puberty. Androgens are synthesized in the testes, the ovaries, and the adrenal glands.
Androgens increase in both males and females during puberty. The major androgen in males is testosterone. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and androstenedione are of equal importance in male development. DHT in utero causes differentiation of the penis, scrotum and prostate. In adulthood, DHT contributes to balding, prostate growth, and sebaceous gland activity.
Although androgens are commonly thought of only as male sex hormones, females also have them, but at lower levels: they function in libido and sexual arousal. Also, androgens are the precursors to estrogens in both men and women.
In addition to their role as natural hormones, androgens are used as medications; for information on androgens as medications, see the androgen replacement therapy and anabolic steroid articles.
Types and examples
The main subset of androgens, known as adrenal androgens, is composed of 19-carbon steroids synthesized in the zona reticularis, the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex. Adrenal androgens function as weak steroids (though some are precursors), and the subset includes dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), androstenedione (A4), and androstenediol (A5).
Besides testosterone, other androgens include:
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex from cholesterol. It is the primary precursor of both the androgen and estrogen sex hormones. DHEA is also called dehydroisoandrosterone or dehydroandrosterone.
Androstenedione (A4) is an androgenic steroid produced by the testes, adrenal cortex, and ovaries. While androstenedione is converted metabolically to testosterone and other androgens, it is also the parent structure of estrone. Use of androstenedione as an athletic or bodybuilding supplement has been banned by the International Olympic Committee, as well as other sporting organizations.
Androstenediol (A5) is a steroid metabolite of DHEA and the precursor to sex hormones testosterone and estradiol.
Androsterone is a chemical byproduct created during the breakdown of androgens, or derived from progesterone, that also exerts minor masculinising effects, but with one-seventh the intensity of testosterone. It is found in approximately equal amounts in the plasma and urine of both males and females.
Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is a metabolite of testosterone, and a more potent androgen than testosterone in that it binds more strongly to androgen receptors. It is produced in the skin and reproductive tissue.
Determined by consideration of all biological assay methods (circa 1970):
Female ovarian and adrenal androgens
The ovaries and adrenal glands also produce androgens, but at much lower levels than the testes. Regarding the relative contributions of ovaries and adrenal glands to female androgen levels, in a study with six menstruating women the following observations have been made:
Adrenal contribution to peripheral T, DHT, A, DHEA and DHEA-S is relatively constant throughout the menstrual cycle.
Ovarian contribution of peripheral T, A and DHEA-S reaches maximum levels at mid-cycle, whereas ovarian contribution to peripheral DHT and DHEA does not seem to be influenced by the menstrual cycle.
Ovary and adrenal cortex contribute equally to peripheral T, DHT and A, with the exception that at mid-cycle ovarian contribution of peripheral A is twice that of the adrenal.
Peripheral DHEA and DHEA-S are produced mainly in the adrenal cortex which provides 80% of DHEA and over 90% of DHEA-S.
Biological function
Male prenatal development
Testes formation
During mammalian development, the gonads are at first capable of becoming either ovaries or testes. In humans, starting at about week 4, the gonadal rudiments are present within the intermediate mesoderm adjacent to the developing kidneys. At about week 6, epithelial sex cords develop within the forming testes and incorporate the germ cells as they migrate into the gonads. In males, certain Y chromosome genes, particularly SRY, control development of the male phenotype, including conversion of the early bipotential gonad into testes. In males, the sex cords fully invade the developing gonads.
Androgen production
The mesoderm-derived epithelial cells of the sex cords in developing testes become the Sertoli cells, which will function to support sperm cell formation. A minor population of nonepithelial cells appear between the tubules by week 8 of human fetal development. These are Leydig cells. Soon after they differentiate, Leydig cells begin to produce androgens.
Androgen effects
The androgens function as paracrine hormones required by the Sertoli cells to support sperm production. They are also required for masculinization of the developing male fetus (including penis and scrotum formation). Under the influence of androgens, remnants of the mesonephron, the Wolffian ducts, develop into the epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles. This action of androgens is supported by a hormone from Sertoli cells, Müllerian inhibitory hormone (MIH), which prevents the embryonic Müllerian ducts from developing into fallopian tubes and other female reproductive tract tissues in male embryos. MIH and androgens cooperate to allow for movement of testes into the scrotum.
Early regulation
Before the production of the pituitary hormone luteinizing hormone (LH) by the embryo starting at about weeks 11–12, human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) promotes the differentiation of Leydig cells and their production of androgens at week 8. Androgen action in target tissues often involves conversion of testosterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
Male pubertal development
At the time of puberty, androgen levels increase dramatically in males, and androgens mediate the development of masculine secondary sexual characteristics as well as the activation of spermatogenesis and fertility and masculine behavioral changes such as increased sex drive. Masculine secondary sexual characteristics include androgenic hair, voice deepening, emergence of the Adam's apple, broadening of the shoulders, increased muscle mass, and penile growth.
Spermatogenesis
During puberty, androgen, LH and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) production increase and the sex cords hollow out, forming the seminiferous tubules, and the germ cells start to differentiate into sperm. Throughout adulthood, androgens and FSH cooperatively act on Sertoli cells in the testes to support sperm production. Exogenous androgen supplements can be used as a male contraceptive. Elevated androgen levels caused by use of androgen supplements can inhibit production of LH and block production of endogenous androgens by Leydig cells. Without the locally high levels of androgens in testes due to androgen production by Leydig cells, the seminiferous tubules can degenerate, resulting in infertility. For this reason, many transdermal androgen patches are applied to the scrotum.
Fat deposition
Males typically have less body fat than females. Recent results indicate androgens inhibit the ability of some fat cells to store lipids by blocking a signal transduction pathway that normally supports adipocyte function. Also, androgens, but not estrogens, increase beta adrenergic receptors while decreasing alpha adrenergic receptors- which results in increased levels of epinephrine/ norepinephrine due to lack of alpha-2 receptor negative feedback and decreased fat accumulation due to epinephrine/ norepinephrine then acting on lipolysis-inducing beta receptors.
Muscle mass
Males typically have more skeletal muscle mass than females. Androgens promote the enlargement of skeletal muscle cells in a coordinated manner by acting on several cell types in skeletal muscle tissue. One cell type, called the myoblast, conveys androgen receptors for generating muscle. Fusion of myoblasts generates myotubes, in a process linked to androgen receptor levels. Higher androgen levels lead to increased expression of androgen receptor.
Brain
Circulating levels of androgens can influence human behavior because some neurons are sensitive to steroid hormones. Androgen levels have been implicated in the regulation of human aggression and libido. Indeed, androgens are capable of altering the structure of the brain in several species, including mice, rats, and primates, producing sex differences.
Numerous reports have shown androgens alone are capable of altering the structure of the brain, but identification of which alterations in neuroanatomy stem from androgens or estrogens is difficult, because of their potential for conversion.
Evidence from neurogenesis (formation of new neurons) studies on male rats has shown that the hippocampus is a useful brain region to examine when determining the effects of androgens on behavior. To examine neurogenesis, wild-type male rats were compared with male rats that had testicular feminization mutation (TMF), a genetic disorder resulting in complete or partial insensitivity to androgens and a lack of external male genitalia.
Neural injections of Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) were applied to males of both groups to test for neurogenesis. Analysis showed that testosterone and dihydrotestosterone regulated adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN). Adult hippocampal neurogenesis was regulated through the androgen receptor in the wild-type male rats, but not in the TMF male rats. To further test the role of activated androgen receptors on AHN, flutamide, an antiandrogen drug that competes with testosterone and dihydrotestosterone for androgen receptors, and dihydrotestosterone were administered to normal male rats. Dihydrotestosterone increased the number of BrdU cells, while flutamide inhibited these cells.
Moreover, estrogens had no effect. This research demonstrates how androgens can increase AHN.
Researchers also examined how mild exercise affected androgen synthesis which in turn causes AHN activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors.
NMDA induces a calcium flux that allows for synaptic plasticity which is crucial for AHN.
Researchers injected both orchidectomized (ORX) (castrated) and sham castrated male rats with BrdU to determine if the number of new cells was increased. They found that AHN in male rats is increased with mild exercise by boosting synthesis of dihydrotestosterone in the hippocampus.
Again it was noted that AHN was not increase via activation of the estrogen receptors.
Androgen regulation decreases the likelihood of depression in males. In preadolescent male rats, neonatal rats treated with flutamide developed more depression-like symptoms compared to control rats.
Again BrdU was injected into both groups of rats in order to see if cells were multiplying in the living tissue. These results demonstrate how the organization of androgens has a positive effect on preadolescent hippocampal neurogenesis that may be linked with lower depression-like symptoms.
Social isolation has a hindering effect in AHN whereas normal regulation of androgens increases AHN. A study using male rats showed that testosterone may block social isolation, which results in hippocampal neurogenesis reaching homeostasis—regulation that keeps internal conditions stable. A Brdu analysis showed that excess testosterone did not increase this blocking effect against social isolation; that is, the natural circulating levels of androgens cancel out the negative effects of social isolation on AHN.
Female-specific effects
Androgens have potential roles in relaxation of the myometrium via non-genomic, androgen receptor-independent pathways, preventing premature uterine contractions in pregnancy.
Androgen insensitivity
Reduced ability of an XY-karyotype fetus to respond to androgens can result in one of several conditions, including infertility and several forms of intersex conditions.
Miscellaneous
Yolk androgen levels in certain birds have been positively correlated to social dominance later in life. See American coot.
Biological activity
Androgens bind to and activate androgen receptors (ARs) to mediate most of their biological effects.
Relative potency
Determined by consideration of all biological assay methods (circa 1970):
5α-Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) was 2.4 times more potent than testosterone at maintaining normal prostate weight and duct lumen mass (this is a measure of epithelial cell function stimulation). Whereas DHT was equally potent as testosterone at preventing prostate cell death after castration.
Non-genomic actions
Androgens have also been found to signal through membrane androgen receptors, which are distinct from the classical nuclear androgen receptor.
Biochemistry
Biosynthesis
Androgens are synthesized from cholesterol and are produced primarily in the gonads (testicles and ovaries) and also in the adrenal glands. The testicles produce a much higher quantity than the ovaries. Conversion of testosterone to the more potent DHT occurs in prostate gland, liver, brain and skin.
Metabolism
Androgens are metabolized mainly in the liver.
Medical uses
A low testosterone level (hypogonadism) in men may be treated with testosterone administration. Prostate cancer may be treated by removing the major source of testosterone: testicle removal (orchiectomy); or agents which block androgens from accessing their receptor: antiandrogens.
See also
Andrology
Endocrine system
Exercise and androgen levels
Androgen insensitivity syndrome
Testosterone and the cardiovascular system
List of steroid abbreviations
List of androgens/anabolic steroids
List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States
References
Hepatotoxins
Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis
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236669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona%20%28font%29 | Mona (font) | Mona Font is both a Japanese proportional pixel font for the X Window System, derived from the Shinonome raster font family, and a TrueType font. It aims to represent Shift JIS art graphics properly, almost all of which require the MS PGothic font. Mona is named after Mona, a character-based mascot of 2channel.
Mona uses glyphs from Shinonome (東雲) version 0.9.9 (Gothic) for embedded bitmaps. In version 2.30-pre, it incorporated outline from Kochi-Gothic. However, it was changed to Kochi-substitute in 2.30-pre2 after discovering the copyright violation in Kochi font. Glyphs share the characteristics of MS PGothic.
Mona supports following code pages: 1252 (Latin 1), 1250 (Latin 2: East Europe), 1251 (Cyrillic), 1253 (Greek), 932 (JIS/Japan), 737 (Greek; former 437G), 437 (US).
mona-outline
mona-outline version 2.30pre2 is included with the source code for Mona Font source package, which consists of a subset of glyphs found in Mona. OpenType layout table supports standard ligature in default language. When the font is viewed under Windows Font Viewer, a horizontal stroke overlays the glyph.
mona-outline supports the following code pages: 932 (JIS/Japan), 437 (US).
IPA monafont
IPA monafont is an extension of IPA Font (IPAフォント), Sazanami Font (さざなみフォント), Mona Font (モナーフォント), M+ Fonts (M+フォント) created by Jun Kobayashi, which consists of a family of fonts:
IPAMonaGothic (IPA モナー ゴシック)
IPAMonaMincho (IPA モナー 明朝)
IPAMonaPGothic (IPA モナー P ゴシック)
IPAMonaPMincho (IPA モナー P 明朝)
IPAMonaUIGothic (IPA モナー UI ゴシック)
IPA monafont family supports following code pages: 1252 (Latin 1), 1251 (Cyrillic), 932 (JIS/Japan), 950 (Big-5), Macintosh Character Set (US Roman), Windows OEM Character Set, 866 (MS-DOS Russian), 865 (MS-DOS Nordic), 863 (MS-DOS Canadian French), 861 (MS-DOS Icelandic), 860 (MS-DOS Portuguese), 855 (IBM Cyrillic; primary Russian), 437 (US).
Glyphs for CJK ideographs are reworked to look more like Arial Unicode MS, while sub-glyphs for these characters are repositioned and rescaled. Similar to the MS Gothic and MS Mincho font families, reverse solidus glyph uses yen sign instead of backslash. Similar non-standard can be found in Gulim and Dotum family.
Font statistics
Note: Some glyphs representing non-whitespace characters are blank.
See also
List of CJK fonts
References
External links
Mona Font at SourceForge
IPA monafont
2channel
CJK typefaces | [
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236674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda | Ayurveda | Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. The Indian Medical Association describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice medicine as quacks. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.
Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia. Therapies include herbal medicines, special diets, meditation, yoga, massage, laxatives, enemas, and medical oils. Ayurvedic preparations are typically based on complex herbal compounds, minerals, and metal substances (perhaps under the influence of early Indian alchemy or rasashastra). Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, and the extraction of foreign objects.
The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians. In Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium), Sushruta wrote that Dhanvantari, Hindu god of Ayurveda, incarnated himself as a king of Varanasi and taught medicine to a group of physicians, including Sushruta. Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by Baba Hari Dass in the 1970s and Maharishi Ayurveda in the 1980s. Some scholars assert that Ayurveda originated in prehistoric times. Ayurveda developed significantly during the Vedic period and later some of the non-Vedic systems such as Buddhism and Jainism also developed medical concepts and practices that appear in the classical Ayurveda texts.
In Ayurveda texts, Doṣa balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness. Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental doṣas viz. vāta, pitta and kapha, and state that balance (Skt. sāmyatva) of the doṣas results in health, while imbalance (viṣamatva) results in disease. Ayurveda treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the beginning of the common era.
There is no good evidence that Ayurveda is effective for treating any disease. Some Ayurvedic preparations have been found to contain lead, mercury, and arsenic, substances known to be harmful to humans. A 2008 study found the three substances in close to 21% of U.S. and Indian-manufactured patent Ayurvedic medicines sold through the Internet. The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown.
Eight components
The earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medicine as being divided into eight components (Skt. aṅga). This characterization of the physician's art, "the medicine that has eight components" (Skt. cikitsāyām aṣṭāṅgāyāṃ चिकित्सायामष्टाङ्गायाम्), is first found in the Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata, c. 4th century BCE. The components are:
Kāyachikitsā: general medicine, medicine of the body
Kaumāra-bhṛtya (Pediatrics): Discussions about prenatal and postnatal care of baby and mother; methods of conception; choosing the child's sex, intelligence, and constitution; childhood diseases; and midwifery
Śalyatantra: surgical techniques and the extraction of foreign objects
Śhālākyatantra: treatment of ailments affecting openings or cavities in the upper body: ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc.
Bhūtavidyā: pacification of possessing spirits, and the people whose minds are affected by such possession
Agadatantra/Vishagara-vairodh Tantra (Toxicology): includes epidemics; toxins in animals, vegetables and minerals; and keys for recognizing those anomalies and their antidotes
Rasāyantantra: rejuvenation and tonics for increasing lifespan, intellect and strength
Vājīkaraṇatantra: aphrodisiacs; treatments for increasing the volume and viability of semen and sexual pleasure; infertility problems; and spiritual development (transmutation of sexual energy into spiritual energy)
Principles and terminology
The word "ayurveda" (, ) is composed of āyus, "life", and veda, "knowledge." Auyrveda means knowledge of life and longevity.
The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda developed in the mid-first millennium BCE, and show parallels with Sāṅkhya and Vaiśeṣika philosophies, as well as with Buddhism and Jainism. Balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness. For example, to suppress sneezing is said to potentially give rise to shoulder pain. However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure when following nature's urges. For example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake, sleep, and sexual intercourse.
According to ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (dhatus), waste (malas), and biomaterials (doshas). The seven dhatus are plasma (rasa), blood (rakta), muscles (māmsa), fat (meda), bone (asthi), marrow (majja), and semen (shukra). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, Ayurveda has historically divided bodily substances into five classical elements, (Sanskrit) panchamahabhuta, viz. earth, water, fire, air and ether. There are also twenty gunas (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid.
The three elemental bodily humors, the doshas or tridosha, are vata (space or air, equated with the nervous system), pitta (fire, equated with enzymes), and kapha (earth and water, equated with mucus). A parallel set of mental doshas termed satogun, rajogun, and tamogun control psychology. Each dosha has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more doshas thus explains a person's physical constitution (prakriti) and personality. Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental doshas is a major etiologic component of disease. One Ayurvedic view is that the doshas are balanced when they are equal to each other, while another view is that each human possesses a unique combination of the doshas which define this person's temperament and characteristics. In either case, it says that each person should modulate their behavior or environment to increase or decrease the doshas and maintain their natural state. Practitioners of Ayurveda must determine an individual's bodily and mental dosha makeup, as certain prakriti are said to predispose one to particular diseases. For example, a person who is thin, shy, excitable, has a pronounced Adam's apple, and enjoys of esoteric knowledge is likely vata prakriti and therefore more susceptible to conditions such as flatulence, stuttering, and rheumatism. Deranged vata is also associated with certain mental disorders due to excited or excess vayu (gas), although the Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita also attributes "insanity" (unmada) to cold food and possession by the ghost of a sinful Brahman (brahmarakshasa).
Ama (a Sanskrit word meaning "uncooked" or "undigested" ) is used to refer to the concept of anything that exists in a state of incomplete transformation. With regards to oral hygiene, it is claimed to be a toxic byproduct generated by improper or incomplete digestion. The concept has no equivalent in standard medicine.
In medieval taxonomies of the Sanskrit knowledge systems, Ayurveda is assigned a place as a subsidiary Veda (upaveda). Some medicinal plant names from the Atharvaveda and other Vedas can be found in subsequent Ayurveda literature. Some other school of thoughts considers 'Ayurveda' as the 'Fifth Veda'. The earliest recorded theoretical statements about the canonical models of disease in Ayurveda occur in the earliest Buddhist Canon.
Practice
Ayurvedic practitioners regard physical existence, mental existence, and personality as their own unique units, with each element being able to influence the others. This is a holistic approach used during diagnosis and therapy, and is a fundamental aspect of Ayurveda. Another part of Ayurvedic treatment says that there are channels (srotas) which transport fluids, and that the channels can be opened up by massage treatment using oils and Swedana (fomentation). Unhealthy, or blocked, channels are thought to cause disease.
Diagnosis
Ayurveda has eight ways to diagnose illness, called Nadi (pulse), Mootra (urine), Mala (stool), Jihva (tongue), Shabda (speech), Sparsha (touch), Druk (vision), and Aakruti (appearance). Ayurvedic practitioners approach diagnosis by using the five senses. For example, hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech. The study of the lethal points or marman marma is of special importance.
Treatment and prevention
Two of the eight branches of classical Ayurveda deal with surgery (Śalya-cikitsā and Śālākya-tantra), but contemporary Ayurveda tends to stress attaining vitality by building a healthy metabolic system and maintaining good digestion and excretion. Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, and meditation. One type of prescription is a Sattvic diet.
Ayurveda follows the concept of Dinacharya, which says that natural cycles (waking, sleeping, working, meditation etc.) are important for health. Hygiene, including regular bathing, cleaning of teeth, oil pulling, tongue scraping, skin care, and eye washing, is also a central practice.
Substances used
Plant-based treatments in Ayurveda may be derived from roots, leaves, fruits, bark, or seeds; some examples of plant-based substances include cardamom and cinnamon. In the 19th century, William Dymock and co-authors summarized hundreds of plant-derived medicines along with the uses, microscopic structure, chemical composition, toxicology, prevalent myths and stories, and relation to commerce in British India. Animal products used in Ayurveda include milk, bones, and gallstones. In addition, fats are prescribed both for consumption and for external use. Consumption of minerals, including sulphur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate and gold, are also prescribed. The addition of minerals to herbal medicine is called rasashastra.
Ayurveda uses alcoholic beverages called Madya, which are said to adjust the doshas by increasing Pitta and reducing Vatta and Kapha. Madya are classified by the raw material and fermentation process, and the categories include: sugar-based, fruit-based, cereal-based, cereal-based with herbs, fermentated with vinegar, and tonic wines. The intended outcomes can include causing purgation, improving digestion or taste, creating dryness, or loosening joints. Ayurvedic texts describe Madya as non-viscid and fast-acting, and say that it enters and cleans minute pores in the body.
Purified opium is used in eight Ayurvedic preparations and is said to balance the Vata and Kapha doshas and increase the Pitta dosha. It is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery, for increasing the sexual and muscular ability, and for affecting the brain. The sedative and pain-relieving properties of opium are considered in Ayurveda. The use of opium is found in the ancient Ayurvedic texts, and is first mentioned in the Sarngadhara Samhita (1300-1400 CE), a book on pharmacy used in Rajasthan in Western India, as an ingredient of an aphrodisiac to delay male ejaculation. It is possible that opium was brought to India along with or before Muslim conquests. The book Yoga Ratnakara (1700-1800 CE, unknown author), which is popular in Maharashtra, uses opium in a herbal-mineral composition prescribed for diarrhea. In the Bhaisajya Ratnavali, opium and camphor are used for acute gastroenteritis. In this drug, the respiratory depressant action of opium is counteracted by the respiratory stimulant property of Camphor. Later books have included the narcotic property for use as analgesic pain reliever.
Cannabis indica is also mentioned in the ancient Ayurveda books, and is first mentioned in the Sarngadhara Samhita as a treatment for diarrhea. In the Bhaisajya Ratnavali it is named as an ingredient in an aphrodisiac.
Ayurveda says that both oil and tar can be used to stop bleeding, and that traumatic bleeding can be stopped by four different methods: ligation of the blood vessel, cauterisation by heat, use of preparations to facilitate clotting, and use of preparations to constrict the blood vessels. Oils are also used in a number of ways, including regular consumption, anointing, smearing, head massage, application to affected areas, and oil pulling. Liquids may also be poured on the patient's forehead, a technique called shirodhara.
Panchakarma
According to Ayurveda, panchakarma are techniques to eliminate toxic elements from the body.
Current status
India
According to some sources, up to 80 percent of people in India use Ayurveda exclusively or combined with conventional Western medicine.
In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act which aimed to standardise qualifications for Ayurveda practitioners and provide accredited institutions for its study and research was passed by the Parliament of India. In 1971, the Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) was established under the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha medicine and Homoeopathy (AYUSH), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, to monitor higher education in Ayurveda in India. The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels at both the national and state levels, and helps institutionalise traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities. The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) is designed to do research on Ayurveda. Many clinics in urban and rural areas are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes. , India has over 180 training centers offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.
To fight biopiracy and unethical patents, in 2001 the government of India set up the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library as a repository for formulations of various systems of Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha. The formulations come from over 100 traditional Ayurveda books.
An Indian Academy of Sciences document quoting a 2003-04 report states that India had 432,625 registered medical practitioners, 13,925 dispensaries, 2,253 hospitals and a bed strength of 43,803. 209 under-graduate teaching institutions and 16 post-graduate institutions. Insurance companies cover expenses for Ayurvedic treatments in case of conditions such as spinal cord disorders, bone disorder, arthritis and cancer. Such claims constitute 5-10 percent of the country's health insurance claims.
Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti, an organisation dedicated to fighting superstition in India, considers Ayurveda to be pseudoscience.
On 9 November 2014, India formed the Ministry of AYUSH. National Ayurveda Day is also observed in India on the birth of Dhanvantari that is Dhanteras.
In 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a report titled "The Health Workforce in India" which found that 31 percent of those who claimed to be doctors in India in 2001 were educated only up to the secondary school level and 57 percent went without any medical qualification. The WHO study found that the situation was worse in rural India with only 18.8 percent of doctors holding a medical qualification. Overall, the study revealed that nationally the density of all doctors (mainstream, ayurvedic, homeopathic and unani) was 8 doctors per 10,000 people compared to 13 per 10,000 people in China.
The Indian Medical Association (IMA) describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice medicine as quacks. The IMA has protested against government's relaxation of regulations to allow Ayurvedic practitioners to perform surgeries.
Other countries on the Indian subcontinent
About 75%-80% of the population of Nepal use Ayurveda, and it is the most practiced form of medicine in the country.
The Sri Lankan tradition of Ayurveda is similar to the Indian tradition. Practitioners of Ayurveda in Sri Lanka refer to Sanskrit texts which are common to both countries. However, they do differ in some aspects, particularly in the herbs used.
In 1980, the Sri Lankan government established a Ministry of Indigenous Medicine to revive and regulate Ayurveda. The Institute of Indigenous Medicine (affiliated to the University of Colombo) offers undergraduate, postgraduate, and MD degrees in Ayurveda Medicine and Surgery, and similar degrees in unani medicine. In the public system, there are currently 62 Ayurvedic hospitals and 208 central dispensaries, which served about 3 million people (about 11% of Sri Lanka's population) in 2010. In total, there are about 20,000 registered practitioners of Ayurveda in the country.
According to the Mahavamsa, an ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty from the sixth century C.E., King Pandukabhaya of Sri Lanka (reigned 437 BCE to 367 BCE) had lying-in-homes and Ayurvedic hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documented evidence available of institutions dedicated specifically to the care of the sick anywhere in the world. Mihintale Hospital is the oldest in the world.
Outside the Indian subcontinent
Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine developed during antiquity and the medieval period, and as such is comparable to pre-modern Chinese and European systems of medicine. In the 1960s, Ayurveda began to be advertised as alternative medicine in the Western world. Due to different laws and medical regulations around the globe, the unregulated practice and commercialisation of Ayurveda raised ethical and legal issues. In some instances, Ayurvedic practices and terminology were adapted specifically for Western consumption, notably in the case of "Maharishi Ayurveda" in the 1980s. In some cases, this involved active fraud on the part of proponents of Ayurveda in an attempt to falsely represent the system as equal to the standards of modern medical research.
United States
Baba Hari Dass was an early proponent who helped bring Ayurveda to the United States in the early 1970s. His teachings led to the establishment of the Mount Madonna Institute. He invited several notable Ayurvedic teachers, including Vasant Lad, Sarita Shrestha, and Ram Harsh Singh. The Ayurvedic practitioner Michael Tierra wrote that "[t]he history of Ayurveda in North America will always owe a debt to the selfless contributions of Baba Hari Dass."
In the United States, the practice of Ayurveda is not licensed or regulated by any state. The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says that "Few well-designed clinical trials and systematic research reviews suggest that Ayurvedic approaches are effective", warns against the issue of heavy metal poisoning, and emphasises the use of conventional health providers first. As of 2018, the NCCIH reported that 240,000 Americans were using Ayurvedic medicine.
Classification and efficacy
Ayurvedic medicine is considered pseudoscientific because its premises are not based on science. Both the lack of scientific soundness in the theoretical foundations of Ayurveda and the quality of research have been criticized.
Although laboratory experiments suggest it is possible that some herbs and substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves. Cancer Research UK, a charity, states that there is no evidence that ayurvedic medicine helps treat cancer in people, and some Ayurvedic drugs contain toxic substances or interact with legitimate cancer drugs in a harmful way.
Ethnologist Johannes Quack writes than although the rationalist movement Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti officially labels Ayurveda a pseudoscience akin to astrology, these practices are in fact embraced by many of the movement's members.
A review of the use of Ayurveda for cardiovascular disease concluded that the evidence is not convincing for the use of any Ayurvedic herbal treatment for heart disease or hypertension, but that many herbs used by Ayurvedic practitioners could be appropriate for further research.
Research
In India, research in Ayurveda is undertaken by the Ministry of AYUSH, an abbreviation for the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy, through a national network of research institutes.
In Nepal, the National Ayurvedic Training and Research Centre (NATRC) researches medicinal herbs in the country.
In Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine looks after the research in Ayurveda through various national research institutes.
Use of toxic metals
Rasa shastra, the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbal preparations, may include toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic. The public health implications of metals in rasashastra in India is unknown. Adverse reactions to herbs are described in traditional Ayurvedic texts, but practitioners are reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and that reliable information on herbal toxicity is not readily available. There is a communication gap between practitioners of medicine and Ayurveda.
Some traditional Indian herbal medicinal products contain harmful levels of heavy metals, including lead. For example, ghasard, a product commonly given to infants for digestive issues, has been found to have up to 1.6% lead concentration by weight, leading to lead encephalopathy. A 1990 study on Ayurvedic medicines in India found that 41% of the products tested contained arsenic, and that 64% contained lead and mercury. A 2004 study found toxic levels of heavy metals in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations made in South Asia and sold in the Boston area, and concluded that Ayurvedic products posed serious health risks and should be tested for heavy-metal contamination. A 2008 study of more than 230 products found that approximately 20% of remedies (and 40% of rasashastra medicines) purchased over the Internet from U.S. and Indian suppliers contained lead, mercury or arsenic. A 2015 study of users in the United States found elevated blood lead levels in 40% of those tested, leading physician and former U.S. Air Force flight surgeon Harriet Hall to say that "Ayurveda is basically superstition mixed with a soupçon of practical health advice. And it can be dangerous."
Heavy metals are thought of as active ingredients by advocates of Indian herbal medicinal products. According to ancient Ayurvedic texts, certain physico-chemical purification processes such as samskaras or shodhanas (for metals) 'detoxify' the heavy metals in it. These are similar to the Chinese pao zhi, although the Ayurvedic techniques are more complex and may involve physical pharmacy techniques as well as mantras. However, these products have nonetheless caused severe lead poisoning and other toxic effects. Between 1978 and 2008, "more than 80 cases of lead poisoning associated with Ayurvedic medicine use [were] reported worldwide". In 2012, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) linked Ayurvedic drugs to lead poisoning, based on cases where toxic materials were found in the blood of pregnant women who had taken Ayurvedic drugs.
Ayurvedic practitioners argue that the toxicity of bhasmas (ash products) comes from improper manufacturing processes, contaminants, improper use of Ayurvedic medicine, quality of raw materials and that the end products and improper procedures are used by charlatans.
In India, the government ruled that Ayurvedic products must be labelled with their metallic content. However, in Current Science, a publication of the Indian Academy of Sciences, M. S. Valiathan said that "the absence of post-market surveillance and the paucity of test laboratory facilities [in India] make the quality control of Ayurvedic medicines exceedingly difficult at this time". In the United States, most Ayurvedic products are marketed without having been reviewed or approved by the FDA. Since 2007, the FDA has placed an import alert on some Ayurvedic products in order to prevent them from entering the United States. A 2012 toxicological review of mercury-based traditional herbo-metallic preparations concluded that the long-term pharmacotherapeutic and in-depth toxicity studies of these preparations are lacking.
History
Some of the concepts of traditional Indian medicine have existed since the times of the Indus Valley Civilization. The first recorded forms of Ayurveda as medical texts evolved from the Vedas. Ayurveda is a discipline of the upaveda or "auxiliary knowledge" in Vedic tradition. The origins of Ayurveda are also found in Atharvaveda, which contains 114 hymns and incantations described as magical cures for disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, e.g. that it was received by Dhanvantari (or Divodasa) from Brahma. Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage Agnivesa.
Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practiced in modern times. As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine. Responses to this situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between proponents of unchanging tradition (śuddha "pure" ayurveda) and those who thought ayurveda should modernise and syncretize (aśuddha "impure, tainted" ayurveda). The political debate about the place of ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present (2015), both in the public arena and in government. Debate about the place of Ayurvedic medicine in the contemporary internationalized world also continues today (2015).
Main texts
Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity, but manuscripts of three three principal early texts on Ayurveda have survived to the present day. These works are the Charaka Samhita, the Sushruta Samhita and the Bhela Samhita. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors. All past scholarship on their dating has been evaluated by Meulenbeld in volumes IA and IB of his History of Indian Medical Literature. After considering the evidence and arguments concerning the Suśrutasaṃhitā, Meulenbeld states (IA, 348), "The Suśrutasaṃhitā is most probably the work of an unknown author who drew much of the material he incorporated in his treatise from a multiplicity of earlier sources from various periods. This may explain that many scholars yield to the temptation to recognize a number of distinct layers and, consequently, try to identify elements belonging to them. As we have seen, the identification of features thought to belong to a particular stratum is in many cases determined by preconceived ideas on the age of the strata and their supposed authors." The dating of this work to 600 BC was first proposed by Hoernle over a century ago, but has long since been overturned by subsequent historical research. The current consensus amongst medical historians of South Asia is that the Suśrutasaṃhitā was compiled over a period of time starting with a kernel of medical ideas from the century or two BCE and then being revised by several hands into its present form by about 500 CE. The view that the text was updated by the Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna in the 2nd century CE has been disproved, although the last chapter of the work, the Uttaratantra, was added by an unknown later author before 500 CE.
Similar arguments apply to the Charaka Samhita, written by Charaka, and the Bhela Samhita, attributed to Atreya Punarvasu, that are also dated to the 6th century BCE by non-specialist scholars but are in fact, in their present form, datable to a period between the second and fifth centuries CE. The Charaka Samhita was also updated by Dridhabala during the early centuries of the Common Era.
The Bower Manuscript (dated to the Gupta era, between the 4th and the 6th century CE) includes of excerpts from the Bheda Samhita and its description of concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. In 1987, A. F. R. Hoernle identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript to be a native of India using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (c. 337–422 AD) wrote about the healthcare system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine. This is also visible in the works of Charaka, who describes hospitals and how they should be equipped.
Other early texts are the Agnivesha Samhita, Kasyapa Samhita and Harita Samhita. The original edition of the Agnivesha Samhita, by Agnivesa, is dated to 1500 BCE, and it was later modified by Charaka. Kasyapa Samhita includes the treatise of Jivaka Kumar Bhaccha and is dated to the 6th century BCE. While Harita Samhita is dated to an earlier period, it is attributed to Harita, who was a disciple of Punarvasu Atreya. Some later texts are Astanga nighantu (8th Century) by Vagbhata, Paryaya ratnamala (9th century) by Madhava, Siddhasara nighantu (9th century) by Ravi Gupta, Dravyavali (10th Century), and Dravyaguna sangraha (11th century) by Chakrapani Datta, among others.
Illnesses portrayed
Underwood and Rhodes state that the early forms of traditional Indian medicine identified fever, cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumours, and leprosy, and that treatments included plastic surgery, lithotomy, tonsillectomy, couching (a form of cataract surgery), puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign bodies, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections, and stitching of wounds. The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread. During this period, treatments were also prescribed for complex ailments, including angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones.
Further development and spread
Ayurveda flourished throughout the Indian Middle Ages. Dalhana (fl. 1200), Sarngadhara (fl. 1300) and Bhavamisra (fl. 1500) compiled works on Indian medicine. The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were also translated into the Chinese language in the 5th century, and during the 8th century, they were translated into the Arabic and Persian language. The 9th-century Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi was familiar with the text. The Arabic works derived from the Ayurvedic texts eventually also reached Europe by the 12th century. In Renaissance Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) were influenced by the Arabic reception of the Sushruta's surgical techniques.
British physicians traveled to India to observe rhinoplasty being performed using Indian methods, and reports on their rhinoplasty methods were published in the Gentleman's Magazine in 1794. Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in Europe. Joseph Constantine Carpue studied plastic surgery methods in India for 20 years and, in 1815, was able to perform the first major rhinoplasty surgery in the western world, using the "Indian" method of nose reconstruction. In 1840 Brett published an article about this technique.
During the period of British colonial rule in India, the practice of Ayurveda was not adopted by the British Indian Government, which was in favour of medicine. After Indian independence, there was more focus on Ayurveda and other traditional medical systems. Ayurveda became a part of the Indian National health care system, with state hospitals for Ayurveda established across the country. However, the treatments of traditional medicines were not always integrated with others.
See also
Acupuncture
Aśvins
Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery
Bhaisajyaguru
Dhātu (Ayurveda)
History of alternative medicine
Homeopathy
List of ineffective cancer treatments
Ramuan
Medical Ethnobotany of India
Footnotes
References
Cited references
(Republished by National Informatics Centre, Government of India.)
Further reading
Pattathu, Anthony George (2018). Ayurveda and Discursive Formations between Religion, Medicine and Embodiment: A Case Study from Germany. In: Lüddeckens, D., & Schrimpf, M. (2018). Medicine - religion - spirituality: Global perspectives on traditional, complementary, and alternative healing. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. , pp. 133–166.
. A bibliographical survey of the history of Indian medicine.
WHO guidelines on safety monitoring of herbal medicines in pharmacovigilance systems
Use Caution With Ayurvedic Products - US Food and Drug Administration.
External links
Ayurveda: Benchmarks for trainings in traditional/complementary and alternative medicine World Health Organization (WHO)
National Library of Ayurveda Medicine
Hindu philosophical concepts
History of ancient medicine
Massage therapy
Pseudoscience
South Asian traditional medicine
Vedic period | [
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236675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington%20and%20Chelsea | Kensington and Chelsea | Kensington and Chelsea could refer to:
Kensington and Chelsea (UK Parliament constituency), a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, a London borough
Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council, a local authority
Kensington and Chelsea College, a college of further and higher education
Kensington and Chelsea TMO, a tenant management organisation | [
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236676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Vicary | James Vicary | James McDonald Vicary (April 30, 1915 – November 7, 1977) was a market researcher best known for pioneering the concept of subliminal advertising with an experiment in 1957. It was later suggested that the results of his experiments had been fraudulent. Vicary was unable to ever reproduce the results of his experiments.
Vicary himself admitted that he had never conducted the subliminal "experiment" — it was concocted as a gimmick to attract customers to his failing marketing business.
Biography
Born in Detroit, and trained at the University of Michigan (A.B 1940), he pioneered the use of eye-blink analysis to obtain clues about subjects' levels of emotional tension when exposed to various stimuli. He also studied the phenomena of impulse buying and word association.
He was also known to have a childhood fascination with snakes. He was called Detroit's youngest snake charmer by The Detroit News.
He is most famous for having perpetrated a fraudulent subliminal advertising study in 1957. In it, he claimed that an experiment in which moviegoers were repeatedly shown 1/3000-second advertisements for Coca-Cola and popcorn significantly increased product sales. Based on his claims the CIA produced a report "The operational potential of subliminal perception" in 1958 that led to subliminal cuts being banned in the US. It suggested that "Certain individuals can at certain times and under certain circumstances be influenced to act abnormally without awareness of the influence". When challenged later to replicate the study, he failed to find significant results. Vicary provided no explanations for his results or any other details about his study to the public, claiming that it is part of a confidential patent. When Stuart Rogers interviewed the theater that supposedly conducted this experiment, the manager declared that there was no such test ever done (Rogers 1992)
In a television interview with Fred Danzig in 1962 for Advertising Age, Vicary admitted that the original study was "a gimmick" and that the amount of data was "too small to be meaningful". He shied away from media attention after the disclosure. His papers are held by the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center at the University of Connecticut in Storrs. Numerous commentaries have appeared on this affair since 1957.
Popcorn experiment
One of the most commonly known examples of subliminal messaging is Vicary’s movie theater "experiment" in 1957, purportedly in Fort Lee, NJ. In his press release, he claimed that 45,699 people were exposed to subliminal projections telling them to "Eat Popcorn" and "Drink Coca-Cola", causing a 57.5 percent sales increase for popcorn and an 18.1 percent increase in Coca-Cola sales. Vicary provided no explanations for his results making it impossible to reproduce his results. Taken in context with evidence that no experiment even took place, Vicary’s results can be considered completely fraudulent. Vicary later retracted his claims in a television interview, but Vicary’s original claims spread rapidly and led to widespread acceptance of subliminal messaging, even today. (O’Barr 2005).
Publications
"How Psychiatric Methods Can be Applied to Market Research", Printer's Ink, v. 235, no. 6, May 11, 1951, pp. 39–48.
"Seasonal Psychology", Journal of Marketing, April 1956
"The Circular Test of Bias in Personal Interview Surveys." Public Opinion Quarterly 19, no. 2, Summer 1955 215-218
See also
Programming the Nation?
References
External links
James M. Vicary Papers, Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, University of Connecticut
University of Michigan alumni
Mind control theorists
1915 births
1977 deaths | [
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236680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Tati | Jacques Tati | Jacques Tati (; born Jacques Tatischeff, ; 9 October 1907 – 5 November 1982) was a French mime, film-maker, actor and screenwriter. In an Entertainment Weekly poll of the Greatest Movie Directors, he was voted the 46th greatest of all time (out of 50), although he directed only six feature-length films.
Tati's Playtime (1967) ranked 43rd in the 2012 Sight & Sound critics' poll of the greatest films ever made.
As David Bellos puts it, "Tati, from l'Ecole des facteurs to Playtime, is the epitome of what an auteur is (in film theory) supposed to be: the controlling mind behind a vision of the world on film".
Family origins
Tati was of Russian, Dutch, and Italian ancestry. His father, Georges-Emmanuel Tatischeff (1875-1957), was born in Paris, the son of Dmitry Tatishcheff (Дмитрий Татищев; also spelled Tatishchev), General of the Imperial Russian Army and military attaché to the Russian embassy in Paris. The Tatischeffs were a Russian noble family of patrilineal Rurikid descent. Whilst stationed in Paris, Dmitri Tatischeff married a French woman, Rose Anathalie Alinquant. (Russian sources indicate that Alinquant was a circus performer and that the couple were never actually married.)
Dmitri Tatischeff died under suspicious circumstances from injuries sustained in a horse-riding accident, shortly after the birth of Georges-Emmanuel. As a child, Georges-Emmanuel experienced turbulent times, such as being forcibly removed from France and taken to live in Russia. In 1883, his mother brought him back to France, where they settled on the estate of Le Pecq, near Saint-Germain-en-Laye, on the outskirts of Paris. In 1903, Georges-Emmanuel Tatischeff married the Dutch-Italian Marcelle Claire van Hoof (d. 1968). Together, they had two children, Natalie (b. 1905) and Jacques. Claire's Dutch father, a friend of van Gogh, whose clients included Toulouse-Lautrec, was the owner of a prestigious picture-framing company near the Place Vendôme in Paris, and he brought Georges-Emmanuel into the family business. Subsequently, Georges-Emmanuel became the director of the company Cadres Van Hoof, and the Tatischeff family enjoyed a relatively high standard of living.
Early life
Tati seems to have been an indifferent student, yet excelled in tennis and horse riding. He left school in 1923, at the age of 16, and his grandfather trained him as a picture framer in the family business. Between 1927 and 1928, he completed his national military service at Saint-Germain-en-Laye with the Cavalry's 16th Regiment of Dragoons. On leaving the military, he took on an apprenticeship in London, where he was first introduced to rugby. Returning to Paris, he joined the semi-professional rugby team Racing Club de France, captained by Alfred Sauvy, and whose supporters included Tristan Bernard. It was there that he first discovered his comic talents, entertaining his teammates during intervals with impersonations of their sporting endeavours. He also first met Jacques Broido, with whom he became lifelong friends.
The global economic crisis reached France in 1931–32. Tati left both the Racing Club de France, and to his family's disapproval, his apprenticeship at Cadres Van Hoof. Giving up a relatively-comfortable middle-class lifestyle to be a struggling performing artist during hard economic times, he developed a collection of highly physical mime routines that would become his Impressions Sportives (Sporting Impressions). Each year from 1931 to 1934, he participated in an amateur show organised by Alfred Sauvy.
Career
Early Work
Although he had likely played music hall engagements before, his act was first mentioned in 1935, when he performed at the gala for the newspaper Le Journal, celebrating the French victory in setting the transatlantic crossing record from Normandy. Among the honourable spectators was the influential writer Colette. Tati's act also caught the attention of Max Trebor, who offered him an engagement at the Theatre-Michel, where he quickly became the star act. After his success there, Tati tried to make it in London, playing a short season at the Finsbury Park Empire in March 1936. Upon his return to Paris in the same year, he was immediately hired as top billing at the ABC Théâtre, alongside the singer Marie Dubas, where he would work uninterrupted until the outbreak of the Second World War. It was for Tati's performances of his now-finely-tuned Impressions Sportives at the ABC that the previously-impressed Colette wrote,
"From now on no celebration, no artistic or acrobatic spectacle can do without this amazing performer, who has invented something quite his own ... His act is partly ballet and partly sport, partly satire and partly a charade. He has devised a way of being both the player, the ball and the tennis racquet, of being simultaneously the football and the goalkeeper, the boxer and his opponent, the bicycle and the cyclist. Without any props, he conjures up his accessories and his partners. He has suggestive powers of all great artists. How gratifying it was to see the audience's warm reaction! Tati's success says a lot about the sophistication of the allegedly "uncouth" public, about its taste for novelty and its appreciation of style. Jacques Tati, the horse and rider conjured, will show all of Paris the living image of that legendary creature, the centaur."
Between 1937 and 1938, he also performed at the Scala in Berlin.
During the 1930s, he began to experiment with film, acting in the following shorts:
Oscar, champion de tennis (1932). Directed by Jack Forrester; written by and starring Jacques Tati (film lost).
On demande une brute (1934). Directed by Charles Barrois; featuring Jacques Tati as "Roger" and Enrico Sprocani as "le clown Rhum (Enrico)".
Gai dimanche (1935). Directed by Jacques Berr; written by and starring Jacques Tati, and featuring Enrico Sprocani.
Soigne ton gauche (1936). Directed by René Clément; starring Jacques Tati as "Roger", with Jacques Broido as "Sparring Partner", and Max Martel as "The Postman".
World War II and postwar employment
In September 1939, Tati was conscripted back into his 16th Regiment of Dragoons, which was then incorporated into the 3rd Division Legere de Cavalerie (DLC). He saw action in the Battle of Sedan in May 1940, when the German Army marched through the Ardennes into northern France. The 3rd DLC retreated from Meuse to Mussidan, in the Dordogne, where the division was demobilised after the Armistice was declared on 22 June 1940.
Returning to Paris, Tati resumed his civilian profession as a cabaret performer, finding employment at Léon Volterra's Lido de Paris, where he performed his Sporting Impressions from 1940 to 1942.
Considered as a possible substitute for Jean-Louis Barrault in Les Enfants du Paradis, Tati played the ghost in Sylvie and the Ghost, alongside Odette Joyeux as Sylvie, and also appeared as The Devil in the same film. Here, he met Fred Orain, studio director of St. Maurice and the Victorine in Nice.
Tati as director
In early 1946, Jacques Tati and Fred Orain founded the production company Cady-Films, which would produce Tati's first three films.
With the exception of his first and last films, Tati played the gauche and socially-inept lead character, Monsieur Hulot. With his trademark raincoat, umbrella and pipe, Hulot is among the most memorable comic characters in cinema. Several themes recur in Tati's work, most notably in Mon Oncle, Playtime, and Trafic. They include Western society's obsession with material goods, particularly American-style consumerism, the pressure-cooker environment of modern society, the superficiality of relationships among France's various social classes, and the cold and often impractical nature of space-age technology and design.
"L'École des facteurs" ("The School for Postmen")
René Clément was first approached to direct "L'École des facteurs" (1947), but as he was preoccupied directing La Bataille du rail (1946), directing duties fell to Tati, who also starred in this short comedy about rural life. Encouragingly, "L'École des facteurs" was enthusiastically well-received upon release, winning the Max Linder Prize for film comedy in 1947.
Jour de fête (The Big Day)
Tati's first major feature, Jour de fête (The Big Day), is about an inept rural village postman who interrupts his duties to inspect the traveling fair that has come to town. Influenced by too much wine and a documentary on the rapidity of the American postal service, he goes to hilarious lengths to speed his mail deliveries aboard his bicycle. Tati filmed it in 1947 in the village of Sainte-Sévère-sur-Indre, where he had found refuge during the war. Due to the reluctance of French distributors, Jour de fête was first successfully released in London in March 1949, before obtaining a French release on 4 July 1949, where it became a great public success, receiving the 1950 Le Grand prix du cinéma français. The film was intended to be the first French feature film shot in colour; Tati simultaneously shot the film in black and white as an insurance policy. The newly developed Thomson colour system proved impractical, as it could not deliver colour prints. Jour de fête was therefore released only in black and white. Unlike his later films, it has many scenes with dialogue, and offers a droll, affectionate view of life in rural France. The colour version was restored by his younger daughter, film editor and director Sophie Tatischeff, and released in 1995. The film won the Prize for Best Original Script at the Venice Film Festival.
Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot (Monsieur Hulot's Holiday)
Tati's second film, Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot (Monsieur Hulot's Holiday), was released in 1953. Les Vacances introduced the character of Mr. Hulot and follows his adventures in France during the mandatory August vacation at a beach resort, lampooning several hidebound elements of French political and social classes. It was shot almost entirely in the tiny west coast seaside village of Saint-Marc-sur-Mer, in the Loire Atlantique region. The hotel in which Mr. Hulot stays (l'Hôtel de la Plage) is still there, and a statue memorialising the director has been erected on the beach. Tati had fallen in love with the coast while staying in nearby Port Charlotte with his friends, Mr. and Mrs. Lemoine, before the war, and resolved to return one day to make a film there. The film was widely praised by critics, and earned Tati an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay, which was shared with Henri Marquet. Production of the movie would also see the reintroduction of Jacques Lagrange into Tati's life, beginning a lifelong working partnership with the painter, who would become his set designer. Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot remains one of the best-loved French films of that period. The film's comic influence has extended well beyond France and can be found as recently as 2007 in the Rowan Atkinson comic vehicle Mr. Bean's Holiday.
André Bazin, founder of the influential journal Cahiers du cinéma, wrote in his 1957 essay, "Fifteen Years of French Cinema":
"Tati could easily have made lots of money with sequels featuring his comic character of the little rural mailman. He chose instead to wait for four years, and, after much reflection, he revised his formula completely. The result this time was an extraordinary masterpiece about which one can say, I think, that it is the most radical innovation in comic cinema since the Marx Brothers: I am referring, of course, to Les Vacances de M. Hulot."
Various problems would delay the release of Tati's follow-up to his international hit. In 1955, he suffered a serious car accident that physically impaired his left hand. Then, a dispute with Fred Orain ensued, and Tati broke away from Cady Films to create his own production company, Spectra Films, in 1956.
Mon Oncle (My Uncle)
Tati's next film, 1958's Mon Oncle (My Uncle), was his first film to be released in colour. The plot centers on Mr. Hulot's comedic, quixotic, and childlike struggle with postwar France's obsession with modernity and American-style consumerism, entwined with the relationship he has with his nine-year-old nephew, Gérard. Mon Oncle quickly became an international success, and won that year's Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, a Special Prize at Cannes, as well as the New York Film Critics Award. In Place de la Pelouse (Saint-Maur-des-Fossés), there stands a bronze statue of Tati as Monsieur Hulot talking to a boy, in a pose echoing the movie's poster, which was designed by Pierre Étaix.
On receiving his Oscar, Tati was offered any treat that the Academy could bestow on him. To their surprise, Tati simply requested the opportunity to visit Stan Laurel, Mack Sennett, and Buster Keaton. Keaton reportedly said that Tati's work with sound had carried on the true tradition of silent cinema.
As guest artistic director at AFI Fest 2010, David Lynch selected Tati's Mon Oncle, alongside Hour of the Wolf (dir. Ingmar Bergman, 1968), Lolita (dir. Stanley Kubrick, 1962), Rear Window (dir. Alfred Hitchcock, 1954) and Sunset Boulevard (dir. Billy Wilder, 1950) to be screened in his sidebar program, explaining:
"I picked these particular films because they are the ones that have inspired me most. I think each is a masterpiece."
Of Tati, Lynch would add, in a conversation with Jonathan Rosenbaum, "You know, I feel like in a way he's a kindred soul ... That guy is so creative, it's unbelievable. I think he's one of the all-time greats."
Playtime
Considered by many his masterpiece, Playtime (1967), shot in 70mm, was to be the most ambitious yet risky and expensive work of Tati's career.
In an essay for the Criterion Collection, Kent Jones wrote:
Playtime took nine years to make, and Tati had to borrow heavily from his own resources to complete the picture. At the time of its making, Playtime (1967) was the most expensive film in French history. Of the film, Tati said: "Play Time is the big leap, the big screen. I'm putting myself on the line. Either it comes off or it doesn't. There's no safety net." Tati famously built an entire glass and steel mini-city (nicknamed Tativille) on the outskirts of Paris for the film, which took years to build and left him mired in debt.
In the film, Hulot and a group of American tourists lose themselves in the futuristic glass and steel of the commercially-globalised modern Parisian suburbs, where only human nature and a few reflective views of the old city of Paris itself still emerge to breathe life into the sterile new metropolis. Playtime had even less of a plot than Tati's earlier films, and he endeavored to make his characters, including Hulot, almost incidental to his portrayal of a modernist and robotic Paris.
Playtime was originally 155 minutes in length, but Tati soon released an edited version of 126 minutes; this is the version that was generally released to theatres in 1967. Later versions appeared in 35mm format. In 1979, a copy of the film was revised again to 108 minutes, and this re-edited version was released on VHS video in 1984. Though Playtime was a critical success (François Truffaut praised it as "a film that comes from another planet, where they make films differently"), it was a massive and expensive commercial failure, eventually resulting in Tati's bankruptcy.
Tati biographer David Bellos noted that Tati had approached everybody from Darryl F Zanuck to the prime minister Georges Pompidou in a bid to get the movie completed. "His personal overdrafts began to mount, and long before Play Time was finished, Tati was in substantial debt to the least forgiving of all creditors, the Collectors of Taxes." When Tati failed to pay off his loans, his films were impounded by the banks. Tati was forced to sell the family house of Saint-Germain shortly after the death of his mother, Claire Van Hoof, and move back into Paris. Spectra Films was then placed into administration, concluding in the liquidation of the company in 1974, with an auction of all movie rights held by the company for little more than 120,000 francs.
In 1969, with reduced means, Tati created a new production company, CEPEC, to oversee his opportunities in movie and TV production.
Spin-offs of Playtime
While on the set of Playtime, Tati made a short film about his comedic and cinematic technique, Cours du soir (Evening Classes, 1967), in which he gives a lesson in the art of comedy to a class of would-be actors.
In 1971, Tati made an advertisement for England's Lloyds Bank, in which he depicted a dehumanized bank of the future, with money dispensed by a computerized counter. "The message of the advert was that however modern Lloyds are, technology isn't everything and you'll always be able to speak to a "friendly member of staff or understanding manager" in their branches".
Reception
In August 2012, the British Film Institute polled 846 critics, programmers, academics, and distributors to find "The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time"; Playtime was voted 42nd In the corresponding "Directors Poll" by the BFI, Playtime was awarded the accolade of being seen as the 37th greatest film of all time by his fellow directors.
Steven Spielberg has said he was paying a "very slight homage" to Playtime in his 2004 film The Terminal, adding, "I thought of two directors when I made Terminal. I thought this was a tribute to Frank Capra and his honest sentiment, and it was a tribute to Jacques Tati and the way he allowed his scenes to go on and on and on. The character he played in Monsieur Hulot's Holiday and Mon Oncle was all about resourcefulness and using what's around him to make us laugh".
Trafic (Traffic)
The Dutch-funded Trafic (Traffic), although originally designed to be a TV movie, received a theatrical release in 1971, and placed Monsieur Hulot back at the centre of the action. It was the last Hulot film, and followed the vein of earlier works that lampooned modern society. In the film, Hulot is a bumbling automobile inventor, who is traveling to an exhibition in a gadget-filled recreational vehicle. Despite its modest budget, Trafic was still very much a Tati film, carefully staged and choreographed in its scenes and effects.
Parade
Tati's last completed film, Parade, a film produced for Swedish television in 1973, is more or less a filmed circus performance, featuring Tati's mime acts and other performers.
Forza Bastia
In 1978, Tati began filming "Forza Bastia", a short documentary focusing on a football match between the Corsican team SC Bastia and the Dutch team PSV Eindhoven during the UEFA Cup Final, which he did not complete. Tati undertook the project at the request of his friend Gilberto Trigano, who was the president of the Bastia club at the time. His younger daughter, Sophie Tatischeff, later edited the remaining footage, which was posthumously released in 2002; Sophie died of lung cancer in 2001.
Unmade films
Confusion
Tati had plans for at least one more film. Confusion, a planned collaboration with pop duo Sparks, was a story about a futuristic city (Paris) where activity is centered around television, communication, advertising, and modern society's infatuation with visual imagery.
In the original script, an aging Mr. Hulot was slated to be accidentally killed on-air. Ron Mael and Russell Mael would have played two American TV studio employees brought in by a rural French TV company to help them out with some American technical expertise and input into how TV is really done. While the script still exists, Confusion was never filmed. What would have been its title track, "Confusion", appears on Sparks' 1976 Big Beat album, with the internal sleeve of its 2006 re-mastered CD featuring a letter announcing the pending collaboration, as well as a photo of the Mael brothers in conversation with Tati.
Film Tati No. 4 (The Illusionist)
Catalogued in the CNC (Centre National de la Cinématographie) archives under the title 'Film Tati Nº 4', and written in the late 1950s, the treatment was to have been the follow-up to Tati's internationally successful Mon Oncle. It tells the bittersweet tale of a modestly talented magician – referred to only as the Illusionist – who, during a tour of decaying music halls in Eastern Europe, protectively takes an impoverished young woman under his wing.
The semi-autobiographical script that Tati wrote in 1956 was released internationally as an animated film, The Illusionist, in 2010. Directed by Sylvain Chomet, known for The Triplets of Belleville, the main character is an animated caricature of Tati himself.
Controversy dogged the release of Chomet's version of The Illusionist, with The Guardian reporting:
In 2000, the screenplay was handed over to Chomet by Tati's daughter, Sophie, two years before her death. Now, however, the family of Tati's illegitimate and estranged eldest child, Helga Marie-Jeanne Schiel, who lives in the north-east of England, are calling for the French director to give her credit as the true inspiration for the film. The script of L'illusionniste, they say, was Tati's response to the shame of having abandoned his first child [Schiel] and it remains the only public recognition of her existence. They accuse Chomet of attempting to airbrush out their painful family legacy again.
Tati's grandson, Richard Tatischeff Schiel McDonald, wrote a long letter to the film critic Roger Ebert in 2010, openly criticising the production's interpretation of Tati's intent for the script and explaining the family's understanding of its origins with respect to Tati's having abandoned his eldest child.
Personal life
At the Lido de Paris, Tati met and fell in love with the young Czech-Austrian dancer Herta Schiel, who had fled Vienna with her sister Molly at the time of the Anschluss. In the summer of 1942, Herta gave birth to their daughter, Helga Marie-Jeanne Schiel. Tati refused to recognise the child, reportedly due to pressure from his sister, Nathalie. As a result, he was forced by Leon Volterra to depart from the Lido at the end of the 1942 season.
In 1943, after a short engagement at the ABC, where Édith Piaf was headlining, Tati, having been shunned by his former colleagues at the Lido de Paris for his behaviour, left Paris under a cloud, with his friend Henri Marquet, and they settled in the Village of Sainte-Sévère-sur-Indre. While residing there, they completed the script for L'École des facteurs (The School for Postmen), which later provided material for his first hugely-successful feature, Jour de fête.
Herta Schiel remained in Paris throughout the war, where she met the physician Jacques Weil, after he was called upon to treat her sister Molly for the then-incurable disease of tuberculosis. Through Weil, second-in-command of the Juggler network of the SOE F Section networks, both sisters were recruited into the French Resistance.
In 1944, Tati returned to Paris, and after a brief courtship, married Micheline Winter.
According to Helga Marie-Jeanne Schiel's son, Richard Tatischeff Schiel McDonald, "As a refugee Helga Marie-Jeanne [was] trapped in Marrakech during the Moroccan 1955 uprising for independence against its French protectorate. Having been at the centre of the Christmas Eve bombing of the main Marrakech market in which she witnessed the massacre of a number of her boarding school friends, Helga Marie-Jeanne was actively encouraged by the French Consulate to flee Morocco for her own safety. Holding only a French passport she wrote to her father in hope that he would show compassion towards her plight and help her escape the hostilities that had built up in Morocco by offering her safe passage back to her home city of Paris. He was never forthcoming with help."
On 23 October 1946, Tati's second child, Sophie Catherine Tatischeff, was born. Tati's son, Pierre-François Tatischeff, also known as Pierre Tati, was born in 1949. Both Pierre and Sophie worked in the French film industry in various capacities, beginning in the early 1970s. Notably, they both worked on Jean-Pierre Melville's Un flic (1972).
Death
Weakened by serious health problems, Tati died on 5 November 1982, at the age of 75, of a pulmonary embolism, leaving a final scenario, Confusion, which he had completed with Jacques Lagrange.
Philippe Labro reported Tati's death in Paris Match, under the heading "Adieu Monsieur Hulot. On le pleure mort, il aurait fallu l'aider vivant !" ("Farewell, Monsieur Hulot. We mourn him in his death, but we should have aided him while he was still alive!")
Legacy
Les Films de Mon Oncle
During the 1980s, concerned that their father's legacy would be permanently lost, Pierre and Sophie Tatischeff tracked the rights to their father's oeuvre to a bank in Switzerland. The bank, unable to trace the owner who had made the deposit, eventually returned the rights to Pierre and Sophie as heirs to their father's estate.
In 1995, after a year of meticulous work, Sophie, with the aid of film technician François Ede, was able for the first time to release a colour print of Jour de fête, as Tati had originally intended.
Having lost her brother Pierre to a traffic accident, and having herself been diagnosed terminally ill, Sophie Tatischeff took the initiative to set up Les Films de Mon Oncle in 2001 to preserve, restore, and circulate her father's work. Enlisting the services of Jérôme Deschamps, the artistic and cultural mission of Les Films de Mon Oncle is to allow audiences as well as researchers to (re-)discover the work of Tati the filmmaker, his archives, and to ensure its influence around the world.
The restoration of Playtime began in 1998, when Sophie Tatischeff made the acquaintance of Jean-Rene Failot, technical director of the Gulliver Arane, the only remaining large-format film laboratory in Europe. Because of difficulties acquiring appropriate funding, the restored version of Playtime was not presented until 2002, at the 55th Cannes Film Festival, eight months after the death of Sophie Tatischeff. In 2004, Les Films de Mon Oncle completed the restoration of My Uncle, the English version of Mon Oncle. This was followed by demanding editorial work for the DVDs of these films, including original bonuses and a double CD, Tati Sonorama!, with the complete collection of film scores and soundtrack clips.
In 2014, Les Films de Mon Oncle became part of Vivendi, in partnership with StudioCanal, which now oversees international distribution of Jacques Tati's oeuvre, having released digitally-restored versions of all his short and long films as boxsets in both DVD and Blu-ray.
Recognition and influence
On 3 June 1995, the rebuilt L'Idéal Cinéma in Aniche opened as the L'Idéal Cinéma Jacques Tati.
In 2009, Macha Makeïeff, the partner of Deschamps, designed and co-curated (along with Stephane Goudet) the exhibition "" at the Cinémathèque Française in Paris, and installed the full-scale mythical Villa Arpel, the set of Mon Oncle created by Jacques Tati and his friend Jacques Lagrange, at the 104 (Paris, 19th arrondissement).
Rowan Atkinson cited Tati as an inspiration for the physical comedy approach of his internationally renowned character Mr Bean. When asked about what influenced him, Atkinson claimed: "I think it was particularly a French comedian called Jacques Tati. I loved his movies, and you know, Mr. Hulot's Holiday, I remember seeing when I was 17—that was a major inspiration. He opened a window to a world that I'd never looked out on before, and I thought, 'God, that's interesting,' how a comic situation can be developed as purely visual and yet it's not under-cranked, it's not speeded-up, Benny Hill comedy—it's more deliberate; it takes its time. And I enjoyed that".
On an interview at "The 11", independent animation director Bill Plympton labeled Tati as a major influence on his work. According to Plympton, "his jokes are very visual, there is not a lot of verbal interplay and talking, which I like. He's such a great character. [His films] are surreal, they are very dry, its not slapstick where you trip on a rake and fall on the ground, its very subtle humor, very sensitive humor, and very ironic humor. I love the irony in his works. He's a very good example of one of my influences."
Filmography
Awards
Cannes Festival (1958): Grand Prix for Mon Oncle.
Academy Awards (1958): Best Foreign Language Film for Mon Oncle.
6th Moscow International Film Festival (1969): Silver Prize for Playtime.
An honorary César (1977) from the French Film Institute for his lifetime contributions to cinema.
References
External links
Tati Bibliography via UC Berkeley
The Official Jacques Tati website
Jacques Tati profile at FilmsdeFrance.com
"Confusion" Jacques Tati's unfinished film
Museum of Modern Art retrospective in the Village Voice
Jacques Tati's ode to his illegitimate daughter, The Telegraph, 16 June 2010
1907 births
1982 deaths
People from Le Pecq
French people of Russian descent
French people of Dutch descent
French people of Italian descent
French comedians
French male film actors
French male television actors
French film directors
French satirists
French mimes
Rurikids
20th-century French male actors
Directors of Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
César Honorary Award recipients
20th-century French comedians
French male comedians | [
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236683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amortized%20analysis | Amortized analysis | In computer science, amortized analysis is a method for analyzing a given algorithm's complexity, or how much of a resource, especially time or memory, it takes to execute. The motivation for amortized analysis is, that looking at the worst-case run time can be too pessimistic. Instead, amortized analysis averages the running times of operations in a sequence over that sequence.
As a conclusion: “Amortized analysis is a useful tool that complements other techniques such as worst-case and average-case analysis.“
For a given operation of an algorithm, certain situations (e.g., input parametrizations or data structure contents) may imply a significant cost in resources, whereas other situations may not be as costly. The amortized analysis considers both the costly and less costly operations together over the whole sequence of operations. This may include accounting for different types of input, length of the input, and other factors that affect its performance.
History
Amortized analysis initially emerged from a method called aggregate analysis, which is now subsumed by amortized analysis. The technique was first formally introduced by Robert Tarjan in his 1985 paper Amortized Computational Complexity, which addressed the need for a more useful form of analysis than the common probabilistic methods used. Amortization was initially used for very specific types of algorithms, particularly those involving binary trees and union operations. However, it is now ubiquitous and comes into play when analyzing many other algorithms as well.
Method
Amortized analysis requires knowledge of which series of operations are possible. This is most commonly the case with data structures, which have state that persists between operations. The basic idea is that a worst-case operation can alter the state in such a way that the worst case cannot occur again for a long time, thus "amortizing" its cost.
There are generally three methods for performing amortized analysis: the aggregate method, the accounting method, and the potential method. All of these give correct answers; the choice of which to use depends on which is most convenient for a particular situation.
Aggregate analysis determines the upper bound T(n) on the total cost of a sequence of n operations, then calculates the amortized cost to be T(n) / n.
The accounting method is a form of aggregate analysis which assigns to each operation an amortized cost which may differ from its actual cost. Early operations have an amortized cost higher than their actual cost, which accumulates a saved "credit" that pays for later operations having an amortized cost lower than their actual cost. Because the credit begins at zero, the actual cost of a sequence of operations equals the amortized cost minus the accumulated credit. Because the credit is required to be non-negative, the amortized cost is an upper bound on the actual cost. Usually, many short-running operations accumulate such credit in small increments, while rare long-running operations decrease it drastically.
The potential method is a form of the accounting method where the saved credit is computed as a function (the "potential") of the state of the data structure. The amortized cost is the immediate cost plus the change in potential.
Examples
Dynamic array
Consider a dynamic array that grows in size as more elements are added to it, such as in Java or in C++. If we started out with a dynamic array of size 4, we could push 4 elements onto it, and each operation would take constant time. Yet pushing a fifth element onto that array would take longer as the array would have to create a new array of double the current size (8), copy the old elements onto the new array, and then add the new element. The next three push operations would similarly take constant time, and then the subsequent addition would require another slow doubling of the array size.
In general if we consider an arbitrary number of pushes n + 1 to an array of size n, we notice that push operations take constant time except for the last one which takes time to perform the size doubling operation. Since there were n + 1 operations total we can take the average of this and find that pushing elements onto the dynamic array takes: , constant time.
Queue
Shown is a Ruby implementation of a Queue, a FIFO data structure:
class Queue
def initialize
@input = []
@output = []
end
def enqueue(element)
@input << element
end
def dequeue
if @output.empty?
while @input.any?
@output << @input.pop
end
end
@output.pop
end
end
The enqueue operation just pushes an element onto the input array; this operation does not depend on the lengths of either input or output and therefore runs in constant time.
However the dequeue operation is more complicated. If the output array already has some elements in it, then dequeue runs in constant time; otherwise, dequeue takes time to add all the elements onto the output array from the input array, where n is the current length of the input array. After copying n elements from input, we can perform n dequeue operations, each taking constant time, before the output array is empty again. Thus, we can perform a sequence of n dequeue operations in only time, which implies that the amortized time of each dequeue operation is .
Alternatively, we can charge the cost of copying any item from the input array to the output array to the earlier enqueue operation for that item. This charging scheme doubles the amortized time for enqueue but reduces the amortized time for dequeue to .
Common use
In common usage, an "amortized algorithm" is one that an amortized analysis has shown to perform well.
Online algorithms commonly use amortized analysis.
References
Literature
Analysis of algorithms
Articles with example Ruby code | [
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236685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chub%20%28gay%20slang%29 | Chub (gay slang) | A chub is an overweight or obese gay man who identifies as being part of the chubby culture. Although there is some overlap between chubs and bears, chubs have their own distinct subculture and community. There are bars, organizations and social events specifically catering to this subculture, which allows members of the community to socialize with each other and develop social networks.
In the last several years, large regional social events for gay chubs have developed. They often feature pageants in which titles are given to winners, such as "Mr. Chubby International" and "Mr. Chaser International". In the United States, there is an annual national event, Convergence, as well as several annual regional gatherings. There is also an annual event in Europe called European Big Men's Convergence. These events are held in different cities each year and are usually hosted by that city's local big men's organization. Japan has also had a large but relatively silent chub community, with Samson magazine being one of the oldest forms of Japanese media which focuses on Gay Chubs.
Terminology
These definitions are general in nature; specific definitions may vary depending on the perspective of the individual.
Chubby or chub – a large, overweight, or obese man (~300 lbs [136 kg])
Superchub – a chub who is extremely large (400 lbs-600 lbs)
Megachub - bigger superchub (usually drawings) (600-1000 lbs)
Bear – a man with a stocky or heavyset build; typically hairy body and facial hair; sometimes older (or older looking) and displaying a masculine appearance and mannerisms
Chubby bear – a bear is someone who is particularly large; this term has risen in use as the term "bear" has become more mainstream and broadened to include smaller men. This terminology might also include chubby gay bear, encapsulating all the fat and gay men in minor culture
Chaser – someone who is sexually or romantically attracted to chubs or bears, but himself has a small body type. The term chaser is sometimes used in various communities to describe an outsider who is sexually attracted to people within the community
Chub for chub (also referenced as chub4chub, internet shorthand) – a chub who is sexually or emotionally attracted to other chubby men
Girth & Mirth – a formerly widespread name for clubs of big men and their admirers
Big Men's Club – another term used to define clubs and organizations for gay and bisexual men and their male admirers
BeefyFrat – was a popular gainer/feeder social network, it folded sometime around 2014 - having been abandoned by its creator
(The term chubby chaser can also be found in use among heterosexuals)
The chub subculture is often found to overlap with the bear subculture. Though there is no strict terminology which differentiates between the two groups, it may be noted that most Bears also associate themselves as chubs, though chubs may not necessarily associate themselves with the bear subculture.
History
While casual social networks for chubby men and chasers had long existed, the first organized social group in the United States, Girth & Mirth, formed in 1976 in San Francisco. The following year, a chapter was organized in Boston, and in 1978 the New York chapter started. Conventions were held in cities such as San Francisco, Chicago, and New York City as early as 1977 or 1978 with large numbers of chubbies and chasers attending. Formally organized Convergence conventions in the United States were first held in Seattle in 1986. Several chapters are now active across the United States, mostly in large and diverse cities.
See also
Bear (gay slang)
Fat fetishism
Additional Links
"Fat Gay Men: Girth, Mirth and the Politics of Stigma" by Jason Whitesel
References
Fat acceptance movement
Fat fetishism
LGBT slang
Pornography terminology | [
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] |
236686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCS | GCS | GCS may refer to:
Cartography
Galactic coordinate system
Geographic coordinate system
Computing
Game creation system
Gauss Centre for Supercomputing, in Germany
Google Cloud Storage
Group communication system
Group Control System, an IBM VM Operating system component
Education
Gadsden County School District, in Florida, United States
Gallantry Cross, Silver, an honour of the Republic of Venda
Gaston Christian School, in Lowell, North Carolina, United States
German Church School, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Glenelg Country School, in Ellicott City, Maryland, United States
Gorey Community School, in County Wexford, Ireland
Government College of Science, Lahore, Pakistan
Grace Christian School (Florida), in Valrico, Florida, United States
Grace Church School, in New York City
Grand Charter School, in Lahore, Pakistan
Granville County Schools, in North Carolina, United States
Greenfield Community School, in Dubai
Greenville Christian School, in Mississippi, United States
Greenwood College School, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Guadalupe Catholic School, in Makati, Philippines
Guildford County School, in England
Medicine
Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase
Gender confirming surgery
Glasgow Coma Scale
Glucocorticosteroids
Glycine cleavage system
Other uses
General Campaign Star (Canada), a Canadian Forces medal
Grand Central Station, in New York City
Satellite ground control station
UAV ground control station
Global Civic Sharing, a South Korean charity
Global Combat Ship, of the Royal Navy
Garena Challenge Series, An Arena of Valor professional esports league based in Taiwan.
Gold Coast Suns, an Australian Football League team
See also
GC (disambiguation) | [
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236691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabaret%20%281972%20film%29 | Cabaret (1972 film) | Cabaret is a 1972 American musical drama film directed by Bob Fosse, and starring Liza Minnelli, Michael York and Joel Grey.
Set in Berlin during the Weimar Republic in 1931, under the presence of the growing Nazi Party, the film is loosely based on the 1966 Broadway musical Cabaret by Kander and Ebb, which was adapted from Christopher Isherwood's semi-autobiographical novel The Berlin Stories (1945) and the 1951 play I Am a Camera adapted from the same work. Multiple numbers from the stage score were used for the film, which also featured three other songs by Kander and Ebb, including two written for the adaptation. In the traditional manner of musical theater, most major characters in the stage version sing to express their emotions and advance the plot; in the film, however, the musical numbers are entirely diegetic. All of them take place inside the club, with one exception: "Tomorrow Belongs to Me", the only song sung neither by the characters of the Master of Ceremonies nor Sally Bowles.
After the box-office failure of his 1969 film version of Sweet Charity, Fosse bounced back with Cabaret in 1972, a year that made him one of the most honored working directors in Hollywood. The film also brought Minnelli, daughter of Judy Garland and Vincente Minnelli, her own first chance to sing on screen, and she won the Academy Award for Best Actress. With Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actor (Grey), Best Director (Fosse), Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, Best Sound, Best Original Song Score and Adaptation, and Best Film Editing, Cabaret holds the record for most Oscars earned by a film not honored for Best Picture. It is listed as number 367 on Empires 500 greatest films of all time. Cabaret opened to glowing reviews and strong box office, eventually taking in more than $20 million. In addition to its eight Oscars, it won Best Picture citations from the National Board of Review and the Hollywood Foreign Press Association, and took Best Supporting Actor honors for Grey from the National Board of Review, the Hollywood Foreign Press, and the National Society of Film Critics. In 1995, Cabaret was the twelfth live-action musical film selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Plot
In 1931 Berlin, young American Sally Bowles performs at the Kit Kat Klub. A new British arrival in the city, Brian Roberts, moves into the boarding house where Sally lives. A reserved academic and writer, Brian wants to give English lessons to earn a living while completing his doctorate. Sally tries to seduce Brian, but he tells her that on three previous occasions he has tried to have sexual relationships with women, all of which failed. They become friends, and Brian witnesses Sally's bohemian life in the last days of the Weimar Republic. When Brian consoles Sally after her father cancels his meeting with her, they become lovers, concluding that his previous failures with women were because they were "the wrong three girls".
Maximilian von Heune, a rich playboy and baron, befriends Sally and takes her and Brian to his country estate where they are both spoiled and courted. After a somewhat enigmatic experience with Brian, Max drops his pursuit of the pair in haste. During an argument, Sally tells Brian that she has been having sex with Max, and Brian reveals that he has as well. Brian and Sally later reconcile, and Sally reveals that Max left them 300 marks and mockingly compares the sum with what a professional prostitute earns.
Sally learns that she is pregnant but is unsure of the father. Brian offers to marry her and take her back to his university life in Cambridge. At first, they celebrate their resolution to start this new life together, but after a picnic between Sally and Brian, in which Brian acts distant and uninterested, Sally becomes disheartened by the vision of herself as a bored faculty wife washing dirty diapers. Ultimately, she has an abortion, without informing Brian in advance. When he confronts her, she shares her fears, and the two reach an understanding. Brian departs for England, and Sally continues her life in Berlin, embedding herself in the Kit Kat Club.
A subplot concerns Fritz Wendel, a German Jew passing as a Protestant, who is in love with Natalia Landauer, a wealthy German Jewish heiress who holds him in contempt and suspects his motives. Through Brian, Sally advises him to be more aggressive, which eventually enables Fritz to win her love. However, to gain her parents' consent for their marriage, Fritz must reveal his religion, which he does and the two are married by a rabbi.
The rise of fascism is an ever-present undercurrent throughout the film. Their progress can be tracked through the characters' changing actions and attitudes. While in the beginning of the film, a Nazi is expelled from the Kit Kat Klub, the final shot of the film shows the cabaret's audience is dominated by uniformed Nazis. The rise of the Nazis is also demonstrated in a rural beer garden scene. A blonde boy sings to an audience of all ages ("Tomorrow Belongs to Me") about the beauties of nature and youth. It is revealed that the boy is wearing a Hitler Youth uniform. The ballad transforms into a militant Nazi anthem, and one by one nearly all the adults and young people watching rise and join in the singing. "Do you still think you can control them?" Brian asks Max. Later, Brian's confrontation with a Nazi on a Berlin street leads to him being beaten.
Cast
In addition, in a joint uncredited role, Oliver Collignon plays the Nazi youth, with his singing voice for "Tomorrow Belongs to Me" dubbed by Mark Lambert.
Production
Historical basis
The 1972 film was based upon Christopher Isherwood's semi-autobiographical stories about Weimar-era Berlin during the Jazz Age. In 1929, Isherwood moved to Berlin in order to pursue life as an openly gay man and to enjoy the city's libertine nightlife. His expatriate social circle included W.H. Auden, Stephen Spender, Paul Bowles, and Jean Ross. While in Berlin, Isherwood shared lodgings with Ross, a British cabaret singer and aspiring film actress from a wealthy Anglo-Scottish family.
While rooming together at Nollendorfstrasse 17 in Schöneberg, Isherwood and Ross met John Blomshield, a wealthy playboy who inspired the film character of Baron Maximilian von Heune. Openly bisexual, Blomshield sexually pursued both Isherwood and Ross for a short while, and he invited them to accompany him on a trip abroad. He then abruptly disappeared without saying goodbye. Following Blomshield's disappearance, Ross became pregnant with the child of jazz pianist and later actor Peter van Eyck. After Eyck abandoned Ross, she underwent a near-fatal abortion facilitated by Isherwood who pretended to be her heterosexual impregnator.
While Ross recovered from the botched abortion procedure, the political situation rapidly deteriorated in Germany. As Berlin's daily scenes featured "poverty, unemployment, political demonstrations and street fighting between the forces of the extreme left and the extreme right," Isherwood, Spender, and other British nationals realized that they must flee the country. "There was a sensation of doom to be felt in the Berlin streets," Spender recalled.
By the time the Nazi Party attained a plurality in the July 1932 elections, Isherwood, Ross, Spender, and others had fled Berlin and returned to England. Many of the Berlin cabaret denizens befriended by Isherwood would later flee abroad or perish in concentration camps. These factual events served as the genesis for Isherwood's 1937 short story "Sally Bowles" which was later adapted into the 1955 film I Am a Camera and the 1966 Cabaret musical.
Pre-production
In July 1968, Cinerama made a verbal agreement to make a film version of the 1966 Broadway musical but pulled out in February 1969. In May 1969, Allied Artists paid a company record $1.5 million for the film rights and planned a company record budget. The cost of $4,570,000 was split evenly with ABC Pictures.
