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236840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardour%20%28software%29 | Ardour (software) | Ardour is a hard disk recorder and digital audio workstation application that runs on Linux, macOS, FreeBSD and Microsoft Windows. Its primary author is Paul Davis, who was also responsible for the JACK Audio Connection Kit. It is intended as a digital audio workstation suitable for professional use.
It is free software, released under the terms of the GPL-2.0-or-later.
Features
Recording
Ardour's recording abilities are limited by only the hardware it is run on; there are no built-in limits in its capabilities. When recording on top of existing media, it can perform latency compensation, positioning recorded material where it was intended to be when recording it. Monitoring options include self-monitoring, external hardware support (dependent on sound card support), and specialized hardware support (e.g. JACK Audio Connection Kit). Self-monitoring makes it possible to apply plug-in effects while recording. Using the JACK audio, Ardour can record concurrently from both the audio card and compatible software.
Mixing
Ardour supports an arbitrary number of tracks and buses through an "anything to anywhere" routing system. All gain, panning and plug-in parameters can be automated. All sample data is mixed and maintained internally in 32-bit floating point format.
Editing
Ardour supports dragging, trimming, splitting and time-stretching recorded regions with sample-level resolution, and supports layer regions. It includes a crossfade editor and beat detection, unlimited undo/redo, and a "snapshot" feature for saving the current state of a session to a file.
Mastering
Ardour can be used as an audio mastering environment. Its integration with the JACK Audio Connection Kit makes it possible to use mastering tools such as JAMin. Its mixer's output can be sent to third-party audio processing software for processing and/or recording. It can also export TOC and CUE files for creating audio CDs.
Compatibility
Ardour attempts to adhere to industry standards, such as SMPTE/MTC, Broadcast Wave Format, MIDI Machine Control and XML.
It has been tested on Linux, x86-64, x86, PowerPC and ARM (for at least version 3) architectures; Solaris, macOS on Intel and PowerPC, Windows on Intel architectures and FreeBSD. It takes advantage of all of these systems' multiprocessor, multicore SMP and real-time features.
Pre-built binaries of Ardour 6.x are available for Linux, macOS and Windows.
Plug-ins
Ardour relies on plug-ins for many features, from audio effects processing to dynamic control. It supports the following plugin format and platform combinations: LV2 on Linux, FreeBSD, macOS and Windows; AudioUnits on macOS; Steinberg's VST2 on Linux, macOS and Windows; LADSPA on Linux, FreeBSD, macOS and Windows. It is theoretically possible to use plugins created for Windows in the VST2 format on Linux with the help of Wine, but the project team does not recommend it.
Since version 6.5, it also supports VST3 plugins on all supported platforms.
Import and export
Ardour can export whole sessions or parts of sessions, and import audio clips into sessions from more than 30 different audio file formats, using its built-in audio file database manager, or directly from an ordinary file browser.
Supporting companies and future
The SAE Institute provided corporate support for Ardour until February 2009, an initiative for providing a more integrated experience on Mac OS X and the development of a simpler version for students and others new to audio processing.
Solid State Logic employed Paul Davis to work full-time on Ardour during the development of version 2, until the end of 2006.
Harrison Audio Consoles has supported the Ardour project since early 2005. Harrison's "Mixbus" DAW and their destructive film dubber, the Xdubber, are based on Ardour. Mixbus extends Ardour to add Harrison's own DSP and a more console-like workflow. The Xdubber is a customizable platform for enterprise-class digital audio workstation (DAW) users.
Waves Audio privately supported Ardour development in 2009. It also developed the Waves Track Live software in collaboration with Ardour developers
, with most of the source code changes becoming part of Ardour's codebase.
See also
JACK Audio Connection Kit, a real-time low latency audio server.
Comparison of digital audio editors
Comparison of free software for audio
Linux audio software
List of free and open source digital audio workstation software
List of music software
References
Articles
External links
Official website
Manual
2005 software
Audio editing software that uses GTK
Audio software that uses GTK
Audio software with JACK support
Cross-platform free software
Digital audio editors for Linux
Digital audio workstation software
Free audio editors
Free music software
Free software programmed in C++
MacOS audio editors
Software that uses GStreamer | [
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|
236841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability-generating%20function | Probability-generating function | In probability theory, the probability generating function of a discrete random variable is a power series representation (the generating function) of the probability mass function of the random variable. Probability generating functions are often employed for their succinct description of the sequence of probabilities Pr(X = i) in the probability mass function for a random variable X, and to make available the well-developed theory of power series with non-negative coefficients.
Definition
Univariate case
If X is a discrete random variable taking values in the non-negative integers {0,1, ...}, then the probability generating function of X is defined as
where p is the probability mass function of X. Note that the subscripted notations GX and pX are often used to emphasize that these pertain to a particular random variable X, and to its distribution. The power series converges absolutely at least for all complex numbers z with |z| ≤ 1; in many examples the radius of convergence is larger.
Multivariate case
If is a discrete random variable taking values in the d-dimensional non-negative integer lattice {0,1, ...}d, then the probability generating function of X is defined as
where p is the probability mass function of X. The power series converges absolutely at least for all complex vectors with .
Properties
Power series
Probability generating functions obey all the rules of power series with non-negative coefficients. In particular, G(1−) = 1, where G(1−) = limz→1G(z) from below, since the probabilities must sum to one. So the radius of convergence of any probability generating function must be at least 1, by Abel's theorem for power series with non-negative coefficients.
Probabilities and expectations
The following properties allow the derivation of various basic quantities related to X:
The probability mass function of X is recovered by taking derivatives of G,
It follows from Property 1 that if random variables X and Y have probability-generating functions that are equal, , then . That is, if X and Y have identical probability-generating functions, then they have identical distributions.
The normalization of the probability density function can be expressed in terms of the generating function by
The expectation of is given by
More generally, the kth factorial moment, of X is given by
So the variance of X is given by
Finally, the kth raw moment of X is given by
where X is a random variable, is the probability generating function (of X) and is the moment-generating function (of X) .
Functions of independent random variables
Probability generating functions are particularly useful for dealing with functions of independent random variables. For example:
If X1, X2, ..., XN is a sequence of independent (and not necessarily identically distributed) random variables, and
where the ai are constants, then the probability generating function is given by
For example, if
then the probability generating function, GSN(z), is given by
It also follows that the probability generating function of the difference of two independent random variables S = X1 − X2 is
Suppose that N is also an independent, discrete random variable taking values on the non-negative integers, with probability generating function GN. If the X1, X2, ..., XN are independent and identically distributed with common probability generating function GX, then
This can be seen, using the law of total expectation, as follows:
This last fact is useful in the study of Galton–Watson processes and compound Poisson processes.
Suppose again that N is also an independent, discrete random variable taking values on the non-negative integers, with probability generating function GN and probability density . If the X1, X2, ..., XN are independent, but not identically distributed random variables, where denotes the probability generating function of , then
For identically distributed Xi this simplifies to the identity stated before. The general case is sometimes useful to obtain a decomposition of SN by means of generating functions.
Examples
The probability generating function of an almost surely constant random variable, i.e. one with Pr(X = c) = 1, is
The probability generating function of a binomial random variable, the number of successes in n trials, with probability p of success in each trial, is
Note that this is the n-fold product of the probability generating function of a Bernoulli random variable with parameter p.
So the probability generating function of a fair coin, is
The probability generating function of a negative binomial random variable on {0,1,2 ...}, the number of failures until the rth success with probability of success in each trial p, is
(Convergence for ).
Note that this is the r-fold product of the probability generating function of a geometric random variable with parameter 1 − p on {0,1,2,...}.
The probability generating function of a Poisson random variable with rate parameter λ is
Related concepts
The probability generating function is an example of a generating function of a sequence: see also formal power series. It is equivalent to, and sometimes called, the z-transform of the probability mass function.
Other generating functions of random variables include the moment-generating function, the characteristic function and the cumulant generating function. The probability generating function is also equivalent to the factorial moment generating function, which as can also be considered for continuous and other random variables.
Notes
References
Johnson, N.L.; Kotz, S.; Kemp, A.W. (1993) Univariate Discrete distributions (2nd edition). Wiley. (Section 1.B9)
Functions related to probability distributions
Generating functions | [
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236842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine%20%28John%20Lennon%20album%29 | Imagine (John Lennon album) | Imagine is the second studio album by English musician John Lennon, released on 9 September 1971 by Apple Records. Co-produced by Lennon, his wife Yoko Ono and Phil Spector, the album's lush sound contrasts the basic, small-group arrangements of his first album, John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band (1970), while the opening title track is widely considered to be his signature song.
Lennon recorded the album from early to mid-1971 at Ascot Sound Studios, Abbey Road Studios and the Record Plant in New York City, with supporting musicians that included his ex-Beatles bandmate George Harrison, keyboardist Nicky Hopkins, bassist Klaus Voormann and drummers Alan White and Jim Keltner. Its lyrics reflect peace, love, politics, Lennon's experience with primal scream therapy, and, following a period of high personal tensions, an attack on his former writing partner Paul McCartney in "How Do You Sleep?" Extensive footage from the sessions was recorded for a scrapped documentary; parts were released on the documentary film Imagine: John Lennon (1988). The documentary John & Yoko: Above Us Only Sky, based on that footage, was released in 2018.
Imagine was a critical and commercial success, peaking at number one on both the UK Albums Chart and US Billboard 200. Along with John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band, it is considered one of Lennon's finest solo albums. In 2012, the album was voted 80th on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. The album has been reissued multiple times, including in 2018 as The Ultimate Collection, a six-disc box set containing previously unreleased demos, rare studio outtakes, "evolution documentaries" for each track, and isolated track elements along with surround mixes.
Background
While in New York, former Beatles John Lennon and George Harrison had a short jam session, during which Lennon asked Harrison to perform on Lennon's next album. Recording was scheduled to begin in a week's time at Lennon's Ascot Sound Studios, at his Tittenhurst Park residence. Harrison agreed, and invited his friend, bassist Klaus Voormann.
Recording and structure
Recording for the album started on 24 May at Ascot Sound Studios. The first songs recorded were "It's So Hard" and "I Don't Want to Be a Soldier" in February 1971 at Ascot Sound Studios, during sessions for Lennon's single "Power to the People". A cover of the Olympics' 1958 song "Well (Baby Please Don't Go)", later released on John Lennon Anthology, was recorded on 16 February. Lennon chose to remake "I Don't Want to Be a Soldier" on 24 May 1971, the opening day of the main album sessions.
Lennon enlisted help from Nicky Hopkins, members of the Apple band Badfinger, Alan White and Jim Keltner. Harrison contributed lead guitar parts on various songs. Lennon showed the musicians a song that he had recently written, "Imagine". Also recorded was a demo of the future Lennon track "Aisumasen (I'm Sorry)", the unreleased song "San Francisco Bay Blues", and a demo of "I'm the Greatest".
Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono flew to New York on 3 July to continue sessions for the album the next day, at the Record Plant. Many instrumental parts were re-recorded there, and strings and saxophone by King Curtis were also added. The tracks that were finished at Record Plant were "It's So Hard", "I Don't Want to Be a Soldier" and "How Do You Sleep?" As on Lennon's last album, Phil Spector joined him and Ono as co-producer on Imagine. The string arrangements for the album were written by Torrie Zito.
Extensive footage of the sessions, showing the evolution of some of the songs, was originally filmed and titled Working Class Hero before being shelved. Footage of "Gimme Some Truth" aired as part of the BBC TV show The Old Grey Whistle Test on 12 December 1972. Portions were released as part of the documentary film Imagine: John Lennon.
Music and lyrics
Imagine was written and recorded during a period of particularly bad feeling between Lennon and former bandmate Paul McCartney, following the Beatles' break-up the year before and McCartney winning his case in the High Court to have their legal partnership dissolved. Harrison guested on half of Imagines ten tracks, including "How Do You Sleep?" – a song written in retaliation against McCartney's alleged personal attacks on Lennon and Ono, on his recent Ram album. Lennon said in 1980: "I used my resentment against Paul ... to create a song ... not a terrible vicious horrible vendetta ... I used my resentment and withdrawing from Paul and The Beatles, and the relationship with Paul, to write 'How Do You Sleep?'. I don't really go 'round with those thoughts in my head all the time ..."
The track "Imagine" became Lennon's signature song and was written as a plea for world peace. Years later he acknowledged Ono's role in the song's creation and stated his regret that he had not credited her as a co-writer. "Jealous Guy" has also had enduring popularity; it was originally composed as "Child of Nature" during the songwriting sessions in India in 1968 that led to the Beatles' double album The Beatles. "Oh My Love" and the song "How?" were influenced by his experience with primal therapy.
Lennon also indulged his love of rock and roll with "Crippled Inside" and "It's So Hard". "Gimme Some Truth", first heard during the Let It Be sessions in early 1969, appears on the album with a new bridge. The politically themed "I Don't Want to Be a Soldier" closes the first half of Imagine in a cacophonous manner. The last song on the album was "Oh Yoko!"; EMI pushed for this track to be issued as a single, but Lennon thought it was too "pop".
Packaging
The photographs on the front and back covers were taken by Ono, using a Polaroid camera. It was previously believed that the front cover photo was taken by Andy Warhol. The back cover includes a quote ("Imagine the clouds dripping. Dig a hole in your garden to put them in.") from Ono's book Grapefruit, whose UK re-release the Lennons were promoting at the time.
Release
Apple Records issued Imagine on 9 September 1971 in the United States and a month later, on 8 October, in the UK. Early editions of the LP record included a postcard featuring a photo of Lennon holding a pig, in mockery of McCartney's similar pose with a sheep on the cover of Ram.