In 1971, Bob Fosse learned through Harold Prince, director of the original Broadway production, that Cy Feuer was producing a film adaptation of Cabaret through ABC Pictures and Allied Artists. This was the first film produced in the revival of Allied Artists. Determined to direct the film, Fosse begged Feuer to hire him. However, Fosse had previously directed the unsuccessful film adaptation of Sweet Charity, a box office failure which made chief executives Manny Wolf and Marty Baum reluctant to hire him. Wolf and Baum preferred a more renowned or established director such as Billy Wilder, Joseph L. Mankiewicz or Gene Kelly.
Eager to hire Fosse, Feuer appealed to the studio heads, citing Fosse's talent for staging and shooting musical numbers, adding that if inordinate attention was given to filming the book scenes at the expense of the musical numbers, the whole film could fail. Fosse ultimately was hired. Over the next months, Fosse met with previously hired screenwriter Jay Presson Allen to discuss the screenplay.
Screenplay revisions
As production neared, Fosse became increasingly dissatisfied with Allen's script which was based on Joe Masteroff's original book of the stage version. Fosse hired Hugh Wheeler to rewrite and revise Allen's work. Wheeler was referred to as a "research consultant," and Allen retained screenwriting credit. Wheeler, a friend of Christopher Isherwood, knew that Isherwood had been critical of the stage musical due to its bowdlerizations of his material. Wheeler went back to Isherwood's original stories in order to ensure a more faithful adaptation of the source material. In particular, Wheeler restored the subplot about the gigolo and the Jewish heiress. Wheeler also drew on gay author Christopher Isherwood's openness about his homosexuality to make the leading male character a bisexual man "rather than the heterosexual as he had been in the stage musical."
Fosse decided to increase the focus on the Kit Kat Klub, where Sally performs, as a metaphor for the decadence of Germany in the 1930s by eliminating all but one of the musical numbers performed outside the club. The only remaining outside number is "Tomorrow Belongs to Me", a folk song rendered spontaneously by patrons at an open-air café in one of the film's most effective scenes. In addition, the show's original songwriters Kander and Ebb wrote two new songs, "Mein Herr" and "Money", and incorporated "Maybe This Time", a song they had composed in 1964 and first sung by Kaye Ballard.
Casting
Feuer had cast Liza Minnelli as Sally Bowles and Joel Grey (reprising his stage role) long before Fosse was attached to the project. Fosse was given the option of using Grey as Master of Ceremonies or walking away from the production. Fosse hired Michael York as Sally Bowles's bisexual love interest, a casting choice which Minnelli initially believed was incorrect until she performed with him. Several smaller roles, as well as the remaining four dancers in the film, eventually were cast in West Germany.
Minnelli had auditioned to play Sally in the original Broadway production but was deemed too inexperienced at the time, even though she had won Broadway's Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. By the time Cabaret reached the screen, however, Minnelli was a film star having earned an Oscar nomination as the emotionally damaged college student in The Sterile Cuckoo (1969).
For her performance as Sally in the film, Minnelli reinterpreted the character and—at the explicit suggestion of her father film and stage director Vincente Minnelli—she deliberately imitated film actress Louise Brooks, a flapper icon and sex symbol of the Jazz Age. Brooks, much like the character of Sally Bowles in the film, was an aspiring actress and American expat who temporarily moved to Weimar Berlin in search of international stardom. Minnelli later recalled:
In particular, Minnelli drew upon Brooks' "Lulu makeup and helmet-like coiffure." For the meeting between Sally Bowles and Brian Roberts, Minnelli modeled her movements and demeanor upon Brooks; in particular, the scene in Pandora's Box (1929) where Brooks' carefree character of Lulu is first introduced. Ultimately, Minnelli would win the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Sally Bowles.
Filming
Fosse and Feuer traveled to West Germany, where producers chose to shoot the film, in order to finish assembling the film crew. During this time, Fosse highly recommended Robert L. Surtees for cinematographer, but Feuer and the top executives saw Surtees's work on Sweet Charity as one of the film's many artistic problems. Producers eventually chose British cinematographer Geoffrey Unsworth. Designers Rolf Zehetbauer, Hans Jürgen Kiebach and Herbert Strabel served as production designers. Charlotte Flemming designed costumes. Dancers Kathryn Doby, Louise Quick and John Sharpe were brought on as Fosse's dance aides.
Rehearsals and filming took place entirely in West Germany. For reasons of economy, indoor scenes were shot at the Bavaria Film Studios in Grünwald, outside Munich. Prior to filming, Fosse would complain every afternoon on the set of Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory because that film was overrunning and stopping him from starting work on the same stage.
Narrative and news reading
Although the songs throughout the film allude to and advance the narrative, every song except "Tomorrow Belongs to Me" is executed in the context of a Kit Kat Klub performance. The voice heard on the radio reading the news throughout the film in German was that of associate producer Harold Nebenzal, whose father Seymour Nebenzahl produced such notable Weimar films as M (1931), Testament of Dr. Mabuse (1933), and Threepenny Opera (1931).
Differences between film and stage version
The film significantly differs from the Broadway musical. In the stage version, Sally is English (as she was in Isherwood's Goodbye to Berlin). In the film adaptation, she is American. Cliff Bradshaw was renamed Brian Roberts and made British (as was Isherwood, upon whom the character was based), rather than American as in the stage version. The characters and plotlines involving Fritz, Natalia and Max were pulled from I Am a Camera and did not appear in the stage production of Cabaret (or in Goodbye to Berlin).
The most significant change involves the excision of the two main characters: Fraulein Schneider, who runs a boarding house, and her love interest, Herr Schultz, a German grocer. Their doomed romance plot, and the consequences of a German falling in love with a Jew during the rise of antisemitism was cut. With the removals were "So What?" and "What Would You Do", sung by Schneider, the song "Meeskite", sung by Schultz, and their two duets "It Couldn't Please Me More (The Pineapple Song)" (cut) and "Married" (reset as a piano instrumental, and a phonograph record), as well as a short reprise of "Married", sung alone by Schultz.
Kander and Ebb wrote several new songs and removed others. "Don't Tell Mama" was replaced by "Mein Herr", and "The Money Song" (retained in an instrumental version as "Sitting Pretty") was replaced by "Money, Money." "Mein Herr" and "Money, Money", which were composed for the film, were integrated into the stage musical alongside the original numbers. The song "Maybe This Time", which Sally performs at the cabaret, was not written for the film, but was intended for actress Kaye Ballard. Although "Don't Tell Mama" and "Married" were removed as performed musical numbers, both still appear in the film: "Mama"'s bridge section appears as an instrumental played on Sally's gramophone; "Married" initially plays on the piano in Fraulein Schneider's parlor, and later heard on Sally's gramophone in a German translation ("Heiraten") sung by cabaret singer Greta Keller. Additionally, "If You Could See Her", performed by the MC, originally concluded with the line "She wouldn't be meeskite at all" onstage. The film changes this to "She wouldn't look Jewish at all," a return to Ebb's original lyrics.
Soundtrack
Charts
Certifications
Reception
The film was immediately successful at the box office. By May 1973, the film had earned rentals of $4.5 million in North America and $3.5 million in other countries and reported a profit of $2,452,000.
Critical reception
Contemporary reviews
Roger Ebert gave a positive review in January 1972, saying: "This is no ordinary musical. Part of its success comes because it doesn't fall for the old cliché that musicals have to make you happy. Instead of cheapening the movie version by lightening its load of despair, director Bob Fosse has gone right to the bleak heart of the material and stayed there well enough to win an Academy Award for Best Director."
A Variety staff critic appraised the film in December 1971: "The film version of the 1966 John Kander-Fred Ebb Broadway musical Cabaret is most unusual: it is literate, bawdy, sophisticated, sensual, cynical, heart-warming, and disturbingly thought-provoking. Liza Minnelli heads a strong cast. Bob Fosse's generally excellent direction recreates the milieu of Germany some 40 years ago."
Roger Greenspun of The New York Times wrote in February 1972 that "Cabaret is one of those immensely gratifying imperfect works in which from beginning to end you can literally feel a movie coming to life." Likewise, Pauline Kael of The New Yorker wrote a review that same month in which she applauded the film:
Reaction of Isherwood and others
Although Cabaret (1972) was well received by film critics upon its release, author Christopher Isherwood and other persons upon whom the film's characters were based were less receptive towards the cinematic adaptation. Isherwood himself was critical of the 1972 film due to what he perceived as its negative portrayal of homosexuality:
Similarly, Isherwood's friend Jean Ross—upon whom the character of Sally Bowles was based—was ambivalent about the film. She felt the depiction of 1930s Berlin "was quite, quite different" from reality. Nevertheless, she conceded that the depiction of their social circle of British expatriates as pleasure-seeking libertines was accurate: "We were all utterly against the bourgeois standards of our parents' generation. That's what took us to [Weimar-era] Berlin. The climate was freer there." Such ambivalence towards Cabaret (1972) was not unique among Isherwood's circle.
The poet Stephen Spender lamented how Cabaret (1972) glossed over Weimar Berlin's crushing poverty:
Both Spender and Ross contended that the 1972 film and 1966 Broadway musical deleteriously glamorized the harsh realities of the 1930s Weimar era.
Retrospective reviews
In 2002, Jamie Russell of the BBC wrote that the film was "the first musical ever to be given an X certificate, Bob Fosse's Cabaret launched Liza Minnelli into Hollywood superstardom and re-invented the musical for the Age of Aquarius." In 2013, film critic Peter Bradshaw listed Cabaret at number one on his list of "Top 10 musicals", describing it as "satanically catchy, terrifyingly seductive...directed and choreographed with electric style by Bob Fosse...Cabaret is drenched in the sexiest kind of cynicism and decadent despair."
Controversies
Although less explicit compared with other films made in the 1970s, Cabaret dealt explicitly with topics like corruption, sexual ambiguity, false dreams, and Nazism. Tim Dirks at Filmsite.org notes: "The sexually-charged, semi-controversial, kinky musical was the first one ever to be given an X rating (although later re-rated) with its numerous sexual flings and hedonistic club life. There was considerable sexual innuendo, profanity, casual sex talk (homosexual and heterosexual), some evidence of anti-Semitism, and even an abortion in the film." It was also rated X in the UK and later re-rated as 15.
On the topic of Nazism, there was little consensus among critics about the possibly fascist implications of the film and play. However, critic Steven Belletto wrote a critique of Cabaret in the Criticism journal, published by Wayne State University Press, in which he highlighted the anti-fascist themes in the film present both within and outside of the musical acts. According to Belletto, "despite the ways that the film has been understood by a variety of critics, [Cabaret] rejects the logic of fascist certainty by staging various numbers committed to irony and ambiguity."
The "Tomorrow Belongs to Me" scene was controversial, with Kander and Ebb, both of whom were Jews, sometimes being wrongly accused of using a historical Nazi song. According to an article in 'Variety' in November 1976, the film was censored in West Berlin when it was first released there theatrically, with the sequence featuring the Hitler Youth singing "Tomorrow Belongs to Me" having been deleted. This elimination was made "because of the feeling that it might stir up resentments in the audience by showing the sympathizers for the Nazi movement during the '30s." The sequence was restored, however, when the film was shown on West German television on November 7, 1976.
Another topic of discussion was the song "If You Could See Her", which closed with the line: "If you could see her through my eyes, she wouldn't look Jewish at all." The point of the song was showing anti-Semitism as it begins to run rampant in Berlin, but there were a number of Jewish groups who interpreted the lyrics differently.
Accolades
Cabaret earned a total of 10 Academy Award nominations (winning 8 of them) and holds the record for most Academy Awards won by a film which did not win the Academy Award for Best Picture.
Shortly before the Academy Awards, Bob Fosse won 2 Tony Awards for directing and choreographing Pippin, his biggest stage hit to date. Months later, he won the Primetime Emmy Award for choreographing and directing Liza Minnelli's television special Liza with a Z, he became the first director to win all three awards in one year.
American Film Institute recognition
AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs
Cabaret – No. 18
AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – No. 5
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 63
National Film Registry
Inducted into the National Film Registry in 1995 among a list of 25 Films that year.
Legacy
Cabaret has been cited by TV Guide as among the greatest films made and in Movieline magazine as one of the "100 Best Movies Ever". It was included in Film4's "100 Greatest Films of All Time" at #78 and in The San Francisco Chronicles "Hot 100 Films of the Past", being hailed as "the last great musical. Liza Minnelli plays Sally Bowles, an American adrift in pre-Nazi Berlin, in Bob Fosse's stylish, near-perfect film."
David Benedict has written in The Guardian about Cabaret'''s influence in musical films: "Back then, musicals were already low on film-goers' lists, so how come it was such a success? Simple: Cabaret is the musical for people who hate them. Given the vibrancy of its now iconic numbers – Liza Minnelli in bowler and black suspenders astride a bentwood chair belting out 'Mein Herr' or shimmying and shivering with pleasure over 'Money' with Joel Grey – it sounds strange to say it, but one of the chief reasons why Cabaret is so popular is that it's not shot like a musical."
The film has been listed as one of the most important for queer cinema for its depictions of bisexuality, arguably transgressive at the time of its 1972 post-Code release and has been credited with turning Liza Minnelli into a gay icon. Film blogs have selected it as "the gayest winner in the history of the Academy."
Home media
The film was first released to DVD in 1998. There have been releases in 2003, 2008, and 2012. The film's international ancillary distribution rights are owned by ABC (now part of The Walt Disney Company), Fremantle (UK), Warner Bros. (which acquired the film as part of its purchase of Lorimar Productions, which had acquired the film library of Allied Artists) has US domestic distribution rights.
In April 2012, Warner unveiled a new restoration of the film at the TCM Classic Film Festival. A DigiBook edition was later released on Blu-ray on February 5, 2013. Before this restoration, Cabaret had been sold on a standard-definition DVD from Warner Bros., but the film was unavailable in high-definition or for digital projections in cinemas. The original camera negative is lost, and a surviving interpositive had a vertical scratch that ran through 1,000 feet, or 10 minutes, of one of its reels, as confirmed by Ned Price, vice president of mastering and restoration for Warner Bros. The damage ostensibly was inflicted by a grain of dirt that had rolled through the length of the reel, beginning with a scene in which Michael York's character confronts a pro-Nazi boarding house resident, and had cut into the emulsion. The marred frames were digitally restored, but "the difficult part was matching the grain structure so the fix was invisible." After automated digital repair attempts failed, the 1,000 feet of damaged film was hand painted using a computer stylus.
Warner Archive Collection reissued the Blu-ray on November 20, 2018 without the DigiBook.
See also
List of American films of 1972
Notes
References
Bibliography
Francesco Mismirigo, Cabaret, un film allemand, Université de Genève, 1984
External links
Cabaret essay by Stephen Tropiano on the National Film Registry website.
Cabaret'' essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 682-684
1970s musical drama films
1972 films
Allied Artists films
American films
American LGBT-related films
American musical drama films
American historical musical films
Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners
Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award
Bisexuality-related films
1970s English-language films
Films about writers
Films based on musicals
Films directed by Bob Fosse
Films featuring a Best Actress Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films set in Berlin
Films set in cabarets
Films set in 1931
Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Films whose director won the Best Directing Academy Award
Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing Academy Award
Gay-related films
German-language films
Liza Minnelli soundtracks
United States National Film Registry films
LGBT-related musical drama films
LGBT-related controversies in film
Best Film BAFTA Award winners
Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award
1972 LGBT-related films
1970s historical musical films
Films based on adaptations
Films shot at Bavaria Studios
Censored films
Male bisexuality in film
1972 drama films | [
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236695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20root%20vegetables | List of root vegetables | Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans as food. Although botany distinguishes true roots (such as taproots and tuberous roots) from non-roots (such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers, although some contain both hypocotyl and taproot tissue), the term "root vegetable" is applied to all these types in agricultural and culinary usage (see terminology).
Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. They differ in the concentration and the balance among starches, sugars, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch; starchy root vegetables are important staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much of Central Africa, West Africa and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to make foods such as fufu or poi.
Many root vegetables keep well in root cellars, lasting several months. This is one way of storing food for use long after harvest, which is especially important in nontropical latitudes, where winter is traditionally a time of little to no harvesting. There are also season extension methods that can extend the harvest throughout the winter, mostly through the use of polytunnels.
List of root vegetables
The following list classifies root vegetables organized by their roots' anatomy.
Modified plant stem
Corm
Amorphophallus konjac (konjac)
Colocasia esculenta (taro)
Eleocharis dulcis (Chinese water chestnut)
Ensete spp. (enset)
Nymphaea spp. (waterlily)
Pteridium esculentum
Sagittaria spp. (arrowhead or wapatoo)
Typha spp.
Xanthosoma spp. (malanga, cocoyam, tannia, yautia and other names)
Colocasia antiquorum (eddoe or Japanese potato)
Rhizome
Curcuma longa (turmeric)
Panax ginseng (ginseng)
Arthropodium spp. (rengarenga, vanilla lily, and others)
Canna spp. (canna)
Cordyline fruticosa (ti)
Maranta arundinacea (arrowroot)
Nelumbo nucifera (lotus root)
Typha spp. (cattail or bulrush)
Zingiber officinale (ginger, galangal)
Tuber
Apios americana (hog potato or groundnut)
Cyperus esculentus (tigernut or chufa)
Dioscorea spp. (yams, ube)
Dioscorea polystachya (Chinese yam or white ñame)
Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke or sunchoke)
Hemerocallis spp. (daylily)
Lathyrus tuberosus (earthnut pea)
Oxalis tuberosa (oca or New Zealand yam)
Plectranthus edulis and P. esculentus (kembili, dazo, and others)
Solanum tuberosum (potato)
Stachys affinis (Chinese artichoke or crosne)
Tropaeolum tuberosum (mashua or añu)
Ullucus tuberosus (ulluku)
Root-like stem Zamia integrifolia (Florida arrowroot)
True root
Taproot (some types may incorporate substantial hypocotyl tissue)
Arracacia xanthorrhiza (arracacha)
Beta vulgaris (beet and mangelwurzel)
Brassica spp. (kohlrabi, rutabaga and turnip)
Bunium persicum (black cumin)
Burdock (Arctium, family Asteraceae)
Carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus)
Celeriac (Apium graveolens rapaceum)
Daikon – the large East Asian white radish (Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus)
Dandelion (Taraxacum) spp.
Lepidium meyenii (maca)
Microseris lanceolata (murnong or yam daisy)
Pachyrhizus spp. (jicama and ahipa)
Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa)
Petroselinum spp. (parsley root)
Radish (Raphanus sativus)
Scorzonera hispanica (black salsify)
Sium sisarum (skirret)
Tragopogon spp. (salsify)
Vigna lanceolata (bush carrot or bush potato)
Tuberous root
Amorphophallus galbra (yellow lily yam)
Conopodium majus (pignut or earthnut)
Dioscorea polystachya (nagaimo, Chinese yam, Korean yam, mountain yam)
Hornstedtia scottiana (native ginger)
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)
Ipomoea costata (desert yam)
Manihot esculenta (cassava or yuca or manioc)
Mirabilis expansa (mauka or chago)
Psoralea esculenta (breadroot, tipsin, or prairie turnip)
Smallanthus sonchifolius'' (yacón)
References
External links
'
'vegetables, root
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236696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdigital | Postdigital | Postdigital, in artistic practice, is an attitude that is more concerned with being human, than with being digital, similar to the concept of "undigital" introduced in 1995, where technology and society advances beyond digital limitations to achieve a totally fluid multimediated reality that is free from artefacts of digital computation (quantization noise, pixelation, etc.).
Postdigital is concerned with our rapidly changed and changing relationships with digital technologies and art forms. If one examines the textual paradigm of consensus, one is faced with a choice: either the "postdigital" society has intrinsic meaning, or it is contextualised into a paradigm of consensus that includes art as a totality.
Theory
Giorgio Agamben (2002) describes paradigms as things that we think with, rather than things we think about. Like the computer age, the postdigital is also a paradigm, but as with post-humanism for example, an understanding of postdigital does not aim to describe a life after digital, but rather, attempts to describe the present-day opportunity to explore the consequences of the digital and of the computer age. While the computer age has enhanced human capacity with inviting and uncanny prosthetics, the postdigital may provide a paradigm with which it is possible to examine and understand this enhancement.
In The Future of Art in a Postdigital Age, Mel Alexenberg defines "postdigital art" as artworks that address the humanization of digital technologies through interplay between digital, biological, cultural, and spiritual systems, between cyberspace and real space, between embodied media and mixed reality in social and physical communication, between high tech and high touch experiences, between visual, haptic, auditory, and kinesthetic media experiences, between virtual and augmented reality, between roots and globalization, between autoethnography and community narrative, and between web-enabled peer-produced wikiart and artworks created with alternative media through participation, interaction, and collaboration in which the role of the artist is redefined. This definition needs to be extended to include the transition from cyberart to cryptoart where a digital artwork is transformed into a NFT (non-fungible token) verifying its unique nature through blockchain technology.
Mel Alexenberg proposes that the post-corona era will be a postdigital age as defined in Wired by MIT Media Center director Nicholas Negroponte: "Like air and drinking water, being digital will be noticed only in its absence, not by its presence. Face it - the Digital Revolution is over"
Roy Ascott has demonstrated that the distinction between the digital and the "postdigital" is part of the economy of reality.
Music
Kim Cascone uses the term in his article The Aesthetics of Failure: "Post-digital" Tendencies in Contemporary Computer Music. He begins the article with a quotation from MIT Media Lab cyberpundit Nicholas Negroponte: "The digital revolution is over." Cascone goes on to describe what he sees as a 'post-digital' line of flight in the music also commonly known as glitch or microsound music, observing that 'with electronic commerce now a natural part of the business fabric of the Western world and Hollywood cranking out digital fluff by the gigabyte, the medium of digital technology holds less fascination for composers in and of itself.'
In Art after Technology, Maurice Benayoun lists possible tracks for "postdigital" art considering that the digital flooding has altered the entire social, economical, artistic landscape, and the artist posture will move in ways that try to escape the technological realm without being able to completely discard it. From lowtech to biotech and critical fusion - critical intrusion of fiction inside reality – new forms of art emerge from the digital era.
Further reading
Alexenberg, Mel, (2019), Through a Bible Lens: Biblical Insights for Smartphone Photography and Social Media. Nashville, Tennessee: Elm Hill/HarperCollins; .
Alexenberg, Mel, (2011), The Future of Art in a Postdigital Age: From Hellenistic to Hebraic Consciousness. Bristol and Chicago: Intellect Books/University of Chicago Press; .
Alexenberg, Mel, ed. (2008), Educating Artists for the Future: Learning at the Intersections of Art, Science, Technology, and Culture. Bristol and Chicago: Intellect Books/University of Chicago Press, 344 pp. . (postdigital chapters by Roy Ascott, Stephen Wilson, Eduardo Kac, and others)
Ascott, R. (2003), Telematic Embrace. (E.Shaken, ed.) Berkeley: University of California Press.
Birnbaum, D and Kuo (2008) More than Real: Art in the Digital Age, 2018 Verbier Art Summit. London: Koenig Books.
Berry, D. M. (2014) Critical Theory and the Digital, New York: Bloomsbury.
Berry, D. M. and Dieter (2015) Postdigital Aesthetics: Art, Computation and Design, London: Palgrave.
Barreto, R. and Perissinotto, P. (2002), The Culture of Immanence, in Internet Art. Ricardo Barreto e Paula Perissinotto (orgs.). São Paulo, IMESP. .
Benayoun, M. (2008), Art after Technology abstract of the text written by Maurice Benayoun in Technology Review - French edition, N°7 June–July 2008, MIT, ISSN 1957-1380
Full text in English
Wikiversity.org. (2019). Postdigital (Giorgio Agamben, Ryota Matsumoto) [https://ja.wikiversity.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%87%E3%82%B8%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AB ‘’The Concept of Postdigital]. Tokyo, Japanese Text.
Benayoun, M., The Dump, 207 Hypotheses for Committing Art, bilingual (English/French), Fyp éditions, France, July 2011, .
Toshiko, Saneoki. (2019). Postigital Theory of Giorgio Agamben, Ryota Matsumoto, Kim Cascone, Japanese Art and Design. Hachimato, Tokyo Institute of Art, Tokyo, Japan.
Bolognini, M. (2008), Postdigitale, Rome: Carocci.
Ferguson, J., & Brown, A. R. (2016). "Fostering a post-digital avant-garde: Research-led teaching of music technology". Organised Sound, 21(2), 127–137.
Pepperell, R. and Punt, M. (2000), The Postdigital Membrane: Imagination, Technology and Desire, Intellect Books, Bristol, UK, 182 pp.
Wilson, S. (2003), Information Arts: Intersections of Art, Science, and Technology''.
External links
Google Books: The Postdigital Membrane
What is a paradigm by Giorgio Agamben
Post-Digital Humanities: Computation and Cultural Critique in the Arts and Humanities
Monoskop: Collection of resources related to Post-Digital Aesthetics
See also
Circuit bending
Databending
Digital Art
Glitch
New Aesthetic
New media art
References
Digital art
Digital electronics
Computer art
New media
New media art
Interactive art
Visual arts genres | [
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236697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Kovic | Ron Kovic | Ronald Lawrence Kovic (born July 4, 1946) is an American anti-war activist, writer, and United States Marine Corps sergeant who was wounded and paralyzed in the Vietnam War. His 1976 memoir Born on the Fourth of July was made into the Academy Award–winning 1989 film directed by Oliver Stone.
Kovic received the Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay on January 20, 1990, 22 years to the day that he was wounded in Vietnam, and was nominated for an Academy Award in the same category.
Early life
Kovic was born in Ladysmith, Wisconsin, the second eldest of the six children of Patricia Ann Lamb (January 6, 1923 – June 30, 2006) and Eli Thomas Kovic (August 3, 1920 – May 1, 1999). Eli Thomas Kovic met Lamb while serving in the Navy during the Second World War after both enlisted shortly after the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. Eli was of Croatian ancestry, while Patricia was of Irish ancestry, and a housewife.
Military service in Vietnam
Kovic volunteered to serve in Vietnam, and was sent to South Vietnam in December 1965 as a member of H&S Company, 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division. In June 1966, he was transferred to Bravo Company, Second Platoon, 1st Reconnaissance Battalion, 1st Marine Division where he participated in 22 long range reconnaissance patrols in enemy territory and was awarded the Navy Commendation Medal with Combat V for valor. After a 13-month tour of duty, he returned home on January 15, 1967. He was subsequently assigned to the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing at Cherry Point, North Carolina. Several months later, he volunteered to return to Vietnam for a second tour of duty.
On January 20, 1968, while leading a reconnaissance force of battalion scouts from the 1st Amtrac Battalion just north of the Cửa Việt River in the vicinity of the village of Mỹ Lộc, in the Demilitarized Zone, Kovic's squad came into contact with the NVA 803rd Regiment and elements of a Viet Cong battalion that was besieging the village; he was shot by NVA soldiers while leading his rifle squad across an open area, attempting to aid the South Vietnamese Popular Force unit in the village. Deserted by most of his unit, he was shot first in the right foot, which tore out the back of his heel, then again through the right shoulder, suffering a collapsed lung and a spinal cord injury that left him paralyzed from the chest down. The first Marine that tried to save him was shot through the heart and killed, before a second Marine carried Kovic to safety through heavy enemy fire. Kovic then spent a week in an intensive care ward in Da Nang. As a result of his service and injuries in the conflict, Kovic was awarded the Bronze Star with Combat "V" for heroism in battle and the Purple Heart.
Post-Vietnam activism
Before the end of the war in Vietnam was declared on April 30, 1975, Kovic became one of the best-known peace activists among the Vietnam veterans, and was arrested 12 times for political protesting. He attended his first peace demonstration soon after the Kent State shootings in May 1970, and gave his first speech against the war at Levittown Memorial High School in Levittown, Long Island, New York that same spring. Kovic's speech that day was interrupted by a bomb threat and the auditorium was cleared.
Undeterred, Kovic continued speaking to students from the school's football grandstands. His first arrest was during an anti-Vietnam War demonstration at an Orange County, California draft board in the spring of 1971. He refused to leave the office of the draft board, explaining to a representative that, by sending young men to Vietnam, they were inadvertently "condemning them to their death", or to be wounded and maimed like himself in a war that he had come to believe was "immoral and made no sense". He was told that, if he did not leave the draft board immediately, he would be arrested. Kovic refused to leave and was taken away by police.
In 1974, Kovic led a group of disabled Vietnam War veterans in wheelchairs on a 17-day hunger strike inside the Los Angeles office of Senator Alan Cranston. The veterans protested the "poor treatment in America's veterans' hospitals and demanded better treatment for returning veterans, a full investigation of all Veterans Administration (VA) facilities, and a face-to-face meeting with the head of the VA, Donald E. Johnson. The strike continued to escalate until Johnson finally agreed to fly out from Washington, D.C., and meet with the veterans. The hunger strike ended soon after that. Several months later, Johnson resigned. In late August 1974, Kovic traveled to Belfast, Northern Ireland, where he spent a week in the Catholic stronghold of "Turf Lodge," interviewing both political activists and residents. In the spring of 1975, Kovic, author Richard Boyle, and photo journalist Loretta Smith traveled to cover the war in Cambodia for Pacific News Service.
In 1990, Kovic considered running for a seat in the House of Representatives against California Republican Robert Dornan. Kovic ultimately decided not to run.
From 1990 to 1991, Kovic took part in several anti-war demonstrations against the first Gulf War, which occurred not long after the release of his biographical film in 1989. In early May 1999, following the U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, Kovic met with China's ambassador to the United States Li Zhaoxing at the Chinese embassy in Washington D.C. to express his condolences and present the ambassador and his staff with two dozen red roses. He was an outspoken critic of the Iraq War.
Since 2000
In November 2003, Kovic joined protests in London against the visit of George W. Bush. He was the guest of honor at a reception held at London's city hall by Mayor Ken Livingstone. The following day, he led a march of several hundred thousand demonstrators on Trafalgar Square, where a huge rally was held to protest the visit of George W. Bush and the war in Iraq. Kovic attended the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado. On Sunday, August 24, 2008, the day before the convention began, Kovic spoke, then led thousands in a march against the war which ended with him saying, "In the city of Denver, we got welcomed home."
In a new introduction to his book, Born on the Fourth of July (1976), written in March 2005, Kovic stated, "I wanted people to understand. I wanted to share with them as nakedly and openly and intimately as possible what I had gone through, what I had endured. I wanted them to know what it really meant to be in a war, to be shot and wounded, to be fighting for my life on the intensive care ward, not the myth we had grown up believing. I wanted people to know about the hospitals and the enema room, about why I had become opposed to the war, why I had grown more and more committed to peace and nonviolence. I had been beaten by the police and arrested twelve times for protesting the war and I had spent many nights in jail in my wheelchair. I had been called a Communist and a traitor, simply for trying to tell the truth about what had happened in that war, but I refused to be intimidated." In 1989, on the last day of filming Born On The Fourth of July, Kovic presented actor Tom Cruise, who portrayed him in the movie, the original Bronze Star he had received, explaining to Cruise that he was giving him the medal as a gift "for his heroic performance".
Kovic lives in Redondo Beach, California, where he writes, paints, plays the piano, and gardens. He had a relationship with Connie Panzarino (author of The Me in the Mirror).
Legacy
Bruce Springsteen wrote the song "Shut Out the Light" after reading Kovic's memoir and then meeting him.
Personal life
Kovic is the uncle of internet personality Adam Kovic.
Films
1989 – Born on the Fourth of July - (co-screenwriter with Oliver Stone). Directed by Oliver Stone.
See also
List of Croatian Americans
List of peace activists
References
External links
Kovic, Ron. "Born on the Fourth of July: The Long Journey Home", AlterNet, posted June 13, 2005.
"Veterans Speak Out", truthout.org, video, November 14, 2005.
Gilmer, Tim. "Ron Kovic Reborn", profile from the Independent Media Institute, June 20, 2003.
CNN interview with Kovic: "Peace movement will be largest ever", January 17, 2003.
"Ron Kovic Vietnam Veteran", Heroism Project profile.
Kovic, Ron. "The Forgotten Wounded of Iraq", TruthDig.com, January 18, 2006.
Kovic, Ron. "Breaking the Silence of the Night", TruthDig.com, October 10, 2006.
Fanucci, Kenneth. "It's All Coming Together For Ron Kovic", S.F. Examiner, June 25, 1978.
Eterovich, Adam S. "Croatians in California, 1849–1999", Ragusan Press, San Carlos, CA, 2000, p 600,
1946 births
activists from California
American anti–Iraq War activists
American anti–Vietnam War activists
American autobiographers
American people of Croatian descent
American shooting survivors
Best Screenplay Golden Globe winners
Hofstra University alumni
living people
people from Ladysmith, Wisconsin
people from Massapequa, New York
people from Redondo Beach, California
people with paraplegia
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War
United States Marines
writers from California
writers from New York (state)
writers from Wisconsin | [
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236701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Spaggiari | Albert Spaggiari | Albert Spaggiari (14 December 1932 – 8 June 1989), nicknamed Bert, was a French criminal chiefly known as the organizer of a break-in into a Société Générale bank in Nice, France, in July 1976.
Early life
Albert Spaggiari was born on 14 December 1932 in Laragne-Montéglin in the Hautes-Alpes to Richard and Marcelle (née Clément) Spaggiari. His father died in 1935 and he grew up in Hyères, where his mother ran a lingerie store.
At the age of 19, he enlisted as a paratrooper in the First Indochina War, and was posted to the 3rd Battalion colonial paratroopers. During this time, he and a few accomplices put a gun to the head of someone that they claimed had robbed them. The military court, however, believed that this was actually a stickup, and Spaggiari spent the next four years in jail.
Following his release, he moved to North Africa and joined the Secret Army, a right-wing group that wanted to prevent Algerian independence. This later led him to be sentenced to three and a half more years in jail, on the charges of political terrorism.
Spaggiari, seemingly having had put politics behind him, then moved to Nice, France, alongside his wife, Audi. They lived in a country villa, called The Wild Geese, where they raised chickens. Professionally, he started working as a photographer.
Work with the DINA
In 1975 Albert Spaggiari and The Corsican Brotherhood were recruited in France by the Chilean secret police, DINA.
His codename was "Daniel", his activities are unknown but other CB members were tasked with watching Chilean Exiles in France.
This group was called the DINA "Brigada Corsa" ("Corsican Brigade").
Bank robbery in Nice
When Spaggiari heard that the sewers were close to the vault of the Société Générale bank in Nice, he began to plan a break-in into the bank. Eventually he decided to attempt digging into the bank vault from below. Spaggiari rented a box in the bank vault for himself and put a loud alarm clock in the vault. He set the clock to ring at night to check for any acoustic or seismic detection gear. In fact, there were no alarms protecting the vault because it was considered impenetrable: the door wall was extremely thick, and there was no obvious way to access the other walls.
Spaggiari contacted professional gangsters from Marseille, who, after examining his plans and the site, decided not to participate in the heist. His accomplices probably were recruited through old OAS friends. His men made their way into the sewers and spent two months digging an tunnel from the sewer to the vault floor. Spaggiari had taken many precautions during this long dig while his men worked long hours continuously drilling. He told them not to drink coffee or alcohol, and to get at least ten hours of sleep every shift to avoid any danger to the mission.
On 16 July 1976, during the long weekend of Bastille Day, Spaggiari's gang broke into the vault itself. They opened 400 safe deposit boxes and stole an estimated 30–100 million francs worth of money, securities and valuables. It was the largest heist in the history of bank robberies to that date.
According to some accounts, Spaggiari brought his men a meal including wine and pâté, and reportedly they sat down in the vault for a picnic lunch, after welding the vault door shut from the inside. The gang spent hours picking through the various safe deposit boxes. Before they left on 20 July they left a message on the walls of the vault: sans armes, ni haine, ni violence ("without weapons, hatred, or violence").
Claim of responsibility by Cassandri
In 2010 Jacques Cassandri published a book, The Truth about the Nice Heist, in which he claimed responsibility for the 1976 robbery and that Albert Spaggiari only played a bit part. He could not be prosecuted for the crime under French law as it was too long ago. However, he was arrested on suspicion of later money laundering, using proceeds of the robbery to fund business ventures in Marseilles and Corsica. About twenty people were held for questioning in connection with the case, including Cassandri's wife and children and a Corsican politician.
Capture and escape
At first the French police were baffled. However, by the end of October, they were closing in, and on a tip from a former girlfriend, they arrested one of the thieves. After a lengthy interrogation he implicated the entire gang, including Spaggiari. When Spaggiari, who had been accompanying the mayor of Nice Jacques Médecin in the Far East as a photographer, returned to Nice, he was arrested at the airport.
Spaggiari chose Jacques Peyrat, a veteran of the French Foreign Legion who belonged at the time to the National Front, as his defence attorney. Spaggiari first denied his involvement in the break-in, then acknowledged it but claimed that he was working to fund a secret political organization named Catena (Italian for "chain") that seems to have existed only in his fantasy.
During his case hearings, Spaggiari devised an escape plan. He made a fictitious document which he claimed as evidence. He made the document coded so it had to be deciphered by the judge. While judge Richard Bouaziz was distracted by the document, Spaggiari jumped out of a window, landing safely on a parked car and escaped on a waiting motorcycle. Some reports said that the owner of the car later received a 5,000-franc cheque in the mail for the damage to his roof.
Left-wing papers later said that Spaggiari had received help from his political friends, in particular from ex-OAS militants close to the mayor of Nice, Jacques Médecin. The accusations forced Médecin to go through a second round of voting at the local elections of 1977.
In 1995, Jacques Peyrat accused Christian Estrosi, French minister and former motorcycle champion, of having been Spaggiari's driver, but Estrosi proved that he had been racing in Daytona Beach, Florida, at the time.
Life in hiding
Spaggiari remained free for the rest of his life. He was sentenced in absentia to life imprisonment. He is reported to have had plastic surgery, and to have spent probably most of the rest of his life in Argentina, visiting France clandestinely to see his mother or his wife "Audi". While publishing his last book Le journal d'une truffe an interview with him by Bernard Pivot was recorded, reportedly in Milan, Italy, for the TV program Apostrophes.
According to a CIA document declassified in 2000 and published by the National Security Archive, Michael Townley, the DINA international agent responsible for the murder of Orlando Letelier, a member of Salvador Allende's government, in Washington, DC, 1976, was in contact with Spaggiari. Information contained in the document suggests that Spaggiari (code name "Daniel") conducted operations on behalf of DINA.
Spaggiari was said to have died under "mysterious circumstances". The press reported that his body was found by his mother in front of her home on 10 June 1989, having been carried back to France by unknown friends. However it now seems well established that his wife Emilia was with him when he died of lung cancer on 8 June 1989, in a country house in Belluno, Italy. She drove his body from Italy to Hyères and lied to the police—unauthorised transport of a corpse is a criminal offence in both Italy and France.
None of the proceeds of the robbery were ever found.
Works
Faut pas rire avec les barbares (1977)
Les égouts du paradis (1978)
Le journal d'une truffe (1983)
Translated into English by Martin Sokolinsky and published as Fric-Frac: The Great Riviera Bank Robbery (1979) and The Sewers of Gold (1981).
Popular culture
French authors René Louis Maurice and Jean-Claude Simoën wrote the book Cinq Milliards au bout de l'égout (1977) about Spaggiari's bank heist in Nice. Their work was translated to English in 1978 by British author Ken Follett under the title The Heist of the Century; it was also published as The Gentleman of 16 July and Under the Streets of Nice. Follett was outraged when some publishers marketed it as a new Ken Follett book, while it was, in fact, little more than a rushed-through translation.
Three films were produced which were also based on the Nice bank robbery:
Les égouts du paradis, a 1979 French film directed by José Giovanni.
The Great Riviera Bank Robbery, also known Dirty Money and Sewers of Gold, a 1979 British film directed by Francis Megahy.
Sans arme, ni haine, ni violence, a 2008 French film directed by Jean-Paul Rouve.
The Canadian television series Masterminds produced and aired an episode titled "The Riviera Job," reenacting the story of the robbery.
A Czech film, Prachy dělaj člověka, contains a reference to the heist, suggesting that one of the characters participated in it.
In 2016, Italian author Carlos D'Ercole published a book about the heist titled Le Fogne del paradiso.
References
External links
Albert Spaggiari page dealing with multimedia and detailed articles
The OAS, the French Underworld, and the 1976 Société Générale Heist at Bright Review
The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability
1932 births
1989 deaths
20th-century French criminals
People from Hautes-Alpes
French bank robbers
Bank burglars
Members of the Organisation armée secrète
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Deaths from cancer in Veneto
French people of Italian descent | [
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236706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20paleontology | Timeline of paleontology | Timeline of paleontology
Antiquity
6th century B.C. — The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon argues that fossils of marine organisms show that dry land was once under water.
4th century B.C. —Aristotle posits that the stoniness of fossils is caused by vaporous exhalations.
1027 — The Persian naturalist Avicenna elaborates on Aristotle's speculations in The Book of Healing by proposing that fossils are caused by petrifying fluids (succus lapidificatus).
1031-1095 — The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo uses evidence of marine fossils found in the Taihang Mountains to infer geological processes caused shifting of seashores over time, and uses petrified bamboos found underground in Yan'an, to argue for gradual climate change.
1320-1390 — Avicenna's theory of petrifying fluids is elaborated on by Albert of Saxony.
c. 1500 — Leonardo da Vinci uses ichnofossils to complement his hypothesis concerning the biogenic nature of body fossils.
17th century
1665 — In his book Micrographia Robert Hooke compares petrified wood to wood, concludes that petrified wood formed from wood soaked in mineral-rich water, and argues that fossils like Ammonite shells were produced the same way, sparking debate over the organic origin of fossils and the possibility of extinction.
1669 — Nicholas Steno writes that some kinds of rock formed from layers of sediment deposited in water, and that fossils were organic remains buried in the process.
1699 - Edward Lhuyd names the new sauropod genus and species "Ruttelum implicatum". By doing so, he names the first prehistoric creature that is recognizable as a dinosaur.
18th century
1770 — The fossilized bones of a huge animal are found in a quarry near Maastricht in the Netherlands. In 1808 Georges Cuvier identified it as an extinct marine reptile and in 1822 William Conybeare names it Mosasaurus.
1789 — The skeleton of a large animal is unearthed in Argentina. In 1796 Cuvier reports that it had an affinity to modern tree sloths and names it Megatherium.
1796 — Cuvier presents a paper on living and fossil elephants that shows that mammoths were a different species from any living elephant. He argues that this proved the reality of extinction, which he attributes to a geological catastrophe.
1800 — Cuvier writes that a drawing of a fossil found in Bavaria shows a flying reptile; in 1809 he names it Pterodactyl.
19th century
1808 — Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart publish preliminary results of their survey of the geology of the Paris Basin that uses the fossils found in different strata to reconstruct the geologic history of the region.
1811 — Mary Anning and her brother Joseph discover the fossilized remains of an Ichthyosaur at Lyme Regis.
1815 — William Smith published The Map that Changed the World, the first geologic map of England, Wales, and southern Scotland, using fossils to correlate rock strata.
1821 — William Buckland analyzes Kirkdale Cave in Yorkshire, containing the bones of lions, elephants and rhinoceros, and concludes it was a prehistoric hyena den.
1821-1822 — Mary Anning discovers the world's first Plesiosaur skeleton at Lyme Regis.
1822 — Mary Ann Mantell and Gideon Mantell discover fossil teeth of the dinosaur Iguanodon.
1822 — The editor of the French journal Journal de Phisique, Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, invents the word "paleontologie" for the reconstruction of ancient animals and plants from fossils.
1823 — Buckland finds a human skeleton with mammoth remains at Paviland Cave on the Gower Peninsula, but at the time it is not accepted that this showed they coexisted.
1824 — Buckland finds lower jaw of the carnivorous dinosaur Megalosaurus.
1829 — Buckland publishes paper on work he and Mary Anning had done identifying and analyzing fossilized feces found at Lyme Regis and elsewhere. Buckland coins the term "coprolite" for them, and uses them to analyze ancient food chains.
1830 — The Cuvier–Geoffroy debate in Paris on the determination of animal structure
1831 — Mantell publishes an influential paper entitled "The Age of Reptiles" summarizing evidence of an extended period during which large reptiles had been the dominant animals.<ref>Cadbury, Deborah The Dinosaur Hunters (2000) pp. 171-175.</ref>
1832 — Mantell finds partial skeleton of the dinosaur Hylaeosaurus.
1836 — Edward Hitchcock describes footprints (Eubrontes and Otozoum) of giant birds from Jurassic formations in Connecticut. Later they would be recognized as dinosaur tracks.
1841 — Anatomist Richard Owen creates a new order of reptiles, dinosauria, for animals: Iguanodon, Megalosaurus, and Hylaeosaurus, found by Mantell and Buckland.
1841 — The first global geologic timescale is defined by John Phillips based on the type of fossils found in different rock layers. He coins the term "Mesozoic" for what Mantell had called "The Age of Reptiles."
1856 — Fossils are found in the Neander Valley in Germany that Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen recognize as a human different from modern people. A few years later William King names Homo neanderthalensis.
1858 — The first dinosaur skeleton found in the United States, Hadrosaurus, is excavated and described by Joseph Leidy.
1859 — Charles Darwin publishes On The Origin of Species.
1861 — The first Archaeopteryx, skeleton is found in Bavaria, Germany, and recognized as a transitional form between reptiles and birds.
1869 — Joseph Lockyer starts the scientific journal Nature.
1871 — Othniel Charles Marsh discovers the first American pterosaur fossils.
1874-77 — Marsh finds a series of Equid fossils in the American West that shed light on the evolution of the horse.
1877 — The first Diplodocus skeleton is found near Cañon City, Colorado.
1891 — Eugene Dubois discovers fossils of "Java Man" (Homo erectus) in Indonesia.
20th century
1901 — Petroleum geologist W.W. Orcutt recovers first fossils from the La Brea Tar Pits in Southern California, a rich source of ice age mammal remains.
1905 — Dippy the diplodocus is exhibited in London's Natural History Museum; its multiple casts and high profile make the word dinosaur a household name
1905 — Tyrannosaurus rex, later the world's most famous dinosaur species, is first described and named by Henry Fairfield Osborn.
1909 — Cambrian fossils in the Burgess Shale are discovered by Charles Walcott.
1912 — Continental Drift is proposed by Alfred Wegener, leading to plate tectonics, which explained many patterns of ancient biogeography revealed by the fossil record.
1912 — Charles Dawson announces discovery of "Piltdown Man" in England, a hoax that would confuse paleoanthropology until the fossils were revealed as forgeries in 1953.
1912-15 — Spinosaurus is found in North Africa and is speculated to be the largest terrestrial predator that ever lived.
1920 — Andrew Douglass proposes dendrochronology (tree-ring dating).
1924 — Raymond Dart examines fossils of "Taung Child," found by quarrymen in South Africa, and names Australopithecus africanus.
1944 — The publication of Tempo and Mode in Evolution by George Gaylord Simpson integrates paleontology into the modern evolutionary synthesis.
1946 — Reginald Sprigg discovers fossils of the Ediacaran biota in Australia. In the 1960s Martin Glaessner would show that they were pre-Cambrian.
1947 — Willard Libby introduces carbon-14 dating.
1953 — Stanley A. Tyler discovers microfossils in the gunflint chert formation of cyanobacteria that created pre-Cambrian stromatolites approximately 2 billion years ago.
1967 — Paul S. Martin proposes the overkill hypothesis, that the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna in North America resulted from over hunting by Native Americans.
1972 — Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould propose punctuated equilibrium, claiming that the evolutionary history of most species involves long intervals of stasis between relatively short periods of rapid change.
1974 — Donald Johanson and Tom Gray discover a 3.5 million-year-old female hominid fossil that is 40% complete and name it "Lucy."
1980 — Luis Alvarez, Walter Alvarez, Frank Asaro, and Helen Michel propose the Alvarez hypothesis, that a comet or asteroid struck the Earth 66 million years ago causing the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, including the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, and enriching the iridium in the K–T boundary.
1982 — Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup publish a statistical analysis of the fossil record of marine invertebrates that shows a pattern (possibly cyclical) of repeated mass extinctions.
1984 — Hou Xianguang discovers the Maotianshan Shales Cambrian fossil site in the Yunnan province of China.
1993 — Johannes G.M. Thewissen and Sayed Taseer Hussain discover fossils of the amphibious whale ancestor Ambulocetus in Pakistan.
1996 — Li Yumin discovers a fossil of the theropod dinosaur Sinosauropteryx showing evidence of feathers in the Liaoning province of China.
21st century
2004 — Tiktaalik, a transitional form between lobe-finned fish and tetrapods is discovered in Canada by Ted Daeschler, Neil H. Shubin, and Farish A. Jenkins Jr.
2009 — Fossils of Titanoboa, a giant snake, are unearthed in the coal mines of Cerrejón in La Guajira, Colombia, suggesting paleocene equatorial temperatures were higher than today.
2016 — Tail fossils of a baby species of Coelurosaur,'' fully preserved in amber including soft tissue, are found in Myanmar by Lida Xing
See also
History of biology
History of geology
History of paleontology
References
Paleontology
Paleontology
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] |
236707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20English%20novelists | List of English novelists | This is a list of novelists from England writing for adults and young adults. Please add only one novel title or comment on fiction per name. Other genres appear in other lists and on subject's page. References appear on the individual pages.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
See also
List of English writers
List of novelists
References
Novelists
English | [
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236708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jayson%20Blair | Jayson Blair | Jayson Thomas Blair (born March 23, 1976) is a former American journalist who worked for The New York Times. He resigned from the newspaper in May 2003 in the wake of the discovery of fabrication and plagiarism in his stories.
Blair published a memoir of this period, entitled Burning Down My Masters' House (2004), recounting his career, a diagnosis of bipolar disorder after his resignation, and his view of race relations at the newspaper. He later established a support group for people with bipolar disorder and became a life coach.
Background
Blair was born in Columbia, Maryland, the son of a federal executive and a schoolteacher. While attending the University of Maryland, College Park, he was a student journalist. For the 1996–1997 academic year, he was selected as the second African-American editor-in-chief of its student newspaper, The Diamondback. According to a 2004 article by the Baltimore Sun, some of his fellow students opposed his selection describing him as "an elbows-out competitor".
After a summer interning at The New York Times in 1998, Blair was offered an extended internship there. He declined in order to complete more coursework for graduation, but returned to the Times in June 1999 with a year of coursework left to complete. That November, he was classified as an "intermediate reporter". He was later promoted to a full reporter and then to editor.
Plagiarism and fabrication scandal
On April 28, 2003, Blair received a call from Times national editor James Roberts asking him about similarities between a story he had written two days earlier and one published April 18 by San Antonio Express-News reporter Macarena Hernandez. The senior editor of the Express-News had contacted the Times about the similarities between Blair's article in the Times and Hernandez's article in his paper.
The resulting inquiry led to the discovery of fabrication and plagiarism in a number of articles written by Blair. Some fabrications include Blair's claims to have traveled to the city mentioned in the dateline, when in fact he did not.
Questionable articles include the following:
In the October 30, 2002 piece "US Sniper Case Seen as a Barrier to a Confession", Blair wrote that a dispute between police authorities had ruined the interrogation of Beltway sniper suspect John Muhammad and that Muhammad was about to confess, quoting unnamed officials. This was swiftly denied by everyone involved. Blair also named certain lawyers, who were not present, as having witnessed the interrogation.
In the February 10, 2003 piece "Peace and Answers Eluding Victims of the Sniper Attacks", Blair claimed to be in Washington. He allegedly plagiarized quotations from a Washington Post story and fabricated quotations from a person he had never interviewed. Blair ascribed a wide range of attributes to a man featured in the article, almost all of which the man in question denied. Blair also published information that he had promised was to be off the record.
In the March 3, 2003 piece "Making Sniper Suspect Talk Puts Detective in Spotlight", Blair claimed to be in Fairfax, Virginia. He described a videotape of Lee Malvo, the younger defendant in the case, being questioned by police and quoted officials' review of the tape. No such tape existed. Blair also claimed a detective noticed blood on a man's jeans leading to a confession, which had not occurred.
In the March 27, 2003 piece "Relatives of Missing Soldiers Dread Hearing Worse News", Blair claimed to be in West Virginia. He allegedly plagiarized quotations from an Associated Press article. He claimed to have spoken to the father of Jessica Lynch, who had no recollection of meeting Blair; said "tobacco fields and cattle pastures" were visible from Lynch's parents' house when they were not; erroneously stated that Lynch's brother was in the National Guard; misspelled Lynch's mother's name; and fabricated a dream that he claimed she had had.
In the April 3, 2003 piece "Rescue in Iraq and a 'Big Stir' in West Virginia", Blair claimed to have covered the Lynch story from her hometown of Palestine, West Virginia. Blair never traveled to Palestine, and his entire contribution to the story consisted of rearranged details from Associated Press stories.
In the April 7, 2003 piece "For One Pastor, the War Hits Home", Blair wrote of a church service in Cleveland and an interview with the minister. Blair never went to Cleveland; he spoke to the minister by telephone, and copied portions of the article from an earlier Washington Post article. He also plagiarized quotations from The Plain Dealer and New York Daily News. He fabricated a detail about the minister keeping a picture of his son inside his Bible and got the name of the church wrong.
In the April 19, 2003 piece "In Military Wards, Questions and Fears from the Wounded", Blair described interviewing four injured soldiers in a naval hospital. He had never gone to the hospital and had spoken to only one soldier by telephone, to whom he later attributed made-up quotes. Blair wrote that the soldier "will most likely limp the rest of his life and need to use a cane", which was untrue. He said another soldier had lost his right leg when it had been amputated below the knee. He described two soldiers as being in the hospital at the same time, but they were admitted five days apart.
After internal investigations, The New York Times reported on Blair's journalistic misdeeds in an "unprecedented" 7,239-word front-page story on May 11, 2003, headlined "Times Reporter Who Resigned Leaves Long Trail of Deception." The story called the affair "a low point in the 152-year history of the newspaper."
After the scandal broke, some 30 former staffers of The Diamondback, who had worked with Blair when he was editor-in-chief at the university newspaper, signed a 2003 letter alleging that Blair had made four serious errors as a reporter and editor while at the University of Maryland. They said these and his work habits brought his integrity into question. The letter-signers alleged that questions raised by some of these staffers at the time were ignored by Maryland Media, Inc. (MMI), the board that owned the paper.
Aftermath
The investigation, known as the Siegal committee, found heated debate among the staff over affirmative action hiring, as Blair is black. Jonathan Landman, Blair's editor, told the Siegal committee he felt that Blair's being black played a large part in the younger man's initial promotion in 2001 to full-time staffer. "I think race was the decisive factor in his promotion," he said. "I thought then and I think now that it was the wrong decision."
Others disagreed. Five days later, New York Times op-ed columnist Bob Herbert, an African American, asserted in his column that race had nothing to do with the Blair case:
"Listen up: the race issue in this case is as bogus as some of Jayson Blair's reporting." Herbert said, "[F]olks who delight in attacking anything black, or anything designed to help blacks, have pounced on the Blair story as evidence that there is something inherently wrong with The New York Timess effort to diversify its newsroom, and beyond that, with the very idea of a commitment to diversity or affirmative action anywhere. And while these agitators won't admit it, the nasty subtext to their attack is that there is something inherently wrong with blacks."
Executive editor Howell Raines and managing editor Gerald Boyd resigned after losing newsroom support in the aftermath of the scandal.
After resigning from the Times, Blair struggled with severe depression and, according to his memoir, entered a hospital for treatment. He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder for the first time. He has acknowledged that he had been self-medicating when he was dealing with substance abuse of alcohol and cocaine in earlier years.
Later career
Blair later returned to college to complete his postponed degree.
The year after he left the Times, Blair wrote a memoir, Burning Down My Master's House, published by New Millennium Books in 2004. Its initial print run was 250,000 copies; some 1,400 were sold in its first nine days. The Associated Press reported that the potential audience for his book may have gained enough information from the New York Times coverage of the reporting scandal. Although most reviews were critical, sales of the book increased after Blair was interviewed by Larry King and Fox News Channel host Bill O'Reilly.
In his book, Blair revealed extended substance abuse, which he had ended before he resigned from the newspaper, and a struggle with bipolar disorder, which was diagnosed and first treated after he resigned. He also discussed journalistic practices at the Times, and his view of race relations and disagreements among senior editors at the newspaper.
In 2006, Blair was running a support group for people with bipolar disorder, for which he has received continuing treatment.
In 2007 he became a life coach, working in Virginia, opening his own coaching center five years later. He was still working in this field in 2016.
In popular culture
Choke Point, the play written by Colm Byrne and produced in 2007, is based on Blair's downfall.
A play about Blair, CQ/CX, written by Gabe McKinley, was produced by the Atlantic Theater Company in 2012. McKinley knew Blair personally, having worked at the Times during the period Blair was there.
Law & Order used the Blair story as the inspiration for Episode 14.02: "Bounty."
In Law & Order: Criminal Intent, the Blair story inspired an episode about a young journalist in the third season episode "Pravda" (3.5).
Season 5 of the HBO series The Wire dealt with the subject of journalist fabrication, as well as the decline of print journalism. It mentions Jayson Blair in the last episode. The Wire creator David Simon had been a Baltimore Sun journalist and worked on The Diamondback, the student newspaper at the University of Maryland, College Park, where Blair was editor.
A 2003 series of Pearls Before Swine comic strips portray Rat writing fraudulent New York Times stories on former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein.
A scene in Gilmore Girls episode "The Reigning Lorelai" (4.16) shows Rory's editor, Doyle, becoming frustrated with the way Yale Daily News staffers act in the newsroom, calling it "the breeding ground for the next Jayson Blair."
A documentary film featuring Jayson Blair was made by director/producer Samantha Grant. A Fragile Trust premiered at the Sheffield International Documentary Film Festival on June 14, 2013.
An episode of The Simpsons based a joke on the Blair story in Episode 15.22: "Fraudcast News." Milhouse tells Lisa he's sorry but a story he "filed from Baghdad was all made up, (he) was actually in Basrah."
During the White House Correspondents' Dinner in 2008, Craig Ferguson remarked, "The New York Times unfortunately did not buy a table. They feel -- I just want to make sure I get this right -- they felt that this event undercuts the credibility of the press. It's funny, you see I thought that Jayson Blair and Judy Miller took care of that."
See also
Judith Miller
Brian Williams
Sabrina Erdely
Wendy Bergen
Jack Kelley
Janet Cooke
Johann Hari
Journalism scandals
Kevin Deutsch
Stephen Glass
Ruth Shalit
Claas Relotius
Fake news
Bibliography
References
Further reading
"N.Y. Times Uncovers Dozens of Faked Stories by Reporter", Washington Post. May 11, 2003.
Kugler, Sara. "New York Times executives Howell Raines, Gerald Boyd resign", Associated Press. June 5, 2003.
"Making a Turnaround," bp Magazine (bphope.com). Spring 2005. Retrieved 2010-12-06.
"Jayson Blair searches for new life, reflects on legacy." Fairfax County Times. June 9, 2005.
"Blair: Outsourcing EAP [NYT's employee assistance program] is a mistake", Romenesko Media News (Poynter Institute). June 15, 2005.
External links
Goose Creek Coaching and Consulting, Blair's company
Global coverage of articles on the story at Journalism.org
Q&A: Jayson Blair via mediabistro
American newspaper reporters and correspondents
Journalistic hoaxes
Journalistic scandals
African-American writers
Writers from New York (state)
Writers from Maryland
University of Maryland, College Park alumni
People from Columbia, Maryland
People with bipolar disorder
1976 births
Living people
People involved in plagiarism controversies
Hoaxes in the United States
The New York Times writers
20th-century African-American people | [
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236709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20French%20novelists | List of French novelists | This is a list of novelists from France. Novelists in this list should be notable in some way, and ideally have Wikipedia articles on them.
See also French novelists Category Index.
Honoré d'Urfé (1568–1625)
Charles Sorel (c. 1602–1674)
Madeleine de Scudéry (1607–1701)
Madame de Lafayette (1634–1693), author of La Princesse de Clèves
Alain-René Le Sage (1668–1747)
Pierre de Marivaux (1688–1763)
Voltaire (1694–1778), philosophe, satirist, playwright, author of Candide
Françoise de Graffigny (1695–1758), author of Lettres d'une Péruvienne
Abbé Prévost (1697–1763), author of Manon Lescaut
Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (1707–1777)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), philosophe, author of Julie, or the New Heloise
Denis Diderot (1713–1784), philosophe, author of Rameau's Nephew
Marie Jeanne Riccoboni (1714–1792)
Restif de la Bretonne (1734–1806)
Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737–1814), author of Paul et Virginie
Marquis de Sade (1740–1814), author of "Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man", Justine, The 120 Days of Sodom, Philosophy in the Bedroom, and Juliette
Choderlos de Laclos (1741–1803), author of Les Liaisons dangereuses
Anne Louise Germaine de Staël (1766–1817)
Benjamin Constant (1767–1830), author of Adolphe
Sophie de Renneville (1772–1822), writer, editor, journalist
François-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848), author of Atala and René
Étienne Pivert de Senancour (1770–1846)
Charles Nodier (1780–1844)
Stendhal (1783–1842), author of The Red and the Black, considered by some to be the first modern novel, and The Charterhouse of Parma
Élise Voïart, (1786–1866), writer and translator
Charles Paul de Kock (1793–1871)
Antoinette Henriette Clémence Robert (1797–1872)
Charles Dezobry (1798–1871), historian and historical novelist
Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850), author of La Comédie Humaine, a series of novels presenting a full picture of France in the early 19th century
Alexandre Dumas, père (1802–1870), author of The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers
Victor Hugo (1802–1885), author of The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Les Misérables
Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870), author of Carmen
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve (1804–1869)
George Sand (1804–1876), pseudonym of Amantine Aurore Lucile Dupin, Baroness Dudevant
Eugène Sue (1804–1857)
Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly (1808–1889)
Alfred de Musset (1810–1857)
Théophile Gautier (1811–1872)
Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880), author of Madame Bovary and Sentimental Education
Edmond de Goncourt (1822–1896)
Henri Murger (1822–1861), author of Scènes de la vie de bohème
Alexandre Dumas, fils (1824–1895), author of La Dame aux camélias
Edmond About (1828–1885)
Jules Verne (1828–1905), writer of techno-thrillers like Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, and founding father of science fiction
Pauline Cassin Caro (1828/34/35 - 1901), novelist
Jules de Goncourt (1830–1870)
Hector Malot (1830–1907)
Émile Gaboriau (1832–1873), pioneer of modern detective fiction
Eugène Le Roy (1836–1907)
Alphonse Daudet (1840–1897)
Émile Zola (1840–1902), naturalist, author of Germinal and Nana
Anatole France (1844–1924)
Léon Bloy (1846–1917)
Brada (1847-1938)
Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848–1907), author of À rebours and Là-bas
Guy de Maupassant (1850–1893)
Pierre Loti (1850–1923)
Élémir Bourges (1852–1925)
Paul Bourget (1852–1935)
René Bazin (1853–1932)
Adolphe Chenevière (1855–19??)
Maurice Barrès (1862–1923)
Henri de Régnier (1864–1936)
Jules Renard (1864–1910)
Mathilde Alanic (1864-1948)
Marie Léra (1864-1958)
Juliette Heuzey (1865-1952)
Romain Rolland (1866–1944), Nobel Prize in Literature, 1915
Gaston Leroux (1868–1927), author of The Phantom of the Opera and The Mystery of the Yellow Room which is recognized as the first locked room puzzle mystery novel
Gabrielle Réval (1869-1938)
André Gide (1869–1951)
Henri Bordeaux (1870–1963)
Marcel Proust (1871–1922), author of In Search of Lost Time, sometimes seen as the greatest modernist novel
Colette (1873–1954), best known for Gigi and Chéri
Alfred Jarry (1873–1907), satirist, inventor of Pataphysics
Louisa Emily Dobrée (fl. ca. 1877–1917)
Roger Martin du Gard (1881–1958), Nobel Prize in Literature, 1937
Louis Pergaud (1882–1915)
Rose Combe (1883–1932)
Georges Duhamel (1884–1966)
François Mauriac (1885–1970), Nobel Prize in Literature, 1952
Jules Romains (1885–1972)
Alain-Fournier (1886–1914)
Ève Paul-Margueritte (1885-1971)
Lucie Paul-Margueritte (1886-1955)
René Maran (1887-1960)
Georges Bernanos (1888–1948)
Adrien Bertrand (1888–1917)
Henri Bosco (1888–1976)
Louis Ferdinand Céline (1894–1961), author of Journey to the End of the Night and Death on the Installment Plan or Mort à Crédit
Henri de Montherlant (1895–1972)
Jean Giono (1895–1970)
Julien Green (1900–1998)
Antoine de Saint Exupéry (1900–1944)
Nathalie Sarraute (1900–1999)
André Malraux (1901–1976)
Marie-Magdeleine Carbet (1902-1996)
Irène Némirovsky (1903–1942), author of Suite française
Raymond Queneau (1903–1976)
Pierre Herbart (1903–1974)
Marguerite Yourcenar (1903–1987)
Raymond Radiguet (1903–1942)
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980), Nobel Prize in Literature, 1964
Jeanine Delpech (1905-1992)
Louise Aslanian (1906–1945), pseudonym "Las", author of "The Way of doubt".
Pauline Réage (1907–1998)
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986)
Paul Berna (1908–1994)
Alix André (1909-2000)
Jean Genet (1910–1986)
Jean-Louis Baghio'o (1910-1994)
Raphaël Tardon (1911-1967)
Henri Troyat (1911–2007)
Pierre Boulle (1912–1994), author of The Bridge on the River Kwai and Planet of the Apes
Albert Camus (1913–1960), Nobel Prize in Literature, 1957
Gilbert Cesbron (1913–1979)
Claude Simon (1913–2005), Nobel Prize in Literature, 1985
Romain Gary (1914–1980), winner of the Goncourt prize twice, 1956, and 1975 under the pseudonym of Emile Ajar
Marguerite Duras (1914–1996)
Joseph Zobel (1915-2006)
Maurice Druon (1918–2009)
Boris Vian (1920–1959)
Alain Robbe-Grillet (1922–2008)
Salvat Etchart (1924-1985)
Michel Tournier (1924-2016)
Philippe Daudy (1925–1994)
Michel Butor (1926-2016)
Édouard Glissant (1928-2011)
André Schwarz-Bart (1928-2006)
Sébastien Japrisot (1931–2003)
Emmanuelle Arsan (1932-2005)
Jean Bernabé (1942-2017)
Régine Deforges (1935-2014)
Françoise Sagan (1935–2004)
Georges Perec (1936–1982)
Maryse Condé (born 1937)
J.M.G. Le Clézio (born 1940), Nobel Prize in Literature, 2008
Annie Ernaux (born 1940)
Marie-Reine de Jaham (born 1940)
Patrick Modiano (born 1945), Nobel Prize in Literature, 2014
Daniel Maximin (born 1947)
Raphaël Confiant (born 1951)
Kama Sywor Kamanda (born 1952)
Patrick Chamoiseau (born 1953)
Nancy Huston (born 1953)
Gisèle Pineau (born 1956)
Michel Houellebecq (born 1958), Impact award winner
Éric-Emmanuel Schmitt (born 1960)
Charles Dantzig (born 1961)
Pavel Hak (born 1962)
Beatrice Hammer (born 1963)
Fabienne Kanor (born 1970)
Laurent Binet (born 1972)
References
See also
French literature
Francophone literature
List of French language authors
List of French language poets
List of French people
List of novelists
List of people by nationality
List of people by occupation
French novelists
French
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236714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selangor | Selangor | Selangor (; ), also known by its Arabic honorific Darul Ehsan, or "Abode of Sincerity", is one of the 13 states of Malaysia. It is on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and is bordered by Perak to the north, Pahang to the east, Negeri Sembilan to the south and the Strait of Malacca to the west. Selangor surrounds the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya, both of which were previously part of it.
The state capital of Selangor is Shah Alam and its royal capital is Klang. Petaling Jaya and Subang Jaya received city status in 2006 and 2019, respectively. Selangor is one of four Malaysian states that contain more than one city with official city status; the others are Sarawak, Johor, and Penang.
The state of Selangor has the largest economy in Malaysia in terms of gross domestic product (GDP), with RM 239.968 billion (roughly US$55.5 billion) in 2015, comprising 22.6% of the country's GDP. It is the most developed state in Malaysia; it has good infrastructure such as highways and transport, and has the largest population in Malaysia, a high standard of living and the lowest poverty rate in the country.
Etymology
The origin of the name Selangor is uncertain. A common suggestion is that the name refers to the Malay word langau, a large fly or blowfly that is found in the marshes along the Selangor River in the state's north-west. According to local lore, a warrior who escaped from Malacca after the Portuguese conquest, took a break from his journey north and rested under a tree here. However, he was disturbed by a persistent fly, whereupon he decided to explore the area. When he found the place to his liking and chose to settle there, he named the place "satu (se) langau" meaning "a large blowfly".
In the absence of a firm etymological explanation, alternative theories abound. One suggestion is that the name may have originate from a kind of tree found in Kuala Selangor and along Selangor River named mentangau. Another theory claims the state's name is derived from the term Salang Ur where ur means "town" or "village" in Tamil, meaning village of the Salang people. It has also been proposed that the name is derived from a combination of salang (stabbing) and jemur (dry in the sun), indicating that it was once a place where traitors were stabbed (salang) then left to roast in the sun (jemur).
History
The most important settlement of the area in the ancient period may have been Klang. Ancient artifacts including Bronze Age axes and bronze bell dating from the 2nd century BC, and iron tools called "tulang mawas" ("ape bones") have been found in or near Klang. The Mao Kun map dating to the Ming dynasty and used by the Admiral Zheng He during his voyages of expedition between 1405 and 1433 refers to places in Selangor such as the Klang River estuary (吉令港) and perhaps a hilly area. The Malay Annals indicates that the Selangor area was under the control of the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century; however, Selangor at that time was not a unified domain—separate river states such as Klang and Jeram existed in the region. According to the Malay Annals, Tun Perak was appointed the chief of Klang during the reign of Muzaffar Shah. Later, the son of Mansur Shah and Hang Li Po named Paduka Sri Cina was made raja of Jeram near Langat, which may be due to the presence of Chinese miners there.
After the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511, the area came under the control of Johor Sultanate and was later governed by Sri Agar Diraja, son of the Bendahara family of Johor. In the 17th century, Johor was involved in a war against Jambi, and the Sultan of Johor engaged the help of Bugis mercenaries from Sulawesi to fight against Jambi. After Johor won in 1679, the Bugis decided to stay and started to gain power in the region. Many Bugis began to migrate and settled along the coast of Selangor such as the estuaries of Selangor and Klang rivers. Some Minangkabaus may have also settled in Selangor by the 17th century, perhaps earlier. The Bugis and the Minangkabaus from Sumatra struggled for control of Johor; Raja Kecil, backed by the Minangkabaus, invaded Selangor but were driven off by the Bugis in 1742. In order to establish a power base, the Bugis led by Raja Salehuddin founded the present hereditary Selangor Sultanate with its capital at Kuala Selangor in 1766. Selangor is unique as the only state on the Malay Peninsula that was founded by the Bugis.
In the 19th century, the economy of Selangor boomed due to the exploitation of its tin reserves; mining occurred in various parts of Selangor, for example in Ampang, that led to the growth of Kuala Lumpur. In 1854, the Sultan of Selangor granted Raja Abdullah control of Klang, passing over Raja Mahdi, the son of the chief who previously ruled Klang, which led to the Selangor Civil War fought between 1867 and 1874. The war between the Malay factions was also partly a struggle for control of the revenues from tin. Tin mining had attracted a large influx of Chinese migrant labourers, and Chinese clans allied with Selangor chiefs also joined the civil war. The conflicts between Malay and Chinese factions in Perak and Selangor, as well as concerns over piracy that affected coastal trade, led to increasing British involvement in the affairs of the Malay states.
In 1874, Sultan Abdul Samad of Selangor accepted a British Resident in a system that allowed the British to govern while the Sultan remained the apparent ruler. Klang was the capital of the British colonial administration for Selangor from 1875 until 1880 when it was moved to Kuala Lumpur. Under the stability imposed by the British, Selangor again prospered. In 1896, largely through the coordination of the Resident Frank Swettenham, Selangor united with Negeri Sembilan, Perak and Pahang to form the Federated Malay States, with Kuala Lumpur its capital.
The Federated Malay States evolved into the Federation of Malaya in 1948, which became independent in 1957. The federation became known as Malaysia in 1963, when its existing states federated with the other British colonies of Sarawak, North Borneo and Singapore. The city of Kuala Lumpur functioned as the national capital of Malaysia and as the state capital of Selangor. In 1974, Selangor relinquished Kuala Lumpur to the federal government. The Sultan of Selangor commemorated the city's transfer by building an archway on the borders of the new Federal Territory and Selangor; this archway is the Kota Darul Ehsan that straddles a section of the Federal Highway between Bangsar and Petaling Jaya. The state capital was moved to Shah Alam after the cession.
Putrajaya, a new city designed to be the new administrative capital of Malaysia, was built by the federal government in Selangor; Sultan Salahuddin was asked again to cede land to the federal government. Putrajaya became a federal territory in 2001.
Geography
Selangor is located on the west of Peninsular Malaysia, overlooking the Straits of Malacca. The state is level on the west and hilly to the east, the hill and mountain, surrounding the western edge of the state effectively forming a valley and a basin area for the Klang River, this valley is called Klang Valley and this is where most of the population are centered. Selangor, with an area of approximately 8,000 km², extends to the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia on the north coast of Melaka. It is located at the heart of the Peninsular Malaysia on the west coast and surrounds the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya. Selangor is bordered north by Bernam River from Perak, south by Sepang River from Negeri Sembilan, east by the Titiwangsa Mountains and Strait of Malacca on the west. Malaysia's capital, Kuala Lumpur is located in the heart of Selangor. It was once part of Selangor territory before it was ceded to the federal government to form a Federal Territory.
Selangor is divided into 9 districts namely Sabak Bernam, Kuala Selangor, Hulu Selangor, Petaling Jaya, Klang, Kuala Langat, Hulu Langat and Sepang.
Flora and Fauna
Malaysian forest can be classified as tropical rainforest. Selangor has 250,129 ha of permanent reserve forest, of which 82,890 ha are peat swamp forest and 18,998 ha formed mangrove forest along the coast. The permanent reserve forest makes up about 32 percent of the state land. Ecoforests that are situated in Selangor are Gabai Waterfall, Taman Rimba Templer, Taman Rimba Ampang, Taman Rimba Komanwel, Sungai Chongkak, Sungai Tua, Sungai Sendat, Sungai Tekala, Kanching, Gunung Nuang and Bukit Tabur.
Reserve forest in Selangor is managed and conserved by the state's forestry department, as the National Forestry Act 1984 of the federal constitution provides that forestry comes under the jurisdiction of the respective state. The Selangor's forestry department office is located at Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Building in Shah Alam.
Selangor is also home to a statutory agency of the Government of Malaysia, the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). Located in Kepong, FRIM promotes sustainable management and optimal use of forest resources in Malaysia by generating knowledge and technology through research, development and application in tropical forestry.
Selangor has a few declared protected areas (PAs) in order to safeguard biodiversity and wildlife. They are Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve which is first to be reserved to protect the Sumatran Rhinos, Kutu Hill Wildlife Reserve, and Bukit Sungai Puteh Hill Wildlife Reserve which is located at Kuala Lumpur and Selangor's border. The state also has an ecotourism centre, Paya Indah Wetlands, which is located in the district Kuala Langat near Dengkil. It is a sanctuary to migratory and residential birds, Nile hippos and crocodiles.
Climate
As in the rest of Malaysia, Selangor has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) bordering on a tropical monsoon climate. The climate is very much dictated by the surrounding sea and the prevailing wind system. It has high average temperature and high average rainfall.
Population and demographics
Selangor is Malaysia's most populous state; it has the nation's biggest conurbation, the Klang Valley. Selangor's geographical position in the centre of Peninsular Malaysia contributed to the state's rapid development as Malaysia's transportation and industrial hub, creating jobs and attracting migrants from other states and from other Asian countries, especially Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and China. In recent decades, an influx of illegal immigrants, particularly from Indonesia, has also contributed to Selangor's population.
Selangor's population has increased considerably in recent decades, due mostly to the development of the Klang Valley. The population was 1,426,250 in 1980, and by 2000 it had grown to 3,941,316, and further increased to 5,482,141 in 2010. , its population was 5,874,100.
Ethnic groups
The traditional culture of Selangor's Malay majority is also influenced by those of Bugis, Minangkabau, Mandailing and Javanese, Banjar, Rawanese and Malay Bengkulu ancestry; most of whom are Muslims. Javanese ancestry was dominant in west coast districts such as Sabak Bernam, Kuala Selangor, Klang, Kuala Langat and Sepang. Selangor's population also includes ethnic Chinese and Indian influences; those two groups form the largest minority populations. The 3,000 Mah Meri people, part of the Orang Asli—the indigenous peoples of the Peninsula—can be found on Carey Island and maintain their culture and language while adapting to the modern way of life. With its advanced state of development, Selangor has more international ties through trade, business and education than other rural states..
Religion
According to the 2010 census, the population of Selangor is 57.9% Muslim, 24.4% Buddhist, 11.6% Hindu, 3.8% Christian/Catholic, 1% of unknown affiliations, 0.5% adherent of Taoism or Chinese religion, 0.4% follower of other religions and 0.4% non-religious. All Malays are necessarily Muslims because the definition of a Malay in the Malaysian constitution requires Malays to profess the religion of Islam.
Government
The state is a hereditary constitutional monarchy, of which the reigning Sultan since 2001 is Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah. Since 19 June 2018, the Menteri Besar (chief executive of the state government) is Amirudin Shari, of the People's Justice Party (PKR) a component party of Pakatan Harapan (before, Pakatan Rakyat).
Constitution
Consisting of 19 chapters and 100 articles, the Constitution of the State of Selangor is the highest form of law in the state. It came into force on 26 February 1959 and was separated into two parts. Under the 1959 constitution, Selangor is a constitutional monarchy.
Selangor Sultanate
The Sultan of Selangor is the constitutional Ruler of Selangor. The role, powers, and duties of the Sultan are set forth in the 1959 constitution, which proclaims that the office of Sultan is vested with the executive power of the state, are the head of the religion of Islam in the state and the "fountain of honours and dignities" in the state. This position is hereditary and can only be held by a member of Selangor's royal family. The current ruler is His Royal Highness Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah, who has held this position since 2001.
State Executive Council
The State Executive Council, which along with the Sultan is Selangor's executive branch of government, was established by the constitution of 1959. It is composed of the Menteri Besar—who is its chairman and Selangor's head of government—and ten other members; all of whom are appointed by the Sultan of Selangor from members of the State Assembly. The current Menteri Besar is Yang Amat Berhormat Dato' Menteri Besar Amirudin Shari.
State Assembly
The state also has a legislative branch, called the Selangor State Assembly. It is similar to the Parliament but is limited to making laws relating to the state. Its members are elected, usually simultaneously with federal elections. The term of each state assembly member is limited to five years. The state assembly must be dissolved before or once it expires its term for a fresh election of its members.
List of districts
List of local authorities
There are 12 local authorities in Selangor, namely:
Ampang Jaya Municipal Council (MPAJ)
Hulu Selangor Municipal Council (MPHS)
Kajang Municipal Council (MPKJ)
Klang Municipal Council (MPK)
Kuala Langat Municipal Council (MPKL)
Kuala Selangor Municipal Council (MPKS)
Petaling Jaya City Council (MBPJ)
Sabak Bernam District Council (MDSB)
Selayang Municipal Council (MPS)
Sepang Municipal Council (MPSepang)
Shah Alam City Council (MBSA)
Subang Jaya City Council (MBSJ)
Economy
The economy of Selangor is a progressive market economy whose core sectors are commerce and agriculture. Selangor is the richest state in Malaysia in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita (PPP). On 27 August 2005, Selangor was officially declared the first developed state in Malaysia by the state government.
Commerce and industry
Commerce, industry and services are a major contributor to the economy of Selangor, accounting for over 58% of the state's GDP. Several industrial sites produce electronic goods, chemicals and vehicles including Proton and Perodua cars. Imported vehicles from manufacturers including Toyota, Nissan, Volkswagen and BMW Motors are also assembled in the state.
Many international manufacturing companies have set up bases here. Among the industrial cities in Selangor are Subang Jaya, Shah Alam, Klang, Kajang, Rawang, Selayang, Ampang Jaya and Petaling Jaya. Port Klang plays a key role in the industrial development of Selangor because it is the busiest port in Malaysia.
The services sector is the second largest contributor to GDP, accounting for 60.1% of the state's GDP.
Agriculture
Agriculture, a thriving sector of Selangor's economy, contributes 1.4% of the state's GDP. Significant crops grown in the state are star fruits, papayas and bananas. Selangor is not a major producer of rice; however, paddy fields exist in Kuala Selangor and Sabak Bernam. Other agricultural activities in the state include the establishment of palm oil and rubber plantation sites.
Tourism
Tourist attractions in Selangor include the I-City in Shah Alam, a retail and commercial hub with millions of LED lights and an indoor park; the National Zoo of Malaysia (Zoo Negara) in Ampang Jaya, the largest zoo in Malaysia with more than 4,000 animals; Sepang International Circuit in Sepang, the venue for the Formula One Malaysian Grand Prix, the A1 Grand Prix and the Malaysian Motorcycle Grand Prix; the Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Mosque; Wat Chetawan and Sunway Lagoon in Bandar Sunway, Malaysia's top theme park.
Other attractions in Selangor include Batu Caves in Selayang, Shah Alam Gallery and Selangor State Library in Shah Alam, the Sultan Abdul Aziz Royal Gallery, Alam Shah Palace, GM Klang Wholesale City, and Crab Island (Pulau Ketam) off Port Klang. The most popular beaches in Selangor are located at Bagan Lalang, Sepang Gold Coast, Batu Laut Beach and Morib Beach. There are also a number of pristine nature sites such as the Firefly Sanctuary, Kuala Selangor Nature Park in Kuala Selangor, Malaysia Agriculture Park Bukit Cerakah in Shah Alam, Commonwealth Forest Park and Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) in Selayang, and Ampang Recreational Forest and Kanching Recreational Forest in Ampang Jaya.
Selangor is also well known as a haven for massage and spa lovers. Since 2009 there has been an increase in businesses operating as traditional massage and reflexology parlors. While most of the businesses are genuine, some brothels masquerade as massage parlours and spas; the Royal Malaysian Police frequently raid such establishments when they receive tip-offs from the public.
Transport
Selangor is linked to the rest of Malaysia by comprehensive air, road and rail connections. Public transport in the state is present but underused. Most of the major highways that run through the west coast of the peninsula, including the North–South Expressway, serve Selangor as well. The high-speed roads and expressways are tolled; motorists using these roads pay the tolls using stored value cards such as Touch 'n Go and SmartTAG. Cash transactions at all tolls in Malaysia were phased out between 2015 and 2017.
Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), the country's main airport, is located in Sepang District in the south of the state; it consists of the Main Terminal Building, Satellite terminal A and klia2. Selangor also has the domestic Subang Airport, which is a major hub for corporate and private aviation in south-east Asia.
Port Klang, the busiest seaport in Malaysia by sea, is located at the western tip of Selangor.
Paid bus routes in Kuala Lumpur connect Klang Sentral in Klang, Kompleks Perhentian Kajang in Kajang, One Utama Bus Transportation Hub in Petaling Jaya, and Terminal Seksyen 13 in Shah Alam to other states in Malaysia. Public bus services that connects towns in Selangor are also available such as Rapid Bus. Rapid Bus, operated by Rapid KL, offered services in Klang Valley area, namely Subang Jaya, USJ, Puchong, Petaling Jaya, Shah Alam, and Klang south of the Federal Highway and Area Six, which covers Damansara, Bandar Utama, Kota Damansara and areas of Petaling Jaya, Shah Alam, and Klang north of the Federal Highway. The services was introduced on 23 September 2006 when Rapid KL decided to revamp the Klang Valley bus network. Other bus operators in Selangor includes Kenderaan Klang Banting Berhad, Wawasan Sutera Travel & Tours Sdn Bhd, Wawasan Sutera Travel & Tours Sdn Bhd, De' Alfa City Bus Sdn Bhd and The Selangor Omnibus Company Berhad.
Starting from 15 July 2015, free public bus services named Bas Smart Selangor are also available all over Selangor. It was initiate to encourage the citizens to use public transport. On 7 November 2017, a phone application called Selangor Intelligent Transport System to check Smart Selangor buses routes and schedules was launched.
The KTM Komuter railway network serves many outlying districts and nearby towns and cities, including Kajang, Port Klang, Shah Alam, Subang Jaya, Petaling Jaya, and Rawang. It is linked to other rail transit services at KL Sentral Station, a modern transportation hub in the city centre. Selangor is accessible by the Rapid KL Light Rail Transit network, which is composed of the Ampang Line, the Kelana Jaya Line and the newly completed Sungai Buloh-Kajang Mass Rapid Transit Network.
MRT network
Sungai Buloh–Kajang line
The MRT Sungai Buloh–Kajang line, or known as SBK Line, is the ninth rail transit line and the second fully automated and driverless rail system in the Klang Valley area, Malaysia after the . It is a part of Greater KL/Klang Valley Integrated Transit System. The line is numbered and coloured Green on official transit maps.
The first MRT line covers a span of 51 kilometres from Sungai Buloh to the Kajang, passing the Kuala Lumpur city centre where the alignment goes underground. The line will be serving a corridor with 1.2 million residents within the Klang Valley region from north-west to the south-east of Kuala Lumpur. The line starts from Sungai Buloh which is located to the north-west of Kuala Lumpur, which runs on an elevated guideway to the Semantan portal, passing through Kota Damansara, Bandar Utama, Seksyen 17 and Damansara Town Centre. Kwasa Damansara provides a cross-platform interchange between the SBK line and Sungai Buloh–Serdang–Putrajaya line (SSP line). The line continues in twin-bore tunnels to the Maluri portal, passing through the city centre and the Golden Triangle of Kuala Lumpur. Interchange to other lines is provided from Muzium Negara to Maluri with the exception of Cochrane in the Kuala Lumpur city. Beyond Taman Pertama, the line passes through Cheras and ends in Kajang via an elevated guideway. The line serves a corridor with an estimated population of 1.2 million people
Sungai Buloh–Serdang–Putrajaya line
The MRT Sungai Buloh–Serdang–Putrajaya line (MRT SSP) will be the twelfth rail transit line, the fourth fully automated and driverless rail system in Klang Valley area. It is a part of the larger rail transport system in Kuala Lumpur known as Greater KL/Klang Valley Integrated Transit System. The line is numbered 12 and coloured gold on transit maps.
It is one of three planned MRT rail lines under Klang Valley Mass Rapid Transit Project by MRT Corp. Phase 1 between Kwasa Damansara and Kampung Batu expected to be operational by July 2021. The remaining line is expected to be operational in 2022.
The approved rail alignment is 52.2 km in length, of which 13.5 km is underground. A total of 37 stations, 11 of which are underground, will be built. The line will stretch from Sungai Buloh to Putrajaya and will include densely populated areas Sri Damansara, Kepong, Batu, Jalan Sultan Azlan Shah, Jalan Tun Razak, KLCC, Tun Razak Exchange, Kuchai Lama, Seri Kembangan, and Cyberjaya. It is expected to have a ridership of 533,000 passengers per day once completed
Extensions to the LRT network
On 29 August 2006, Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Mohd Najib Abdul Razak announced that the western end of the Kelana Jaya Line would be extended to the suburbs of Bandar Sunway, Subang Jaya, UEP Subang Jaya (USJ) and Putra Heights. The extension will be part of a RM7 billion plan to expand Kuala Lumpur's public transport network.
The expansion plan will also extend the Ampang Line to the suburb of Puchong and the south-west of Kuala Lumpur. The plan also involves the construction of a new line, tentatively called the Kota Damansara-Cheras Line, which will run from Sungai Buloh in the north-western flank of the city, to Kajang.
In September 2009, Syarikat Prasarana Negara began a public viewing of the details of the alignment of the Ampang Line and Kelana Jaya Line at various locations. The public could provide feedback on the route during the three-month display period. The extension will add 13 new stations and of new track to the network. The new terminus will be at Putra Heights where the line will meet the Kelana Jaya Line and Ampang Line to provide a suburban interchange. Construction began in mid 2013 and the project was fully operational by July 2016.
Education
Selangor has several tertiary education institutions, most of which are concentrated in major towns and cities.
Public universities
Private universities and university colleges
International universities campus in Selangor
Infrastructures and utilities
Electricity
There are five main power stations in Selangor, namely; Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Power Station, Connaught Bridge Power Station, Putrajaya Power Station, Kuala Langat Power Plant and Jimah Energy Ventures.
Water supply
Selangor water works provides water supply in Selangor, Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya. It was run by Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor (SYABAS) which is owned by the state government. There are seven dams in Selangor; Sungai Selangor Dam, Sungai Tinggi Dam, Sungai Semenyih Dam, Sungai Langat Dam, Klang Gates Dam, Sungai Batu Dam, ORS Sungai Labu Dam and Tasik Subang Dam.
Shopping Malls
Notable shopping malls in Selangor include:
1 Utama
Sunway Pyramid
The Curve
AEON Bukit Tinggi
The Mines
IPC Shopping Centre
IOI Mall Puchong
Subang Parade
Empire Subang
Klang Parade
IOI City Mall
Hospitals
Notable public and private hospitals in Selangor include:
Public Hospitals
Kajang Hospital
Serdang Hospital
Sungai Buloh Hospital
Tengku Ampuan Rahimah Hospital, Klang
Private Hospitals
Assunta Hospital
Sunway Medical Centre
Columbia Asia Hospital
Cuisine
The traditional Malay cuisine in Selangor has influences from Johor, Bugis, Jawa and Minangkabau.
Rojak Klang and Lontong Klang are famous cuisines in Klang and Shah Alam. Other famous dishes include Mee Rebus, Satay Kajang, Nasi Ambeng, Laksa Selangor, Soto (Soto Nasi Himpit and Mee Soto), Sambal Tahun, Bakso, Ketam Darul Ehsan, Mentarang Bakar, Ikan Masak Asam Pedas, Ayam Masak Kicap and Sayur Masak Rebung.
Media
Television
Television in Selangor consists of seven free-to-air stations, one satellite television network and two internet television services. Three of the seven free-to-air stations are managed by Radio Televisyen Malaysia, a federal government-owned media company headquartered in Kuala Lumpur, while the four commercial stations are owned by Media Prima, an integrated media company headquartered in Bandar Utama, Selangor. The satellite television service is owned by Astro All Asia Networks and it is available nationwide. One of the Internet television services is owned by the state government of Selangor.
Radio
Radio stations in Selangor are available in the FM and Shortwave frequencies and are transmitted from Gunung Ulu Kali, Selangor and Kajang, Selangor.
There are a few types of radio stations operating in Selangor, namely, commercial radio stations, local community radio stations, federal government-owned radio stations, and specialized radio stations. Commercial radio stations available in Selangor are operated by media companies such as Astro Radio, Star Media Radio Group, Media Prima, Suara Johor and BFM Media. Local community radio stations are only available in certain regions. For example, UFM (93.6) operated by Universiti Teknologi MARA is only available in Shah Alam, Klang, and Petaling Jaya, while Putra FM (90.7) operated by Universiti Putra Malaysia is only available in Serdang and Seri Kembangan. Both radio stations target university students.
The nine Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) radio networks available are Klasik FM, Muzik FM, Ai FM, Traxx FM, Minnal FM, Asyik FM, Selangor FM, KLFM, and Pahang FM. There are three specialised radio stations as well, namely IKIM.fm (91.5) operated by IKIM, Salam FM (102.5) operated by JAKIM, and Bernama Radio (93.9) operated by BERNAMA. The regions of Selangor that border other states can also receive two other Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) radio stations; Perak FM (89.6 MHz/95.6 MHz; Selangor-Perak border) and Negeri FM (92.6 MHz; Selangor-Negeri Sembilan border).
Full list of radio stations available in Selangor:
Newspapers
Mainstream newspapers in Selangor are:
Berita Harian (in Bahasa Malaysia)
Utusan Malaysia (in Bahasa Malaysia)
Kosmo! (in Bahasa Malaysia)
Harian Metro (in Bahasa Malaysia)
Sinar Harian (in Bahasa Malaysia)
Selangor Kini (in Bahasa Malaysia)
New Straits Times (in English)
The Star (in English)
The Malay Mail (in English)
The Sun (in English)
Nanyang Siang Pau (in Mandarin)
Sin Chew Daily (in Mandarin)
China Press (in Mandarin)
Malaysia Nanban (in Tamil)
Tamil Nesan (in Tamil)
Makkal Osai (in Tamil)
Harakah (in Bahasa Malaysia and English). This newspaper is owned by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party, one of the major party in the Pakatan Rakyat ruling coalition in Selangor.
Suara Keadilan. This newspaper is owned by People's Justice Party, another major party in the Pakatan Rakyat ruling coalition.
Notable people
Image gallery
See also
Selangor Sign Language
References
External links
Rail map of Klang Valley
Geographical maps of Selangor
History of Selangor
Official Website of Online Shopping & Great Deals in Selangor, Malaysia - Everydayonsales
Malaysia No 1 Warehouse Sale, Promotions & Bargain Deals Website - ShoppingNSales
Tourism Selangor Official Website
Invest Selangor Berhad Official Website
Visit Selangor
States of Malaysia
Peninsular Malaysia
Strait of Malacca | [
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236715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Caps | Washington Caps | The Washington Caps were an American Basketball Association team from 1969 through 1970. The franchise had previously been the Oakland Oaks. From 1970 through 1976 the team played as the Virginia Squires.
Origins
With the formation of the ABA in February 1967 a team was awarded to Oakland, California for $30,000 with singer Pat Boone as primary owner. The team was originally the Oakland Americans but the name was eventually changed to the Oakland Oaks. NBA superstar Rick Barry signed with the Oaks, as did Steve Jones and Levern Tart. Barry, however, was prevented from playing in the ABA due to a lawsuit brought by his former NBA team (regarding enforcement of the reserve clause in his contract), so he spent the season as an Oaks radio announcer instead of as a player. The Oaks won the very first ABA game in 1967 (a 132–129 victory against the Anaheim Amigos on October 3, 1967. After Barry returned in the 1967–68 season, they breezed through the regular season then won the 1969 ABA Championship over the Indiana Pacers in the playoffs. However, the Bank of America was threatening to foreclose on a $1.2 million loan to the team and in August, 1969, a group of investors led by real estate attorney Earl Foreman bought the team and moved it to Washington, D.C., for the upcoming season.
The one season (1969–70)
With the move came a new identity for the team as the green and gold clad Washington Caps. Al Bianchi replaced the more proven Alex Hannum as head coach. A federal appeals court ruled in favor of the Caps regarding Barry, their top gate attraction, but he openly objected to playing in Washington, D.C., where the team butted heads with the NBA Baltimore Bullets and did not have a suitable arena to play home games. He sat out the first 32 games of the season, but the courts left him with no choice except to report to the team or sit out the season. Barry and Warren Armstrong participated in the ABA All Star game, but injuries limited their playing time for the season.
In March 1970 the ABA-NBA merger appeared close at hand under conditions that would have required the Washington Caps to relocate, but a subsequent lawsuit derailed the merger until June 1976.
In defiance of all geographic reality, the Caps assumed the Oaks' place in the Western Division despite their move to the Eastern Seaboard. This kept them constantly on the road at faraway venues (their nearest divisional rivals, the New Orleans Buccaneers, were over 1,000 miles away) and the travel and time differential took its toll on their play. Playing at Washington Coliseum their average attendance was 2,992 fans per game. In a case of exceptionally bad timing, the Caps arrived at a time when the surrounding Near Northeast neighborhood was still recovering from the 1968 race riots. Fears that the neighborhood wasn't safe dragged down attendance. Due to the long travel distances involved in divisional play, the Caps played some home games in places like Wichita, Kansas and even Mexico City, Mexico but did not fare well in those supposed home games.
However, due to a solid record in their real home games, the Caps finished the season with 44 wins and 40 losses. The Caps' record put them in third place in the Western Division, 7 games behind the Denver Rockets and one game behind the Dallas Chaparrals. In the 1970 ABA Playoffs the Caps faced the Denver Rockets in the Western Division semifinals and took the series to seven games before losing 143–119 in the finale in Denver.
Basketball Hall of Famers
Season-by-season
|-
!colspan="6" align=center style="background:#FFD700; color:#228B22;"| Washington Caps
|-
|1969–70 || 44 || 40 || .524 || Lost Division Semifinals || Denver 4, Washington 3
|-
Virginia Squires
After the conclusion of the 1969–1970 season the Caps were forced to move once again. At the time, merger talks with the NBA were underway, and the owner of the NBA's Baltimore Bullets, Abe Pollin, wanted to move his team to Washington, and didn't want the Caps there. The other ABA owners persuaded Foreman to move the Caps for the second time in as many seasons. (However, the Caps name would be somewhat revived, this time for a National Hockey League expansion team called the Washington Capitals in 1974. Since then, the Capitals have been co-tenants with the Bullets/Wizards franchise at the Capital Centre and Capital One Arena.)
Foreman decided to make the Caps a regional franchise, the Virginia Squires. While the team would be based in Norfolk and play most of their games at the Norfolk Scope and the Old Dominion University Fieldhouse, they also played home games in Hampton at the Hampton Roads Coliseum, in Richmond at the Richmond Coliseum and in Roanoke at the Roanoke Civic Center. However, Roanoke was dropped from the list of "home" cities after only one season. The Squires' colors were red, white, and blue.
The Squires would continue to play in every ABA season through 1976. At the conclusion of the 1975–1976 season the Squires, having fallen on hard times, were unable to make a league-mandated financial assessment. The Squires were disbanded after the season but just prior to the ABA-NBA merger in June 1976.
External links
Remember the ABA Washington Caps page
American Basketball Association teams
Defunct basketball teams in the United States
Basketball teams established in 1969
Sports clubs disestablished in 1970
1969 establishments in Washington, D.C.
1970 disestablishments in Washington, D.C. | [
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236717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticyclone | Anticyclone | An anticyclone is a weather phenomenon defined as a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to a cyclone). Effects of surface-based anticyclones include clearing skies as well as cooler, drier air. Fog can also form overnight within a region of higher pressure. Mid-tropospheric systems, such as the subtropical ridge, deflect tropical cyclones around their periphery and cause a temperature inversion inhibiting free convection near their center, building up surface-based haze under their base. Anticyclones aloft can form within warm-core lows such as tropical cyclones, due to descending cool air from the backside of upper troughs such as polar highs, or from large-scale sinking such as a subtropical ridge.
The evolution of an anticyclone depends upon variables such as its size, intensity, and extent of moist convection, as well as the Coriolis force.
History
Sir Francis Galton first discovered anticyclones in the 1860s. Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the dips in the Rossby wave pattern. High-pressure systems are alternatively referred to as anticyclones. Their circulation is sometimes referred to as cum sole. Subtropical high-pressure zones form under the descending portion of the Hadley cell circulation. Upper-level high-pressure areas lie over tropical cyclones due to their warm core nature.
Surface anticyclones form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs. Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs. On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as confluence, or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up the troposphere. Because they weaken with height, these high-pressure systems are cold.
Subtropical ridge
Heating of the earth near the equator forces upward motion and convection along the monsoon trough or intertropical convergence zone. The divergence over the near-equatorial trough leads to air rising and moving away from the equator aloft. As air moves towards the mid-latitudes, it cools and sinks leading to subsidence near the 30° parallel of both hemispheres. This circulation known as the Hadley cell forms the subtropical ridge. Many of the world's deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure areas. Because these anticyclones strengthen with height, they are known as warm core ridges.
Formation aloft
The development of anticyclones aloft occurs in warm core cyclones such as tropical cyclones when latent heat caused by the formation of clouds is released aloft increasing the air temperature; the resultant thickness of the atmospheric layer increases high pressure aloft which evacuates their outflow.
Structure
In the absence of rotation, the wind tends to blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The stronger the pressure difference (pressure gradient) between a high-pressure system and a low-pressure system, the stronger the wind. The coriolis force caused by Earth's rotation gives winds within high-pressure systems their clockwise circulation in the northern hemisphere (as the wind moves outward and is deflected right from the center of high pressure) and anticlockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere (as the wind moves outward and is deflected left from the center of high pressure). Friction with land slows down the wind flowing out of high-pressure systems and causes wind to flow more outward (more ageostrophically) from the center.
Effects
Surface-based systems
High-pressure systems are frequently associated with light winds at the surface and subsidence of air from higher portions of the troposphere. Subsidence will generally warm an air mass by adiabatic (compressional) heating. Thus, high pressure typically brings clear skies. Because no clouds are present to reflect sunlight during the day, there is more incoming solar radiation and temperatures rise rapidly near the surface. At night, the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation (i.e. heat energy from the surface) is not blocked, giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons. When surface winds become light, the subsidence produced directly under a high-pressure system can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the high pressure, leading to widespread haze. If the surface level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight, fog can form.
The movement of continental arctic air masses to lower latitudes produces strong but vertically shallow high-pressure systems. The surface level, sharp temperature inversion can lead to areas of persistent stratocumulus or stratus cloud, colloquially known as anticyclonic gloom. The type of weather brought about by an anticyclone depends on its origin. For example, extensions of the Azores high pressure may bring about anticyclonic gloom during the winter because they pick up moisture as they move over the warmer oceans. High pressures that build to the north and move southwards often bring clear weather because they are cooled at the base (as opposed to warmed) which helps prevent clouds from forming.
Once arctic air moves over an unfrozen ocean, the air mass modifies greatly over the warmer water and takes on the character of a maritime air mass, which reduces the strength of the high-pressure system. When extremely cold air moves over relatively warm oceans, polar lows can develop. However, warm and moist (or maritime tropical) air masses which move poleward from tropical sources are slower to modify than arctic air masses.
Mid-tropospheric systems
The circulation around mid-level (altitude) ridges, and the air subsidence at their center, act to steer tropical cyclones around their periphery. Due to the subsidence within this type of system, a cap can develop which inhibits free convection and hence mixing of the lower with the middle level troposphere. This limits thunderstorm activity near their centers and traps low-level pollutants such as ozone as haze under their base, which is a significant problem in large urban centers during summer months such as Los Angeles, California and Mexico City.
Upper tropospheric systems
The existence of upper-level (altitude) high pressure allows upper level divergence which leads to surface convergence. If a capping mid-level ridge does not exist, this leads to free convection and the development of showers and thunderstorms if the lower atmosphere is humid. Because a positive feedback loop develops between the convective tropical cyclone and the upper level high, the two system are strengthened. This loop stops once ocean temperatures cool to below , reducing the thunderstorm activity, which then weakens the upper-level high-pressure system.
Importance to global monsoon regimes
When the subtropical ridge in the Northwest Pacific is stronger than normal, it leads to a wet monsoon season for Asia. The subtropical ridge position is linked to how far northward monsoon moisture and thunderstorms extend into the United States. Typically, the subtropical ridge across North America migrates far enough northward to begin monsoon conditions across the Desert Southwest from July to September. When the subtropical ridge is farther north than normal towards the Four Corners, thunderstorms of the New Mexican Monsoon can spread northward into Arizona and New Mexico. When suppressed to the south, the atmosphere dries out across the Desert Southwest, causing a break in the monsoon regime.
Depiction on weather maps
On weather maps, high-pressure centers are associated with the letter H in English, within the isobar with the highest pressure value. On constant-pressure upper-level charts, anticyclones are located within the highest height line contour.
Extraterrestrial versions
On Jupiter, there are two examples of an extraterrestrial anticyclonic storm; the Great Red Spot and the recently formed Oval BA. They are powered by smaller storms merging unlike any typical anticyclonic storm that happens on Earth where water powers them. Another theory is that warmer gases rise in a column of cold air, creating a vortex as is the case of other storms that include Anne's Spot on Saturn and the Great Dark Spot on Neptune. Anticyclones have been detected near the poles of Venus.
See also
Anticyclonic storm
Anticyclonic tornado
Atmosphere of Earth
Atmospheric circulation
Atmospheric pressure
Great Smog of London
Barometric ridge
Block (meteorology)
North American High
Ocean gyre
Pressure system
References
External links
Intertropical Convergence Zone photo - NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Meteorological phenomena
Tropical cyclone meteorology | [
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236718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20American%20novelists | List of American novelists | This is a list of novelists from the United States, listed with titles of a major work for each.
This is not intended to be a list of every American (born U.S. citizen, naturalized citizen, or long-time resident alien) who has published a novel. (For the purposes of this article, novel is defined as an extended work of fiction. This definition is loosely interpreted to include novellas, novelettes, and books of interconnected short stories.) Novelists on this list have achieved a notability that exceeds merely having been published. The writers on the current list fall into one or more of the following categories:
All American novelists who have articles in Wikipedia should be on this list, and even if they do not clearly meet any other criteria they should not be removed until the article itself is removed.
Winner of a major literary prize, even if the winning work was a story collection rather than a novel: The Pulitzer Prize, The PEN American Center Book Awards, the National Book Award, the American Book Award, the National Book Critics Circle Award, the Orange Prize, and some others. (Note: The only Pulitzer winner for Fiction not on the list is James Alan McPherson, who has never published a novel.)
Having a substantial body of work, widely respected and reviewed in major publications, and perhaps often nominated or a finalist for major awards.
A pioneering literary figure, possibly for the style or substance of their entire body of work, or for a single novel that was a notable "first" of some kind in U.S. literary history.
Had several massive bestsellers, or even just one huge seller that has entered the cultural lexicon (Grace Metalious and Peyton Place, for example).
A leading figure—especially award-winning, and with crossover appeal to mainstream readers, reviewers, and scholars—in a major genre or subcategory of fiction: Romance, science fiction, fantasy, horror, mystery, western, young adult fiction, regional or "local color" fiction, proletarian fiction, etc.
A
Patricia Aakhus (1952–2012), The Voyage of Mael Duin's Curragh
Atia Abawi
Edward Abbey (1927–1989), The Monkey Wrench Gang
Lynn Abbey (born 1948), Daughter of the Bright Moon
Belle Kendrick Abbott (1842–1893), Leah Mordecai
Eleanor Hallowell Abbott (1872–1958), poet, novelist and short story writer
Hailey Abbott, Summer Boys
Megan Abbott (born 1971), Die A Little
Shana Abé, A Rose in Winter
Louise Abeita (1926–2014), Native American Isleta Pueblo writer, I am a Pueblo Indian Girl
Robert H. Abel (1941–2017)
Aberjhani
Walter Abish (born 1931), How German Is It
Abiola Abrams (born 1976), TV host, art filmmaker and author, Dare
Diana Abu-Jaber (born 1960), Arabian Jazz
Susan Abulhawa, Mornings in Jenin
Kathy Acker (1947–1997), Blood and Guts in High School
Cherry Adair, Black Magic
Alice Adams (1926–1999), Beautiful Girl
Henry Adams (1838–1918), Democracy: An American Novel
Yda Addis (1857–1902), writer and translator
Kim Addonizio (born 1954), poet, novelist
George Ade (1866–1944), The Slim Princess
Renata Adler (born 1938), Speedboat
Warren Adler (1927–2019), The War of the Roses
James Agee (1909–1955), A Death in the Family
Charlotte Agell (born 1959), novelist and children's writer
Kelli Russell Agodon (born 1969), poet, writer, and editor
Conrad Aiken (1889–1973), Blue Voyage
Hiag Akmakjian (1926–2017)
Mitch Albom (born 1958), The Five People You Meet in Heaven
Kathleen Alcalá (born 1954), Spirits of the Ordinary
Louisa May Alcott (1832–1888), Little Women
Isabella Macdonald Alden (1841–1930), children's writer
Clifford Lindsey Alderman (1902–1988)
Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1836–1907), Prudence Palfrey
Malin Alegria
Lloyd Alexander (1924–2007), The Black Cauldron
Sherman Alexie (born 1966), Reservation Blues
Horatio Alger, Jr. (1832–1899), Ragged Dick
Nelson Algren (1909–1981), The Man with the Golden Arm
Hervey Allen (1889–1949), Anthony Adverse
Isabel Allende (born 1942), Chilean/American novelist, Eva Luna, Daughter of Fortune
Dorothy Allison (born 1949), Bastard Out of Carolina
Lisa Alther (born 1944), Kinflicks
Joseph Alexander Altsheler (1862–1919), The Young Trailers
Julia Alvarez (born 1950), How the García Girls Lost Their Accents
Rudolfo Anaya (1937–2020), Bless Me, Ultima
Laurie Halse Anderson (born 1961), Speak
Poul Anderson (1926–2001), Tau Zero
Sherwood Anderson (1876–1941), Winesburg, Ohio
Eliza Frances Andrews (1840–1931), novelist and Civil War writer
V. C. Andrews (1923–1986), Flowers in the Attic
Tina McElroy Ansa (born 1949), Baby of the Family
A. Manette Ansay (born 1964), Vinegar Hill
Donald Antrim (born 1959), The Hundred Brothers
Gloria E. Anzaldúa (1942–2004), author, poet and activist, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza
Allen Appel (born 1945), Time After Time
Benjamin Appel (1907–1979), Brain Guy
Max Apple (born 1941), Zip: A Novel of the Left and the Right
Harold Hunter Armstrong (1884–1979)
Harriette Arnow (1908–1986), The Dollmaker
Timothy Shay Arthur (1809–1885), Ten Nights in a Bar-Room and What I Saw There
Sholem Asch (1880–1957), The Nazarene
Inez Asher (1911–2006), television writer and novelist, Family Sins
Anastasia Ashman (born 1964), author and cultural producer, Tales from the Expat Harem
Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), The Gods Themselves
Rilla Askew (born 1951), The Mercy Seat
Robert Asprin (1946–2008), Another Fine Myth
Gertrude Atherton (1857–1948), The Conqueror
Eleanor Stackhouse Atkinson (1863–1942), author, journalist and teacher
William Attaway (1911–1986), Blood on the Forge
Amelia Atwater-Rhodes (born 1984), In the Forests of the Night
Louis Auchincloss (1917–2010), The Rector of Justin
Jean M. Auel (born 1936), The Clan of the Cave Bear
Paul Auster (born 1947), New York Trilogy
Mary Hunter Austin (1868–1934), Isidro
Victoria Aveyard (born 1990), Red Queen series
B
James Baar (1929–2021)
Sanora Babb (1907–2005)
C. Morgan Babst (born 1980)
Richard Bach (born 1936), Jonathan Livingston Seagull
Irving Bacheller (1859–1950), A Man for the Ages
George Bagby (1906–1985), Murder at the Piano
Dorothy Baker (1907–1968), Young Man with a Horn
James Robert Baker (1947–1997), Fuel-Injected Dreams
Nicholson Baker (born 1957), Vox
Kirsten Bakis (born 1968), Lives of the Monster Dogs
Faith Baldwin (1893–1978), The Heart Has Wings
James Baldwin (1924–1987), Go Tell It on the Mountain
Leigh Bale
John Ball (1911–1988), In the Heat of the Night
Toni Cade Bambara (1939–1995), The Salt Eaters
Anna Banks
Russell Banks (born 1940), The Sweet Hereafter
Margaret Culkin Banning (1891–1982), Country Club People
Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) (1934–2014), The System of Dante's Hell
Tom Barbash, The Last Good Chance
Anna Maynard Barbour (died 1941), That Mainwaring Affair
John Franklin Bardin (1916–1981), Devil Take the Blue-Tail Fly
Brad Barkley (born 1961), Money, Love
Djuna Barnes (1892–1982), Nightwood
Linda Barnes (born 1949), A Trouble of Fools
Margaret Ayer Barnes (1886–1967), Years of Grace
Steven Barnes (born 1952), The Legacy of Heorot (co-author)
Wilton Barnhardt (born 1960), Gospel
Amelia Edith Huddleston Barr (1831–1919), Jan Vedder's Wife
Nevada Barr (born 1952), Track of the Cat
Stringfellow Barr (1897–1982),
Andrea Barrett (born 1964), The Voyage of the Narwhal
John Barth (born 1930), Giles Goat-Boy
Donald Barthelme (1931–1989), Snow White
Frederick Barthelme (born 1943), Chroma
Nalbro Bartley (1888–1952), A Woman's Woman
Fredrick Barton
Rick Bass (born 1958), Where the Sea Used to Be
Sara Ware Bassett (1872–1968)
Hamilton Basso (1904–1964), The View from Pompey's Head
Harriet Bates (1856–1886), wrote under the name Eleanor Putnam
L. Frank Baum (1856–1919), The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
Beth Ann Bauman
Richard Bausch (born 1945), The Last Good Time
Robert Bausch (1945–2018), Almighty Me
Charles Baxter (born 1947), Shadow Play
Jonathan Bayliss (1926–2009), the fiction tetralogy Gloucesterman
Peter S. Beagle (born 1939), The Last Unicorn
Theodore Beale (born 1968), The War in Heaven, The Eternal Warriors
Greg Bear (born 1951), Darwin's Radio
Ann Beattie (born 1947), Chilly Scenes of Winter
Jessica Beck
Louis Begley (born 1933), About Schmidt
Madison Smartt Bell (born 1957), All Souls' Rising
Edward Bellamy (1850–1898), Looking Backward: 2000–1887
Saul Bellow (1915–2005), Henderson the Rain King
Peter Benchley (1940–2006), Jaws
Aimee Bender (born 1969), An Invisible Sign of My Own
Pinckney Benedict (born 1964), Dogs of God
Stephen Vincent Benet (1898–1943), Spanish Bayonet
Gregory Benford (born 1941), Timescape
Gary L. Bennett (born 1940), The Star Sailors
Jenn Bennett
Marcia Joanne Bennett (born 1945)
Thomas Berger (1924–2014), Little Big Man
Gina Berriault (1926–1999), The Descent
Don Berry (1931–2001), Trask
Wendell Berry (born 1934), A Place on Earth
Alfred Bester (1913–1987), The Demolished Man
Doris Betts (1932–2012), Souls Raised from the Dead
Earl Derr Biggers (1884–1933), The Chinese Parrot
Robert Montgomery Bird (1803–1854), The Infidel
Michael Bishop (born 1945), No Enemy But Time
Pam Blackwell (born 1942)
William Peter Blatty (1928–2017), The Exorcist
Winfred Blevins (born 1938), Stone Song, Story of the Life of Crazy Horse
Robert Bloch (1917–1994), Psycho
Lawrence Block (born 1938), Eight Million Ways to Die
Stefan Merrill Block (born 1982)
Mabel Fuller Blodgett (1869–1959)
Joan Blondell (1906–1979), Center Door Fancy
Amy Bloom (born 1953), Love Invents Us
V.O. Blum (born 1945), DownMind
Judy Blume (born 1938), Are You There, God? It's Me, Margaret
Tom Boggs (1905–1952)
Chris Bohjalian (born 1960), The Law of Similars
Jamie Pastor Bolnick
Jamie Pastor Bolnick (born Huntington)
Arna Bontemps (1902–1973), God Sends Sunday
Kola Boof
Anthony Boucher (1911–1968), The Case of the Seven of Calvary
Vance Bourjaily (1922–2010), Brill Among the Ruins
Ben Bova (1932–2020), The Starcrossed
Jane Bowles (1917–1973), Two Serious Ladies
Paul Bowles (1910–1999), The Sheltering Sky
Valerie Bowman
Blanche McCrary Boyd (born 1945), The Revolution of Little Girls
James Boyd (1888–1944), Drums
Jennifer Finney Boylan (previously James Finney Boylan) (born 1958), The Planets
Roger Boylan (born 1951), Killoyle
Kay Boyle (1902–1992), Death of a Man
T. Coraghessan Boyle (born 1948), The Road to Wellville
Gerald Warner Brace (1901–1978), The World of Carrick's Cove
Hugh Henry Brackenridge (1748–1816), Modern Chivalry
Leigh Brackett (1915–1978), The Secret of Sinharat
Ray Bradbury (1920–2012), The Illustrated Man
David Bradley (born 1950), The Chaneysville Incident
Marion Zimmer Bradley (1930–1999), The Mists of Avalon
Billy Lee Brammer (1929–1978), The Gay Place
Max Brand (1892–1944), Destry Rides Again
Giannina Braschi (born 1954), Yo-Yo Boing!
Richard Brautigan (1935–1984), Trout Fishing in America
Kate Braverman (1949–2019), Lithium for Medea
Anna de Brémont (c. 1856–1922)
Sandra Bretting
Matt Briggs (born 1970), Shoot the Buffalo
David Brin (born 1950), The Uplift War
Robert O'Neil Bristow (1926–2018)
Poppy Z. Brite (born 1967), Exquisite Corpse
Amber Brock (born 1980)
Harold Brodkey (1930–1996), The Runaway Soul
Louis Bromfield (1896–1956), The Rains Came
Geraldine Brooks (born 1955), March
Terry Brooks (born 1944), The Sword of Shannara
Alice Brown (1857–1948), Fools of Nature
Charles Brockden Brown (1771–1810), Wieland
Dan Brown (born 1964), The Da Vinci Code
Don Brown (born 1960), Treason
Eleanor Brown (born 1969), The Weird Sisters
Harry Brown (1917–1986), A Walk in the Sun
Larry Brown (1951–2004), Dirty Work
Rita Mae Brown (born 1944), Rubyfruit Jungle
Rosellen Brown (born 1939), Before and After
William Hill Brown (1756–1793), The Power of Sympathy
Steven Brust (born 1955), the Dragaera series
Pearl S. Buck (1892–1973), The Good Earth
Michael Buckley (born 1969), The Sisters Grimm series
Frederick Buechner (born 1926), Godric
Charles Bukowski (1920–1994), Factotum
Emma Bull (born 1954), War for the Oaks
Edward Bunker (1933–2005), Little Boy Blue
Eugene Burdick (1918–1965), The Ugly American (with William Lederer)
James Lee Burke (born 1936), The Neon Rain
Frances Hodgson Burnett (1849–1924), Little Lord Fauntleroy
William R. Burnett (1899–1982), Little Caesar
Olive Ann Burns (1924–1990), Cold Sassy Tree
Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875–1950), Tarzan of the Apes
William S. Burroughs (1914–1997), Naked Lunch
Frederick Busch (1941–2006), Harry and Catherine
Gary Buslik (born 1946)
Octavia E. Butler (1947–2006), Patternmaster
Robert Olen Butler (born 1945), The Alleys of Eden
Elizabeth Byrd (1912–1989)
C
George Washington Cable (1844–1925), The Grandissimes
Meg Cabot (born 1967), The Princess Diaries
Abraham Cahan (1860–1951), The Rise of David Levinsky
Chelsea Cain (born 1972), Heartsick
James M. Cain (1892–1977), The Postman Always Rings Twice
Erskine Caldwell (1903–1987), God's Little Acre
Taylor Caldwell (1900–1985), Dynasty of Death
Wayne Caldwell (born 1948)
Hortense Calisher (1911–2009), False Entry
Bebe Moore Campbell (1950–2006), Singing in the Comeback Choir
John W. Campbell (1910–1971), The Mightiest Machine
Ethan Canin (born 1960), For Kings and Planets
Robert Cantwell (1908–1978), The Land of Plenty
Kevin Canty (born 1953), Nine Below Zero
Truman Capote (1924–1984), Other Voices, Other Rooms
Philip Caputo (born 1941), Delcorso's Gallery
Orson Scott Card (born 1951), Ender's Game
Ruth Cardello
Ron Carlson (born 1947), Betrayed by F. Scott Fitzgerald
Don Carpenter (1931–1995), Hard Rain Falling
Caleb Carr (born 1955), The Alienist
John Dickson Carr (1906–1977), The Crooked Hinge
Gail Carriger (born 1976), Soulless
H. G. Carrillo (1960–2020)
Gladys Hasty Carroll (1904–1999), As the Earth Turns
Jonathan Carroll (born 1949), The Land of Laughs
Ella Kaiser Carruth (1882–1974)
Aimee Carter (born 1986)
Forrest Carter (1925–1979), The Education of Little Tree
Lin Carter (1930–1988), Sky Pirates of Callisto
Xam Wilson Cartier (born 1949)
John Casey (born 1939), Spartina
R. V. Cassill (1919–2002), Dr. Cobb's Game
Ana Castillo (born 1953), So Far from God
Willa Cather (1873–1947), My Ántonia
Dominic Certo, The Valor of Francesco D’Amini
Michael Chabon (born 1964), The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay
Nathan Keonaona Chai
Jack L. Chalker (1944–2005), Midnight at the Well of Souls
Marisha Chamberlin (born 1952)
Robert W. Chambers (1865–1933), In the Quarter
Jessie Chandler (born 1968), Bingo Barge Murder
Raymond Chandler (1888–1959), The Big Sleep
Henry Chang
James Chapman (born 1955), Stet
Fred Chappell (born 1936), Dagon
Jerome Charyn (born 1937), Blue Eyes
Mary Ellen Chase (1887–1973), Mary Peters
Ruth Chatterton (1892–1961)
Stephen Chbosky (born 1970), The Perks of Being a Wallflower
John Cheever (1912–1982), The Wapshot Chronicle
Maxine Chernoff (born 1952), American Heaven
Kelly Cherry (born 1940), We Can Still Be Friends (novel)
C. J. Cherryh (born 1942), Cyteen
Charles W. Chesnutt (1858–1932), The Marrow of Tradition
Alan Cheuse (1940–2015), The Grandmothers' Club
Lydia Maria Child (1802–1880), Hobomok
Mark Childress (born 1957), Crazy in Alabama
Kate Chopin (1851–1904), The Awakening
Autumn Christian, Girl Like a Bomb
April Christofferson
Edgar Earl Christopher, The Invisibles
Winston Churchill (1871–1947), Richard Carvel
Carolyn Chute (born 1947), The Beans of Egypt, Maine
Sandra Cisneros (born 1954), The House on Mango Street
Tom Clancy (1947–2013), The Hunt for Red October
Eleanor Clark (1913–1996), Baldur's Gate
Mary Higgins Clark (1927–2020), A Stranger is Watching
Walter Van Tilburg Clark (1909–1971), The Ox-Bow Incident
Isabel C. Clarke (died 1951)
Jaime Clarke (born 1971), Garden Lakes
Meg Waite Clayton (born 1959), The Wednesday Sisters
Beverly Cleary (1916–2021), Ramona the Pest
Jeremiah Clemens (1814–1865), Tobias Wilson
Samuel Langhorne Clemens (see: Mark Twain)
Hal Clement (1922–2003), Mission of Gravity
Michelle Cliff (1946–2016), Abeng
Ernest Cline (born 1972)
Deborah Coates
Robert M. Coates (1897–1973), The Eater of Darkness
Harlan Coben (born 1962), Deal Breaker
Colleen Coble
Marvin Cohen (born 1931), Others, Including Morstive Sternbump
Teju Cole (born 1975), Open City (novel)
Manda Collins
Laurie Colwin (1944–1992), Shine On, Bright and Dangerous Object
Richard Condon (1915–1996), The Manchurian Candidate
Evan S. Connell (1924–2013), Mrs. Bridge
Michael Connelly (born 1956), Blood Work
Frank Conroy (1936–2005), Body and Soul
Pat Conroy (1945–2016), The Prince of Tides
K. C. Constantine (born 1934), Upon Some Midnights Clear
Robin Cook (born 1940), Coma
John Esten Cooke (1830–1886), The Virginia Comedians
Caroline B. Cooney (born 1947) No Such Person
Doug Cooper (born 1970)
J. California Cooper (1931–2014), Some People, Some Other Place
James Fenimore Cooper (1789–1851), The Last of the Mohicans
Susan Rogers Cooper (born 1947)
Robert Coover (born 1932), The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop.
Lucy Corin (born 1970), Everyday Psychokillers: A History for Girls
Edwin Corle (1906–1956), Fig Tree John
Patricia Cornwell (born 1956), Postmortem
Gay Courter (born 1944)
James Gould Cozzens (1903–1978), Guard of Honor
Robert Crais (born c. 1953), Hostage
Stephen Crane (1871–1900), The Red Badge of Courage
Bruce Harris Craven
Margaret Craven (1901–1980), I Heard the Owl Call My Name
Francis Marion Crawford (1854–1909), Saracinesca
Harry Crews (1935–2012), Scar Lover
Michael Crichton (1942–2008), Jurassic Park
Robert Crichton (1925–1993), The Secret of Santa Vittoria
Amanda Cross (1926–2003), The James Joyce Murder
John Crowley (born 1942), Little, Big
Maria Susanna Cummins (1827–1866), The Lamplighter
Michael Cunningham (born 1952), The Hours
Chris Culver
James Oliver Curwood (1878–1927), The Grizzly King
Clive Cussler (1931–2020), Raise the Titanic!
D
L. Sprague de Camp (1907–2000), Lest Darkness Fall
Edward Dahlberg (1900–1977), Bottom Dogs
Mark Z. Danielewski (born 1966), House of Leaves
Edwidge Danticat (born 1969), Breath, Eyes, Memory
Evan Dara, The Lost Scrapbook
Guy Davenport (1927–2005), Da Vinci's Bicycle
Marcia Davenport (1903–1994), East Side, West Side
Iimani David (born 1969)
Avram Davidson (1923–1993), The Phoenix and the Mirror
Clyde Brion Davis (1894–1962), Nebraska Coast
Dorothy Salisbury Davis (1916–2014), Death of an Old Sinner
Genese Davis (born 1984)
H. L. Davis (1894–1960), Honey in the Horn
L. J. Davis, A Meaningful Life
Richard Harding Davis (1864–1916), Soldiers of Fortune
Terry Davis (born 1947), Vision Quest
Jeffery Deaver (born 1950), The Bone Collector
Ted Dekker (born 1962), ADAM
Darren DeFrain (born 1967)
Margaret Deland (1857–1945), John Ward, Preacher
Samuel R. Delany (born 1942), Dhalgren, Hogg
Don DeLillo (born 1936), White Noise
Viña Delmar (1903–1990), Bad Girl
Patrick Dennis (1921–1976), Auntie Mame
August Derleth (1909–1971), The Memoirs of Solar Pons
Amber Dermont
Bree Despain (born 1979)
Jude Deveraux (born 1947), A Knight in Shining Armor
Pete Dexter (born 1943), Paris Trout
Philip K. Dick (1928–1982), Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?
James Dickey (1923–1997), Deliverance
Charles Dickinson (born 1951), A Shortcut in Time
Joan Didion (1934–2021), Play It as It Lays
Karen Dionne (born 1953)
Thomas M. Disch (1940–2008), Camp Concentration
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni (born 1956), The Mistress of Spices
Melvin Dixon (1950–1992), Trouble the Water
Stephen Dixon (1936–2019), Frog
Thomas Dixon (1864–1946), The Clansman
Moshe Dluznowsky
Stephen Dobyns (born 1941), The Wrestler's Cruel Study
E. L. Doctorow (1931–2015), Ragtime
Mary Mapes Dodge (1831–1905), Hans Brinker
Harriet Doerr (1910–2002), Stones for Ibarra
Ivan Doig (1939–2015), Ride With Me, Mariah Montana
John Dolan (born 1955), Shantee'
Stephen R. Donaldson (born 1947), Lord Foul's Bane
J. P. Donleavy (1926–2017), The Ginger Man
Richard Dooling (born 1954), White Man's Grave
Michael Dorris (1945–1997), A Yellow Raft in Blue Water
Kathryn Adams Doty (1920–2016)
Lloyd C. Douglas (1877–1951), Magnificent Obsession
Christopher Dow (born 1950)
J. Hyatt Downing (1888–1973)
Theodore Dreiser (1871–1945), An American Tragedy
Allen Drury (1918–1998), Advise and Consent
Tom Drury (born 1956), The End of Vandalism
Bruce Ducker (born 1938), Mooney in Flight
John Dufresne (born 1948), Louisiana Power and Light
David James Duncan (born 1952), The Brothers K
Katherine Dunn (1945–2016), Geek Love
John Gregory Dunne (1932–2003), True Confessions
John Dunning (born 1942), Booked to Die
John William De Forest (1826–1926), Miss Ravenel's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty
H.D. (1886–1961), Palimpsest
John Dos Passos (1896–1970), U.S.A.
Lester del Rey (1915–1993), Attack from Atlantis
Peter De Vries (1910–1993), Reuben, Reuben
Andre Dubus III (born 1959), House of Sand and Fog
Jaycee Dugard, (born 1980) A Stolen Life (novel)
E
Tony Earley (born 1961), Jim the Boy
Mignon G. Eberhart (1899–1996), The Patient in Room 18
David Eddings (1931–2008), Pawn of Prophecy
Clyde Edgerton (born 1944), Walking Across Egypt
Walter D. Edmonds (1903–1998), Drums Along the Mohawk
George Alec Effinger (1947–2002), When Gravity Fails
Jennifer Egan (born 1962), A Visit from the Goon Squad
Dave Eggers (born 1970), You Shall Know Our Velocity
Edward Eggleston (1837–1902), The Hoosier Schoolmaster
John Ehle (1924–2018), Last One Home
Jill Eisenstadt (born 1963), From Rockaway, Kiss Out, Swell
Robert Elegant (born 1928), Dynasty
Stanley Elkin (1930–1995), Mrs. Ted Bliss
Aaron Elkins (born 1935), Old Bones
Stanley Ellin (1916–1986), The Eighth Circle
Bret Easton Ellis (born 1964), American Psycho, Glamorama
Edward S. Ellis (1840–1916), Seth Jones; or, The Captives of the Frontier
Trey Ellis (born 1962), Right Here, Right Now
Ralph Ellison (1914–1994), Invisible Man
James Ellroy (born 1948), L.A. Confidential
Carol Emshwiller (1921–2019), Carmen Dog
Susan Engberg
Louise Erdrich (born 1954), Love Medicine
Steve Erickson (born 1950), Arc d'X
Payne Erskine (1854–1924)
Andrew Ervin (born 1971), Burning Down George Orwell's House
Loren D. Estleman (born 1952), Motor City Blue
Jeffrey Eugenides (born 1960), The Virgin Suicides
Janet Evanovich (born 1943), One For the Money
Augusta Jane Evans (1835–1909), St. Elmo
Richard Paul Evans (born 1962), The Christmas Box and Michael Vey series
Frederick Exley (1929–1992), A Fan's Notes
F
Ann Fairbairn (1901–1972), Five Smooth Stones
Janet Ayer Fairbank (1878–1951), The Bright Land
Amber Fallon, horror writer
John Fante (1909–1983), Wait Until Spring, Bandini
Richard Fariña (1937–1966), Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me
Philip José Farmer (1918–2009), To Your Scattered Bodies Go
James T. Farrell (1904–1979), Young Lonigan
Howard Fast (1914–2003), April Morning
William Faulkner (1897–1962), Light in August
Jessie Redmon Fauset (1882–1961), Plum Bun: A Novel Without a Moral
Jürgen Fauth (born 1969)
Kenneth Fearing (1902–1961), The Big Clock
Raymond Federman (1928–2009), The Twofold Vibration
Raymond E. Feist (born 1945), Magician
Edna Ferber (1885–1968), So Big
Ira Lunan Ferguson (died 1992)
Harvey Fergusson (1890–1971), The Conquest of Don Pedro
Rachel Field (1894–1942), All This, and Heaven Too
Amanda Filipacchi (born 1967), Love Creeps
Charles Finch (born 1980), A Beautiful Blue Death
Martha Farquharson Finley (1828–1909), Elsie Dinsmore
Jack Finney (1911–1995), Time and Again
Dorothy Canfield Fisher (1879–1958), Understood Betsy
Vardis Fisher (1895–1968), Children of God
F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940), The Great Gatsby
Louise Fitzhugh (1928–1974), Harriet the Spy
Ambrose Flack (1902–1980)
Raymond Flanagan (1903–1990), Three Religious Rebels. The Forefathers of the Trappists
Thomas Flanagan (1923–2002), The Year of the French
Martin Flavin (1883–1967), Journey in the Dark
Paul Fleischman (born 1952), Whirligig
Sid Fleischman (1920–2010), The Whipping Boy
Lynn Flewelling (born 1958), Nightrunner
Eilis Flynn
Vince Flynn (1966–2013), Pursuit of Honor
Jonathan Safran Foer (born 1977), Everything Is Illuminated
Mary Hallock Foote (1847–1938), The Chosen Valley
Shelby Foote (1916–2005), Shiloh
Esther Forbes (1891–1967), Johnny Tremain
Jesse Hill Ford (1928–1996), The Liberation of Lord Byron Jones
John M. Ford (1957–2006), The Dragon Waiting
Paul Leicester Ford (1865–1902), The Honorable Peter Stirling
Richard Ford (born 1944), Independence Day
Leon Forrest (1937–1997), There Is a Tree More Ancient Than Eden
Robert Forward (1932–2002), Dragon's Egg
Alan Dean Foster (born 1946), Midworld
Hannah Webster Foster (1758–1840), The Coquette
Karen Joy Fowler (born 1950), The Jane Austen Book Club
John Fox, Jr. (1862–1919), The Trail of the Lonesome Pine
Michael J. Fox (born 1961), Lucky Man: A Memoir
Paula Fox (1923–2017), Desperate Characters
William Price Fox (1926–2015), Ruby Red
Sohrab Homi Fracis
Jacquelyn Frank
Suzanne Frank
Waldo Frank (1889–1967), Holiday
Jonathan Franzen (born 1959), The Corrections
Rhiannon Frater
Charles Frazier (born 1950), Cold Mountain
Harold Frederic (1856–1898), The Damnation of Theron Ware
Mary Eleanor Wilkins Freeman (1852–1930), Pembroke
Joseph Lewis French (18581936), Masterpieces of Mystery
Marilyn French (1929–2009), The Women's Room
William Aden French (1892–1980)
Bruce Jay Friedman (1930–2020), Stern
Kinky Friedman (born 1944), Greenwich Killing Time
Daniel Fuchs (1909–1993), Summer in Williamsburg
Andrew Fukuda
Henry Blake Fuller (1857–1929), The Cliff-Dwellers
Alan Furst (born 1941), Night Soldiers
G
Tom Gabbay (born 1953), The Berlin Conspiracy
Ellen Gable (born 1959)
William Gaddis (1922–1998), The Recognitions
Ernest J. Gaines (1933–2019), The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman
Mary Gaitskill (born 1954), Two Girls, Fat and Thin
Zona Gale (1874–1938), Miss Lulu Bett
Paul Gallico (1897–1976), The Poseidon Adventure
Robert Gandt (born 1939)
Ernest K. Gann (1910–1991), The High and the Mighty
Cristina García (born 1958), Dreaming in Cuban
John Reynolds Gardiner (1944–2006), Stone Fox
Erle Stanley Gardner (1889–1970), The Case of the Velvet Claws
John Gardner (1933–1982), Grendel
Leonard Gardner (born 1933), Fat City
Hamlin Garland (1860–1940), A Daughter of the Middle Border
George Garrett (1929–2008), Death of the Fox
Chloe Gartner (1916–2003), The Infidels
Haley Elizabeth Garwood (born 1940), The Forgotten Queen
William H. Gass (1924–2017), Omensetter's Luck
David Gates (born 1947), Jernigan
Elizabeth George (born 1949), A Great Deliverance
Sarah Gerard
Christien Gholson (born 1964), A Fish Trapped Inside the Wind
Kaye Gibbons (born 1960), Ellen Foster
William Gibson (born 1948), Neuromancer
Scott G. Gier (born 1948)
Emily Giffin (born 1972)
Barry Gifford (born 1946), Wild at Heart
Ellen Gilchrist (born 1935), Starcarbon
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860–1935), Herland
Susan Gregg Gilmore
Mark Gilroy
Fred Gipson (1908–1973), Old Yeller
Ellen Glasgow (1873–1945), Virginia
Julia Glass (born 1956), Three Junes
Gail Godwin (born 1937), A Mother and Two Daughters
Tom Godwin (1915–1980), ‘’The Survivors’’
Herbert Gold (born 1924), The Man Who Was Not With It
Arthur Golden (born 1957), Memoirs of a Geisha
Francisco Goldman (born 1954), The Long Night of White Chickens
William Goldman (1931–2018), The Princess Bride
Rebecca Goldstein (born 1950), The Mind-Body Problem
Laura Goode (born 1983)
David Goodis (1917–1967), Down There
Allegra Goodman (born 1967), The Family Markowitz
Paul Goodman (1911–1972), Making Do
Marcus Goodrich (1897–1991), Delilah
Caroline Gordon (1895–1981), Aleck Maury, Sportsman
Mary Gordon (born 1949), Final Payments
Ron Goulart (born 1933), After Things Fell Apart
William Goyen (1915–1983), The Fair Sister
Sue Grafton (1940–2017), "A" is for Alibi
Robert Grant (1852–1940), Unleavened Bread
Shirley Ann Grau (1929–2020), The Keepers of the House
Anna Katharine Green (1846–1935), The Leavenworth Case
John Green (born 1977), The Fault in Our Stars
Julien Green (1900–1998), Léviathan (The Dark Journey)
Vincent S. Green (born 1953), The Price of Victory, Extreme Justice
Amy Greene (born 1975)
Sam Greenlee (1930–2014), The Spook Who Sat by the Door
Andrew Sean Greer (born 1970), The Confessions of Max Tivoli
William Lindsay Gresham (1909–1962), Nightmare Alley
Zane Grey (1872–1939), Riders of the Purple Sage
Sutton E. Griggs (1872–1933), The Hindered Hand
Martha Grimes (born 1931), The Old Contemptibles
John Grisham (born 1955), The Firm
Lauren Groff (born 1978), Fates and Furies
Winston Groom (1943–2020), Forrest Gump
Michael Grothaus (born 1977), Epiphany Jones
Nikolai Grozni
Davis Grubb (1919–1980), The Night of the Hunter
Lisa Grunwald (born 1959), The Irresistible Henry House
Lucrecia Guerrero, Chasing Shadows (linked short stories), Tree of Sighs
Judith Guest (born 1936), Ordinary People
Allan Gurganus (born 1947), Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All
Naomi Gurian (born 1933)
David Guterson (born 1956), Snow Falling on Cedars
A. B. Guthrie Jr. (1901–1991), The Big Sky
H
Jessica Hagedorn (born 1949), Dogeaters
Jennifer Haigh (born 1968), Mrs. Kimble
Charles Haldeman (1931–1983)
Joe Haldeman (born 1943), The Forever War
Alex Haley (1921–1992), Roots
James Norman Hall (1887–1951), Mutiny on the Bounty (with Charles Nordhoff)
Oakley Hall (1920–2008), Warlock
Brett Halliday (1904–1977), Dividend on Death
Julie Halpern
Hilary Thayer Hamann (born 1962), Anthropology of an American Girl
Jane Hamilton (born 1957), The Book of Ruth
Laurell K. Hamilton (born 1963), Guilty Pleasures
Dashiell Hammett (1894–1961), The Maltese Falcon
Samuel J. Hamrick (1929–2008)
Cathi Hanauer (born 1962)
Elizabeth Hand (born 1957), Generation Loss
Daniel Handler (Lemony Snicket) (born 1970), Watch Your Mouth
Barry Hannah (1942–2010), Geromino Rex
Joseph Hansen (1923–2004), Fadeout
Ron Hansen (born 1947), Mariette in Ecstasy
Paul Harding (born 1967), Tinkers
Elizabeth Hardwick (1916–2007), Sleepless Nights
Arthur Sherburne Hardy (1847–1930), The Wind of Destiny
Donald Harington (1935–2009), The Cockroaches of Stay More
Henry Harland (1861–1905), The Cardinal's Snuff-box
Jean Harlow (1911–1937), Today is Tonight
Charles L. Harness (1915–2005), The Paradox Men
Kent Harrington
Bertha Harris (1937–2005), Lover
Charlaine Harris (born 1961), The Southern Vampire Mysteries
Corra May Harris (1869–1935), The Circuit Rider's Wife
MacDonald Harris (1921–1993), The Balloonist
E. Lynn Harris (1955–2009), Invisible Life
Jim Harris
Mark Harris (1922–2007), Bang the Drum Slowly
Thomas Harris (born 1940), The Silence of the Lambs
Harry Harrison (1925–2012), Make Room! Make Room!
Jim Harrison (1937–2016), Legends of the Fall
Kathryn Harrison (born 1961), Exposure
Kim Harrison (born 1966), Hollows
Kent Haruf (1943–2014), Plainsong
Adrienne Harun, A Man Came Out of a Door in the Mountain
Jon Hassler (1933–2008), Staggerford
Amanda Havard (born 1986)
John Hawkes (1925–1998), The Lime Twig
Alexandra Hawkins
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864), The Scarlet Letter
Ernest Haycox (1899–1950), Bugles in the Afternoon
Shirley Hazzard (1931–2016), The Great Fire
Shelby Hearon (1931–2016), Owning Jolene
Peter Hedges (born 1962), What's Eating Gilbert Grape
Rebecca Heflin (born 1963), Rescuing Lacey
Ursula Hegi (born 1946), Stones from the River
Scott Heim (born 1966), Mysterious Skin
Larry Heinemann (1944–2019), Paco's Story
Robert A. Heinlein (1907–1988), Stranger in a Strange Land
Joseph Heller (1923–1999), Catch-22
Mark Helprin (born 1947), Winter's Tale
Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961), A Farewell to Arms
Aleksandar Hemon (born 1964), Nowhere Man
Helen Hemphill (born 1955)
Dee Henderson (born ?), O'Malley Series
James Hendryx, (1880–1963)
Geoff Herbach
Frank Herbert (1920–1986), Dune
Joseph Hergesheimer (1880–1954), Linda Condon
Nellie Hermann, The Season of Migration
Robert Herrick (1868–1938), Web of Life
John Hersey (1914–1993), A Bell for Adano
Burton Hersh
DuBose Heyward (1885–1940), Porgy
Carl Hiaasen (born 1953), Sick Puppy
George V. Higgins (1939–1999), The Friends of Eddie Coyle
Wendy Higgins (born 1977)
Patricia Highsmith (1921–1995), The Talented Mr. Ripley
Oscar Hijuelos (1951–2013), The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love
Tony Hillerman (1925–2008), The Blessing Way
Joe Hilley (born 1956), Sober Justice, Double Take, Electric Beach, Night Rain, The Deposition, What the Red Moon Knows
Chester Himes (1909–1984), If He Hollers Let Him Go
S. E. Hinton (born 1948), The Outsiders
Kathleen Hirsch (born 1953)
Russell Hoban (1925–2011), Riddley Walker
Laura Z. Hobson (1900–1986), Gentleman's Agreement
Allen Hoey (1952–2010), Chasing the Dragon
Alice Hoffman (born 1952), Practical Magic
Cara Hoffman, So Much Pretty
Lynn Hoffman (born 1997)
Nancy Holder (born 1953)
Josiah Gilbert Holland (1819–1881), The Bay-Path
Jenny Hollowell
Sheri Holman (born 1966), The Mammoth Cheese
Mary Jane Holmes (1825–1907), Lena Rivers
Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809–1894), Elsie Venner
A. M. Homes (born 1961), The End of Alice
Ann Hood (born 1956), Somewhere Off the Coast of Maine
David L. Hoof (born 1945)
Khaled Hosseini (born 1965), The Kite Runner
Silas House (born 1971), A Parchment of Leaves
Blanche Willis Howard (1847–1898), Guenn: A Wave on the Breton Coast
Maureen Howard (born 1930), Natural History
E. W. Howe (1853–1937), The Story of a Country Town
William Dean Howells (1837–1920), The Rise of Silas Lapham
George Hrab (born 1971), “Spiritual Healing & Balance Through Colonic Regularity”
Yang Huang (born 1971)
David Huddle (born 1942), La Tour Dreams of the Wolf Girl
Barry Hughart (1934–2019), Bridge of Birds
Langston Hughes (1902–1967), Not Without Laughter
William Humphrey (1924–1997), Farther Off from Heaven
Josephine Humphreys (born 1945), Rich in Love
Samantha Hunt (born 1971), The Invention of Everything Else
Evan Hunter (1926–2005), Blackboard Jungle
Jessie Prichard Hunter
Stephen Hunter (born 1946), Point of Impact
Fannie Hurst (1885–1968), Imitation of Life
Zora Neale Hurston (1891–1960), Their Eyes Were Watching God
Siri Hustvedt (born 1955), The Sorrows of an American
James Hynes (born 1955), The Lecturer's Tale
Barry James Hickey (born 1955), "The Five Pearls, Chasing God's River, The Glass Fence, Waking Purgatory, The Water Lawyer, The Pendragon Prophecy, The Mermaid Latitudes, Finding Paul Bunyan"
I
David Ignatius (born 1950),
Greg Iles (born 1960), The Quiet Game
Bravig Imbs (1904–1944), The Professor's Wife
Gary Indiana (born 1950), Resentment
Rachel Ingalls (1940–2019), Mrs. Caliban
William Inge (1913–1973), Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff
Joseph Holt Ingraham (1809–1860), Lafitte: The Pirate of the Gulf
Prentiss Ingraham (1843–1904), The Masked Spy
Robert Inman (1931–2006)
Lee Irby (born 1963), The Up and Up
Clifford Irving (1930–2017)
John Irving (born 1942), The World According to Garp
Susan Isaacs (born 1943), Compromising Positions
Lynn Isenberg, My Life Undercover
Christopher Isherwood (1904–1986), Goodbye to Berlin
Arturo Islas (1938–1991), The Rain God
Alan Isler (1934–2010)
J
Beverley Jackson
Brenda Jackson
Charles R. Jackson (1902–1968), The Lost Weekend
Helen Hunt Jackson (1830–1885), Ramona
Shirley Jackson (1916–1965), The Haunting of Hill House
Rona Jaffe (1932–2005), Mazes and Monsters
John Jakes (born 1932), North and South
Henry James (1843–1916), Washington Square
Will James (1892–1942), Smoky the Cow Horse
Elizabeth Janeway (1913–2005), Daisy Kenyon
Tama Janowitz (born 1957), By the Shores of Gitchee Gumee
Randall Jarrell (1914–1965), Pictures from an Institution
Gish Jen (born 1956), Typical American
Jerry B. Jenkins (born 1949), Left Behind (with Tim LaHaye)
Gary Jennings (1928–1999), Aztec
Sarah Orne Jewett (1849–1909), The Country of the Pointed Firs
Ha Jin (born 1956), Waiting
Adam Johnson (born 1967), Parasites Like Us
Charles R. Johnson (born 1948), Middle Passage
Denis Johnson (1949–2017), Fiskadoro
Diane Johnson (born 1934), Le Divorce
James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938), The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man
Josephine Winslow Johnson (1910–1990), Now in November
Joyce Johnson (born 1935), In the Night Café
Maud Johnson (died 1985)
Owen Johnson (1878–1952), Stover at Yale
RM Johnson (born 1968)
Mary Johnston (1870–1936), To Have and to Hold
LeRoi Jones (see: Amiri Baraka)
Edward P. Jones (born 1951), The Known World
Gayl Jones (born 1949), Corregidora
James Jones (1921–1977), From Here to Eternity
Matthew F. Jones (born 19??), A Single Shot
Erica Jong (born 1942), Fear of Flying
Robert Jordan (1948–2007), The Eye of the World
Sylvester Judd (1813–1853), Margaret
Heidi Julavits (born 1968), The Mineral Palace
Ward Just (1935–2019), Jack Gance
K
Cihan Kaan (born 1976)
Stacey Kade, The Ghost and The Goth
James Otis Kaler (1848–1912), Toby Tyler; or, Ten Weeks with a Circus
Richard Kalich, The Nihilesthete
Stuart M. Kaminsky (1934–2009), Cold Red Sunrise
Joseph Kanon (born 1946), Los Alamos
MacKinlay Kantor (1904–1977), Andersonville
Vim Karénine (born 1935), O America!
Jan Karon (born 1937), At Home in Mitford
Alma Katsu (born 1959)
Illana Katz (born 1948)
John Katzenbach (born 1950), The Madman's Tale
Janet Kauffman (born 1945), Collaborators
Bel Kaufman (1911–2014), Up the Down Staircase
Sue Kaufman (1926–1977), Diary of a Mad Housewife
John Keeble (born 1944)
Harry Stephen Keeler (1890–1967), The Riddle of the Traveling Skull
Clarence Budington Kelland (1881–1964), Dangerous Angel
Faye Kellerman (born 1952), The Ritual Bath
Jesse Kellerman (born 1978), The Executor
Jonathan Kellerman (born 1949), Flesh and Blood
William Melvin Kelley (1937–2017), A Different Drummer
Marjorie Kellogg (1922–2005), Tell Me That You Love Me, Junie Moon
Nic Kelman
Elmer Kelton (1926–2009), Buffalo Wagons
Anna Kendrick (born 1985), Scrappy Little Nobody
John P. Kennedy (1795–1870), Horse-Shoe Robinson
William Kennedy (born 1928), Ironweed
Camilla Kenyon (1876–1957), Spanish Doubloons
Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), On the Road
Ken Kesey (1935–2001), One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
Jack Ketchum (1946–2018), The Girl Next Door
Daniel Keyes (1927–2014), Flowers for Algernon
Frances Parkinson Keyes (1885–1970), Dinner at Antoine's
Sue Monk Kidd (born 1948), The Secret Life of Bees
Kristy Kiernan
Karen Kijewski (born 1943), Katwalk
Haven Kimmel (born 1965), The Solace of Leaving Early
Jamaica Kincaid (born 1949), Annie John
Grace King (1852–1932), The Pleasant Ways of St. Médard
Laurie R. King (born 1952), A Grave Talent
Stephen King (born 1947), Carrie
Barbara Kingsolver (born 1955), The Bean Trees
Maxine Hong Kingston (born 1940), Tripmaster Monkey
Jeff Kinney (born 1971), Diary of a Wimpy Kid
Joseph Kirkland (1830–1894), Zury: The Meanest Man in Spring County
Walter Kirn (born 1962), Thumbsucker
James Kisner (1947–2008)
Fletcher Knebel (1911–1993), Seven Days in May (with Charles Bailey II)
John Knowles (1926–2001), A Separate Peace
Deborah Copaken Kogan (born 1966), The Red Book
Manuel Komroff (1890–1974), Coronet
Juliet Kono
Dean Koontz (born 1945), Whispers
Cyril Kornbluth, The Space Merchants (with Frederik Pohl
Jerzy Kosinski (1933–1991), Being There
William Kotzwinkle (born 1943), The Fan Man
Eric Kraft (born 1945), What a Piece of Work I Am
Kieran Kramer
Larry Kramer (1935–2020), Faggots
William Krasner (1917–2003)
Herbert Krause (1905–1976), The Thresher
Gary Krist (born 1957), Extravagance
Tom Kromer (1906–1969), Waiting for Nothing
William Kent Krueger (born 1950), Ordinary Grace
Jim Krusoe (born 1942), The Girl Factory
Maxine Kumin (1925–2014), Through Dooms of Love
Allen Kurzweil (born 1960), A Case of Curiosities
Rachel Kushner (born 1968), The Flamethrowers
L
Christopher La Farge (1897–1956), The Sudden Guest
Oliver La Farge (1901–1963), Laughing Boy
Ursula K. Le Guin (1929–2018), The Left Hand of Darkness
Mercedes Lackey (born 1950), Arrows of the Queen
Ed Lacy (1911–1968), Room To Swing
R. A. Lafferty (1914–2002), Past Master
Tim LaHaye (1926–2016), Left Behind (with Jerry B. Jenkins)
Jhumpa Lahiri (born 1967), The Namesake
Lori L. Lake (born 1960), Snow Moon Rising
Harold Lamb (1892–1962), Marching Sands
Wally Lamb (born 1950), She's Come Undone
Anne Lamott (born 1954), Crooked Little Heart
Louis L'Amour (1908–1988), Jubal Sackett
Woodrow Landfair (born 1982), "Land Of The Free"
Margaret Landon (1903–1993), Anna and the King of Siam
W. Patrick Lang (born 1940), The Butcher's Cleaver
Jane Langton (1922–2018), The Transcendental Murder
Joe R. Lansdale (born 1951), The Bottoms
Ring Lardner (1885–1933), You Know Me Al
Jeremy Larner (born 1937), Drive, He Said
Jeanne Larsen (born 1950), Silk Road
Nella Larsen (1891–1964), Passing
Robert Lasner
Emma Lathen (Martha Hennissart (born 1929) and Mary JaneLatsis (1927–1997)), Murder Against the Grain
Keith Laumer (1925–1993), The Infinite Cage
Robert Lawson (1892–1957), Rabbit Hill
David Leavitt (born 1961), The Lost Language of Cranes
Lindsey Leavitt (born 1980)
William Lederer (1912–2009), The Ugly American (with Eugene Burdick)
Chang-Rae Lee (born 1965), Native Speaker
Harper Lee (1926–2016), To Kill a Mockingbird
Peter Lefcourt (born 1941), The Dreyfus Affair
Ella Leffland (born 1931), Rumors of Peace
Dennis Lehane (born 1966), Mystic River
Fritz Leiber (1910–1992), A Specter is Haunting Texas
Murray Leinster (1896–1975), The Greks Bring Gifts
Brad Leithauser (born 1953), Hence
Madeleine L'Engle (1918–2007), A Wrinkle in Time
F.J. Lennon (born 1964)
J. Robert Lennon (born 1970), Mailman
Elmore Leonard (1925–2013), Get Shorty
JT LeRoy (Laura Albert) (born 1965), Sarah
John Lescroart (born 1948), The Mercy Rule
Jonathan Lethem (born 1964), Motherless Brooklyn
Jeremy Leven (born 1941), Satan: His Psychotherapy and Cure
Ira Levin (1929–2007), Rosemary's Baby
Meyer Levin (1905–1981), Compulsion
Paul Levine (born 1948), To Speak for the Dead
Stacey Levine (born 19??), Frances Johnson
Janet Lewis (1899–1998), The Wife of Martin Guerre
Sinclair Lewis (1885–1951), Main Street
Ludwig Lewisohn (1882–1955), The Case of Mr. Crump
Patricia Lieb (born 1942)
Alan Lightman (born 1948), Einstein's Dreams
Doris Lilly (died 1991)
Sigrid de Lima (1921–1999), Carnival by the Sea
Tao Lin (born 1983), Richard Yates
Joseph C. Lincoln (1870–1944), Rugged Water
Johanna Lindsey (1952–2019), Fires of Winter
Elizabeth Linington (1921–1988), Knave of Hearts
Elinor Lipman (born 1950), The Pursuit of Alice Thrift
George Lippard (1822–1854), The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall
Rosina Lippi (born 1956), Homestead
Laura Lippman (born 1959), What the Dead Know
Sam Lipsyte (born 1968), Home Land
Atticus Lish, Preparation for the Next Life
David Liss (born 1966), A Conspiracy of Paper
Robert Littell (born 1935), The Amateur
Bentley Little (born 1960), The Revelation
Liesel Litzenburger
Harold Livingston (born 1924), The Coasts of the Earth
E. B. Loan
Ross Lockridge, Jr. (1914–1948), Raintree County
Saab Lofton
Anne Logston (born 1962)
Jack London (1876–1916), The Call of the Wild
Frank Belknap Long (1901–1994), The Horror from the Hills
Anita Loos (1893–1981), Gentlemen Prefer Blondes
Bret Lott (born 1958), Jewel
H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), At the Mountains of Madness
Maud Hart Lovelace (1892–1980) Early Candlelight
Lois Lowry (born 1937), The Giver
Robert Ludlum (1927–2001), The Bourne Identity
Amy Lukavics Daughters Unto Devils
Grace Lumpkin (1891–1980), To Make My Bread
Alison Lurie (1926–2020), Foreign Affairs
Andrew Nelson Lytle (1902–1995), The Velvet Horn
M
John D. MacDonald (1916–1986), The Deep Blue Good-by
Ross Macdonald (1915–1983), The Moving Target
Bonnie MacDougal
Harold MacGrath (1871–1932), The Man on the Box
Joyce MacIver
Jay MacLarty (1943–2010)
Norman Maclean (1902–1990), A River Runs Through It
Charlotte MacLeod (1922–2005), The Corpse in Oozak's Pond
Gregory Maguire (born 1954), Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West
Norman Mailer (1923–2007), The Naked and the Dead
Charles Major (1856–1913), When Knighthood Was in Flower
Clarence Major (born 1936), Painted Turtle: Woman With Guitar
Bernard Malamud (1914–1986), The Natural
Thomas Mallon (born 1951), Henry and Clara
Anne Mallory
Barry N. Malzberg (born 1939), Beyond Apollo
Frederick Manfred (1912–1994), Lord Grizzly
David Manners (1900–1998)
Lindsay Maracotta (born 1948)
William March (1893–1954), The Bad Seed
Marshall Ryan Maresca (born 1973)
Dee Marie (born 19??), Sons of Avalon, Merlin’s Prophecy
Margaret Maron (born 19??), Bootlegger's Daughter
John P. Marquand (1893–1960), The Late George Apley
Carolyn Marsden (born 1950)
Catherine Marshall (1914–1983), Christy
Paule Marshall (1929–2019), Brown Girl, Brownstones
George Madden Martin (1866–1946)
George R. R. Martin (born 1948), A Game of Thrones
Steve Martin (born 1945), Shopgirl
Valerie Martin (born 1948), Mary Reilly
Carole Maso (born 1955), Defiance
Bobbie Ann Mason (born 1940), In Country
F. Van Wyck Mason (1901–1978), Three Harbours
Richard Matheson (1926–2013), I Am Legend
Harry Mathews (1930–2017), The Conversions
Frank C. Matthews (born 1972)
Peter Matthiessen (1927–2014), At Play in the Fields of the Lord
Armistead Maupin (born 1944), Tales of the City
Evan Maxwell
William Maxwell (1908–2000), Time Will Darken It
Joyce Maynard (born 1953), To Die For
Anne McCaffrey (1926–2011), Dragonflight
Robert R. McCammon (born 1952), Boy's Life
Cormac McCarthy (born 1933), All the Pretty Horses
Mary McCarthy (1912–1989), The Group
Ed McClanahan (1932–2021), Natural Man
Wendy McClure (born 1971), memoir author, pop culture columnist
Jill McCorkle (born 1958), novelist and short story writer
Horace McCoy (1897–1955), They Shoot Horses, Don't They?
Sarah McCoy (born 1980)
Elizabeth McCracken (born 1966), The Giant's House
Sharyn McCrumb (born 1948), The Hangman's Beautiful Daughter
Carson McCullers (1917–1967), The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter
George Barr McCutcheon (1866–1928), Brewster's Millions
Alice McDermott (born 1953), Charming Billy
Gregory Mcdonald (1937–2008), Fletch
Joseph McElroy (born 1930), A Smuggler's Bible
William McFee (1881–1966), Casuals of the Sea
Robert W. McGee (born 1947) Justifiable Homicide
William P. McGivern (1918–1982), Blondes Die Young
Thomas McGuane (born 1939), Nothing But Blue Skies
Jay McInerney (born 1955), Bright Lights, Big City
Richard McKenna (1913–1964), The Sand Pebbles
Patricia McKillip (born 1948), The Riddle-Master of Hed
Reginald McKnight (born 1956), He Sleeps
Patricia McLinn
Janna McMahan
James McManus (born 1951), Going to the Sun
Terry McMillan (born 1951), Waiting to Exhale
Larry McMurtry (1936–2021), Lonesome Dove
Stephen W. Meader (1892–1977), Boy with a Pack
Herman Melville (1819–1891), Moby-Dick
Charles Mergendahl (1919–1959), The Bramble Bush
Gordon Merrick (1916–1988), The Lord Won't Mind
Lynn Messina
Claire Messud (born 1966), When the World Was Steady
Grace Metalious (1924–1964), Peyton Place
Philipp Meyer (born 1974),
Stephenie Meyer (born 1973), Twilight
Leonard Michaels (1933–2003), The Men's Club
Oscar Micheaux (1884–1951)
DeLauné Michel
James A. Michener (1907–1997), Tales of the South Pacific
Caroline Miller (1903–1992), Lamb in His Bosom
Henry Miller (1891–1980), Tropic of Cancer
Mary Miller
May Merrill Miller (1894–1975)
Rex Miller (1939–2004), Slob
Sue Miller (born 1943), The Good Mother
Susan Cummins Miller
Walter M. Miller, Jr. (1923–1996), A Canticle for Leibowitz
Lydia Millet (born 1968), My Happy Life
Steven Millhauser (born 1943), Martin Dressler
David Milofsky
Anchee Min (born 1957), Becoming Madame Mao
Stephen Minot (1927–2010), Surviving the Flood
Susan Minot (born 1956), Evening
Meilin Miranda
Jacquelyn Mitchard (born 1955), The Deep End of the Ocean
Donald Grant Mitchell (1822–1908), Dr. Johns
Margaret Mitchell (1900–1949), Gone with the Wind
S. Weir Mitchell (1829–1914), Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker
Sam Moffie (born 1960)
Carol Moldaw (born 1956)
N. Scott Momaday (born 1934), House Made of Dawn
Adrienne Monson (born 1983)
Martha Moody (born 1955)
Rick Moody (born 1961), The Ice Storm
Christopher Moore (born 1957), Lamb: The Gospel According to Biff, Christ's Childhood Pal
Lorrie Moore (born 1957), Who Will Run the Frog Hospital?