Even though Spector championed a "Back to Mono" aesthetic starting in the 1980s, monophonic sound was out of style in the 1970s. Instead, the album was released in stereo and in the then new four channel quadraphonic technology. In the US, the four channel mix was only available on a quad 8-track tape with some copies marketed as "Quadrasonic". In the UK and Australia, the quad mix was issued on LP record using Sony's SQ matrix system along with a quad 8-track version in the UK. In Japan, the quad mix was also issued on LP using the Sansui QS matrix system also known as Regular Matrix; in addition, they released a discrete four channel reel-to-reel tape of the album.
"Imagine", backed with "It's So Hard", was released as a single in the US on 11 October 1971. The album went to number one worldwide and became an enduring seller, with the title track reaching number three in the US. "Imagine" was not issued as a single in the UK until four years later, to coincide with the release of Lennon's Shaved Fish singles collection.
Promotional film
In 1972, Lennon and Ono released a 70-minute film to accompany the Imagine album which featured footage of them at their Berkshire property at Tittenhurst Park and in New York City. It included many of the tracks from the album and some additional material from Ono's 1971 album Fly. Several celebrities appeared in the film, including Andy Warhol, Fred Astaire, Jack Palance, Dick Cavett and George Harrison. Derided by critics as "the most expensive home movie of all time", it premiered to an American audience, on TV on 23 December 1972.
Critical reception
Reviewing the album for Rolling Stone in 1971, Ben Gerson said it "contains a substantial portion of good music" but considered Lennon's previous LP to be superior. He also warned of the possibility that Lennon's "posturings will soon seem not merely dull but irrelevant". Alan Smith of the NME lauded the album as "superb", "beautiful" and "one step away from the chill of his recent total self-revelation, and yet a giant leap towards commerciality without compromise". He said it was Lennon "showing McCartney how to tighten up the flab in his music, and its worth", and concluded: "Lennon rides high!" In Melody Maker, Roy Hollingworth named Imagine the best album of the year and Lennon's finest work up to that point.
Imagine was voted the fifth best record of 1971 in The Village Voices Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics nationwide. It was voted "Album of the Year" in polls conducted by Radio Luxembourg and Record World.
Robert Christgau, who ranked it fifth in his Pazz & Jop ballot, appraised the album as "primal goes pop – personal and useful" in the 1981 book Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies.
Reviewing for Mojo in 2000, Jon Savage said the preponderance of mid-tempo tracks partly explained the album's popularity among Britrock bands, yet this quality made some of the songs drag. He admired Harrison's slide guitar playing in the "sinuous and spacy" soundscape, but found that the album "contains both the best and the worst of [Lennon] – the idealist and the ranter, the righteous and the vindictive anger – and as such remains more patchy than its iconic status might allow". Writing for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented on the album's departure from his debut, but found the lyrics on Imagine to be "only marginally less confessional" than his debut. He concluded: "If Imagine doesn't have the thematic sweep of Plastic Ono Band, it is nevertheless a remarkable collection of songs that Lennon would never be able to better again." In 2012, Imagine ranked at number 80 on Rolling Stones list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It dropped to number 223 in the 2020 edition of the list.
Legacy
Lennon later expressed his displeasure with the more commercial sound of the album, saying that the title track was "an anti-religious, anti-nationalistic, anti-conventional, anti-capitalistic song, but because it's sugar-coated, it's accepted". In a November 1971 interview for Melody Maker, McCartney spoke positively of Imagine, considering it to be less political than Lennon's previous solo albums. In a subsequent edition of the same publication, Lennon rebuked his former bandmate, saying, "So you think 'Imagine' ain't political? It's 'Working Class Hero' with sugar on it for conservatives like yourself!!" and likened McCartney's politics to those of the staunchly traditional Mary Whitehouse.
After Lennon's death, Imagine, along with seven other Lennon albums, was reissued by EMI as part of a box set, which was released in the UK on 15 June 1981. Like its title track, Lennon's Imagine became a posthumous hit worldwide after his death in December 1980. The album re-entered the charts during 1981, peaking at number three in Norway, five in the United Kingdom, 34 in Sweden, and 63 in the United States. In 2000, Yoko Ono supervised the remixing of Imagine for its remastered reissue. In February 2000, the remastered and remixed edition reached number 11 on the Japanese chart. It was reissued in 2003 by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab on gold CD and on 180 gram half-speed mastered LP. The Record Plant piano on which Lennon re-recorded some of the album's keyboard parts was sold at auction in 2007.
In October 2010, another remastered version of the album was released, and the album re-entered the Billboard 200 at number 88. On 23 November 2010, Imagine became available on the Rock Band 3 video game, exploiting the music game's use of a keyboard. On Record Store Day 2011, in honour of the album's 40th anniversary, it was re-released on 180-gram LP with an additional 12" white LP record entitled Imagine Sessions, featuring tracks taken from the John Lennon Anthology. In January 2014, the album was released by Universal Music on the High Fidelity Pure Audio Blu-ray format, featuring PCM, DTS HD and Dolby Tru HD audio tracks, based on the 2010 remaster. In 2018, the album was remixed yet again and titled Imagine: The Ultimate Collection. A six-disc box set, spread over four CDs and two Blu-ray discs, features previously unheard demos, rare studio outtakes, and isolated track elements along with a 5.1 surround mix and the original four channel quadraphonic mix.
Track listing
All songs written by John Lennon, except "Imagine" and "Oh My Love", both co-written with Yoko Ono, and "Baby Please Don't Go" written by Walter Ward.
Original releaseSide one"Imagine" – 3:01
"Crippled Inside" – 3:47
"Jealous Guy" – 4:14
"It's So Hard" – 2:25
"I Don't Want To Be A Soldier" – 6:05Side two'
"Gimme Some Truth" – 3:16
"Oh My Love" – 2:50
"How Do You Sleep?" – 5:36
"How?" – 3:43
"Oh Yoko!" – 4:20
Bonus EP on the 40th Anniversary LP edition
Side one
"Baby Please Don't Go" – 4:03
"Imagine" – 3:24
"How Do You Sleep?" – 5:23
Side two
"Jealous Guy" – 4:12
"Oh My Love" – 2:56
"I Don't Want to Be a Soldier Mama" – 5:23
Personnel
Personnel per John Blaney. Track numbering refers to CD and digital releases of the album.
Musicians
John Lennon – vocals (all), piano (1, 7, 9), electric guitar (2, 4–6, 8, 10), acoustic guitar (3), whistling (3), harmonica (10)
George Harrison – dobro (2), slide guitar (5, 6, 8), electric guitar (7)
Nicky Hopkins – tack piano (2), piano (3, 5, 6, 9, 10), electric piano (7, 8)
Klaus Voormann – bass guitar (all but 2), double bass (2)
Alan White – drums (1, 2, 6–10), vibraphone (3, 5), Tibetan cymbals (7)
Jim Keltner – drums (3, 5)
Jim Gordon – drums (4)
King Curtis – saxophone (4, 5)
John Barham – harmonium (3), vibraphone (9)
Joey Molland, Tom Evans – acoustic guitar (3, 5) (credited as "Joey and Tommy Badfinger")
John Tout – piano (2, 8) (incorrectly credited as playing "acoustic guitar")
Ted Turner – acoustic guitar (2, 8)
Rod Linton – acoustic guitar (2, 6, 8, 10)
Andy Davis – acoustic guitar (6, 8–10)
Mike Pinder – tambourine (3, 5)
Steve Brendell – double bass (2), maracas (5)
Phil Spector – harmony vocal (10)
The Flux Fiddlers (members of the New York Philharmonic) – orchestral strings (1, 3–5, 8, 9)
Production
John Lennon – producer, cover artwork
Yoko Ono – producer, cover photography
Phil Spector – producer
Jack Douglas– engineer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
Footnotes
Citations
External links
1971 albums
Albums produced by John Lennon
Albums produced by Phil Spector
Albums produced by Yoko Ono
Apple Records albums
John Lennon albums
Albums recorded in a home studio | [
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236843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batangas | Batangas | Batangas, officially the Province of Batangas ( ) is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region on Luzon. Its capital is the city of Batangas, and is bordered by the provinces of Cavite and Laguna to the north, and Quezon to the east. Across the Verde Island Passages to the south is the island of Mindoro and to the west lies the South China Sea. Poetically, Batangas is often referred to by its ancient name Kumintáng.
Batangas is one of the most popular tourist destinations near Metro Manila. It is home to the well-known Taal Volcano, one of the Decade Volcanoes, and Taal Heritage town, a small town that has ancestral houses and structures dating back to the 19th century. The province also has numerous beaches and diving spots including Anilao in Mabini, Sombrero Island in Tingloy, Ligpo Island and Sampaguita Beach in Bauan, Matabungkay in Lian, Punta Fuego in Nasugbu, Calatagan and Laiya in San Juan. All of the marine waters of the province are part of the Verde Island Passage, the center of the center of world's marine biodiversity.
Batangas City has the second largest international seaport in the Philippines after Metro Manila. The identification of the city as an industrial growth center in the region and being the focal point of the Calabarzon program is seen in the increasing number of business establishments in the city's Central Business District (CBD) as well as numerous industries operating in the province's industrial parks. Lipa city has passed Batangas city as the most populous city in the province.
Etymology
The first recorded name of the province was Kumintáng, whose political center was the present-day municipality (town) of Taal, prior moving to municipality of Balayan. Balayan was considered the most progressive town of the region. An eruption of Taal Volcano destroyed a significant portion of the town, causing residents to transfer to Bonbon (now Taal), the name eventually encompassing the bounds of the modern province.
The modern name of "Batangas" is derived from Spanish batangas, meaning "outrigger [booms]".
History
Archaic epoch
Long before the arrival of the Spaniards in the Philippines, large centers of population already thrived in Batangas. Native settlements lined the Pansipit River, a major waterway. Batangas was a major site for the Maritime Jade Road, one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world, operating for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. The province had been trading with the Chinese since Yuan Dynasty until the first phase of Ming Dynasty in the 13th and 15th century. Inhabitants of the province were also trading with Japan and India. The Philippines ancestors were Buddhists and Hindus, but far from India and intermixed with animistic beliefs.
Archaeological findings show that before the settlement of the Spaniards in the country, the Tagalogs, ', had attained a semblance of high civilization. This was shown by certain jewelry, made from a chambered nautilus' shell, where tiny holes were created by a drill-like tool.
The Ancient Batangueños were influenced by India as shown in the origin of most languages from Sanskrit and certain ancient potteries. A Buddhist image was reproduced in mould on a clay medallion in bas-relief from the municipality of Calatagan. According to experts, the image in the pot strongly resembles the iconographic portrayal of Buddha in Siam, India, and Nepal. The pot shows Buddha Amithaba in the tribhanga pose inside an oval nimbus. Scholars also noted that there is a strong Mahayanic orientation in the image, since the Boddhisattva Avalokitesvara was also depicted.
One of the major archaeological finds was in January 1941, where two crude stone figures were found in Palapat in the municipality of Calatagan. They were later donated to the National Museum. One of them was destroyed during World War II.
Eighteen years later, a grave was excavated in nearby Punta Buaya. Pieces of brain coral were carved behind the heads of the 12 remains that were found. The site was named Likha (meaning "Create"). The remains were accompanied by furniture that could be traced as early as the 14th century. Potteries, as well as bracelets, stoneware, and metal objects were also found in the area, suggesting that the people who lived there had extensive contact with people from as far as China.
The presence of dining utensils such as plates or "chalices" found with the remains also suggest that prehistoric Batangueños believed in the idea of life-after-death. Thus, the Batangueños, like their neighbors in other parts of Asia, have similar customs of burying furniture with the dead.
Like the nearby tribes, the Batangan or the early Batangueños were a non-aggressive people. Partly because most of the tribes in their immediate environment were related to them by blood. Some weapons Batangans used included the bakyang (bows and arrows), the bangkaw (spears), and the suwan (bolo).
Being highly superstitious, the use of agimat (amulet or talisman) showed that these people believed in the presence of higher beings and other things unseen. The natives believed that forces of nature were a manifestation these higher beings.
The term 'Tagalog' may have been derived from the word taga-ilog or "river dwellers" referring to the Pasig River located further up north of the region. However, Wang Teh-Ming in his writings on Sino-Filipino relations points out that Batangas was the real center of the Tagalog tribe, which he then identified as Ma-yi or Ma-i. According to the Chinese Imperial Annals, Ma-yi had its center in the province and extends to as far as Cavite, Laguna, Rizal, Quezon, Bataan, Bulacan, Mindoro, Marinduque, Nueva Ecija, some parts of Zambales, and Tarlac. However, many historians interchangeably use the term Tagalog and Batangueño.
Henry Otley Beyer, an American archaeologist, also showed in his studies that the early Batangueños had a special affinity with the precious stone known as the jade. He named the Late Paleolithic Period of the Philippines as the Batangas Period in recognition of the multitude of jade found in the excavated caves in the province. Beyer identified that the jade-cult reached the province as early as 800 B.C. and lasted until 200 B.C.
Spanish colonization
In 1570, Spanish generals Martin de Goiti and Juan de Salcedo explored the coast of Batangas on their way to Manila and came upon a Malay settlement at the mouth of Pansipit River. In 1572, the town of Taal was founded and its convent and stone church were constructed later.
Officially, the Province of Bonbon was founded by Spain in 1578, through Fr. Estaban Ortiz and Fr. Juan de Porras. It was named after the name that was given to it by the Muslim natives who inhabited the area.