Ruth Moore (1903–1989), Spoonhandle
Susanna Moore (born 1947), In the Cut
Ward Moore (1903–1978), Bring the Jubilee
Christopher Morley (1890–1957), Kitty Foyle
Mary McGarry Morris (born 1943), Songs In Ordinary Time
Rooster Morris (born 1955), Axle Galench and the Gate of No Return, Axle Galench in Search of Barnsfoggon
Wright Morris (1910–1998), Plains Song
Toni Morrison (1931–2019), Beloved
Bradford Morrow (born 1951), Trinity Fields
James Morrow (born 1947), Towing Jehovah
Howard Frank Mosher (1942–2017), A Stranger in the Kingdom
Ottessa Moshfegh (born 1981), My Year of Rest and Relaxation
Hannah Moskowitz (born 1991)
Stefan Mosley (born 1952)
Walter Mosley (born 1952), Devil in a Blue Dress
Dow Mossman (born 1944), The Stones of Summer
Willard Motley (1912–1965), Knock on Any Door
Bharati Mukherjee (1940–2017), Jasmine
Clarence E. Mulford (1883–1956), Hopalong Cassidy
Marcia Muller (born 1944), Wolf in the Shadows
Mary Noailles Murfree (1850–1922), The Amulet
Sabina Murray (born 1968), A Carnivore's Inquiry
John Myers Myers (1906–1988), Silverlock
Anton Myrer (1922–1996), Once an Eagle
N
Vladimir Nabokov (1899–1977), Lolita
Robert Nathan (1894–1985), Portrait of Jennie
Gloria Naylor (1950–2016), The Women of Brewster Place
Shira Nayman (born 1960)
John Neal (1793–1876), Rachel Dyer: a North American Story
Antonya Nelson (born 1961), Talking in Bed
Howard Nemerov (1920–1991), The Homecoming Game
Arthur Nersesian (born 1958), The Fuck-Up
Katherine Neville (born 1945), The Eight
Fae Myenne Ng (born 1957), Bone
John Nichols (born 1940), The Milagro Beanfield War
Kerry Nietz
Anaïs Nin (1903–1977), A Spy in the House of Love
Larry Niven (born 1938), Ringworld
Lewis Nordan (1939–2012), The Sharpshooter Blues
Charles Nordhoff (1887–1947), Mutiny on the Bounty (with James Norman Hall)
Gurney Norman (born 1937), Divine Right's Trip
Howard Norman (born 1949), The Bird Artist
John Norman (born 1931), Tarnsman of Gor
Charles Gilman Norris (1881–1945), Bricks Without Straw
Frank Norris (1870–1902), McTeague
Kathleen Norris (1880–1966), Second Hand Wife
Harold Norse (1916–2009), Beat Hotel
Andre Norton (1912–2005), The Witch World
Craig Nova (born 1945), The Good Son
Josip Novakovich (born 1956), April Fool's Day
Mark Nykanen
O
Joyce Carol Oates (born 1938), them
Tim O'Brien (born 1946), Going After Cacciato
Edwin O'Connor (1918–1968), The Last Hurrah
Flannery O'Connor (1925–1964), The Violent Bear It Away
Varley O'Connor
Shawn Thomas Odyssey
Marie Conway Oemler (1879–1932)
Chris Offutt (born 1958), The Good Brother
Margaret Astrid Lindholm Ogden (born 1952), writes as Robin Hobb & Megan Lindholm
John O'Hara (1905–1970), Appointment in Samarra
Bayo Ojikutu (born 1971), Free Burning
Daniel Olivas (born 1959), The Book of Want
Lauren Oliver (born 1982), Delirium
Robert Olmstead (born 1954), A Trail of Heart's Blood Wherever We Go
Stewart O'Nan (born 1961), The Speed Queen
Terry Oroszi (born 1966)
Julie Orringer (born 1973), The Invisible Bridge
Martha Ostenso (1900–1963), Wild Geese
Fannie Ostrander (1859–1921)
Vincent O'Sullivan (1869–1940), The Green Window
Rodrigues Ottolengui (1861–1937), An Artist in Crime
Iris Owens (1929–2008), After Claude
Janis Owens (born 1960)
Ruth Ozeki (born 1956), A Tae for the Time Being
Cynthia Ozick (born 1928), The Puttermesser Papers
P
Alison Pace
William C. Pack
William Packard (1933–2002), Saturday Night at San Marcos
Thomas Nelson Page (1853–1952), On Newfound River
Michelle Paisley
Bernadette Pajer, Professor Bradshaw Mysteries
Chuck Palahniuk (born 1962), Fight Club
Allison Pang
Edgar Pangborn (1909–1976), Davy
Alexei Panshin (born 1940), Rite of Passage
Sara Paretsky (born 1947), Indemnity Only
Jay Parini (born 1948), The Last Station
Robert B. Parker (1932–2010), Crimson Joy
T. Jefferson Parker (born 1953), Laguna Heat
Anne Parrish (1888–1957), The Perennial Bachelor
Ann Patchett (born 1963), Bel Canto
Lisa Patton
Paul Jessup (born 1977),
Elliot Paul (1891–1958), Concert Pitch
James Kirke Paulding (1778–1860), The Dutchman's Fireside
Gary Paulsen (1939–2021), Hatchet
Bill Pearson (born 1938), Drifter's Detour
Ridley Pearson (born 1953), Undercurrents
T. R. Pearson (born 1956), Blue Ridge
Howard Pease (1894–1974), The Tod Moran Mysteries
Robert Newton Peck (1928–2020), A Day No Pigs Would Die
Laura Pedersen (born 1965), Hallie Palmer
Ern Pedler (1914–1989)
Janet Peery (born 195?), The River Beyond the World
Don Pendleton (1927–1995), War Against the Mafia
Walker Percy (1916–1990), The Moviegoer
Frank E. Peretti (born 1951), This Present Darkness
Marisha Pessl (born 1977), Special Topics in Calamity Physics
Julia Peterkin (1880–1961), Scarlet Sister Mary
Ann Petry (1931–1997), The Narrows
Arthur Phillips (born 1969), Prague
David Graham Phillips (1867–1911), Susan Lenox (Her Fall and Rise)
Jayne Anne Phillips (born 1952), Machine Dreams
Jodi Picoult (born 1966), The Pact
Marge Piercy (born 1936), He, She And It
Mary Hayden Green Pike (1824–1898), Ida May
Darryl Pinckney (born 1953), High Cotton
Josephine Pinckney (1895–1957), Three O'Clock Dinner
Daniel Pinkwater (born 1941), The Snarkout Boys and the Avocado of Death
H. Beam Piper (1904–1964), Little Fuzzy
Sylvia Plath (1932–1963), The Bell Jar
George Plimpton (1927–2003), The Curious Case of Sidd Finch
Michael Pocalyko (born 1954), The Navigator
Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket
Frederik Pohl (1919–2013), Gateway
Darryl Ponicsan (born 1938), The Last Detail
Ernest Poole (1880–1950), His Family
William Lee Popham (1885–1953)
Eleanor H. Porter (1868–1920), Pollyanna
Katherine Anne Porter (1890–1980), Ship of Fools
Charles Portis (1933–2020), True Grit
Melville Davisson Post (1871–1930), The Nameless Thing
Chaim Potok (1929–2002), The Chosen
Jean Potts (1910–1999), Go, Lovely Rose
Jerry Pournelle (1933–2017), The Endless Frontier
Dawn Powell (1896–1965), The Wicked Pavilion
Padgett Powell (born 1952), Edisto
Richard P. Powell (1908–1999), The Philadelphian
J. F. Powers (1917–1999), Morte d'Urban
Richard Powers (born 1957), The Gold Bug Variations
Emily Prager (born 1952), Clea & Zeus Divorce
Theodore Pratt (1901–1969), Mr. Limpet
Douglas Preston (born 1956), Relic
Charles F. Price (born 1938)
Eugenia Price (1916–1996), The Beloved Invader
Nicholas A. Price (born 1962), Adventures in Trichology
Reynolds Price (1933–2011), Kate Vaiden
Richard Price (born 1949), Freedomland
Joseph Di Prisco
Frederic Prokosch (1908–1989), The Seven Who Fled
Bill Pronzini (born 1943), Hoodwink
Francine Prose (born 1947), Blue Angel
E. Annie Proulx (born 1935), The Shipping News
Olive Higgins Prouty (1882–1974), Stella Dallas
James Purdy (1923–2009), Cabot Wright Begins
Mario Puzo (1920–1999), The Godfather
Thomas Pynchon (born 1937), Gravity's Rainbow
Q
Qiu Xiaolong (born 1953), Death of a Red Heroine
Jamie Quatro
Ellery Queen (Frederic Dannay (1905–1982) and Manfred B. Lee (1905–1971)), The Greek Coffin Mystery
John Herbert Quick (1861–1925), Vandemark's Folly
Anna Quindlen (born 1952), Black and Blue
Daniel Quinn (1935–2018), Ishmael
R
Kris Radish
Ayn Rand (1905–1982), Atlas Shrugged
Alice Randall (born 1959), The Wind Done Gone
Rebecca Rasmussen
Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings (1896–1953), The Yearling
Wilson Rawls (1913–1984), Where the Red Fern Grows
Chet Raymo (born 19??), The Dork of Cork
John Rechy (born 1931), City of Night
Jaclyn Reding (born 1966), The Secret Gift
Ishmael Reed (born 1938), Mumbo Jumbo
Arthur B. Reeve (1880–1936), Craig Kennedy Listens In
Ben Rehder
Kathy Reichs (born 1950), Déjà Dead
Thomas Mayne Reid (1818–1883), The Rifle Rangers
Amanda Renee
Nina Revoyr, Southland
Sheri Reynolds (born 1967), The Rapture of Canaan
Eugene Manlove Rhodes (1869–1934), Bransford in Arcadia
Anne Rice (1941–2021), Interview with the Vampire
Craig Rice (1908–1957), The Corpse Steps Out
Conrad Richter (1890–1968), The Town
Mary Roberts Rinehart (1876–1958), The Circular Staircase
Caris Roane
Ronald Clair Roat (1946–2013)
Harold Robbins (1916–1997), The Carpetbaggers
Tom Robbins (born 1936), Even Cowgirls Get the Blues
Elizabeth Madox Roberts (1881–1941), The Great Meadow
Kenneth Roberts (1885–1957), Northwest Passage
Nora Roberts (born 1950), Irish Thoroughbred
Kim Stanley Robinson (born 1952), Red Mars
Marilynne Robinson (born 1943), Housekeeping
Mary Robison (born 1949), Why Did I Ever
Lucia St. Clair Robson (born 1942), Ride the Wind
Tony R. Rodriguez
Edward Payson Roe (1838–1888), Barriers Burned Away
Lettie Hamlet Rogers (1917–1957)
Sharon Carter Rogers
O. E. Rølvaag (1876–1931), Giants in the Earth
Judith Rossner (1935–2005), Looking for Mr. Goodbar
Leo Rosten (1908–1997), Captain Newman, M.D.
Henry Roth (1906–1995), Call It Sleep
Philip Roth (1933–2018), Portnoy's Complaint
Susanna Rowson (1762–1824), Charlotte Temple
S. J. Rozan (born 1950), Winter and Night
Robert Ruark (1915–1965), Uhuru
Jack Rudloe (born 1943), Potluck
Norman Rush (born 1933), Mating
Rebecca Rush (1779–1850), Kelroy
Joanna Russ (1937–2011), The Female Man
Karen Russell (born 1981), "Swamplandia!"
Gerri Russell (born 1962), The Warrior Trainer
Mary Doria Russell (born 1950), The Sparrow
Richard Russo (born 1949), Empire Falls
Carl Hancock Rux, Asphalt
Marah Ellis Ryan (1860–1934), Told in the Hills
S
Seth Grahame-Smith (born 1976)
Hubert Selby Jr. (1928–2004), Last Exit to Brooklyn
Noel Everingham Sainsbury (1884–1955)
J. D. Salinger (1919–2010), The Catcher in the Rye
James Sallis (born 1944), Long-Legged Fly
James Salter (1925–2015), A Sport and a Pastime
Edgar Saltus (1855–1921), Mr. Incoul's Misadventure
Lawrence Sanders (1920–1998), The Anderson Tapes
John Sandford (born 1944), Rules of Prey
Mari Sandoz (1896–1966), Slogum House
Colin Sargent (born 1954), Museum of Human Beings
William Saroyan (1908–1981), The Human Comedy
May Sarton (1912–1995), Faithful are the Wounds
Richard Satterlie
John Saul (born 1942), Suffer the Children
George Saunders (born 1958), The Brief and Frightening Reign of Phil
Willard Savoy (1916–1976)
John Sayles (born 1950), Pride of the Bimbos
Jack Schaefer (1907–1991), Shane
Rebecca Scherm
Cathleen Schine (born 1953), Rameau's Niece
Mark Schorer (1908–1977), A House Too Old
Melissa Schroeder
Budd Schulberg (1914–2009), What Makes Sammy Run?
Christine Schutt (born 19??), All Souls
Victoria Schwab (born 1987), Vicious
Lynne Sharon Schwartz (born 1939), Disturbances in the Field
Sandra Scofield (born 1943), Beyond Deserving
Sandra Scoppettone (born 1936), Suzuki Beane
Daniel Scott (born 1963), Valedictory
Evelyn Scott (1893–1963), A Calendar of Sin
Joanna Scott (born 1960), The Manikin
Allan Seager (1906–1968), Amos Berry
Molly Elliot Seawell (1860–1916), The House of Egremont
Alice Sebold (born 1963), The Lovely Bones
Catharine Sedgwick (1789–1867), Hope Leslie
Carolyn See (1934–2016), Making History
Erich Segal (1937–2010), Love Story
Lore Segal (born 1928), Other People's Houses
Richard Setlowe
Anya Seton (1904–1990), Green Darkness
Mary Lee Settle (1918–2005), Blood Tie
Elizabeth Sewell (1919–2001)
Michael Shaara (1928–1988), The Killer Angels
Laurence Shames (born 1951), Florida Straits
Ntozake Shange (1948–2018), Betsey Brown
Akhil Sharma (born 1971), An Obedient Father
Irwin Shaw (1913–1984), Rich Man, Poor Man
Robert Shea (1933–1994), The Illuminatus! Trilogy (with Robert Anton Wilson)
Amy Shearn (born 1979)
Wilfrid Sheed (1930–2011), Square's Progress
Anna Sheehan
Sidney Sheldon (1917–2007), The Naked Face
Samuel Shellabarger (1888–1954), Captain from Castile
Jim Shepard (born 1956), Lights Out in the Reptile House
Carol Shields (1935–2003), The Stone Diaries
Anita Shreve (1946–2018), The Weight of Water
Susan Richards Shreve (born 1939), A Country of Strangers
Lionel Shriver (born 1957), We Need to Talk About Kevin
Gary Shteyngart (born 1972), The Russian Debutante's Handbook
Anne Rivers Siddons (1936–2019), Peachtree Road
Clancy Sigal (1926–2017), Going Away
Leslie Marmon Silko (born 1948), Ceremony
Robert Silverberg (born 1935), A Time of Changes
Clifford D. Simak (1904–1988), City
Dan Simmons (born 1948), Hyperion
William Gilmore Simms (1806–1870), The Sword and the Distaff
Mona Simpson (born 1957), Anywhere But Here
Elizabeth Sims (born 1957), Damn Straight
Upton Sinclair (1878–1968), The Jungle
Isaac Bashevis Singer (1902–1991), Enemies, a Love Story
Israel Joshua Singer (1893–1944), The Brothers Ashkenazi
Joan Slonczewski (born 1956), A Door into Ocean
Jane Smiley (born 1949), A Thousand Acres
Betty Smith (1896–1972), A Tree Grows in Brooklyn
E. E. Smith (1890–1965), First Lensman
Elizabeth Oakes Smith (1806–1893), The Western Captive
Francis Hopkinson Smith (1838–1915), Colonel Carter of Cartersville
H. Allen Smith (1907–1976), Rhubarb
Haywood Smith
Katy Simpson Smith (born 1985)
Lee Smith (born 1944), Fair and Tender Ladies
Thorne Smith (1892–1934), Topper
Charles A. Smythwick
Zilpha Keatley Snyder (1927–2014), The Headless Cupid
Paul Spencer Sochaczewski (born 1947), Redheads
Susan Sontag (1933–2004), In America
Virginia Sorensen (1912–1991), On This Star
Christopher Sorrentino (born 1963), Trance
Gilbert Sorrentino (1929–2006), Mulligan Stew
Gary Soto (born 1952), Buried Onions
Terry Southern (1924–1995), The Magic Christian
E. D. E. N. Southworth (1819–1899), The Hidden Hand
W. M. Spackman (1905–1980), An Armful of Warm Girl
Joshua Spanogle
R. Clifton Spargo
Frank H. Spearman (1859–1937), Whispering Smith
Scott Spencer (born 1945), Endless Love
Mickey Spillane (1918–2006), I, the Jury
Norman Spinrad (born 1940), The Iron Dream
Harriet Elizabeth Prescott Spofford (1835–1921), Sir Rohan's Ghost
David Derek Stacton (1925–1968), On a Balcony
Jean Stafford (1915–1979), Boston Adventure
Clinton H. Stagg (1888–1916)
Jason Starr (born 1966), The Follower
Kai Starr
Danielle Steel (born 1947), Family Album
Wallace Stegner (1909–1993), Angle of Repose
Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas
John Steinbeck (1902–1968), The Grapes of Wrath
Darcey Steinke (born 1964), Jesus Saves
Ann Sophia Stephens (1810–1886), Malaeska: The Indian Wife of the White Hunter
Harold Stephens (1926–2021), Who Needs A Road?
Neal Stephenson (born 1959), Snow Crash
Bruce Sterling (born 1954), Islands in the Net
Richard G. Stern (1928–2013), Golk
Steve Stern, The Angel of Forgetfulness
Brooke Stevens, Tattoo Girl
George R. Stewart (1895–1980), Earth Abides
Frederic Jesup Stimson (1855–1943), The Crime of Henry Vane
R. L. Stine (born 1943), Monster Blood
Frank R. Stockton (1834–1902), Rudder Grange
Mary Stolz (1920–2006), The Edge of Next Year
Grace Zaring Stone (1891–1991), The Bitter Tea of General Yen
Irving Stone (1903–1989), The Agony and the Ecstasy
Robert Stone (1937–2015), Dog Soldiers
Phil Stong (1899–1957), State Fair
Hans Otto Storm (1895–1941), Pity the Tyrant
Rex Stout (1886–1975), Fer-de-Lance
Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896), Uncle Tom's Cabin
Edward Stratemeyer (1862–1930), The Rover Boys At School
Gene Stratton-Porter (1863–1924), A Girl of the Limberlost
Peter Straub (born 1943), Ghost Story
Darin Strauss (born 1970), The Real McCoy
Edward Streeter (1891–1976), Father of the Bride
John Strelecky (born 1969), The Big Five For Life - Leadership's Greatest Secret
T. S. Stribling (1881–1965), The Store
Elizabeth Strout (born 1956), Amy and Isabelle
Jesse Stuart (1906–1984), Taps for Private Tussie
Theodore Sturgeon (1918–1985), More Than Human
William Styron (1925–2006), The Confessions of Nat Turner
Ronald Sukenick (1932–2004), Up
Cid Ricketts Sumner (1890–1970), Quality
Jacqueline Susann (1918–1974), Valley of the Dolls
Van Tassel Sutphen (1861–1945)
Harvey Swados (1920–1972), Out Went the Candle
Glendon Swarthout (1918–1992), The Shootist
T
Gladys Taber (1899–1980), Stillmeadow books
Karin Tabke
Michael Talbot (1953–1992), The Bog
Elizabeth Tallent (born 1954), Museum Pieces
Amy Tan (born 1952), The Joy Luck Club
Jason Tanamor (born 1975), Vampires of Portlandia
Booth Tarkington (1869–1946), The Magnificent Ambersons
Donna Tartt (born 1963), The Secret History
Bayard Taylor (1825–1878), Hanna Thurston
Kathrine Taylor (1903–1996), Address Unknown
Peter Taylor (1917–1994), A Summons to Memphis
Phoebe Atwood Taylor (1909–1976), The Cape Cod Mystery
Robert Lewis Taylor (1912–1998), The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters
William Tenn (1920–2010), Of Men and Monsters
Tabitha Gilman Tenney (1762–1837),
Mary Virginia Terhune (1830–1922), Alone
Walter Tevis (1928–1984), The Hustler
Steve Thayer (born 1953)
Paul Theroux (born 1941), The Mosquito Coast
Daniel Pierce Thompson (1795–1868), The Green Mountain Boys
Hunter S. Thompson (1937–2005), Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas
Jim Thompson (1906–1977), The Killer Inside Me
Maurice Thompson (1844–1901), Alice of Old Vincennes
Melanie Rae Thon (born 1957), Meteors in August
James Thurber (1894–1961), The 13 Clocks
Marian Thurm (born 1952)
Wallace Thurman (1902–1934), The Blacker the Berry
Ernest Tidyman (1928–1984), Shaft
Ronald Tierney (1944–2017)
John Kennedy Toole (1937–1969), A Confederacy of Dunces
Jane Toombs (died 2014)
Jean Toomer (1894–1967), Cane
Joseph Torchia (1948–1996)
Aaron Louis Tordini
Alessandra Torre
Nick Tosches (1949–2019), In the Hand of Dante
Paul A. Toth
Albion W. Tourgée (1838–1905), A Fool's Errand
Arthur Train (1875–1945), Yankee Lawyer: The Autobiography of Ephraim Tutt
Lawrence Treat (1903–1998), V as in Victim
Trevanian (1931–2005), The Eiger Sanction
Emma Trevayne
Calvin Trillin (born 1935), Runestruck
Dalton Trumbo (1905–1976), Johnny Got His Gun
Danielle Trussoni (1973), "Angelology"
George Tucker (1775–1861), A Voyage to the Moon
John R. Tunis (1889–1975), The Kid From Tomkinsville
Scott Turow (born 1949), Presumed Innocent
Harry Turtledove (born 1949), In the Balance
Mark Twain (1835–1910), Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Anne Tyler (born 1941), The Accidental Tourist
Royall Tyler (1757–1826), The Algerine Captive
U
Brady Udall (born c. 1971), The Miracle Life of Edgar Mint
Dorothy Uhnak (1933–2006), The Bait
James Michael Ullman (1925–1997), The Neon Haystack
James Ramsey Ullman (1907–1971)
Douglas Unger (born 1952), Leaving the Land
John Updike (1932–2009), Rabbit, Run
Leon Uris (1924–2003), Exodus
Luís Alberto Urrea (born 1955), In Search of Snow
Lois Utz (1932–1986)
V
S. S. Van Dine (1888–1939), The Benson Murder Case
Andrew Vachss (1942–2021), Flood
Roberto Valero (1955–1994)
Jack Vance (1916–2013), The Killing Machine
Louis Joseph Vance (1879–1933), The Lone Wolf
John Varley (born 1947), The Ophiuchi Hotline
Michael Vatikiotis (born 1957)
Gore Vidal (1925–2012), Burr
Tony Vigorito, Nine Kinds of Naked
Gerald Vizenor (born 1934), Darkness in Saint Louis Bearheart
William T. Vollmann (born 1959), Europe Central
Kurt Vonnegut Jr. (1922–2007), Slaughterhouse-Five
W
David Wagoner (1926–2021), The Escape Artist
Alice Walker (born 1944), The Color Purple
Margaret Walker (1915–1998), Jubilee
David Foster Wallace (1962–2008), Infinite Jest
Irving Wallace (1916–1990), The Fan Club
Lew Wallace (1827–1905), Ben-Hur
Edward Lewis Wallant (1926–1962), The Tenants of Moonbloom
Robert James Waller (1939–2017), The Bridges of Madison County
Douglass Wallop (1920–1985), The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant
Joseph Wambaugh (born 1937), The Choirboys
Walter Wangerin, Jr. (1944–2017), The Book of the Dun Cow
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward (1844–1911), The Gates Ajar
William Ware (1797–1852), Zenobia; or, The Fall of Palmyra
Catherine Anne Warfield (1816–1877), The Household of Bouverie
Charles Dudley Warner (1829–1900), The Gilded Age (with Mark Twain)
Gertrude Chandler Warner (1890–1979), The Boxcar Children
Susan Warner (1819–1895), The Wide, Wide World
Kimberly Warner-Cohen (born 1978)
Robert Penn Warren (1905–1989), All the King's Men
Larry Watson (born 1947), Montana 1948
Kate Watterson
Hillary Waugh (1920–2008), Last Seen Wearing...
John Van Alstyne Weaver (1893–1938)
Will Weaver (born 1950), Red Earth, White Earth
Charles Webb (1939–2020), The Graduate
Katharine Weber (born 1955), Triangle
Jean Webster (1876–1916), Daddy-Long-Legs
Theodore Weesner (1935–2015), The Car Thief
Jerome Weidman (1913–1998), I Can Get It for You Wholesale
James Welch (1940–2003), Fools Crow
Manly Wade Wellman (1903–1986), The Old Gods Waken
Rebecca Wells (born 1952), Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood
Eudora Welty (1909–2001), The Optimist's Daughter
Glenway Wescott (1901–1987), The Grandmothers
Debbie Lee Wesselmann
Dorothy West (1907–1998), The Living Is Easy
Jessamyn West (1902–1984), The Massacre at Fall Creek
Nathanael West (1903–1940), The Day of the Locust
Paul West (1930–2015), The Women of Whitechapel and Jack the Ripper
Donald E. Westlake (1933–2008), God Save the Mark
Edith Wharton (1862–1937), The Age of Innocence
William Wharton (1925–2008), Birdy
E. B. White (1899–1985), Charlotte's Web
Edmund White (born 1940), A Boy's Own Story
Randy Wayne White (born 1950), Sanibel Flats
Stewart Edward White (1873–1946), The Claim Jumpers
Colson Whitehead (born 1969), The Intuitionist
Brand Whitlock (1869–1934), The Turn of the Balance
Phyllis A. Whitney (1903–2008), The Mystery of the Haunted Pool
Edward Whittemore (1933–1995), Sinai Tapestry
John Edgar Wideman (born 1941), Philadelphia Fire
Elie Wiesel (1928–2016), Twilight
Kate Douglas Wiggin (1856–1923), Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm
Marianne Wiggins (born 1947), Evidence of Things Unseen
James Wilcox (born 1949), Modern Baptists
Laura Ingalls Wilder (1867–1957), Little House on the Prairie
Thornton Wilder (1897–1975), The Bridge of San Luis Rey
Kate Wilhelm (1928–2018), Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang
Christopher Willard (born 1960), Garbage Head
Charles Willeford (1919–1988), Miami Blues
Ben Ames Williams (1889–1953), House Divided
John A. Williams (1925–2015), The Man Who Cried I Am
John Williams (1922–1994), Stoner
Joy Williams (born 1944), State of Grace
Philip Lee Williams (born 1950), Elegies for the Water
Tennessee Williams (1911–1983), The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone
Thomas Williams (1926–1990), The Hair of Harold Roux
Jack Williamson (1908–2006), The Humanoid Touch
Calder Willingham (1922–1995), End As a Man
Connie Willis (born 1945), Doomsday Book
Harriet E. Wilson (1825–1900), Our Nig; or Sketches from the Life of a Free Black
Harry Leon Wilson (1867–1919), Ruggles of Red Gap
Margaret Wilson (1882–1973), The Able McLaughlins
Robert Anton Wilson (1932–2007), The Illuminatus! Trilogy (with Robert Shea)
Sloan Wilson (1920–2003), The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit
Mark Winegardner (born 1961), Crooked River Burning
Crystal Lacey Winslow
Theodore Winthrop (1828–1861), John Brent
Owen Wister (1860–1938), The Virginian
Larry Woiwode (born 1941), Beyond the Bedroom Wall
Gene Wolfe (1931–2019), The Book of the New Sun
Thomas Wolfe (1900–1938), Look Homeward, Angel
Tom Wolfe (1931–2018), The Bonfire of the Vanities
Geoffrey Wolff (born 1937), Providence
Tobias Wolff (born 1945), The Barracks Thief
Hilma Wolitzer (born 1930), Silver
Meg Wolitzer (born 1959), This Is Your Life
Ramsay Wood (born 1943), Kalila and Dimna
Daniel Woodrell (born 1953), Give Us a Kiss
Samuel Woodworth (1784–1842), The Champions of Freedom
Cornell Woolrich (1903–1968), The Bride Wore Black
Constance Fenimore Woolson (1840–1894), For the Major
Herman Wouk (1915–2019), The Caine Mutiny
Austin Tappan Wright (1883–1931), Islandia
Ernest Vincent Wright (c. 1873–1939), Gadsby
Harold Bell Wright (1872–1944), The Shepherd of the Hills
Kirby Wright (born 1955), Punahou Blues
Mary Tappan Wright (1851–1917), Aliens
Richard Wright (1908–1960), Native Son
Stephen Wright (born 1946), The Amalgamation Polka
X
Xu Xi (born 1954), The Unwalled City
Y
Irvin D. Yalom (born 1931), When Nietzsche Wept
Lois-Ann Yamanaka (born 1961), Wild Meat and the Bully Burgers
Karen Tei Yamashita (born 1951), Through the Arc of the Rain Forest
Chelsea Quinn Yarbro (born 1942), Hotel Transylvania
Steve Yarbrough (born 1956), The Oxygen Man
Richard Yates (1926–1992), Revolutionary Road
Frank Yerby (1916–1991), Judas, My Brother
Anzia Yezierska (c. 1880–1970), Bread Givers
Rafael Yglesias (born 1954), Fearless
Mako Yoshikawa (born 1966), One Hundred and One Ways
Al Young (1939–2021), Ask Me Now
Stark Young (1881–1963), So Red the Rose
Michele Young-Stone
Z
Rafi Zabor (born 1946), The Bear Comes Home
Roger Zelazny (1937–1995), Lord of Light
Paul Zindel (1936–2003), The Pigman
Nell Zink, The Wallcreeper
Leane Zugsmith (1903–1969), All Victories Are Alike
See also
"The Great American Novel"
American literature
Colonial American literature
Southern literature
African American literature
Jewish American literature
LGBT literature
Lists of writers
List of short story authors
List of novelists by nationality
List of women writers
List of African-American writers
List of Asian-American writers
List of Jewish American authors
List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas
Awards
Pulitzer Prize for the Novel (1918–1947)
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (1948 to present)
National Book Award
Bestsellers
Publishers Weekly lists of bestselling novels in the United States (The top ten each year from 1900 to 2008)
References
Nelson, Emmanuel S. Asian American Novelists: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000)
Specific
Novelists from the United States
American | [
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236721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crumple%20zone | Crumple zone | Crumple zones, crush zones, or crash zones are a structural safety feature used in vehicles, mainly in automobiles, to increase the time over which a change in velocity (and consequently momentum) occurs from the impact during a collision by a controlled deformation; in recent years, it is also incorporated into trains and railcars.
Crumple zones are designed to increase the time over which the total force from the change in momentum is applied to an occupant, as the average force applied to the occupants is inversely related to the time over which it is applied. The physics involved can be expressed by the equation:
where is the force, is the time, is the mass, and is the velocity of the body. In SI units, force is measured in Newtons, time in seconds, mass in kilograms, velocity in metres per second, and the resulting impulse is measured in newton seconds (N⋅s).
Typically, crumple zones are located in the front part of the vehicle, to absorb the impact of a head-on collision, but they may be found on other parts of the vehicle as well. According to a British Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre study of where on the vehicle impact damage occurs, 65% were front impacts, 25% rear impacts, 5% left-side, and 5% right-side. Some racing cars use aluminium, composite/carbon fibre honeycomb, or energy absorbing foam to form an impact attenuator that dissipates crash energy using a much smaller volume and lower weight than road car crumple zones. Impact attenuators have also been introduced on highway maintenance vehicles in some countries.
On September 10, 2009, the ABC News programs Good Morning America and World News showed a U.S. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety crash test of a 2009 Chevrolet Malibu in an offset head-on collision with a 1959 Chevrolet Bel Air sedan. It dramatically demonstrated the effectiveness of modern car safety design over 1950s design, particularly of rigid passenger safety cells and crumple zones.
Early development history
The crumple zone concept was originally invented and patented by the Hungarian Mercedes-Benz engineer Béla Barényi in 1937 before he worked for Mercedes-Benz and in a more developed form in 1952. The 1953 Mercedes-Benz "Ponton" was a partial implementation of his ideas, by having a strong deep platform to form a partial safety cell, patented in 1941.
The Mercedes-Benz patent number 854157, granted in 1952, describes the decisive feature of passive safety. Barényi questioned the opinion that had prevailed until then that a safe car had to be rigid. He divided the car body into three sections: the rigid non-deforming passenger compartment and the crumple zones in the front and the rear.
The first Mercedes-Benz carbody developed using the patent was the 1959 Mercedes W111 “Tail Fin” Saloon. The safety cell and crumple zones were achieved primarily by the design of the longitudinal members: these were straight in the centre of the vehicle and formed a rigid safety cage with the body panels, the front and rear supports were curved so that they deformed in the event of an accident, absorbing part of the collision energy.
A more recent development for these curved longitudinal members is to be weakened by vertical and lateral ribs to form telescoping "crash can" or "crush tube" deformation structures.
Function
Crumple zones work by managing crash energy and increasing the time over which the deceleration of the occupants of the vehicle occurs, while also preventing intrusion into or deformation of the passenger cabin. This better protects car occupants against injury. This is achieved by controlled weakening of sacrificial outer parts of the car, while strengthening and increasing the rigidity of the inner part of the body of the car, making the passenger cabin into a "safety cell", by using more reinforcing beams and higher strength steels. Impact energy that does reach the "safety cell" is spread over as wide an area as possible to reduce its deformation. Volvo introduced the side crumple zone with the introduction of the SIPS (Side Impact Protection System) in the early 1990s.
When a vehicle and all its contents, including passengers and luggage are travelling at speed, they have inertia / momentum, which means that they will continue forward with that direction and speed (Newton's first law of motion). In the event of a sudden deceleration of a rigid framed vehicle due to impact, unrestrained vehicle contents will continue forwards at their previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the collision to increase the time over which the occupants decelerate so as to decrease the peak force imparted on the occupants over a given time.
Seatbelts restrain the passengers so they don't fly through the windshield, and are in the correct position for the airbag and also increase the time over which the occupants decelerate. Seat belts also absorb passenger inertial energy by being designed to stretch during an impact, again to increase the time over which an occupant decelerates. In short: a passenger whose body is decelerated more slowly due to the crumple zone (and other devices) over a longer time survives much more often than a passenger whose body indirectly impacts a hard, undamaged metal car body which has come to a halt nearly instantaneously. It is like the difference between slamming someone into a wall headfirst (fracturing their skull) and shoulder-first (bruising their flesh slightly) is that the arm, being softer, has tens of times longer to slow its speed, yielding a little at a time, than the hard skull, which isn't in contact with the wall until it has to deal with extremely high pressures. The stretching of seatbelts while restraining occupants during an impact, means that it is necessary to replace them if a vehicle is repaired and put back on the road after a collision. They should also be replaced if their condition has deteriorated e.g. through fraying or mechanical or belt mounting faults. In New Zealand it is officially mandatory to replace worn inertia reel type seatbelts only with "webbing grabber" type belts that have less play and are more effective on older cars. Newer cars have electronically fired pre-tension seatbelts that are timed to work with the airbag firing. Buying used seatbelts is not a good idea even in countries where it is legal to do so, because they may have already been stretched in an impact event and may not protect their new users as they should.
The final impact after a passenger's body hits the car interior, airbag or seat belts is that of the internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull due to their inertia. The force of this impact is the way by which many car crashes cause disabling or life-threatening injury. Other ways are skeletal damage and blood loss, because of torn blood vessels, or damage caused by sharp fractured bone to organs and/or blood vessels. The sequence of speed-reducing technologies—crumple zone — seat belt — airbags — padded/deformable interior—are designed to work together as a system to reduce the peak force of the impact on the outside of the passenger(s)'s body by lengthening the time over which this force is imparted. In a collision, slowing down the deceleration of the human body by even a few tenths of a second drastically reduces the peak force imparted.
A misconception about crumple zones sometimes voiced is that they reduce safety for the occupants of the vehicle by allowing the body to collapse, therefore risking crushing the occupants. In fact, crumple zones are typically located in front of and behind the main body of the car (which forms a rigid "safety cell"), compacting within the space of the engine compartment or boot/trunk. Modern vehicles using what are commonly termed "crumple zones" provide far superior protection for their occupants in severe tests against other vehicles with crumple zones and solid static objects than older models or SUVs that use a separate chassis frame and have no crumple zones.
They do tend to come off worse when involved in accidents with SUVs without crumple zones because most of the energy of the impact is absorbed by the vehicle with the crumple zone—however, even for the occupants of the "worse off" car, this will still often be an improvement, as the result of two vehicles without crumple zones colliding will usually be more hazardous to both vehicles' occupants than a collision that is at least partly buffered.
Another misconception about crumple zones that is sometimes voiced is that they absorb energy of a crash so that less energy is transferred to the occupants, when in fact the total force imparted upon an occupant is solely determined by their mass and their acceleration (or in the case of a crash, deceleration) because Force = mass x acceleration, and crumple zones, air bags, and any other safety features do nothing to change either the mass of an occupant, or the total change in velocity (acceleration/deceleration) of the occupants. Instead, the entire premise of these safety features is to spread the total force imparted on the occupants out over a longer period of time so that the peak force imparted is lower, reducing the likelihood of injuries.
Another problem is "impact incompatibility" where the "hard points" of the ends of chassis rails of SUVs are higher than the "hard points" of cars, causing the SUV to "override" the engine compartment of the car. In order to tackle this problem, more recent SUV/off-roaders incorporate structures below the front bumper designed to engage lower-height car crumple zones.Volvo XC70 low level front safety cross members shown here
Volvo's press release about this feature:
"Lower cross-member that helps protects lower cars: The front suspension subframe in the new Volvo XC60 is supplemented with a lower cross-member positioned at the height of the beam in a conventional car. The lower cross-member strikes the oncoming car's protective structure, activating its crumple zone as intended so the occupants can be given the maximum level of protection."
Low speed impact absorption
The front of the bumper is designed to withstand low speed collisions, e.g. as in parking bumps to prevent permanent damage to the vehicle. This is achieved by elastic elements, such as the front apron. In some vehicles, the bumper is filled with foam or similar elastic substances. This aspect of design has received more attention in recent years as NCAP crash assessment has added pedestrian impacts to its testing regime. The reduction of rigid support structures in pedestrian impact areas has also been made a design objective.
In the case of less severe collisions (up to approx. 20 km / h), the bumper and outer panel design should ensure that the crumple zone and the load-bearing structure of the vehicle is damaged as little as possible and repairs can be carried out as cheaply as possible. For this purpose, so-called crash tubes or crash boxes are used for mounting bumpers. Crashtubes consist of a hollow steel profile, which transforms the incident energy by rolling up the profile.
Computer modelled crash simulation
In the early 1980s, using technology developed for the aerospace and nuclear industries, German car makers started complex computer crash simulation studies, using finite element methods simulating the crash behaviour of individual car body components, component assemblies, and quarter and half cars at the body in white (BIW) stage. These experiments culminated in a joint project by the Forschungsgemeinschaft Automobil-Technik (FAT), a conglomeration of all seven German car makers (Audi, BMW, Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Opel (GM), Porsche, and Volkswagen), which tested the applicability of two emerging commercial crash simulation codes. These simulation codes recreated a frontal impact of a full passenger car structure (Haug 1986) and they ran to completion on a computer overnight. Now that turn-around time between two consecutive job-submissions (computer runs) did not exceed one day, engineers were able to make efficient and progressive improvements of the crash behaviour of the analyzed car body structure. The drive for improved crashworthiness in Europe has accelerated from the 1990s onwards, with the 1997 advent of Euro NCAP, with the involvement of Formula One motor racing safety expertise.
"Sleds" inside safety cells
The 2004 Pininfarina Nido Experimental Safety Vehicle locates crumple zones inside the survival cell. Those interior crumple zones decelerate a sled-mounted survival cell.
Volvo has also been developing this idea for use in small cars. Their driver's seat is mounted to what is basically a "sled" on a rail, with shock absorbers in front of it. In an impact, the whole "sled" of driving seat and belted-in driver, slides forward up to 8 inches, and the shock absorbers dissipate the peak shock energy of the impact, lengthening the deceleration time for the driver. Simultaneously, the steering wheel and the driver's side dashboard slide forward to make room for the driver, as he is thrown forwards stretching the seatbelt. Combined with a front crumple zone and airbag, this system could greatly reduce the forces acting on the driver in a frontal impact.
See also
Automobile safety
Guard rail#Automotive safety
Traffic barrier
Crash test
References
External links
Before and after crash between 1959 Bel Air and 2009 Malibu
Stuntbusters: Head-On Collision 1962 Cadillac vs. 2002 Cadillac
Crumple Zones in Automobiles
Crumple Zones(How Do Crumple Zones Work)
Have crash tests ever used live (or dead) human occupants? - Howstuffworks.com
How Crash Testing Works - Howstuffworks.com
Why is it still necessary to crash test vehicles? - Howstuffworks.com
BBC News - How the dead have helped the living
How Force, Power, Torque and Energy Work - Howstuffworks.com
British TV 'Fifth Gear' programme. How a badly repaired Ford Focus crumple zone fails to work in a crash test.
British TV 'Fifth Gear' programme. Renault Modus small car with 5 star NCAP rating vs 1990 Volvo 940GLE head on crash test.
Mythbusters - Car crash force
Béla Barényi – a history of safety - Mercedes-Benz original
The fundamental dynamics of violence in car crashes. The physics. The engineering. John Cadogan of autoexpert.com.au
Crash Engineering and Safety Design - engineeringclicks.com
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236722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%20of%20Science | Master of Science | A Master of Science (; abbreviated MS, M.S., MSc, M.Sc., SM, S.M., ScM or Sc.M.) is a master's degree in the field of science awarded by universities in many countries or a person holding such a degree. In contrast to the Master of Arts degree, the Master of Science degree is typically granted for studies in sciences, engineering and medicine and is usually for programs that are more focused on scientific and mathematical subjects; however, different universities have different conventions and may also offer the degree for fields typically considered within the humanities and social sciences. While it ultimately depends upon the specific program, earning a Master of Science degree typically includes writing a thesis.
The Master of Science degree was first introduced at the University of Michigan in 1858. One of the first recipients of the degree was De Volson Wood, who was conferred a Master of Science degree at the University of Michigan in 1859.
Algeria
Algeria follows the Bologna Process.
Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela
In Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela, the Master of Science or Magister is a postgraduate degree lasting two to four years. The admission to a Master's program (Spanish: Licenciatura; Portuguese: Mestrado) requires the full completion of a four to five year long undergraduate degree, bachelor's degree, engineer's degree or a licentiate of the same length. Defense of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees qualify for a doctorate program. Depending on the country, one ECTS credit point can equal on average between 22 and 30 actual study hours. In most of these cases, the number of required attendance hours to the University classes will be at least half of that (one ECTS will mean around 11 to 15 mandatory hours of on-site classes).
Australia
Australian universities commonly have coursework or research-based Master of Science courses for graduate students. They typically run for 1–2 years full-time, with varying amounts of research involved.
Bangladesh
All Bangladeshi private and public universities have Master of Science courses as postgraduate degree. These include most of the major state-owned colleges. A number of private colleges also do offer MS degrees. After passing Bachelor of Science, any student becomes eligible to study in this discipline.
Belgium
Like all EU member states, Belgium follows the Bologna Process. In Belgium, the typical university track involved obtaining two degrees, being a two-year Kandidaat prerequisite track (replaced by Bachelor) followed by a two- or three-year Licentiaat track. The latter was replaced by the Master of Science (M.Sc.) academic degree. This system was not exclusive to scientific degrees and was also used for other programs like law and literature.
Canada
In Canada, Master of Science (MSc) degrees may be entirely course-based, entirely research-based or (more typically) a mixture. Master's programs typically take one to three years to complete and the completion of a scientific thesis is often required. Admission to a master's program is contingent upon holding a four-year university bachelor's degree. Some universities require a master's degree in order to progress to a doctoral program (PhD).
Quebec
In the province of Quebec, the Master of Science follows the same principles as in the rest of Canada. There is one exception, however, regarding admission to a master's program. Since Québécois students complete two to three years of college before entering university, they have the opportunity to complete a bachelor's degree in three years instead of four. Some undergraduate degrees such as the Bachelor of Education and the Bachelor of Engineering requires four years of study. Following the obtention of their bachelor's degree, students can be admitted into a graduate program to eventually obtain a master's degree.
While some students complete their master's program, others use it as a bridge to doctoral research programs. After one year of study and research in the master's program, many students become eligible to apply to a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) program directly, without obtaining the Master of Science degree in the first place.
Chile
Commonly the Chilean universities have used "Magíster" for a master degree, but other than that is similar to the rest of South America.
Cyprus, Republic of
Like all EU member states, the Republic of Cyprus follow the Bologna Process. Universities in Cyprus have used either "Magíster Scientiae or Artium" or Master of Art/Science for a master's degree with 90 to 120 ECTS and duration of studies between 1, 2 and 5 years.
Czech Republic, Slovakia
Like all EU member states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia follow the Bologna Process. The Czech Republic and Slovakia are using two master's degree systems. Both award a title of Mgr. or Ing. to be used before the name.
The older system requires a 5-year program. The new system takes only 2 years but requires a previously completed 3-year bachelor program (a Bc. title). It is required to write a thesis (in both master and bachelor program) and also to pass final exams. It is mostly the case that the final exams cover the main study areas of the whole study program, i.e. a student is required to prove his/her knowledge in many subjects he attended during the 2 resp. 3 years.
Egypt
The Master of Science (M.Sc.) is an academic degree for post-graduate candidates or researchers, it usually takes from 4 to 7 years after passing the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree. Master programs are awarded in many sciences in the Egyptian Universities. A completion of the degree requires finishing a pre-master studies followed by a scientific thesis or research. All M.Sc. degree holders are allowable to take a step forward in the academic track to get the PhD degree.
Finland
Like all EU member states, Finland follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science (M.Sc.) academic degree usually follows the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) studies which typically last five years. For the completion of both the bachelor and the master studies the student must accumulate a total of 300 ECTS credits, thus most Masters programs are two-year programs with 120 credits. The completion of a scientific thesis is required.
Germany
Like all EU member states, Germany follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science (M.Sc.) academic degree replaces the once common Diplom or Magister programs that typically lasted four to five years. It is awarded in science-related studies with a high percentage of mathematics. For the completion the student must accumulate 300 ECTS Credits, thus most Masters programs are two-year programs with 120 credits. The completion of a scientific thesis is required.
Southeastern Europe
In Slavic countries in European southeast (particularly former Yugoslavian republics), the education system was largely based on the German university system (largely due to the presence and influence of the Austria-Hungary Empire in the region). Prior to the implementation of the Bologna Process, academic university studies comprised a 4–5 year-long graduate diplom program, which could have been followed by a 2–4 year long magistar program and then later with 2–5 year long doctor of science program.
After the Bologna Process implementation, again based on the German implementation, Diplom titles and programs were replaced by entirely professional bachelor's and master's programs. The studies are structured such that a master program lasts long enough for the student to accumulate a total of 120 ECTS credits, so its duration would depend on a number of credits acquired during the bachelor studies. Pre-Bologna magistar programs were abandoned – after earning an M.Sc. degree and satisfying other academic requirements a student could proceed to earn a doctor of science degree directly, or skip M.Sc. if the diplom program lasted more than 3 years as it was possible to do so for some time.
Guyana
In Guyana, all universities, including University of Guyana, Texila American University, American International School of Medicine have Master of Science courses as postgraduate degrees. Students who have completed undergraduate Bachelor of Science degree are eligible to study in this discipline.
India
In India, universities offer MS programs usually in sciences discipline. Generally, post-graduate scientific courses lead to MS degree while post-graduate engineering courses lead to ME or MTech degree. For example, a master's in automotive engineering would normally be an ME or MTech, while a master's in physics would be an MS. A few top universities also offer undergraduate programs leading to a master's degree which is known as integrated masters.
A Master of Science in Engineering (MS.Engg.) degree is also offered in India. It is usually structured as an engineering research degree, lesser than PhD and considered to be parallel to M.Phil. degree in humanities and science. Some institutes such as IITs offer an MS degree for postgraduate engineering courses. This degree is considered a research-oriented degree whereas MTech or ME degree is usually not a research degree in India. MS degree is also awarded by various IISERs which are one of the top institutes in India.
Iran
In Iran, similar to Canada, Master of Science (MSc) or in Iranian form Karshenasi-arshad degrees may be entirely course-based, entirely research-based or most commonly a mixture. Master's programs typically take two to three years to complete and the completion of a scientific thesis is often required.
Ireland
Like all EU member states, Ireland follows the Bologna Process. In Ireland, Master of Science (MSc) may be course-based with a research component or entirely research based. The program is most commonly a one-year program and a thesis is required for both course-based and research based degrees.
Israel
In Israel, Master of Science (MSc) may be entirely course-based or include research. The program is most commonly a two-year program and a thesis is required only for research based degrees.
Italy
Like all EU member states, Italy follows the Bologna Process. The degree Master of Science is awarded in the Italian form, Laurea Magistrale (formerly Laurea specialistica; before the introduction of the Laurea the corresponding degree was Laurea quinquennale or Vecchio Ordinamento).
Nepal
In Nepal, universities offer the Master of Science degree usually in science and engineering areas. Tribhuvan University offers MSc degree for all the science and engineering courses. Pokhara University offers ME for engineering and MSc for science. Kathmandu University offers MS by Research and ME degrees for science and engineering.
Netherlands
Like all EU member states, the Netherlands follows the Bologna Process. In the past graduates of applied universities (HBO) were excluded from using titles such as MSc, however, since 2014 academic titles are granted to any university graduate.
ingenieur (abbreviated as ir.) (for graduates who followed a technical or agricultural program)
meester (abbreviated as mr.) (for graduates who followed an LLM law program)
doctorandus (abbreviated as drs.) (in all other cases).
New Zealand
New Zealand universities commonly have coursework or research-based Master of Science courses for graduate students. They typically run for 2 years full-time, with varying amounts of research involved.
Norway
Norway follows the Bologna Process. For engineering, the Master of Science academic degree has been recently introduced and has replaced the previous award forms "Sivilingeniør" (engineer, a.k.a. engineering master) and "Hovedfag" (academic master). Both were awarded after 5 years of university-level studies and required the completion of a scientific thesis.
"Siv.ing", is a protected title exclusively awarded to engineering students who completed a five-year education at The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (, NTNU) or other universities. Historically there was no bachelor's degree involved and today's program is a five years master's degree education. The "Siv.ing" title is in the process of being phased out, replaced by (for now, complemented by) the "M.Sc." title. By and large, "Siv.ing" is a title tightly being held on to for the sake of tradition. In academia, the new program offers separate three-year bachelor and two-year master programs. It is awarded in the natural sciences, mathematics and computer science fields. The completion of a scientific thesis is required. All master's degrees are designed to certify a level of education and qualify for a doctorate program.
Master of Science in Business is the English title for those taking a higher business degree, "Siviløkonom" in Norwegian. In addition, there is, for example, the 'Master of Business Administration' (MBA), a practically oriented master's degree in business, but with less mathematics and econometrics, due to its less specific entry requirements and smaller focus on research.
Pakistan
Pakistan inherited its conventions pertaining to higher education from United Kingdom after independence in 1947. Master of Science degree is typically abbreviated as M.Sc. (as in the United Kingdom) and which is awarded after 16 years of education (equivalent with a bachelor's degree in the US and many other countries). Recently, in pursuance to some of the reforms by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (the regulatory body of higher education in Pakistan), the traditional 2-year Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree has been replaced by the 4-year Bachelor of Science degree, which is abbreviated as B.S. to enable the Pakistani degrees with the rest of the world. Subsequently, students who pass a 4-year B.S. degree that is awarded after 16 years of education are then eligible to apply for M.S. degree, which is considered at par with Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) degree.
Poland
Like all EU member states, Poland follows the Bologna Process. The Polish equivalent of Master of Science is "magister" (abbreviated "mgr", written pre-nominally much like "Dr"). Starting in 2001, the MSc programs typically lasting 5 years began to be replaced as below:
3-year associates programs, (licentiate degree termed "licencjat" in Polish. No abbreviated pre-nominal or title.)
3.5-year engineer programs (termed "inżynier", utilizing the pre-nominal abbreviation "inż.")
2-year master programs open to both "licencjat" and "inż." graduates.
1.5-year master programs open only to "inż." graduates.
The degree is awarded predominantly in the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, economics, as well as in the arts and other disciplines. Those who graduate from an engineering program prior to being awarded a master's degree are allowed to use the "mgr inż." pre-nominal ("master engineer"). This is most common in engineering and agricultural fields of study. Defense of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees in Poland qualify for a doctorate program.
Russia
The title of "master" was introduced by Alexander I at 24 January 1803. The Master had an intermediate position between the candidate and doctor according to the decree "About colleges structure". The master's degree was abolished from 1917 to 1934. Russia follows the Bologna Process for higher education in Europe since 2011.
Spain
Like all EU member states, Spain follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science (MSc) degree is a program officially recognized by the Spanish Ministry of Education. It usually involves 1 or 2 years of full-time study. It is targeted at pre-experience candidates who have recently finished their undergraduate studies. An MSc degree can be awarded in every field of study. An MSc degree is required in order to progress to a PhD. MSci, MPhil and DEA are equivalent in Spain.
Sweden
Like all EU member states, Sweden follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science academic degree has, like in Germany, recently been introduced in Sweden. Students studying Master of Science in Engineering programs are rewarded both the English Master of Science Degree, but also the Swedish equivalent "Teknologisk masterexamen". Whilst "Civilingenjör" is an at least five year long education.
Syria
The Master of Science is a degree that can be studied only in public universities. The program is usually 2 years, but it can be extended to 3 or 4 years. The student is required to pass a specific bachelor's degree to attend a specific Master of Science degree program. The master of science is mostly a research degree, except for some types of programs held with cooperation of foreign universities. The student typically attends courses in the first year of the program and should then prepare a research thesis. Publishing two research papers is recommended and will increase the final evaluation grade.
United Kingdom
The Master of Science (MSc) is typically a taught postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examinations and a project dissertation (normally taking up a third of the program). Master's programs usually involve a minimum of 1 year of full-time study (180 UK credits, of which 150 must be at master's level) and sometimes up to 2 years of full-time study (or the equivalent period part-time). Taught master's degrees are normally classified into Pass, Merit and Distinction (although some universities do not give Merit). Some universities also offer MSc by research programs, where a longer project or set of projects is undertaken full-time; master's degrees by research are normally pass/fail, although some universities may offer a distinction.
The more recent Master in Science (MSci or M.Sci.) degree (Master of Natural Sciences at the University of Cambridge), is an undergraduate (UG) level integrated master's degree offered by UK institutions since the 1990s. It is offered as a first degree with the first three (four in Scotland) years similar to a BSc course and a final year (120 UK credits) at master's level, including a dissertation. The final MSci qualification is thus at the same level as a traditional MSc.
United States
The Master of Science (Magister Scientiæ) degree is normally a full-time two-year degree often abbreviated "MS" or "M.S." It is the primary type in most subjects and may be entirely course-based, entirely research-based or (more typically) a combination of the two. The combination often involves writing and defending a thesis or completing a research project which represents the culmination of the material learned.
Admission to a master's program is normally contingent upon holding a bachelor's degree and progressing to a doctoral program may require a master's degree. In some fields or graduate programs, work on a doctorate can begin immediately after the bachelor's degree. Some programs provide for a joint bachelor's and master's degree after about five years. Some universities use the Latin degree names and due to the flexibility of word order in Latin, Artium Magister (A.M.) or Scientiæ Magister (S.M. or Sc.M.) may be used in some institutions.
See also
Master of Science in Accounting
Master of Science in Administration
Master of Science in Computer Science
Master of Science in Corporate Communication
Master of Science in Economics
Master of Science in Engineering
Master of Science in Finance
Master of Science in Information Systems
Master of Science in Information Technology
Master of Science in Management
Master of Science in Nursing
Master of Science in Occupational Therapy
Master of Science in Project Management
Master of Science in Systems Management
References
Science
Science education | [
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236723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%20of%20Arts%20%28disambiguation%29 | Master of Arts (disambiguation) | A Master of Arts is a high academic degree offered at many universities in Europe, the United States and other countries.
A Master of Arts, Magister Artium, Artium Magister, or Magister in Artibus may also refer to:
Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin), an academic status awarded to holders of a Bachelors of Arts degree at the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, or the University of Dublin (Trinity College)
Master of Arts (Scotland), a first, undergraduate honours degree at the ancient universities of Scotland
Master craftsman, a person who has demonstrated mastery over an art | [
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236724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Oak%20Ridge%20Boys | The Oak Ridge Boys | The Oak Ridge Boys is an American country and gospel vocal quartet. The group was founded in the 1940s as the Oak Ridge Quartet. They became popular in Southern gospel during the 1950s. Their name was changed to the Oak Ridge Boys in the early 1960s, and they remained a gospel group until the mid-1970s, when they changed their image and concentrated on country music.
The lineup that produced their most well-known country and crossover hits (such as "Elvira" (1981), "Bobbie Sue" (1982), and "American Made" (1983) consists of Duane Allen (lead), Joe Bonsall (tenor), William Lee Golden (baritone), and Richard Sterban (bass). Golden and Allen joined the group in the mid-1960s, and Sterban and Bonsall joined in the early 1970s. Aside from an eight-year gap (1987–95) when Golden left the group and was replaced, this lineup has been together since 1973 and continues to tour and record.
History
The Oak Ridge Quartet
The core group that would eventually lead to the Oak Ridge Boys was a country group called Wally Fowler and the Georgia Clodhoppers, formed in 1943 in Knoxville, Tennessee. They were requested to perform for staff members and their families restricted during World War II at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in nearby Oak Ridge, Tennessee. They were asked to sing there so often that, eventually, they changed their name to the Oak Ridge Quartet, and because their most popular songs were gospel, Fowler decided to focus solely on Southern gospel music. At the time, the quartet was made up of Wally Fowler, Lon "Deacon" Freeman, Curly Kinsey, and Johnny New. This group began recording in 1947. Wally Fowler and the Oak Ridge Quartet were members of the Grand Ole Opry in the 1940s. In 1949, the other three men split from Fowler to form a new group, Curley Kinsey and the Tennessee Ridge Runners, so Fowler hired an existing group, the Calvary Quartet, to reform the Oak Ridge Quartet. Walt Cornell sang baritone for the Oak Ridge Quartet in the early 1950s. In 1957, Fowler sold the rights to the "Oak Ridge Quartet" name to group member Smitty Gatlin in exchange for forgiveness of a debt. As a result of more personnel changes, the group lost its tenor, so they lowered their arrangements and had Gatlin sing tenor, while the pianist, Tommy Fairchild, sang lead. They recorded an album for Cadence Records, then in 1958, they hired Willie Wynn to sing the tenor part, and Fairchild moved back exclusively to the piano. At this point, the group consisted of Fairchild at the piano, Wynn, Gatlin (singing lead), baritone Ron Page, and bass Herman Harper. They recorded an album on the Checker Records label, one on Starday, and three on Skylite. In 1961, Gatlin changed the group's name to "the Oak Ridge Boys" because their producer, Bud Praeger, thought "Oak Ridge Quartet" sounded too old-fashioned for their contemporary sound.
1962–1973
In 1962, Ron Page left, and the group hired Gary McSpadden (who had filled in for Jake Hess in the Statesmen Quartet) as baritone with the understanding from Jake Hess that when he was ready to start a group, he would recruit McSpadden. They recorded another album on Skylite, and then two groundbreaking albums on Warner Bros. Records. When Hess followed through on that promise, McSpadden quit to join a new group Hess was forming, the Imperials. Jim Hammill (who later became a mainstay in the Kingsmen Quartet) was chosen to be his replacement. They made one album for Festival Records, one for Stateswood (Skylite's budget label), and two more for Skylite. Hammill did not get along with the rest of the group, and William Lee Golden, a newcomer to the music industry, felt that Hamill was hurting the group and asked the group if he could be Hammil's replacement. After Hamill's retirement from the group in 1964, Golden joined as baritone.
The group recorded another album for Starday and another on Skylite in 1965. In 1966, Gatlin left the group to become a minister of music, and on Golden's recommendation, Duane Allen, formerly of the Southernairs Quartet (and more recently baritone of the Prophets Quartet), was hired to replace him. With Willie Wynn still singing tenor and Herman Harper as bass, the group made another album for Skylite and one for United Artists, and then began recording on the Heart Warming label. Between 1966 and 1973, they made 12 albums with Heart Warming, and the company also released several compilation albums on which they were included during those years. The group also had an album on Vista (Heart Warming's budget label) that included unreleased songs from previous sessions. Harper left the group in 1968 to join the Don Light Talent Agency, before starting his own company, the Harper Agency, which remains one of the most reputable booking agencies in gospel music. Noel Fox, formerly of the Tennesseans and the Harvesters, took over the bass part. In 1970, the Oak Ridge Boys earned their first Grammy Award for "Talk About the Good Times".
In late October 1972, Richard Sterban, the bass with J. D. Sumner and the Stamps Quartet, left that group and joined the Oak Ridge Boys. The quartet that appeared on Hee Haw in 1972 consisted of Willie Wynn, Duane Allen, William Lee Golden, and Richard Sterban. Joe Bonsall, a Philadelphia native who was a member of the Keystone Quartet and recording on Duane Allen's Superior label, joined in April 1973. Sterban and Bonsall had both been in the Keystones during the late 1960s, recording much of the ORB's material. That same year, the Oak Ridge Boys recorded a single with Johnny Cash and the Carter Family, "Praise the Lord and Pass the Soup", that put them on the country charts for the first time. The group's lineup remained consistent for the next 15 years.
1974–1986
In the mid-1970s, the Oak Ridge Boys became involved with prominent country music promoter Jim Halsey, who as their new manager, began encouraging them to move from gospel music to broader country music—the most fundamental change in their history—and began arranging international appearances.
After opening a series of shows for Roy Clark, the group moved in 1973 to the Columbia label, for which they made three albums and several singles. In early 1976, they toured Russia for three weeks with Roy Clark. They went from being one of the top acts on Heart Warming to nearly the bottom on Columbia in terms of promotion. Columbia did not serve the gospel radio stations like Heart Warming did, leaving the impression that the Oak Ridge Boys were leaving gospel music, which hurt the group's popularity among its core fan demographic. While promoting the single "Heaven Bound", the Oak Ridge Boys made appearances on The Mike Douglas Show and The Merv Griffin Show, both nationally syndicated in the United States and Canada. In 1976, despite having been picked by Paul Simon to sing backup on "Slip Slidin' Away", the group asked to be released from its contract with Columbia after its single, "Family Reunion", was only a lukewarm success. Columbia complied with the request, and the band immediately made a live album that was a mix of gospel and country on their own label.
In 1977, the Oak Ridge Boys fully switched from gospel to country with the release of their first ABC Records (later absorbed by MCA) album, Y'all Come Back Saloon. Two songs from that album reached the top five on the country charts, and their next album, Room Service, in 1978, gave them two more, including their first number-one hit, "I'll Be True to You". The Oak Ridge Boys Have Arrived was released in 1979, and Together followed in 1980. A compilation album simply titled Greatest Hits, containing 10 singles from the previous four albums, was released in the fall of 1980. This same year, the Oak Ridge Boys also made a brief cameo appearance on The Dukes of Hazzard (season two, "Granny Annie").
The group's sixth album, Fancy Free, released early in 1981, contained the Dallas Frazier–penned song "Elvira". This remains the group's most widely known song, and Fancy Free is their best-selling album. "Elvira" had been recorded by other artists, including Frazier himself in the late 1960s and the First Edition in 1970, but the Oak Ridge Boys were the first to have a hit with it. Their version of the song was a number-one country hit, and in July 1981 reached number five on the pop charts.
The doo-wop-style title track from Bobbie Sue, their seventh album, was another crossover hit, reaching number one on the country charts and number 12 on the pop charts. That album also spawned the group's first U.S.-released music video, for the song "So Fine". (A video was made for "Easy", from the Y'All Come Back Saloon album, but was never released in the U.S.) The group also recorded The Oak Ridge Boys Christmas album in 1982.
Their album American Made was released in January 1983. The title track was used as a TV advertisement for Miller Beer.
The group recorded three albums over the next three years. The late-1983 album Deliver provided two number-one singles, one of which, "I Guess It Never Hurts to Hurt Sometimes", was written by Randy VanWarmer, who had a hit in 1979 with "Just When I Needed You Most". Their next album was Greatest Hits 2, released in July 1984. Unlike the 1980 Greatest Hits album, this one included two new songs, "Everyday" and "Make My Life With You", both number-one country hits. In 1985, they released their 12th album, Step on Out. The title cut was written by ex-Byrd Chris Hillman and former Crawdaddy magazine editor Peter Knobler. The group recorded two albums in 1986, one of which was a second Christmas album, and in 1987, they recorded a single called "Take Pride in America", which was used in television public service announcements about recycling.
1987–1999
In 1987, Where The Fast Lane Ends was released. It was the first with new producer Jimmy Bowen, and was the group's last album before the 1987 departure of William Lee Golden. Golden was replaced by the band's guitarist, Steve Sanders.
The group released four more albums for MCA, including a third Greatest Hits album that contained a previously unreleased single they had recorded for the Take Pride In America campaign. They moved to RCA Nashville and made three albums there, including Best of the Oak Ridge Boys, which included a single they had made for the My Heroes Have Always Been Cowboys movie soundtrack. The move to RCA did not work out because the person who had signed them there moved to another label shortly thereafter, and his replacement wanted to promote Alabama more than the Oak Ridge Boys. They switched again and signed with Liberty Records, (Capitol's Nashville-based label), for which they made their third Christmas album.
Baritone Steve Sanders was replaced by Duane Allen's son, Dee, with occasional help from his brother-in-law Paul Martin. (Martin had previously replaced J.P. Pennington as lead singer of Exile in the early 1990s until that band's disbanding.) At midnight on New Year's Day 1996, at the Star Plaza Theatre in Merrillville, Indiana, Golden returned to the group. That year, they made a two-disc gospel set, Revival (their first full gospel album since 1976) with Leon Russell producing. This was sold on TV and later by the Oak Ridge Boys themselves at concerts and through the mail. In 1998, Sanders died by suicide.
Over the next few years, the group collaborated on an album with polka instrumentalist Jimmy Sturr and then made an album for Platinum Records called Voices.
2000–present
After nearly a decade of dealing with problems such as labels that had little interest in promoting The Oak Ridge Boys, studio breakdowns, and sluggish sales, the group's fortunes changed when they signed with Spring Hill Records in 2000. In the first four years of teaming with Dove Award-winning producer Michael Sykes, the quartet released a full-length gospel album (From The Heart), their fourth Christmas album (Inconvenient Christmas), a patriotic album (Colors), a bluegrass album (The Journey), and a quasi-compilation, titled Common Thread, containing newly recorded versions of older gospel songs, as well as material from 2004's The Journey. Another Christmas album, Christmas Cookies, followed in 2005. In 2006, the group completed the album, Front Row Seats, a return to mainstream country music with modern, aggressive arrangements and song selection. The project spawned a minor top-40 hit with "It's Hard to Be Cool in a Mini-Van".
In June 2007, they returned to their namesake, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. They were the featured performers at the Secret City Festival and were given a tour of the Y-12 National Security Complex's historic Calutrons (used to separate the uranium 235 for Little Boy, the first atomic bomb used in warfare). While there, a street was renamed the Oak Ridge Boys Way in their honor.
Also in 2007, the group appeared on Shooter Jennings' (son of Waylon Jennings) album The Wolf. This pairing led to The Boys Are Back, released on May 19, 2009, and named for the title song written by Shooter Jennings. The project debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Top Country Albums Chart and number 77 on the Billboard Top 200. The album was produced by Dave Cobb, who was introduced to the group by Shooter Jennings. Reviews were mixed, but most praised the cover of "Seven Nation Army" by The White Stripes; 2010 was just as busy, including a cameo appearance on the History Channel show Pawn Stars episode "Packing Heat", which aired on December 13, 2010.
During the July 8, 2011, performance of the Friday Night Opry, Little Jimmy Dickens announced that the Oak Ridge Boys would become the newest members of the Grand Ole Opry, effective August 6, 2011.
In September 2011, the quartet released It's Only Natural through Cracker Barrel Old Country Store's music label. The album debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Country albums chart, remaining in the country top 40 for nearly two months. It contains 12 tracks - five new songs and seven re-recorded hits from the late 1980s. The first single off the album is "What-cha Gonna Do". A special 30th-anniversary re-recording of "Elvira" is featured on the album, as well.
In 2012, the group released two new studio albums. In May, they made a return to their Southern gospel roots with the release of Back Home Again. Along with gospel standards, the group covered John Denver's "Back Home Again" and Dolly Parton's "Coat of Many Colors". The album, featuring mostly acoustic arrangements, was produced by Ben Isaacs (of The Isaacs). In September of the same year, Christmas Time's A-Coming, the group's sixth Christmas project, was released through Gaither Music Group, and was also a featured title at Cracker Barrel Old Country Stores. The project features traditional standards, both secular and spiritual, as well as new material.
In 2013, The Oak Ridge Boys celebrated the 40th anniversary of the current lineup of members with a special 40th-Anniversary Tour, commemorative CD project, an Oak Ridge Boys-themed cruise, and a network television special.
The Oak Ridge Boys released their first-ever live hits album Boys Night Out in April 2014 through Cleopatra Records. In an interview, Joe Bonsall said, "Here it is live and kicking with the audience singing with us. It's totally updated and different. I think for our real fans, this is going to be a gigantic treat, because our fans have clamored for a live album for years, and for people who don't know us or don't know us as well, to listen to this makes them go, "Oh wow, these guys are still sounding great, holy cow." I think it's going to be a good project for us all around."
On August 21, 2015, they revealed a collaboration recording of their hit "Elvira". This collaboration was recorded with Sing-Off-winning, country a cappella group Home Free, who uploaded the video to their YouTube channel. The video was an instant hit, reaching 90,000 views within the first 20 hours of it being uploaded.
On October 25, 2015, the Oak Ridge Boys were inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame during the Medallion Ceremony, in the category of modern-era artists. It was presented by Kenny Rogers (a previous inductee).
In 2017, the Oak Ridge Boys joined Third Day at the legendary FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama, to record a cover version of Paul Simon's "Loves Me Like A Rock" for the Third Day album, Revival.
In September 2018, the Oak Ridge Boys wrote a variation of their hit song "Elvira", in collaboration with the Tennessee Titans, named Titans Code of Conduct. Although the lyrics were drastically changed, the melody stays the same.
In December 2018, the Oak Ridge Boys attended the funeral of the 41st President of the United States, George H. W. Bush, in Houston, Texas, and sang "Amazing Grace" during the service.
On October 4, 2019, The Oak Ridge Boys announced their partnership with AARP and the U.S. Department of Justice to help raise awareness of elder fraud.
Discography
Personnel
William Lee Golden – Baritone (1965–87; 1995–)
Duane Allen – Lead (1966–)
Richard Sterban – Bass (1972–)
Joe Bonsall – Tenor (1973–)
Former
Curly Kinsey – Bass (1945–47)
Lon "Deacon" Freeman – Baritone/guitar (1945–49)
Wally Fowler – Lead (1945–52)
Little Johnny New – Tenor (1945–49; 1952)
Monroe (Curley) Blaylock – Bass (1947–49)
Bob Weber – Bass (1949–56)
Pat Patterson – Baritone (1949–52) lead (1952–53)
Joe Allred – Tenor (1949–52; 1962–54)
Bob Prather – Baritone (1952)
Carlos Cook – Lead (1952–53) baritone (1953–68)
Calvin Newton – Lead (1953–56)
Cat Freeman – Tenor (1954–56)
Les Roberson – Baritone (1955–56)
Ron Page – Bass (1956)
Bill Smith – Bass (1957)
Ronnie Page – Baritone (1957–62)
Smitty Gatlin – Lead (1957–58; 1959–66) tenor (1958–59)
Hobert Evans – Tenor (1957–58)
Wallace "Happy" Edwards – Tenor fill-in (1958)
Bobby Clark – Tenor (1958)
Tommy Fairchild – Lead (1958–59)
Herman Harper – Bass (1957–69)
Little Willie Wynn – Tenor (1959–73)
Gary McSpadden – Baritone (1962–63)
Big Jim Hamill – Baritone (1963–64)
Noel Fox – Bass (1969–72)
Steve Sanders – Baritone (1987–95)
Dee Allen – Baritone fill-in (late 1995)
Paul Martin – Baritone fill-in (late 1995)
Band
Boyce Hawkins – Piano (1949)
Bobby Whitfield – Piano (1950–52; 1954–1956)
Glen Allred – Guitar / vocals (1951–52)
Powell Hassell – Piano (1957–58)
Tommy Fairchild – Piano (1959–60; 1961–72)
Gary Trusler – Piano (1960)
James Goss – Piano (1960)
Mark Ellerbee – Drums (1969–79)
Marty Twinkles Glisson – Piano (1976 [?])
Don Breland – Bass guitar (197?–87)
Skip Mitchell – Guitar (1976–86)
Pete Cummings -Lead Guitar (1980-1983)
John Rich – Guitar and steel (1972–75)
Tony Brown – Piano and keyboards (1972–75)
Garland Craft – Piano (1975–81)
Michael Saleem - Drums (1979–80)
Fred Satterfield - Drums (1980–96)
Paul Urick – Bass guitar (1987–early 1990s [?])
Chris Nole – Keyboard (2009–12)
Dewey Dorough – Saxophone, harmonica (1982–2000)
Ron Fairchild – Keyboard (1980–2001, 2002–09, fill-in 2009–12, 2013–present)
Chris Golden – Acoustic guitar/mandolin (1995) drums (1996–2014)
Don Carr – Lead guitar (1991–2014)
Jimmy Fulbright – Keyboard (2001) bass guitar (2003–12)
Rex Wiseman – Various instruments (2006–present)
Jeff Douglas – Guitar and dobro (1995–present)
Scotty Simpson – Bass guitar (2013–present)
David Northup – Percussion/drums (2014–2017)
Roger Eaton- Lead Guitar (2014–present)
Austin Curcuruto – Percussion/drums (2017–present)
Timeline
Awards and honors
Academy of Country Music Awards
1978: Top Vocal Group
1981: Single of the Year – "Elvira"
Country Music Association Awards
1978: Instrumental Group of the Year
1978: Vocal Group of the Year
1981: Single of the Year – "Elvira"
1986: Instrumental Group of the Year
GMA Dove Awards
1969: Album of the Year – It's Happening
1970: Male Group of the Year
1972: Male Group of the Year
1972: Album of the Year – Light
1973: Album of the Year – Street Gospel
2002: Country Album of the Year – From The Heart
2007: Country Song of the Year – "Jonah, Job and Moses"
2010: Long Form Music Video of the Year – A Gospel Journey
Grammy Awards
1971: Best Gospel Performance (other than soul) – "Talk About the Good Times"
1974: Best Gospel Performance (other than soul) – "Baptism of Jesse Taylor"
1977: Best Gospel Performance (other than soul) – "Where the Soul Never Dies"
1978: Best Traditional Gospel Performance – Just a Little Talk with Jesus
1982: Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal – Elvira
Other honors
2000: Inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame
2001: Received the Silver Buffalo award from the Boy Scouts of America
2015: Inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame
References
External links
'The Oak Ridge Boys' Vocal Group Hall of Fame Page
Oak Ridge Boys biography at the Country Music Television website
Southern Gospel History: Oak Ridge Boys
1947 establishments in Tennessee
Country music groups from Tennessee
American gospel musical groups
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Gospel quartets
Grammy Award winners
Grand Ole Opry members
Music of East Tennessee
Musical groups established in 1947
Musical quartets
MCA Records artists
RCA Records Nashville artists
Southern gospel performers
Starday Records artists
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236730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BS | BS | BS, B.S., Bs or bs may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
BS-, a prefix for all games broadcast for the Satellaview modem via the Japanese Broadcasting Satellite system
"B.S." (song), a song by Jhené Aiko from the album Chilombo
Team BS, French music collective founded by La Fouine that includes Fababy, Sultan and Sindy
NHK's satellite broadcaster mark, NHK-BS
Backstage (magazine)
Baritone saxophone, a musical instrument
Bullshit (card game), a card game
Businesses and organizations
, a bank in Spain
, a bank headquartered in Spain
Beijing Subway, a transit system
BellSouth, a United States telephone company
("Cipher Bureau"), a Polish cryptography and signals intelligence agency known for its work on German Enigma ciphers in the 1930s
Boy Scouts; see scouting
British International Helicopters (IATA code BS)
British Shipbuilders, a public corporation founded in 1977
British Standards, produced by BSI Group
British Sugar, a division of Associated British Foods
Building surveyor, a professional in the construction industry concerned with setting out reference points and markers
In finance
Venezuelan , currency of Venezuela
Bolivian , currency of Bolivia
Places
BS postcode area, in Bristol, England
The Bahamas, by ISO 2-letter country code
.bs, country-code Top Level Domain for the Bahamas
, a city in Slovakia with the vehicle registration plate BS
, a Swiss canton, officially abbreviated to BS
or (), a city in the Southern District of Israel
, a town in Germany, also known in English as Brunswick, with the vehicle registration plate BS
, a city and province of Italy with the vehicle registration plate BS
, a city in Poland with the vehicle registration plate BS
In science and technology
Computing and telecommunications
Bs (programming language)
Backspace, and the backspace control character in the C0 control code set
Base transceiver station, or base station, a node in a mobile telephony network
Bubble sort, a sorting algorithm
Boot sector, a memory region containing machine code, generally used for booting an operating system
BotServ, an IRC bot server
BraveSentry, a clone of the SpySheriff malware program
Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese), a system of Japanese communication satellites
Medicine
Bachelor of Surgery, an academic degree
Bernard–Soulier syndrome, a rare autosomal recessive coagulopathy, that is caused a deficiency of glycoprotein Ib
Bartter syndrome, a rare inherited disease which results in hypokalemia
Other uses in science and technology
Bachelor of Science, an academic degree
Behavioural sciences
Brake-specific fuel consumption, a measure of engine fuel efficiency
Bright Star Catalogue, which lists all stars of stellar magnitude 6.5 or brighter
Bronshtein and Semendyayev, a handbook of mathematics
In sport
The Bs, a 19th-century cricket team
British Showjumping, the governing body for showjumping in Great Britain
Blocked Shot, in basketball statistics, see Block (basketball)
Blown Save, in baseball statistics, see Save (baseball)
Other uses
Bullshit, a phrase denoting something worthless
Bengali Sambat, used to mark years in the Bengali calendar
Big Sister (disambiguation)
Bikram Sambat, a calendar used in Nepal
Bosnian language (ISO 639 alpha-2 code bs)
Broad Street (disambiguation)
Bronze Star Medal, a United States military award
(Institute of consecrated life), a Roman Catholic monastic Order
See also
B (disambiguation), where "Bs" may refer to the plural of "B" | [
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236732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolapse | Prolapse | In medicine, prolapse is a condition in which organs fall down or slip out of place. It is used for organs protruding through the vagina, rectum, or for the misalignment of the valves of the heart. A spinal disc herniation is also sometimes called "disc prolapse". Prolapse means "to fall out of place", from the Latin meaning "to fall out".
Relating to the uterus, prolapse condition results in an inferior extension of the organ into the vagina, caused by weakened pelvic muscles.
Humans
Heart valve prolapse
The main type of prolapse of heart valves in humans is mitral valve prolapse (MVP), which is a valvular heart disease characterized by the displacement of an abnormally thickened mitral valve leaflet into the left atrium during systole.
Tricuspid valve prolapse can cause tricuspid regurgitation.
Rectal prolapse
Rectal prolapse is a condition in which part of the wall or the entire wall of the rectum falls out of place. Rectal prolapse can be a medical emergency. In some cases, the rectum may protrude.
Symptoms of a rectal prolapse may be:
Leakage of stool Bleeding, anal pain, itching, irritation
Tissue that protrudes from the rectum
A surgeon may operate through the abdomen to secure part of the large intestine or rectum to the inside of the abdominal cavity (rectopexy). Sometimes the surgeon removes the affected part of the intestine.
Surgery also can be done through the perineum (the area between the genitals and the anus) to remove the prolapsing tissue.
Surgery is most often successful for people who still have some control over their bowel movements. If the anal sphincter is damaged, surgery may correct the prolapse but not be able to completely correct fecal incontinence (lack of control of bowel movements). Fecal incontinence can both potentially improve or deteriorate after prolapse surgery.
If the lining has fallen out of the anus and is around 7 cm or less, it should eventually retract back inside naturally, though the retraction can take up to four days.