In 1581, the Spanish government abolished Bonbon Province and created a new province which came to be known as Balayan Province. The new province was composed of the present provinces of Batangas, Mindoro, Marinduque, southeast Laguna, and Camarines. After the devastating eruption of Taal Volcano in 1754, the old town of Taal, present day San Nicolas, was buried. The capital was eventually transferred to Batangas (now a city) for fear of further eruptions where it has remained to date.
In the same years that de Goiti and Salcedo visited the province, the Franciscan missionaries came to Taal, which later became the first Spanish settlement in Batangas and one of the earliest in the Philippines. In 1572, the Augustinians founded Taal in the place of Wawa, now San Nicolas, and from there began preaching in Balayan and in all the big settlements around the lake of Bombon (Taal). The Augustinians, who were the first missionaries in the diocese, remained until the revolution against Spain. Among the first missionaries were eminent men which included Alfonso de Albuquerque, Diego Espinas, Juan de Montojo, and others.
During the first ten years, the whole region around the Lake of Bombon was completely Christianized. It was done through the preaching of men who had learned the first rudiments of the language of the people. At the same time, they started writing manuals of devotion in Tagalog, such as novenas, and had written the first Tagalog grammar that served other missionaries who came.
Foundation of important parishes followed throughout the years: 1572, the Taal Parish was founded by the Augustinians; 1581, the Batangas Parish under Fray Diego Mexica; 1596, Bauan Parish administered by the Augustinian missionaries; 1605, Lipa Parish under the Augustinian administration; 1774, Balayan Parish was founded; 1852, Nasugbu Parish; and 1868, Lemery Parish.
The town of Nasugbu became an important centre of trade during the Spanish occupation of the country. It was the site of the first recorded battle between two European Forces in Asia in Fortune Island, Nasugbu, Batangas. In the late part of the 20th century, the inhabitants of Fortune Island discovered a sunken galleon that contained materials sold in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade.
Batangas was also among the first of the eight Philippine provinces to revolt against Spain and one of the provinces placed under Martial Law by Spanish Governor-General Ramon Blanco on August 30, 1896. This event was given distinction when Marcela Agoncillo, also a native of the province, made the Philippine Flag, which bears a sun with eight rays to represent these eight provinces.
American period
When the Americans forbade the Philippine flag from being flown anywhere in the country, Batangas was one of the places where the revolutionaries chose to propagate their propaganda. Many, especially the revolutionary artists, chose Batangas as the place to perform their plays. In an incident recorded by Amelia Bonifacio in her diary, the performance of Tanikalang Ginto in the province led not only to the arrest of the company but all of the audience. Later, the play was banned from being shown anywhere in the country.
General Miguel Malvar is recognized as the last Filipino general to surrender to the United States in the Philippine–American War.
Japanese occupation
After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Japanese sent their planes to attack the Philippines, launching major air raids throughout the country. The bombings resulted in the destruction of the Batangas Airport located in Batangas City, of which nothing remains today. Batangas was also a scene of heavy fighting between the Philippine Army Air Corps and the Japanese A6M Zero Fighter Planes. The most notable air combat battle took place at height of 3,700 metres (12,000 ft) on December 12, 1941, when 6 Filipino fighters led by Capt. Jesús Villamor engaged the numerically superior enemy of 54 Japanese bombers and fighter escorts which raided the Batangas Airfield. Capt. Jesús Villamor won the battle, suffering only one casualty, Lt. César Basa who was able to bail out as his plane was shot down, only to be strafed by the Zeroes.
When Gen. Douglas MacArthur ordered the overall retreat of the American-Filipino Forces to Bataan in 1942, the province was ultimately abandoned and later came under direct Japanese occupation. During this time, the Imperial Japanese Army committed many crimes against civilians including the massacre of 328 people in Bauan, 320 in Taal, 300 in Cuenca, 107 in San Jose, and 39 in Lucero.
Liberation
As part of the Philippines Campaign (1944–45), the province's liberation began on January 31, 1945, when elements of the 11th Airborne Division, part of the U.S. Eighth Army went ashore at Nasugbu, Batangas. However, Batangas was not the main objective of the invasion force. Instead, most of its units headed north to capture Manila, and by March 3, the capital was completely secured.
Liberation of Batangas proper by American forces began in March 1945 by the 11th Airborne Division and the 158th Regimental Combat Team (RCT). The 158th, stationed in Nasugbu, was tasked to secure the shores and nearby towns of Balayan and Batangas. The 11th Airborne, from the Tagaytay Ridge, would attack the Japanese defenses north of Taal Lake and open the Lipa corridor. By March 11 the 158th RCT had reached Batangas City. In order to secure the two bays, the 158th needed to capture the entire Calumpang Peninsula near the town of Mabini, which was still held by some elements of the Japanese 2nd Surface Raiding Base Force. Fighting continued until March 16 when the whole peninsula was finally liberated.
Afterwards, the 158th RCT turned northward to meet the Japanese Fuji Force defenses at Mt. Maculot in Cuenca on March 19. The 158th disengaged from the Japanese on March 23 and were relieved by the 11th Airborne's 187th Glider Infantry Regiment. Another 11th Airborne Division task force, the 188th Infantry was ordered to dispatch troops around Batangas City and its remaining frontiers. Meanwhile, the 11th Airborne's 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment had begun the opening of the Lipa corridor at Santo Tomas and Tanauan before being relieved by the 1st Cavalry Division and moving via Tagaytay to Bauan and San Jose.
The last major offensive for the capture of the Lipa Corridor began when 188th Infantry Task Force from Batangas City left for Lipa on March 24. The same that day, the 187th Infantry Task Force launched an attack against the remaining Japanese positions in Mt. Maculot. Heavy fighting continued until April 17. The final capture of Mt. Maculot came by April 21.
The 188th Infantry met stiff resistance from Fuji Force's 86th Airfield Battalion on March 26. To the north, the 1st Cavalry attacked the remaining Japanese defenses in the towns of Santo Tomas and Tanauan and succeeded in linking up with the advancing 187th and 188th task forces from the south. Lipa was captured by the 1st Cavalry on March 29. The final defeat of the Fuji Force came at Mt. Malepunyo at the hands of the 511th on May 2.
With the capture of Lipa and Mt. Malepunyo, organized resistance ended in the province. Some elements of the 188th Infantry Task Force were left to clear the Batangas mountains located southeast of province from the remaining Japanese.
Throughout the battle, recognized Filipino guerrilla fighters played an important key role in the advancement of the combined American and Philippine Commonwealth troops, providing key roads and intelligence on the location of Japanese defenses and movements. The 11th Airborne and attached Filipino guerrillas had 390 casualties, of which 90 were killed. The Japanese however, lost 1,490 men. By the end of April 1945, Batangas was liberated and fully secured under Allied control, thus ending all hostilities.
The movements of the military general headquarters and military camps of the Philippine Commonwealth Army happened from January 3, 1942, to June 30, 1946, and included the province of Batangas. During the engagements of the Anti-Japanese Imperial Military Operations in Manila, southern Luzon, Mindoro, and Palawan from 1942 to 1945, (including the provinces of Rizal, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Mindoro, and Palawan), units of the Philippine Constabulary, with the local guerrilla resistance joined with the U.S. liberation military forces against the Imperial Japanese armed forces.
Under the Southern Luzon Campaign, local Filipino soldiers of the 4th, 42nd, 43rd, 45th, and 46th Infantry Divisions of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and 4th Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary joined the battle for the liberation of Batangas.
Post-war period
After Douglas MacArthur made his famous landing in the Island of Leyte, he came next to the town of Nasugbu to mark the liberation of Luzon. This historic landing is remembered by the people of Batangas every last day of January, a holiday for the Nasugbugueños.
After the United States of America relinquished control of the Philippines, statesmen from Batangas featured prominently in the government. These include the legislators Felipe Agoncillo, Galicano Apacible (who later became the Secretary of Agriculture), Ramon Diokno, Apolinario R. Apacible, Expedito Leviste, Gregorio Katigbak, Teodoro Kalaw, Claro M. Recto, and José Laurel, Jr.
It is also notable that when President Manuel L. Quezon left the Philippines during the Japanese Occupation, the Japanese government in the Philippines chose the Batangueño José Laurel, Sr. as the de jure President of the Puppet Republic.
Under the Marcos Dictatorship
Batangueños were not spared the social and economic turmoil that began during the second term of President Ferdinand Marcos, including his 1971 suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, his 1972 declaration of martial law, and his continued hold on power from the lifting of martial law in 1981 until his ouster under the People Power Revolution of 1986.
Prominent Batangueño senator Jose W. Diokno was one of the first people Marcos imprisoned without charges, because according to then-Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile, the regime found it necessary to "emasculate the voices of the opposition."
In 1981, Marcos used his Presidential “power of eminent domain” to convert 167 hectares of agricultural lands in San Rafael, Calaca, for industrial use, paving the way for the construction of the Semirara Calaca power plant regardless of its health and environmental impact.
Among the later victims of the regime were student leaders Ismael Umali, Noel Clarete, and Aurelio Magpantay from Western Philippine Colleges in Batangas City, who disappeared after a protest rally in March 1984, and whose mangled bodies were later discovered abandoned in nearby Cavite province.
Recent history
After the ouster of Ferdinand Marcos and the creation of the Fifth Philippine Republic, numerous Batanguenos took up prominent positions in government - most prominently Salvador Laurel, who became Vice President of the Philippines under the first Aquino administration, and Renato Corona, who became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Geography
Batangas is a combination of plains and mountains, including one of the world's smallest volcanoes, Mt. Taal, with an elevation of , located in the middle of the Taal Lake. Other important peaks are Mount Macolod with an elevation of , Mt. Banoy with , Mt. Talamitam with , Mt. Pico de Loro with , Mt. Batulao with , Mt. Manabo with , and Mt. Daguldol with .
Batangas has several islands, including Tingloy, Verde Island (Isla Verde), and Fortune Island of Nasugbu.
According to Guinness World Records, the largest island in a lake on an island is situated in Batangas (particularly at Vulcan Point in Crater Lake, which rests in the middle of Taal Island in Lake Taal, on the island of Luzon).
Administrative divisions
Batangas comprises 30 municipalities and 4 cities.
Climate
Batangas falls under two climates: the tropical savanna climate (As/Aw) and the bordering tropical monsoon climate (Am), under the Köppen climate classification. Most of the province belongs to the tropical savanna climate, with well-defined dry and wet seasons. Parts of Batangas lying to the east have unpronounced dry and wet seasons, influenced by the monsoon. Batangas City, the provincial capital, belongs to the tropical savanna climate, but is strongly influenced by the bordering monsoon climate, characterized by short dry seasons and longer wet seasons. Typhoons are a periodic occurrence especially during the southwest monsoon (habagat).
Demographics
The population of Batangas in the was people, with a density of .
Tagalogs are the predominant people in Batangas, distantly followed by Bicolanos, Visayans, Kapampangans, Pangasinans and Ilocanos.
Batangas also has one of the highest literacy rates in the country at 96.5%, with males having a slightly higher literacy rate at 97.1% than females with 95.9%. Combined average literacy rate is 96%.
Language
The dialect of Tagalog spoken in the province closely resembles the Old Tagalog spoken before the arrival of the Spanish. Hence, the Summer Institute of Linguistics called this province the heartland of the Tagalog language. A strong presence of the Tagalog culture is clearly visible to the present day.
Linguistically, Batangueños are also known for their unique affectation of often placing the particles eh or ga (equivalent to the particle ba in Filipino), usually as a marker of stress on the sentence, at the end of their spoken sentences or speech; for example: "Ay, oo, nga eh!" ("Aye, yes, indeed!"). Some even prolong the particle 'eh' into 'ala eh', though it really has no meaning in itself.
English is widely understood in the province. Spanish is also understood to some extent, especially by older generation people in the towns of Nasugbu, Taal, and Lemery, which still have Spanish-speaking minorities. Bicolano and Visayan is also spoken by a minority due to the influx of migrants from Bicol Region and Central Philippines.
Religion
The majority of Batangas's population are religiously affiliated with Roman Catholicism, Iglesia Filipina Independiente, Iglesia ni Cristo, and evangelicalism. Other major religions include Islam, Buddhism, Seventh-day Adventist Church, Jesus Is Lord Church Worldwide, Protestantism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Economy
The province of Batangas was billed as the second richest province in the Philippines by the Commission on Audit by year 2020. It has been the second richest province in the country for two consecutive years. In 2020, its provincial government posted a record high of ₱25.2 billion worth of assets, the largest in Calabarzon and the whole Luzon.
Products
Batangas is known for its butterfly knives, locally known as balisong, with its manufacture also becoming an industry in the province.
Agriculture and fisheries
Pineapples are also common in Batangas. Aside from the fruit, the leaves are also useful such that an industry has been created from it. In the municipality of Taal, pineapple leaves are processed to form a kind of cloth known as jusi (pronounced 'hu-si), from which the Barong Tagalog, the national costume of the Philippines is made.
Livestock as an industry is also thriving in Batangas. Cattle from Batangas are widely sought throughout the country. The term bakang Batangas (literally "Batangas cow") is associated with the country's best species of cattle. Cattle raising is widely practiced in Batangas such that every Saturday is an auction day in the municipalities of San Juan, Bauan and Padre Garcia.
Fishing plays a very important part of the economy of the province. Although the tuna industry in the country is centered in General Santos, Batangas is also known for the smaller species of the said fish. The locals even have their own names for it. Some of them are bigeye tuna (tambakol), yellowfin tuna (berberabe), tambakulis, Pacific bluefin tuna (tulingan), bullet tuna (bonito) and another species also called bonito but actually Gymnosarda unicolor. There is also an important industry for the wahoo (tanigi).
Aside from the South China Sea, Taal Lake also provides a source of freshwater fishes to the country. The lake is home to Sardinella tawilis or simply tawilis, a species of freshwater sardine that is endemic to the lake. Taal Lake also provides farmed Chanos chanos or bangus. There is also a good volume of Oreochromis niloticus niloticus and Oreochromis aureus, both locally called tilapia. It is ecologically important to note that neither bangus nor tilapia are native to the lake. Thus they are considered an invasive species to the lake.
Sugar is also a major industry. After Hacienda Luisita, the country's former largest sugar producer, was broken-up for land reform, the municipality of Nasugbu has been the home of the current largest sugar producing company, the Central Azucarera de Don Pedro. Rice cakes and sweets are also a strong industry.
Some towns (those adjacent to Laguna) have a prosperous bamboo based industry, where several houses and furniture are made of bamboo. Natives say that food cooked in bamboo has an added scent and flavor. Labong, or bamboo shoots, is cooked with coconut milk or with other ingredients to make a Batangas delicacy.
Industries
Batangas houses 5 industrial parks registered under the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA), which are concentrated along the route of STAR Tollway and Jose P. Laurel Highway. The largest of those industrial parks are LIMA Technology Center, a commercial and industrial zone oriented to tech companies at Lipa and Malvar, and the First Philippine Industrial Park (FPIP), with over at Santo Tomas and Tanauan, and Light Industry and Science Park IV (LISP IV), a live-work community with 170-hectare industrial area located at the heart of Malvar, Batangas.
Batangas City and the nearby municipalities of San Pascual, Bauan, and Mabini also have large-scale industrial activity connected with their seaside location, including power generation, oil and gas processing and transhipment, and ship repairs.
Government
With the provinces in the island of Panay, Ilocos Sur and Pampanga, Batangas was one of the earliest provinces established by the Spaniards who settled in the country. It was headed by Martin de Goiti and since then has become one of the most important regions of the Philippines. Batangas first came to be known as Bonbon. It was named after Taal Lake, which was also originally called Bonbon. Some of the earliest settlements in Batangas were established in the vicinity of Taal Lake. In 1534, Batangas became the first practically organized province in Luzon. Balayan was the capital of the province for 135 years from 1597 to 1732. In 1732, it was moved to Taal, then the flourishing and most progressive town in the province, it wasn't until 1754 that the capital was destroyed by the Great Taal Eruption of 1754. It was in 1889 that the capital was moved to the present, Batangas City.
Batangas has been called by some Philippine historians as the "Cradle of Noble Heroes", citing the notable number of people from it who were declared Philippine national heroes and those who became leaders of the country. Among them are Teodoro M. Kalaw, Apolinario Mabini, Jose Laurel, and Felipe Agoncillo.
Incumbent officials
Governor: Hermilando I. Mandanas (PDP–Laban)
Vice Governor: Jose Antonio S. Leviste II (PDP–Laban)
Board Members:
Elected Representatives
1st District: Elenita Milagros R. Ermita-Buhain (NP/One Batangas)
2nd District: Raneo E. Abu (NP/One Batangas)
3rd District: Ma. Theresa V. Collantes (PDP–Laban)
4th District: Lianda B. Bolilia (NP/One Batangas)
5th District (Lone District of Batangas City): Mario Vittorio A. Mariño (NP/One Batangas)
6th District (Lone District of Lipa City): Ma. Rosa Vilma T. Santos-Recto (NP/One Batangas)
List of former governors
Infrastructure
Transportation
Roads
Batangas has a total of of national roads, mostly paved. The Southern Tagalog Arterial Road (STAR Tollway, officially numbered E2), Maharlika Highway (N1 and AH26) and Jose P. Laurel Highway (N4) forms the highway backbone of the province, and a network of secondary and tertiary national roads links most of the municipalities. The provincial government maintains a network of provincial roads to supplement the national roads and connect municipalities and barangays not connected directly to the main highway network.
Batangas Laguna Tayabas Bus Company Incorporated (BLTBCo.) is one of the oldest bus transport companies in the Philippines has routes within Southern Tagalog region. The company has historical roots in Batangas and has been founded in 1918. At present, the routes have been incorporated with Del Monte Land Transport Bus Company (DLTBCo).
The Cavite-Tagaytay-Batangas (CTBEX) is a proposed expressway from the municipality of Silang, Cavite up to the town of Nasugbu. CTBEX is to connect with the Cavite–Laguna Expressway (CALAEX). Once opened, this will provide motorists a faster route to the resort towns of Nasugbu, Lian and Calatagan in the western part of the province.
Water transport
Batangas Port in Batangas City is the principal port for ferry access to Mindoro, Tablas, Romblon, and other islands. Montenegro Lines is the largest of a number of passenger shipping companies operating out of Batangas. Condensate tankers offload at Batangas in sizeable quantity. Batangas Port is expanded in 2008 to house facilities for container ships.
Being an entry point to the rest of the archipelago, Batangas has roll-on/roll-off(RoRo) ferry connections with Mindoro and Visayas. The western portion of the Nautical Highway starts at Batangas, and connects with Calapan, Oriental Mindoro. Batangas Port serves as another principal port, along with the Manila International Port for inter-island and international cargo shipping, as well as interisland passenger shipping.
Electricity
Electric power in Batangas is mostly distributed by electric cooperatives, namely the Batangas I Electric Cooperative (BATELEC-I) and Batangas II Electric Cooperative (BATELEC-II). The former serves the western part of Batangas, like Nasugbu, Calatagan, Balayan, Lemery, and Taal, while the latter serves the eastern part, like Lipa, Tanauan, Talisay, San Jose, and Rosario. The municipalities of Bauan and Ibaan, and LIMA Technology Center are served by local utility companies. Santo Tomas, the First Philippine Industrial Park (FPIP) in Tanauan, San Pascual and Batangas City, however, are served by the Metro Manila-based electric company, Meralco. Some large industrial customers are supplied by the 69,000 volt grid, operated by National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP), BATELEC-II, and Meralco.
Batangas houses three power plants that provide the bulk of power used in Luzon. Power plants include the 600-megawatt (MW) Calaca Coal Fired Power Plant in Calaca, the 500 MW, 1000 MW, and 414 MW San Lorenzo-Santa Rita-San Gabriel Combined Cycle Power Plant, and the 1251 MW Ilijan Power Plant, both in Batangas City. The Calaca Power Plant is originally built with nameplate capacity of 600 MW, is being expanded to generate 1300 MW, with an addition of 2x350 MW (700 MW) capacity in a second power plant, constructed under an agreement between Semirara Mining and Meralco.
Most power plants in Batangas, however, use fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, and are the subjects of environmental grievances because of their effects on ecosystems. One power plant to be built at Mabacong, Batangas City, is facing opposition from environmentalists and the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lipa, owing to its effect on residents and the aquatic ecosystem on Verde Island Passage.
Culture
Way of life
Maria Kalaw Katigbak, a Filipino historian, was quoted to call the Batangueños the Hybrid-Tagalogs. One particular custom in the Batangas culture is the so-called Matanda sa Dugo (lit. older by blood) practice wherein one expresses respect not because of age but because of consanguinity. During the early times, the custom of having very large families were very common. Thus, a particular person's uncle could be of the same age, or even younger than himself. Because of the custom, the older person would still address the younger one with an honorary title such as tiyo/tio or simply kuya if they can no longer establish the actual relationship or add the honorific ho / po in their sentences when addressing the younger instead of the other way around. This often draws confusion from the other provinces who are not accustomed to such practices. This practice exists until today.
Batangueños are very "regionalistic". When one learns that another in the room is also from Batangas, the two would be together until the end of the event. In workplace settings, a Batangueno may also express preference for another Batangueno as long as the workplace regulations allow. Thus, the running joke on the Batangas Mafia.
They also tend to live in a large extended family. It has been observed that a piece of land remains undivided until the family connection becomes too difficult to establish actual blood relations. Marriages between relatives of the fifth generation is still restrained in the Batangan culture even if Philippine laws allow it.
Batangueños have been known for their religious practices, where devotees of the Catholic religion perform rituals such as dances (subli) and chants (luwa/lua) to express their faith. One of these is the ritual called Pasión/Pasyon based on the passion of Jesus Christ in which religious chants are recited during the Lenten season. In May, the people of Bauan and Alitagtag celebrate the feast day of the Mahal na Poon ng Santa Cruz (lit. Lord of the Holy Cross), a ritual dance called the Subli is made to honor the Poon. In the town of Taal, they celebrate the feast day of Our Lady of Caysasay and San Martin de Tours a two-day celebration where a procession begins from the shrine of the Virgin going towards the Pansipit River from which the fluvial procession and another procession towards the Basilica are made in honor of the Virgin Mary. Fiestas in other towns usually start in the month of May and last up to the first day of June, usually the plaza near the church becomes the center of activities.
Mythology and literature
Scholars also identified that the ancient Batangueños, like the rest of the Tagalog tribe, worship the Supreme Creator, known as Bathala. Lesser gods like Mayari, the goddess of the moon and her honorary brother Apolake, god of the sun, were also present. Dambana practices are also present in the province.
For literature, Padre Vicente Garcia came to be known when he wrote an essay to defend José Rizal's Noli Me Tangere.
In 2004, the province of Batangas gave Domingo Landicho (familiarly called Inggo by Batangueños) who was born in the province the Dangal ng Batangas (Pride of Batangas) Award for being the "Peoples' Poet".
Music
Musicologists identified Batangas as the origin of the kumintang, an ancient war song, which later evolved to become the signature of Filipino love songs the kundiman. From the ancient kumintang, another vocal music emerged, identified as the awit. The huluna, a psalm-like lullaby, is also famous in some towns, especially Bauan.
During the Lenten Season, the Christian passion-narrative, called Pasyon by the natives, is expected in every corners of the province. In fact according to scholars, the very first printed version of the pasyon was authored by a layman from Rosario named Gaspar Aquino de Belen. Although de Belen's version was printed in 1702, it is still debated whether there were earlier versions.
Debates may also be done while singing. Batangueños are known for the duplo (a sung debate where each lines of the verse must be octosyllabic) and the karagatan (a sung debate where each lines of the verse must be dodecasyllabic.) The latter, whose literal meaning is "ocean", got its name from the opening lines. Always, the karagatan is opened by saying some verses that alludes the depth of the sea and comparing it to the difficulty of joining the debate. And as mentioned above, the debate must be sung.
Batangas is also the origin of the Balitao. Aside from being a form of vocal music, the Balitao is also a form of dance music. The Balitao, together with the Subli is the most famous form of dance native to Batangas.
Architecture and sculpture
As shown in its ancient churches, Batangas is home to some of the best preserved colonial architectures in the country, especially evident in the municipality of Taal.
Though not as popular as the carving industry of Laguna, Batangas is still known for the sculptures engraved in furniture. Sometimes, altar tables coming from Batangas were called the "friars' choice".
According to Milagros Covarubias-Jamir, another Filipino scholar, the furniture that came from Batangas during the colonial times was comparable to equivalent quality furniture from China. The build of the furniture was so exquisite, nails of glues were never used. Still, the Batangueños knew how to maximize the use of hardwoods. As a result, furniture made about a hundred years ago are still found in many old churches and houses even today.
Museums
Museo ng Katipunan: Barangay Bulaklakan, Lipa
Apolinario Mabini Shrine: Marcela Agoncillo Historical Landmark, Barangay zone 4, Taal, Batangas
Museo ni Miguel Malvar: Gov. Malvar St, Poblacion 1, Santo Tomas, Batangas
Museo ng Batangas at Aklatang Panlalawigan: includes the Dr. Jose P. Laurel Library, Tanauan, Batangas
Flora and fauna
The malabayabas, or Philippine Teak, is endemic to Batangas. The province is also home to the kabag (Haplonycteris fischeri), one of the world's smallest fruit bats. In the municipality of Nasugbu, wild deer still inhabit the remote areas of barangay Looc, Papaya, Bulihan, and Dayap.
In the second half of 2006, scientists from the United States discovered that the Sulu-Sulawesi Triangle has its centre at the Isla Verde Passage, a part of the province. According to the study made by the American Marine Biologist Dr. Kent Carpenter, Batangas' seas host more than half of the world's species of coral. It is also home to dolphins and once in a while, the passage of the world's biggest fish: the whale shark or the butanding, as the locals call it may be observed. The municipality of San Juan has a resident marine turtle or pawikan. Pawikans like the Olive Ridley sea turtle, leather back sea turtle, and green sea turtle can be seen in Nasugbu up to the present.
Notable people
National heroes and patriots
Apolinario Mabini — Filipino revolutionary
Miguel Malvar — Filipino general who served during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War
Felipe Agoncillo — the Filipino lawyer representative to the negotiations in Paris that led to the Treaty of Paris (1898)
Marcela Agoncillo — the principal seamstress of the first and official flag of the Philippines
Galicano Apacible — co-founder of La Solidaridad
Ananias Diokno — Filipino general in the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War
Juan Cailles — Filipino general in the Philippine-American War
Gliceria Marella de Villavicencio — heroine of the Revolution, "Godmother of the Revolutionary Forces"
Clemencia López — Filipina feminist, and suffragist
Maria Orosa — Filipina food technologist, pharmaceutical chemist, and war heroine
Teodoro Kalaw — Filipino scholar, legislator, and historian
Claro M. Recto — statesman, jurist, poet
Politics and Government
José P. Laurel — President of the Second Philippine Republic, a Japanese puppet state during World War II
Salvador Laurel — 8th Vice President of the Philippines
Jose Laurel Jr. — 9th Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines, and Member of the Philippine Constitutional Commission of 1986.