Female genital prolapse
Uterine prolapse (or Pelvic organ prolapse) occurs when the female pelvic organs fall from their normal position, into or through the vagina. Occurring in women of all ages, it is more common as women age, particularly in those who have delivered large babies or had exceedingly long pushing phases of labor. Smoking, obesity, connective tissue disorders, upper respiratory disorders‚ and repetitive strain injuries can all increase prolapse risk. Minor prolapse can be treated with exercises to strengthen the pelvic floor muscles (pelvic physiotherapy); more serious prolapse, e.g., complete procidentia, requires pessary use or reconstructive surgical treatment. Reconstructive pelvic prolapse surgery may be done without resorting to complete hysterectomy by hysteropexy, the resuspension of the prolapsed uterus. Traditional gynecologic practice favors removal of the uterus or ovaries (or both) at the time of prolapse surgery, and one estimate states that of the 600,000 hysterectomies performed in the United States every year, 13 percent are for prolapse. However, there is concern that many of these hysterectomies may be unnecessary and that hysteropexy would suffice as a treatment instead.
Pelvic floor prolapse
The rectum or urinary bladder may prolapse as a result of changes in the integrity of connective tissue in the posterior or anterior vaginal walls, respectively, resulting in pelvic floor prolapse. Symptoms may include a feeling of pressure in the pelvis, or the visible protrusion of organs from the vagina. Prolapse is almost never painful, but the change in position of organs may cause urinary or bowel symptoms.
Pessaries are a treatment option for pelvic organ prolapse.
Umbilical cord prolapse
Umbilical cord prolapse occurs when the umbilical cord comes out of the uterus with or before the presenting part of the fetus. It is a relatively rare condition and occurs in fewer than 1% of pregnancies. Cord prolapse is more common in women who have had rupture of their amniotic sac. Other risk factors include maternal or fetal factors that prevent the fetus from occupying a normal position in the maternal pelvis, such as abnormal fetal lie, too much amniotic fluid, or a premature or small fetus. The concern with cord prolapse is that pressure on the cord from the fetus will cause cord compression that compromises blood flow to the fetus. Whenever there is a sudden decrease in fetal heart rate or abnormal fetal heart tracing, umbilical cord prolapse should be considered. Due to the possibility for fetal death and other complications, umbilical cord prolapse is considered an obstetric emergency during pregnancy or labor. Current management guidelines focus on quick delivery, which usually entails a cesarean section. With appropriate management, the majority of cases have good neonatal outcomes.
Other species
Reptiles
Genital prolapse has been reported in snakes and turtles.
Birds
Oviduct prolapse is an often fatal condition in birds. When an egg is laid, the vagina everts through the cloaca to deliver the egg. Large eggs and avian obesity are contributors to this condition. Immediate veterinary assistance is paramount to the survival of a bird with prolapse. Even with immediate medical intervention the chances for survival are usually uncertain. Untreated birds will begin to tear at the injury site, and other flockmates will begin to cannibalize the prolapse area, a behaviour commonly known as pickout.
Cattle
Prolapsed uterus in cattle, particularly dairy cattle, generally occurs in the first 12 hours post-calving. Frequent causes are hypocalcemia combined with irritation of the birth canal, causing straining. Replacement of the protrusion, which can range from the size of a softball to the hanging of the entire uterus down below the hocks, is performed with the cow in sternal recumbency, an epidural injection, and hindlimbs 'frogged' rearwards to allow the pelvis to tip forward, easing replacement. Careful washing and cleaning prior to replacement is important as is ensuring that the horns are completely everted once inside the cow. Often a Buhner suture is placed in the vulva to prevent subsequent reprolapse. Another type of reproductive prolapse in cattle is so-called bovine vaginal prolapse.
Sheep
Same as in cows.
Pigs
Rectal prolapse is a condition routinely identified in pigs on farms and at slaughterhouses. If not reduced quickly, prolapses in pigs become necrotic and infected, and risk being cannibalized by other pen mates. If the latter happens it normally results in death of the animal by sepsis, shock or faecal peritonitis.
Horses and mules
Rectal prolapse occurring in horse and mule would be better termed anal prolapse', as it only involves mucous membrane moving posteriorly to form a circular protrusion outside the anus The condition is not painful.
In mares after parturition, it is described as a 10 to 60 mm mucous protrusion.
In young mules and foals, anal prolapse occurs with a frequency similar to that of Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis''. In extensive breeding conditions, the disease is only recognized after some days, leading to intense edema of prolapsed tissues and necrosis of the mucous membrane.
Early cases in should be treated with the application of hygroscopic substances like powdered sugar followed by purse-string suturing. When prolapsed tissues are edematous and necrotic, amputation is performed. The prognosis is fair as the removed tissues do not contain any important organs or large blood vessels.
References
External links
Anatomical pathology
Surgery | [
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236736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Godolphin | Mary Godolphin | Mary Godolphin is the name of:
Mary Godolphin, Duchess of Leeds (died 1992)
Mary Godolphin (writer) (1781–1864), author | [
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236746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington%20Gardens | Kensington Gardens | Kensington Gardens, once the private gardens of Kensington Palace, are among the Royal Parks of London. The gardens are shared by the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and sit immediately to the west of Hyde Park, in western central London. The gardens cover an area of 107 hectares (265 acres). The open spaces of Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, Green Park, and St. James's Park together form an almost continuous "green lung" in the heart of London. Kensington Gardens are Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.
Background and location
Kensington Gardens are generally regarded as being the western extent of the neighbouring Hyde Park from which they were originally taken, with West Carriage Drive (The Ring) and the Serpentine Bridge forming the boundary between them. The Gardens are fenced and more formal than Hyde Park. Kensington Gardens are open only during the hours of daylight, whereas Hyde Park is open from 5 am until midnight all year round.
Kensington Gardens has been long regarded as "smart" because of its more private character around Kensington Palace. However, in the late 19th century, Hyde Park was considered more "fashionable," because of its location nearer to Park Lane and Knightsbridge.
History
Kensington Gardens was originally the western section of Hyde Park, which had been created by Henry VIII in 1536 to use as a hunting ground. It was separated from the remainder of Hyde Park in 1728 at the request of Queen Caroline and designed by Henry Wise and Charles Bridgeman in order to form a landscape garden, with fashionable features including the Round Pond, formal avenues and a sunken Dutch garden.
Bridgeman created the Serpentine between 1726 and 1731 by damming the eastern outflow of the River Westbourne from Hyde Park. The part of the Serpentine that lies within Kensington Gardens is known as "The Long Water". At its north-western end (originally the inflow of the River Westbourne), in an area known as "The Italian Garden", there are four fountains and a number of classical sculptures. At the foot of the Italian Gardens is a parish boundary marker, delineating the boundary between Paddington and St George Hanover Square parishes, on the exact centre of the Westbourne river. Kensington Gardens were opened to the public in 1841.
Buildings and monuments
The land surrounding Kensington Gardens was predominantly rural and remained largely undeveloped until the Great Exhibition in 1851. Many of the original features survive along with the Palace, and there are other public buildings such as the Albert Memorial (at the south-east corner of Kensington Gardens, opposite the Royal Albert Hall), Queen Caroline's Temple, the Serpentine Gallery, and Speke's monument. Queen Victoria had commissioned the Italian Gardens and the Albert Memorial during a series of improvements.
Another feature is the bronze statue of Peter Pan by George Frampton standing on a pedestal covered with climbing squirrels, rabbits and mice. It is also home to the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Playground and a seven-mile Memorial Walk. A statue of Queen Victoria sculpted by her daughter, Princess Louise, to celebrate 50 years of her mother's rule stands outside Kensington Palace. The park also contains the Elfin Oak, an elaborately carved 900-year-old tree stump.
In popular culture
The park is the setting of J. M. Barrie's book Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, a prelude to the character's famous adventures in Neverland. The fairies of the gardens are first described in Thomas Tickell's 1722 poem Kensington Gardens. Both the book and the character are honoured with the Peter Pan statue by George Frampton located in the park.
Rodrigo Fresán's novel Kensington Gardens concerns in part the life of J. M. Barrie and of his creation Peter Pan, and their relationship with the park, as well as the narrator's own.
The opening scene of Wilkie Collins’s story "Mrs. Zant and the Ghost" (1887) takes place in Kensington Gardens – the section that "remains nearest to the old Palace of Kensington."
The Infocom interactive fiction game Trinity begins in the Kensington Gardens. The player can walk around many sections of the gardens, which are described in moderate detail.
Gallery
See also
List of public art in Kensington Gardens
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
The Garden a poem by Ezra Pound set in Kensington Gardens
Royal Parks of London
Parks and open spaces in the City of Westminster
Parks and open spaces in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea
1728 establishments in Great Britain
Grade I listed parks and gardens in London | [
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236747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20Land%20Survey%20System | Public Land Survey System | The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) is the surveying method developed and used in the United States to plat, or divide, real property for sale and settling. Also known as the Rectangular Survey System, it was created by the Land Ordinance of 1785 to survey land ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, following the end of the American Revolution. Beginning with the Seven Ranges in present-day Ohio, the PLSS has been used as the primary survey method in the United States. Following the passage of the Northwest Ordinance in 1787, the Surveyor General of the Northwest Territory platted lands in the Northwest Territory. The Surveyor General was later merged with the General Land Office, which later became a part of the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Today, the BLM controls the survey, sale, and settling of lands acquired by the United States.
History
Originally proposed by Thomas Jefferson to create a nation of "yeoman farmers", the PLSS began shortly after the American Revolutionary War, when the federal government became responsible for large areas of land west of the original thirteen states. The government wished both to distribute land to Revolutionary War soldiers in reward for their services and to sell land as a way of raising money for the nation. Before this could happen, the land needed to be surveyed.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 marks the beginning of the Public Land Survey System. The Confederation Congress was deeply in debt following the Declaration of Independence. With little power to tax, the federal government decided to use the sale of the Western Territories to pay off war debt. The PLSS has been expanded and slightly modified by Letters of Instruction and Manuals of Instruction, issued by the General Land Office and the Bureau of Land Management and continues in use in most of the states west of Pennsylvania, south to Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi, west to the Pacific Ocean, and north into the Arctic in Alaska.
Origins
The original colonies (including their derivatives Maine, Vermont, Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia) continued the British system of metes and bounds. This system describes property lines based on local markers and bounds drawn by humans, often based on topography. A typical, yet simple, description under this system might read "From the point on the north bank of Muddy Creek one mile above the junction of Muddy and Indian Creeks, north for 400 yards, then northwest to the large standing rock, west to the large oak tree, south to Muddy Creek, then down the center of the creek to the starting point."
Particularly in New England, this system was supplemented by drawing town plats. The metes and bounds system was used to describe a town of a generally rectangular shape, on a side. Within this boundary, a map or plat was maintained that showed all the individual lots or properties.
There are some difficulties with this system:
Irregular shapes for properties make for much more complex descriptions.
Over time, these descriptions become problematic as trees die or streams move by erosion.
It was not useful for the large, newly surveyed tracts of land being opened in the west, which were being sold sight unseen to investors.
In the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizing the United States, Britain also recognized American rights to the land south of the Great Lakes and west to the Mississippi River. The Continental Congress passed the Land Ordinance of 1785 and then the Northwest Ordinance in 1787 to control the survey, sale, and settling of the new lands. The original 13 colonies donated their western lands to the new union, for the purpose of giving land for new states. These include the lands that formed the Northwest Territory, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi. The state that gave up the most was Virginia, whose original claim included most of the Northwest Territory and Kentucky. Some of the western land was claimed by more than one state, especially in the northwest, where parts were claimed by Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut, all three of which had claimed lands all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
Application
The first surveys under the new rectangular system were in eastern Ohio in an area called the Seven Ranges. The Beginning Point of the U.S. Public Land Survey is located at a point on the Ohio-Pennsylvania border between East Liverpool, Ohio, and Ohioville, Pennsylvania, on private property. A National Historic Landmark marker commemorating the site lies on the side of a state highway, exactly to the north of the point.
Ohio was surveyed in several major subdivisions, collectively described as the Ohio Lands, each with its own meridian and baseline. The early surveying, particularly in Ohio, was performed with more speed than care, with the result that many of the oldest townships and sections vary considerably from their prescribed shape and area. Proceeding westward, accuracy became more of a consideration than rapid sale, and the system was simplified by establishing one major north–south line (principal meridian) and one east–west (base) line that control descriptions for an entire state or more. For example, a single Willamette Meridian serves both Oregon and Washington. County lines frequently follow the survey, so there are many rectangular counties in the Midwest and the West.
Non-PLSS regions
The system is in use in some capacity in most of the country, but large portions use other systems. The territory under the jurisdiction of the Thirteen Colonies at the time of independence did not adopt the PLSS, with the exception of the area that became the Northwest Territory and some of the southern states. This territory comprises Georgia, Connecticut, Delaware, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia. The old Cherokee lands in Georgia use the term section as a land designation, but it does not define the same area as the section used by the PLSS. Maine uses a variant of the system in unsettled parts of the state. Parts of Texas, western New York, northwest Pennsylvania, western Georgia, western Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Maine use state-developed survey systems similar to PLSS.
Other major exceptions to PLSS are:
California, before statehood in 1850, was only crudely surveyed with the boundaries of Spanish and Mexican land grants (ranchos); since statehood the PLSS was used to convey government lands.
Georgia surveyed its remaining central and western lands into a grid of land lots. Most were surveyed from 1819 through 1821 immediately upon the cession of all former Spanish lands to the U.S.
Hawaii adopted a system based on the Kingdom of Hawaii native system in place at the time of annexation.
Louisiana recognizes early French and Spanish descriptions called arpents, particularly in the southern part of the state, as well as PLSS descriptions.
Alabama recognizes Spanish-era land claims, especially near the coast.
New Mexico uses the PLSS but has several areas that retain original metes and bounds from Spanish and Mexican rule. These take the form of land grants similar to areas of Texas and California. As an extension, there are some New Mexico based Mexican land grants in south central Colorado.
Ohio's Virginia Military District was surveyed using the metes and bounds system. Areas in northern Ohio (the Connecticut Western Reserve and United States Military District) were surveyed with another standard, sometimes referred to as Congressional Survey townships, which are five miles (8 km) on each side instead of the six miles standard implemented by the PLSS. Hence, there are 25 sections per township there, rather than 36.
Texas has a hybrid of its own early system, based on Spanish land grants, and a variation of the PLSS.
Wisconsin had French settlement prior to the PLSS in the areas of Green Bay and Prairie du Chien. Both have small amounts of the long, narrow French lots along some water frontage.
Michigan had French settlement prior to the PLSS along the Detroit and St. Clair rivers, and near Sault Ste. Marie, Marquette, and Ypsilanti. These are all examples of the French "long lots".
Parts of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Wyoming were settled as Donation Land Claims. Some were established before the Willamette Meridian, and those established after were often poorly surveyed and did not correspond to the PLSS.
Survey design and execution
Commonly used terms
Aliquot part: A terse, hierarchical reference to a piece of land, in which successive subdivisions of some larger area are appended to the beginning of the reference. For example, SW1/4 NW1/4 S13, T1SR20E refers to the southwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section 13 of Township 1 South Range 20 East (a 40-acre parcel). See further discussion below.
Base Line: A parallel of latitude, referenced to and established from a designated initial point, upon which all rectangular surveys in a defined area are based. Also spelled baseline.
BLM: Bureau of Land Management, the successor agency to the General Land Office
Cadastral: Having to do with the boundaries of land parcels.
Corner: The point of intersection of any two actual or potential survey lines, defining one corner of a rectangular land parcel.
Lot: A subdivision of a section which is not an aliquot part of the section but which is designated separately. A lot is typically irregular in shape, and its acreage varies from that of regular aliquot parts.
Initial point: The starting point for a survey; the intersection point of the Principal meridian and the Base line in a given region.
Land grant: Historically a land grant is an area of land to which title was conferred by a predecessor government, usually English/British, Spanish or Mexican, and confirmed by the U.S federal courts after the territory was acquired by the United States.
Monumentation: Placement and/or marking of physical objects on the ground to mark survey points and lines.
Original survey: The first official government survey in a given area. Unless fraud is proven, the original survey is legally valid and binding, regardless of any surveying errors that may have occurred. All subsequent subdivision, sale, etc. must proceed from the original survey. In the United States, most original surveys were done under contract with the General Land Office.
Principal meridian (PM): A true meridian running through an initial point, which together with the baseline form the highest level framework for all rectangular surveys in a given area. The list of all principal meridians is given below.
Public domain (land): Land owned and managed by the Federal government. Synonymous with public lands. National Parks and National Forests are a large part of the public domain land today. The original public domain included the lands that were turned over to the Federal Government by the original thirteen states and areas acquired from the native Indian tribes or foreign powers.
Range (Rng, R): A measure of the distance east or west from a referenced principal meridian, in units of six miles.
Section: An approximately one-square-mile block of land. There are 36 sections in a survey township.
Township (Twp, T): A square parcel of land of 36 square miles, or a measure of the distance north or south from a referenced baseline, in units of six miles.
Witness: Any marker set on the ground that marks or represents some other nearby object or location of surveying importance, such as a corner. For example, a bearing tree is a witness to a survey corner.
Design
The surveying of any regional area, such as a state or multiple states, is a multi-step process. First, two controlling survey lines are established: a baseline which runs east–west and a principal meridian which runs north–south. The locations of the two are determined by a previously chosen initial point, where they originate and thus intersect. Next, at a defined distance interval, commonly 24 or depending on the year and location, standard parallels of latitude are established parallel to the baseline. The meridian, baseline and standard parallels thus established form a lattice upon which all further surveying is then based. Subsequent work divides the land into survey townships of roughly or on each side. This is done by the establishment of township and range lines. Township lines run parallel to the baseline (east-west), while range lines run north–south; each are established at 6-mile intervals. Lastly, townships are subdivided into 36 sections of approximately and sections into four quarter-sections of each. The intersection of a township line (or baseline) with a range line (or principal meridian) constitutes a township corner, of a section line with any other type of line a section corner, and a point halfway between any two section corners a quarter corner. The federal government typically surveyed only to this quarter-section level, the subdivision of smaller parcels being carried out subsequently by private surveyors after original sale.
Because the survey design is two-dimensional (rectangular), while the actual earth is three-dimensional (approximately spherical and topographically), adjustments to land areas must be made periodically to prevent error propagation; not all sections can be one square mile nor can all townships be exactly 36 square miles. More specifically, all north–south running lines (all range lines and half of all section lines), as with the prime meridian, are always established with reference to true, geodetic north. But it is a physical impossibility to meet this condition and still maintain a rectangular land grid, because such lines converge on the north pole.
These adjustments are done at two different scales. At the small scale (within a township) it is done by starting the sectional surveys (township "subdivisions") in the southeast corner and moving progressively toward the northwest corner. The algorithm used is to move northward to establish the six easternmost sections (and quarter-sections), then move west at one mile intervals, parallel to the eastern boundary of the township, repeating this process, until the western side of the township is reached. The result of this is that the northernmost and westernmost tiers of sections—11 in all—are thus allowed to deviate from one square mile, but the other (southeasterly-most) 25 sections are not. This method accommodates the curvature problem within a township and also allows for any errors made during the surveying—which were nearly unavoidable because of the physical difficulty of the work and the crude equipment used—without overly compromising the basic rectangular nature of the system as a whole. At the larger multiple township scale, the standard parallels developed at the establishment of the baseline, so that townships widths do not continually decrease as the grid proceeds north (and is in fact the primary reason for their establishment). Thus, corrections for curvature of the earth exist at two separate spatial scales—a smaller scale within townships and a larger scale between multiple townships and within standard parallels.
A specific and terse location descriptor is always used, in which the townships and sections are indexed based on (1) the township's position relative to the initial point, (2) the section's location within the designated township, and (3) the principal meridian reference. Township, range, and section are abbreviated as T, R, and S, respectively, and cardinal bearings from the initial point by N, S, E, and W; each principal meridian also has its established abbreviation. Thus, for example, the description "T1SR20E S13 MDM" reads as follows: Township 1 South, Range 20 East, Section 13, Mount Diablo Meridian. That is, the 13th section in the first township south of the baseline (in this case, the Mount Diablo Baseline) and the 20th township east of the principal meridian (the Mount Diablo Meridian). Since township and range lines are six miles apart, the "T1SR20E" part of the designation instantly places the location somewhere between zero and six miles south of the baseline, and 114 and 120 miles east of the principal meridian. Knowing how sections are numbered within townships, section 13 is identified as therefore occupying the one square mile located 2 to 3 miles south, and 119 to 120 miles east, of the Mount Diablo initial point (in central California). Note that the sections within a township are numbered in an unconventional, Boustrophedon pattern (Fig. 2), in which alternating rows are numbered in opposite directions, starting from section 1 in the northeast corner and ending with section 36 in the southeast corner, as per Figure 2. Therefore, section 13 is adjacent to the eastern range line of the designated township. Numbering in this pattern ensures that numerically sequential sections within the same township are physically adjacent and share colinear boundaries.
Measurement
Distances were always measured in chains and links, based on Edmund Gunter's 66-foot measuring chain. The chain – an actual metal chain – was made up of 100 links, each being long. Eighty chains constitute one U.S. survey mile (which differs from the international mile by a few millimeters). There were two chainmen, one at each end, who physically made the measurements, one of them typically also acting as "compassman" to establish the correct bearing at each chain placement. In forested areas, it was essential for rapid progress and accuracy that the lead chainman follow the correct bearing at all times, since no straightening of the chain was possible without backtracking around trees and re-measuring. It was also necessary to keep the chain level, since all surveying distances are based on the horizontal, not slope, distance. In steep terrain, this meant shortening the chain, raising one end of the chain relative to the other, or both. In areas where measuring by chain was not possible, such as extremely steep terrain or water obstructions, distances were calculated by triangulation.
Monumentation
Monumentation is the establishment of permanent on-the-ground objects that mark exact locations of surveyed points and lines. They are the legally binding markers used for setting property lines and as such are the culminating work of any survey. They consist of both corner monuments as well as nearby accessory objects that "witness" to them. Witness objects allow subsequent surveyors and landowners to find the original corner monument location should the monument be destroyed. It was not uncommon for squatters or homesteaders to destroy corner monuments if they felt the patenting of the land would threaten their residence on it. For this reason, destruction of corner monuments, or their accompanying witness objects was, and still is, a federal offense.
At corners, corner monuments are established to mark their exact location on the ground. As with most PLSS specifications, those for corner monumentation also changed over time. In the 19th century, monuments were commonly a rock pile, a wooden post, or a combination of the two. Trees could be used if the corner happened to fall at the exact spot where one grew. In the 20th century, steel pipes with caps, supported by mounds of rock, became required (for example, see Fig. 4). Witnesses can be trees, rocks, or trenches dug in the ground; their exact locations relative to the corner, and the markings made on them, are also recorded in the surveyor's official fieldnotes. Witness trees at corners are more commonly referred to as bearing trees because the exact distance and bearing from the corner, to them, was required to be recorded (as well as the taxon and diameter).
On each bearing tree, two blazes were typically required, one about chest height and easily visible, and one at ground level (in case the tree were illegally cut, the stump remaining). On the exposed wood of the blaze, surveyors were required to inscribe, with wood chisels, township, range and section information, on typically either two or four bearing trees, if they were within some reasonable distance of the corner (unspecified early on but later set at a maximum of 3 chains (178 feet, 60 meters) away). Bearing trees are of vital importance not just for these land boundary purposes but also for their use by ecologists in the estimation of historic forest vegetation conditions before settlement and large scale human disturbance of the land. The data provided in these surveys provide a definitive estimate of original forest composition and structure, and the data have accordingly been used heavily.
Along survey lines, monumentation was much less elaborate, consisting primarily of only the blazing and some simple scribing of trees directly on, or very close to, the survey line. The purpose was to help retrace a surveyed line should that become necessary. It was also additional proof that the line had in fact been run correctly, especially in those cases where the blazed line tree's pertinent information (species, diameter and distance from previous corner) was recorded in the fieldnotes, as was often required.
Information to be recorded
Records kept by the surveyors during the execution of the work varied over time. Furthermore, how well individual surveying parties actually met the requirements or recommendations at the time, also varied. The following is a list of the more commonly required landscape and surveying items that were either required or requested be noted, over much of the nineteenth century.
The precise length of every line run, noting all necessary offsets therefrom, with the reason and mode thereof.
The species and diameter of all "bearing trees", with the course and distance of the same from their respective corners; and the precise relative position of witness corners to the true corners.
The kinds of materials (earth or stone) of which mounds are constructed—the fact of their being conditioned according to instructions—with the course and distance of the "pits", from the centre of the mound, where necessity exists for deviating from the general rule.
The name, diameter, and distance on line to all trees which the line intersects.
The distance at which the line first intersects and then leaves every settler's claim and improvement; prairie; river, creek, or other "bottom"; or swamp, marsh, grove, and wind fall, with the course of the same at both points of intersection; also the distances of ascents, summits, and descents of all remarkable hills and ridges, with their courses and estimated height, in feet, above the level land of the surrounding country, or above the bottom lands, ravines, or waters near which they are situated.
All streams of water which the line crosses; the distance on line at the points of intersection and their widths on line. In cases of navigable streams, their width will be ascertained between the meander corners, as set forth under the proper head.
The land's surface, whether level, rolling, broken, or hilly.
The soil, whether first, second, or third rate.
The several kinds of timber and undergrowth, in the order in which they predominate.
Bottom lands were to be described as wet or dry, and if subject to inundation, state to what depth.
Springs of water, whether fresh, saline, or mineral, and the course of the stream flowing from them.
Lakes and ponds, describing their banks and giving their height, and also the depth of water and whether it be pure or stagnant.
Towns and villages; Indian towns and wigwams; houses or cabins; fields, or other improvements; sugar tree groves, sugar camps, mill seats, forges, and factories.
Coal banks or beds; peat or turf grounds; minerals and ores; with particular description as to quality and extent, and all diggings therefore; also salt springs and licks. All reliable information that could be obtained respecting these objects, whether they be on the immediate line or not, was to appear in the general description at the end of the notes.
Roads and trails, with their directions, whence and whither.
Rapids, cataracts, cascades, or falls of water, with the height of their fall in feet.
Precipices, caves, sink-holes, ravines, stone quarries, ledges of rocks, with the kind of stone they afford.
Natural curiosities, interesting fossils, petrifactions, organic remains; ancient works of art, such as mounds, fortifications, embankments, ditches, or objects of like nature.
The variation of the needle must be noted at all points or places on the lines where there is found any material change of variation, and the position of such points must be perfectly identified in the notes.
The following table indicates some distance and area conversions in the PLSS:
List of meridians
Based on the BLM manual's 1973 publication date, and the reference to Clarke's Spheroid of 1866 in section 2-82, the coordinates listed are believed to be in the NAD27 datum.
Social impact
Railroad land grants
(signed by President Abraham Lincoln) was the first major land grant specifically for the transcontinental railroad. This act provided surveyed, public lands for a railroad right-of-way to build rail systems, and millions of acres to raise the capital needed to build and maintain the future railways.
Ten square miles of land on each side of the proposed rail track were granted for every one mile of completed railway. The PLSS was utilized for measurement. Every one-mile length of railway completed was akin to a section. If the railway ran predominantly east and west, a range of one square mile sections was allotted on each side of the right-of-way. If the railway ran predominantly north and south, a township of one square mile sections was allotted on each side of the right-of-way. The land was granted in alternating sections (one square mile), with each odd numbered section going to the railroad company and each even numbered section kept by the government. This created a checkerboard pattern along proposed railways. This was supposed to guarantee that railroad access would increase the value of both the railroad-granted sections and the government-owned sections in the checkerboard. The system was devised by Senator Stephen A. Douglas, with political support from Senator Jefferson Davis.
Education
Under the 1785 act, section 16 of each township was set aside for school purposes and as such was often called the school section. Section 36 was also subsequently added as a school section in western states. The various states and counties ignored, altered or amended this provision in their own ways, but the general (intended) effect was a guarantee that local schools would have an income and that the community schoolhouses would be centrally located for all children. An example of land allotments made specifically for higher education is Ohio's College Township.
Survey fraud
There were numerous incidents of fraudulent or bad surveying reported, arguably in nearly every state. The remote nature of the land being surveyed certainly enabled the opportunity for fraud to occur. The most notorious, large scale, and costly fraud was perpetrated by the Benson Syndicate, operating primarily in California in the 1880s.
Metric system adoption
The PLSS is considered one of the major points of contention in the adoption of the metric system in the United States. The PLSS has used the Gunter's chain as a basic measurement. In Canada, however, where the land survey is based on the same units of measure as the U.S. land survey, the metric system was adopted without issue.
"...the measurements of every plot of ground in the United States have been made in acres, feet, and inches, and are publicly recorded with the titles to the land according to the record system peculiar to this country." —Franklin Institute of Philadelphia (1876). Because of this, redefining property boundaries could create a large amount of legal issues and property owner confusion. Many local zoning laws are defined in feet/square feet. Conversion of units for surveyors are not simple, and complex decisions are frequently required (such as non-universal conversion factors, soft/hard conversions, number rounding).
Urban design
As roads have typically been laid out along section boundaries spaced one mile (1.6 km) apart, growing urban areas have adopted road grids with mile-long "blocks" as their primary street network. Such roads in urban areas are known as section line roads, usually designed primarily for automobile travel and limited in their use for non-motorized travel. In post-World War II suburbs, commercial development has largely occurred along and at intersections of arterials, while the rest of the former square-mile sections have generally filled with residential development, as well as schools, religious facilities, and parks. One example of this is the Mile Road System of Detroit, Michigan.
Occasionally, and more frequently in a metropolitan region's inner postwar suburbs than in outer areas, arterials are located at approximately half-mile intervals. This strictly regimented urban (or suburban) structure has coincided with the similarly strict practice of Euclidean zoning (named after the town of Euclid, Ohio, which won a 1926 Supreme Court case Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co., which established the constitutionality of zoning). In Euclidean zoning, use of a property is dictated and regulated by zoning district, the boundaries of which are often based on locations of arterials.
West of the Appalachians, road systems frequently follow the PLSS grid structure. The results can be 90-degree intersections and very long stretches of straight roads.
Popular culture
The land system is an important part of American history and culture. Among other things, the stock phrases "lower 40", "front 40", "back 40", and "40 acres and a mule", which are sometimes heard in American movies, reference the quarter-quarter section. The "lower 40" in a quarter-section is the one at lowest elevation, i.e. in the direction that water drains. The "lower 40" is frequently the location of or the direction of a stream or a pond. The phrase "40 acres and a mule" was the compensation apocryphally promised by the Freedmen's Bureau following the American Civil War.
Homesteading, a staple of American western culture, was dependent on the PLSS. In the original Homestead Act of 1862, during the Lincoln administration, each settler was allocated of land, a quarter-section. Later amendments of the Homestead Act allocated more land, as much as , a section. This was a good revision to apply to land that was drier or more desolate than the earlier, more desirable lands that had already been settled. Many times, this land was more suited to ranching than to farming.
See also
Cadastre#In the U.S.
Dominion Land Survey (Canada)
Groma surveying
Louisiana Purchase State Park (beginning point of the Louisiana Purchase survey)
Lot and Block survey system
References
(Describes the history and social context of the PLSS and some of the political maneuvering that went into its creation.)
External links
LSD + GPS + UTM coordinates (batch) conversion Free map converters & tools
Bureau of Land Management
Manual of Instructions for the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States, 2009
Manual of Instructions for the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States, 1973 (as PDF) - Official manual for PLSS
Resources page of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management
National Land Information System (NILS) - Cadastral records and land parcel information including GeoCommunicator below
NILS GeoCommunicator - Cadastral records and land parcel information
U.S. Geological Survey
National Geodetic Survey
American Congress on Surveying & Mapping
TRS data to latitude/longitude calculator - for 17 western U.S. states
www.resurvey.org - reference for land surveyors working in the PLSS
Federal Township Plats of Illinois, 1804-1891 from the Illinois State Archives
Researching New Mexico Land Grants
IIC Minnesota Historical Vegetation
The Minnesota Bearing Tree Database
The Principal Meridian Project
Locating Oil or Gas Wells Using The Federal Township and Range System
Lists of the coordinates used for section corners in Kansas City, Missouri
Wisconsin State Cartographer's Office - Curiosities and trivia about the PLSS
Public Land Survey System in Google Earth - a free Google Earth implementation of the National Integrated Land System (NILS) GeoCommunicator map service
Sample of PLSS in ESRI ArcGIS - Alabama PLSS
Convert PLSS to Latitude and Longitude
Surveying of the United States
Real estate in the United States
Lists of coordinates
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236748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLSS | PLSS | The acronym PLSS may refer to:
Public Land Survey System, a method used in the United States to survey and identify land parcels
Primary Life Support System, the life-support backpack of a space suit | [
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236750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahavira | Mahavira | Mahavira (), also known as Vardhamana, was the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha. Tradition holds that Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6th century BCE into a royal Jain family in Bihar, India. But many scholars believe this date to be as much as 100 years early. His mother's name was Trishala and his father's name was Siddhartha. They were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic. Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve and a half years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He preached for 30 years and attained Moksha (liberation) in the 6th century BCE, although the year varies by sect.
Historically, Mahavira, who preached Jainism in ancient India, was an older contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
Mahavira taught that observance of the vows of ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment) are necessary for spiritual liberation. He taught the principles of Anekantavada (many-sided reality): syadvada and nayavada. Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Indrabhuti Gautama (his chief disciple) as the Jain Agamas. The texts, transmitted orally by Jain monks, are believed to have been largely lost by about the 1st century CE (when the remaining were first written down in the Svetambara tradition). The surviving versions of the Agamas taught by Mahavira are some of Svetambara Jainism's foundation texts, but their authenticity is disputed in Digambara Jainism.
Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture, with the symbol of a lion beneath him. His earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the North Indian city of Mathura, and is dated from between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. His birth is celebrated as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and his nirvana (salvation) and also his first shishya (spiritual enlightenment) of Shri Gautama Swami is observed by Jains as Diwali.
Names and epithets
Surviving early Jain and Buddhist literature uses several names (or epithets) for Mahavira, including Nayaputta, Muni, Samana, Niggantha, Brahman, and Bhagavan. In early Buddhist suttas, he is referred to as Araha ("worthy") and Veyavi (derived from "Vedas", but meaning "wise". He is known as Sramana in the Kalpa Sūtra, "devoid of love and hate".
According to later Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name was Vardhamāna ("the one who grows") because of the kingdom's prosperity at the time of his birth. According to the Kalpasutras, he was called Mahavira ("the great hero") by the gods in the Kalpa Sūtra because he remained steadfast in the midst of dangers, fears, hardships and calamities. He is also known as a tirthankara.
Historical Mahavira
It is universally accepted by scholars of Jainism that Mahavira lived in ancient India. According to the Digambara Uttarapurana text, Mahavira was born in Kundalpur in the Kingdom of the Videhas; the Śvētāmbara Kalpa Sūtra uses the name "Kundagrama", said to be located in present-day Bihar, India. Although it is thought to be the town of Basu Kund, about north of Patna (the capital of Bihar), his birthplace remains a subject of dispute. Mahavira renounced his material wealth and left home when he was twenty-eight, by some accounts (thirty by others), lived an ascetic life for twelve and a years In which he did not even sit for a time, attained Kevalgyana and then preached Jainism for thirty years. Where he preached has been a subject of disagreement between the two major traditions of Jainism: Śvētāmbara and Digambara traditions.
Mahavira was born in 599BCE and died in 527BCE. The Barli Inscription in Prakrit language which was inscribed in 443 BCE (year 84 of the Vira Nirvana Samvat), contains the line Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase, which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year", 84 years after the Nirvana of the Mahavira. However, paleographic analysis dates the inscription to the 2nd-1st century BCE. According to Buddhist and Jain texts they are believed to have been contemporaries which is supported by much ancient Buddhist literature. The Vira Nirvana Samvat era began in 527BCE (with Mahavira's nirvana) and is a firmly-established part of Jain tradition.
The 12th-century Jain scholar Hemachandracharya placed Mahavira in the 5thcentury BCE. According to Jain, the traditional date of 527BCE is accurate; the Buddha was younger than Mahavira and "might have attained nirvana a few years later". The place of his nirvana, Pavapuri in present-day Bihar, is a pilgrimage site for Jains.
Jain tradition
According to Jain cosmology, 24 Tirthankaras have appeared on earth; Mahavira is the last Tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī (the present time cycle). A Tirthankara (ford-maker, saviour or spiritual teacher) signifies the founding of a tirtha, a passage across the sea of birth-and-death cycles.
Birth
Tirthankara Mahavira was born into a royal Kshatriya family of King Siddhartha of the Ikshvaku Dynasty and Queen Trishala of the Licchavi dynasty. The Ikshvaku Dynasty was founded by the First Tirthankara Rishabhanatha.
According to Jains, Mahavira was born in 599BCE. His birthday falls on the thirteenth day of the rising moon in the month of Chaitra in the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar era. It falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar, and is celebrated by Jains as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak.
Kundagrama (the place of Mahavira's birth) is traditionally believed to be near Vaishali, an ancient town on the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Its location in present-day Bihar is unclear, partly because of migrations from ancient Bihar for economic and political reasons. According to the "Universal History" in Jain texts, Mahavira underwent many rebirths (total 27 births) before his 6th-century birth. They included a denizen of hell, a lion, and a god (deva) in a heavenly realm just before his last birth as the 24th tirthankara. Svetambara texts state that his embryo first formed in a Brahman woman before it was transferred by Hari-Naigamesin (the divine commander of Indra's army) to the womb of Trishala, Siddhartha's wife. The embryo-transfer legend is not believed by adherents of the Digambara tradition.
Jain texts state that after Mahavira was born, the god Indra came from the heavens along with 56 digkumaries, anointed him, and performed his abhisheka (consecration) on Mount Meru. These events, illustrated in a number of Jain temples, play a part in modern Jain temple rituals. Although the Kalpa Sūtra accounts of Mahavira's birth legends are recited by Svetambara Jains during the annual Paryushana festival, the same festival is observed by the Digambaras without the recitation.
Early life
Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara Acharanga Sutra, his parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira married. The Digambara tradition believes that his parents wanted him to marry Yashoda, but he refused to marry. The Śvētāmbara tradition believes that he was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter, Priyadarshana, also called Anojja.
Jain texts portray Mahavira as tall; his height was given as four cubits (6 feet) in the Aupapatika Sutra. According to Jain texts, he was the shortest of the twenty-four tirthankaras; earlier teachers were believed to have been taller, with Neminatha or Aristanemi —the 22nd tirthankara, who lived for 1,000 years—said to have been sixty-five cubits (98feet) in height.
Renunciation
At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in the pursuit of spiritual awakening. He undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications, meditated under the Ashoka tree, and discarded his clothes. The Acharanga Sutra has a graphic description of his hardships and self-mortification. According to the Kalpa Sūtra, Mahavira spent the first forty-two monsoons of his life in Astikagrama, Champapuri, Prstichampa, Vaishali, Vanijagrama, Nalanda, Mithila, Bhadrika, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, Shravasti, and Pawapuri. He is said to have lived in Rajagriha during the rainy season of the forty-first year of his ascetic life, which is traditionally dated to 491BCE.
Omniscience
According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved Kevala Jnana (omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a Sāla tree on the bank of the River Rijubalika near Jrimbhikagrama at age 43 after twelve years of rigorous penance. The details of the event are described in the Jain Uttar-purāņa and Harivamśa-purāņa texts. The Acharanga Sutra describes Mahavira as all-seeing. The Sutrakritanga expands it to all-knowing, and describes his other qualities. Jains believe that Mahavira had a most auspicious body (paramaudārika śarīra) and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience. According to the Śvētāmbara, he traveled throughout India to teach his philosophy for thirty years after attaining omniscience. However, the Digambara believe that he remained in his Samavasarana and delivered sermons to his followers.
Disciples
Jain texts document eleven Brahmins as Mahavira's first disciples, traditionally known as the eleven Ganadharas. Indrabhuti Gautama is believed to have been their leader, and the others included Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Akampita, Arya Vyakta, Sudharman, Manditaputra, Mauryaputra, Acalabhraataa, Metraya, and Prabhasa. The Ganadharas are believed to have remembered and to have verbally transmitted Mahavira's teachings after his death. His teachings became known as Gani-Pidaga, or the Jain Agamas. According to Kalpa Sutra, Mahavira had 14,000 sadhus (male ascetic devotees), 36,000 sadhvis (female ascetics), 159,000 sravakas (male lay followers), and 318,000 sravikas (female lay followers). Jain tradition mentions Srenika and Kunika of Haryanka dynasty (popularly known as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru) and Chetaka of Videha as his royal followers. Mahavira initiated his mendicants with the mahavratas (Five Vows). He delivered fifty-five pravachana (recitations) and a set of lectures (Uttaraadhyayana-sutra). Chandana is believed to be the leader of female monastic order.
Nirvana and moksha
According to Jain texts, Mahavira's nirvana (death) occurred in the town of Pawapuri in present-day Bihar. His life as a spiritual light and the night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains as Diwali at the same time that Hindus celebrate it. His chief disciple, Gautama, is said to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana from Pawapuri.
Accounts of Mahavira's nirvana vary among Jain texts, with some describing a simple nirvana and others recounting grandiose celebrations attended by gods and kings. According to the Jinasena's Mahapurana, heavenly beings arrived to perform his funeral rites. The Pravachanasara of Digambara tradition says that only the nails and hair of tirthankaras are left behind; the rest of the body dissolves in the air like camphor. In some texts Mahavira is described, at age 72, as delivering his final preaching over a six-day period to a large group of people. The crowd falls asleep, awakening to find that he has disappeared (leaving only his nails and hair, which his followers cremate).
The Jain Śvētāmbara tradition believes that Mahavira's nirvana occurred in 527 BCE, and the Digambara tradition holds that date of 468 BCE. In both traditions, his jiva (soul) is believed to abide in Siddhashila (the home of liberated souls). Mahavira's Jal Mandir stands at the place where he is said to have attained nirvana (moksha). Artworks in Jain temples and texts depict his final liberation and cremation, sometimes shown symbolically as a small pyre of sandalwood and a piece of burning camphor.
Previous births
Mahavira's previous births are recounted in Jain texts such as the Mahapurana and Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra. Although a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of saṃsāra, the birth of a tirthankara is reckoned from the time he determines the causes of karma and pursues ratnatraya. Jain texts describe Mahavira's 26 births before his incarnation as a tirthankara. According to the texts, he was born as Marichi (the son of Bharata Chakravartin) in a previous life.
Texts
Yativṛṣabha's Tiloya-paṇṇatti recounts nearly all the events of Mahavira's life in a form convenient for memorisation. Jinasena's Mahapurana (which includes the Ādi purāṇa and Uttara-purāṇa) was completed by his disciple, Gunabhadra, in the 8thcentury. In the Uttara-purāṇa, Mahavira's life is described in three parvans, or sections, (74–76) and 1,818 verses.
Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya poem, written by Asaga in 853, which narrates the life of Mahavira.
The Kalpa Sūtra is a collection of biographies of tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Samavayanga Sutra is a collection of Mahavira's teachings, and the Acharanga Sutra recounts his asceticism.
Teachings
Colonial-era Indologists considered Jainism (and Mahavira's followers) a sect of Buddhism because of superficial similarities in iconography and meditative and ascetic practices. As scholarship progressed, differences between the teachings of Mahavira and the Buddha were found so divergent that the religions were acknowledged as separate. Mahavira, says Moriz Winternitz, taught a "very elaborate belief in the soul" (unlike the Buddhists, who denied such elaboration). His ascetic teachings have a higher order of magnitude than those of Buddhism or Hinduism, and his emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence) is greater than that in other Indian religions.
Agamas
Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Gautama Swami, his Ganadhara (chief disciple). The canonical scriptures are in twelve parts. Mahavira's teachings were gradually lost after about 300BCE, according to Jain tradition, when a severe famine in the Magadha kingdom dispersed the Jain monks. Attempts were made by later monks to gather, recite the canon, and re-establish it. These efforts identified differences in recitations of Mahavira's teachings, and an attempt was made in the 5thcentury CE to reconcile the differences. The reconciliation efforts failed, with Svetambara and Digambara Jain traditions holding their own incomplete, somewhat-different versions of Mahavira's teachings. In the early centuries of the common era, Jain texts containing Mahavira's teachings were written in palm-leaf manuscripts. According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the original canon. Later, some learned achāryas restored, compiled, and wrote down the teachings of Mahavira which were the subjects of the Agamas. Āchārya Dharasena, in the 1stcentury CE, guided the Āchāryas Pushpadant and Bhutabali as they wrote down the teachings. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama, among the oldest-known Digambara texts, on palm leaves.
Five Vows
The Jain Agamas enumerate five vratas (vows) which ascetics and householders must observe. These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira:
Ahimsa (Non-violence or non-injury): Mahavira taught that every living being has sanctity and dignity which should be respected as one expects one's own sanctity and dignity to be respected. Ahimsa, Jainism's first and most important vow, applies to actions, speech, and thought.
Satya (truthfulness): Applies to oneself and others.
Asteya (non-stealing): Not "taking anything that has not been given"
Brahmacharya (chastity): Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures for monks, and faithfulness to one's partner for householders
Aparigraha (non-attachment): For lay people, an attitude of non-attachment to property or worldly possessions; for mendicants, not owning anything
The goal of these principles is to achieve spiritual peace, a better rebirth, or (ultimately) liberation. According to Chakravarthi, these teachings help improve a person's quality of life. However, Dundas writes that Mahavira's emphasis on non-violence and restraint has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures" but by "continual self discipline": a cleansing of the soul which leads to spiritual development and release.
Mahavira is best remembered in the Indian traditions for his teaching that ahimsa is the supreme moral virtue. He taught that ahimsa covers all living beings, and injuring any being in any form creates bad karma (which affects one's rebirth, future well-being, and suffering). According to Mahatma Gandhi, Mahavira was the greatest authority on ahimsa.
Soul
Mahavira taught that the soul exists, a premise shared with Hinduism but not Buddhism. There is no soul (or self) in Buddhism, and its teachings are based on the concept of anatta (non-self). Mahavira taught that the soul is dravya (substantial), eternal, and yet temporary.
To Mahavira, the metaphysical nature of the universe consists of dravya, jiva, and ajiva (inanimate objects). The jiva is bound to saṃsāra (transmigration) because of karma (the effects of one's actions). Karma, in Jainism, includes actions and intent; it colors the soul (lesya), affecting how, where, and as what a soul is reborn after death.
According to Mahavira, there is no creator deity and existence has neither beginning nor end. Gods and demons exist in Jainism, however, whose jivas a part of the same cycle of birth and death. The goal of spiritual practice is to liberate the jiva from its karmic accumulation and enter the realm of the siddhas, souls who are liberated from rebirth. Enlightenment, to Mahavira, is the consequence of self-cultivation and self-restraint.
Anekantavada
Mahavira taught the doctrine of anekantavada (many-sided reality). Although the word does not appear in the earliest Jain literature or the Agamas, the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's answers to questions posed by his followers. Truth and reality are complex, and have a number of aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human attempts to communicate are nayas ("partial expression[s] of the truth"). Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it. From truth, according to Mahavira, language returns—not the other way around. One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempt to express the experience is syāt: valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". Spiritual truths are also complex, with multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality; however, they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma.
Mahavira's anekantavada doctrine is also summarized in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta (in which he is called Nigantha Nātaputta), and is a key difference between the teachings of Mahavira and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting the extremes of "it is" or "it is not"; Mahavira accepted both "it is" and "it is not", with reconciliation and the qualification of "perhaps".
The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering metaphysical, philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt). A version of this doctrine is also found in the Ajivika school of ancient Indian philosophy.
According to Dundas, the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as "promot[ing] a universal religious tolerance ... plurality ... [and a] ... benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions"; however, this misreads Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings. Mahavira's "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings are a doctrine about the nature of reality and human existence, not about tolerating religious positions such as sacrificing animals (or killing them for food) or violence against nonbelievers (or any other living being) as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns are strict requirements, with no "perhaps". Mahavira's Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism beyond the renunciant Jain communities, but each religion was "highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of their rivals".
Gender
An historically contentious view in Jainism is partially attributed to Mahavira and his ascetic life; he did not wear clothing, as a sign of renunciation (the fifth vow, aparigraha). It was disputed whether a female mendicant (sadhvi) could achieve the spiritual liberation of a male mendicant (sadhu) through asceticism.
The major Jain traditions have disagreed, with Digambaras (the sky-clad, naked mendicant order) believing that a woman is unable to fully practice asceticism and cannot achieve spiritual liberation because of her gender; she can, at best, live an ethical life so she is reborn as a man. According to this view, women are seen as a threat to a monk's chastity.
Mahavira had preached about men and women equality. The clothes-wearing Svetambaras have interpreted Mahavira's teaching as encouraging both sexes to pursue a mendicant, ascetic life with the possibility of moksha (kaivalya, spiritual liberation).
Rebirth and realms of existence
Rebirth and realms of existence are fundamental teachings of Mahavira. According to the Acaranga Sutra, Mahavira believed that life existed in myriad forms which included animals, plants, insects, bodies of water, fire, and wind. He taught that a monk should avoid touching or disturbing any of them (including plants) and never swim, light (or extinguish) a fire, or wave their arms in the air; such actions might injure other beings living in those states of matter.
Mahavira preached that the nature of existence is cyclic, and the soul is reborn after death in one of the trilokthe heavenly, hellish, or earthly realms of existence and suffering. Humans are reborn, depending on one's karma (actions) as a human, animal, element, microbe, or other form, on earth or in a heavenly (or hellish) realm. Nothing is permanent; everyone (including gods, demons and earthly beings) dies and is reborn, based on their actions in their previous life. Jinas who have reached Kevala Jnana (omniscience) are not reborn; they enter the siddhaloka, the "realm of the perfected ones".
Legacy
Lineage
Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism, but Jains believe that the 23 previous tirthankaras also espoused it. Although Mahavira is sometimes placed in Parshvanatha's lineage, this is contradicted by texts stating that Mahavira renounced the world alone.
Parshvanatha was born 273 years before Mahavira. Parshvanatha, a tirthankara whom modern Western historians consider a historical figure, lived in about the 8th century BCE. Jain texts suggest that Mahavira's parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. When Mahavira revived the Jain community in the 6th century BCE, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. The followers of Parshvanatha vowed to observe ahimsa; this obligation was part of their caujjama dhamma (Fourfold Restraint).
According to Dundas, Jains believe that the lineage of Parshvanatha influenced Mahavira. Parshvanatha, as the one who "removes obstacles and has the capacity to save", is a popular icon; his image is the focus of Jain temple devotion. Of the 24 tirthankaras, Jain iconography has celebrated Mahavira and Parshvanatha the most; sculptures discovered at the Mathura archaeological site have been dated to the 1stcentury BCE. According to Moriz Winternitz, Mahavira may be considered a reformer of an existing Jain sect known as Niganthas (fetter-less) which was mentioned in early Buddhist texts. The Barli Inscription dating back to 443 BCE contains the line Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase, which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year".
Festivals
Two major annual Jain festivals associated with Mahavira are Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and Diwali. During Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, Jains celebrate Mahavira's birth as the 24th and last tirthankara of avasarpiṇī (the current time cycle). During Mahavir JanmaKalyanak, the five auspicious events of Mahavira's life are re-enacted. Diwali commemorates the anniversary of Mahavira's nirvana, and is celebrated at the same time as the Hindu festival. Diwali marks the New Year for Jains.
Worship
Samantabhadra's Svayambhustotra praises the twenty-four tirthankaras, and its eight shlokas (songs) adore Mahavira. One such shloka reads: Samantabhadra's Yuktyanusasana is a 64-verse poem which also praises Mahavira.
Influence
Mahavira's teachings were influential. According to Rabindranath Tagore,
An event associated with the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira's nirvana was held in 1974:
Iconography
Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting (or standing) meditative pose, with a lion symbol beneath him; each tīrthankara has a distinct emblem, which allows worshippers to distinguish similar idols. Mahavira's lion emblem is usually carved below his legs. Like all tirthankaras, he is depicted with a Shrivatsa in Shetamber tradition. The yoga pose is very common in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. Each tradition has had a distinctive auspicious chest mark that allows devotees to identify a meditating statue to symbolic icon for their theology. There are several srivasta found in ancient and medieval Jain art works, and these are not found on Buddhist or Hindu art works. and downcast eyes in digamber tradition while in Shetamber tradition it is wide open.
Mahavira's earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the north Indian city of Mathura, dated from the 1stcentury BCE to the 2ndcentury CE. The srivatsa mark on his chest and his dhyana-mudra posture appears in Kushana Empire-era artwork. Differences in Mahavira's depiction between the Digambara and Svetambara traditions appear in the late 5thcentury CE. According to John Cort, the earliest archaeological evidence of Jina iconography with inscriptions precedes its datable texts by over 250 years.
Many images of Mahavira have been dated to the 12th century and earlier; an ancient sculpture was found in a cave in Sundarajapuram, Theni district, Tamil Nadu. K. Ajithadoss, a Jain scholar in Chennai, dated it to the 9th century.
Jivantasvami represents Mahavira as a princely state. The Jina is represented as standing in the kayotsarga pose wearing crown and ornaments.
Temples
According to John Cort, the Mahavira temple in Osian, Jodhpur, Rajasthan is the oldest surviving Jain temple in western India; it was built in the late 8thcentury. Other Mahavira temples include:
Jal Mandir in Pawapuri
Mahavira Jain temple, Osian
Trilokyanatha Temple
Sankighatta, Karnataka
Meguti Jain Temple, on the tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of Aihole temple complex
Kumbharia Mahavira Temple
Muchhal Mahavir Temple
Bhandavapur Jain Tirth
Dimapur Jain Temple
Jain temple, Kundalpur
See also
Jivantasvami
Arihant (Jainism)
God in Jainism
History of Jainism
Mahavira: The Hero of Nonviolence
Timeline of Jainism
Bardhaman (city named after Mahaviraswami)
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Ascetics
Indian Jain religious leaders
Nonviolence advocates
Tirthankaras
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5th-century BC Indian Jains
5th-century BC Jain monks
5th-century BC Indian monks
5th-century BC Indian philosophers
People from Bihar
Ancient Indian philosophers
6th-century BC Indian people | [
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236751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachman%27s%20warbler | Bachman's warbler | Bachman's warbler (Vermivora bachmanii) is a small possibly extinct passerine migratory bird. This warbler was a migrant, breeding in swampy blackberry and cane thickets of the Southeastern and Midwestern United States and wintering in Cuba. There are some reports of the bird from the twenty-first century, but none are widely accepted. Some authorities accept a sighting in Louisiana, in August 1988 as confirmed, but the last uncontroversial sightings date to the 1960s.
Taxonomy
This bird was first recorded in 1832 by the Reverend John Bachman, who found the species near Charleston, South Carolina, and presented study skins and descriptions to his friend and collaborator, John James Audubon. Audubon never saw the bird alive but named it in honor of Bachman in 1833.
The blue-winged and rapidly declining golden-winged warblers, also members of the genus Vermivora, are thought to be this warbler's closest relatives. There are no known subspecies.
Description
Bachman's warbler is a sexually dimorphic species and the adults have two distinct plumages, one in the spring and one in the fall. In the spring, adult males have a yellow forehead and supercilium. The area below the bird's eye is yellow, while the lores are a dusky olive. The bird's forecrown is black with gray at the edges, while the rear crown and nape are olive-gray. The rest of the warbler's upperparts are an olive green, with the rump being the brightest. The chin and upper throat are yellow, while the center throat and upper chest are black. The belly is yellow, and the undertail coverts are white. Males in their first spring are nearly identical to the adult male, but have less black on their crown and chest.
During the spring, adult females are a light yellow in their forehead and supraloral, blending into a gray crown and nape. Its lores are a gray-olive and it has a white eye ring. The rest of the female's upperparts are an olive-green, which like the male is brightest on the rump. The chin and throat are also a light yellow, while the sides of the neck and the upper breast are gray. Older females have a few black upper breast feathers. The rest of the breast and the belly is light yellow, blending into white on the undertail coverts. The flanks are also washed with gray. First spring females resemble the adult female, but appear duller.
Bachman's warbler molts over the summer into its fall plumage. For adult males, the fall plumage is nearly identical to the spring, with the only difference being that the forecrown changes from black to gray. First year males also resemble their spring plumage, but have an olive forecrown and duller yellow underparts. Adult females possess the same plumage, although it looks fresher in the fall, while first year females have an olive-yellow forehead and a dull eyering.
Hatchlings obtain their first plumage in May and undergo their first molt in June. Juvenile Bachman's warblers have a dusky brown head and upperparts and are a paler brown below, which transitions to dull white on the lower body and undertail.
This warbler is in length. It is relatively small for a warbler and has a short tail. It is unique amongst warblers for its thin and decurved bill. The Bachman's warbler's bill is blackish brown in adults and brown in the juveniles. The legs are a grayish-brown, while the eyes are dark brown.
Voice
Documented examples of the species' songs are composed of a rapid series of six to twenty-five buzz notes, sometimes ending in a sharp, slurred zip note. The song is similar to that of the northern parula, but distinguishable in that it was noticeably monotone. Multiple call notes have been recorded, ranging from a soft tsip to a low, hissing zee-e-eep.
Distribution and habitat
Bachman's warbler breeds primarily in two distinct regions, namely the southern Atlantic coastal plain and the Gulf Coast states north along the Mississippi River watershed to Kentucky. In the southern Atlantic coastal plain, the bird breeds in South Carolina near Charleston, though it is believed to have once bred as far north as Virginia and south into Georgia. The Gulf Coast breeding habitat is located primarily in central Alabama, though reports from northern Mississippi and Louisiana are known. It breeds north of Alabama along Arkansas's and Missouri's St. Francis River. Unaccepted records of breeding in eastern Texas, Oklahoma, and Tennessee are known. During migration, the species was primarily recorded in Florida and the Florida Keys, although a few birds migrated along the eastern Gulf Coast. Additionally, there is one spring migration record from the Bahamas in 1901. The species primarily winters in Cuba. Additionally, it was recorded wintering on the Isle of Pines, and one wintering record is known from Florida. Unconfirmed reports of the species wintering in Georgia's Okefenokee Swamp exist.
Bachman's warbler breeds in timbered bottomland swamps with pools of still water. These swampy forests are mainly composed of deciduous trees such as cypress, sweet gum, dogwood, red oak, hickory, black gum, and tupelo. While it is not definitively known what microhabitat in these swamps Bachman's warblers prefer, it is believed that they prefer small edges created by fire or storms with a dense understory of the cane species Arundinaria gigantea and palmettos. Some believe that this species may be a cane specialist.
While migrating, the species still prefers bottomland forests, though it has been reported in scrubby habitats when this is not available. During the Cuban winter it seems to broaden its habitat to include most forests, ranging from dry, semideciduous forests to urban parks to swamps. Hibiscus forests may be important to wintering warblers.
Ecology and behavior
Due to the rarity of this species, little is known of its behavior. This species does not frequently pump its tail. When alarmed, a Bachman's warbler will jerk its tail and raise its crown feathers.
This species does not frequently sing while migrating. Once it reaches its breeding grounds, this warbler prefers to sing from high perches. The female warbler incubates the eggs while the male looks for food.
This species's foraging niche is quite low in elevation, frequently between . However, during migration it has also been observed foraging in the tops of trees. This warbler could feed while hanging upside down to probe the bottoms of leaves. Bachman's warbler also feeds by gleaning and probing into leaf clusters. This latter foraging strategy has led some to hypothesize that this warbler specializes in foraging among dead leaves in canebrakes. Its primary prey includes caterpillars, spiders, and other arthropods. It may feed on nectar in Cuba, but this hypothesis is unproven.
It may be a colonial breeder. The nests are deep and bulky. Dead leaves, mosses, grasses, and weed stalks compose the exterior of the nest, while the interior cup was lined with fine fibers from Ramalina lichen and Spanish moss. These nests are made amongst blackberry brambles, cane stalks, and palmettos in bottomland forests above the ground or, frequently, pools of water. Unusually for a warbler, its eggs are pure white with occasional fine marks at the large end.
Migration
Bachman's warblers migrate quite early in comparison with other New World warblers. Spring migration begins in late February and birds appear in south Florida and southeastern Louisiana by the first week of March. Peak migration in south Florida is during the first three weeks of March and along the northwestern Florida coast during the third and fourth week of March. The latest recorded Bachman's warbler in Florida was noted on April 9. These warblers reach their South Carolina breeding grounds around mid-March, though some are known to arrive in late February. Birds migrating to southeastern Missouri arrive between mid and late April. Some birds overshoot their breeding grounds and are found in Virginia and North Carolina.
In South Carolina, all Bachman's warblers leave their breeding ground by July 19. The peak of fall migration is poorly documented, but the earliest date for a migrant in southern Mississippi is July 4, while the first migrants at Key West were reported on July 17. All migration is between the end of July and August 25, with the last reported migrating individual being a September 24 bird in coastal Georgia.
Conservation
Bachman's warbler was originally collected by John Bachman in South Carolina in 1832 and described by Audubon in 1833 from skins mailed by Bachman. It remained largely unknown until the mid-1880s. It is believed that selective logging in the 1800s briefly benefited the species by providing more habitat. It was frequently seen in its breeding habitat from the mid-1880s to 1910. However, when clear-cutting began replacing selective logging, sightings of this species grew scarce. By the 1930s, sightings were rare, and in 1940 the last definite winter sighting was recorded. The last male specimen was collected on March 21, 1941, on Deer Island, Mississippi, while the last female specimen was collected on February 28, 1940, on Ship Island, Mississippi.
Reports of birds from the Missouri and Arkansas breeding grounds lasted through the 1940s, while birds were reported breeding in South Carolina's I'on Swamp until 1953. Individuals were reported from Fairfax County, Virginia, in 1954 and 1958, and a male was seen singing near I'on Swamp in April 1962. On March 30, 1977, an immature female was seen in Brevard County, Florida. The last confirmed observation was in Louisiana in 1988. Reliable reports of sightings of the species from Congaree National Park in the early 2000s prompted a formal investigation, but were eventually attributed to misidentifications of hooded warbler sightings and northern parula songs. A thorough and systematic search using playback of recorded Bachman's warbler songs did not reveal any territorial males and did not provoke any aggressive response from other bird species, and the survey leaders concluded the species was not present in the park during their search.
This species is threatened due to habitat destruction. It is thought to have nested in canebrakes, the loss of which poses a threat, as does the loss of wintering habitat in the Caribbean and plume hunting. Small-scale logging in the 1800s may actually have increased the Bachman warbler's breeding habitat. Clearcutting of its habitat and the draining of swamps via water channels are the two main causes of habitat destruction. While it is unknown whether habitat change in its wintering grounds of Cuba affected the species, it is believed that a winter hurricane in 1932 could have dealt the species a crippling blow, making them too rare to find each other and mate on their breeding grounds. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service proposed on Sept. 29, 2021 to declare the species extinct following a lack of evidence of its survival.
In culture
John James Audubon's folio renderings of a male and female Bachman's warbler were painted on top of an illustration of the Franklinia tree first painted by Maria Martin, John Bachman's sister-in-law and one of the country's first female natural history illustrators.
In the comic strip Doonesbury, Dick Davenport, a bird watcher, died in 1986 of a massive coronary while observing and photographing this species, therefore proving its continued existence. This death scene has been noted as a particularly memorable one in the history of comics.
References
Further reading
Bachman's Warbler: A Species in Peril, second edition, by Paul B. Hamel. Full text online.
External links
BirdLife Species Factsheet
Recording of a singing Bachman's warbler, from Cornell's Macaulay Library
Bachman's warbler
New World warblers
Native birds of the Southeastern United States
Birds of Cuba
Bachman's warbler
ESA endangered species
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] |
236752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela%20Sue%20Martin | Pamela Sue Martin | Pamela Sue Martin (born January 5, 1953) is an American actress, who is best known for starring as Nancy Drew on the television series The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries and as socialite Fallon Carrington Colby on the ABC soap opera Dynasty, winning a Bambi Award for the latter in 1984.
Life and career
Born in Westport, Connecticut, Martin began modeling at 17 and appeared in The Poseidon Adventure in 1972, at age 19. More films followed, including Our Time and Buster and Billie.
Later, her work as ABC-TV's Nancy Drew made her something of a teen idol. Initially, the ABC program alternated each week between The Nancy Drew Mysteries and The Hardy Boys Mysteries. In season 2, the shows were merged and renamed The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries, which led to Nancy's role being reduced. This frustrated Martin, who left the series as a result. Her final appearance as Nancy aired on January 1, 1978.
Martin appeared in a cover pictorial in the July 1978 issue of Playboy magazine, with the headline "TV's Nancy Drew Undraped". In the magazine, she cited the merger of the two shows as her reason for quitting the series.
Martin portrayed feisty and spoiled heiress Fallon Carrington Colby on the ABC nighttime soap opera Dynasty from its debut in 1981 through to the end of the fourth season in 1984. After Martin left (of her own accord), the character was initially portrayed as "missing and presumed dead". The series recast the role with actress Emma Samms at the end of the fifth season in 1985.
Martin hosted Saturday Night Live on February 16, 1985. In the 2000s, she was artistic director of the Interplanetary Theater Group, in Idaho. Since then, she has worked sporadically in film and television.
Martin has spoken about her struggle with interstitial cystitis. In 1984, Martin, who has long been involved in environmental causes, appeared in a public service announcement to help save pink dolphins in the Amazon River. The ad was directed by Clyde Lucas, who appeared on The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries.
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1953 births
Living people
American film actresses
American television actresses
People from Westport, Connecticut
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses | [
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236753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath%20hen | Heath hen | The heath hen (Tympanuchus cupido cupido) is an extinct subspecies of the greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido), a large North American bird in the grouse family. It became extinct in 1932.
Heath hens lived in the scrubby heathland barrens of coastal North America from southernmost New Hampshire to northern Virginia in historical times. The other subspecies of prairie chickens inhabited prairies from Texas north to Indiana and the Dakotas (and earlier in mid-southern Canada).
Heath hens were extremely common in their habitat during colonial times; because of this, along with being a gallinaceous bird, they were hunted by settlers extensively for food. It is speculated that the Pilgrims' first Thanksgiving dinner featured heath hens and not wild turkey. By the late 18th century, the heath hen had a reputation as poor man's food for being so cheap and plentiful; somewhat earlier, Thomas L. Winthrop had reported that they lived on the Boston Common (presumably when it was still used to graze cows and other agricultural activites), and that servants would sometimes bargain with a new employer for not being given heath hen for food more often than two or three days a week.
Taxonomy
A first mtDNA D-loop haplotype comparison between heath hen specimens and prairie-chickens brought the unexpected result that all heath hens tested formed a group very distinct from mainland birds, being most similar genetically to greater prairie chickens from Wisconsin. A more recent study of the same parameter by Johnson and Dunn verified these results, but disagreed in the placement of the heath hen respective to its relatives, suggesting a closer relationship with the lesser prairie chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) instead.
However, Johnson and Dunn caution against reading too much into these results: while the lesser prairie chicken is considered a distinct species and the apparently equally-genetically distinct heath hen would thus likewise deserve species status, mtDNA haplotypes in small populations that have undergone bottlenecks are likely to show higher divergence than they would judging from taxonomic status alone, due to genetic drift. Thus, given the fact that all heath hen specimens from known localities studied by Johnson and Dunn are Martha's Vineyard birds (where the carrying capacity may never have exceeded several thousand, due to the limited space and limited genetic exchange with the mainland), it is possible that the low genetic diversity and apparent distinctness of the heath hen are a result of the small number of useful specimens being predominantly from a small island population.
Prairie chickens were indiscriminately introduced to the Eastern Seaboard after the heath hen was gone from the mainland, but failed to thrive. There exist a considerable number of supposed heath hen specimens in public collections today, but many (all mainland specimens and those with insufficient locality information) cannot be unequivocally assumed to be heath hens. For example, a mere seven unequivocal heath hen eggs – equivalent to a very small clutch – are known to be held in public collections today. That the genus Tympanuchus apparently evolved rapidly and therefore has high morphological, but low genetic, distinctness between taxa further complicates research.
It is also important to note that while introductions of the greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus) were occurring, true heath hens (Tympanuchus cupido cupido) are distinct enough in morphological features to be separated from the greater prairie chicken. Taking a generous starting date of around 1810 when introductions could have started, and taking into account that Lewis and Clark did not even return from their expedition until 1806, gives roughly a 60-year period of possible introductions. From an evolutionary biology aspect, in a 60 (or even 100) year timeframe, a subspecies like the greater prairie chicken would not have been able to evolve to the point where it would so closely resemble the native heath hen that it could not be distinguished.
A prime example of this would be in opposing the lesser prairie chicken, which differs from the greater prairie chicken in being smaller, lighter, and having less distinct barring, to the heath hen, which was smaller, darker, and had more distinct barring, meaning that the lesser prairie chicken can be readily distinguished from the greater prairie chicken both morphologically and genetically (much like the heath hen), even if it were found in an area that the greater prairie chicken inhabited.
The apparent distinctness of the species and the failure of the early introductions raises the question of whether the heath hen was uniquely (by comparison with its relatives) adapted to the more oceanic climate and more forested habitats of its former area of occurrence, and in consequence, whether a future attempt to establish a population of the western birds on Martha's Vineyard could be bound to fail, possibly even by competing for funding and other resources jeopardizing the extant but much declined populations of the prairie chickens. Clearly, more research is necessary, for example by analyzing mainland specimens to determine whether they can be assigned to a taxon from molecular and morphological characters.
Description
Very similar to the other greater prairie chicken subspecies of the Great Plains, but slightly smaller, the length of the bird was approximately 17 inches (43 cm) and weight was about two pounds (0.9 kg). A specimen weighing three pounds was claimed by Alexander Wilson but that figure was not verified by later ornithologists. Several key plumage characteristics separated the heath hens from their Great Plains counterparts: heath hens generally displayed a strong reddish hue in their plumage, especially in their crop area, and much thicker barring throughout the breast and sides. Their pinnae (horns) were generally pointed, and tails were a greyish brown.
Extinction
Owing to intense hunting pressure, the population declined rapidly. Perhaps as early as the 1840s, at any rate by 1870, all heath hens were extirpated from the mainland. There were about 300 left on the island of Martha's Vineyard, off Massachusetts, but by 1890, this number had declined to 120–200 birds, mainly due to predation by feral cats and poaching. By the late 19th century, there were about 70 left. These were protected by a hunting ban and by the establishment in 1908 of the "Heath Hen Reserve" (today the Manuel F. Correllus State Forest), and the population rapidly grew to almost 2,000: by the mid-1910s, observing the birds on their lekking grounds had become something of a tourist attraction. However, a combination of factors during the 1916 nesting season (a destructive fire, severe winters, an unusual influx of predatory northern goshawks, inbreeding, an excess number of male individuals and apparently an epidemic of blackhead disease, which might have been transmitted by poultry) brought these numbers down quickly; after a last recovery to 600 in 1920, the population began its final decline.
At the beginning of 1927, only 11 males and two females remained. Despite being afforded the best protection according to contemporary science, the number had declined to a handful, all males, by the end of the year. After December 8, 1928, apparently only one male survived. The endling was lovingly nicknamed "Booming Ben." He was last seen on his traditional lekking ground between West Tisbury and today's Martha's Vineyard Airport on March 11, 1932 – early in the breeding season - and thus presumably died, about 8 years old, days or only hours afterwards from unknown causes.
Heath hens were one of the first bird species that Americans tried to save from extinction. As early as 1791, a bill "for the preservation of heath-hen and other game" was introduced in the New York State legislature. Some representatives misinterpreted the bill when it was read as an act to protect "Indians and other ." Although the legislation was passed, it turned out to be unenforceable.
Although the effort to save the heath hen from extinction was ultimately unsuccessful, it paved the way for conservation of other species. The establishment of the reserve on the open shrubland of what was then called the Great Plain in the Vineyard may have accelerated the heath hen's extinction. Fires were a normal part of the environment, but with the attempt to suppress fires instead of enforcing ecological succession with controlled burns, open habitat quality decreased and undergrowth accumulated until a normally limited fire would have disastrous consequences, as it did in 1916. Lack of awareness of the region's historical fire ecology also led the state legislature to require firebreaks when protecting the heath hen.
Realizing the degradation that has affected the State Forest (and although it does hold some biodiversity, prevents it from being utilized to its full potential), reestablishment of the original shrubland/heath/woods mosaic and eventual introduction of the closely related greater prairie chicken subspecies as an "umbrella species" that serves as an indicator of good habitat quality has been discussed since the late 1990s.
There is also research project aiming at the de-extinction of the heath hen using cloning from preserved cells and domestic-chicken surrogates.
See also
List of extinct birds
List of extinct animals
References
Further reading
Cokinos, Christopher (2000): The Heath-hen In: Hope is the Thing with Feathers: A Personal Chronicle of Vanished Birds: 121–196. Tarcher.
Greenway, James C. (1967): Heath-hens and Prairie Chickens. In: Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World, 2nd edition: 188–199. Dover Publications, New York.
Johnson, Jeff A.; Schroeder, Michael. A. & Robb, Leslie. A. (2011) Greater prairie-chicken. In: Poole, A. (editor): The Birds of North America Online Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology
External links
Comparative Analysis between the Heath Hen and Greater Prairie Chicken
Birds of a Very Different Feather – Article by Tom Dunlop, Martha's Vineyard Magazine, Sep./Oct. 2004.
All About Birds retrieved 11 February 2007
https://web.archive.org/web/20081110122455/http://www.heathhen.webs.com/
Martha's Vineyard
Bird extinctions since 1500
Tympanuchus
Extinct animals of the United States
Grouse
Birds described in 1758
Extinct birds of North America
Species endangered by use as food
Species made extinct by human activities
Subspecies
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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236755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate%20O%27Mara | Kate O'Mara | Kate O'Mara (born Francesca Meredith Carroll; 10 August 1939 – 30 March 2014) was an English film, stage and television actress, and writer. O'Mara made her stage debut in a 1963 production of The Merchant of Venice. Her other stage roles included Elvira in Blithe Spirit (1974), Lady Macbeth in Macbeth (1982), Cleopatra in Antony & Cleopatra (1982), Goneril in King Lear (1987) and Marlene Dietrich in Lunch with Marlene (2008).
In the cinema, O'Mara acted in two 1970 Hammer Horror films: The Vampire Lovers and The Horror of Frankenstein. On BBC television, she had regular roles in The Brothers (1975–1976), Triangle (1981–1982) and Howards' Way (1989–1990), and portrayed Doctor Who villain the Rani three times (1985–1993). She also appeared as Jackie Stone in two episodes of the sitcom Absolutely Fabulous (1995–2003). On American television, she played Caress Morell, the scheming sister of Alexis Colby in the primetime soap opera Dynasty (1986).
Early life and career
O'Mara was born to John F. Carroll, an RAF flying instructor, and actress Hazel Bainbridge (born Edith Marion Bainbridge; 25 January 1910 – 7 January 1998). Her younger sister is actress Belinda Carroll. After boarding school she attended art school before becoming a full-time actress. O'Mara made her stage debut in a production of The Merchant of Venice in 1963, although her first film role was some years earlier (under the name Merrie Carroll) in Home and Away (1956) with Jack Warner, as her father, and Kathleen Harrison.
Her earliest television appearances, in the 1960s, included guest roles in Danger Man, Adam Adamant Lives!, The Saint, Z-Cars and The Avengers. In 1970, she appeared in two Hammer Studio horror films: The Vampire Lovers and The Horror of Frankenstein. In the former, she had an erotically charged scene with Ingrid Pitt, in which O'Mara was meant to be seduced; the two women were left laughing on set, however, as Pitt's fangs kept falling into O'Mara's cleavage. O'Mara's work in The Vampire Lovers impressed Hammer enough for them to offer her a contract, which she turned down, fearful of being typecast.
Her first major TV role was as Julia Main, wife of the main protagonist in the ITV series The Main Chance (1969). She had a regular role in the BBC drama series The Brothers (1975–1976) as Jane Maxwell, and in the early 1980s, O'Mara starred in the BBC soap opera Triangle (1981–1982), sometimes counted among the worst television series ever made. She played the villainous Rani in Doctor Who in two serials, The Mark of the Rani (1985) and Time and the Rani (1987), and also in the Doctor Who 30th anniversary spoof Dimensions in Time (1993), part of the Children in Need charity event.
Between these appearances in Doctor Who, she auditioned for the role of Sable Colby on the American primetime soap The Colbys, a spin-off of the American prime time soap opera Dynasty. Eventually, O'Mara declined the role since she was under contract with London stage play Light Up the Sky at the Old Vic Theater, and the role went to Stephanie Beacham. Shortly after, she was offered to play Caress Morell on Dynasty. As the sister of Alexis Colby (Joan Collins), O'Mara appeared in 17 episodes of the sixth season and 4 episodes of the seventh during 1986. "We had a tremendous bitchy tension between us", the actress recalled about performing opposite Collins. “My character Caress was like an annoying little mosquito who just kept coming back and biting her.” O'Mara disliked living in California, preferring the change of seasons in Britain, and to her relief was released from her five-year contract after Collins told the producers that having two brunettes in the series was a bad idea. After returning to the UK, she was cast as another scheming villain, Laura Wilde, in the BBC soap Howards' Way (1989–1990).
Later life and career
O'Mara spoke on several occasions about her experience with the casting couch. On an episode of The Word in 1994, O'Mara claimed that American producer Judd Bernard pulled down her panties during a hotel-room audition for the Elvis Presley vehicle Double Trouble. In her autobiography Vamp Until Ready: A Life Laid Bare, O'Mara described this incident and "many other close encounters with... this very unpleasant and humiliating procedure", including with a well-known television casting director, the boss of Associated Television at ATV Elstree Studios, and the director of Great Catherine.
O'Mara continued to make television appearances throughout the 1990s, including Cluedo (1990), and playing Jackie Stone (Patsy's older sister) in two episodes of Absolutely Fabulous (1995–2003). In 2001, she had a recurring role in the ITV prison drama series Bad Girls before appearing in the short-lived revival of the soap opera Crossroads. She continued to perform on stage and in March 2008 she played Marlene Dietrich in a stage play entitled Lunch with Marlene. From August to November 2008, she played Mrs Cheveley in Oscar Wilde's stage play An Ideal Husband directed by Peter Hall and produced by Bill Kenwright. She performed in radio and audio plays. In 2000 she reprised her role as the Rani in the BBV audio play The Rani Reaps the Whirlwind, and in 2006 she made a guest appearance in the radio comedy series Nebulous.
In 2012, O'Mara appeared in a theater adaptation of Agatha Christie's Death on the Nile.
Personal life
O'Mara was married twice, first to Jeremy Young in 1971; the couple divorced in 1976. In 1993, she married Richard Willis, but the marriage was dissolved in 1996. She had two sons, Dickon Young (1964–2012) and Christopher Linde (born 1965), both from previous relationships, although Dickon took his stepfather's surname. She gave up Linde for adoption and he was named by his adoptive parents, Derek and Joy Linde.
Christopher, from whom the actress was long estranged, was born from her relationship with actor David Orchard.
Dickon, whose biological father was reportedly actor Ian Cullen, was a stage manager for the Royal Shakespeare Company before setting up his own company building tree-houses in the mid-1990s. He was found hanged, a presumed suicide, at the family home in Long Marston, Warwickshire on 31 December 2012, after previous suicide attempts. O'Mara was hospitalised with pneumonia at the time of her son's death and his body was not discovered for three weeks.
O'Mara wrote four books, two novels (When She Was Bad () and Good Time Girl ()), and two autobiographical books, Vamp Until Ready () and Game Plan: A Woman's Survival Kit ().
Speaking about her bouts of depression, later in her life, O'Mara said: "... I've since learnt a cure for depression: listening to J.S. Bach and reading P.G. Wodehouse. This got me through the break-up of my second marriage 17 years ago. The great thing about Wodehouse is that his books are full of romantic problems and yet so hilarious that it puts things in perspective ... I'm not frightened of dying, but I love the countryside so much and I'm going to miss it. I'd like to be out in the wind and the trees for ever."
Death
O'Mara died on 30 March 2014 in a Sussex nursing home, aged 74, from ovarian cancer. She left a £350,000 estate, bequeathing £10,000 to the Actors’ Benevolent Fund and, after the funeral and legal fees, the remainder to her younger sister Belinda Carroll, a former actress.
Filmography
Film
Television
Select stage roles
1963, Jessica, The Merchant of Venice at the Shaftesbury Theatre.
1966, Lydia Languish, The Rivals at The Welsh Theatre Co.
1967, Elsa, The Italian Girl at the Wyndham's Theatre
1970, Fleda Vetch, The Spoils of Poynton at the Mayfair Theatre
1971, Gerda Von Metz, The Avengers (directed by Leslie Phillips) at the Prince of Wales Theatre
1971–2, Sheila Wallis, Suddenly at Home at the Fortune Theatre
1974, Elvira, Blithe Spirit at the Bristol Old Vic
1974, Liza Moriarty, Sherlock's Last Case at the Open Space Theatre Fortune Theatre
1977, Sybil Merton, Lord Arthur Saville's Crime at the Sadlers Wells Theatre
1977, Louka, Arms and the Man at the Hong Kong Festival
1978, Rosaline, Loves Labour's Lost at the Thorndike Theatre
1978, Katherina, The Taming of the Shrew at the Ludlow Festival
1978, Cyrenne, Rattle of a Simple Man
1979, Monica Claverton- Ferry, The Elder Statesman
1979, Lina, Misalliance at The Birmingham Rep
1979, Irene St Clair, The Crucifer of Blood at the Haymarket Theatre
1980, Ruth, Night and Day, at post-London tour
1981, Stephanie Abrahams, Duet for One Yugoslavia and tour
1981, Beatrice, Much Ado About Nothing at the New Shakespeare Co
1982, Kathrina, The Taming of the Shrew at the Nottingham Playhouse\New Shakespeare Co
1982, Titania\Hippolta, A Midsummer Night's Dream at the New Shakespeare Co
1982, Lady Macbeth, Macbeth at the Mercury Theatre
1982, Cleopatra, Antony and Cleopatra at the Nottingham Playhouse
1982, Millamant, The Way of the World at the Nottingham Playhouse
1983, Hortense, The Rehearsal
1984, Mistress Ford, The Merry Wives of Windsor at the New Shakespeare Co
1985 – 1987, Frances Black, Light Up the Sky at the Old Vic & Globe Theatres
1987, Goneril, King Lear at the Compass Theatre
1988, Berinthia, The Relapse at the Mermaid Theatre
1990, Torfreida, The Last Englishman at The Orange Tree Theatre
1990, Martha, Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf at the Yvonne Arnaud Theatre
1991, Lilli Vanessi, Kiss Me Kate, RSC tour
1992, Lady Fanciful, The Provok'd Wife at the National Theatre Studio
1992, Rosabel, Venus Observed at the Chichester Festival
1992, Eve, Cain at the Chichester Festival
1992, Jackie, King Lear in New York at the Chichester Festival
1994, Maria Wislack, On Approval
1995, Pola, The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles at The Orange Tree Theatre
1995, Rachel, My Cousin Rachel, English Theatre, Vienna and tour 1995
1996, Olivia, Twelfth Night at the Haymarket Theatre, Basingstoke
1996–7, Mrs Cheveley, An Ideal Husband at the Haymarket, Albury and Gielgud theatres
2000, Mrs. Malaprop\Lucy, The Rivals
2000, Madame Alexandre, Colombe at the Salisbury Playhouse
2003, Gertrude Lawrence, Noel and Gertie
2004, Mrs Arbuthnot, A Woman of No Importance
2005, Eloise, The Marquise at the Mercury Theatre
2005, Helen, We Happy Few at the Gielgud Theatre
2008, Marlene Dietrich, Lunch with Marlene at The New End Theatre
2010, Lady Windermere, Lord Arthur Saville's Crime at the Mercury Theatre
See also
English actresses
Cinema of the United Kingdom
Television in the United Kingdom
References
Bibliography
External links
1939 births
2014 deaths
Actresses from Leicestershire
Alumni of the Aida Foster Theatre School
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from ovarian cancer
English film actresses
English memoirists
English soap opera actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
People from Leicester
British women memoirists
English women novelists
20th-century English actresses
20th-century English novelists
20th-century English women writers
21st-century English actresses
English women non-fiction writers | [
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236756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSS%20Albemarle | CSS Albemarle | CSS Albemarle was a steam-powered ironclad gunboat ram of the Confederate Navy (and later the second Albemarle of the United States Navy), named for an estuary in North Carolina which was named for General George Monck, the first Duke of Albemarle and one of the original Carolina Lords Proprietor.
Construction
On 16 April 1862, the Confederate Navy Department, enthusiastic about the offensive potential of armored rams following the victory of their first ironclad ram (the rebuilt USS Merrimack) over the wooden-hulled Union blockaders in Hampton Roads, Virginia, signed a contract with nineteen-year-old detached Confederate Lieutenant Gilbert Elliott of Elizabeth City, North Carolina; he was to oversee the construction of a smaller but still powerful gunboat to destroy the Union warships in the North Carolina sounds. These men-of-war had enabled Union troops to hold strategic positions that controlled eastern North Carolina.
Since the terms of the agreement gave Elliott freedom to select an appropriate place to build the ram, he established a primitive shipyard, with the assistance of plantation owner Peter Smith, in a cornfield up the Roanoke River at a place called Edward's Ferry, near modern Scotland Neck, North Carolina; Smith was appointed the superintendent of construction. There, the water was too shallow to permit the approach of Union gunboats that otherwise would have destroyed the ironclad while still on its ways. Using detailed sketches provided by Elliott, the Confederate Navy's Chief Constructor John L. Porter finalized the gunboat's design, giving the ram an armored casemate with eight sloping, 30-degree angle sides. Within this thick-walled bunker were two Brooke pivot rifles, one forward, the other aft, each capable of firing from three different fixed positions. Both cannons were protected on all sides behind six exterior-mounted, heavy iron shutters. The ram was propelled by twin 3-bladed screw propellers powered by two steam engines, each of , and built by Elliott.
Construction of the ironclad began in January 1863 and continued on during the next year. Word of the gunboat reached the Union naval officers stationed in the region, raising an alarm. They appealed to the War Department for an overland expedition to destroy the ship, to be christened Albemarle after the body of water into which the Roanoke emptied, but the Union Army never felt it could spare the troops needed to carry out such a mission; it was a decision that would prove to be very short-sighted.
Ordnance and projectiles
Albemarle was equipped with two Brooke rifled cannon (similar to a Parrott rifle); each double-banded cannon weighed more than with its pivot carriage and other attached hardware. Both cannons were positioned along the ironclad's center-line in the armored casemate, one forward, the other aft. The field of fire for both pivot rifles was 180-degrees, from port to starboard: each cannon could fire from one of three gun ports, allowing Albemarle to deliver a two cannon broadside. Albemarles projectiles consisted of explosive shells, anti-personnel canister shot, grape shot, and blunt-nosed, solid wrought iron "bolts" for use against Union armored ships. These were an early attempt at armor-piercing shot; solid iron like a typical solid shot, but elongated rather than spherical, giving far more weight for an equal frontal area than a traditional round ball, and thus greater penetration. Such projectiles could not be effectively fired from a traditional smoothbore naval gun, as the lack of stability would cause the shot to tumble in flight.
Service on the Roanoke River
In April 1864 the newly commissioned Confederate States Steamer Albemarle, under the command of Captain James W. Cooke, got underway down-river toward Plymouth, North Carolina; its mission was to clear the river of all Union vessels so that General Robert F. Hoke's troops could storm the forts located there. She anchored about three miles (5 km) above the town, and the pilot, John Lock, set off with two seamen in a small boat to take soundings. The river was high and they discovered ten feet of water over the obstructions that the Union forces had placed in the Thoroughfare Gap. Captain Cooke immediately ordered steam and, by keeping to the middle of the channel, they passed safely over the obstructions. The ironclad's armor protected them from the Union guns of the forts at Warren's Neck and Boyle's Mill.
After the fall of Plymouth, the U. S. Navy raised and temporarily hull-patched the Confederate ram. Near the end of the war, the Union gunboat towed Albemarle to the Norfolk Navy Yard, where she arrived on 27 April 1865. On 7 June orders were issued to repair her hull, and she entered dry dock soon thereafter. The work was completed on 14 August 1865. Two weeks later, the ironclad was judged condemned by a Washington, D.C. prize court.
She saw no active naval service after being placed in ordinary at Norfolk, where she remained until she was finally sold at public auction on 15 October 1867 to J. N. Leonard and Company. She was probably scrapped for salvage. One of her double-banded Brooke rifled cannon is on display at the Headquarters of the Commander U. S. Fleet Forces Command at the Norfolk, Virginia, naval base. Her smokestack is on display at the Museum of the Albemarle in Elizabeth City, North Carolina. Her bell is on display at the Port o' Plymouth Museum in Plymouth, North Carolina
Prize Court Adjudication
Replica
A 3/8 scale, replica of Albemarle has been at anchor near the Port O' Plymouth Museum in Plymouth, North Carolina, since April, 2002. The replica is self-powered and capable of sailing on the river. Each year CSS Albemarle takes to the water during Living History Weekend, the last weekend in April each year.
See also
Ships captured in the American Civil War
Bibliography of American Civil War naval history
Notes
References
External links
American Civil War Web Site
Confederate States Navy Research Center Mobile, Ala.
John Mercer Brooke
Ironclad warships of the Confederate States Navy
Ships built in North Carolina
1860s ships
Shipwrecks of the American Civil War
Shipwrecks in rivers
Ships captured by the United States Navy from the Confederate States Navy
Maritime incidents in October 1864
Raids of the American Civil War | [
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236757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life%20Is%20Peachy | Life Is Peachy | Life Is Peachy is the second studio album by American nu metal band Korn. It was released on October 15, 1996 through both Immortal Records and Epic Records. After the release of Korn's 1994 self-titled debut album, the band asked Ross Robinson to produce and went back to Indigo Ranch to record. Life Is Peachy has fourteen tracks, excluding the hidden track after "Kill You". Korn released three singles from Life Is Peachy: "No Place to Hide", "A.D.I.D.A.S.", and "Good God". All three singles went on the UK Singles Chart. Life Is Peachy features such themes as drugs, social encounters, sex, and revenge. The album's cover art was designed by Martin Riedl and its name is credited to Korn's bassist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu.
Life Is Peachy was certified gold on January 8, 1997, and platinum on December 9. Following the success of Korn's 1994 self-titled debut album, Life Is Peachy was certified double platinum in the United States and 6.5 million copies worldwide. Life Is Peachy debuted and peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number one in New Zealand. In its first week of being released, the album sold 106,000 copies. Critical reception for the album was mainly mixed, but the album's songwriting and sound quality was praised.
Before the release of Life Is Peachy, Korn toured with many bands. Initially, Korn joined the Sick of It All Tour. Following the Sick of It All Tour, Korn joined the Danzig 4 Tour. Korn also toured with Megadeth, Fear Factory, and Flotsam and Jetsam. After the release of Life Is Peachy, Korn toured solo, and headlined and often sold out shows. Korn also toured in the Lollapalooza summer tour.
Writing and recording
Writing for the band's second album started immediately after touring their self-titled debut. Guitarist Munky described the writing process as, "we didn't write nothin' for two years then we had creativity build up, like blue balls of creativity." Doug Small, author of The Story of Korn (), said that "the band's songwriting method — a sort of collective building process wherein four instrumentalists, with the input of Jonathan [Davis], develop each other's ideas until they've created a monster — is truly a group effort." The album's lyrics — for the most part — were primarily written by lead singer Jonathan Davis. Drummer David Silveria told Modern Drummer, "somebody will start playing something and the rest of us will work around it and see where it goes."
After playing at a few gigs with Deftones in California, Korn went back to the studio to start recording Life Is Peachy in April 1996. Korn asked Ross Robinson to produce, and wanted to begin recording at Indigo Ranch, mostly because their first album had been recorded there and was a success. Authors Jason Arnopp and Doug Small, insisted the album was rushed when it was put together. Silveria explained, "We went in really fresh, and we wanted to get it done quickly to capture that moment. So it was probably about sixty percent knowing what I was going to play and forty percent just playing whatever came to mind at that moment, It ended up really good, and it has a kind of energy I probably wouldn't have gotten if I'd worked everything out beforehand." Korn's bassist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu said, "We wanted that same energy and inspiration we found up in the Malibu Hills."
Jonathan Davis said regarding the writing of the album "Right after we got done touring with Ozzy Osbourne, Ross [Robinson] hooked up with us. We went into a rehearsal studio and started writing. It was faster and thrashier. It was us reacting the vibe that we had to hurry up and get this done. We thought, "Let's do something great, but let's not take a year on it." James "Munky" Shaffer elaborated "Some of the songs and riffs from the first record had been lingering around for years. When it was time to write Life Is Peachy, we went back into the rehearsal studio and we wanted to take the elements that the fans liked and we liked about Korn and elaborate on some of those like Jonathan freaking out. "Twist" came to life. There was that dissonant guitar playing. There was more of a punk rock feel and attitude that the band had. I think a lot of that came from touring so much and the energy of the crowds. We wanted to create a really angry album."
Booklet
Korn's bassist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu came up with the title Life Is Peachy. The name came from Fieldy's Pee Chee folder. Fieldy often wrote the words "Life Is" in front of the brand name, which he found amusing. Fieldy said, "I used to doodle all over it [the file folder]. I drew long hair on the character and put guitars in their hands. I used to sketch stuff all the time. I eventually knew my scribbles might someday pay off. I thought that visual would make a really cool album cover." Korn contacted the Pee Chee file folder company and asked for permission to use the file folder's image for an album cover, offering twenty thousand dollars (US$20,000), resulting in the company turning the offer down. The name Life Is Peachy was agreed by band members to be a "great" name for the album, and kept the name but didn't add Fieldy's file folder cover.
The front cover of Life Is Peachy depicts a boy looking in the mirror, seeing a much larger person behind him. The photo was taken by Martin Riedl. The design and concept were by Scott Leberacht. Other pictures in the booklet were taken by Stephen Stickler. Doug Small said that it "continued the threatened child theme as depicted on Korn's artwork." The cover is mostly black and white, with a little boy, hair combed, straightening his tie in a gilt mirror; behind him looms a larger, shadowed presence." Life Is Peachy is, to date, the only album by Korn to feature their name spelled in a different font.
The booklet, along with every other album by Korn, does not feature printed lyrics to the songs. The band has explained that the reason the booklets do not feature this is because Davis believes fans should not rely on printed lyrics because it limits the experience in listening to the music. As Davis told MTV's Serena Altschul, "I think music is something that every individual has their own meaning to the song. They can come up with whatever the hell I'm saying and that's the beauty of it and that's what I wanna keep there."
Touring and promotion
Korn resumed intensive touring immediately after recording sessions for Life Is Peachy ended. The band released a promotional disc in 1997 called Life Is Peachy Tour Sampler, with Incubus and The Urge, as both bands supported Korn on their headlining European tour in early 1997. The album featured 3 tracks, "Chi" (live) by Korn, "All Washed Up" (live) by The Urge, and "Hilikus" (live) by Incubus. The promo was released after Life Is Peachy, and lasts for twelve minutes and seventeen seconds. Korn toured solo in 1997, and headlined at often sold-out shows. The Life Is Peachy Tour featured live performances of Davis wearing customized sequined Adidas tracksuits. Helmet and Limp Bizkit also toured with Korn to promote Life Is Peachy in 1997.
In mid-1997, Korn played in the Lollapalooza summer tour with Tool, Snoop Dogg, Jane's Addiction, The Prodigy, and others. Korn secured the Lollapalooza slot at the beginning of the year. During the prior year's Lollapalooza, there was controversy over the inclusion of marquee, big name artists such as Metallica and Soundgarden, which founder Perry Farrell considered a "bastardization" of Lollapalooza, leading him to walk out on the tour. Davis said "Last year... wasn't like a real Lollapalooza vibe. Because it seems to me that Lollapalooza's been about cutting-edge bands, ones on the underground, and that's what I think he [Perry Farrell] based that whole thing on and last year really just wasn't all about that. And this year, now that he's back on, you can tell, there's so many different, diverse music groups here."
On July 18, not even a month into the tour, the group was forced to cancel the remainder of their Lollapalooza appearances due to guitarist James "Munky" Shaffer recent diagnosis with viral meningitis. Jonathan Davis issued a written statement about Shaffer's illness saying, "We love our fans. This is the last thing we want to do, but it's the only decision to make at this time. It just doesn't feel right without [Shaffer]." The statement also acknowledged fans that "there is no suitable replacement for [Shaffer] during his recuperation."
Aside from touring, Korn also released three singles following the album's release. "No Place to Hide" was the album's first single. The single features "Proud", a song that would later be included on the soundtrack for I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997). Other versions include both original and remixed versions of songs featured on Korn. The song "A.D.I.D.A.S." was released as a single on March 4, 1997. The song's music video was directed by Joseph Kahn in Los Angeles during January 1997. Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu said that "It was one of the hardest videos we ever made because we all had to lie still on cold metal slabs for hours, pretending to be dead. We wore dirty blue contacts in our eyes that made us partially blind while they were in."
Music and lyrical themes
Life Is Peachy opens with the forty-nine second prelude "Twist", which is made up of improvised scat singing done by Davis. Doug Small described the singing as "spitting out the twisted rantings of a madman", and said that it was fit for the album's introduction. An a cappella version of "Twist" is included as a hidden track after "Kill You". "Chi" is named after former Deftones bassist Chi Cheng. Davis said that the song "Chi" is "about a lot of alcohol and drug abuse". The song was named after Cheng for the sole reason that Cheng liked reggae and had taken it into his head that the song "Chi" was actually a reggae song. "Swallow" is about drug-induced paranoia. "Mr. Rogers" is about Fred Rogers. Davis said: "As a kid, he told me to be polite, and all it did was get me picked on. I fucking hate that man. Thanks for making me polite and trusting everyone, and easy to take advantage of." "K@#Ø%!" is about women who have hurt Davis. The song is noted for its heavy use of vulgarisms throughout all the lyrics, because of this Munky said that band had intended to jokingly submit it to rock radio stations as a joke because they "knew they wouldn't play it, then follow up about a week later with the real thing". "A.D.I.D.A.S." is an Acronym for "All Day I Dream About Sex". Davis explained the background behind "Good God": "Ass Itch" is about Davis' difficulty with songwriting. "Kill You" is about Davis' ex-stepmother. Davis explained:
Considered nu metal, the album features a more prominent hip hop influence than the band's self-titled debut, with James "Munky" Shaffer recalling "We were listening to a lot of hip hop, I was probably listening to a lot of Mr. Bungle, hip hop like early Outkast and The Pharcyde, Sepultura records, and Rage Against the Machine, just to name a few."
Critical reception
Life Is Peachy received mainly mixed reviews from critics. Q Magazine said the album is "Harsher and harder than their groundbreaking debut." AllMusic wrote: "Korn add enough elements of alternative rock song structure to make the music accessible to the masses, and their songwriting has continued to improve." iTunes commented that "Regardless of the musical textures, Life Is Peachy is unified in its focus." Entertainment Weekly said that the album left the "impression that frontman Jonathan Davis is turning his well-publicized childhood traumas into a cheap marketing device". They gave it a C- and said that it "may be of interest to mental-health professionals." Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote: "Korn has learned more than a few tricks from Nine Inch Nails, and it's not above using invective for simple shock value. But the chip on its shoulder sounds genuine." Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club panned Life Is Peachy, calling the album "nothing but plain old, ham-fisted, butt-stupid heavy metal". Adrian Bromley of Chronicles of Chaos wrote that he was "impressed with the strength and sound quality" Korn "has been able to magnify with 'Life Is Peachy'".
In 2000 it was voted number 869 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums.
Commercial performance
"No Place to Hide" earned the band a second Grammy nomination in the Best Metal Performance category in 1998. The single peaked at number 26 on the UK Singles Chart. The album's second single, "A.D.I.D.A.S.", peaked at number 72 on the UK Singles Chart, while also making an appearance at number 45 in Australia. In April 1997, "A.D.I.D.A.S." went to number 13 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. "Good God", the album's third and final single, peaked at number 25 on UK Singles Chart, and number 81 on the Australian ARIA Charts. The album peaked at number one in New Zealand. It also peaked at number three on the Billboard 200, and number 32 on the UK Albums Chart. The album sold 106,000 copies in its first week of being released. Released on October 15, 1996, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on January 8, 1997. On December 9, 1997, it was certified platinum by the RIAA. On November 10, 1999, it was certified 2× platinum.
Track listing
Kunts! is censored on most releases as "K@#ø%!" also written as "K@#¿%!" on the cover of the disc.
The song "Kill You" ends at 5:04. After two minutes and 30 seconds of silence [5:04 – 7:34] a brief reprisal of "Twist" in a cappella form called "Twist A Capella", starts.
Personnel
Credits taken from the CD liner notes.
Korn
Jonathan Davis – lead vocals, bagpipes, additional guitars on "Kill You" and "Mr. Rogers"
Head – guitars, vocals on "Lowrider"
Munky – guitars
Fieldy – bass guitar
David Silveria – drums
Technical
Ross Robinson – producer, engineer, mixing
Chuck Johnson – engineer, mixing
Richard Kaplan – mixing, additional engineering
Rob Agnello – assistant
Jamie Leavitt – assistant
Eddy Schreyer – mastering
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
Notes
A "A.D.I.D.A.S." did not enter the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number 13 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart.
Certifications
Citations
Bibliography
External links
1996 albums
Albums produced by Ross Robinson
Epic Records albums
Immortal Records albums
Korn albums | [
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236759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio%20Gates | Horatio Gates | Horatio Lloyd Gates (July 26, 1727April 10, 1806) was a British-born American army officer who served as a general in the Continental Army during the early years of the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory in the Battles of Saratoga (1777) – a matter of contemporary and historical controversy – and was blamed for the defeat at the Battle of Camden in 1780. Gates has been described as "one of the Revolution's most controversial military figures" because of his role in the Conway Cabal, which attempted to discredit and replace General George Washington; the battle at Saratoga; and his actions during and after his defeat at Camden.
Born in the town of Maldon in Essex, Gates served in the British Army during the War of the Austrian Succession and the French and Indian War. Frustrated by his inability to advance in the army, Gates sold his commission and established a small plantation in Virginia. On Washington's recommendation, the Continental Congress made Gates the Adjutant General of the Continental Army in 1775. He was assigned command of Fort Ticonderoga in 1776 and command of the Northern Department in 1777. Shortly after Gates took charge of the Northern Department, the Continental Army defeated the British at the crucial Battles of Saratoga. After the battle, some members of Congress considered replacing Washington with Gates, but Washington ultimately retained his position as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
Gates took command of the Southern Department in 1780, but was removed from command later that year after the disastrous Battle of Camden. Gates's military reputation was destroyed by the battle and he did not hold another command for the remainder of the war. Gates retired to his Virginia estate after the war, but eventually decided to free his slaves and move to New York. He was elected to a single term in the New York State Legislature and died in 1806.
Early life and education
Horatio Gates was born on July 26, 1727, in Maldon, in the English county of Essex. His parents (of record) were Robert and Dorothea Gates. Evidence suggests that Dorothea was the granddaughter of John Hubbock Sr. (died 1692) postmaster at Fulham, and the daughter of John Hubbock Jr., listed in 1687 sources as a vintner. She had a prior marriage, to Thomas Reeve, whose family was well situated in the royal Customs service. Dorothea Reeve was housekeeper for the second Duke of Leeds, Peregrine Osborne (died June 25, 1729), which in the social context of England at the time was a patronage plum. Marriage into the Reeve family opened the way for Robert Gates to get into and then up through the Customs service. So too, Dorothea Gates's appointment circa 1729 to housekeeper for the third Duke of Bolton provided Horatio Gates with otherwise off-bounds opportunities for education and social advancement. Through Dorothea Gates's associations and energetic networking, young Horace Walpole was enlisted as Horatio's godfather and namesake.
In 1745, Horatio Gates obtained a military commission with financial help from his parents, and political support from the Duke of Bolton. Gates served with the 20th Foot in Germany during the War of the Austrian Succession. He arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia under Edward Cornwallis and later was promoted to captain in the 45th Foot, under the command of Hugh Warburton, the following year. He participated in several engagements against the Mi'kmaq and Acadians, particularly the Battle at Chignecto. He married the daughter of Erasmus James Philipps, Elizabeth, at St. Paul's Church (Halifax) in 1754. Leaving Nova Scotia, he sold his commission in 1754 and purchased a captaincy in one of the New York Independent Companies. One of his mentors in his early years was Edward Cornwallis, the uncle of Charles Cornwallis, against whom the Americans would later fight. Gates served under Cornwallis when the latter was governor of Nova Scotia, and also developed a friendship with the lieutenant governor, Robert Monckton.
Career
Seven Years War
During the French and Indian War, Gates served General Edward Braddock in America. In 1755 he accompanied the ill-fated Braddock Expedition in its attempt to control access to the Ohio Valley. This force included other future Revolutionary War leaders such as Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, Daniel Morgan, and George Washington. Gates didn't see significant combat, since he was severely injured early in the action. His experience in the early years of the war was limited to commanding small companies, but he apparently became quite good at military administration. In 1759 he was made brigade major to Brigadier General John Stanwix, a position he continued when General Robert Monckton took over Stanwix's command in 1760. Gates served under Monckton in the capture of Martinique in 1762, although he saw little combat. Monckton bestowed on him the honor of bringing news of the success to England, which brought him a promotion to major. The end of the war also brought an end to Gates' prospects for advancement, as the army was demobilized and he did not have the financial wherewithal to purchase commissions for higher ranks.
In November 1755, Gates married Elizabeth Phillips and had a son, Robert, in 1758. Gates' military career stalled, as advancement in the British army required money or influence. Frustrated by the British class hierarchy, he sold his major's commission in 1769, and came to North America. In 1772 he reestablished contact with George Washington, and purchased a modest plantation in Virginia the following year.
American Revolutionary War
When the word reached Gates of the outbreak of war in late May 1775, he rushed to Mount Vernon and offered his services to Washington. In June, the Continental Congress began organizing the Continental Army. In accepting command, Washington urged the appointment of Gates as adjutant of the army. On June 17, 1775, Congress commissioned Gates as a Brigadier General and Adjutant General of the Continental Army. He is considered to be the first Adjutant General of the United States Army.
Gates's previous wartime service in administrative posts was invaluable to the fledgling army, as he, Washington and Charles Lee were the only men with significant experience in the British regular army. As adjutant, Horatio Gates created the army's system of records and orders and helped standardize regiments from the various colonies. During the siege of Boston, he was a voice of caution, speaking in war councils against what he saw as overly risky actions.
Although his administrative skills were valuable, Gates longed for a field command. By June 1776, he had been promoted to Major General and given command of the Canadian Department to replace John Sullivan. This unit of the army was then in disorganized retreat from Quebec, following the arrival of British reinforcements at Quebec City. Furthermore, disease, especially smallpox, had taken a significant toll on the ranks, which also suffered from poor morale and dissension over pay and conditions. The retreat from Quebec to Fort Ticonderoga also brought Gates into conflict with the authority of Major General Philip Schuyler, commander of the army's Northern Department, which retained jurisdiction over Ticonderoga. During the summer of 1776, this struggle was resolved, with Schuyler given command of the department as a whole and Gates command of Ticonderoga and the defense of Lake Champlain.
Gates spent the summer of 1776 overseeing the enlargement of the American fleet that would be needed to prevent the British from taking control of Lake Champlain. Much of this work eventually fell to Benedict Arnold, who had been with the army during its retreat and was also an experienced seaman. Gates rewarded Arnold's initiative by giving him command of the fleet when it sailed to meet the British. The American fleet was defeated at the Battle of Valcour Island in October 1776, although the defense of the lake was sufficient to delay a British advance against Ticonderoga until 1777.
Battle at Saratoga
When it was clear that the British were not going to make an attempt on Ticonderoga in 1776, Gates marched some of the army south to join Washington's army in Pennsylvania, where it had retreated after the fall of New York City. Though his troops were with Washington at the Battle of Trenton, Gates was not. Always an advocate of defensive action, Gates argued that Washington should retreat further rather than attack. When Washington dismissed this advice, Gates claimed illness as an excuse not to join the nighttime attack and instead traveled on to Baltimore, where the Continental Congress was meeting. Gates had always maintained that he, not Washington, should have commanded the Continental Army. This opinion was supported by several wealthy and prominent New England delegates to the Continental Congress. Although Gates actively lobbied Congress for the appointment, Washington's stunning successes at Trenton and Princeton subsequently left no doubt as to who should be commander-in-chief. Gates was then sent back north with orders to assist Schuyler in the Northern Department.
But in 1777, Congress blamed Schuyler and St. Clair for the loss of Fort Ticonderoga, though Gates had exercised a lengthy command in the region. Congress finally gave Gates command of the Northern Department on August 4.
Gates assumed command of the Northern Department on August 19 and led the army during the defeat of British General Burgoyne's invasion in the Battles of Saratoga. While Gates and his supporters took credit for the victory, military action was directed by a cohort of field commanders led by Benedict Arnold, Enoch Poor, Benjamin Lincoln, and Daniel Morgan. Arnold in particular took the field against Gates' orders and rallied the troops in a furious attack on the British lines, suffering serious injuries to his leg. John Stark's defeat of a sizable British raiding force at the Battle of Bennington–Stark's forces killed or captured over 900 British soldiers–was also a substantial factor in the outcome at Saratoga.
Gates stands front and center in John Trumbull's painting of the Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga, which hangs in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda. By Congressional resolution, a gold medal was presented to Gates to commemorate his victories over the British in the Battles of Bennington, Fort Stanwix and Saratoga. Gold and bronze replicas of that medal are still awarded by the Adjutant General's Corps Regimental Association in recognition of outstanding service.
Gates followed up the victory at Saratoga with a proposal to invade Quebec, but his suggestion was rejected by Washington.
Conway Cabal
Gates attempted to maximize his political return on the victory, particularly as George Washington was having no present successes with the main army. In fact, Gates insulted Washington by sending reports directly to Congress instead of to Washington, his commanding officer. At the behest of Gates's friends and the delegates from New England, Congress named Gates to President of the Board of War, a post he filled while retaining his field command —an unprecedented conflict of interest. The post technically made Gates Washington's civilian superior, conflicting with his lower military rank. At this time, some members of Congress briefly considered replacing Washington with Gates as commander-in-chief, supported by military officers also in disagreement with Washington's leadership.
Washington learned of the campaign against him by Gates's adjutant, James Wilkinson. In a letter to Gates, Wilkinson forwarded remarks of General Thomas Conway critical of Washington to General William Alexander, who passed them on to Washington. Gates (then unaware of Wilkinson's involvement) accused persons unknown of copying his mail and forwarded Conway's letter to the president of Congress, Henry Laurens. Washington's supporters in Congress and the army rallied to his side, ending the "Conway Cabal". Gates then apologized to Washington for his role in the affair, resigned from the Board of War, and took an assignment as commander of the Eastern Department in November 1778.
Camden
In May 1780, news of the fall of Charleston, South Carolina and the capture of General Benjamin Lincoln's southern army reached Congress. It voted to place Gates in command of the Southern Department. He learned of his new command at his home near Shepherdstown, Virginia (now West Virginia), and headed south to assume command of the remaining Continental forces near the Deep River in North Carolina on July 25, 1780.
Gates led Continental forces and militia south and prepared to face the British forces of Charles Cornwallis, who had advanced to Camden, South Carolina. In the Battle of Camden on August 16, Gates's army was routed, with nearly 1,000 men captured, along with the army's baggage train and artillery. Analysis of the debacle suggests that Gates greatly overestimated the capabilities of his inexperienced militia, an error magnified when he lined those forces against the British right, traditional position of the strongest troops. He also failed to make proper arrangements for an organized retreat. Gates's principal accomplishment in the unsuccessful campaign was to cover in three days on horseback, heading north in retreat. His disappointment was compounded by news of his son Robert's death in combat in October. Nathanael Greene replaced Gates as commander on December 3, and Gates returned home to Virginia. Gates's devastating defeat at Camden not only ruined his new American army, but it also ruined his military reputation.
Board of Inquiry
Because of the debacle at Camden, Congress passed a resolution calling for a board of inquiry, the prelude to a court-martial, to look into Gates's conduct. Always one to support a court-martial of other officers, particularly those with whom he was in competition for advancement, such as Benedict Arnold, Gates vehemently opposed the inquiry into his own conduct. Although he never was again placed in field command, Gates's New England supporters in Congress came to his aid in 1782, repealing the call for an inquiry. Gates then rejoined Washington's staff at Newburgh, New York. Rumors implicated some of his aides in the Newburgh Conspiracy of 1783. Gates may have agreed to involve himself, though this remains unclear.
Later life and death
Gates' wife Elizabeth died in the summer of 1783. He retired in 1784 and again returned to his estate, Traveller's Rest, in Virginia (near present-day Kearneysville, Jefferson County, West Virginia). Gates served as vice president of the Society of the Cincinnati, the organization of former Continental Army officers, and president of its Virginia chapter, and worked to rebuild his life. He proposed marriage to Janet Montgomery, the widow of General Richard Montgomery, but she refused.
In 1786, Gates married Mary Valens, a wealthy Liverpudlian who had come to the colonies in 1773 with her sister and Rev. Bartholomew Booth, who ran a boys' boarding school in Maryland. Booth had been the curate for the "Chapel in the Woods," later to become Saint John's Church at Hagerstown, Maryland. Many have suggested that Gates freed his slaves at the urging of his friend John Adams along with the sale of Traveller's Rest in 1790. This narrative was popularized in 1837 by the Anti-Slavery Record, an abolitionist publication. The paper produced an account of the event in which Gates supposedly, “summoned his numerous family and slaves about him, and amidst their tears of affection and gratitude, gave them their freedom.” In fact, the terms of the deed of sale for Traveller's Rest indicate that Gates sold his slaves for £800 together with the plantation. The deed did not immediately free any of Gates's slaves, rather it stipulated that five would be free after five years; the remaining eleven would have to wait until they reached the age of twenty-eight. Nevertheless, even this limited gesture toward emancipation surpassed the other major generals of the revolutionary era; for none but Gates made any efforts to emancipate their slaves during their lifetimes.
The couple thereupon moved to an estate at Rose Hill in present-day midtown Manhattan, where the local authorities received him warmly. His later support for Jefferson's presidential candidacy ended his friendship with Adams. Gates and his wife remained active in New York City society, and he was elected to a single term in the New York State Legislature in 1800. He died in his Rose Hill home on April 10, 1806, and was buried in the Trinity Church graveyard on Wall Street, though the exact location of his grave is unknown.
Legacy
The town of Gates in Monroe County, New York is named in Gates' honor, as is Horatio Street in Manhattan's Greenwich Village, New York City, Gates Avenue, which runs from Ridgewood, Queens to around Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, Gates Avenue in Jersey City and Gates County, North Carolina.
The Gen. Horatio Gates House was his home during the Second Continental Congress at York, Pennsylvania.
References
Sources
Ferling, John. Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. . (pbk.) Originally published in hard cover in 2007.
Nelson, Paul David. General Horatio Gates: A Biography. Louisiana State Univ Pr; First edition, 1976. .
Ward, Christopher. John Richard Alden, ed. The War of the Revolution. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2011. . Originally published Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky, 1952.
External links
The Horatio Gates papers, 1726-1828 at the New York Historical Society
1726 births
1806 deaths
Adjutants general of the United States Army
American slave owners
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
British Army personnel of the French and Indian War
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
American people of English descent
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Virginia
Continental Army staff officers
British emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
Lancashire Fusiliers officers
People from Shepherdstown, West Virginia
People from Maldon, Essex
People from Manhattan
Members of the New York State Assembly
Sherwood Foresters officers
People of colonial New York
People from Kearneysville, West Virginia
People of Father Le Loutre's War
Burials at Trinity Church Cemetery | [
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] |
236763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxis | Praxis | Praxis may refer to:
Philosophy and religion
Praxis (process), the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, practised, embodied, or realised
Praxis model, a way of doing theology
Praxis (Byzantine Rite), the practice of faith, especially worship
Christian theological praxis, the practice of the Gospel in the world
Praxis School, a Marxist humanist philosophical movement
Praxis (British philosophy journal), a journal of philosophy published by the University of Manchester
Praxis (Yugoslav philosophy journal), a journal of philosophy published by Praxis School
Praxis International, the continuation of Praxis and predecessor of Constellations
Praxis: Journal of Gender and Cultural Critiques
Organizations and business
Praxis (store), a Dutch chain of hardware stores
Altran Praxis, a British software company
Praxis Business School, Kolkata, a management institute in India
Praxis Care, a social-care charity based in Belfast, Northern Ireland
Praxis Ethiopia, an international organisation addressing poverty in Ethiopia
The arts
Praxis, a novel by Fay Weldon, published in 1978
The Praxis, a 2002 novel by Walter Jon Williams
Praxis (album), by Cecil Taylor recorded live in Italy in 1968
Praxis (band), an experimental rock project led by Bill Laswell
Praxis (dance music act)
Praxis (art collaborative), an American art duo
PRAXIS: a journal of writing + building, published by the Ohio State University College of Engineering
In fiction
Praxis, a fictional moon in the film Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country
Praxis, a metanational corporation in Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy
Praxis, a fictional underground metropolis in the SyFy series Sanctuary
Praxis Kit, an item used to unlock various abilities in several of the Deus Ex video games
"Praxis", an episode of the podcast Alice Isn't Dead
Baron Praxis, an antagonist in the 2003 video game Jak II
Other uses
Praxis (moth), a genus of moths of the family Noctuidae
Praxis Discussion Series, televised discussion on international development established by the World Bank in Australia
Praxis intervention, in social work, a methodology for intervention within communities
Praxis Rabemananjara (born 1987), Malagasy footballer
Praxis test, a United States teacher certification exam
PRAXXIS, (with added X) a feminist design atelier at The Manchester School of Architecture led by Helen Iball (also known as Helen Aston).
See also
Practice (disambiguation)
Praxeology | [
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236764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathanael%20Greene | Nathanael Greene | Nathanael Greene (June 19, 1786, sometimes misspelled Nathaniel) was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. He emerged from the war with a reputation as General George Washington's most talented and dependable officer, and is known for his successful command in the southern theater of the war.
Born into a prosperous Quaker family in Warwick, Rhode Island, Greene became active in the colonial opposition to British revenue policies in the early 1770s and helped establish the Kentish Guards, a state militia. After the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, the legislature of Rhode Island established an army and appointed Greene to command it. Later in the year, Greene became a general in the newly established Continental Army. Greene served under Washington in the Boston campaign, the New York and New Jersey campaign, and the Philadelphia campaign before being appointed quartermaster general of the Continental Army in 1778.
In October 1780, General Washington appointed Greene as the commander of the Continental Army in the southern theater. After taking command, Greene engaged in a successful campaign of guerrilla warfare against the numerically superior force of General Charles Cornwallis. He inflicted major losses on British forces at Battle of Guilford Court House, the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs, eroding British control of the American South. Major fighting on land came to an end following the surrender of Cornwallis at the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781, but Greene continued to serve in the Continental Army until late 1783. After the war, he became a planter in the South, but his rice crops mainly failed. He died in 1786 at his Mulberry Grove Plantation in Chatham County, Georgia. Many places in the United States are named after Greene.
Early life and education
Greene was born on August 7, 1742 [O.S.], on Forge Farm at Potowomut in the township of Warwick, Rhode Island, which was then part of British America. He was the second son of Mary Mott and Nathanael Greene Sr., a prosperous Quaker merchant and farmer. Greene was descended from John Greene and Samuel Gorton, both of whom were founding settlers of Warwick. Greene had two older half-brothers from his father's first marriage, and was one of six children born to Nathanael and Mary. Due to religious beliefs, Greene's father discouraged book learning, as well as dancing and other activities. Nonetheless, Greene convinced his father to hire a tutor, and he studied mathematics, the classics, law, and various works of the Age of Enlightenment. At some point during his childhood, Greene gained a slight limp that would remain with him for the rest of his life.
In 1770, Greene moved to Coventry, Rhode Island, to take charge of the family-owned foundry, and he built a house in Coventry called Spell Hall. Later in the year, Greene and his brothers inherited the family business after their father's death. Greene began to assemble a large library that included military histories by authors like Caesar, Frederick the Great, and Maurice de Saxe.
Family
In July 1774, Greene married the nineteen-year-old Catharine Littlefield, a niece-by-marriage of his distant cousin, William Greene, an influential political leader in Rhode Island. That same year, one of Greene's younger brothers married a daughter of Samuel Ward, a prominent Rhode Island politician who became an important political ally until his death in 1776. Greene and Catherine's first child was born in 1776, and they had six more children between 1777 and 1786.
American Revolutionary War
Prelude to war
After the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British parliament began imposing new policies designed to raise revenue from British America for a war that colonists had played a pivotal role in instigating. After British official William Dudington seized a vessel owned by Greene and his brothers, Greene filed an ultimately successful lawsuit against Dudington for damages. While the lawsuit was pending, Dudington's vessel was torched by a Rhode Island mob in what became known as the Gaspee Affair. In the aftermath of the Gaspee Affair, Greene became increasingly alienated from the British. At the same time, Greene drifted away from his father's Quaker faith, and he was suspended from Quaker meetings in July 1773. In 1774, after the passage of revenue-raising measures that colonials derided as the "Intolerable Acts," Greene helped organize a local militia known as the Kentish Guards. Because of his limp, Greene was not selected as an officer in the militia.
Commander under Washington
Boston campaign
The American Revolutionary War broke out with the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. In early May, the legislature of Rhode Island established the Rhode Island Army of Observation and appointed Greene to command it. Greene's army marched to Boston, where other colonial forces were laying siege to a British garrison. He missed the June 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill because he was visiting Rhode Island at the time, but he returned almost immediately after the battle and was impressed by the performance of colonial forces. That same month, the Second Continental Congress established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington to command all colonial forces. In addition to Washington, Congress appointed sixteen generals, and Greene was appointed as a brigadier general in the Continental Army. Washington took command of the Siege of Boston in July 1775, bringing with him generals such as Charles Lee, Horatio Gates, and Thomas Mifflin. Washington organized the Continental Army into three divisions, each consisting of regiments from different colonies, and Greene was given command of a brigade consisting of seven regiments. The Siege of Boston continued until March 1776, when British forces evacuated from the city. After the end of the siege, Greene briefly served as the commander of military forces in Boston, but he rejoined Washington's army in April 1776.
New York and New Jersey Campaign
Washington established his headquarters in Manhattan, and Greene was tasked with preparing for the invasion of nearby Long Island. While he focused on building up fortifications in Brooklyn, Greene befriended General Henry Knox and struck up a correspondence with John Adams. He was also, along with several other individuals, promoted to major general by an act of Congress. Because of a severe fever, he did not take part in the Battle of Long Island, which ended with an American retreat from Long Island. After the battle, Greene urged Washington to raze Manhattan so that it would not fall into the hands of the British, but Congress forbade Washington from doing so. Unable to raze Manhattan, Washington initially wanted to fortify the city, but Greene joined with several officers in convincing Washington that the city was indefensible. During the withdrawal from Manhattan, Greene saw combat for the first time in the Battle of Harlem Heights, a minor British defeat that nonetheless represented one of the first American victories in the war.
After the Battle of Harlem Heights, Washington placed Greene in command of both Fort Constitution (later known as Fort Lee), which was on New Jersey side of the Hudson River, and Fort Washington, which was across the river from Fort Constitution. While in command of Fort Lee, Greene established supply depots in New Jersey along a potential line of retreat; these would later prove to be valuable resources for the Continental Army. Washington suggested to Greene that he remove the garrison from Fort Washington due to its vulnerability to a British attack, but he ultimately deferred to Greene's decision to continue to station soldiers there. In the subsequent Battle of Fort Washington, fought in November 1776, the British captured the Fort Washington and its 3,000-man garrison. Greene was subjected to heavy criticism in the aftermath of the battle, but Washington declined to relieve Greene from command. Shortly after the Battle of Fort Washington, a British force under General Cornwallis captured Fort Lee, and the Continental Army began a retreat across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. Greene commanded part of Washington's army in the December 1776 Battle of Trenton and the January 1777 Battle of Princeton, both of which were victories for the Continental Army.
Philadelphia campaign
Along with the rest of Washington's army, Greene was stationed in New Jersey throughout the first half of 1777. In July 1777, he publicly threatened to resign over the appointment of a French officer to the Continental Army, but he ultimately retained his commission. Meanwhile, the British began a campaign to capture Philadelphia, the seat of Congress. At the Battle of the Brandywine, Greene commanded a division at the center of the American line, but the British launched a flanking maneuver. Greene's division helped prevent the envelopment of American forces and allowed for a safe retreat. The British captured Philadelphia shortly after the Battle of the Brandywine, but Washington launched a surprise attack on a British force at the October 1777 Battle of Germantown. Greene's detachment arrived late to the battle, which ended in another American defeat. In December, Greene joined with the rest of Washington's army in establishing a camp at Valley Forge, located twenty-five miles northwest of Philadelphia. Over the winter of 1777–1778, he clashed with Thomas Mifflin and other members of the Conway Cabal, a group that frequently criticized Washington and sought to install Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
In March 1778, Greene reluctantly accepted the position of quartermaster general, making him responsible for procuring supplies for the Continental Army. Along with his top two assistants, Charles Pettit and John Cox, Greene reorganized his 3,000-person department, establishing supply depots in strategic places across the United States. As quartermaster general, Greene continued to attend Washington's councils-of-war, an unusual arrangement for a staff officer. After France joined the war in early 1778, the British army in Philadelphia was ordered to New York. Along with Anthony Wayne and the Marquis de Lafayette, Greene recommended an attack on the British force while it retreated across New Jersey to New York. Greene commanded a division in the subsequent Battle of Monmouth, which, after hours of fighting, ended indecisively.
Stalemate in the Northern theater, 1778–1780
In July 1778, Washington granted Greene temporary leave as quartermaster general so that he could take part in an attack on British forces stationed in his home state of Rhode Island. The offensive was designed as a combined Franco-American operation under the command of General John Sullivan and French admiral d'Estaing, but the French fleet withdrew due to bad weather conditions. Greene fought in the subsequent Battle of Rhode Island, an inconclusive battle that ended with a British retreat from the American position. After the battle, the American force under Sullivan left Rhode Island, while Greene returned to his duties as quartermaster general.
After mid-1778, the Northern theater of the war became a stalemate, as the main British force remained in New York City and Washington's force was stationed nearby on the Hudson River. The British turned their attention to the Southern theater of the war, launching an ultimately successful expedition to capture Savannah. Though he desired a battlefield command, Greene continued to serve as the Continental Army's quartermaster general. As Congress was increasingly powerless to furnish funds for supplies, Greene became an advocate of a stronger national government. In June 1780, while Washington's main force continued to guard the Hudson River, Greene led a detachment to block the advance of a British contingent through New Jersey. Despite being vastly outnumbered in the Battle of Springfield, Greene forced the withdrawal of the British force on the field. Shortly after the battle, Greene resigned as quartermaster general in a letter that strongly criticized Congress; although some members of Congress were so outraged by the letter that they sought to relieve Greene of his officer's commission, Washington's intervention ensured that Greene retained a position in the Continental Army. After Benedict Arnold defected to the British, Greene briefly served as the commandant of West Point and presided over the execution of John André, Arnold's contact in the British army.
Command in the South
Appointment
By October 1780, the Continental Army had suffered several devastating defeats in the South under the command of Benjamin Lincoln and Horatio Gates, leaving the United States at a major disadvantage in the Southern theater of the war. On October 14, 1780, Washington, acting on the authorization of Congress, appointed Greene as the commander of the Southern Department of the Continental Army. By the time he took command, the British were in control of key portions of Georgia and South Carolina, and the governments of the Southern states were unable to provide much support to the Continental Army. Greene would face a 6,000-man British army led by General Cornwallis and cavalry commander Banastre Tarleton, as well as numerous Loyalist militias that worked with the British. Outnumbered and under-supplied, Greene settled on a strategy of guerrilla warfare rather than pitched battles in order to prevent the advance of the British into North Carolina and Virginia. His strategy would heavily depend on riverboats and cavalry to outmaneuver and harass British forces. Among Greene's key subordinates in the Southern campaign were his second-in-command, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, cavalry commander Henry Lee, the Marquis de Lafayette, Daniel Morgan, and Francis Marion.
Strategic retreat
While en route to the Southern theater, Greene learned of the American victory at October 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain, which postponed Cornwallis's planned advance into North Carolina. Upon arriving in Charlotte, North Carolina, in December 1780, Greene went against conventional military strategy by dividing his forces; he would lead the main American force southeast, while Morgan would lead a smaller detachment to the southwest. Cornwallis responded by dividing his own forces, marching the main detachment against Greene while Tarleton led a force against Morgan. In the January 1781 Battle of Cowpens, Morgan led Continental troops to a major victory that resulted in the near-total destruction of Tarleton's force. After the battle, Cornwallis set off in pursuit of Morgan, burning some of his own supplies in order to speed up his army's movement. Greene linked up with Morgan and retreated into North Carolina, purposely forcing Cornwallis away from British supply lines. On February 9, in consultation with Morgan and other top officers, Greene decided to continue the retreat north, heading toward the Dan River at the North Carolina-Virginia border.
With the British in close pursuit, Greene divided his forces, leading the main contingent north while sending a smaller group under Colonel Otho Williams to harass British forces. Greene's force outpaced the British and crossed the Dan River on February 14. Greene's contemporaries were impressed by the speed and efficiency of the retreat through difficult territory; Alexander Hamilton wrote that it was a "masterpiece of military skill and exertion." Unwilling to travel even farther from his supply lines, General Cornwallis led his army south to Hillsborough, North Carolina. On February 22, Greene's force crossed back over the Dan River to challenge Cornwallis in North Carolina.
Battle of Guilford Court House
After crossing back into North Carolina, Greene harassed Cornwallis's army. In early March, he received reinforcements from North Carolina and Virginia, doubling the size of his force to approximately 4,000 men. On March 14, he led his army to Guilford Courthouse and began preparing for an attack by Cornwallis, using a strategy based on Morgan's plan at the Battle of Cowpens. Greene established three defensive lines, with the North Carolina militia making up the first line, the Virginia militia making up the second line, and the Continental Army regulars, positioned on a hill behind a small stream, making up the third line. After skirmishes on the morning of the March 15, the main British force launched a full attack in the afternoon, beginning the Battle of Guilford Court House. The first American line fired volleys and then fled, either to the next line or away from the battlefield. The second line held up for longer, and continued to resist the British advance while Cornwallis ordered an unsuccessful assault against the third line. The British re-formed and launched an assault on the left flank of the third line, but were overwhelmed by Henry Lee's cavalry. In response, Cornwallis ordered his artillery to fire grapeshot into the fray, hitting British and American soldiers alike. With his army's left flank collapsing, Greene ordered a retreat, bringing the battle to an end. Although the Battle of Guilford Court House ended with an American defeat, the British suffered substantially greater losses.
Campaign in South Carolina and Georgia
After the Battle of Guilford Court House, Cornwallis's force headed south to Wilmington, North Carolina. Greene initially gave chase, but declined to press to launch an attack after much of the militia returned home. To Greene's surprise, in late April Cornwallis's force began a march north to Yorktown, Virginia. Rather than follow Cornwallis, Greene headed South, where he challenged British commander Francis Rawdon for control of South Carolina and Georgia. On April 20, he began a siege of Camden, South Carolina and established a camp at a nearby ridge known as Hobkirk's Hill. On the 25th, Rawdon launched a surprise attack on Greene's position, beginning the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill. Despite having been taken by surprise, Greene's force nearly achieved victory, but the left flank collapsed and the cavalry failed to arrive. Facing total defeat, Greene ordered a retreat, bringing an end to the battle. Although the American and British forces suffered a similar number of losses in the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, Greene was deeply disappointed by the result of the battle.
On May 10, Rawdon's force left Camden for Charleston, South Carolina, effectively conceding control of much of interior South Carolina to the Continental Army. In a series of small actions known as the "war of the posts," Greene and his subordinates further eroded British control of interior South Carolina by capturing several British forts. On June 18, after undertaking the month-long Siege of Ninety-Six, Greene launched an unsuccessful attack on the British fort at Ninety Six, South Carolina. Although the assault failed, Rawdon ordered the fort abandoned shortly thereafter. Meanwhile, Greene's subordinates further expanded Continental control, capturing Augusta, Georgia on June 5. By the end of June, the British controlled little more than a thin strip of coastal land from Charleston to Savannah. After resting through much of July and August, the Continental Army resumed operations and engaged a British force on September 8 at the Battle of Eutaw Springs. The battle ended with a Continental retreat, but the British suffered more substantial losses. After the battle, the British force returned to Charleston, leaving interior South Carolina in full control of Continental forces. Congress issued Greene a gold medal and passed a resolution congratulating him for his victory at Eutaw Springs.
While Greene campaigned in South Carolina and Georgia, Lafayette led Continental resistance to Cornwallis's army in Virginia. Although Greene's command gave him leadership of Continental operations in Virginia, he was unable to closely control events in Virginia from South Carolina. Lafayette heeded Greene's advice to avoid combat, but his force only narrowly escaped destruction at the July 1781 Battle of Green Spring. In August, Washington and French general Rochambeau left New York for Yorktown, intent on inflicting a decisive defeat against Cornwallis. Washington laid siege to Cornwallis at Yorktown, and Cornwallis surrendered on October 19.
After Yorktown
Yorktown was widely regarded as a disastrous defeat for the British, and many considered the war to have effectively ended in late 1781. The governments of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia each voted Greene liberal grants of lands and money, including an estate called "Boone's Barony" in Bamberg County, South Carolina, and Mulberry Grove Plantation near Savannah. Nonetheless, the British still controlled New York, Savannah, and Charleston, and Greene still contended with Loyalist militias who sought to destabilize Continental control. With American finances in a disastrous state, Greene also struggled to clothe and feed his troops. In late 1781, he declined appointment to the newly created position of secretary of war, which was charged with overseeing the Continental Army. He also corresponded with Robert Morris, the superintendent of finance of the United States, who shared Greene's view on the need for a stronger national government than the one that had been established in the Articles of Confederation. No major military action occurred in 1782, and the British evacuated Savannah and Charleston before the end of that year. Congress officially declared the end of the war in April 1783, and Greene resigned his commission in late 1783.
Later life and death
After resigning his commission, Greene returned to Newport. Facing a large amount of debt, he relocated to the South to focus on the slave plantations he had been awarded during the war, and he made his home at the Mulberry Grove Plantation outside of Savannah. In 1784, Greene declined appointment to a commission tasked with negotiating treaties with Native Americans, but he agreed to attend the first meeting of the Society of the Cincinnati. He then became an original member with the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati.
Greene fell ill on June 12, 1786, and he died at Mulberry Grove on June 19, 1786, at the age of 43. The official cause of death was sunstroke. For over a century, his remains were interred at the Graham Vault in Colonial Park Cemetery in Savannah, alongside John Maitland, his arch-rival in the conflict. On November 14, 1902, through the efforts of Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati President Asa Bird Gardiner, his remains were moved to a monument in Johnson Square in Savannah. Greene Square, about a third of a mile southeast of Johnson Square, was named for him upon its platting in 1799.
As noted above, Greene was in debt. In 1782 and 1783, Greene had difficulty supplying his troops in Charleston with clothing and provisions. He contracted with Banks & Co to furnish supplies, but was compelled to put his name to the bond for the supplies. An order was given by Greene to Robert Morris for payment of the amount; this was paid by the Government of the United States to the contractor, who did not use it to pay the debt and left the bond unpaid. Greene paid the debt himself, and in 1791 his executrix petitioned Congress for relief. Greene had obtained some security from a partner of Banks & Co named Ferrie on a mortgage or lien on a tract of land, but the land was liable to a prior mortgage of £1,000 sterling to an Englishman named Murray. In 1788, the mortgagor in England filed a bill to foreclose on the mortgage, while Greene's family instituted proceedings against Ferrie, who was entitled to a reversionary interest in the land. The court ordered the land be sold and the sale proceeds to be first used to extinguish the mortgage, with the balance to go to representatives of General Greene. The land was sold, and after the £1,000 mortgage had been paid off, the residue of £2,400 was to go Greene's representatives. However, the purchaser never took title and never paid the money, on the grounds that the title was in dispute. In 1792 a Relief Act was passed by Congress for General Greene which was based upon the decree of the land sale; the sum of which he was entitled to (£2,400) was exempted out of the indemnity allowed him at that time, not one cent of which his heirs received except $2,000. In 1830, the administrators of Murray filed a bill of Chancery against the land; however, his agent who had bought the land had not taken title to it, on the grounds that there was a dispute about the land. The claim to the title was not resolved and the money never paid. Meanwhile, from 1789 to 1840, the plantation had gone to ruin; under the original decree, the land, instead of bringing the sum it had first bought, was sold for only $13,000. This left Greene's representatives only about $2,000 instead of £2,400. In 1840, they applied to Congress for the difference between the two sums. In 1854, the case was put to Congress for the relief of Phineas Nightingale, who was the administrator of the deceased General Greene.
Legacy
Historical reputation
Defense analyst Robert Killebrew writes that Greene was "regarded by peers and historians as the second-best American general" in the Revolutionary War, after Washington. The historian Russell Weigley believed that "Greene's outstanding characteristic as a strategist was his ability to weave the maraudings of partisan raiders into a coherent pattern, coordinating them with the maneuvers of a field army otherwise too weak to accomplish much, and making the combination a deadly one.... [He] remains alone as an American master developing a strategy of unconventional war." Historian Curtis F. Morgan Jr. describes Greene as Washington's "most trusted military subordinate." According to Golway, "on at least two occasions, fellow officers and politicians described Greene... as the man Washington had designated to succeed him if he were killed or captured." He was also respected by his opponents; Cornwallis wrote that Greene was "as dangerous as Washington. He is vigilant, enterprising, and full of resources–there is but little hope of gaining an advantage over him." Alexander Hamilton wrote that Greene's death deprived the country of a "universal and pervading genius which qualified him not less for the Senate than for the field." Killebrew argues that Greene was the "most underrated general" in American history.
Memorials
His statue, along with that of Roger Williams, represents the state of Rhode Island in the National Statuary Hall Collection in the United States Capitol. Washington, D.C. also hosts a bronze equestrian statue of Greene in Stanton Park. A large oil portrait of Nathanael Greene hangs in the State Room in the Rhode Island State House, and a statue stands outside the building's south facade. A cenotaph to him stands in the Old Forge Burial Ground in Warwick. Greene is also memorialized by statues in or near Philadelphia, Valley Forge National Historical Park, Greensboro, North Carolina, Greensburg, Pennsylvania, and Greenville, South Carolina. The Nathanael Greene Monument in Savannah, Georgia serves as his burial place.
Numerous places and things have been named after Greene across in the United States. Fourteen counties are named for Greene, the most populous of which is Greene County, Missouri. Municipalities named for Greene include Greensboro, North Carolina; Greensboro, Georgia; Greensburg, Pennsylvania; Greenville, North Carolina; Greenville, South Carolina and Greeneville, Tennessee. Other things named for Greene include the Green River in Kentucky, Fort Greene Park in Brooklyn, and several schools. Several ships have been named for Greene, including the , the , the USS Nathanael Greene, and the USAV MGen Nathanael Greene.
The Nathanael Greene Homestead in Coventry, Rhode Island, features Spell Hall, which was General Greene's home, built in 1774. Greene commissioned cabinetmaker Thomas Spencer to build a desk and bookcase, likely to be put in this new home. The desk and bookcase is now at the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia. It was built in East Greenwich, Rhode Island in the Chippendale Style. An inscription is written in graphite on an interior drawer that says that the desk originally belonged to Nathanael Greene.
See also
Quakers in the American Revolution
List of places named for Nathanael Greene
Notes
References
Bibliography
Secondary sources
Greene, Francis Vinton, "Life of Nathanael Greene, Major-General in the Army of the Revolution". (New York, 1893), in the Great Commanders Series
Greene, George W. The Life of Nathanael Greene, Major-General in the Army of the Revolution. 3 vols. New York: Putnam, 1867–1871. Reprinted Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1972. .
Johnson, William, "Sketches of the Life and Correspondence of Nathanael Greene", (1822)
Ward, Christopher. War of the Revolution 2 Volumes. New York 1952
Primary sources
The Papers of General Nathanael Greene. University of North Carolina Press:
Vol. I: December 1766 to December 1776. .
Vol. II: January 1777 to October 16, 1778.
Vol. III: October 18, 1778 to May 10, 1779. .
Vol. IV: May 11, 1779 to October 31, 1779. .
Vol. V: November 1, 1779 to May 31, 1780. .
Vol. VI: June 1, 1780 to December 25, 1780. .
Vol. VII: December 26, 1780 to March 29, 1781. .
Vol. VIII: March 30, 1781 to July 10, 1781. .
Vol. IX: July 11, 1781 to December 2, 1781. .
Vol. X: December 3, 1781 to April 6, 1782. .
Vol. XI: April 7, 1782 to September 30, 1782. .
Vol. XII: 1 October 1782 to May 21, 1783. .
Vol. XIII: May 22, 1783 to June 13, 1786. .
External links
American Revolution Institute
Biography of Greene
A letter from Nathanael Greene with his acceptance of command over the Southern Army from the Papers of the Continental Congress
Historic Valley Forge biography
American Revolution homepage
Army Quartermaster Foundation, Inc.
“Eulogium on Major-General Greene” (1789) by Alexander Hamilton
Gen Nathl Greene descendants, as listed in a family tree on RootsWeb
Sketches of the Life and Correspondence of Nathanael Greene, by William Johnson
Nathanael Greene Monument historical marker
Nathanael Greene, Maj. Gen. Continental Army historical marker
Society of the Cincinnati
1742 births
1786 deaths
American Quakers
American people of English descent
Burials in Georgia (U.S. state)
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Rhode Island
People from Kent County, Rhode Island
Foundrymen
Greene County, Georgia
Members of the Rhode Island General Assembly
People from Savannah, Georgia
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Greene County, Ohio
Accidental deaths in Georgia (U.S. state)
People from Coventry, Rhode Island
Quartermasters General of the United States Army
Militia generals in the American Revolution
People of colonial Rhode Island
18th-century American politicians
Greene family of Rhode Island
American slave owners
Quaker slave owners | [
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236765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follow%20the%20Leader%20%28Korn%20album%29 | Follow the Leader (Korn album) | Follow the Leader (stylized as FOLLOW The LEADEЯ) is the third studio album by American nu metal band Korn. The album was released on August 18, 1998, through Immortal/Epic. This was their first album not produced by Ross Robinson. Instead, it was produced by Steve Thompson and Toby Wright.
The album peaked at number one on four charts, including the Billboard 200 with 268,000 units sold in its first week of release, Follow the Leader is considered by members of Korn to be the band's most commercially–successful album, being certified five-times Platinum by the RIAA. Its singles, "Got the Life" and "Freak on a Leash", both charted on more than three charts, and their music videos are considered to be the first music videos retired from MTV, most notably the MTV show Total Request Live. The album generally received positive reviews by critics and sold around 14 million copies worldwide. Korn was praised by AllMusic saying the album is "an effective follow-up to their first two alt-metal landmarks."
The Family Values Tour promoted the album, along with its five singles. The song "Freak on a Leash" was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards, and won for the Best Rock Video award, as well as Best Editing. The music video for "Freak on a Leash" won Best Short Form Music Video at the 2000 Grammy Awards.
Recording and production
By early 1998, Korn returned to the studio to record Follow the Leader. Even though Korn was impressed by the work Ross Robinson had done on their previous albums, they decided to work with Steve Thompson and Toby Wright. Robinson did however work with singer Jonathan Davis as a vocal coach for the album. According to Wright, Robinson went to extreme lengths to agitate Davis in the vocal booth, including punching him in the back repeatedly. Korn was shown making the record on KornTV. The reason they exposed themselves making the album was because they wanted to let their fans see what they were doing in the studio and behind the scenes. Follow the Leader features numerous guest vocalists, including Ice Cube on "Children of the Korn", Tre Hardson of The Pharcyde on "Cameltosis" and Limp Bizkit's Fred Durst on "All in the Family". The songs for the album were written and copyrighted in 1997, with the exception of "Children of the Korn", "All in the Family" and "Cameltosis", which are copyrighted from 1998.
In a 2013 interview, the band revealed that they partied heavily during the production of Follow the Leader, with massive amounts of alcohol, drugs, and women in the studio. Davis explained further, saying that while recording the vocals for "It's On", there were "people getting blowjobs right behind me, there was girls banging each other in front of me, people getting boned in the closet right behind me, it was the craziest shit I've ever seen in my life and I sang that song." According to Davis, he only agreed to begin tracking vocals when producer Toby Wright met his demands for an eight-ball (a one-eighth ounce of cocaine).
Photography and illustration
The artwork for Follow the Leader was done by Todd McFarlane Entertainment, with McFarlane and fellow Image Comics artists Greg Capullo (penciller) and Brian Haberlin (colorist) doing the album cover, and designer Brent Ashe handling the graphics work. According to drummer David Silveria, the band got interested in McFarlane after hearing that "Todd had actually referred to us as 'the Doors of the 90's'", leading to them recording a song for Spawn, a film based on a comic book by McFarlane, and eventually approaching the artist to make an album cover for them. The cover art depicts a child hopscotching toward the edge of a cliff and a gathering of kids waiting to follow, a concept that began with bassist Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu and sketched by a friend of Jonathan Davis before being submitted to McFarlane. It marked the third straight Korn cover featuring children in a disturbing context, which Davis explained by saying that "Children are always scared when they're all happy and stuff. They're the most beautiful thing in the world, but when you see it in our artwork, the way we've placed it, it's just kinda fuckin' weird." The "Freak on a Leash" music video features animated segments by McFarlane featuring this cover art.
Promotion
Follow the Leader is recognized as Korn's mainstream breakthrough, and the album that launched nu metal into the mainstream. The album was released August 18, 1998, and was awarded multi-platinum certification for shipments in excess of five million copies, by the RIAA on March 15, 2002. In fall of 1998, Korn started the Family Values Tour. According to Arvizu, the tour name was due to "so many of their friends who were like family to us played in bands". The Family Values Tour featured the unveiling of a steel cage to the rear of the stage called the Korn Kage, holding radio contest winners. The idea of the Korn Kage came originally from Arvizu. The tour started on September 22, 1998, ending on October 31, 1998. The tour grossed over 6.4 million (6,400,000). Korn maintained a generally low ticket price, usually no more than thirty dollars. Korn toured with the band Limp Bizkit, as well as Ice Cube, Orgy, Incubus, and Rammstein. The tour was considered to be a major success, and promoted Follow the Leader to sales that were considered to have "skyrocketed". However, unlike all their other tours, they opted not to play in Europe for this cycle.
The album was also promoted through Concrete Marketing's Concrete Corner program with Jim Rose of Jim Rose Circus as the pitchman. The promotion saw 100,000 copies of a compilation CD featuring tracks of breakthrough artists approved by Korn, as well as a previously unreleased Korn track, being shrink-wrapped to the album at participating stores and given away for free with each purchase of the album. Band artists (at the time) featured on this CD included Kid Rock, Orgy, Powerman 5000 and Limp Bizkit. The album had five singles issued: "All in the Family", "Got the Life", "Freak on a Leash", "Children of the Korn", and "B.B.K."
Composition
Follow the Leader is seventy minutes and eight seconds long. AllMusic said, "They write songs, but those wind up not being nearly as memorable as their lurching metallic hip-hop grind." Entertainment Weekly commented that Follow the Leader was Korn's "gimmick", while saying the album had "steely riffs" and "stomping beats". Tower Records said the album "combines streamlined metal with ominous industrial touches and an undercurrent of hip-hop rhythm," and also said it was an "urban nightmare". The album is considered to be nu metal, but also spans other genres such as alternative metal and heavy metal.
The album features 25 tracks, 12 of which last five seconds of silence, making the first 1 minute of the album all silent. The concept of the song "Justin" was about a boy with the same name dying of intestinal cancer. His last wish was to meet the members of Korn. Winston-Salem Journal writer Ed Bumgardner described Korn's work as having "shaped rap, metal, and punk into a sonic maelstrom that is brutal, aggressive - and reasonably musical". The Daily News said that "the band shovels chunky beats into an already complex sound..." Michael Mehle of Rocky Mountain News said, "For the uninitiated, the classic Korn sound comes rumbling out of the speakers on the first cut: It's On! grinds fuzzy guitars, thunderous beats, and shouts of gut-wrenching rage into an anthem for the alienated", and gave other positive remarks. The Charlotte Observer said the album was dark, but humble. A Zeeland high school assistant principal said in an interview for a Michigan newspaper that the music is "indecent, vulgar, obscene, and intends to be insulting". She said this after giving a student a one-day suspension for wearing a shirt with Korn on it.
Critical reception
Follow the Leader received generally positive reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it "an effective follow-up to their first two alt-metal landmarks." David Fricke of Rolling Stone wrote that Korn "have an ideal record for those long, black days when all you can do is say 'What the Fuck! What the Fuck! What the Fuck!' at bloody murder volume". Yahoo! Music critic Janiss Garza described the album as "intensely tortured and savage as ever", while noting that "in spite of all this distress and suffering, Korn does loosen up". Entertainment Weekly reviewer Jim Farber called it "a big load of dumb fun" and "also incredibly perverse, going to almost laughable lengths to mess with metal cliché", concluding that if "hardly innovative enough to rival the classics of metal, at least Korn's LP gives this once-stagnant style kernels of something new". Jon Pareles from The New York Times said the album was "choppy", describing Davis as "wrestling with self-hatred, violent impulses, parental execration, and a confused sexual identity..." In a negative review, Robert Christgau of The Village Voice said that, although Korn "deny they're metal", they "nevertheless demonstrate that the essence of metal ... is self-obliterating volume and self-aggrandizing display." The album is featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Commercial performance
Follow the Leader peaked at number one on four charts, including the Billboard 200. Follow the Leader peaked at number five in the United Kingdom. The album received a 5× platinum certification in the United States, as well as a triple platinum in Australia and Canada. Follow the Leader also received a gold certification in the Netherlands. The album's first charting single, "Got the Life", released on July 24, 1998, peaked at number 15 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart, and received a gold certification in Australia. The album's next charting single, "Freak on a Leash", released in February 1999, peaked at number six on the Alternative Songs chart, as well as number six on the Bubbling Under Hot 100, and like "Got the Life", received a gold certification in Australia. "Freak on a Leash" was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards, and won for the Best Rock Video award, as well as Best Editing.
Track listing
All songs written by Korn except "Earache My Eye" written by Tommy Chong, Gaye Delorme and Richard Marin. All guest appearances feature an extra writing credit by the guest.
The original physical release features 25 tracks. The album starts with 12 silent tracks. In interviews, Jonathan Davis also mentioned he was very superstitious and did not want to end an album on track 13.
Credits
Korn
Jonathan Davis – vocals, bagpipes
Head – guitar
Munky – guitar
Fieldy – bass
David Silveria – drums, percussion
Additional vocalists
Fred Durst – on "All in the Family"
Tre Hardson – on "Cameltosis"
Ice Cube – on "Children of the Korn"
Cheech Marin – on "Earache My Eye"
Production staff
Todd McFarlane and Greg Capullo – artwork
Brian Haberlin – artwork (coloring)
Joseph Cultice – photography
Tommy D. Daugherty – programming
John Ewing Jr. – engineer, assistant engineer
Ross Robinson - vocal coaching
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Brendan O'Brien – mixing
Steve Thompson – producer
Don C. Tyler – digital editing
Justin Z. Walden – additional drums, programming
Toby Wright – producer, engineer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
Certifications
References
Bibliography
1998 albums
Albums produced by Toby Wright
Epic Records albums
Immortal Records albums
Korn albums | [
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236767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20Robinson | Ross Robinson | Ross Robinson (born February 13, 1967) is an American record producer who discovered acts such as Korn, Glassjaw, The Blood Brothers, Slipknot, and Limp Bizkit. Robinson has also worked with Tech N9ne, The Cure, Sepultura, and many others.
Biography
The son of Bob Robinson and inspirational speaker Byron Katie, Robinson began as a thrash metal guitarist for the bands Detente and Murdercar (featuring future Machine Head drummer Dave McClain) and picked up his knowledge of producing from the studios where his band recorded demos and also worked at Blackie Lawless's studio, Fort Apache, in Burbank, CA. Robinson received his first production job for the 1991 Fear Factory album Concrete. Robinson would use the album as a showcase of sorts in helping him land producing slots with other acts, particularly the up-and-coming band Korn.
Robinson is regarded as "The Godfather of Nu Metal", along with Korn frontman Jonathan Davis, despite denouncing the nu metal movement later on for becoming complacent and the newer bands for not expanding on the style that he helped create with Korn's first album, Korn (1994).
Robinson has also been successful in the post-hardcore genre, producing At the Drive-In's album, Relationship of Command in 2000, as well as Glassjaw's albums, Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Silence (2000) and Worship and Tribute (2002). Robinson has also worked with the likes of The Cure on their eponymous album (2004) and From First to Last on their album Heroine (2006).
In 2003 he produced The Blood Brothers' ...Burn, Piano Island, Burn, which was a departure for both the band and Robinson. In contrast to The Blood Brothers' previously raw, often under-produced songs (which lasted as short as 90 seconds at times), ...Burn, Piano Island, Burn featured much longer and more complex compositions.
Robinson was the owner of the IAM: Wolfpack label. In 2007 it was announced that he was starting a new label IAM: Wolfpack, which released the debut CD from Black Light Burns titled Cruel Melody. He is a co-owner of semi-private NY nightclub The Plumm, along with David Wells, Jesse Bradford, Noel Ashman and others.
From 2008, Robinson decided to produce new talents he discovered via Myspace. He recorded and mixed a young French trio called My Own Private Alaska, which mixes classical piano and scream based vocals. Their Amen album was released on March 1, 2010, through his label I Am Recordings.
He worked with the Slovenian band Siddharta on their new project Saga. He also produced Repeater's second album, We Walk from Safety.
Robinson has been producing indie rock bands such British bands Klaxons and Dananananaykroyd. In late 2008, the Luxembourgish dance rock band INBORN! were approached by Robinson. Having heard the band on the net, he offered to record their first official long player. The band entered Robinson's studio on October 1, 2010.
In 2010, Robinson returned to produce Korn's ninth album, 14 years after last working with band. Korn wanted to recapture the raw energy of the first two albums which Robinson produced.
In 2013, Robinson produced Tech N9ne's rock EP Therapy.
Robinson also worked with Sepultura for their 2013 album The Mediator Between Head and Hands Must Be the Heart.
As of 2017, he has recently worked with The Used, Suicide Silence, and Frank Iero and the Patience among others.
Robinson had a minor role in producing Limp Bizkit's sixth studio album, then titled Stampede of the Disco Elephants, however such contributions were later discarded after the album's refactoring and 2021 release.
Musician
Detente – Recognize No Authority (1986) (guitar)
Murdercar – unreleased album (1990) (guitar)
Albums produced
Concrete – Fear Factory (1991)
The Crimson Idol – W.A.S.P. (1992) (engineer)
Creep – Creep (1993)
Neidermayer's Mind – Korn (1993)
Korn – Korn (1994)
Feed-Us – Cradle of Thorns (1994)
Adrenaline – Deftones (1995) (production on "Fist")
Injected – Phunk Junkeez (1995)
All Is Not Well – Manhole (1996)
Life Is Peachy – Korn (1996)
Roots – Sepultura (1996)
E-lux - Human Waste Project (1997)
Three Dollar Bill, Y'all – Limp Bizkit (1997)
Soulfly – Soulfly (1998)
Cold – Cold (1998)
Hard to Swallow – Vanilla Ice (1998)
The Burning Red – Machine Head (1999)
Slipknot – Slipknot (1999)
Amen – Amen (1999)
Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Silence – Glassjaw (2000)
Relationship of Command – At the Drive-In (2000)
We Have Come for Your Parents – Amen (2000)
Strait Up – Snot w/ various artists (2000) (production on "Absent")
Iowa – Slipknot (2001)
Start with a Strong and Persistent Desire – Vex Red (2002)
Concrete – Fear Factory (re-released 2002)
Worship and Tribute – Glassjaw (2002)
...Burn, Piano Island, Burn – The Blood Brothers (2003)
Join, or Die – Amen (2003)
The Cure – The Cure (2004)
Rule 3: Conceal Your Intentions – Septembre (2004)
Team Sleep – Team Sleep (2005) (production on "Blvrd. Nights" and "Live from the Stage")
The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1) – Limp Bizkit (2005)
Heroine – From First to Last (2006)
Redeemer – Norma Jean (2006)
Wolves – Idiot Pilot (2007)
Worse Than a Fairy Tale – Drop Dead, Gorgeous (2007)
Cruel Melody – Black Light Burns (2007) (mixing on "Mesopotamia")
The Anti Mother – Norma Jean (Aug 2008)
Saga – Siddharta (2009)
Korn III: Remember Who You Are – Korn (2010)
We Walk from Safety – Repeater (2010)
Surfing the Void – Klaxons (2010)
Amen - My Own Private Alaska (2010)
PERSONA – INBORN! (2011)
There Is a Way – Dananananaykroyd (2011)
Birth, School, Work, Death – Hyro Da Hero (2011)
Anthems of the Hero – Kraddy (2011)
VI – Siddharta (2011)
Haria – Berri Txarrak (2011)
abcdefghijklmnoprstuwxyz – semantik punk (2012)
Therapy EP – Tech N9ne (2013)
The Mediator Between Head and Hands Must Be the Heart – Sepultura (2013)
The Drone – We Are Knuckle Dragger
Blood Maker EP – Wild Throne (2014)
Denbora da poligrafo bakarra – Berri Txarrak (2014)
My Dreams Dictate My Reality – Soko (2015)
Searching for Zero – Cancer Bats (2015)
Harvest of Darkness – Wild Throne (2015)
Only Ghosts – Red Fang (2016)
II – De La Tierra (2016)
Into the Vanishing Light – Night Verses (2016)
Parachutes - Frank Iero and the Patience (2016)
Suicide Silence – Suicide Silence (2017)
Dead Cross – Dead Cross (2017)
The Canyon – The Used (2017)
Everything Is Fine - Amigo the Devil (2018)
Lament – Touché Amoré (2020)
References
Record producers from California
Heavy metal producers
American heavy metal guitarists
Living people
Kerrang! Awards winners
People from Barstow, California
1967 births
20th-century American guitarists | [
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236773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rulers%20of%20W%C3%BCrttemberg | List of rulers of Württemberg | This article lists the Counts, Dukes, Electors, and Kings who ruled over different territories named Württemberg from the beginning of the County of Württemberg in the 11th century to the end of the Kingdom of Württemberg in 1918.
Counts and Dukes of Württemberg
House of Württemberg
Partitions of Württemberg under Württemberg rule
Table of rulers
Elector of Württemberg, 1803–1806
In 1803, the Duke of Württemberg was raised to the rank of Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, the Empire was dissolved, and the Elector of Württemberg became an independent monarch with the title of King.
Kings of Württemberg, 1806–1918
The Holy Roman Empire came to an end in 1806. The Elector of Württemberg, allied to Napoleon I, anticipated its dissolution by becoming the ruler of an independent Kingdom of Württemberg in 1806.
Because of a lack of male heirs under Salic law, on the death of Wilhelm II in 1921 the royal house had to reach back to the descendants of Friedrich II Eugen (ruled 1795–97). The line of the Duke of Urach was excluded because of a morganatic marriage back in 1800 by its forebear Duke William, and so the succession devolved to the younger branch of Altshausen.
Another morganatic descendant of Friedrich II Eugen was Mary of Teck (1867–1953), who married the British king George V when he was Duke of York.
Presidents of the Free People's State of Württemberg, 1918–1945
See also
House of Württemberg
History of Baden-Württemberg
Coat of arms of Württemberg
References
Rulers of Württemberg
Württembergian nobility
Wurttemberg
Wurttembergian rulers
Wurttembergian dukes
Lists of German nobility | [
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236774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori%20Piestewa | Lori Piestewa | Lori Ann Piestewa ( ; December 14, 1979 – March 23, 2003) was a United States Army soldier killed during the Iraq War. A member of the Quartermaster Corps, she died in the same Iraqi attack in which fellow soldiers Shoshana Johnson and Piestewa's friend Jessica Lynch were injured. A member of the Hopi tribe, Piestewa was the first Native American woman to die in combat while serving in the U.S. military and the first woman in the U.S. military killed in the Iraq War. Arizona's Piestewa Peak is named in her honor.
Early life and education
Piestewa was born in Tuba City, Arizona, to Terry Piestewa and Priscilla "Percy" Baca. Her father is Hopi Native American and her mother is Mexican-American. The couple first met in 1964 and married in November 1968.
The Piestewa family had a long military tradition; her paternal grandfather served in the U.S. Army in the European Theatre of World War II, and her father Terry Piestewa was drafted in the U.S. Army in September 1965 and served a tour of duty in the Vietnam War before he returned home in March 1967.
The Piestewa family resided in Tuba City, a town located on the Navajo Indian Reservation in Coconino County. As a child, she was given the Hopi name Qötsa-Hon-Mana (, White Bear Girl). Her surname is derived from a Hopi language root meaning "water pooled on the desert by a hard rain"; thus, Piestewa () translates loosely as "the people who live by the water."
Ambush in Nasiriyah, Iraq
Piestewa was a member of the US Army's 507th Maintenance Company, a support unit of maintenance and repair personnel. Her company was traveling in a convoy through the desert and was meant to bypass Nasiriyah, in southern Iraq, during the opening days of the war; but the convoy got lost and ran into an ambush in Nasiriyah on March 23, 2003.