Manuel Araullo, 3rd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
Querube Makalintal, 11th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, 14th Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines
Ramon Aquino, 15th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
Ramón Diokno, 63rd Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines and former senator.
Cecilia Muñoz-Palma - Filipino jurist and the first woman Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Angelina Sandoval-Gutierrez — 147th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Cancio Garcia — 156th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Rosmari Carandang — 181st Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Antonio de las Alas - former senator and 3rd Secretary of the Department of Finance.
Sotero Laurel — former senator
Ralph Recto — Senator of the Philippines
Vilma Santos – incumbent House Representative of the 6th district of Batangas, 22nd Governor of Batangas, and film actress
Renato de Villa — 20th Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, and 18th Secretary of the Department of National Defense
Eduardo Ermita — 22nd Secretary of the Department of National Defense, and former Executive Secretary
Leandro Mendoza — 35th Secretary of the Department of Transportation and Communications, former Executive Secretary, and 8th Chief of the Philippine National Police
Armin Luistro — 36th Secretary of the Department of Education
Benjamin Diokno — 5th Governor of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, and 6th Secretary of the Department of Budget and Management
Noel Clement — 52nd Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines
Arts and Sciences
Leonor Orosa-Goquingco — National Artist of the Philippines for Dance
Bienvenido Lumbera — National Artist of the Philippines for Literature
Gregorio Y. Zara — National Scientist of the Philippines for Engineering and Inventions
Teodoro Agoncillo — National Scientist of the Philippines for Philippine History
Deogracias Villadolid — biologist
Anastacio Caedo — Filipino sculptor
Lito Mayo — graphic artist, print-maker, avantegarde poet, social activist, sculptor
Religion
Alfredo Obviar — Filipino Venerable; Bishop Emeritus of Lucena
Vicente García — Filipino priest, hero and a defender of Dr. Jose P. Rizal
Gaudencio Rosales - Filipino Cardinal and Archbishop who has served as the 31st Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Manila, 6th Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Lipa, Batangas and 2nd Bishop of the Diocese of Malaybalay, Bukidnon.
Ramon Arguelles — Filipino Roman Catholic Archbishop; Archbishop-Emeritus of Lipa
Reynaldo G. Evangelista - Filipino Roman Catholic Bishop who is currently serving in the Diocese of Imus. He was a former Bishop of Boac, Marinqudue
Marcelino Antonio Maralit - Filipino Roman Catholic Bishop who is currently serving in the Diocese of Boac, Marinqudue
Fernando Suarez — Filipino Catholic priest who performs faith healing
Sports Culinary and Entertainment
Arsenio Laurel - champion race car driver from the Philippines. He was the first two-time winner of the Macau Grand Prix, winning it consecutively in 1962 and 1963.
Ai-Ai delas Alas — actress, comedian, singer and TV host
Simon Ibarra actor
Ogie Alcasid — singer-songwriter, television presenter, comedian, parodist, and actor
TJ Trinidad actor, singer and model
Leo Martinez — actor, comedian and director
Zanjoe Marudo — actor and model
Jade Lopez Filipina actress, dramatic artist
Jason Gainza — actor, impersonator
Joshua Garcia — actor, model and endorser
Alyssa Valdez – volleyball player and former member of collegiate varsity volleyball team of Ateneo de Manila University in both indoor and beach volleyball.
Kim Fajardo – volleyball athlete, and former team captain of the De La Salle University women's volleyball team.
Nora Daza culinary arts.
References
External links
Official Website of the Provincial Government of Batangas
Provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1581
1581 establishments in the Philippines | [
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|
236845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.%20S.%20Subbulakshmi | M. S. Subbulakshmi | Madurai Shanmukhavadivu Subbulakshmi (16 September 1916 – 11 December 2004) was an Indian Carnatic singer from Madurai, Tamil Nadu. She was the first musician ever to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour. She is the first Indian musician to receive the Ramon Magsaysay award in 1974 with the citation reading "Exacting purists acknowledge Srimati M. S. Subbulakshmi as the leading exponent of classical and semi-classical songs in the carnatic tradition of South India. She was the First Indian who performed in United Nations General Assembly in 1966."
Biography
Early years
Subbulakshmi (Kunjamma to her family) was born on 16 September 1916 in Madurai, Madras Presidency, India to veena player Shanmukavadiver Ammal and Subramania Iyer. Her grandmother Akkammal was a violinist.
She started learning Carnatic music at an early age and trained in Carnatic music under the tutelage of Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer and subsequently in Hindustani music under Pandit Narayanrao Vyas.
Her mother, from the devadasi community, was a music exponent and a regular stage performer, and Subbulakshmi grew up in an environment very conducive to musical learning. Her musical interests were also shaped by regular interactions with Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer, Mazhavarayanendal Subbarama Bhagavathar and Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar.
Subbulakshmi gave her first public performance, at the age of eleven, in the year 1927, in the 100 pillar hall inside the Rockfort Temple, Tiruchirappalli; with Mysore Chowdiah on the violin and Dakshinamurthy Pillai on the mridangam. This was organised by the Tiruchirappalli-based Indian National Congress leader F. G. Natesa Iyer.
Move to Madras
In 1936 Subbulakshmi moved to Madras (now Chennai). She also made her film debut in Sevasadan in 1938. Her debut to the world of cinema was again opposite F. G. Natesa Iyer.
Musical style and performance
Singing career
M.S. Subbulakshmi began her Carnatic classical music training under her mother Shanmukhavadivu; and later in Hindustani classical training under Pandit Narayan Rao Vyas. Subbulakshmi first recording was released when she was 10 years old.
Subbulakshmi gave her first performance at the prestigious Madras Music Academy in 1929, when she was 13 years old . The performance consisted of singing bhajans (Hindu hymns). The academy was known for its discriminating selection process, and they broke tradition by inviting a young girl as a key performer. Her performance was described as spellbinding and earned her many admirers and the moniker of musical genius from critics. Soon after her debut performances, Subbulakshmi became one of the leading Carnatic vocalists.
By the age of seventeen, Subbulakshmi was giving concerts on her own, including major performances at the Madras Music Academy.
She travelled to London, New York, Canada, the Far East, and other places as India's cultural ambassador. Her concerts at
Edinburgh International Festival of Music and Drama in 1963
Carnegie Hall, New York; the UN General Assembly on UN day in 1966
Royal Albert Hall, London in 1982
Festival of India in Moscow in 1987
were significant landmarks in her career. In 1969 she was accompanied by Indian Railways Advisor SN Venkata Rao to Rameswaram, where she sang several songs in front of each idol in the Rameswaram temple. She shared a very cordial relation with Sree Ramaseva Mandali Bengaluru for whom she performed 36 concerts.
After the death of her husband Kalki Sadasivam in 1997, she stopped all her public performances. Her last performance was in 1997, before her retirement from public concerts.
M. S. Subbulakshmi died on 11 December 2004, at her home in Kotturpuram, Chennai.
Films
M.S. also acted in a few Tamil films in her youth. Her first movie, Sevasadanam, was released on 2 May 1938. F.G. Natesa Iyer was the lead actor, opposite Subbulakshmi, in this film, directed by K. Subramanyam. It was a critical and commercial success. Ananda Vikatan favourably reviewed the film on 8 May 1938:
Sevasadanam is one of the early Tamil films to be set in a contemporary social setting and to advocate reformist social policies.
The film is an adapted version of Premchand's novel Bazaar-e-Husn.
The veteran Marxist leader N. Sankaraiah, has described Sevasadanam as an "unusual film" for choosing the subject of marriages between young girls and old men (which had social sanction). According to him, the film successfully broughtout the "sufferings of the girl" (acted by M.S.) and the "mental agony of the aged husband".(acted by F.G.Natesa Iyer).Tamil film critic and historian Aranthai Narayanan observes in his bookThamizh Cinemavin Kathai (The Story of Tamil Cinema) that "Seva Sadhanam proved a turning point in the history of Tamil cinema. In the climax, the aged husband, now a totally changed man, was shown as casting aside with utter contempt his 'sacred thread', which symbolises his Brahmin superiority. It came as a stunning blow to the then Brahmin orthodoxy."
MS Subbulakshmi also played the male role of Narada in Savitri (1941) to raise money for launching Kalki, her husband's nationalist Tamil weekly. Her title role of the Rajasthani saint-poetess Meera in the eponymous 1945 film gave her national prominence. This movie was re-made in Hindi in 1947.
Awards and honours
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru had this to say about M.S. Subbulakshmi- "Who am I, a mere Prime Minister before a Queen, a Queen of Music". While Lata Mangeshkar called her Tapaswini (the Renunciate), Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan termed her Suswaralakshmi (the goddess of the perfect note), and Kishori Amonkar labelled her the ultimate eighth note or Aathuvaan Sur, which is above the seven notes basic to all music. The great national leader and poet Sarojini Naidu called her "Nightingale of India". Her many famous renditions of bhajans include the chanting of Meenakshi Pancharatnam, Bhaja Govindam, Vishnu sahasranama (1000 names of Vishnu), Hari Tuma Haro and the Venkateswara Suprabhatam (musical hymns to awaken Lord Balaji early in the morning).
She was widely honoured, praised and awarded. Some of the popular ones include:
Padma Bhushan in 1954
Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1956
Sangeetha Kalanidhi in 1968
Ramon Magsaysay award (often considered Asia's Nobel Prize) in 1974
Padma Vibhushan in 1975
Sangeetha Kalasikhamani in 1975 by The Indian Fine Arts Society, Chennai
Kalidas Samman in 1988
Indira Gandhi Award for National Integration in 1990
Bharat Ratna in 1998
She was honoured as a resident artist Asthana Vidhwan of Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. Tirupati Urban Development Authority (TUDA) has installed a bronze statue of M.S. Subbulakshmi at the Poornakumbham circle in the temple town. It was unveiled by Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy on 28 May 2006.
The Kancheepuram Saree shade known as MS Blue was named after her by the well known Congress party member and philanthropist, Sri Muthu Chettiyar when they met at the residence of Sri R. Aiyadurai and Smt. Thangam Aiyadurai at Lady Desikachari Road, Madras, who were close friends of MS and Sadasivam.
A commemorative postage stamp on her was issued on 18-December-2005.
United Nations decided to issue stamp to mark birth centenary M.S. Subbulakshmi,
She was bestowed with enormous prize moneys with these awards, most of which she donated to charity. She has given more than 200 charity concerts and raised well over Rs. 10,000,000. She was awarded honorary degrees from several Universities. She was an ardent devotee of Kanchi Mahaswamigal and she rendered his composition Maithreem Bhajatha (O World! Cultivate peace) in her concert at the UN in 1966. She made a 20-minute recording of Venkatesa Suprabhatam for HMV, the royalty from which goes to the Veda Patasala run by the Tirupati Tirumala Devasthanam. She donated many of the royalties on several best sold records to many charity organisations.
References
Further reading
M.S. Subbulaksmi, the Voice Divine (79 pages) by V. Gangadhar.
MS – A Life in Music, T. J. S. George. 2004, HarperCollins.
MS & Radha – Saga of Steadfast Devotion – by Gowri Ramnarayan – http://www.msstribute.org/
Of Gifted Voice, The Life and Art of M.S. Subbulakshmi Keshav Desiraju Harper Collins.
External links
Biography at the official site of Ramon Magsaysay award
Photo of MS, Sadhasivam and Ellis R. Dungan
M.S. Subbulakshmi: Portraits of a diva – The Hindu
1916 births
2004 deaths
Women Carnatic singers
Carnatic singers
Tamil singers
20th-century Indian actresses
Tamil actresses
Recipients of the Bharat Ratna
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in arts
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
Indian women classical singers
Actresses in Tamil cinema
Musicians from Madurai
Sanskrit-language singers
Sangeetha Kalanidhi recipients
20th-century Indian singers
Singers from Tamil Nadu
Actresses from Madurai
20th-century Indian women singers
Women musicians from Tamil Nadu | [
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236846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAMAS | FAMAS | The FAMAS (Fusil d'Assaut de la Manufacture d'Armes de Saint-Étienne, in English "Assault Rifle from the Saint-Étienne Weapon Factory") is a bullpup assault rifle designed and manufactured in France by MAS in 1978, a year after the Austrian Steyr AUG. It is known by French troops as Le Clairon (The Bugle) due to its distinctive shape. The FAMAS is recognised for its high rate of fire at 1,100 rounds per minute. Beginning in 2017, the FAMAS was replaced in most frontline units in the French Army by the HK416F. The FAMAS is expected to remain in limited service until 2028.
History
The first French bullpup rifles were developed between 1946 and 1950 at the AME (Atelier Mécanique de Mulhouse) and MAS, testing rounds such as .30 US Carbine, 7.92×33mm Kurz, 7.65×38mm (Made by Cartoucherie de Valence) and some other intermediate calibers. Since France was engaged in the First Indochina War at the time, and was also the second-largest contributor to NATO, the research budgets for new types of weapons were limited and priority was given to the modernisation and production of existing service weapons. Nevertheless, approximately forty different 7.62×51mm NATO calibre prototype rifles were developed between 1952 and 1962, most notably the FA-MAS Type 62. However, the United States adoption of the M16 rifle and 5.56×45mm cartridge caused the French to rethink their approach, and consequently the Type 62 was not adopted.
In the 1960s, MAS began to manufacture under licence the Heckler & Koch G3 battle rifle and later on the Heckler & Koch HK33 assault rifle as temporary substitutes. At the same time, the French embraced the idea of developing a new 5.56 mm automatic rifle. However, simply adopting the German-designed HK33 rifle was considered unsatisfactory for many members of the French high command. General Marcel Bigeard was also against the idea of relying on foreign weapons; while visiting the Manufacture d'Armes de Saint-Étienne, he asked the engineers to develop a homemade French 5.56 mm automatic rifle, which subsequently led to the creation and adoption of the FAMAS.
The FAMAS project began in 1967 under the direction of General Paul Tellié (1919-2014) and the first prototype was completed in 1971, with French military evaluation of the rifle beginning in 1972. When production problems delayed the general issue of the new rifles, and with the 1978 Battle of Kolwezi showing an immediate need for a more modern weapon, the French Army began searching for an emergency temporary rifle until the FAMAS came into full production. While the Heckler & Koch HK33 was considered, with a batch of 1,200 examples tested, it was ultimately turned down in favor of the SIG SG 540, built under licence by Manurhin, until enough domestically-built FAMAS rifles were produced to issue to French forces. In late 1978, the French military accepted the FAMAS as their standard-issue rifle, the FAMAS F1.
FAMAS F1
After adoption by the French military, the FAMAS F1 replaced both the elderly MAS 49/56 rifle and MAT-49 submachine gun. Approximately 400,000 FAMAS F1 assault rifles were produced by MAS. While a capable rifle, the F1 had numerous problems to overcome. For instance, many plastic pieces on the rifle easily broke, including critical parts like the cheek riser on the butt's pad below where the cheek is to go. The FAMAS was also susceptible to malfunction on occasion because of poorly-built, or rather improperly used, magazines. The FAMAS was designed around the concept of single-use, disposable magazines; when the limited budget of the French military forced soldiers to reuse disposable magazines over and over, the FAMAS would jam and require immediate attention. MAS would eventually manufacture more durable magazines for the FAMAS that reduced malfunctions.
The F1 was followed by the G1 version that included several minor improvements, such as redesigned grips and an enlarged trigger guard for operation with gloves. However, the G1 remained conceptual and was never actually produced.
FAMAS G2
The FAMAS G2 was developed in 1994 to comply with NATO standards by accepting standard NATO magazines and by employing tighter barrel rifling to accurately fire both older 5.56 mm ammunition and new standard 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition. The ammunition specific lever-delayed blowback mechanism of the FAMAS F1 designed around French steel cased ammunition was slightly revised for reliably using 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition. The FAMAS G2 also included several other upgrades taken from the G1 model, such as an enlarged trigger guard and improved hand guards made from reinforced fiberglass instead of plastic, and also the ability to take standard brass cased ammunition as well as French made steel ammunition. The French Navy purchased the FAMAS G2 in 1995 and issued it to their Fusiliers Marins and Commandos Marine. However, the French army refused to purchase the G2, preferring to rely on the FAMAS F1 as their primary rifle.
FAMAS Infantry
The FAMAS Infantry is an improvement of the FAMAS F1, obtained by retrofitting an accessory rail onto the top of the handguard. This allows mounting combat optics, most notably reflex sights or the 4×26.4 SCROME J4 telescopic sight.
MAS .223
During the late 1980s, Century Arms imported a very small number of semi-automatic FAMAS rifles into the United States. Due to poor sales, production and importation ceased and the existing number are not only extremely rare but cost in the range of $25,000 with no spare parts available on the market.
FAMAS Commando
GIAT made short-barreled FAMAS rifles to market them overseas, but there was no interest.
Design details
Action
The FAMAS assault rifle is a bullpup configuration, with the ammunition feed behind the trigger. The receiver housing is made of a special steel alloy, and the rifle furniture is made of fiberglass. The rifle uses a lever-delayed blowback action, an action type also used in the French AA-52 machine gun derived from the prototypes built during Army Technical Department tests having taken place between the First and Second World Wars.
Ergonomics
Fire mode is controlled by a selector within the trigger guard, with three settings: safe (central position), single shot (to the right), and automatic fire (to the left). Automatic fire can be in three-shot bursts (rafale) or fully automatic; this is determined by another selector, located under the housing and behind the magazine.
The FAMAS G2 weighs . The G1 and G2 have a large, grip-length trigger-guard like that of the Steyr AUG to allow easy access to the trigger when wearing gloves.
Both F1 and G2 models of the FAMAS feature a bipod attached to the upper hand-guard.
The FAMAS-G2 and some F1 sport a "polyvalent hand-guard" which features a standard NATO Accessory Rail, allowing a variety of sights to be mounted, notably red dot sights and night vision units.
Ammunition
The FAMAS uses a delayed blowback operating system that functions best with French-specified steel-casing 5.56×45mm ammunition. Using standard brass-casing 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition employed by other armies can create over-pressure and case ruptures in the FAMAS during extraction, which can lead to severe malfunctions. Using incorrectly built ammunition also results in approximately two minor injuries for every million rounds fired from a FAMAS. As a result, the French military has discreetly banned the use of foreign-produced ammunition in all French-issued FAMAS rifles. However, fluting the chamber will completely remove these malfunctions, although the brass casings will still be deformed and will not be able to be reloaded without reshaping.
The FAMAS F1 uses a proprietary 25-round magazine. It has a chrome-lined barrel with 1 turn in 12 inch (1:12 inch) rifling and functions best with the (M193 type) ammunition. When using the French made 5.56 mm ammo it has a muzzle velocity of .
The FAMAS G2 uses M16-type, NATO-compatible 30-round STANAG magazines. It has a chrome-lined barrel with 1 turn in 9 inch (1:9 inch) rifling and functions equally well with both the older (M193 type) ammo and the newer (SS109 type) ammo. When using the French made 5.56 mm ammo it has a muzzle velocity of .
During training with blank ammunition, a special plug is added to the muzzle of the FAMAS. This plug is necessary for automatic or semi-automatic blank fire operation, and functions by blocking part of the gas used in a blank cartridge.
Rifle grenades
The FAMAS can use a variety of rifle grenades up to 500 grams. Notable examples include the antipersonnel APAV40 and the antitank AC58.
The FAMAS features two alidades for aiming rifle grenades with several modes:
direct fire at 75 or 100 metres, in anti-vehicle role
indirect fire, in anti-personnel role:
with the FAMAS inclined by 45°, allowing fire from 120 to 340 metres
with the FAMAS inclined by 75°, allowing fire from 60 to 170 metres
In indirect fire mode the grenade support (more exactly named "grenade enforcement ring" in French) is moved forwards or backwards on the barrel which has markings (12/13?). This changes the position of the grenade on the barrel and automatically the volume of the chamber in which the gas expands to push the grenade forward. Each position of the grenade support has a number which is multiplied by a certain fixed number depending on the alidade position, 45° or 75°; this will accurately indicate the firing distance of the grenade.
The FAMAS can also accommodate an external grenade launcher as an add-on module under the hand guard; the US M203 grenade launcher is sometimes used.
Service
The FAMAS first saw service in Chad during Operation Manta and again in desert operations during Operation Desert Storm and in other various peacekeeping missions. Officially, operational conditions proved the weapon to be reliable and trustworthy under combat conditions. The FAMAS is affectionately known by French-speaking troops as le Clairon ("the Bugle") because of its shape. An improved version of the FAMAS F1 is integrated in the Félin system.
Senegal and the United Arab Emirates received a small number of FAMAS F1 rifles from France, though it was unknown when they received them. Djibouti uses this weapon in its military and the gendarmerie as the standard infantry weapon. The Philippines also received a limited number and is used by the Philippine National Police Special Action Force.
Conflicts
The FAMAS has been used in the following conflicts:
Replacement
In 2017, the French armed forces began the retirement of the FAMAS in favor of the German-made HK 416 rifle.
When the Manufacture d'Armes de Saint-Etienne (MAS) factory closed in 2002, no more domestic rifles could be made. The last batch of newly produced FAMAS rifles, built in 2002, saw more than a decade of heavy service by 2016. To date, the French armed forces currently use an estimated 400,000 FAMAS F1 and G2 rifles still stored in their arsenal. The military also ceased manufacture of special steel-case ammunition for the FAMAS. Because the FAMAS did not function properly with NATO standard brass-cased ammunition (chamber fluting can allow the F1 to use brass cases but only G2 rifles can use common STANAG magazines), and coupled with concern over the age of existing weapons, the French military sought a replacement for the FAMAS rifle.
In May 2014, the French Ministry of Defense announced a European Union-wide tender for a minimum of 90,000 rifles and carbines to be issued across the entire French armed forces. In August 2016, the Ministry of Defense selected Heckler and Koch's HK416 rifle to replace the FAMAS as the new general-issue service rifle. Under the French contract, the new rifle was designated as the HK416F, with 'F' standing for French version. 16,000 rifles will be annually purchased until a final total of 90,000 to 102,000 rifles are delivered. The new rifles are expected to remain in active French service for at least 30 years.
The FAMAS will be issued to the French National Guard and domestic police units, and will continue to serve in reserve and non-combat units until 2028, when a phaseout of the FAMAS with the HK416 can occur.
Users
: Presidential Guard and Army
: Used by the French Armed Forces since 1979, with over 700,000 rifles purchased. Began to be replaced by the Heckler & Koch HK416 starting in 2017. Also used by several law enforcement agencies.
: Komando Pasukan Katak (KOPASKA) tactical diver group and Komando Pasukan Khusus (Kopassus) special forces group.
: Iraqi insurgents
: Alassane Ouattara's FRCI are said to have received some FAMAS in 2011 but that claim is disputed.
Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front
: A few FAMAS F1s used by loyalist militiamen, Jamaat Jund al-Qawqaz, Islamic State and Kurds
See also
List of bullpup firearms
List of assault rifles
HS Produkt VHS
Sources and references
External links
Official Nexter FAMAS page
Buddy Hinton FAMAS Photo Collection
FELIN article, with FAMAS pictured as part of FELIN system
Modern Firearms
REMTEK
FAMAS
The Firearm blog: R.I.P General Paul Tellié, father of the FAMAS
Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (MANUAL) FAMAS .223 Manual (.pdf)
5.56×45mm NATO assault rifles
Bullpup rifles
Cold War weapons of France
Lever-delayed blowback firearms
Military equipment introduced in the 1980s
Nexter Systems
Assault rifles of France
Rifles of the Cold War
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1978 | [
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|
236848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccalaureate | Baccalaureate | Baccalaureate may refer to:
Baccalauréat, a French national academic qualification
Bachelor's degree, or baccalaureate, an undergraduate academic degree
English Baccalaureate, a performance measure to assess secondary schools in England
European Baccalaureate, a bilingual educational diploma, awarded by a European School
French-German Baccalaureate, a secondary school diploma awarded by Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium
International Baccalaureate, a non-profit foundation
IB Diploma Programme
Romanian Baccalaureate, Romania's national secondary-school diploma
Spanish Baccalaureate, the post-16 stage of education in Spain
Tunisian Baccalaureate, a national examination in Tunisia
Welsh Baccalaureate Qualification, an educational qualification in secondary schools and colleges across Wales
See also
Baccalaureate service, a Christian celebration that honors a graduating class | [
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236849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest%20rate%20swap | Interest rate swap | In finance, an interest rate swap (IRS) is an interest rate derivative (IRD). It involves exchange of interest rates between two parties. In particular it is a "linear" IRD and one of the most liquid, benchmark products. It has associations with forward rate agreements (FRAs), and with zero coupon swaps (ZCSs).
In its December 2014 statistics release, the Bank for International Settlements reported that interest rate swaps were the largest component of the global OTC derivative market, representing 60%, with the notional amount outstanding in OTC interest rate swaps of $381 trillion, and the gross market value of $14 trillion.
Interest rate swaps can be traded as an index through the FTSE MTIRS Index.
Interest rate swaps
General description
An interest rate swap's (IRS's) effective description is a derivative contract, agreed between two counterparties, which specifies the nature of an exchange of payments benchmarked against an interest rate index.
The most common IRS is a fixed for floating swap, whereby one party will make payments to the other based on an initially agreed fixed rate of interest, to receive back payments based on a floating interest rate index.
Each of these series of payments is termed a "leg", so a typical IRS has both a fixed and a floating leg.
The floating index is commonly an interbank offered rate (IBOR) of specific tenor in the appropriate currency of the IRS, for example LIBOR in GBP, EURIBOR in EUR, or STIBOR in SEK.
To completely determine any IRS a number of parameters must be specified for each leg:
the notional principal amount (or varying notional schedule);
the start and end dates, value-, trade- and settlement dates, and date scheduling (date rolling);
the fixed rate (i.e. "swap rate", sometimes quoted as a "swap spread" over a benchmark);
the chosen floating interest rate index tenor;
the day count conventions for interest calculations.
Each currency has its own standard market conventions regarding the frequency of payments, the day count conventions and the end-of-month rule.
Extended description
As OTC instruments, interest rate swaps (IRSs) can be customised in a number of ways and can be structured to meet the specific needs of the counterparties.
For example: payment dates could be irregular, the notional of the swap could be amortized over time, reset dates (or fixing dates) of the floating rate could be irregular, mandatory break clauses may be inserted into the contract, etc.
A common form of customisation is often present in new issue swaps where the fixed leg cashflows are designed to replicate those cashflows received as the coupons on a purchased bond.
The interbank market, however, only has a few standardised types.
There is no consensus on the scope of naming convention for different types of IRS.
Even a wide description of IRS contracts only includes those whose legs are denominated in the same currency.
It is generally accepted that swaps of similar nature whose legs are denominated in different currencies are called cross currency basis swaps.
Swaps which are determined on a floating rate index in one currency but whose payments are denominated in another currency are called Quantos.