As Piestewa came under "a torrent of fire" (in the words of an Army investigation of the battle) she drove at high speed, evading enemy fire until a rocket-propelled grenade hit her Humvee. The explosion sent her vehicle into the rear of a disabled tractor-trailer. Piestewa, Johnson, and Lynch all survived the crash with injuries, while three other soldiers in the Humvee died. They were taken prisoner along with four others, with Piestewa dying of her wounds soon after. A video of some of the American prisoners of war, including Piestewa (filmed shortly before she died in an Iraqi hospital), was later shown around the world on Al Jazeera television. According to Jessica Lynch's book—I'm a Soldier, Too: The Jessica Lynch Story—Piestewa was wounded in the head, and performing delicate neurosurgery in an Iraqi civilian hospital was impossible in wartime conditions (due to limitations such as intermittent electric power).
The families of soldiers in the 507th heard almost right away of the ambush and fatalities in the unit. The Piestewa family saw people in her unit being interviewed by Iraqi TV, and for more than a week, families of the two women waited for news. All around Tuba City, signs were hung out telling people: "Put your porch light on, show Lori the way home." They used white stone to spell her name on a 200-foot-high mesa just outside the town.
Legacy
Piestewa was awarded the Purple Heart and Prisoner of War Medal. The U.S. Army posthumously promoted her from private first class to specialist.
Lynch has repeatedly stated that Piestewa was the true heroine of the ambush and named her daughter Dakota Ann in honor of her fallen comrade. In addition, many entities have honored her memory with memorials. Arizona's state government renamed Squaw Peak in the Phoenix Mountains near Phoenix as Piestewa Peak, and this was codified by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names on April 10, 2008; the freeway that passes near this mountain was also renamed in her honor. In addition, Senator Tom Daschle honored her, as did Indian Nations across the United States. Since her death, the Grand Canyon State Games organizers have held an annual Lori Piestewa National Native American Games, which brings participants from across the country. A plaque bearing her name is also located at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, and Fort Bliss, Texas. She has also been memorialized with a plaque and ceremony at Mount Soledad Veterans Memorial in La Jolla, California. On November 10, 2011, American Legion Post No. 80 on the Hopi Reservation was renamed the Lori Piestewa Post # 80. On November 30, 2011, the Directorate of Training Sustainment headquarters at Fort Benning, Georgia was named Piestewa Hall in her honor.
Her death led to a rare joint prayer gathering between members of the Hopi and Navajo tribes, which have had a centuries-old rivalry.
In May 2005, Piestewa's parents and children had a brand-new home built by Ty Pennington and his crew on ABC's Extreme Makeover: Home Edition accompanied by Jessica Lynch. They also built a new veterans' center on the Navajo reservation.
In 2018, Piestewa became one of the inductees in the first induction ceremony held by the National Native American Hall of Fame.
See also
Battle of Nasiriyah
References
Further reading
External links
A Tribute to Lori Ann Piestewa, A Native American Hero and The first American woman killed in Iraq
The Lori Piestewa National Native American Games
1979 births
2003 deaths
People from Tuba City, Arizona
Military personnel from Arizona
Women in the United States Army
Women in the Iraq War
Native American women in warfare
Hopi people
American people of Mexican descent
United States Army personnel of the Iraq War
United States Army soldiers
Logistics personnel of the United States military
Native American United States military personnel
American military personnel killed in the Iraq War
American prisoners of war
Quartermasters
21st-century Native American women
20th-century Native American women
20th-century Native Americans
Native American people from Arizona | [
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236780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20William%20IV%20of%20Prussia | Frederick William IV of Prussia | Frederick William IV (; 15 October 17952 January 1861), the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 7 June 1840 to his death on 2 January 1861. Also referred to as the "romanticist on the throne", he is best remembered for the many buildings he had constructed in Berlin and Potsdam as well as for the completion of the Gothic Cologne Cathedral.
In politics, he was a conservative, who initially pursued a moderate policy of easing press censorship and reconciling with the Catholic population of the kingdom. During the German revolutions of 1848–1849, he at first accommodated the revolutionaries but rejected the title of Emperor of the Germans offered by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849, believing that Parliament did not have the right to make such an offer. He used military force to crush the revolutionaries throughout the German Confederation. From 1849 onward he converted Prussia into a constitutional monarchy and acquired the port of Wilhelmshaven in the Jade Treaty of 1853.
From 1857 to 1861, he suffered several strokes and was left incapacitated until his death. His brother (and heir-presumptive) Wilhelm served as regent after 1858 and then succeeded him as King.
Early life
Born to Frederick William III by his wife Queen Louise, he was her favourite son. Frederick William was educated by private tutors, many of whom were experienced civil servants, such as Friedrich Ancillon. He also gained military experience by serving in the Prussian Army during the War of Liberation against Napoleon in 1814, although he was an indifferent soldier. He was a draftsman interested in both architecture and landscape gardening and was a patron of several great German artists, including architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel and composer Felix Mendelssohn. In 1823 he married Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria. Since she was a Roman Catholic, the preparations for this marriage included difficult negotiations which ended with her conversion to Lutheranism. There were two wedding ceremonies—one in Munich, and another in Berlin. The couple had a very harmonious marriage, but, after a single miscarriage in 1828, it remained childless.
Frederick William was a staunch Romanticist, and his devotion to this movement, which in the German States featured nostalgia for the Middle Ages, was largely responsible for his developing into a conservative at an early age. In 1815, when he was only twenty, the crown prince exerted his influence to structure the proposed new constitution of 1815, which was never actually enacted, in such a way that the landed aristocracy would hold the greatest power. He was firmly against the liberalization of Germany and only aspired to unify its many states within what he viewed as a historically legitimate framework, inspired by the ancient laws and customs of the recently dissolved Holy Roman Empire. Frederick William opposed the idea of a unified German state, believing that Austria was divinely ordained to rule over Germany, and contented himself with the title of "Grand General of the Realm".
Reign
Early reign
Frederick William became King of Prussia on the death of his father in 1840. Through a personal union, he also became the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel (1840–1857), today part of Switzerland. In 1842, he gave his father's menagerie at Pfaueninsel to the new Berlin Zoo, which opened its gates in 1844 as the first of its kind in Germany. Other projects during his reign—often involving his close collaboration with the architects—included the Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery) and the Neues Museum in Berlin, the Orangerieschloss at Potsdam as well as the reconstruction of Schloss Stolzenfels on the Rhine (Prussian since 1815) and Burg Hohenzollern, in the ancestral homelands of the dynasty which became part of Prussia in 1850. He also enlarged and redecorated his father's Erdmannsdorf manor house.
Although a staunch conservative, Frederick William did not seek to be a despot, and so he toned down the reactionary policies pursued by his father, easing press censorship and promising to enact a constitution at some point, but he refused to create an elected legislative assembly, preferring to work with the nobility through "united committees" of the provincial estates. When he finally called a national assembly in 1847, it was not a representative body, but rather a United Diet comprising all the provincial estates, which had the right to levy taxes and take out loans, but no right to meet at regular intervals.
Despite being a devout Lutheran, his Romantic leanings led him to settle the Cologne church conflict by releasing the imprisoned Clemens August von Droste-Vischering, the Archbishop of Cologne. He also patronized further construction of Cologne Cathedral, Cologne having become part of Prussia in 1815. In 1844, he attended the celebrations marking the completion of the cathedral, becoming the first King of Prussia to enter a Roman Catholic house of worship.
In 1842, on advice of Alexander von Humboldt, he founded the separate civil class of the Pour le Merite, the Order Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts (Orden Pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste). Said civil order is still being awarded today.
Revolutions of 1848
When revolution broke out in Prussia in March 1848, part of the larger series of Revolutions of 1848, the king initially moved to repress it with the army, but on 19 March he decided to recall the troops and place himself at the head of the movement. He committed himself to German unification, formed a liberal government, convened a national assembly, and ordered that a constitution be drawn up. Once his position was more secure again, however, he quickly had the army reoccupy Berlin and in December dissolved the assembly.
He did, however, remain dedicated to unification for a time, leading the Frankfurt Parliament to offer him the crown of Germany on 3 April 1849, which he refused, purportedly saying that he would not accept a "crown from the gutter" (German: "Krone aus der Gosse"). The King's refusal was rooted in his Romantic aspiration to re-establish the medieval Holy Roman Empire, comprising smaller, semi-sovereign monarchies under the limited authority of a Habsburg emperor. Therefore, Frederick William would only accept the imperial crown after being elected by the German princes, as per the former empire's ancient customs. He expressed this sentiment in a letter to his sister the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia, in which he said the Frankfurt Parliament had overlooked that "in order to give, you would first of all have to be in possession of something that can be given." In the king's eyes, only a reconstituted College of Electors could possess such authority.
With the failed attempt by the Frankfurt Parliament to include the Habsburgs in a newly unified German Empire, the Parliament turned to Prussia. Seeing Austrian ambivalence towards Prussia taking a more powerful role in German affairs, Frederick William began considering a Prussian-led union. All German states, excluding those of the Habsburgs, would be unified under Hohenzollern authority, and these two polities would be linked in an overarching political framework. Frederick William, therefore, did attempt to establish the Erfurt Union, a union of the German states except for Austria, but abandoned the idea by the Punctation of Olmütz on 29 November 1850, in the face of renewed Austrian and Russian resistance. The German Confederation remained the common government of German Europe.
Later years and death
Rather than returning to bureaucratic rule after dismissing the Prussian National Assembly, Frederick William promulgated a new constitution that created a Parliament of Prussia with two chambers, an aristocratic upper house and an elected lower house. The lower house was elected by all taxpayers, but in a three-tiered system based on the amount of taxes paid, so that true universal suffrage was denied. The constitution also reserved to the king the power of appointing all ministers, re-established the conservative district assemblies and provincial diets, and guaranteed that the civil service and the military remained firmly under control of the king. This was a more liberal system than had existed in Prussia before 1848, but it was still a conservative system of government in which the monarch, the aristocracy, and the military retained most of the power. This constitution remained in effect until the dissolution of the Prussian kingdom in 1918.
Following the revolutions of 1848, the increasingly gloomy king withdrew from the public eye, surrounding himself with advisers who preached absolute orthodoxy and conservatism in religious and political matters. A series of strokes from 14 July 1857 onward left the king partially paralyzed and largely mentally incapacitated, and his brother (and heir-presumptive) William served as regent after 7 October 1858. On 24 November 1859, the king suffered a stroke that left him paralyzed on the left side. He was driven around in a wheelchair from then on. On 4 November 1860, he lost consciousness after another stroke. One more stroke resulted in the king's death at Sanssouci palace on 2 January 1861, at which point the regent acceded to the throne as William I of Prussia.
In accordance with his testamentary instructions from 1854, Frederick William IV is interred with his wife in the crypt underneath the Church of Peace in the park of Sanssouci, at Potsdam, while his heart was removed from his body and buried alongside his parents at the Charlottenburg Palace mausoleum.
Religion
He was a Lutheran member of the Evangelical State Church of Prussia, a United Protestant denomination that brought together Reformed and Lutheran believers.
Honours
German decorations
Foreign decorations
Ancestry
See also
Equestrian statue of Frederick William IV
Notes
References
Barclay, David E.,Frederick William IV and the Prussian Monarchy 1840–1862, (Oxford, 1995).
Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947, by, (Harvard University Press, 2006).
Sheehan, James J. "Frederick William IV and the Prussian Monarchy: 1840-1861." English Historical Review 112.449 (1997): 1312–1314.
External links
1795 births
1861 deaths
19th-century Kings of Prussia
People from Berlin
Kings of Prussia
Princes of Neuchâtel
Crown Princes of Prussia
Prussian princes
House of Hohenzollern
People of the Revolutions of 1848
Protestant monarchs
Extra Knights Companion of the Garter
German Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Fourth Degree
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Burials at the Charlottenburg Palace Park Mausoleum, Berlin
19th-century German people
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Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Prussian Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
German revolutions of 1848–1849 | [
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236782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser%20window | Kaiser window | The Kaiser window, also known as the Kaiser–Bessel window, was developed by James Kaiser at Bell Laboratories. It is a one-parameter family of window functions used in finite impulse response filter design and spectral analysis. The Kaiser window approximates the DPSS window which maximizes the energy concentration in the main lobe but which is difficult to compute.
Definition
The Kaiser window and its Fourier transform are given by:
where:
is the zeroth-order modified Bessel function of the first kind,
is the window duration, and
is a non-negative real number that determines the shape of the window. In the frequency domain, it determines the trade-off between main-lobe width and side lobe level, which is a central decision in window design.
Sometimes the Kaiser window is parametrized by , where .
For digital signal processing, the function can be sampled symmetrically as:
where the length of the window is and N can be even or odd. (see A list of window functions)
In the Fourier transform, the first null after the main lobe occurs at which is just in units of N (DFT "bins"). As α increases, the main lobe increases in width, and the side lobes decrease in amplitude. = 0 corresponds to a rectangular window. For large the shape of the Kaiser window (in both time and frequency domain) tends to a Gaussian curve. The Kaiser window is nearly optimal in the sense of its peak's concentration around frequency
Kaiser–Bessel-derived (KBD) window
A related window function is the Kaiser–Bessel-derived (KBD) window, which is designed to be suitable for use with the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT). The KBD window function is defined in terms of the Kaiser window of length N+1, by the formula:
This defines a window of length 2N, where by construction dn satisfies the Princen-Bradley condition for the MDCT (using the fact that ): (interpreting n and n + N modulo 2N). The KBD window is also symmetric in the proper manner for the MDCT: dn = d2N−1−n.
Applications
The KBD window is used in the Advanced Audio Coding digital audio format.
Notes
References
Further reading
Digital_signal processing | [
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] |
236786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Hesse | List of rulers of Hesse | This is a list of rulers of Hesse () during the history of Hesse on west-central Germany. These rulers belonged to a dynasty collectively known as the House of Hesse and the House of Brabant, originally the Reginar. Hesse was ruled as a landgraviate, electorate and later as a grand duchy until 1918.
The title of all of the following rulers was "landgrave" () unless otherwise noted.
Landgraviate of Hesse
In the early Middle Ages the Hessengau territory (named after the Germanic Chatti tribes) formed the northern parts of the German stem duchy of Franconia along with the adjacent Lahngau. Upon the extinction of the ducal Conradines, these Rhenish Franconian counties were gradually acquired by Landgrave Louis I of Thuringia and his successors.
After the War of the Thuringian Succession upon the death of Landgrave Henry Raspe in 1247, his niece Duchess Sophia of Brabant secured the Hessian possessions for her minor son Henry the Child, who would become the first landgrave of Hesse and founder of the House of Hesse in 1246. The remaining Thuringian landgraviate fell to the Wettin margrave Henry III of Meissen. Henry I of Hesse was raised to princely status by King Adolf of Germany in 1292.
Landgraves of Hesse
House of Hesse
Partitions of Hesse under Hesse family
Table of rulers
(Note: Here the numbering of the rulers is the same for all landgraviates, as all were titled Landgraves of Hesse, despite of the different parts of land and its particular numbering of the rulers, who here are numbered according to the year of succession.)
Heads of the non-reigning House of Hesse
Hesse-Kassel since 1866
Friedrich Wilhelm I, the former Elector, titular Landgrave 1866–75 (1802–1875)
succeeded by his second cousin Friedrich Wilhelm II as below:
Friedrich II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (1720–1785)
Friedrich III, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel-Rumpenheim (1747–1837)
Wilhelm I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel-Rumpenheim (1787–1867)
Friedrich Wilhelm II, titular Landgrave 1875–84 (1820–1884)
Friedrich Wilhelm III, titular Landgrave 1884–88 (1854–1888)
Alexander Friedrich, titular Landgrave 1888–1925, abdicated (1863–1945)
Friedrich Karl, titular Landgrave 1925–40, elected King of Finland as Fredrik Kaarle I in 1918 but renounced the throne (1868–1940)
Philipp, titular Landgrave 1940–80, head of entire House 1968 on extinction of Hesse-Darmstadt line (1896–1980)
Moritz, titular Landgrave and Head of House 1980–2013 (1926–2013)
Heinrich Donatus titular Landgrave and Head of House 2013–present (born 1966)
Moritz, Hereditary Prince of Hesse (born 2007)
Prince August of Hesse (born 2012)
Prince Philipp Robin of Hesse (born 1970)
Prince Tito of Hesse (born 2008)
Prince Christoph of Hesse (1901–1943)
Prince Karl Adolf Andreas of Hesse (born 1937)
Prince Christoph of Hesse (born 1969)
Prince Rainer Christoph Friedrich of Hesse (born 1939)
Hesse-Philippsthal 1866–1925
Charles II, formerly sovereign, titular Landgrave 1866–68 (1803–1868)
Ernst Eugen, titular Landgrave 1868–1925 (1846–1925)
1925 the Line of Hesse-Philippsthal became extinct, passed to Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld
Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld since 1866, Hesse-Philippsthal since the extinction of the main line 1925
Charles, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1784–1854)
Alexis, formerly sovereign, titular Landgrave 1866–1905 (1829–1905)
Prince Wilhelm of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1831–1890)
Chlodwig, titular Landgrave 1905–54, inherited Hesse-Philippsthal as well in 1925 (1876–1954)
Prince Wilhelm of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1905–1942)
Wilhelm, titular Landgrave 1954–present (born 1933)
Prince Wilhelm of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (born 1963)
Prince Wilhelm Ernst of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (born 2005)
Prince Philipp August of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (born 2006)
Prince Otto of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1965–2020)
Prince Max of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (born 1999)
Prince Moritz of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (born 2007)
Prince Hermann of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1935–2019)
Prince Alexis of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (born 1977)
Hesse-Darmstadt 1918–1968
Ernst Ludwig, formerly sovereign, titular Grand Duke 1918–37 (1868–1937)
George Donatus, titular Grand Duke 9 Oct – 16 Nov 1937
Ludwig (V), titular Grand Duke 1937–1968
In 1968 the Line of Hesse-Darmstadt became Hesse-Nassau and Hesse-Kassel (1969–present)
See also
House of Hesse
History of Hesse
Coat of arms of Hesse
References
External links
The History Files: Rulers of Hesse
Rulers of Hesse
Hesse
Hessian rulers
History of Hesse | [
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236792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallard%20%28band%29 | Mallard (band) | Mallard was the name of an American band featuring ex-members of Captain Beefheart's Magic Band.
In early 1974, after the recording of the uncharacteristically mainstream Unconditionally Guaranteed album, the tensions between Captain Beefheart and bandmembers Bill Harkleroad (Zoot Horn Rollo), Mark Boston (Rockette Morton) and Art Tripp III (Ed Marimba) had finally reached a breaking point, and the three members left Beefheart's Magic Band. Together, they formed Mallard, with Sam Galpin as vocalist and Rabbit Bundrick on keyboards, releasing their eponymous debut album in 1975, with logistical support from Ian Anderson (of Jethro Tull fame), who financed the recording using his mobile recording unit on his English estate. The debut included a version of the Captain Beefheart instrumental "Peon", as Harkleroad felt the group could improve on the original. Anderson's involvement with Mallard included recording with the group, but Harkleroad later destroyed these recordings. John French (Drumbo) was originally involved with the band, and co-wrote some songs.
In 1976, they released their second and last album, In a Different Climate, and performed some concerts in the United Kingdom. George Dragotta now had been recruited as their drummer, and after Beefheart fired John Thomas, he too joined on keyboards. Thomas was briefly involved in the Magic Band and in the early 1970s had been in a band called Rattlesnakes and Eggs with John French.
Despite the principal members' years together and unique musical abilities, as well as support from the British musical press, Mallard never achieved commercial success.
In 1994, both LPs by Mallard were re-released on CD by Virgin Records in the UK and in the US.
Personnel
Bill Harkleroad (aka Zoot Horn Rollo) - guitar
Mark Boston (aka Rockette Morton) - bass, occasional lead vocals and guitar
Art Tripp III (aka Ed Marimba, Ted Cactus) - drums, percussion, marimba
Sam Gilpin - lead vocals, occasional piano
John 'Rabbit' Bundrick - Fender Rhodes piano
Barry Morgan - percussion
George Dragotta - drums (2nd LP)
John McFee - pedal steel guitar (2nd LP)
John Thomas - keyboards, backing vocals
Discography
Mallard (Virgin, 1975)
In A Different Climate (Virgin, 1976)
"Harvest"/"Green Coyote" (single, Virgin, 1976)
Mallard/In A Different Climate (compilation, Virgin, 1994)
References
External links
MALLARD Web Page (Since 1995) Web Foot...Webcor Webcor...
American musical groups | [
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236793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crush%20%282001%20film%29 | Crush (2001 film) | Crush is a 2001 romantic comedy film written and directed by John McKay and starring Andie MacDowell, Imelda Staunton, Anna Chancellor, Kenny Doughty, and Bill Paterson.
Plot
Forty-something schoolmistress Kate and her two best friends, police superintendent Janine and doctor Molly, live in rural Britain and share their single lives and dating exploits in weekly chats. Kate has recovered from ovarian cyst disease and fears a relapse; she hasn't been dating much. By chance, she meets Jed, a former student of hers, now a handsome twenty-something church organist. To her surprise, she ends up sleeping with him and the two embark on an unlikely relationship that's looked on with suspicion by Janine and Molly. Janine comes to believe in Kate and Jed's feelings for each other. But Molly is still dubious, showing Jed's criminal record and medical history to Kate, bringing adult dates to their dinner parties and taking her and Janine to Paris so that she will go off Jed. Conversely, this brings Kate and Jed closer together and they plan their wedding.
Molly eventually attempts to prove Jed's faithlessness by seducing him, which fails but angers Kate to the extreme. After an argument about how Kate has kept their engagement quiet, Jed is thrown out of Kate's house. He is struck and killed by a passing truck; this unexpected tragedy breaks the three women up, as Kate is inconsolable and Janine blames Molly. Repressed at her home, due to her inhability to continue her work as a schoolmistress Kate, repressed herself out of this world; but, still, is not even capable of take a piss on the toilet without crying and thinking about Jed. Kate reluctantly embarks on a mild romance with a local vicar who's always been in love with her, but when she finally agrees to marry him, she becomes ill at the altar. Molly and Janine take her away, and discover that she is pregnant with Jed's child. She decides to have the baby and raise it on her own, while the vicar meets a woman who's actually excited about him. Also, Janine starts going out with Bill (a robbery suspect) and Molly falls for a pediatrician named Eleanor. The three friends reconcile and continue to share their lives and experiences.
Cast
Andie MacDowell - Kate Scales
Imelda Staunton - Janine
Anna Chancellor - Molly Cartwright
Kenny Doughty - Jed Willis
Bill Paterson - Rev. Gerald Marsden
Caroline Holdaway - Pam
Joe Roberts - Brendan
Josh Cole - PC Darren Blake
Gary Powell - Sergeant
Christian Burgess - Kate's Frenchman
Morris Perry - Bishop
Richenda Carey - Lady Governor
Roger Booth - Hearty Governor
Derek Deadman - Little Crematorium Man
Andrew Bicknell - Mr. Yacht
Matilda Thorpe - Stationer
Debated title
As told by John McKay, the film combines two plot lines which eventually came together. At first he wrote a play which was named "Crush" about an older woman and a younger man.
Later, he met "a set of women doctors who were working too hard to get a date on Friday nights and so would get together instead, drink cheap liquor, eat chocolate, smoke cigarettes and have a competition to decide who was the saddest fucker of the week". This influenced the original play as it "sprouted more female characters" and became a movie script.
McKay, who both wrote the screenplay and directed the film in 1999, wanted to name the film The Sad Fuckers Club, a name which he felt fit the plot line - and which, according to him, Andie MacDowell approved of when offered the role in the film. This, however, was changed after resistance from the financiers and distributors and uneasiness on the part of test audiences, eventually reverting to the original name, "Crush".
Crush met with generally mixed reviews, and has scored an average of 5 out of 10 on review aggregate site, Rotten Tomatoes.
References
External links
2001 films
British films
English-language films
English-language German films
French-language films
German films
2001 romantic comedy-drama films
British romantic comedy-drama films
German romantic comedy-drama films
Films directed by John McKay
2001 comedy films
2001 drama films
British female buddy films | [
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236795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Cotes%20formulas | Newton–Cotes formulas | In numerical analysis, the Newton–Cotes formulas, also called the Newton–Cotes quadrature rules or simply Newton–Cotes rules, are a group of formulas for numerical integration (also called quadrature) based on evaluating the integrand at equally spaced points. They are named after Isaac Newton and Roger Cotes.
Newton–Cotes formulas can be useful if the value of the integrand at equally spaced points is given. If it is possible to change the points at which the integrand is evaluated, then other methods such as Gaussian quadrature and Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature are probably more suitable.
Description
It is assumed that the value of a function defined on is known at equally spaced points: . There are two classes of Newton–Cotes quadrature: they are called "closed" when and , i.e., they use the function values at the interval endpoints, and "open" when and , i.e., they do not use the function values at the endpoints. Newton–Cotes formulas using points can be defined (for both classes) as
where
for a closed formula, , with ,
for an open formula, , with .
The number is called step size, are called weights.
The weights can be computed as the integral of Lagrange basis polynomials. They depend only on and not on the function .
Let be the interpolation polynomial in the Lagrange form for the given data points , then
Instability for high degree
A Newton–Cotes formula of any degree can be constructed. However, for large a Newton–Cotes rule can sometimes suffer from catastrophic Runge's phenomenon where the error grows exponentially for large . Methods such as Gaussian quadrature and Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature with unequally spaced points (clustered at the endpoints of the integration interval) are stable and much more accurate, and are normally preferred to Newton–Cotes. If these methods cannot be used, because the integrand is only given at the fixed equidistributed grid, then Runge's phenomenon can be avoided by using a composite rule, as explained below.
Alternatively, stable Newton–Cotes formulas can be constructed using least-squares approximation instead of interpolation. This allows building numerically stable formulas even for high degrees.
Closed Newton–Cotes formulas
This table lists some of the Newton–Cotes formulas of the closed type. For , let , and the notation be a shorthand for .
Boole's rule is sometimes mistakenly called Bode's rule, as a result of the propagation of a typographical error in Abramowitz and Stegun, an early reference book.
The exponent of the segment size h in the error term shows the rate at which the approximation error decreases. The order of the derivative of f in the error term gives the lowest degree of a polynomial which can no longer be integrated exactly (i.e., with error equal to zero) with this rule. The number must be taken from the interval .
Open Newton–Cotes formulas
This table lists some of the Newton–Cotes formulas of the open type. Again, is a shorthand for , with .
Composite rules
For the Newton–Cotes rules to be accurate, the step size needs to be small, which means that the interval of integration must be small itself, which is not true most of the time. For this reason, one usually performs numerical integration by splitting into smaller subintervals, applying a Newton–Cotes rule on each subinterval, and adding up the results. This is called a composite rule. See Numerical integration.
See also
Quadrature (mathematics)
Interpolation
Spline interpolation
References
M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, eds. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. New York: Dover, 1972. (See Section 25.4.)
George E. Forsythe, Michael A. Malcolm, and Cleve B. Moler. Computer Methods for Mathematical Computations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice–Hall, 1977. (See Section 5.1.)
Josef Stoer and Roland Bulirsch. Introduction to Numerical Analysis. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1980. (See Section 3.1.)
External links
Newton–Cotes formulas on www.math-linux.com
Newton–Cotes Integration, numericalmathematics.com
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236796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical%20model | Biomedical model | The biomedical model of medicine is the current dominating model of illness used in most Western healthcare settings, and is built from the perception that a state of health is defined purely in the absence of illness. The biomedical model contrasts with sociological theories of care, and is generally associated with poorer outcomes and greater health inequality when compared to socially-derived models.
Forms of the biomedical model have existed since before 400 BC, with Hippocrates, the "father of medicine" advocating for physical aetiologies of illness. Despite this, the model did not form the dominant view of health until the 1800s during the Scientific Revolution.
Criticism of the model generally surrounds its perception that health is independent of the sociocultural setting in which it occurs, and can be defined one way, across all populations. Similarly, the model is also criticised for its view of the health system as socially and politically neutral, and not as a source of social or cultural power or embedded into the structure of society.
Features of the biomedical model
In their book Society, Culture and Health: an Introduction to Sociology for Nurses, health sociologists Dr Karen Willis and Dr Shandell Elmer outline eight 'features' of the biomedical model's approach to illness and health. They are:
doctrine of specific aetiology: that all illness and disease is attributable to a specific, physiological dysfunction
body as a machine: that the body is formed of machinery to be fixed by medical doctors
mind-body distinction: that the mind and body are separate entities that do not interrelate
reductionism
narrow definition of health: a state of health is always the absence of a definable illness
individualistic: that sources of ill-health are always in the individual, and not the environment which health occurs
treatment versus prevention: that the focus of health is on diagnosis and treatment of illness, not prevention
treatment imperative: that medicine can 'fix the broken machinery' of ill-health
neutral scientific process: that health care systems and agents of health are socially and culturally detached and irrelevant
See also
Biopsychosocial model
Medical model
Medical model of disability
Social model of disability
Trauma model of mental disorders
References
Medical models | [
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236797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernie%2C%20British%20Columbia | Fernie, British Columbia | Fernie is a city in the Elk Valley area of the East Kootenay region of southeastern British Columbia, Canada, located on BC Highway 3 on the western approaches to the Crowsnest Pass through the Rocky Mountains. Founded in 1898 and incorporated as the City of Fernie in July 1904, the municipality has a population of over 5,000 with an additional 2,000 outside city limits in communities under the jurisdiction of the Regional District of East Kootenay. A substantial seasonal population swells the city during the winter months.
Fernie lies on the Elk River, along Canada's southernmost east-west transportation corridor through the Rockies that crosses the range via the Crowsnest Pass, to the east. As the largest and longest-established community between Cranbrook and Lethbridge, Fernie serves as a minor regional centre, particularly for its fellow Elk Valley communities.
Geography
Fernie is the only city-class municipality in Canada that is fully encircled by the Rocky Mountains. The townsite was laid out in the crook of a doglegged glacial valley that today is drained by the Elk River. Three tributaries of the Elk—Coal, Lizard, and Fairy Creeks—rise in its side valleys and join the Elk either within or in close proximity to the townsite.
To the north of the city lie Mount Fernie, Mount Klauer, The Three Sisters and Mount Proctor. To the northeast is Mount Hosmer, to the east is Fernie Ridge, to the southeast is Morrissey Ridge (and its notable outcropping, Castle Mountain) and to the southwest are the various peaks of the Lizard Range. Fernie gives the name to the Jurassic-Age Fernie Formation. The Lizard Range is home to Fernie Alpine Resort, one of the largest ski resorts in Canada, and Island Lake Catskiing, a resort.
History
While the slopes of the mountains are the present focus of economic activity, until comparatively recently residents of the area were more interested in the mountains' innards. The vast Crowsnest Coal Field lies just to the east of the city, and Fernie owes its origins to nineteenth-century prospector William Fernie, who established the coal industry that continues to exist to this day. Acting on pioneer Michael Phillips' twin discoveries of coal and the Crowsnest Pass a few years earlier, Fernie founded the Crows Nest Pass Coal Company in 1897 and established a temporary encampment near Coal Creek. The Canadian Pacific Railway arrived in the valley the following year, and a townsite emerged parallel to the railway line slightly north of the initial encampment, or "Old Town."
On May 23, 1902, a coal mine explosion killed 109 miners at the Crow's Nest Coal Mining Company. The disaster, one of the worst mining accidents in Canadian history, is largely forgotten in Fernie and overlooked by local historians after more than a century. During World War One, an internment camp for prisoners of war was set up at rented premises in Fernie from June 1915 to October 1918.
Underground coal mines were dug away from the townsite in the narrow Coal Creek valley and until 1960 a small satellite community was known as Coal Creek stood adjacent to them. A variety of other mines were sunk into the coal fields in a fifty-kilometre radius in the following two decades. No mining was ever carried out in Fernie proper; coking of Coal Creek coal was carried out at the townsite, but otherwise, the town developed into an administrative and commercial centre for the burgeoning industry. Forestry played a smaller role in the local economy and a local brewery produced Fernie Beer from Brewery Creek (mountain spring water).
Like most single-industry towns, Fernie endured several boom-and-bust cycles throughout the twentieth century, generally tied to the global price of coal. The mines at Coal Creek closed permanently by 1960 and the focus of mining activity shifted to Michel and Natal about upriver, which sat on a more productive portion of the Crowsnest Coal Field. Kaiser Resources opened immense open-pit mines there in the 1970s to meet new metallurgical coal contracts for the Asian industrial market, predominantly for use in blast furnaces. Fernie would remain an important residential base for mine labour, along with the new communities of Sparwood and Elkford that sprang up much closer to these new mines. Today, Teck Resources operates all five open-pit mines, shipping out unit trains (often with more than 100 cars) along the Canadian Pacific Railway through Fernie to the Pacific Coast, where the coal is loaded onto freighters at Roberts Bank Superport in Delta.
Flathead Valley avalanches
The Flathead Valley avalanches were two avalanches that buried 11 snowmobilers near Fernie on December 28, 2008. The avalanches ultimately claimed the lives of eight of the riders.
Architectural heritage
After a disastrous fire levelled much of the downtown core in 1904, the fledgling municipal government passed an ordinance requiring all buildings in the area to be built of 'fireproof' materials like brick and stone. Consequently, a new city centre rose from the ashes sporting brick buildings along broad avenues that would have looked more at home in a sedate and refined Victorian city than a rough-and-tumble frontier coal town. They were short-lived, however, as a second, larger inferno swept through the city on August 1, 1908. Whipped up by sudden winds, a nearby forest fire burnt its way into a lumber yard on the edge of the community and sparked a Dresden-style firestorm that melted brick and mortar and essentially erased the entire city in an afternoon. There were few casualties however and for a second time, a stately brick downtown core rose from the ashes. Today, these historic buildings, most of which still stand, are a treasured and distinctive feature of the community.
Sports
Summer in Fernie is generally far quieter than the winter months, though mountain biking, fly fishing and golf are increasingly important tourist draws.
Fernie Memorial Arena disaster
On October 17, 2017, there was an ammonia leak at the Fernie Memorial Arena which killed three workers (two City of Fernie employees and one CIMCO refrigeration employee from Calgary) during the Ghostriders' regular season. Because of this tragedy, the City of Fernie declared a state of emergency and people had to evacuate the area for days. The 'Riders were relocated because of this to the Elk Valley Leisure Centre in Sparwood, British Columbia during the 2017–18 KIJHL season until the City of Fernie decided what to do. The City of Fernie decided to replace ammonia for a synthetic refrigerant prior to the 2018–19 KIJHL season and moved the team back to the Fernie Memorial Arena.
Notable people
The following people were born, raised in or reside in Fernie:
Angie Abdou, Canadian fiction writer
Emily Brydon, retired Olympic alpine skier
Shane Churla, Stanley Cup finalist
James Gladstone, the first Status Indian to be appointed to the Senate of Canada
Ivy Granstrom, blind Canadian Masters athlete
George Wayne Haddad, Canadian politician and Fernie's past MLA
Cal Hockley, retired gold medal winning hockey player
Frank Hughes, retired NHL and WHA hockey player
Craig Kelly, professional snowboarder
Jason Krog, Stanley Cup finalist
Florence Lassandro, Italian-Canadian bootlegger
David LeNeveu, Stanley Cup finalist
Alex Lifeson, guitarist of Rush
Bill Lindsay, Stanley Cup finalist
Eric Munn, sixth Bishop of Caledonia
Emilio Picariello, Italian-Canadian bootlegger
Danielle Poleschuk, Canadian freestyle skier
Garth Rizzuto, retired NHL and WHA hockey player
William Roderick Ross, Canadian politician and Fernie's MLA
Darren Servatius, retired AAHL and ECHL defencemen
Dan Smith, retired NHL hockey player
Stanford Smith, Stanley Cup champion
Alfred Stork, Canadian politician and Fernie's past mayor and MLA
Tom Uphill, Canadian politician and Fernie's past mayor and MLA
Local media
Newspapers
e-know - East Kootenay news online weekly
Fernie Fix - monthly glossy magazine
The Free Press - weekly paper
Radio stations
107.9 FM - 2Day FM, modern adult contemporary
103.5 FM - CJAY 92, active rock
99.1 FM - The Drive, active rock
97.7 FM - CBC Radio One, public news/talk
92.7 FM - B104, country
Cable television
Shaw Communications operates a cable system serving Fernie. The cable system offers most major channels from Vancouver and Calgary, as well as local programming on Shaw TV channel 10.
Schools and colleges
School District 5 Southeast Kootenay operates the following public schools in Fernie:
Isabella Dicken Elementary School (Grades K-6)
Fernie Secondary School (Grades 7-12)
The Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique operates one Francophone school: école Sophie-Morigeau primary school.
Private schools:
The Fernie Academy (Grades K-12)
Post-secondary:
College of the Rockies
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Fernie recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Climate
Fernie has a cool and wet humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm summer days, cool summer nights along with cold and snowy winters. Influenced by chinook winds and being to the west of the continent, Fernie's winters are mild for its latitude in North America, although the climate is a lot more continental than coastal British Columbia.
See also
Coal Creek, British Columbia, The Ghost Town
Coal Creek (British Columbia), The Creek
References
External links
Cities in British Columbia
Elk Valley (British Columbia)
Populated places in the Regional District of East Kootenay | [
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236798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Cotes | Roger Cotes | Roger Cotes (10 July 1682 – 5 June 1716) was an English mathematician, known for working closely with Isaac Newton by proofreading the second edition of his famous book, the Principia, before publication. He also invented the quadrature formulas known as Newton–Cotes formulas, and made a geometric argument that can be interpreted as a logarithmic version of Euler's formula. He was the first Plumian Professor at Cambridge University from 1707 until his death.
Early life
Cotes was born in Burbage, Leicestershire. His parents were Robert, the rector of Burbage, and his wife, Grace, née Farmer. Roger had an elder brother, Anthony (born 1681), and a younger sister, Susanna (born 1683), both of whom died young. At first Roger attended Leicester School, where his mathematical talent was recognised. His aunt Hannah had married Rev. John Smith, and Smith took on the role of tutor to encourage Roger's talent. The Smiths' son, Robert Smith, would become a close associate of Roger Cotes throughout his life. Cotes later studied at St Paul's School in London and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1699. He graduated BA in 1702 and MA in 1706.
Astronomy
Roger Cotes's contributions to modern computational methods lie heavily in the fields of astronomy and mathematics. Cotes began his educational career with a focus on astronomy. He became a fellow of Trinity College in 1707, and at age 26 he became the first Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy. On his appointment to professor, he opened a subscription list in an effort to provide an observatory for Trinity. Unfortunately, the observatory still was unfinished when Cotes died, and was demolished in 1797.
In correspondence with Isaac Newton, Cotes designed a heliostat telescope with a mirror revolving by clockwork. He recomputed the solar and planetary tables of Giovanni Domenico Cassini and John Flamsteed, and he intended to create tables of the moon's motion, based on Newtonian principles. Finally, in 1707 he formed a school of physical sciences at Trinity in partnership with William Whiston.
The Principia
From 1709 to 1713, Cotes became heavily involved with the second edition of Newton's Principia, a book that explained Newton's theory of universal gravitation. The first edition of Principia had only a few copies printed and was in need of revision to include Newton's works and principles of lunar and planetary theory. Newton at first had a casual approach to the revision, since he had all but given up scientific work. However, through the vigorous passion displayed by Cotes, Newton's scientific hunger was once again reignited. The two spent nearly three and half years collaborating on the work, in which they fully deduce, from Newton's laws of motion, the theory of the moon, the equinoxes, and the orbits of comets. Only 750 copies of the second edition were printed. However, a pirate copy from Amsterdam met all other demand. As a reward to Cotes, he was given a share of the profits and 12 copies of his own. Cotes's original contribution to the work was a preface which supported the scientific superiority of Newton's principles over the then popular vortex theory of gravity advocated by René Descartes. Cotes concluded that the Newton's law of gravitation was confirmed by observation of celestial phenomena that were inconsistent with the vortex phenomena that Cartesian critics alleged.
Mathematics
Cotes's major original work was in mathematics, especially in the fields of integral calculus, logarithms, and numerical analysis. He published only one scientific paper in his lifetime, titled Logometria, in which he successfully constructs the logarithmic spiral. After his death, many of Cotes's mathematical papers were edited by his cousin Robert Smith and published in a book, Harmonia mensurarum. Cotes's additional works were later published in Thomas Simpson's The Doctrine and Application of Fluxions. Although Cotes's style was somewhat obscure, his systematic approach to integration and mathematical theory was highly regarded by his peers. Cotes discovered an important theorem on the n-th roots of unity, foresaw the method of least squares, and discovered a method for integrating rational fractions with binomial denominators. He was also praised for his efforts in numerical methods, especially in interpolation methods and his table construction techniques. He was regarded as one of the few British mathematicians capable of following the powerful work of Sir Isaac Newton.
Death and assessment
Cotes died from a violent fever in Cambridge in 1716 at the early age of 33. Isaac Newton remarked, "If he had lived we would have known something."
See also
Cotes's spiral
Extended Euclidean algorithm
Newton–Cotes formulas
Lituus (mathematics)
References
Sources
[Anon.]
via Internet Archive
(2005)
Meli, D. B. (2004) "Cotes, Roger (1682–1716)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, retrieved 7 September 2007
External links
- A more complete account of Cotes's involvement with Principia, followed by an even more thorough discussion of his mathematical work.
1682 births
1716 deaths
18th-century English mathematicians
Mathematical analysts
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at St Paul's School, London
British scientific instrument makers
People from Burbage, Leicestershire | [
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236800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porthos | Porthos | Porthos, Baron du Vallon de Bracieux de Pierrefonds is a fictional character in the novels The Three Musketeers (1844), Twenty Years After (1845), and The Vicomte de Bragelonne (1847-1850) by Alexandre Dumas, père. He and the other two musketeers, Athos and Aramis, are friends of the novel's protagonist, d'Artagnan. Porthos is a highly fictionalized version of the historical musketeer Isaac de Porthau.
Name
In The Three Musketeers, his family name is du Vallon. In Twenty Years After, having made a financially advantageous marriage, his surname is du Vallon de Bracieux de Pierrefonds. He eventually earns the title of Baron. His real first name is never given; "Porthos" is a nom de guerre, assumed upon joining the Musketeers.
Personality
Porthos, honest and slightly gullible, is the extrovert of the group, enjoying wine, women and song. Though he is often seen as the comic relief, he is also extremely dedicated and loyal toward his friends and fellow Musketeers and stands out for his physical strength and size. His eating abilities even impress King Louis XIV during a banquet at Fontainebleau. As the story advances, he looks more and more like a giant, and his death is that of a titan.
At the time of The Three Musketeers (ca. 1627) he apparently has few lands or other resources to draw from. He is finally able to extract sufficient funds from an elderly lawyer's somewhat younger wife (whom he was romancing and later married) to equip himself for the Siege of La Rochelle.
The fictional Porthos is very loosely based on the historical musketeer Isaac de Porthau.
Film and television
Actors who have played Porthos on screen include:
Jack Chagnon, in The Three Musketeers: Parts I and II (1911)
Edward Kenny, in The Three Musketeers (1916)
Charles Martinelli, in Les trois mousquetaires (1921)
George Siegmann, in The Three Musketeers (1921)
Tiny Sandford, in The Iron Mask (1929)
Moroni Olsen, in The Three Musketeers (1935) and At Sword's Point (1952)
Alan Hale, Sr. in The Man in the Iron Mask (1939)
Gig Young, in The Three Musketeers (1948)
John Colicos, in The Three Musketeers (TV movie) (1960)
Frank Finlay, in The Three Musketeers (1973), The Four Musketeers (1974), and The Return of the Musketeers (1989)
Alan Hale, Jr., in The Fifth Musketeer (1979)
Valentin Smirnitsky, in D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers (1978) and its sequels (1992, 1993)
Oliver Platt, in The Three Musketeers (1993)
Raoul Billerey, in La Fille de d'Artagnan (1994)
Rex Ryon, in an early 1998 film of The Man in the Iron Mask
Gérard Depardieu, in The Man in the Iron Mask (1998)
Steve Speirs, in The Musketeer (2001)
Anthony Strachan, in Young Blades (unaired TV series pilot) (2001)
John Rhys-Davies, in two episodes of The Secret Adventures of Jules Verne (2000) and La Femme Musketeer (TV movie) (2003)
Joe Jonas, in The Three Musketeers (Disney TV series JONAS)
Ray Stevenson in The Three Musketeers (2011)
David Ogden Stiers in Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2012)
Howard Charles in The Musketeers (TV series) (2014–2016)
References
Literary characters introduced in 1844
Alexandre Dumas characters
Characters in The Three Musketeers
Cultural depictions of French men
Fictional French people
Adventure film characters
Fictional fencers
Fictional swordfighters
Fictional barons and baronesses
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236801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov%20chain%20Monte%20Carlo | Markov chain Monte Carlo | In statistics, Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods comprise a class of algorithms for sampling from a probability distribution. By constructing a Markov chain that has the desired distribution as its equilibrium distribution, one can obtain a sample of the desired distribution by recording states from the chain. The more steps are included, the more closely the distribution of the sample matches the actual desired distribution. Various algorithms exist for constructing chains, including the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm.
Application domains
MCMC methods are primarily used for calculating numerical approximations of multi-dimensional integrals, for example in Bayesian statistics, computational physics, computational biology and computational linguistics.
In Bayesian statistics, the recent development of MCMC methods has made it possible to compute large hierarchical models that require integrations over hundreds to thousands of unknown parameters.
In rare event sampling, they are also used for generating samples that gradually populate the rare failure region.
General explanation
Markov chain Monte Carlo methods create samples from a continuous random variable, with probability density proportional to a known function. These samples can be used to evaluate an integral over that variable, as its expected value or variance.
Practically, an ensemble of chains is generally developed, starting from a set of points arbitrarily chosen and sufficiently distant from each other. These chains are stochastic processes of "walkers" which move around randomly according to an algorithm that looks for places with a reasonably high contribution to the integral to move into next, assigning them higher probabilities.
Random walk Monte Carlo methods are a kind of random simulation or Monte Carlo method. However, whereas the random samples of the integrand used in a conventional Monte Carlo integration are statistically independent, those used in MCMC are autocorrelated. Correlations of samples introduces the need to use the Markov chain central limit theorem when estimating the error of mean values.
These algorithms create Markov chains such that they have an equilibrium distribution which is proportional to the function given.
Reducing correlation
While MCMC methods were created to address multi-dimensional problems better than generic Monte Carlo algorithms, when the number of dimensions rises they too tend to suffer the curse of dimensionality: regions of higher probability tend to stretch and get lost in an increasing volume of space that contributes little to the integral. One way to address this problem could be shortening the steps of the walker, so that it doesn't continuously try to exit the highest probability region, though this way the process would be highly autocorrelated and expensive (i.e. many steps would be required for an accurate result). More sophisticated methods such as Hamiltonian Monte Carlo and the Wang and Landau algorithm use various ways of reducing this autocorrelation, while managing to keep the process in the regions that give a higher contribution to the integral. These algorithms usually rely on a more complicated theory and are harder to implement, but they usually converge faster.
Examples
Random walk
Metropolis–Hastings algorithm: This method generates a Markov chain using a proposal density for new steps and a method for rejecting some of the proposed moves. It is actually a general framework which includes as special cases the very first and simpler MCMC (Metropolis algorithm) and many more recent alternatives listed below.
Gibbs sampling: This method requires all the conditional distributions of the target distribution to be sampled exactly. When drawing from the full-conditional distributions is not straightforward other samplers-within-Gibbs are used (e.g., see ). Gibbs sampling is popular partly because it does not require any 'tuning'. Algorithm structure of the Gibbs sampling highly resembles that of the coordinate ascent variational inference in that both algorithms utilize the full-conditional distributions in the updating procedure.
Metropolis-adjusted Langevin algorithm and other methods that rely on the gradient (and possibly second derivative) of the log target density to propose steps that are more likely to be in the direction of higher probability density.
Pseudo-marginal Metropolis–Hastings: This method replaces the evaluation of the density of the target distribution with an unbiased estimate and is useful when the target density is not available analytically, e.g. latent variable models.
Slice sampling: This method depends on the principle that one can sample from a distribution by sampling uniformly from the region under the plot of its density function. It alternates uniform sampling in the vertical direction with uniform sampling from the horizontal 'slice' defined by the current vertical position.
Multiple-try Metropolis: This method is a variation of the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm that allows multiple trials at each point. By making it possible to take larger steps at each iteration, it helps address the curse of dimensionality.
Reversible-jump: This method is a variant of the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm that allows proposals that change the dimensionality of the space. Markov chain Monte Carlo methods that change dimensionality have long been used in statistical physics applications, where for some problems a distribution that is a grand canonical ensemble is used (e.g., when the number of molecules in a box is variable). But the reversible-jump variant is useful when doing Markov chain Monte Carlo or Gibbs sampling over nonparametric Bayesian models such as those involving the Dirichlet process or Chinese restaurant process, where the number of mixing components/clusters/etc. is automatically inferred from the data.
Hamiltonian (or Hybrid) Monte Carlo (HMC): Tries to avoid random walk behaviour by introducing an auxiliary momentum vector and implementing Hamiltonian dynamics, so the potential energy function is the target density. The momentum samples are discarded after sampling. The end result of Hybrid Monte Carlo is that proposals move across the sample space in larger steps; they are therefore less correlated and converge to the target distribution more rapidly.
Interacting particle methods
Interacting MCMC methodologies are a class of mean-field particle methods for obtaining random samples from a sequence of probability distributions with an increasing level of sampling complexity. These probabilistic models include path space state models with increasing time horizon, posterior distributions w.r.t. sequence of partial observations, increasing constraint level sets for conditional distributions, decreasing temperature schedules associated with some Boltzmann-Gibbs distributions, and many others. In principle, any Markov chain Monte Carlo sampler can be turned into an interacting Markov chain Monte Carlo sampler. These interacting Markov chain Monte Carlo samplers can be interpreted as a way to run in parallel a sequence of Markov chain Monte Carlo samplers. For instance, interacting simulated annealing algorithms are based on independent Metropolis-Hastings moves interacting sequentially with a selection-resampling type mechanism. In contrast to traditional Markov chain Monte Carlo methods, the precision parameter of this class of interacting Markov chain Monte Carlo samplers is only related to the number of interacting Markov chain Monte Carlo samplers. These advanced particle methodologies belong to the class of Feynman-Kac particle models, also called Sequential Monte Carlo or particle filter methods in Bayesian inference and signal processing communities. Interacting Markov chain Monte Carlo methods can also be interpreted as a mutation-selection genetic particle algorithm with Markov chain Monte Carlo mutations.
Markov Chain quasi–Monte Carlo (MCQMC).
The advantage of low-discrepancy sequences in lieu of random numbers for simple independent Monte Carlo sampling is well known. This procedure, known as Quasi-Monte Carlo method (QMC), yields an integration error that decays at a superior rate to that obtained by IID sampling, by the Koksma-Hlawka inequality. Empirically it allows the reduction of both estimation error and convergence time by an order of magnitude. The Array-RQMC method combines randomized quasi–Monte Carlo and Markov chain simulation by simulating chains simultaneously in a way that the empirical distribution of the states at any given step is a better approximation of the true distribution of the chain than with ordinary MCMC. In empirical experiments, the variance of the average of a function of the state sometimes converges at rate or even faster, instead of the Monte Carlo rate.
Convergence
Usually it is not hard to construct a Markov chain with the desired properties. The more difficult problem is to determine how many steps are needed to converge to the stationary distribution within an acceptable error. A good chain will have rapid mixing: the stationary distribution is reached quickly starting from an arbitrary position. A standard empirical method to assess convergence is to run several independent simulated Markov chains and check that the ratio of inter-chain to intra-chain variances for all the parameters sampled is close to 1.
Typically, Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling can only approximate the target distribution, as there is always some residual effect of the starting position. More sophisticated Markov chain Monte Carlo-based algorithms such as coupling from the past can produce exact samples, at the cost of additional computation and an unbounded (though finite in expectation) running time.
Many random walk Monte Carlo methods move around the equilibrium distribution in relatively small steps, with no tendency for the steps to proceed in the same direction. These methods are easy to implement and analyze, but unfortunately it can take a long time for the walker to explore all of the space. The walker will often double back and cover ground already covered.
Further consideration of convergence is at Markov chain central limit theorem. See for a discussion of the theory related to convergence and stationarity of the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm.
Software
Several software programs provide MCMC sampling capabilities, for example:
ParaMonte parallel Monte Carlo software available in multiple programming languages including C, C%2B%2B, Fortran, MATLAB, and Python.
Packages that use dialects of the BUGS model language:
WinBUGS / OpenBUGS/ MultiBUGS
JAGS
MCSim
Julia language with packages like Turing.jl, DynamicHMC.jl, AffineInvariantMCMC.jl, and the ones in StanJulia repository.
Python (programming language) with the packages emcee, ParaMonte, PyMC3, and vandal.
R (programming language) with the packages adaptMCMC, atmcmc, BRugs, mcmc, MCMCpack, ramcmc, rjags, rstan, etc.
Stan
TensorFlow Probability (probabilistic programming library built on TensorFlow)
See also
Coupling from the past
Metropolis-adjusted Langevin algorithm
Markov chain central limit theorem
Data Augmentation MCMC
References
Citations
Sources
Christophe Andrieu, Nando De Freitas, Arnaud Doucet and Michael I. Jordan An Introduction to MCMC for Machine Learning, 2003
(See Chapter 11.)
Further reading
Monte Carlo methods
Computational statistics
Markov models
Bayesian estimation | [
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236809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall%20%28memory%29 | Recall (memory) | Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall. Psychologists test these forms of recall as a way to study the memory processes of humans and animals.
Two main theories of the process of recall are the two-stage theory and the theory of encoding specificity.
Theories
Two-stage theory
The two-stage theory states that the process of recall begins with a search and retrieval process, and then a decision or recognition process where the correct information is chosen from what has been retrieved. In this theory, recognition only involves the latter of these two stages, or processes, and this is thought to account for the superiority of the recognition process over recall. Recognition only involves one process in which error or failure may occur, while recall involves two. However, recall has been found to be superior to recognition in some cases, such as a failure to recognize words that can later be recalled.
Another two stage theory holds that free recall of a list of items begins with the content in working memory and then moves to an associative search
Encoding specificity
The theory of encoding specificity finds similarities between the process of recognition and that of recall. The encoding specificity principle states that memory utilizes information from the memory trace, or the situation in which it was learned, and from the environment in which it is retrieved. In other words, memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval. For example, if one is to learn about a topic and study it in a specific location, but take their exam in a different setting, they would not have had as much of a successful memory recall as if they were in the location that they learned and studied the topic in. Encoding specificity helps to take into account context cues because of its focus on the retrieval environment, and it also accounts for the fact recognition may not always be superior to recall.
History
Philosophical questions regarding how people acquire knowledge about their world spurred the study of memory and learning. Recall is a major part of the study of memory and often comes into play in all research. For this reason, the main studies on memory in general will also provide a history to the study of recall.
In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus created nonsense syllables, combinations of letters that do not follow grammatical rules and have no meaning, to test his own memory. He would memorize a list of nonsense syllables and then test his recall of that list over varying time periods. He discovered that memory loss occurred rapidly over the first few hours or days, but showed a more steady, gradual decline over subsequent days, weeks, and months. Furthermore, Ebbinghaus discovered that multiple learning, over-learning, and spacing study times increased retention of information. Ebbinghaus' research influenced much of the research conducted on memory and recall throughout the twentieth century.
Frederic Bartlett was a prominent researcher in the field of memory during the mid-twentieth century. He was a British experimental psychologist who focused on the mistakes people made when recalling new information. One of his well-known works was Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, which he published in 1932. He is well known for his use of North American Native folk tales, including The War of the Ghosts. He would provide participants in his study with an excerpt from a story and then asked them to recall it as accurately as they could. Retention intervals would vary from directly after reading the story to days later. Bartlett found that people strive for meaning, by attempting to understand the overall meaning of the story. Since the folk tale included supernatural elements, people would rationalize them to make them fit better with their own culture. Ultimately, Bartlett argued that the mistakes that the participants made could be attributed to schematic intrusions. Their current sets of knowledge intruded on their accurately recalling the folk tale.
In the 1950s there was a change in the overall study of memory that has come to be known as the cognitive revolution. This included new theories on how to view memory, often likening it to a computer processing model. Two important books influenced the revolution: Plans and Structures of Behavior by George Miller, Eugene Galanter, and Karl H. Pribram in 1960 and Cognitive Psychology by Ulric Neisser in 1967. Both provided arguments for an information-processing view of the human mind. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon constructed computer programs that simulated the thought processes people go through when solving different kinds of problems.
In the 1960s, interest in short-term memory (STM) increased. Before the 1960s, there was very little research that studied the workings of short-term memory and rapid memory loss. Lloyd and Margaret Peterson observed that when people are given a short list of words or letters and then are distracted and occupied with another task for few seconds, their memory for the list is greatly decreased.
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1973) created the short-term memory model, which became the popular model for studying short-term memory.
The next major development in the study of memory recall was Endel Tulving's proposition of two kinds of memory: episodic and semantic. Tulving described episodic memory as a memory about a specific event that occurred at a particular time and place, for example what you got for your 10th birthday. Semantic memories are abstract words, concepts, and rules stored in long-term memory. Furthermore, Endel Tulving devised the encoding specificity principle in 1983, which explains the importance of the relation between the encoding of information and then recalling that information. To explain further, the encoding specificity principle means that a person is more likely to recall information if the recall cues match or are similar to the encoding cues.
The 1960s also saw a development in the study of visual imagery and how it is recalled. This research was led by Allan Paivio, who found that the more image-arousing a word was the more likely it would be recalled in either free recall or paired associates.
There has been a considerable amount of research into the workings of memory, and specifically recall since the 1980s. The previously mentioned research was developed and improved upon, and new research was and still is being conducted.
Types
Free recall
Free recall describes the process in which a person is given a list of items to remember and then is tested by being asked to recall them in any order. Free recall often displays evidence of primacy and recency effects. Primacy effects are displayed when the person recalls items presented at the beginning of the list earlier and more often. The recency effect is when the person recalls items presented at the end of the list earlier and more often. Free recall often begins with the end of the list and then moves to the beginning and middle of the list.
Cued recall
Cued recall is when a person is given a list of items to remember and is then tested with cues to remember material. Researchers have used this procedure to test memory. Participants are given pairs, usually of words, A1-B1, A2-B2...An-Bn (n is the number of pairs in a list) to study. Then the experimenter gives the participant a word to cue the participant to recall the word with which it was originally paired. The word presentation can either be visual or auditory.
There are two basic experimental methods used to conduct cued recall, the study-test method and the anticipation method. In the study-test method participants study a list of word pairs presented individually. Immediately after or after a time delay, participants are tested in the study phase of the experiment on the word pairs just previously studied. One word of each pair is presented in a random order and the participant is asked to recall the item with which it was originally paired. The participant can be tested for either forward recall, Ai is presented as a cue for Bi, or backward recall, Bi is presented as a cue for Ai. In the anticipation method, participants are shown Ai and are asked to anticipate the word paired with it, Bi. If the participant cannot recall the word, the answer is revealed. During an experiment using the anticipation method, the list of words is repeated until a certain percentage of Bi words are recalled.
The learning curve for cued recall increases systematically with the number of trials completed. This result has caused a debate about whether or not learning is all-or-none. One theory is that learning is incremental and that the recall of each word pair is strengthened with repetition. Another theory suggests that learning is all-or-none, that is one learns the word pair in a single trial and memory performance is due to the average learned pairs, some of which are learned on earlier trials and some on later trials. To examine the validity of these theories researchers have performed memory experiments. In one experiment published in 1959, experimental psychologist Irvin Rock and colleague Walter Heimer of the University of Illinois had both a control group and an experimental group learn pairs of words. The control group studied word pairs that were repeated until the participants learned all the word pairs. In the experimental group, the learned pairs remained in the list while unlearned pairs were substituted with recombinations of previous words. Rock believed that associations between two items would be strengthened if learning were incremental even when pairs are not correctly recalled. His hypothesis was that the control group would have a higher correct recall probability than the experimental group. He thought that repetition would increase the strength of the word pair until the strength reaches a threshold needed to produce an overt response. If learning were all or none, then the control group and the experimental group should learn the word pairs at the same rate. Rock found experimentally there was little difference in learning rates between the two groups. However, Rock's work did not settle the controversy because in his experiment he rearranged replaced word pairs that could be either easier or harder to learn than the original words in the word- digit pair. In further experiments that addressed the question, there were mixed results. The incremental learning hypothesis is supported by the notion that awhile after Ai-Bi pairs are learned, the recall time to recall Bi decreases with continued learning trails.
Another theory that can be tested using cued recall is symmetry of forward and backward recall. Forward recall is generally assumed to be easier than backward recall, i.e. forward recall is stronger than backward recall. This is generally true for long sequences of word or letters such as the alphabet. In one view, the independent associations hypothesis, the strength of forward and backward recall are hypothesized to be independent of each other. To confirm this hypothesis, Dr. George Wolford tested participants' forward and backward recall and found that forward and backward recall are independent of each other. The probability of correct forward recall was .47 for word pair associations and the probability of correct backward recall of word pair associations was .25. However, in another view, the associative symmetry hypothesis, the strengths of forward and backward recall are about equal and highly correlated. In S.E Asch from Swarthmore College and S. M Ebenholtz's experiment, participants learned pairs of nonsense syllables by anticipation recall. After reaching a certain threshold of learning, the participants were tested by free recall to determine all pairs and single items they could remember. These researchers found that backward association was greatly weaker than forward association. However, when the availability of forward and backward recall were basically the same, there was little difference between forward and backward recall. Some scientists including Asch and Ebenholtz believe in the independent association hypothesis think that the equal strengths of forward and backward recall are compatible with their hypothesis because forward and backward recall could be independent but with equal strengths. However associative symmetry theorists interpreted the data to mean that the results fit their hypothesis.
Another study done using cued recall found that learning occurs during test trials. Mark Carrier and Pashler (1992) found that the group with a study-only phase makes 10% more errors than the group with a test-study phase. In the study-only phase, participants were given Ai-Bi, where Ai was an English word and Bi was a Siberian Eskimo Yupik word. In the test study phase, participants first attempted to recall Bi given Ai as a cue then they were shown Ai-Bi pair together. This result suggests that after participants learn something, testing their memory with mental operations helps later recall. The act of recalling instead of restudying creates new and longer lasting connection between Ai and Bi. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as the testing effect.
Another study showed that when lists are tested immediately after study, the last couple of pairs are remembered best. After a five-second delay, the recall of recently studied words diminishes. However, word pairs at the beginning of a list still show better recall. Moreover, in a longer list, the absolute number of word pairs recalled is greater but in a shorter list of word pairs, the percentage of word pairs recalled is greater.
Sometimes, when recalling word pairs, there is an intrusion. An intrusion is an error that participants make when they attempt to recall a word based on a cue of that word pair. Intrusions tend to have either semantic attributes in common with the correct word not recalled or have been previously studied in another word pair on the current list or a previously studied list or were close in time to the cue item. When two items are similar, an intrusion may occur. Professor Kahana and Marieke Vugt at the University of Pennsylvania examined the effects of face similarity for face-name associations. In the first experiment, they wanted to determine if performance of recall would vary with the number of faces in the study set that were similar to the cue face. Faces were similar if the radius of the faces were within a range. The number of faces within a radius is called a neighborhood density. They found that the recall of a name to face exhibited a lower accuracy and slower reaction time for faces with a greater neighborhood density. The more similarity that two faces have, the greater the probability for interference between the two faces. When cued with face A, name B may be recalled if face A and B are similar, which would signify that an intrusion has occurred. The probability of correct recall came from the number of faces that had other similar faces.
Cues act as guides to what the person is supposed to remember. A cue can be virtually anything that may act as a reminder, e.g. a smell, song, color, place etc. In contrast to free recall, the subject is prompted to remember a certain item on the list or remember the list in a certain order. Cued recall also plays into free recall because when cues are provided to a subject, they will remember items on the list that they did not originally recall without a cue. Tulving explained this phenomenon in his research. When he gave participants associative cues to items that they did not originally recall and that were thought to be lost to memory, the participants were able to recall the item.
Serial recall
Serial recall is the ability to recall items or events in the order in which they occurred. The ability of humans to store items in memory and recall them is important to the use of language. Imagine recalling the different parts of a sentence, but in the wrong order. The ability to recall in serial order has been found not only in humans, but in a number of non-human primate species and some non-primates. Imagine mixing up the order of phonemes, or meaningful units of sound, in a word so that "slight" becomes "style." Serial-order also helps us remember the order of events in our lives, our autobiographical memories. Our memory of our past appears to exist on a continuum on which more recent events are more easily remembered in order.
Serial recall in long-term memory (LTM) differs from serial recall in short-term memory (STM). To store a sequence in LTM, the sequence is repeated over time until it is represented in memory as a whole, rather than as a series of items. In this way, there is no need to remember the relationships between the items and their original positions. In STM, immediate serial recall (ISR) has been thought to result from one of two mechanisms. The first refers to ISR as a result of associations between the items and their positions in a sequence, while the second refers to associations between items. These associations between items are referred to as chaining, and is an unlikely mechanism, according to research. Position-item relationships do not account for recency and primacy effects, or the phonological similarity effect. The Primacy Model moves away from these two assumptions, suggesting that ISR results from a gradient of activation levels where each item has a particular level of activation that corresponds to its position. Research has supported the fact that immediate serial recall performance is much better when the list is homogenous (of the same semantic category) than when they are heterogeneous (of different semantic category). This suggests that semantic representations are beneficial to immediate serial recall performance. Short-term serial recall is also affected by similar-sounding items, as recall is lower (remembered more poorly) than items that do not sound alike. This is true when lists are tested independently (when comparing two separate lists of similar-sounding and not similar-sounding items) as well as when tested using a mixed list. Alan Baddeley first reported such an experiment in which items within a list were either mutually dissimilar or highly similar.
There is evidence indicating that rhythm is highly sensitive to competing motor production. Actions such as paced finger tapping can have an effect on recall as the disruptive impact of paced finger tapping, but lack of consistent effect of paced irrelevant sound, is indicative of motor feedback from the tapping task disrupting rehearsal and storage.
Eight different effects are generally seen in serial recall studies with humans:
1. List length effect Serial recall ability decreases as the length of the list or sequence increases.
2. Primacy and recency effects Primacy effects refer to better recall of items earlier in the sequence, while recency effects refer to better recall of the last few items. Recency effects are seen more with auditory stimuli rather than verbal stimuli as auditory presentation seems to protect the end of lists from output interference.
3. Transposition gradients Transposition gradients refer to the fact that recall tends to be better to recognize what an item is rather than the order of items in a sequence.
4. Item confusion errors When an item is incorrectly recalled, there is a tendency to respond with an item that resembles the original item in that position.
5. Repetition errors These occur during the recall of a sequence when an item from an earlier position in the sequence is given again in another position. This effect is fairly rare in humans.
6. Fill-in effects If an item is recalled incorrectly at an earlier position than its original place, there is a tendency for the next item recalled to be the item that was displaced by this error. For example, if the sequence is '1234' and recall began '124', then the next item is likely to be '3'.
7. Protrusion effects These occur when an item from a previous list or test is accidentally recalled on a new list or test. This item is likely to be recalled at its position from the original trial.
8. Word-length effects Short words are recalled more accurately than longer words.
Neuroanatomy
The anterior cingulate cortex, globus pallidus, thalamus, and cerebellum show higher activation during recall than during recognition which suggests that these components of the cerebello-frontal pathway play a role in recall processes that they do not in recognition. Although recall and recognition are considered separate processes, they are both most likely constitute components of distributed networks of brain regions.
According to neuroimaging data, PET studies on recall and recognition have consistently found increases in regional cerebral blood flow (RCBF) in the following six brain regions: (1) the prefrontal cortex, particularly on the right hemisphere; (2) the hippocampal and parahippocampal regions of the medial temporal lobe; (3) the anterior cingulate cortex; (4) the posterior midline area that includes posterior cingulate, retrosplenial (see retrosplenial region), precuneus, and cuneus regions; (5) the inferior parietal cortex, especially on the right hemisphere; and (6) the cerebellum, particularly on the left.
The specific role of each of the six main regions in episodic retrieval is still unclear, but some ideas have been suggested. The right prefrontal cortex has been related to retrieval attempt; the medial temporal lobes to conscious recollection; the anterior cingulate to response selection; the posterior midline region to imagery; the inferior parietal to awareness of space; and the cerebellum to self-initiated retrieval .
In recent research, a group of subjects was faced with remembering a list of items and then measured when trying to recall said items. The evoked potentials and hemodynamic activity measured during encoding were found to exhibit reliable differences between subsequently recalled and not recalled items. This effect has been termed the subsequent memory effect (SME). This difference in these specific brain regions determines whether or not an item is recalled. A study by Fernandez et al. has shown that the differences that predict recall appear both as a negative deflection in the rhinal cortex of an event-related potential (ERP) 400 ms after stimulus exposure, and as a positive hippocampal ERP beginning 800 ms after stimulus onset. This means that recall only occurs if these two brain regions (rhinal cortex and hippocampus) are activated in synchrony.
Factors that affect recall
Attention
The effect of attention on memory recall has surprising results. It seems that the only time attention largely affects memory is during the encoding phase. During this phase, performing a parallel task can severely impair retrieval success. It is believed that this phase requires much attention to properly encode the information at hand, and thus a distractor task does not allow proper input and reduces the amount of information learned.
One's attention to words is impacted by emotion grasping vocabulary. Negative and positive words are better recalled than neutral words that are spoken. Many different ways that attention is focused on hearing what the speaker has to say are the inflection of the presenter's voice in a sad, content, or frustrated sound or in the use of words that are close to the heart. A study was conducted to observe if the use of emotional vocabulary was a key receptor of recall memory. The groups were put into the same lecture halls and given the same speakers, but the results came back to determine that the inflection and word choice recalled by the listeners concluded that emotional words, phrases, and sounds are more memorable than neutral speakers.
Recall memory is linked with instincts and mechanisms. In order to remember how an event happened, to learn from it or avoid an agitator, connections are made with emotions. For instance, if a speaker is very calm and neutral, the effectiveness of encoding memory is very low and listeners get the gist of what the speaker is discussing. On the other hand, if a speaker is shouting and/or using emotionally driven words, listeners tend to remember key phrases and the meaning of the speech. This is full access of the fight or flight mechanism all people have functioning in the brain, but based on what triggers this mechanism will lead to better recall of it. People tend to focus their attention on cues that are loud, very soft, or something unusual. This makes the auditory system pick up the differences in regular speaking and meaningful speech, when something significant is spoken in the discussion people home in on the message at that part of the speech but tend to lose the other part of the discussion. Our brains sense differences in speech and when those differences occur the brain encodes that part of speech into memory and the information can be recalled for future reference.
Motivation
Motivation is a factor that encourages a person to perform and succeed at the task at hand. In an experiment done by Roebers, Moga and Schneider (2001), participants were placed in either forced report, free report or free report plus incentive groups. In each group, they found that the amount of correct information recalled did not differ, yet in the group where participants were given an incentive they had higher accuracy results. This means that presenting participants with an encouragement to provide correct information motivates them to be more precise. However, this is only true if the perception is that success is providing correct information. When it is believed that success is the completion of the task rather than the accuracy of that completion, the number of responses is higher, yet its accuracy is lowered. This shows that the results are dependent on how success is defined to the participant. In the referred experiment, the participants that were placed in the forced response group had the lowest overall accuracy; they had no motivation to provide accurate responses and were forced to respond even when they were unsure of the answer. Another study done by Hill RD, Storandt M, and Simeone C tested the impact of memory skills training and external reward on free recall of serial word lists. Effects similar to those reported in the previous study were seen in children—in contrast to older learners.
Interference
In the absence of interference, there are two factors at play when recalling a list of items: the recency and the primacy effects. The recency effect occurs when the short-term memory is used to remember the most recent items, and the primacy effect occurs when the long-term memory has encoded the earlier items. The recency effect can be eliminated if there is a period of interference between the input and the output of information extending longer than the holding time of short-term memory (15–30 seconds). This occurs when a person is given subsequent information to recall preceding the recall of the initial information. The primacy effect, however, is not affected by the interference of recall. The elimination of the last few items from memory is due to the displacement of these items from short-term memory, by the distracting task. As they have not been recited and rehearsed, they are not moved into long-term memory and are thus lost. A task as simple as counting backwards can change memory recall; however an empty delay interval has no effect. This is because the person can continue to rehearse the items in their working memory to be remembered without interference. Cohen (1989) found that there is better recall for an action in the presence of interference if that action is physically performed during the encoding phase. It has also been found that recalling some items can interfere and inhibit the recall of other items. Another stream of thought and evidence suggests that the effects of interference on recency and primacy are relative, determined by the ratio rule (retention interval to inter item presentation distractor rate) and they exhibit time-scale invariance.
Context
Context-dependency effects on recall are typically interpreted as evidence that the characteristics of the environment are encoded as part of the memory trace and can be used to enhance retrieval of the other information in the trace. In other words, you can recall more when the environments are similar in both the learning and recall phases. Context cues appear to be important in the retrieval of newly learned meaningful information. In a classic study by Godden and Baddeley (1975), using free recall of wordlist demonstrated that deep-sea divers had better recall when there was a match between the learning and recalling environment. Lists learned underwater were recalled best underwater and lists learned on land were recalled best on land.” An academic application would be that students may perform better on exams by studying in silence, because exams are usually done in silence.
State-dependent memory
State-dependent retrieval is demonstrated when material learned under one State is best recalled in that same state. A study by Carter and Cassady (1998) showed this effect with antihistamine. In other words, if you study while on hay fever tablets, then you will recall more of what you studied if you test yourself while on antihistamines in comparison to testing yourself while not on antihistamines after having studied on antihistamines.
A study by Block and Ghoneim (2000) found that, relative to a matched group of healthy, non-drug-using controls, heavy marijuana use is associated with small but significant impairments in memory retrieval.cannabis induces loss of internal control and cognitive impairment, especially impairment of attention and memory, for the duration of the intoxication period.
Stimulants, such as cocaine, amphetamines or caffeine are known to improve recall in humans. However, the effect of prolonged use of stimulants on cognitive functioning is very different from the impact on one-time users. Some researchers have found stimulant use to lower recall rates in humans after prolonged usage. The axons, dendrites, and neurons wear out in many cases. Current research illustrates a paradoxical effect. The few exceptions undergo mental hypertrophy. Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) users are found to exhibit difficulties encoding information into long-term memory, display impaired verbal learning, are more easily distracted, and are less efficient at focusing attention on complex tasks. The degree of executive impairment increases with the severity of use, and the impairments are relatively long-lasting. Chronic cocaine users display impaired attention, learning, memory, reaction time and cognitive flexibility. Whether or not stimulants have a positive or negative effect on recall depends on how much is used and for how long.
Gender
Consistently, females perform better than males on episodic memory tasks including delayed recall and recognition. However, males and females do not differ on working, immediate and semantic memory tasks. Neuro-psychological observations suggest that, in general, previous injuries cause greater deficits in females than in males. It has been proposed that the gender differences in memory performance reflect underlying differences in the strategies used to process information, rather than anatomical differences. However, gender differences in cerebral asymmetry received support from morphometric studies showing a greater leftward asymmetry in males than in females, meaning that men and women use each side of their brain to a different extent. There is also evidence for a negative recall bias in women, which means females in general are more likely than males to recall their mistakes. In an eyewitness study by Dan Yarmey in 1991, he found that women were significantly more accurate than men in accuracy of recall for weight of suspects.
Studies have tested the difference between what men and women can recall after a presentation. Three speakers were involved, one being female and two being male. Men and women were put into the same lecture hall and had the same speaker talk to them. The results suggested that information presented by the women speaker was more easily recalled by all the members of the study. Researchers believe this to be a significant difference between genders because women's voices have better acoustics, ranging from low tones to high tones. Since their voices have this range, semantic encoding is increased for the pitches that stimulate the auditory component of the brain; this resonates better in the ear function. Since pitch ranges from low tones to high tones, it draws people's attention to the words attributed with the tone. As the tone changes, words stand out and from these differences memories can be stored. Recall is made easier since the association the brain can make is between words and sounds spoken.
A distinguishing feature is how males and females process information and then recall what was presented to them. Females tend to remember nonverbal cues and associate the meaning of a discussion with gestures. Since males follow verbal cues they react more to the facts and actual words within a discussion to recall what was said, but fluctuations in the speaker's voice helps them maintain the memories. Another difference that sets males and females apart is recalling someone's voice. They tend to recall information they have read, for instance, lists of objects are better recalled for men than women. The only similarity they have is that when emotional words are used or an emotional tone is produced, males and females tend to recall those changes.
Food consumption
There has been much research on whether eating prior to a cognitive recall test can affect cognitive functioning. One example was a study of the effect of breakfast timing on selected cognitive functions of elementary school students. Their results found that children who ate breakfast at school scored notably higher on most of the cognitive tests than did students who ate breakfast at home and also children who did not eat breakfast at all.
In a study of women experiencing Premenstrual Syndrome, they were either given a placebo beverage or a carbohydrate-rich one. The patients were tested at home; their moods, cognitive performance, and food craving were measured before the consumption of the beverage and 30, 90, and 180 minutes after consumption. The results showed that the carbohydrate-rich beverage significantly decreased self-reported depression, anger, confusion, and carbohydrate craving 90 to 180 minutes after consumption. Memory word recognition also improved significantly.
Physical activity
Studies have indicated that children who are inactive have poor health, but they also have poor cognitive health also. With low fitness there is a relationship to decreased cognitive functioning; for instance there are different types of cognitive problems like perception, memory, cognitive control, and there is lower academic achievement. Many tests have been conducted to identify what exactly is the reduction when children do not have physical activity. One test selected children to be in two different groups, one group was physically active the other group was not. After a while of monitoring the children the researchers tested the children in learning and recall memory to see what they were retaining and to observe the difference if available of low physical activity versus high physical activity. The results came back indicating that the children without physical activity have a later recall process than the children with physical activity. The learning part of the experiment was equally distributed on both spectrums for each group, but recall memory was the only variable that did not match both of the groups.
Physical activity has a significant influence on the hippocampus, since this is the part of the brain that is responsible for encoding information into memory. With physical activity having such an impact on the hippocampus this can regulate other parts of the body as well like weight, memory, daily function, and many more processes that are necessary for the body to work. Since physical activity impacts all of these important parts of the brain, this form of exercise keeps the neural networks functioning well. Neural networks allow information to process and pass to the hippocampus in order to retain memory. This lets the brain be more efficient in processing and more memories are stored this way.
Trauma and brain exposure
There is barely any recalled memory in cases of fear and trauma exposure, brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder, pain, or anxiety. Recall memory is very limited, since the only memory people have that suffer from these problems is the flash backs of what happened when the event took place. People can only recall the memory that happened on that day when they hear or see something that brings the memory into existence. They cannot recall how they felt or what they saw, but through images or audio people can recall that tragic event. For example, the day of September 11, 2001, first responders remember the day and what it was like; but the feelings they could not recall. The only way to recall the feelings they had were when sirens of police vehicles, fire trucks, and ambulances drove by their house they feel the exact feelings that were in effect on that day.
Recall memory is active when a familiar sound triggers a feeling of pain from a past event, but most of the recall is shut out from traumatic event. It is similar to classical conditioning, when a dog hears a bell it begins to react to the noise rather than an exterior variable like food or an electric shock. The use of therapy is constructed for a person with this problem to help avoid the fear associated with sounds or objects, and be able to then recall other pieces of information that happened during the event.
Phenomena
The phenomenological account of recall is referred to as metacognition, or "knowing about knowing". This includes many states of conscious awareness known as feeling-of-knowing states, such as the tip-of-the-tongue state. It has been suggested that metacognition serves a self-regulatory purpose whereby the brain can observe errors in processing and actively devote resources to resolving the problem. It is considered an important aspect of cognition that can aid in the development of successful learning strategies that can also be generalized to other situations.
Mnemonics and cognitive strategies
A key technique in improving and helping recall memory is to take advantage of Mnemonic devices and other cognitive strategies. Mnemonic devices are a type of cognitive strategy that enables individuals to memorize and recall new information in an easier fashion, rather than just having to remember a list of information that is not related to one another. An example of mnemonic devices are PEMDAS or Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally; this is a device for arithmetic when solving equations that have parenthesis, exponents, multiplication, division, addition, or subtraction and what order to do each calculation. Words or an acronym can stand for a process that individuals need to recall. The benefits of using these types of strategies to perform tasks are that encoding becomes more organized and it is easier to remember and process information. Also this device reduces the need of intentional resources at the point of retrieval, which means that recall does not need outside sources helping an individual remember what happened yesterday. Cognitive strategies can leverage semantic connections that will allow the brain to process and work more efficiently than just having to process the information as whole parts. By using the strategies the information becomes related to each other and the information sticks.
Another type of device people use to help their recall memory become efficient is chunking. Chunking is the process of breaking down numbers into smaller units to remember the information or data, this helps recall numbers and math facts. An example of this chunking process is a telephone number; this is chunked with three digits, three digits, then four digits. People read them off as such when reciting a phone number to another person. There has been research done about these techniques and an institution tested two groups of people to see if these types of devices work well for real people, the results came back determining a significant performance difference between the group who did not use cognitive strategies and the group who did. The group using the techniques immediately performed better than the other group and when taking a pre-test and post-test the results indicated that the group using the techniques improved while the other group did not.