In traditional interest rate derivative terminology an IRS is a fixed leg versus floating leg derivative contract referencing an IBOR as the floating leg.
If the floating leg is redefined to be an overnight index, such as EONIA, SONIA, FFOIS, etc. then this type of swap is generally referred to as an overnight indexed swap (OIS).
Some financial literature may classify OISs as a subset of IRSs and other literature may recognise a distinct separation.
Fixed leg versus fixed leg swaps are rare, and generally constitute a form of specialised loan agreement.
Float leg versus float leg swaps are much more common. These are typically termed (single currency) basis swaps (SBSs). The legs on SBSs will necessarily be different interest indexes, such as 1M, LIBOR, 3M LIBOR, 6M LIBOR, SONIA, etc. The pricing of these swaps requires a spread often quoted in basis points to be added to one of the floating legs in order to satisfy value equivalence.
Uses
Interest rate swaps are used to hedge against or speculate on changes in interest rates.
Interest rate swaps are also used speculatively by hedge funds or other investors who expect a change in interest rates or the relationships between them. Traditionally, fixed income investors who expected rates to fall would purchase cash bonds, whose value increased as rates fell. Today, investors with a similar view could enter a floating-for-fixed interest rate swap; as rates fall, investors would pay a lower floating rate in exchange for the same fixed rate.
Interest rate swaps are also popular for the arbitrage opportunities they provide. Varying levels of creditworthiness means that there is often a positive quality spread differential that allows both parties to benefit from an interest rate swap.
The interest rate swap market in USD is closely linked to the Eurodollar futures market which trades among others at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange.
Valuation and pricing
IRSs are bespoke financial products whose customisation can include changes to payment dates, notional changes (such as those in amortised IRSs), accrual period adjustment and calculation convention changes (such as a day count convention of 30/360E to ACT/360 or ACT/365).
A vanilla IRS is the term used for standardised IRSs. Typically these will have none of the above customisations, and instead exhibit constant notional throughout, implied payment and accrual dates and benchmark calculation conventions by currency. A vanilla IRS is also characterised by one leg being 'fixed' and the second leg 'floating' referencing an -IBOR index. The net present value (PV) of a vanilla IRS can be computed by determining the PV of each fixed leg and floating leg separately and summing. For pricing a mid-market IRS the underlying principle is that the two legs must have the same value initially; see further under Rational pricing.
Calculating the fixed leg requires discounting all of the known cashflows by an appropriate discount factor:
where is the notional, is the fixed rate, is the number of payments, is the decimalised day count fraction of the accrual in the i'th period, and is the discount factor associated with the payment date of the i'th period.
Calculating the floating leg is a similar process replacing the fixed rate with forecast index rates:
where is the number of payments of the floating leg and are the forecast -IBOR index rates of the appropriate currency.
The PV of the IRS from the perspective of receiving the fixed leg is then:
Historically IRSs were valued using discount factors derived from the same curve used to forecast the -IBOR rates. This has been called 'self-discounted'. Some early literature described some incoherence introduced by that approach and multiple banks were using different techniques to reduce them. It became more apparent with the 2007–2012 global financial crisis that the approach was not appropriate, and alignment towards discount factors associated with physical collateral of the IRSs was needed.
Post crisis, to accommodate credit risk, the now-standard pricing approach is the multi-curve framework where forecast -IBOR rates and discount factors exhibit disparity.
Note that the economic pricing principle is unchanged: leg values are still identical at initiation. See Financial economics § Derivative pricing for further context.
Here, Overnight Index Swap (OIS) rates are typically used to derive discount factors, since that index is the standard inclusion on Credit Support Annexes (CSAs) to determine the rate of interest payable on collateral for IRS contracts. As regards the rates forecast, since the basis spread between LIBOR rates of different maturities widened during the crisis, forecast curves are generally constructed for each LIBOR tenor used in floating rate derivative legs.
Regarding the curve build, see:
Under the old framework a single self discounted curve was "bootstrapped" for each tenor;
i.e.: solved such that it exactly returned the observed prices of selected instruments - IRSs, with FRAs in the short end -
with the build proceeding sequentially, date-wise, through these instruments.
Under the new framework, the various curves are best fitted to observed market prices — as a "curve set" — one curve for discounting, one for each IBOR-tenor "forecast curve",
and the build is then based on quotes for IRSs and OISs (FRAs included as before).
Here, since the observed average overnight rate is swapped for the -IBOR rate over the same period (the most liquid tenor in that market), and the -IBOR IRSs are in turn discounted on the OIS curve, the problem entails a nonlinear system, where all curve points are solved at once, and specialized iterative methods are usually employed — very often a modification of Newton's method.
The curves for other tenors can be solved in a "second stage", bootstrap-style.
Under both frameworks, the following apply.
(i) Maturities for which rates are solved directly are referred to as "pillar points", these correspond to the input instrument maturities; other rates are interpolated, often using Hermitic splines.
(ii) The objective function: prices must be "exactly" returned, as described.
(iii) The penalty function will weigh: that forward rates are positive (to be arbitrage free) and curve "smoothness"; both, in turn, a function of the interpolation method.
(iv) The initial estimate: usually, the most recently solved curve set.
((v) All that need be stored are the solved spot rates for the pillars, and the interpolation rule.)
A CSA could allow for collateral, and hence interest payments on that collateral, in any currency.
To accommodate this, banks include in their curve-set a USD discount-curve — sometimes called the "basis-curve" — to be used for discounting local-IBOR trades with USD collateral.
This curve is built by solving for observed (mark-to-market) cross-currency swap rates, where the local -IBOR is swapped for USD LIBOR with USD collateral as underpin;
a pre-solved (external) USD LIBOR curve is therefore an input into the curve build (the basis-curve may be solved in the "third stage").
Each currency's curve-set will then include a local-currency discount-curve and its USD discounting basis-curve.
As required, a third-currency discount curve — i.e. for local trades collateralized in a currency other than local or USD (or any other combination) — can then be constructed from the local-currency basis-curve and third-currency basis-curve, combined via an arbitrage relationship known as "FX Forward Invariance".
LIBOR is due to be phased out by the end of 2021, with replacements including SOFR and TONAR.
With the coexistence of “old” and “new” rates in the market, multi-curve and OIS curve "management" is necessary, with changes required to incorporate new discounting and compounding conventions, while the underlying logic is unaffected; see.
The complexities of modern curvesets mean that there may not be discount factors available for a specific -IBOR index curve. These curves are known as 'forecast only' curves and only contain the information of a forecast -IBOR index rate for any future date. Some designs constructed with a discount based methodology mean forecast -IBOR index rates are implied by the discount factors inherent to that curve:
where and are the start and end discount factors associated with the relevant forward curve of a particular -IBOR index in a given currency.
To price the mid-market or par rate, of an IRS (defined by the value of fixed rate that gives a net PV of zero), the above formula is re-arranged to:
In the event old methodologies are applied the discount factors can be replaced with the self discounted values and the above reduces to:
In both cases, the PV of a general swap can be expressed exactly with the following intuitive formula:
where is the so-called Annuity factor (or for self-discounting). This shows that the PV of an IRS is roughly linear in the swap par rate (though small non-linearities arise from the co-dependency of the swap rate with the discount factors in the Annuity sum).
During the life of the swap the same valuation technique is used, but since, over time, both the discounting factors and the forward rates change, the PV of the swap will deviate from its initial value. Therefore, the swap will be an asset to one party and a liability to the other.
The way these changes in value are reported is the subject of IAS 39 for jurisdictions following IFRS, and FAS 133 for U.S. GAAP.
Swaps are marked to market by debt security traders to visualize their inventory at a certain time.
As regards P&L Attribution, and hedging, the new framework adds complexity in that the trader's position is now potentially affected by numerous instruments not obviously related to the trade in question.
Risks
Interest rate swaps expose users to many different types of financial risk.
Predominantly they expose the user to market risks and specifically interest rate risk.
The value of an interest rate swap will change as market interest rates rise and fall. In market terminology this is often referred to as delta risk.
Interest rate swaps also exhibit gamma risk whereby their delta risk increases or decreases as market interest rates fluctuate.
(See Greeks (finance), Value at risk #Computation methods, Value at risk #VaR risk management. )
Other specific types of market risk that interest rate swaps have exposure to are basis risks - where various IBOR tenor indexes can deviate from one another -
and reset risks - where the publication of specific tenor IBOR indexes are subject to daily fluctuation.
Uncollateralised interest rate swaps - those executed bilaterally without a CSA in place - expose the trading counterparties to funding risks and credit risks.
Funding risks because the value of the swap might deviate to become so negative that it is unaffordable and cannot be funded.
Credit risks because the respective counterparty, for whom the value of the swap is positive, will be concerned about the opposing counterparty defaulting on its obligations. Collateralised interest rate swaps, on the other hand, expose the users to collateral risks: here, depending upon the terms of the CSA, the type of posted collateral that is permitted might become more or less expensive due to other extraneous market movements.
Credit and funding risks still exist for collateralised trades but to a much lesser extent.
Regardless, due to regulations set out in the Basel III Regulatory Frameworks, trading interest rate derivatives commands a capital usage. The consequence of this is that, dependent upon their specific nature, interest rate swaps might command more capital usage, and this can deviate with market movements. Thus capital risks are another concern for users.
Given these concerns, banks will typically calculate a credit valuation adjustment, as well as other x-valuation adjustments, which then incorporate these risks into the instrument value.
Reputation risks also exist. The mis-selling of swaps, over-exposure of municipalities to derivative contracts, and IBOR manipulation are examples of high-profile cases where trading interest rate swaps has led to a loss of reputation and fines by regulators.
Hedging interest rate swaps can be complicated and relies on numerical processes of well designed risk models to suggest reliable benchmark trades that mitigate all market risks; although, see the discussion above re hedging in a multi-curve environment. The other, aforementioned risks must be hedged using other systematic processes.
Quotation and Market-Making
ICE Swap Rate
ICE Swap rate replaced the rate formerly known as ISDAFIX in 2015. Swap Rate benchmark rates are calculated using eligible prices and volumes for specified interest rate derivative products. The prices are provided by trading venues in accordance with a “Waterfall” Methodology. The first level of the Waterfall (“Level 1”) uses eligible, executable prices and volumes provided by regulated, electronic, trading venues. Multiple, randomised snapshots of market data are taken during a short window before calculation. This enhances the benchmark's robustness and reliability by protecting against attempted manipulation and temporary aberrations in the underlying market.
Market-Making
The market-making of IRSs is an involved process involving multiple tasks; curve construction with reference to interbank markets, individual derivative contract pricing, risk management of credit, cash and capital. The cross disciplines required include quantitative analysis and mathematical expertise, disciplined and organized approach towards profits and losses, and coherent psychological and subjective assessment of financial market information and price-taker analysis. The time sensitive nature of markets also creates a pressurized environment. Many tools and techniques have been designed to improve efficiency of market-making in a drive to efficiency and consistency.
Controversy
In June 1988 the Audit Commission was tipped off by someone working on the swaps desk of Goldman Sachs that the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham had a massive exposure to interest rate swaps. When the commission contacted the council, the chief executive told them not to worry as "everybody knows that interest rates are going to fall"; the treasurer thought the interest rate swaps were a "nice little earner". The Commission's Controller, Howard Davies, realised that the council had put all of its positions on interest rates going down and ordered an investigation.
By January 1989 the Commission obtained legal opinions from two Queen's Counsel. Although they did not agree, the commission preferred the opinion that it was ultra vires for councils to engage in interest rate swaps (ie. that they had no lawful power to do so). Moreover, interest rates had increased from 8% to 15%. The auditor and the commission then went to court and had the contracts declared void (appeals all the way up to the House of Lords failed in Hazell v Hammersmith and Fulham LBC); the five banks involved lost millions of pounds. Many other local authorities had been engaging in interest rate swaps in the 1980s. This resulted in several cases in which the banks generally lost their claims for compound interest on debts to councils, finalised in Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington London Borough Council. Banks did, however, recover some funds where the derivatives were "in the money" for the Councils (ie, an asset showing a profit for the council, which it now had to return to the bank, not a debt).
The controversy surrounding interest rate swaps reached a peak in the UK during the financial crisis where banks sold unsuitable interest rate hedging products on a large scale to SMEs. The practice has been widely criticised by the media and Parliament.
See also
Swap rate
Interest rate cap and floor
Equity swap
Total return swap
Inflation derivative
Eurodollar
Constant maturity swap
FTSE MTIRS Index
Further reading
General:
Richard Flavell (2010). Swaps and other derivatives (2nd ed.) Wiley.
Miron P. & Swannell P. (1991). Pricing and Hedging Swaps, Euromoney books.
Early literature on the incoherence of the one curve pricing approach:
Boenkost W. and Schmidt W. (2004). Cross Currency Swap Valuation, Working Paper 2, HfB - Business School of Finance & Management SSRN preprint.
Henrard M. (2007). The Irony in the Derivatives Discounting, Wilmott Magazine, pp. 92–98, July 2007. SSRN preprint.
Henrard M. (2010). The Irony in the Derivatives Discounting Part II: The Crisis, Wilmott Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 301–316, 2010. SSRN preprint.
Tuckman B. and Porfirio P. (2003). Interest Rate Parity, Money Market Basis Swaps and Cross-Currency Basis Swaps, Fixed income liquid markets research, Lehman Brothers
Multi-curves framework:
Bianchetti M. (2010). Two Curves, One Price: Pricing & Hedging Interest Rate Derivatives Decoupling Forwarding and Discounting Yield Curves, Risk Magazine, August 2010. SSRN preprint.