The Method of Loci (MOL) refers to an individual visualizing a spatial environment to improve later recall of information. Instead of merely reading a list of items, individuals mentally walk along a path, placing things that subsequently need to be remembered. This elaborate rehearsal provides the opportunity to manipulate information during the encoding process. For example, from the store, you need peanut butter, toothpaste, dog food, and laundry detergent. Instead of repeating the list, imagine yourself eating a peanut butter sandwich, afterwards walking to the bathroom to brush your teeth, then walking by your dog on the way to the laundry room. This improving recall method does not appear to be limited to merely recalling a list of items. Research demonstrated that this cognitive strategy improved student performance on assessments. Participants were divided into two groups, each receiving the same medical lectures, followed by either self-learning or using the Method of Loci. Each group was subsequently given the same assessment on the learned information and the Method of Loci group performed better, as measured by the number of correct responses.
Tip-of-the-tongue
Main page: Tip of the tongue
A tip of the tongue (TOT) state refers to the perception of a large gap between the identification or knowledge of a specific subject and being able to recall descriptors or names involving said subject. This phenomenon is also referred to as 'presque vu', a French term meaning "almost seen". There are two prevalent perspectives of TOT states: the psycholinguistic perspective and the metacognitive perspective.
Psycholinguistics views TOT states as a failure of retrieval from lexical memory (see Cohort Model) being cued by semantic memory (facts). Since there is an observed increase in the frequency of TOT states with age, there are two mechanisms within psycholinguistics that could account for the TOT phenomenon. The first is the degradation of lexical networks with age, where degrading connections between the priming of knowledge and vocabulary increases difficulty of successfully retrieving a word from memory. The second suggests that the culmination of knowledge, experience, and vocabulary with age results in a similar situation where many connections between a diverse vocabulary and diverse knowledge also increases the difficulty of successful retrieval of a word from memory.
The metacognitive perspective views TOT states simply as the awareness felt when such an event occurs and the perception of the experience involved. Mainly being aware of a TOT state can result in the rapid devotion of cognitive resources to resolving the state and successfully retrieving the word from memory. Such an explanation leaves much to be desired; however, the psycholinguistic perspective and the metacognitive perspective on TOT states are not mutually exclusive and both are used to observe TOT states in a laboratory setting.
An incubation effect can be observed in TOT states, where the passage of time alone can influence the resolution of the state and result in successful recall. Also, the presence of a TOT state is a good predictor that the problem can be resolved correctly, although this has been shown to occur more frequently with older-young-adults than young-adults or seniors. This is evidence for both the metacognitive perspective as well as the psycholinguistic perspective. It demonstrates the devotion of resources to searching memory, a source of cumulative information, for the desired correct information, and it also shows that we are aware of what information we know or do not know. This is why the current debate between the psycholinguistic view of TOTs as retrieval failure and the metacognitive view of TOTs as a tool for learning continues.
Similar phenomena include Déjà vu (Already seen), Jamais vu (Never Seen), and Déjà entendu (Already Heard).
These occur rarely and are more prevalent in patients with traumatic head injuries, and brain disorders including epilepsy.
Involuntary memory retrieval
Until recently, research on this phenomenon has been relatively rare, with only two types of involuntary memory retrieval identified: involuntary autobiographical memory retrieval, and involuntary semantic memory retrieval. Both of these phenomena can be considered emergent aspects of otherwise normal and quite efficient cognitive processes.
Involuntary autobiographical memory (IAM) retrieval occurs spontaneously as the result of sensory cues as well as internal cues, such as thought or intention. These cues influence us in our day-to-day lives by constantly and automatically activating unconscious memories through priming. It has been demonstrated in many studies that our specific goals and intentions will most frequently result in the retrieval of related IAM, while the second most frequent IAM retrievals result from physical cues in the surrounding context. Autobiographical memories that are unrelated to any specific cues, whether internal or external, are the least frequent to occur. It has been suggested that in this case, an error in self-regulation of memory has occurred that results in an unrelated autobiographical memory reaching the conscious mind. These findings are consistent with metacognition as the third type of experience is often identified as the most salient one.
Involuntary semantic memory retrieval (ISM), or "semantic-popping", occurs in the same fashion as IAM retrieval. However, the elicited memory is devoid of personal grounding and often considered trivial, such as a random word, image, or phrase. ISM retrieval can occur as a result of spreading activation, where words, thoughts, and concepts activate related semantic memories continually. When enough related memories are primed that an interrelated concept, word, thought, or image "pops" into consciousness and you are unaware of the extent of its relatedness within your memory. Spreading activation is thought to build over a period of many hours, days, or even weeks before a random semantic memory "pops".
False memories
Main page: False memory syndrome
False memories result from persistent beliefs, suggestions via authority figures, or statements of false information. Repeated exposure to these stimuli influence the reorganization of a person's memory, affecting its details, or implanting vivid false accounts of an event. This is usually accounted for by source-monitoring error, where a person can recall specific facts, but cannot correctly identify the source of that knowledge because of apparent loss of the association between the episodic (specific experience, or source) and semantic (concept-based, or gist) accounts of the stored knowledge. An example of this is cryptomnesia, or inadvertent plagiarism, where one duplicates a work that they have previously encountered believing it to be their original idea. False memories can also be accounted for by the generation effect, which is an observable phenomenon where repeated exposure to a belief, suggestion, or false information is better remembered with each subsequent generation. This can be seen with the misinformation effect, where an eye-witness account of an event can be influenced by a bystander account of the same event, or by suggestion via an authority figure. It is also believed to influence the recovery of repressed shocking or abusive memories in patients under hypnosis, where the recovered memory, although possibly a vivid account, could be entirely false, or have specific details influenced as the result of persistent suggestion by the therapist.
Focal retrograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is typically the result of physical or psychological trauma which manifests itself as the inability to remember information preceding the traumatic event. It is usually accompanied by some type of anterograde amnesia, or inability to acquire new knowledge. Focal retrograde amnesia (FRA), sometimes known as functional amnesia, refers to the presence of retrograde amnesia while knowledge acquisition remains intact (no anterograde amnesia). Memory for how to use objects and perform skills (implicit memory) may remain intact while specific knowledge of personal events or previously learned facts (explicit memory) become inaccessible or lost. Amnesia can result from a number of different causes, including encephalitis, severe traumatic brain injury, vitamin B1 deficiency as seen in Korsakoff's Syndrome, and psychotic episodes, or by witnessing an emotionally traumatic event (Dissociative amnesia). Dysfunction of the temporal and frontal lobes have been observed in many cases of focal retrograde amnesia, whether metabolic or the result of lesions. However, this evidence only appears to correlate with the symptoms of retrograde amnesia as cases have been observed where patients suffering from minor concussions, showing no visible brain damage, develop FRA. It has been suggested that FRA could represent a variety of different disorders, cognitive deficits, or conditions that result in disproportionate loss of explicit memory, hence Disproportionate Retrograde Amnesia.
The Face Advantage
The Face Advantage allows information and memories to be recalled easier through the presentation of a person's face rather than a person's voice. Faces and voices are very similar stimuli that reveal similar information and result in similar processes of memory recall. During face perception, there are three stages of memory recall that include recognition, followed by the remembering of semantic memory and episodic memory, and finally name recall. The Face Advantage is shown through an experiment where participants are presented with faces and voices of unfamiliar faces and recognizable celebrity faces. The stimuli are presented with a between-group design. The participants are asked to say if the face or voice is familiar. If the answer is yes, they are asked to recall semantic and episodic memories and finally the name of the face or voice. It was much easier for those presented with a celebrity's face to recall information than for those presented with a voice. The results show that in the second stage of face perception when memories are recalled, information is recalled faster and more accurate after a face is perceived, and slower, less accurate and with less detail after a voice is perceived. A possible explanation is that the connections between face representations and semantic and episodic memory are stronger than that of voices.
In popular culture
Memory phenomena are rich sources of storylines and novel situations in popular media. Two phenomena that appear regularly are total recall abilities and amnesia.
Total recall
The Argentinean author, Jorge Luis Borges wrote the short story Funes the Memorious in 1944. It depicts the life of Ireneo Funes, a fictional character who falls off his horse and experiences a head injury. After this accident, Funes has total recall abilities. He is said to recall an entire day with no mistakes, but this feat of recall takes him an entire day to accomplish. It is said that Borges was ahead of his time in his description of memory processes in this story, as it was not until the 1950s and research on the patient HM that some of what the author describes began to be understood. A more recent instance of total recall in literature is found in
is in Stieg Larsson's books The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, in which the lead character, Lisbeth Salander remembers anything she reads, indicating she has total recall ability. Another example is in Dan Brown's books The Da Vinci Code and Angels & Demons, in which the main character, Dr. Robert Langdon, a religious iconography and symbology professor at Harvard University, has almost total recall ability. In The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Nighttime by Mark Haddon, the main character, Christopher Boone, is a 15-year-old autistic boy with total recall abilities.
Total recall is also popular in television. It can be seen in Season 4 of the television show "Criminal Minds", in which the character Dr. Spencer Reid claims to have total recall ability. Agent Fox Mulder from the television show "The X-Files" has a photographic memory, a popular term for total recall. Also, the character of hospital resident Lexie Grey on the television show "Grey's Anatomy" has total recall ability.
Amnesia
Amnesia which is the damage or disruption of memory processes, has been a very popular subject in movies since 1915. Although its portrayal is usually inaccurate, there are some exceptions. Memento (2000) is said to be inspired by the condition of the famous amnesic patient known as HM. The main character Leonard suffers from anterograde amnesia after a traumatic attack in which his wife dies. He maintains his identity and shows very little retrograde amnesia. He also displays some of the daily memory problems that are experiences by most amnesics, such as forgetting names or where he is going. Another fairly accurate portrayal of memory disturbances is the non-human character Dory in Finding Nemo (2003). This fish, like Leonard, shows memory problems faced by most amnesics where she forgets names, has difficulty storing and recalling information, and often forgets what she is doing, or why she is doing something.
Movies tend to show amnesia as a result of head injury from accidents or attacks. The loss of identity and autobiographical memory shown in Santa Who? (2000) in which Santa suffers from amnesia that destroys his identity and memory of himself is very unlikely in the real world. This is also portrayed in The Bourne Identity (2002) and The Bourne Supremacy (2004) where the main character forgets he is a trained assassin. Another misrepresentation of the reality of memory loss in the movies can be seen in Clean Slate (1994) and 50 First Dates (2004) where the characters are able to encode memory during the day but lose all memory of that day at night, while sleeping.
Movies often restore victim's memory through a second trauma, or through a kind of cued recall when they revisit familiar places or see familiar objects. The phenomenon of the second trauma can be seen in Singing in the Dark (1956) where the victim experiences the onset of amnesia because of the trauma of the Holocaust, but memory is restored with a blow to the head. Although neurosurgery is often the cause of amnesia, it is seen as a solution in some movies, including Deluxe Annie (1918) and Rascals (1938).
Memory erasure is portrayed in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) and in the Men in Black movies. Men in Black features a device to erase the potentially harmful memories of extraterrestrial interactions in members of the general public. Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind describes a process that targets and erases memories of interpersonal relationships the patients would rather forget so that they are no longer able to recall the experience. In Paycheck (2003) and Total Recall (1990) memory suppression is used to control and the characters are able to overcome the attempts and recall pieces of their memory.
Consequences
Improving subsequent memory
By repeating (or recalling [?]) an item over and over again, memory can improve. This process is also known as rehearsal.
Impairing subsequent memory
Retrieval-induced forgetting is a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items.
See also
Memory and retention in learning
List of language disorders
References
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236811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athos%20%28character%29 | Athos (character) | Athos, Count de la Fère, is a fictional character in the novels The Three Musketeers (1844), Twenty Years After (1845) and The Vicomte de Bragelonne (1847–1850) by Alexandre Dumas, père. He is a highly fictionalised version of the historical musketeer Armand d'Athos (1615–1644).
In the novels
In The Three Musketeers, Athos and the other two musketeers, Porthos and Aramis, are friends of the novel's protagonist, d'Artagnan. He has a mysterious past connecting him with the villain of the novel, Milady de Winter. The oldest of the group by some years, Athos is described as noble and handsome but also taciturn and melancholy, drowning his secret sorrows in drink. He is very protective of d'Artagnan, the youngest, whom he eventually treats as a son. By the end of the novel, it is revealed that he is the Count de la Fère. He was once married to Milady de Winter and attempted to kill her after discovering that she was a criminal on the run, an event which left him bitter and disillusioned. However, during the course of this novel, he is able to get his revenge on Milady.
In the second novel, Twenty Years After, he has retired from the Musketeers and abandoned his nom-de-guerre of Athos. He has fathered an illegitimate son, Raoul, with Marie de Rohan (Aramis's former mistress) and then adopted the boy, making him the vicomte de Bragelonne. Fatherhood makes Athos a much happier man, but after launching Raoul into a military career, Athos looks for new causes to occupy his life. He embraces the Fronde and then a doomed mission to rescue Charles I of England. He is uncharacteristically terrified by the appearance of Mordaunt, Milady's son, who is attempting to avenge the death of his mother. Athos, despite his reluctance to engage with the son of his ex-wife, ends up forced to slay him in an underwater fight in the English Channel.
In the third novel, The Vicomte de Bragelonne, Athos takes a major behind-the-scenes part in historical events, first helping with the restoration of Charles II to the throne of England and then being entrusted with the diplomatic task of arranging the wedding of Henrietta of England and Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. Athos eventually falls out with King Louis XIV of France, who has seduced his son Raoul's fiancée and is briefly thrown into the Bastille for voicing his contempt. After being pardoned at d'Artagnan's instigation, Athos withdraws to his home, where he dies of sorrow after Raoul is killed at war.
Athos's first name is never told in the novels. However, in Dumas's play "The Youth of the Musketeers," the young Milady, then named Charlotte, calls him "Olivier."
Sources
The fictional Athos is named after the historical musketeer Armand de Sillègue d'Athos d'Autevielle, though they have little in common beyond the name. His birthplace is the commune of Athos-Aspis in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department. The name also resembles Mount Athos; in chapter 13 of The Three Musketeers, a Bastille guard says, "But that is not a man's name; that is the name of a mountain." His title, Count de la Fère, while invented, is tied to the domains of La Fère which were once owned by Anne of Austria, Queen of France in these novels and in the historical period in which they are set.
In film and television
Actors who have played Athos on screen include:
Herbert Delmar, in The Three Musketeers: Parts I and II (1911)
Alfred Hollingsworth, in The Three Musketeers (1916)
Henri Rollan, in Les trois mousquetaires (1921)
Léon Bary, in The Three Musketeers (1921) and The Iron Mask (1929)
Henri Rollan, in Les Trois Mousquetaires (1933)
Paul Lukas, in The Three Musketeers (1935)
Douglass Dumbrille, in The Three Musketeers (1939)
Bert Roach in The Man in the Iron Mask (1939)
Van Heflin, in The Three Musketeers (1948)
John Hubbard, in The Three Musketeers (1950)
Steve Brodie, in Lady in the Iron Mask (1952)
Jean Martinelli, in Les Trois Mousquetaires (1953)
Roger Delgado, in The Three Musketeers (1954)
Domenico Modugno, in The Three Musketeers (1956)
Barry Morse, in The Three Musketeers (TV movie) (1960)
Georges Descrières, in Les Trois Mousquetaires: La Vengeance de Milady (1961) and Les Trois Mousquetaires: Les Ferrets de la Reine (1961)
Franco Fantasia, in D’Artagnan contro i tre moschettieri (1963)
Jeremy Watson, in The Three Musketeers (1966)
Jeremy Young, in The Further Adventures of the Three Musketeers (1967)
Erik Maes, in Die Drie Musketiers (1968)
Powys Thomas, in The Three Musketeers (1969)
Yvan Tanguy, in Les Quatre Charlots Mousquetaires (1971)
Oliver Reed, in The Three Musketeers (1973), The Four Musketeers (1974), and The Return of the Musketeers (1989)
Veniamin Smekhov, in D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers (1978), Musketeers Twenty Years After (1992), and The Secret of Queen Anne or Musketeers Thirty Years After (1993)
José Ferrer, in The Fifth Musketeer (1979)
Akira Kamiya, in Anime San Jushi (1987)
Kiefer Sutherland, in The Three Musketeers (1993)
Jean-Luc Bideau, in Revenge of the Musketeers (1994)
Edward Albert, in an early 1998 film of The Man in the Iron Mask
John Malkovich, in The Man in the Iron Mask (1998)
Gordon Carpenter, in Three Musketeers (1999)
Scott Hickman, in Young Blades (2001) (unaired TV series pilot)
Jan Gregor Kremp, in The Musketeer (2001)
Christopher Cazenove, in La Femme Musketeer (TV miniseries) (2003)
Heino Ferch, in D'Artagnan et les trois mousquetaires (2005)
Matthew Macfadyen, in The Three Musketeers (2011)
Tom Burke, in The Musketeers (TV series) (2014–2016)
Other mentions
The South-East Asian stone loach Schistura athos is named after the character of Athos and there are two more species in the genus Schistura which are each named after one of the Three Musketeers, S. aramis and S. porthos.
References
Literary characters introduced in 1844
Characters in The Three Musketeers
Alexandre Dumas characters
Male characters in literature
Male characters in film
Cultural depictions of French men
Fictional French people
Adventure film characters
Fictional counts and countesses
Fictional fencers
Fictional alcohol abusers | [
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236814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory | Sensory | Sensory may refer to:
Biology
Sensory ecology, how organisms obtain information about their environment
Sensory neuron, nerve cell responsible for transmitting information about external stimuli
Sensory perception, the process of acquiring and interpreting sensory information
Sensory receptor, a structure that recognizes external stimuli
Sensory system, part of the nervous system of organisms
Business and brands
Sensory, Inc., an American speech technology company
Other uses
Sensory analysis, a consumer product-testing method
Sensory garden, a self-contained garden area that allows visitors to enjoy a wide variety of sensory experiences
See also
Sensor
Sense (disambiguation) | [
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] |
236815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental | Mental | Mental may refer to:
of or relating to the mind
Films
Mental (2012 film), an Australian comedy-drama
Mental (2016 film), a Bangladeshi romantic-action movie
Mental, a 2008 documentary by Kazuhiro Soda
Mental, a 2014 Odia language remake of the 2010 Telugu film Seeta Ramula Kalyanam
Jai Ho, a 2014 Indian action drama film originally titled Mental
Other uses
Mental (TV series), a 2009 TV series produced by Fox Telecolombia
Mental (album), a 2014 album by KJ-52
"Mental", a song by Eels from their 1996 album Beautiful Freak
See also
Mental disability (disambiguation)
Mental foramen, an opening on the anterior surface of the mandible
Mental health | [
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236817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramis | Aramis | René d'Herblay, alias Aramis, is a fictional character in the novels The Three Musketeers (1844), Twenty Years After (1845), and The Vicomte de Bragelonne (1847-1850) by Alexandre Dumas, père. He and the other two musketeers, Athos and Porthos, are friends of the novels' protagonist, d'Artagnan.
The fictional Aramis is loosely based on the historical musketeer Henri d'Aramitz.
Personality
Aramis loves and courts women, which fits well with the opinions of the time regarding Jesuits and abbots. He is portrayed as constantly ambitious and unsatisfied; as a musketeer, he yearns to become an abbé; but as an abbé, he wishes for the life of the soldier. In The Three Musketeers, it is revealed that he became a musketeer because of a woman and his arrogance; as a young man in training for the priesthood, he had the misfortune to be caught (innocently or not) reading to a young married woman and thrown out of her house. For the next year, he studied fencing with the best swordsman in town to get his revenge. He then challenged the man who had mistreated him to a duel and thanks to his newly learned fencing skills, killed him almost at once. Because duels were forbidden by royal edict and Aramis was a novice, he had to disappear and adopt a very low profile. He enlisted in the Musketeers under the assumed name of "Aramis". There he met Athos, Porthos and later d'Artagnan. Together, they worked to protect the king and to keep the queen's affair with the Duke of Buckingham from being revealed by Cardinal Richelieu.
Aramis meets with great success, thanks to his Machiavellian plans and his audacity. He sees every victory as a step to climb to even greater power. Eventually, he is named Superior General of the Jesuits, which is precisely what saves his life at the end of Le Vicomte De Bragelonne, after he is betrayed by Nicolas Fouquet.
Despite his ruthless personal ambition, Aramis is an extremely loyal friend: in fact, his only mistakes come when he refuses to harm or offend his friends. In Twenty Years After, he follows Athos's pleas to spare the life of the villain Mordaunt, and in Le Vicomte De Bragelonne, he refuses to suppress d'Artagnan's discovery of the truth about Belle-Île-en-Mer. Aramis even tells his friend Porthos the true identity of the Man in the Iron Mask, despite fearing that this will lead Porthos to kill him (Aramis). Friendship is so important to Aramis that, at the end of Le Vicomte De Bragelonne, it is strongly implied that he cries - for the first and only time in his life - after causing the death of one of his friends.
Mistresses
Aramis' political intrigues are matched by (and usually connected with) his amorous intrigues, as Dumas casts him in the role of the lover of politically powerful women of his time. In The Three Musketeers ca. 1627, he is the lover of the Duchesse de Chevreuse, the confidante of the queen. In Twenty Years After he is the lover of the Duchesse de Longueville and, it is broadly implied, the father of her son.
Names
In contrast to the other musketeers, Aramis is twice referred to by his first name René. This first happens when d'Artagnan stumbles upon Aramis and his mistress in the chapter "Les Deux Gaspard" of the second book, and again when Bazin is talking about Aramis in the third book. In Twenty Years After, Aramis is a Jesuit known as the Abbé d'Herblay or Chevalier d'Herblay. In The Vicomte de Bragelonne he is the Bishop of Vannes, a title given to him by Nicolas Fouquet, and later becomes the Superior General of the Jesuits. When he comes back from exile, he is a Spanish noble and ambassador known as Duke of Alameda.
In film and television
Actors who have played Aramis on screen include:
Harold M. Shaw, in The Three Musketeers: Parts I and II (1911)
C.N. Mortensen, in The Three Musketeers (1916)
Pierre de Guingand, in Les trois mousquetaires (1921)
Eugene Pallette, in The Three Musketeers (1921)
Gino Corrado, in The Iron Mask (1929)
Jean-Louis Allibert, in Les Trois Mousquetaires (1933)
Onslow Stevens, in The Three Musketeers (1935)
Miles Mander, in The Three Musketeers (1939)
Robert Coote, in The Three Musketeers (1948)
Keith Richards, in The Three Musketeers (1950)
Judd Holdren, in Lady in the Iron Mask (1952)
Jacques François, in Les Trois Mousquetaires (1953)
Paul Hansard, in The Three Musketeers (1954)
Paul Campbell, in The Three Musketeers (1956) and Le Avventure dei tre moschettieri (1957)
Tim O'Connor, in The Three Musketeers (TV movie) (1960)
Jaques Toja, in Les Trois Mousquetaires: La Vengeance de Milady (1961) and Les Trois Mousquetaires: Les Ferrets de la Reine (1961)
Roberto Risso, in D’Artagnan contro i tre moschettieri (1963)
Gary Watson, in The Three Musketeers (1966)
John Woodvine, in The Further Adventures of the Three Musketeers (1967)
Roger Sterckx, in Die Drie Musketiers (1968)
Noel Willman, in The Man in the Iron Mask (1968)
Colin Fox, in The Three Musketeers (1969)
Georges Mansart, in Les Quatre Charlots Mousquetaires (1971)
Richard Chamberlain, in The Three Musketeers (1973), The Four Musketeers (1974), and The Return of the Musketeers (1989)
Igor Starygin, in D'Artanyan i Tri Mushketyora (1978), Mushketyory 20 Let Spustya (1992), and Tayna Korolevy Anny ili Mushketyory 30 Let Spustya (1993)
Lloyd Bridges, in The Fifth Musketeer (1979)
Eiko Yamada, in Anime San Jushi (1987)
Charlie Sheen, in The Three Musketeers (1993)
Sami Frey, in Revenge of the Musketeers (1994)
William Richert, in an early 1998 film of The Man in the Iron Mask
Jeremy Irons, in The Man in the Iron Mask (1998)
Thomas Beckett, in Three Musketeers (1999)
Callum Blue, in Young Blades (2001) (unaired TV series pilot)
Nick Moran, in The Musketeer (2001)
Allan Corduner, in La Femme Musketeer (TV miniseries) (2003)
Grégori Derangère, in D'Artagnan et les trois mousquetaires (2005)
Nick Jonas, in The Three Musketeers (Disney TV series JONAS)
Luke Evans, in The Three Musketeers (film in 3D) (2011)
Santiago Cabrera, in The Musketeers (TV series) (2014 - 2016)
References
Literary characters introduced in 1844
Alexandre Dumas characters
Characters in The Three Musketeers
Cultural depictions of French men
Fictional French people
Adventure film characters
Fictional fencers
Fictional priests and priestesses
Fictional bishops
Fictional dukes and duchesses | [
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236818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical | Physical | Physical may refer to:
Physical examination, a regular overall check-up with a doctor
Physical (Olivia Newton-John album), 1981
"Physical" (Olivia Newton-John song)
Physical (Gabe Gurnsey album)
"Physical" (Alcazar song) (2004)
"Physical" (Enrique Iglesias song) (2014)
"Physical" (Dua Lipa song) (2020)
"Physical (You're So)", a 1980 song by Adam & the Ants, the B side to "Dog Eat Dog"
Physical (TV series), an American television series
See also | [
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236822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational%20%28disambiguation%29 | Rational (disambiguation) | Rational may refer to:
Rational number, a number that can be expressed as a ratio of two integers
Rational point of an algebraic variety, a point defined over the rational numbers
Rational function, a function that may be defined as the quotient of two polynomials
Rational fraction, an expression built from the integers and some variables by addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
Rational Software, a software company now owned by IBM
Tenberry Software, formerly Rational Systems, a defunct American software company
Rational AG, a German manufacturer of food processors
RationaL (rapper), stage name of Canadian hip-hop artist Matt Brotzel
The Rationals, a former American rock and roll band
Rational, a personality classification in the Keirsey Temperament Sorter
See also
Rationality
Rationale (disambiguation)
Rationalism (disambiguation)
Rationalization (disambiguation) | [
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236823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggyback%20%28transportation%29 | Piggyback (transportation) | Piggyback transportation refers to the transportation of goods where one transportation unit is carried on the back of something else. It is a specialised form of intermodal transportation and combined transport.
Etymology
Piggyback is a corruption of pickaback, which is likely to be a folk etymology alteration of pick pack (1560s), which perhaps is from pick, a dialectal variant of the verb pitch.
Examples
In rail transport, the practice of carrying trailers or semi-trailers in a train atop a flatcar is referred to as "piggybacking". Early drawings of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway c1830 show road coaches being piggybacked on railway flat wagons.
The rail service provided for trucks which are carried on trains for part of their journey is referred to as a rolling road, or rolling highway. A related transportation method is the rail transport of semi-trailers, without road tractors, sometimes referred to as "trailer on flatcar (TOFC)". In the United States, TOFC traffic grew from 1% of freight in 1957 to 5% in 1964 and 15% in 1986.
A railway wagon of one track gauge can be carried on a flat wagon (transporter wagon or rollbock) of another gauge. In addition, an entire train of coupled wagons of one gauge can be carried on continuous rails on a train of flat wagons of another gauge. This was achieved by the Commonwealth Railways on the Marree railway line in South Australia between Telford Cut and Port Augusta in the mid-1950s. Japan Railways planned a similar "Train on Train" scheme, but at much higher speeds, to operate from 2016.
Marine
Small ships of all kinds can be piggybacked on larger ships. Examples include lifeboats, landing craft, and minesweepers on motherships, as well as midget submarines on larger submarines, such as those used for the 1942 Japanese submarine attack on Sydney.
Air transport
The 1930s British Short Mayo Composite, in which a smaller, four-engine floatplane aircraft named Mercury was carried aloft on the back of a larger four-engine flying boat named Maia, enabled the Mercury to achieve a greater range than would have been possible had it taken off under its own power. The American Space Shuttle was carried on top of specially-modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft when the shuttle landed at places other than Kennedy Space Center.
Space
In space transportation systems, a smaller satellite that is carried as a secondary payload on a launch is said to be "piggybacked" on the main launch. It is often the case of small satellites and cubesats, since they can not usually afford accessing space on a dedicated launch and they choose instead to take profit of the remaining payload capacity in a big satellite launch. However, this is usually at the cost of not being able to fly to their desired orbit and having to remain on a similar orbit to that of the big satellite.
Military
The metal caterpillar treads of a tank wear out quickly when travelling long distances on ordinary roads. Also, tracked vehicles seriously damage the tarmac layer of ordinary roads (unless the caterpillar treads are specially fitted with rubber pads to avoid this). It is therefore necessary to provide tank transporters, which have rubber tires, to the battlefield.
Human locomotion
A person carrying someone else on their back is most commonly seen in the modern day in the form of a parent carrying a child. It may also feature in the context of play or sport, and evidence of this dates back to Ancient Greece where games involving piggyback riding were combined with the requirement of catching or throwing a ball.
Gallery
See also
Autorack
Bière–Apples–Morges Railway
Car carrier trailer
Car float
Double-stack rail transport
Ferry
Fireman's carry
Hupac
Konkan Railway Corporation
Loading gauge
Modalohr
Motorail
Pichi Richi Railway
Roadrailer
Rolling highway
Roll-on/roll-off
Structure gauge
Train ferry
Two-foot-gauge railways in South Africa
References
External links
Double Piggyback p120
RGI Modalohr
Transport operations
Intermodal transport | [
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236825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%20new%20shekel | Israeli new shekel | The Israeli new shekel ( ; ; sign: ₪; code: ILS), also known as simply the Israeli shekel (, ), is the currency of Israel and is also used as a legal tender in the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The new shekel is divided into 100 agorot. The new shekel has been in use since 1 January 1986, when it replaced the hyperinflated old shekel at a ratio of 1000:1.
The currency sign for the new shekel is a combination of the first Hebrew letters of the words shekel () and ẖadash () (new). It was previously known as the new Israeli shekel and the non-official abbreviation of NIS ( and ) is still commonly used domestically to denominate prices and also appears on the Bank of Israel's web site. However, the official international currency code of the Israeli new shekel is ILS, as set by the International Organization for Standardization under ISO 4217.
History
The origin of the name "shekel" () is from the ancient Biblical currency by the same name. An early Biblical reference is Abraham being reported to pay "four hundred shekels of silver" to Ephron the Hittite for the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron. Shekel is any of several ancient units of weight or of currency in ancient Israel, from the Hebrew root ש-ק-ל (š-q-l) meaning 'weigh' (שָׁקַל šaqal 'to weigh', שֶׁקֶל šeqel 'a standard weight'), common with other Semitic languages like Akkadian (resp. šaqālu and šiqlu) and Aramaic (resp. תְּקַל teqal and תִּקְלָא tiqla). Initially, it may have referred to a weight of barley. In ancient Israel, the shekel was known to be about 180 grains (11 grams or 0.35 troy ounces).
From the formation of the modern State of Israel on 14 May 1948 through 1952 banknotes continued to be issued by the Anglo-Palestine Bank as the Palestine pound which was pegged to the British Pound. In 1952, the Anglo-Palestine Bank changed its name to Bank Leumi Le-Yisrael (National Bank of Israel) and the currency name became the Israeli pound.
Israeli pound (1952–1980)
The Israeli pound (, "lira yisraelit") was the currency of the State of Israel from June 1952 until 23 February 1980, when it was replaced with the shekel on 24 February 1980. From 1955, after the Bank of Israel was established and took over the duty of issuing banknotes, only the Hebrew name was used, along with the symbol "I£". The pegging to the British Pound was abolished on 1 January 1954, and in 1960, the sub-division of the Israeli pound was changed from 1000 prutot to 100 agorot.
During the 1960s, a debate over the non-Hebrew name of the Israeli currency resulted in a law ordering the Minister of Finance to change the name pound into a Hebrew name, shekel (). The law allowed the minister to decide on a proper date for the change. The law did not come into effect until February 1980, when the Israeli government decided to change the monetary system and introduce the shekel at a rate of 1 shekel = I£10.
Shekel (1980–1985)
The shekel, now known as the old shekel, was the currency of the State of Israel between 24 February 1980 and 31 December 1985. Both it and its predecessor, the Israeli pound, experienced frequent devaluations against foreign currencies during the 1960s and '70s. This trend culminated in the old shekel experiencing hyperinflation in the early 1980s. After inflation was contained as a result of the 1985 Economic Stabilization Plan, the new shekel was introduced, replacing the old shekel on 1 January 1986 at a rate of to
New shekel (1985–present)
Since the economic crisis of the 1980s and the subsequent introduction of the new shekel in 1985, the Bank of Israel and the government of Israel have maintained much more careful and conservative fiscal and monetary policies, and have gradually introduced various market-based economic reforms. In addition, the signing of free trade agreements helped the Israeli economy become more competitive, while heavy investment in its industrial and scientific base allowed the country to take advantage of opportunities associated with the rise of the global knowledge economy, thus greatly increasing exports and opening new markets for its products and services. As a result of these factors, inflation has been relatively low and the country now maintains a positive balance of payments, with a current account surplus equivalent to about 3% of its GDP in 2010. Consequently, its currency has strengthened though less so than an exceptional rise in the Euro and Swiss Franc, rising approximately 20% in value relative to the US dollar from 2001 to 2011, contrasting to weakening in prior decades.
Since 1 January 2003, the new shekel has been a freely convertible currency. Since 7 May 2006, new shekel derivative trading has also been available on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. This makes the new shekel one of only twenty or so world currencies for which there are widely available currency futures contracts in the foreign exchange market. It is also a currency that can be exchanged by consumers in many parts of the world. On 26 May 2008, CLS Bank International announced that it would settle payment instructions in new shekels, making the currency fully convertible.
Coins
In 1985, coins in denominations of 1 agora, 5 agorot, 10 agorot, ₪1/2, ₪1 were introduced. In 1990, ₪5 coins were introduced, followed by ₪10 coins in 1995. Production of 1 agora pieces ceased in 1990, and they were removed from circulation on 1 April 1991. A ₪2 coin was introduced on 9 December 2007. The 5 agorot coin, last minted in 2007, was removed from circulation on 1 January 2008.
In April 2011, it was reported that new coins would be minted that would use less metal and thus lower costs. Counterfeiting would also be harder. The Bank of Israel is considering dropping the word "new" on the planned coins series. If approved, this would be the first replacement of all coins since the introduction of the new shekel coins in September 1985. The coins are minted by the Korea Minting and Security Printing Corporation (KOMSCO).
Note that all dates on Israeli coins are given in the Hebrew calendar and are written in Hebrew numerals.
Banknotes
Series A (1985–1999)
Beginning on 4 September 1985. banknotes are introduced in denominations of ₪10, and ₪50. An note followed on 8 May 1986 and the note issued in 19 August 1986. In 2 April 1988, the note issued and the note issued on 16 February 1992 completing the family. The ₪5 and ₪10 notes used the same basic designs as the earlier 5000, and notes but with the denominations altered.
The ₪5 and ₪10 notes were later replaced by coins. A number of these coins, in their first minting, had the images of the individuals on the bills engraved on them.
Series B (1999–2017)
The Second series of bank notes was released in 1999, replacing the first series by 2005. A plan to issue a banknote, carrying the portrait of Yitzhak Rabin, was announced shortly after Rabin's assassination in 1995. However, due to low inflation rates, there was no need for such a banknote and it was never issued.
Series C (2014–present)
The committee proposed that the new series would bear the portraits of prominent Hebrew poets, among them Rachel Bluwstein, Shaul Tchernichovsky, Leah Goldberg and Nathan Alterman. In December 2010, it was announced that the series would feature portraits of Menachem Begin, Yitzhak Rabin, Rachel, and Shmuel Yosef Agnon. When Begin's family opposed the decision, the committee's original proposal was readopted.
On 14 November 2012, the Bank of Israel announced that the new series of banknotes is in the final stages of design. The first of the new banknotes to begin circulation was in the ₪50 denomination on 16 September 2014, followed by the ₪200 note on 23 December 2015. The final two denominations, ₪20 and ₪100, were issued on 23 November 2017, completing the "Series C" banknote series.
With the issuing of the third series, the Bank of Israel has adopted the standard English spelling of shekel and plural shekels for its currency. Previously, the Bank had formally used the Hebrew transcriptions of sheqel and sheqalim (from ). The new notes also used the Arabic (šaykal) rather than (šayqal), which had been used on all banknotes previously.
The banknotes are printed by Orell Füssli Security Printing of Switzerland.
Exchange rates
See also
Bank of Israel
Economy of Israel
References
External links
Bank of Israel catalogue of Israeli currency since 1948
Exchange rates since 1948
American Israel Numismatic Association
Current Sheqel Dollar Rate
Shaar yatzig – Official Rate gadget
The banknotes of Israel
Shekel
Circulating currencies
1985 establishments in Israel
Currencies introduced in 1986
Cultural depictions of Golda Meir | [
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236826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamata%20no%20Orochi | Yamata no Orochi | , or simply , is a legendary eight-headed and eight-tailed Japanese dragon/serpent.
Mythology
Yamata no Orochi legends are originally recorded in two ancient texts about Japanese mythology and history. The 680 AD transcribes this dragon name as and the 720 AD writes it as . In both versions of the Orochi myth, the Shinto storm god Susanoo (or "Susa-no-O") is expelled from Heaven for tricking his sister Amaterasu, the sun goddess.
After expulsion from Heaven, Susanoo encounters two near the head of the , now called the , in Izumo Province. They are weeping because they were forced to give the Orochi one of their daughters every year for seven years, and now they must sacrifice their eighth, , who Susanoo transforms into a for safekeeping. The tells the following version:
So, having been expelled, [His-Swift-impetuous-Male-Augustness] descended to a place [called] Tori-kami (, now ) at the head-waters of the River Hi in the Land of Idzumo. At this time some chopsticks came floating down the stream. So His-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness, thinking that there must be people at the head-waters of the river, went up it in quest of them, when he came upon an old man and an old woman, – two of them, – who had a young girl between them, and were weeping. Then he deigned to ask: "Who are ye?" So the old man replied, saying: "I am an Earthly Deity, child of the Deity Great-Mountain-Possessor. I am called by the name of Foot-Stroking-Elder, my wife is called by the name of Hand-Stroking Elder, and my daughter is called by the name of Wondrous-Inada-Princess." Again he asked: What is the cause of your crying?" [The old man answered] saying: "I originally had eight young girls as daughters. But the eight-forked serpent of Koshi has come every year and devoured [one], and it is now its time to come, wherefore we weep." Then he asked him: "What is its form like?" [The old man] answered, saying: "Its eyes are like , it has one body with eight heads and eight tails. Moreover on its body grows moss, and also chamaecyparis and cryptomerias. Its length extends over eight valleys and eight hills, and if one look at its belly, it is all constantly bloody and inflamed." (What is called here is the modern [winter-cherry]) Then His-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness said to the old man: "If this be thy daughter, wilt thou offer her to me?" He replied, saying: "With reverence, but I know not thine august name." Then he replied, saying: "I am elder brother to the Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity. So I have now descended from Heaven." Then the Deities Foot-Stroking-Elder and Hand-Stroking-Elder said: "If that be so, with reverence will we offer [her to thee]." So His-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness, at once taking and changing the young girl into a multitudinous and close-toothed comb which he stuck into his august hair-bunch, said to the Deities Foot-Stroking-Elder and Hand-Stroking-Elder: "Do you distill some eight-fold refined liquor. Also make a fence round about, in that fence make eight gates, at each gate tie [together] eight platforms, on each platform put a liquor-vat, and into each vat pour the eight-fold refined liquor, and wait." So as they waited after having thus prepared everything in accordance with his bidding, the eight-forked serpent came truly as [the old man] had said, and immediately dipped a head into each vat, and drank the liquor. Thereupon it was intoxicated with drinking, and all [the heads] lay down and slept. Then His-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness drew the ten-grasp saber, that was augustly girded on him, and cut the serpent in pieces, so that the River Hi flowed on changed into a river of blood. So when he cut the middle tail, the edge of his august sword broke. Then, thinking it strange, he thrust into and split [the flesh] with the point of his august sword and looked, and there was a great sword [within]. So he took this great sword, and, thinking it a strange thing, he respectfully informed the Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity. This is the Herb-Quelling Great Sword.
The also describes Yamata no Orochi: "It had an eight-forked head and an eight-forked tail; its eyes were red, like the winter-cherry; and on its back firs and cypresses were growing. As it crawled it extended over a space of eight hills and eight valleys." The botanical names used to describe this Orochi are or (winter cherry or Japanese lantern, Physalis alkekengi), (club moss, Lycopodiopsida), (Japanese cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa), and (Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria).
The legendary sword , which came from the tail of Yamata no Orochi, along with the mirror and jewel, became the three sacred Imperial Regalia of Japan.
Etymology
The Japanese name derives from Old Japanese (with a regular from shift, but its etymology is enigmatic. Besides this ancient reading, the kanji, , are commonly pronounced , "big snake; large serpent".
Carr notes that Japanese scholars have proposed "more than a dozen" < etymologies, while Western linguists have suggested loanwords from Austronesian, Tungusic, and Indo-European languages. The most feasible native etymological proposals are Japanese from , (which is where Susanoo discovered the sacred sword), , or ; and , meaning "god; spirit", cognate with the river-dragon. Benedict originally proposed "large snake" was suffixed from Proto-Austro-Japanese *(w)oröt-i acquired from Austronesian *[q]uḷəj "snake; worm"; which he later modified to *(u-)orot-i from *[q,ʔ]oḷəj. Miller criticized Benedict for overlooking Old Japanese " 'tail' + suffix -ti – as well as an obvious Tungus etymology, [Proto-Tungus] *xürgü-či 'the tailed one'", and notes "this apparently well-traveled has now turned up in the speculation of the [Indo-European] folklorists." Littleton's hypothesis involves the 3-headed monster Trisiras or Viśvarūpa, which has a mythological parallel because Indra killed it after giving it soma, wine, and food, but lacks a phonological connection.
Mythological parallels
Polycephalic or multi-headed animals are rare in biology, but commonly feature in mythology and heraldry. Multi-headed dragons, like the 8-headed Orochi and 3-headed Trisiras above, are a common motif in comparative mythology. For instance, multi-headed dragons in Greek mythology include the 9-headed Lernaean Hydra and the 100-headed Ladon, both slain by Heracles.
Two other Japanese examples derive from Buddhist importations of Indian dragon myths. Benzaiten, the Japanese name of Saraswati, supposedly killed a 5-headed dragon at Enoshima in 552 AD. Kuzuryū (, "9-headed dragon"), deriving from the Nagaraja snake-kings Vasuki and Shesha, is worshipped at Togakushi Shrine in Nagano Prefecture. (Compare the , "nine-headed bird" in Chinese mythology.)
Comparing folklore about polycephalic dragons and serpents, 8-headed creatures are less common than 7- or 9-headed ones. Among Japanese numerals, or () can mean "many; varied" (e.g., , "greengrocer; jack-of-all-trades"). De Visser says the number 8 is "stereotypical" in legends about kings or gods riding dragons or having their carriages drawn by them. The slaying of the dragon is said to be similar to the legends of Cambodia, India, Persia, Western Asia, East Africa, and the Mediterranean area." Smith identifies the mythic 7- or 8-headed dragons with the 7-spiked Pteria spider shell or 8-tentacled octopus.
The myth of a storm god fighting a sea serpent is itself a popular mythic trope potentially originating with the Proto-Indo-European religion and later transmitted into the religions of the ancient Near East most likely initially through interaction with Hittite speaking peoples into Syria and the Fertile Crescent. This motif, known as (German for "struggle against chaos") represents the clash between order and chaos. Often as these myths evolve from their original source, the role of the storm god (himself often the head of a pantheon) is adopted by culture heroes or a personage symbolizing royalty. In many examples, the serpent god is often seen as multi-headed or multi-tailed.
Thor vs. Jörmungandr (Norse)
Perun vs. Veles (Slavic)
Dobrynya Nikitich vs. Zmey Gorynych (Slavic)
Tarhunt vs. Illuyanka (Hittite)
Teshub vs. Ullikummi (Hurrian)
Zeus vs. Typhon (Greek)
Heracles vs. The Lernaean Hydra (Greek)
Apollo vs. Python (mythology) (Greek)
Indra vs. Vritra (Indian)
Krishna vs. Kāliyā (Indian)
Θraētaona vs. Aži Dahāka (Zoroastrian)
Garshasp vs. Zahhak (Iranian)
Saint George vs. The Dragon (Christian)
Saint Michael vs. Herensuge (Christian-Basque)
Făt-Frumos vs. Balaur (Romanian)
Baʿal vs. Yam (Canaanite)
Yu the Great vs. Xiangliu or Gong Gong (Chinese)
Marduk vs. Tiamat (Babylonian)
Ra vs. Apep (Egyptian)
Gabriel vs. Rahab (Jewish)
Christ vs. Satan (Christian)
Mankan vs. Kuzuryū (Japanese Buddhism)
Sigurd vs. Fafnir (Norse mythology)
Quetzalcoatl vs. Cipactli (Aztec mythology)
Benzaiten vs. Gozuryu (Japanese Buddhism)
Drangue vs. Kulshedra (Albanian mythology)
Vahagn vs. Vishap (Armenian mythology)
The fight of a hero (sometimes of extraordinary birth) against a dragon who demands the sacrifice of maidens or princesses is a widespread tale. In folkloristics it falls under the Aarne–Thompson–Uther index type ATU 300, "The Dragonslayer".
See also
Fafnir
King Ghidorah, fictional kaiju and villain in the Godzilla film franchise inspired by Yamata no Orochi.
Leviathan
Princess and dragon
The Three Treasures
Hydreigon
References
External links
Yamata-no-orochi, Encyclopedia of Shinto
Hyakkai Ryūran: Yamata-No-Orochi
Susanoo vs Yamata no Orochi animated depiction
Japanese dragons
Legendary serpents
Mythical many-headed creatures | [
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236827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekel | Shekel | Shekel or sheqel ( šiqlu or siqlu, , plural or shekels, Phoenician: ) is an ancient Near Eastern coin, usually of silver. A shekel was first a unit of weight—very roughly —and became currency in ancient Tyre and ancient Carthage and then in ancient Israel under the Maccabees.
Name
The word is based on the Semitic verbal root for "weighing" (Š-Q-L), cognate to the Akkadian or , a unit of weight equivalent to the Sumerian . Use of the word was first attested in during the Akkadian Empire under the reign of Naram-Sin, and later in in the Code of Hammurabi. The Š-Q-L root is found in the Hebrew words for "to weigh" (), "weight" () and "consideration" (). It is cognate to the Aramaic root T-Q-L and the Arabic root Θ-Q-L ثقل, in words such as (the weight), (heavy) or (unit of weight). The famous writing on the wall in the Biblical Book of Daniel includes a cryptic use of the word in Aramaic: "". The word shekel came into the English language via the Hebrew Bible, where it is first used in the Book of Genesis.
The term "shekel" has been used for a unit of weight, around 9.6 or 9.8 grams, used in Bronze Age Europe for balance weights and fragments of bronze that may have served as money.
History
The earliest shekels were a unit of weight, used as other units such as grams and troy ounces for trading before the advent of coins. The shekel was common among western Semitic peoples. Moabites, Edomites, and Phoenicians used the shekel, although proper coinage developed very late. Carthaginian coinage was based on the shekel and may have preceded its home town of Tyre in issuing proper coins.
Coins were used and may have been invented by the early Anatolian traders who stamped their marks to avoid weighing each time used. Herodotus states that the first coinage was issued by Croesus, King of Lydia, spreading to the golden Daric (worth 20 or shekel), issued by the Persian Empire and the silver Athenian obol and drachma. Early coins were money stamped with an official seal to certify their weight. Silver ingots, some with markings were issued. Later authorities decided who designed coins.
As with many ancient units, the shekel had a variety of values depending on the era, government and region; weights between 7 and 17 grams and values of 11, 14, and 17 grams are common. A two-shekel weight recently recovered near the temple area in Jerusalem and dated to the period of the First Temple weighs 23 grams, giving a weight of 11.5 grams per shekel in Israel during the monarchy. When used to pay labourers, recorded wages in the ancient world range widely. The Code of Hammurabi (circa 1800 BC) sets the value of unskilled labour at approximately ten shekels per year of work, confirmed in Israelite law by comparing with . Later, records within the Persian Empire (539–333 BC) give ranges from a minimum of two shekels per month for unskilled labour, to as high as seven to ten shekels per month in some records. A survival wage for an urban household during the Persian period would require at least 22 shekels of income per year.
Israelites
notes that the measures of the ingredients for the holy anointing oil were to be calculated using the Shekel of the Sanctuary (see also , and similarly at for payment for the redemption of 273 first-born males and at for the offerings of the leaders of the tribes of Israel), suggesting that there were other common measures of a shekel in use, or at least that the Temple authorities defined a standard for the shekel to be used for Temple purposes.
According to Jewish law, whenever a census of the Jewish people was to be conducted, every person that was counted was required to pay the half-Shekel for his atonement ().
The Aramaic , similar to the Hebrew , used in the writing on the wall during the feast of Belshazzar according to the Book of Daniel and defined as weighed, shares a common root with the word shekel and may even additionally attest to its original usage as a weight.
Second Temple period half-Shekel Temple tax
During the Second Temple period, it was customary among Jews to annually offer the half-Shekel into the Temple treasury, for the upkeep and maintenance of the Temple precincts, as also used in purchasing public animal offerings. This practice not only applied to Jews living in the Land of Israel, but also to Jews living outside the Land of Israel. Archaeological excavations conducted at Horvat 'Ethry in Israel from 1999 to 2001 by Boaz Zissu and Amir Ganor of the Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) have yielded important finds, the most-prized of which being a half-Shekel coin minted in the 2nd century CE, upon which are embossed the words "Half-Shekel" in paleo-Hebrew (). The same coin possesses a silver content of 6.87 grams. According to the Jewish historian Josephus, the annual monetary tribute of the half-Shekel to the Temple at Jerusalem was equivalent to two Athenian drachmæ, each Athenian or Attic drachma weighing a little over 4.3 grams.
First and Second Jewish Revolt
The Jerusalem shekel was issued from AD 66 to 70 amid the First Jewish Revolt as a means of emphasizing the independence of Judaea from Roman rule.
The Bar Kochba shekel was issued from AD 132 to 135 amid the Bar Kokhba Revolt for similar reasons.
Carthage
The Carthaginian or Punic shekel was typically around 7.2 grams in silver and 7.5 grams in gold (suggesting an exchange rate of 12:1). They were apparently first developed on Sicily during the mid-4th century BC. They were particularly associated with the payment of Carthage's mercenary armies and were repeatedly debased over the course of each of the Punic Wars, although the Carthaginian Empire's expansion into Spain under the Barcids before the Second and recovery under Hannibal before the Third permitted improving the amount and quality of the currency. Throughout, it was more common for Carthage's holdings in North Africa to employ bronze or no coinage except when paying mercenary armies and for most of the specie to circulate in Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily.
Tyre
The Tyrian shekel began to be issued . Owing to the relative purity of their silver, they were the preferred medium of payment for the Temple tax in Jerusalem despite their royal and pagan imagery. The money changers assaulted by Jesus in the New Testament are those who exchanged worshippers' baser common currency for such shekels and they have been suggested as a possible coin used as the "30 pieces of silver" in the New Testament.
Present
Israel
The Israeli shekel (properly ) replaced the Israeli lira or pound in 1980. Its currency sign was , although it was more commonly denominated as ש or IS. It was subdivided into 100 new agoras or agorot. It suffered from hyperinflation and was quickly replaced.
The new shekel replaced it in 1985. Its currency sign is although it is often denominated as ש״ח or NIS. It is subdivided into 100 agoras or agorot. Both Israeli shekels are purely units of currency and not weight. With the 2014 series of notes, the Bank of Israel abandoned the transcriptions and in favor of the standard English forms Shekel and Shekels.
See also
Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement
Gerah (ma'ah)
Hanukkah gelt
History of currency
Israeli lira
List of historical currencies
Pidyon Haben ceremony
Prutah
Tetradrachm
Zuz
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Ancient currencies
Currencies of Israel
Units of mass
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236828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam | Kalam | ʿIlm al-Kalām (, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to Kalām and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the study of Islamic doctrine (aqa'id). It was born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of the Islamic faith against the philosophical doubters.Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p. 391. However, this picture has been increasingly questioned by scholarship that attempts to show that kalām was in fact a demonstrative rather than a dialectical science and was always intellectually creative.
The Arabic term Kalām means "speech, word, utterance" among other things. There are many possible interpretations as to why this discipline was originally called so; one is that one of the widest controversies in this discipline, in the second and third centuries of Hijra, has been about whether the "Word of God" (Kalām Allāh), as revealed in the Quran, is an eternal attribute of God and therefore not created, or whether it is created words in the sense of ink and sounds. A scholar of Kalām is referred to as a mutakallim (plural: mutakallimūn'''), and it is a role distinguished from those of Islamic philosophers, jurists, and scientists.
Origins
As early as in the times of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the history of Islam, according to historian Majid Fakhry. One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews". Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the predestination of sinners to hell on the one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the Traditions) into some internal harmony".
Ahl al-Kalām
In early Islam, Ahl al-Kalām essentially referred to the Mu'tazilites, in addition to other smaller schools. Historian Daniel W. Brown describes Ahl al-Kalām as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam -- Ahl ar-Ra'y and Ahl al-Hadith being the other two. Ahl al-Kalām agreed with Ahl al-Hadith that the example of the Islamic prophet Muhammad was authoritative, but it did not believe it to be divine revelation, a status that only the Quran had (in its view). It also rejected the authority of the hadith on the grounds that its corpus was "filled with contradictory, blasphemous, and absurd" reports, and that in jurisprudence, even the smallest doubt about a source was too much. Thus, they believed, the true legacy of Muhammad was to be found elsewhere, i.e. in the sunnah, which is separate from the hadith. Ahl al-Hadith prevailed over the Ahl al-Kalām (and Muslims, or at least mainstream Muslims, now accept the authority of the hadith), so that most of what is known about their arguments comes from the writings of their opponents, such as Imam al-Shafi'i. Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later ahl al-Kalām", suggesting the ahl al-Kalām were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites.
As an Islamic discipline
Although seeking knowledge in Islam is considered a religious obligation, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond the category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people.
The early Muslim scholar al-Shafi‘i held that there should be a certain number of men trained in kalam to defend and purify the faith, but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people.
Similarly, the Islamic scholar al-Ghazali held the view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty. Like al-Shafi‘i, he discouraged the masses from studying it.
Despite the dominance of kalam as an intellectual tradition within Islam, some scholars were critical of its use. For example, the Hanbali Sufi, Khwaja Abdullah Ansari wrote a treatise entitled Dhamm al-Kalam where he criticized the use of kalam.
The contemporary Islamic scholar Nuh Ha Mim Keller holds the view that the criticism of kalam from scholars was specific to the Muʿtazila, going on to claim that other historical Muslim scholars such as al-Ghazali and an-Nawawi saw both good and bad in kalam and cautioned from the speculative excess of unorthodox groups such as the Muʿtazila and the Jahmis. As Nuh Ha Mim Keller states in his article "Kalam and Islam":
Major kalam schools
Muʿtazili
Sunni
Ashʿari
Maturidi
Shiʿi
Twelver (Theology of Twelvers)Ismāʿīlī
Nizari
Musta'li
Hafizi
Tayyibi
See also
Al-Fiqh al-Akbar
Apologetics
Jewish Kalam
Kalam cosmological argument
Logic in Islamic philosophy
Logos (Christianity)
Mihna
Qadr (doctrine)
Scholasticism
Tawhid
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Eissa, Mohamed. The Jurist and the Theologian: Speculative Theology in Shāfiʿī Legal Theory. Gorgias Press: Piscataway, NJ, 2017. .
Wolfson, Harry Austryn, The Philosophy of the Kalam,'' Harvard University Press, 1976, 779 pages, , Google Books, text at archive.org
External links
Kalam and Islam by Sheikh Nuh Keller
Kalam and Islam, Living Islam
Islamic Kalām: Rational Expressions of Medieval Theological Thought, Encyclopedia of Mediterranean Humanism
Islamic terminology
Arabic words and phrases | [
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236832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILS | ILS | ILS or ils may refer to:
Organizations
ILS Law College, of the Indian Law Society
International Launch Services
International Life Saving Federation
International Lenin School
Science and technology
Iterated local search, in computing
Instrument landing system, for aircraft
Integrated library system, an enterprise resource planning system for libraries
Internet Locator Server, for Microsoft NetMeeting
Business and military
Integrated logistics support
Inventory Locator Service, LLC, a digital aviation warehouse company
ILS (company), a Finnish engineering company
Finance
Insurance-Linked Securities (ILS)
Israeli new shekel, ISO 4217 currency code
Other uses
Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, a book of Latin inscriptions
Ils (musician)
Them (2006 film) (French: Ils), a French horror film | [
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236833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo%20Nacional%20Centro%20de%20Arte%20Reina%20Sof%C3%ADa | Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía | The Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía ("Queen Sofia National Museum Art Centre"; MNCARS) is Spain's national museum of 20th-century art. The museum was officially inaugurated on September 10, 1990, and is named for Queen Sofía. It is located in Madrid, near the Atocha train and metro stations, at the southern end of the so-called Golden Triangle of Art (located along the Paseo del Prado and also comprising the Museo del Prado and the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza).
The museum is mainly dedicated to Spanish art. Highlights of the museum include excellent collections of Spain's two greatest 20th-century masters, Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dalí. The most famous masterpiece in the museum is Picasso's 1937 painting Guernica. Along with its extensive collection, the museum offers a mixture of national and international temporary exhibitions in its many galleries, making it one of the world's largest museums for modern and contemporary art. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic it attracted only 1,248,480 visitors, a drop of 72 percent from 2019, but it still ranked sixth on the list of most-visited art museums in the world.
It also hosts a free-access library specializing in art, with a collection of over 100,000 books, over 3,500 sound recordings, and almost 1,000 videos.
Collection
The museum is mainly dedicated to Spanish art. Highlights of the museum include excellent collections of Spain's two greatest 20th-century masters, Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dalí. Certainly, the most famous masterpiece in the museum is Picasso's painting Guernica. The Reina Sofía collection has works by artists such as Joan Miró, Eduardo Chillida, Pablo Gargallo, Julio González, Luis Gordillo, Juan Gris, José Gutiérrez Solana, Lucio Muñoz, Jorge Oteiza, Julio Romero de Torres, Pablo Serrano, and Antoni Tàpies.
International art represented in the collection include works by Francis Bacon, Joseph Beuys, Pierre Bonnard, Georges Braque, Alexander Calder, Robert Delaunay, Max Ernst, Lucio Fontana, Sarah Grilo, Damien Hirst, Donald Judd, Vasily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Yves Klein, Fernand Léger, Jacques Lipchitz, René Magritte, Henry Moore, Bruce Nauman, Gabriel Orozco, Nam June Paik, Man Ray, Diego Rivera, Mark Rothko, Julian Schnabel, Richard Serra, Cindy Sherman, Clyfford Still, Yves Tanguy, and Wolf Vostell.
Gallery
History of the building
Hospital
The building is on the site of the first General Hospital of Madrid. King Philip II centralised all the hospitals that were scattered throughout the court. In the eighteenth century, King Ferdinand VI decided to build a new hospital because the facilities at the time were insufficient for the city. The building was designed by architect José de Hermosilla and his successor Francisco Sabatini who did the majority of the work. In 1805, after numerous work stoppages, the building was to assume its function that it had been built for, which was being a hospital, although only one-third of the proposed project by Sabatini was completed. Since then it has undergone various modifications and additions until, in 1969, it was closed down as a hospital.
Art museum
Extensive modern renovations and additions to the old building were made starting in 1980. The central building of the museum was once an 18th-century hospital. The building functioned as the Centro del Arte (Art Centre) from 1986 until established as the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía in 1988. In 1988, portions of the new museum were opened to the public, mostly in temporary configurations; that same year it was decreed by the Ministry of Culture as a national museum. Its architectural identity was radically changed in 1989 by Ian Ritchie with the addition of three glass circulation towers.
Expansion
An 8000 m2 (86,000 ft2) expansion costing €92 million designed by French architect Jean Nouvel opened in October 2005. The extension includes spaces for temporary exhibitions, an auditorium of 500 seats, and a 200-seat auditorium, a bookshop, restaurants and administration offices. ducks scéno was consultant for scenographic equipment of auditoriums and Arau Acustica for acoustic studies.
Other facilities
Reina Sofía has other two places where several exhibitions usually takes places. There are the Crystal Palace and the Velázquez Palace, both in Retiro Park.
Notable works
Guernica by Pablo Picasso
The Great Masturbator by Salvador Dalí
Equal-Parallel/Guernica-Bengasi by Richard Serra
6 TV Dé-Coll/age by Wolf Vostell
Popular culture references
The museum features, as a major protagonist, in Jim Jarmusch's The Limits of Control (2009).
In the 2003 Spanish film Noviembre, the school entrance scenes and some performance scenes were shot in the square in front of the museum.
See also
List of most visited art museums
Museo de Escultura al Aire Libre de Alcalá de Henares
References
Informational notes
Citations
External links
Arte Reina Sofía
Reina Sofia
Reina Sofía
Reina Sofía
Reina Sofia
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia
Defunct hospitals in Spain
Art museums established in 1992
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia
Buildings and structures in Embajadores neighborhood, Madrid | [
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236836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey%20Joe%20Walcott | Jersey Joe Walcott | Arnold Raymond Cream (January 31, 1914 – February 25, 1994), best known as Jersey Joe Walcott, was an American professional boxer who competed from 1930 to 1953. He held the NYSAC, NBA, and The Ring heavyweight titles from 1951 to 1952, and broke the record for the oldest man to win the title, at the age of 37. That record would eventually be broken in 1994 by 45-year-old George Foreman. Despite holding the world heavyweight title for a relatively short period of time, Walcott was regarded among the best heavyweights in the world during the 1940s and 1950s.
After retiring from boxing, Walcott did some acting, playing small parts in a few movies and television shows. He also refereed several boxing matches, but after the controversial ending to the second fight between Muhammad Ali and Sonny Liston, Walcott was not asked to referee again. From 1971 to 1974, Walcott held the elected position of Sheriff of Camden County, New Jersey, the first African-American to do so. From 1975 to 1984, he was the chairman of the New Jersey State Athletic Commission.
Early life
Walcott was born in Pennsauken Township, New Jersey. His father was an immigrant from St. Thomas, Danish West Indies. His mother was from Jordantown (Pennsauken Township), New Jersey. Walcott was only 15 years old when his father died. He quit school and worked in a soup factory to support his mother and 11 younger brothers and sisters. He also began training as a boxer. He took the name of his boxing idol, Joe Walcott, a welterweight champion from Barbados. He added "Jersey" to distinguish himself and show where he was from.
Boxing career
He debuted as a professional boxer on September 9, 1930, fighting Cowboy Wallace and winning by a knockout in round one. After five straight knockout wins, in 1933, he lost for the first time, beaten on points by Henry Wilson in Philadelphia.
He built a record of 45 wins, 11 losses and 1 draw before challenging for the world title for the first time. Walcott lost early bouts against world-class competition. He lost a pair of fights to Tiger Jack Fox and was knocked out by contender Abe Simon. But that would change in 1945 when Walcott beat top heavyweights such as Joe Baksi, Lee Q. Murray, Curtis Sheppard and Jimmy Bivins. He closed out 1946 with a pair of losses to former light heavyweight champ Joey Maxim and heavyweight contender Elmer Ray, but he promptly avenged those defeats in 1947.
Walcott vs Louis
On December 5, 1947, he fought Joe Louis, at thirty-three years of age breaking the record as the oldest man to fight for the world heavyweight title. Despite dropping Louis in round one and again in round four, he lost a 15-round split decision. Most ringside observers and boxing writers felt Walcott deserved the win; a debate ensued, and sportswriters carried the topic throughout America. The lone official to vote for Walcott, referee Ruby Goldstein, was cast as a hero. Letters and telegrams poured in to the Goldstein household, praising his judgment. There was talk of an investigation being assembled for rule revisions in judging. Louis went into seclusion for a couple of days, then quieted dissent with the following: "I know Ruby. He calls them as he sees them and that should be good enough for anybody." What controversy remained was the kind that builds the gate, and Jersey Joe was rightfully granted a rematch on June 25, 1948. Though dropped again, this time in the third, Louis prevailed by a knockout in round 11. The bout was the first closed-circuit telecast (CCTV) sports broadcast, distributed via theatre television.
Walcott vs Charles
On June 22 of 1949, Walcott got another chance to become world heavyweight champion when he and Ezzard Charles met for the title left vacant by Louis. However, Charles prevailed, winning by decision in 15 rounds. Walcott, disappointed but eager to see his dream of being a champion come true, went on, and in 1950 he won four of his five bouts, including a third-round knockout of future world light heavyweight champion Harold Johnson.
On March 7, 1951, he and Charles fought for a second time and again Charles won a 15-round decision to retain his world title. But on July 18, he joined a handful of boxers who claimed the world title in their fifth try, when he knocked out Charles in seven rounds in Pittsburgh to finally become world heavyweight champion at the age of 37. This made him the oldest man ever to win the world heavyweight crown a distinction he would hold until George Foreman won the title at age 45 in 1994.
Losing the Title
Walcott retained the title with a 15-round decision victory against arch-enemy Charles. On September 23, 1952, he put his title on the line for the second time. His opponent was the undefeated Rocky Marciano. In the first round, Walcott floored Marciano with a left hook; the first time in his career that Rocky had ever been down. After twelve intense rounds, Walcott stood well ahead on two of the three official scorecards, leaving Marciano needing a knockout to win. In the thirteenth round, with Marciano pressuring Walcott against the ropes, simultaneously each threw a right hand. Marciano landed first and flush on Walcott's jaw with what many consider the hardest punch thrown in boxing history. The title changed hands in an instant. Walcott collapsed with his left arm hanging over the ropes, slowly sinking to the canvas, where he was counted out. An immediate rematch was set for May 15, 1953 in Chicago. The second time around Walcott was again defeated by Marciano by a knockout, this time in the first round. It would be Walcott's last bout.
Life after boxing
Walcott did not go away from the celebrity scene after boxing. In 1956, he co-starred with Humphrey Bogart and Max Baer in the boxing drama The Harder They Fall. In 1963, he tried professional wrestling, losing to Lou Thesz. Thesz pinned Walcott in the fifth round, but has stated that Walcott knocked him (Thesz) down and most likely out in that fifth round. As he fell to the floor, he relied on instinct, grabbing Walcott's knees, taking him down with him and stretching him out for the pin.
In 1965, Walcott refereed the controversial world heavyweight championship rematch between Muhammad Ali and Sonny Liston. Walcott lost the count as Ali circled around a floored Liston and Walcott tried to get him back to a neutral corner. Walcott then looked outside of the ring (presumably to the ringside count keeper) as Ali and Liston went at each other, before Walcott instructed them to keep on fighting. Walcott then approached the fighters and abruptly stopped the fight. Walcott was never again appointed as a referee after this bout.
Political career
After retiring, Walcott worked for the Camden County corrections department. In 1968, he ran for Sheriff of Camden County, New Jersey, but lost in the Democratic primary to Spencer H. Smith Jr. That same year he was named director of community relations for Camden.
In 1971, he ran again for Camden County Sheriff. He defeated Republican William Strang in the general election. He was the first African-American to serve as Sheriff in Camden County.
He served as chairman of the New Jersey State Athletic Commission from 1975 until 1984, when he stepped down at the mandatory retirement age of 70. Walcott was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in Canastota, New York.
Honors
In 2013, Walcott was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame.
Partial filmography
The Harder They Fall (1956) - George
The Super Fight (1970) - Himself (voice)
Professional boxing record
See also
List of heavyweight boxing champions
References
External links
https://boxrec.com/media/index.php/NBA_World_Heavyweight_Title_Fights
https://boxrec.com/media/index.php/NYSAC_World_Heavyweight_Title_Fights
Jersey Joe Walcott - CBZ Profile
Boxing Hall of Fame
1914 births
1994 deaths
African-American boxers
African-American sheriffs
American people of United States Virgin Islands descent
Boxers from New Jersey
Heavyweight boxers
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Camden, New Jersey
People from Merchantville, New Jersey
People from Pennsauken Township, New Jersey
New Jersey Democrats
New Jersey sheriffs
American Protestants
World Boxing Association champions
World heavyweight boxing champions
American male boxers
20th-century American politicians
The Ring (magazine) champions
Stampede Wrestling alumni
American male professional wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from New Jersey
20th-century African-American politicians | [
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236839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabarzon | Calabarzon | Calabarzon (), formally known as the Southern Tagalog Mainland, is an administrative region in the Philippines, designated as Region IV-A. The region comprises five provinces: Batangas, Cavite, Laguna, Quezon, and Rizal; and one highly urbanized city, Lucena. The region is the most populous region in the Philippines according to the Philippine Statistics Authority, having over 14.4 million inhabitants in , and is also the country's second most densely populated after the National Capital Region.
The region is situated southeast of Metro Manila, and is bordered by the Manila Bay to the west, Lamon Bay and the Bicol Region to the east, the Tayabas Bay and Sibuyan Sea to the south, and Central Luzon to the north. It is home to places like Mount Makiling near Los Baños, Laguna and the Taal Volcano in Batangas.
Prior to its creation as a region, Calabarzon, together with the Mimaropa region, the province of Aurora and several parts of Metro Manila, formed the historical region known as Southern Tagalog, until they were separated in 2002 by virtue of Executive Order No. 103.
The history of the area known as Calabarzon dates back to early historic times. Local historians believe that three of the tenth century place-names mentioned in the Philippines' earliest known written document, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, pertain to regions or polities (Tagalog: "bayan") along the shores of Laguna Lake; and some Filipino-Chinese scholars believe the tenth century trading polity known as Ma-i may actually have been the predecessor of the present day town of Bay, Laguna. Since the Philippines' colonial period, the region has served as home to some of the most important Philippine historical figures, including the Philippines' national hero, José Rizal, who was born in Calamba.
Etymology
The name of the region is an acronym of its five component provinces: Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and Quezon.
History
On June 5, 1901, a convention was called on whether or not the province of Manila should annex the province of Morong, which was found to be unable to be self-sufficient as a province. Eventually, on June 11, Act No. 137 of the First Philippine Commission abolished Morong and created a new province, named after the Philippines' national hero, Jose Rizal, who, coincidentally, was a native of Laguna. The new province comprised 29 municipalities, 17 from Manila and 12 from Morong. In 1902, Macario Sakay, a veteran Katipunan member, established the Tagalog Republic in the mountains of Rizal. Ultimately, Sakay's Tagalog Republic ended in 1906 when he and his men were betrayed under the guise of holding a national assembly aimed at the self-determination of the Filipino people.
On September 7, 1946, the Third Philippine Republic enacted Republic Act No. 14, which renamed the province of Tayabas to Quezon, in honor of Manuel Quezon. Quezon was the second President of the Philippines and a native of Baler (now part of Aurora). In 1951, the northern part of Quezon became the sub-province Aurora, named after Quezon's wife.
On September 24, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos enacted Presidential Decree No. 1, which organized the provinces into 11 regions as part of Marcos' Integrated Reorganization Plan. The IRP created Region IV, known as the Southern Tagalog region, and was the largest region in the Philippines. At this time, Region IV consisted of Batangas, Cavite, Laguna, Marinduque, Oriental Mindoro, Occidental Mindoro, Quezon, Rizal, Romblon, and Palawan. In 1979, Aurora formally became a province independent of Quezon and was also included in Region IV.
On May 17, 2002, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo signed Executive Order No. 103, which reorganized the Southern Tagalog region. Due to its size, Region IV was split into two separate regions, Region IV-A (Calabarzon) and Region IV-B (Mimaropa). Aurora was transferred to Region III, Central Luzon. The next year, Arroyo signed Executive Order No. 246, which declared Calamba as the regional center of the region.
Republic Act No. 10879 renamed "Region IV-B" into the "MIMAROPA Region".
Geography
The region is the 12th largest region in the Philippines, with an area of km2. The region itself is relatively flat, but also consists of coastal areas and highlands. It is bordered by Manila Bay in the west, Metro Manila, Bulacan, and Aurora in the north, Lamon Bay and Bicol in the east, and the Isla Verde Passage in the south. Each province in the region is composed of different environments, ranging from low coastal areas to rugged mountainous ones.
Cavite is characterized by rolling hinterlands punctured by hills, with a shoreline bordering Manila Bay and a rugged portion bordering Batangas near Mount Pico de Loro. Tagaytay is located in Cavite, bordering Alfonso, Silang, Calamba, and Santa Rosa. Mount Sungay is the highest peak in the province and can be found in Tagaytay. There are nine islands in Cavite, most notable of which is the island of Corregidor. Historically a site of great strategic importance, Corregidor is found at the mouth of Manila Bay and is under the jurisdiction of Cavite City.
Laguna has rugged terrain, with narrow plains near the shores of Laguna de Bay and mountainous ranges further inland. Laguna de Bay is the largest lake in the Philippines, and is named after the town of Bay. Laguna is also home to Mount Makiling, a dormant volcano near Los Banos reputed for its mystical properties. There are also a lot of hot springs near the Makiling area, especially in San Pablo. Another famous landmark in Laguna are the Pagsanjan Falls, in Cavinti. The water from the Pagsanjan Falls comes from the Bumbungan River. Mount Banahaw borders Laguna and Quezon, and is similarly considered to be a holy mountain like Makiling.
The Batangas area is mostly elevated, with small low flat lands and scattered mountain areas. Batangas is also home to the Taal Volcano, a complex volcano and one of the 16 Decade Volcanoes. The Taal Volcano is situated within Taal Lake, making Taal a third-order island, and possibly one of the largest in the world. Other islands in Batangas are Verde Island, near the Isla Verde Passage, and Fortune Island in Nasugbu. Batangas borders Cavite via Mount Pico de Loro, known for the views that could be found in its summit. Mount Macolod and Mount Batulao can also be found in Batangas.
Rizal is situated north of Laguna de Bay, and consists of a mixture of valleys and mountain ranges, with flat low-lying areas in the western portion of the province near Manila. The eastern portion of Rizal has hills and ridges which form part of the Sierra Madre range. Talim Island, the largest island in Laguna de Bay, is under the jurisdiction of the province of Rizal.
Quezon province is mountainous, with few plains and swamps, and the tail-end of the Sierra Madre running through it. Quezon is a narrow province, with the Tayabas Isthmus comprising the southern part of the province and connecting it to the Bicol Peninsula. The southern part also consists of the Bondoc Peninsula, sandwiched between the Tayabas Bay and Ragay Gulf. The largest islands in Quezon are the Alabat and Polillo islands, which are both located in Lamon Bay, connecting to Calauag Bay of the town of Calauag. Laguna shares a border with Quezon via Mount Banahaw.
Administrative divisions
Calabarzon comprises five provinces, 1 highly urbanized city, 20 component cities and 4,019 barangays.
Cities
Calabarzon has 20 cities (20 component cities and the highly urbanized city of Lucena) in total, making it the region with the most cities amongst the Luzon regions. Antipolo is the most populous city in the region, as well as the 6th most populous city of the whole Philippines, while Bacoor and San Pedro is the most densely populated cities in the whole region. A large section of Calabarzon is considered part of the Greater Manila Area; while Batangas City is the center of the Batangas metropolitan area. The region has a gross regional product of ₱1.65 trillion (at current prices), which accounts for 17% of the national GDP.
On August 7, 2000, the municipality of Los Baños, Laguna was declared as a "Special Science and Nature City of the Philippines" through Presidential Proclamation No. 349 in recognition of its importance as a center for science and technology, being home to many prestigious educational, environmental and research institutions. This proclamation does not convert the municipality to a city or give it corporate powers that are accorded to other cities.
Notes
Demographics
Calabarzon has a population of 16.1 million people, the largest of all the regions in the Philippines. The population growth rate between 2000 and 2010 of 3.07% decreased from the growth rate between 1990 and 2000 of 3.91%, a trend which coincided with the rest of the nation. Life expectancy for men in Calabarzon is 68.9 years and 75.2 years for women. There are an estimated 356,000 Overseas Filipino Workers originally from Calabarzon.
A vast majority of people living in Calabarzon are Tagalogs. It is estimated that around 5.8 million Tagalogs live in Region IV-A. Taal, in particular, is considered the "Heartland of Tagalog Culture" and is currently the present "center" of Tagalog culture and people. Calabarzon is also home to a sizable number of people with Chinese and Spanish ancestry on account of Chinese immigration and Spanish colonialization, respectively. Because of this large majority of Tagalog natives, the majority of people living in Calabarzon also speak the Tagalog language. Filipino, being a version of Tagalog, is also predominant in the region. English is also used in Calabarzon. In Cavite, Chavacano, a Creole language was also commonly spoken however the usage is a steep decline and only spoken by a handful of elderly residents.
The large majority of the population of Calabarzon is a part of the Roman Catholic church which accounts for 80% of the national population. Other Christian denominations present in the region are the Iglesia ni Cristo, the Philippine Independent Church and Seventh-day Adventist Church. There are also Muslims living in Calabarzon although they are in the minority.
Economy
Calabarzon is the third largest contributor to the national GDP, accounting for 17% of the gross domestic product. The region boasts a 2.1% inflation rate, lower than the national average of 3%. The region has a 9.2% unemployment rate which is higher than the national average of 7%. Calabarzon, much like the rest of the country, is caught in the middle of being an industrial and an agricultural economy.
Due to the region's proximity to Metro Manila, a large amount of urbanization has taken place over the years. Cavite and Laguna in particular are sites of manufacturing and high-tech industries, with companies like Intel and Panasonic setting up plants in the region. Santa Rosa, Laguna, is home to a host of semi-conductor and automotive companies such as Amkor and Toyota, while General Trias is home to Cavite's largest economic development zone, the PEC Industrial Park.
The region still has a large agricultural base. As of 2002, the region had 282,700 farms, covering , or 36.3% of the region's total land area. Cavite alone has almost of agricultural land. Laguna is home to the International Rice Research Institute, which can be found within the University of the Philippines Los Baños, whose main goal is to find sustainable ways to help rice farmers. Batangas, meanwhile, is home to a large pineapple and coconut industry, which is used to make Barong Tagalogs and native liqueurs such as lambanog and tuba in Tayabas City. Quezon is the country's leader in coconut products such as coconut oil and copra. Rizal is known for its piggeries. Region IV-A's agricultural base, however, is slowly decreasing. Due to their proximity to large bodies of water, Laguna and Batangas also have sizable fishing industries. Taal Lake is a large source of fresh water fishes for the country.
Tourism
Due to the region's history and natural resources, tourism plays a major role in the regional economy. Cavite and Laguna are homes to various historical sites, such as the Rizal Shrine in Calamba City, tallest Jose Rizal Statue in the World, located in Calamba City and the Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit, Cavite. San Pablo, Laguna is famous for its seven lakes, Pagsanjan for its majestic and world-famous waterfalls and Taal Lake in Batangas is a famous tourist destination. Tayabas City is known as the City of Festivals, Rest and Recreation Destination of Quezon and the Home of the Finest Lambanog.
The Minor Basilica of Saint Michael Archangel is the religious testaments of the Tayabenses and declared as National Cultural Treasures of the Philippines, the Casa Comunidad de Tayabas, the former office of the then President Manuel Luis Quezon and the place where Hermano Pule was sentenced to death, and the Malagonlong Bridge and the 9 other century-old Spanish arch type and National Cultural Treasure bridges. Local festivals include the Taytsinoy Festival, Mayohan Festival, Pa'yas Festival Hagisan Festival, Baliskog Festival, Angel Festival, Aguyod Festival and the Turumba Festival every Holy Week.
Lucban is most famous for its annual Pahiyas Festival or locally known as Pahiyas, an event not only visited by local tourists but also by international tourists as well. Devotees and pilgrims also visit Lucban's Kamay ni Hesus Shrine, a 50-foot statue of the Ascending Christ on top of a hill. Batangas is also famous for its scenic beaches in Nasugbu and Calatagan. Antipolo is another major tourist spot, found in Rizal. The region is also home to a multitude of baroque churches.
Infrastructure
Roads and Bridges
The Laguna Lake Highway, a joint project of DPWH NCR and Region IV-A, is the widening/rehabilitation at Taytay, Rizal segment, a 3.34-kilometer road.
Currently, there are two more bridges being built - Barkadahan Bridge and Napindan Bridge - which will provide additional 2 lanes crossing over Manggahan Floodway and Pasig River, respectively.
References
External links
Regions of the Philippines
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