Henrard M. (2014) Interest Rate Modelling in the Multi-curve Framework: Foundations, Evolution, and Implementation. Palgrave Macmillan. Applied Quantitative Finance series. June 2014. .
Kijima M., Tanaka K., and Wong T. (2009). A Multi-Quality Model of Interest Rates, Quantitative Finance, pages 133-145, 2009.
References
External links
Pricing and Trading Interest Rate Derivatives by J H M Darbyshire
Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Financial Markets Group
Bank for International Settlements - Semiannual OTC derivatives statistics
Glossary - Interest rate swap glossary
Investopedia - Spreadlock - An interest rate swap future (not an option)
Basic Fixed Income Derivative Hedging - Article on Financial-edu.com.
Hussman Funds - Freight Trains and Steep Curves
Historical LIBOR Swaps data
"All about money rates in the world: Real estate interest rates", WorldwideInterestRates.com
Interest Rate Swap Calculators and Portfolio Management Tool
Derivatives (finance)
Swap
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|
236850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict%20of%20interest | Conflict of interest | A conflict of interest (COI) is a situation in which a person or organization is involved in multiple interests, financial or otherwise, and serving one interest could involve working against another. Typically, this relates to situations in which the personal interest of an individual or organization might adversely affect a duty owed to make decisions for the benefit of a third party.
An "interest" is a commitment, obligation, duty or goal associated with a particular social role or practice. By definition, a "conflict of interest" occurs if, within a particular decision-making context, an individual is subject to two coexisting interests that are in direct conflict with each other. Such a matter is of importance because under such circumstances the decision-making process can be disrupted or compromised in a manner that affects the integrity or the reliability of the outcomes.
Typically, a conflict of interest arises when an individual finds himself or herself occupying two social roles simultaneously which generate opposing benefits or loyalties. The interests involved can be pecuniary or non-pecuniary. The existence of such conflicts is an objective fact, not a state of mind, and does not in itself indicate any lapse or moral error. However, especially where a decision is being taken in a fiduciary context, it is important that the contending interests be clearly identified and the process for separating them is rigorously established. Typically, this will involve the conflicted individual either giving up one of the conflicting roles or else recusing himself or herself from the particular decision-making process that is in question.
The presence of a conflict of interest is independent of the occurrence of inappropriateness. Therefore, a conflict of interest can be discovered and voluntarily defused before any corruption occurs. A conflict of interest exists if the circumstances are reasonably believed (on the basis of past experience and objective evidence) to create a risk that a decision may be unduly influenced by other, secondary interests, and not on whether a particular individual is actually influenced by a secondary interest.
A widely used definition is: "A conflict of interest is a set of circumstances that creates a risk that professional judgement or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary interest." Primary interest refers to the principal goals of the profession or activity, such as the protection of clients, the health of patients, the integrity of research, and the duties of public officer. Secondary interest includes personal benefit and is not limited to only financial gain but also such motives as the desire for professional advancement, or the wish to do favours for family and friends. These secondary interests are not treated as wrong in and of themselves, but become objectionable when they are believed to have greater weight than the primary interests. Conflict of interest rules in the public sphere mainly focus on financial relationships since they are relatively more objective, fungible, and quantifiable, and usually involve the political, legal, and medical fields.
Related to the practice of law
Conflict of interests have been described as the most pervasive issue facing modern lawyers. Legal conflicts rules are at their core corollaries to a lawyer's two basic fiduciary duties: (1) the duty of loyalty and (2) the duty to preserve client confidences. The lawyer's duty of loyalty is fundamental to the attorney-client relationship and has developed from the biblical maxim that no person can serve more than one master. Just as fundamental is the lawyer's duty to maintain client confidences, which protects clients' legitimate expectations that they can make full disclosure of all facts to their attorneys without fear of exposure.
The basic formulation of the conflicts of interest rule is that a conflict exists "if there is a substantial risk that the lawyer's representation of the client would be materially and adversely affected by the lawyer's own interests or by the lawyers' duties to another current client, a former client, or a third person." The duty of loyalty requires an attorney not to act directly adverse to an existing client, even on an unrelated matter where the lawyer has no client confidences. Such a loyalty conflict has been labeled a concurrent conflict of interest. The duty of confidentiality is protected in rules prohibiting so-called successive conflicts of interest, when a lawyer proposes to act adversely to the interests of a former client. A lawyer who has formerly represented a client in a matter is precluded from representing another person in the same or a substantially related matter that is materially adverse to the former client. These two basic formulations – that a lawyer may not act directly adverse to a current client or adverse to a former client on a substantially related matter – form the cornerstone of modern legal conflicts of interest rules.
Concurrent conflicts of interest
Direct adversity to current client
An attorney owes the client undivided loyalty. The courts have described this principle as "integral to the nature of an attorney's duty." Without undivided loyalty, irreparable damage may be done "to the existing client's sense of trust and security – features essential to the effective functioning of the fiduciary relationship…" A key feature of the duty of loyalty is that an attorney may not act directly adverse to a current client or represent a litigation adversary of the client in an unrelated matter. The damage done is to the client's confidence that the lawyer is serving his or her interests faithfully. The most obvious example of a lawyer acting directly adverse to a client is when the lawyer sues the client. At the other end of the spectrum is when a lawyer represents business competitors of the client who are not adverse to it in a lawsuit or negotiation. Representing business competitors of a client in unrelated matters does not constitute direct adversity nor give rise to a loyalty conflict. As one state bar ethics committee has noted:
Direct adversity may arise in litigation when an attorney sues a client or defends an adversary in an action his or her client has brought. It may also arise in the context of business negotiations, when a lawyer negotiates on behalf of an adversary against a current client, even if the matter is unrelated to any matter the lawyer is handling for the client. However, merely advocating opposite sides of the same legal issue does not give rise to direct adversity. Even if a lawyer's advocacy in an unrelated matter may make unfavorable law for another client, such effects are only indirect and not subject to the conflicts rules. There is no conflict in advocating positions that may turn out to be unfavorable to another client so long as the lawyer is not directly litigating or negotiating against that client.
Identity of the client - corporations
One of the most frequently arising questions in corporate practice is whether parent corporations and their subsidiaries are to be treated as the same or different entities for conflicts purposes. The first authority to rule on this question was the California State Bar Ethics Committee, which issued a formal opinion ruling that parent corporations and their subsidiaries are to be considered distinct entities for conflicts purposes. The California committee considered a situation where an attorney undertook a representation directly adverse to the wholly owned subsidiary of a client, when the lawyer did not represent the subsidiary. Relying on the entity as client framework in Model Rule 1.13, the California committee opined that there was no conflict as long as the parent and subsidiary did not have a "sufficient unity of interests." The committee announced the following standard for evaluating the separateness of parent and subsidiary:
As one commentator has noted, "For a state ethics opinion, California Opinion 1989-113 has been unusually influential, both with courts there, with ethics committees elsewhere, and through the latter set of ethics committee opinions, with… recent decisions in other jurisdictions." The California opinion has been followed by ethics committees in such jurisdictions as New York, Illinois and the District of Columbia, and served as the basis of ABA Formal Ethics Opinion 95-390. The law in most jurisdictions is that parent corporations and their subsidiaries are treated as distinct entities, except in limited circumstances noted by the California ethics committee where they have a unity of interests.
The Second Circuit has adopted a variation of the California standard. In GSI Commerce Solutions, Inc. v. BabyCenter LLC, the court ruled that parent corporations and their subsidiaries should be treated as the same entity for conflicts purposes when both companies rely "on the same in-house legal department to handle their legal affairs." However, the court ruled that the lawyer and client can contract around this default standard. The court quoted with approval the opinion of the City of New York Committee on Professional and Judicial Ethics, which stated, "corporate family conflicts may be averted by ... an engagement letter ... that delineates which affiliates, if any, of a corporate client the law firm represents..."
Material limitation conflicts
A concurrent conflict will also exist when "there is a significant risk that the representation of one or more clients will be materially limited by the lawyer's responsibilities to another client, a former client or a third person or by a personal interest of the lawyer." Comment 8 to Model Rule 1.7 states, by way of example, that an attorney representing multiple persons forming a joint venture may be materially limited in recommending the courses of action that any jointly represented client may take because of the lawyer's duty to the other participants in the joint venture.
The Supreme Court of Minnesota found a material limitation conflict in In re Petition for Disciplinary Action Against Christopher Thomas Kalla. In Kalla, an attorney was disciplined for representing a borrower bringing suit against her lender for charging a usurious interest rate while simultaneously representing the mortgage broker who arranged the loan as a third party defendant in the same lawsuit. Although neither client had brought an action against the other, the court found a material limitation conflict: "Advocating for Client A would potentially harm Client B, who was potentially liable for contribution. Kalla's ability to fully advocate for both was materially limited by Kalla's dual representation."
Consent to concurrent conflicts of interest
Consent to current conflicts
A concurrent conflict of interest may be resolved if four conditions are met. They are:
the lawyer reasonably believes that the lawyer will be able to provide competent and diligent representation to each affected client;
the representation is not prohibited by law;
the representation does not involve the assertion of a claim by one client against another client represented by the lawyer in the same litigation or other proceeding before a tribunal; and
each affected client gives informed consent, confirmed in writing.
Informed consent requires that each affected client be fully advised about the material ways that the representation could adversely affect that client. In joint representations, the information provided should include the interests of the lawyer and other affected client, the courses of action that could be foreclosed due to the joint representation, the potential danger that the client's confidential information might be disclosed, and the potential consequences if the lawyer had to withdraw at a later stage in the proceedings. Merely telling the client that there are conflicts, without further explanation, is not adequate disclosure. The lawyer must fully disclose the potential impairment to the lawyer's loyalty and explain how another unconflicted attorney might better serve the client's interests.
Prospective consent to future conflicts
It is not unusual in the current legal environment of large multinational and global law firms for the firms to seek advance or prospective waivers of future conflicts from their clients. A law firm is particularly likely to seek a prospective waiver when a large corporation seeks the specialized knowledge of the firm in a small matter, without a high likelihood of repeat business. As the ABA stated in its Ethics Opinion 93-372:
Prospective waivers are most likely to be upheld by the courts when they are given by sophisticated corporate clients represented by independent counsel in the negotiation of the waiver. However, in Sheppard, Mullin, Richter & Hampton, LLP v. J-M Manufacturing Co., the California Supreme court held that a prospective waiver that did not make specific disclosure of an actual current conflict was not effective to waive that conflict. As the court said,
The Sheppard Mullin case does not invalidate prospective waivers in California. It only holds that waivers of current and actual conflicts must specifically disclose those conflicts, an unremarkable conclusion.
The hot potato doctrine
If a client will not consent to a conflict and allow a lawyer to take on another representation, the lawyer cannot then withdraw from the existing representation, thus turning the existing client into a former client and ending the duty of loyalty. As the courts have stated, the lawyer cannot "drop a client like a hot potato" to cure a conflict. This label has stuck, and the doctrine is now aptly called the "hot potato" doctrine. However, as one commentator has pointed out, the reasoning underlying this line of cases has been sparse, and few courts have attempted to justify this result through an analysis of the ethics rules. The unstated rationale behind the Hot Potato doctrine is that a withdrawal attempted without good cause under Model Rule 1.16(b) is an ineffective withdrawal, which does not successfully terminate the existing attorney-client relationship. When viewed in this light, a withdrawal accomplished with good cause should be an effective withdrawal that does permit a lawyer to take on a representation that would otherwise be conflicting, as long as there is no substantial relationship with the prior matter. The standard used to assess conflicts involving such former clients will be discussed in the next section.
Successive conflicts of interest
The substantial relationship test
Conflicts of interest rules involving former clients are primarily designed to enforce the attorney's duty to preserve a client's confidential information. Model Rule 1.9(a) sets forth this doctrine in a rule that has come to be known as the substantial relationship test. The rule states:
Without the substantial relationship test, a client attempting to prove that its former lawyer possesses its confidential information might have to disclose publicly the very confidential information it is trying to protect. The substantial relationship test was designed to protect against such disclosures. Under this test, the attorney's possession of the former client's confidential information is presumed if "confidential information material to the current dispute would normally have been imparted to the attorney by virtue of the nature of the former representation." The substantial relationship test reconstructs whether confidential information was likely to imparted by the former client to the lawyer by analyzing "the similarities between the two factual situations, the legal questions posed, and the nature and extent of the attorney's involvement with the cases."
Imputation of conflicts
The conflicts of an individual lawyer are imputed to all attorneys who "are associated with that lawyer in rendering legal services to others through a law partnership, professional corporation, sole proprietorship, or similar association." This imputation of conflicts can lead to difficulties when attorneys from one law firm leave and join another firm. The issue then arises whether the conflicts of the itinerant lawyer's former firm are imputed to his or her new firm.
In Kirk v. First American Title Co., the court ruled that an itinerant lawyer's conflicts are not imputed to his or her new law firm if that firm timely sets up an effective ethics screen preventing the lawyers from imparting any confidential information to the lawyers in the new firm. An effective ethics screen rebuts the presumption that the itinerant lawyers shared confidential information with the lawyers in the new firm. The components of an effective ethics screen, as described by the court in Kirk, are:
physical, geographic, and departmental separation of attorneys;
prohibitions against and sanctions for discussing confidential matters;
established rules and procedures preventing access to confidential information and files;
procedures preventing a disqualified attorney from sharing in the profits from the representation;
continuing education in professional responsibility.
Judicial disqualification, also referred to as recusal, refers to the act of abstaining from participation in an official action such as a court case/legal proceeding due to a conflict of interest of the presiding court official or administrative officer. Applicable statutes or canons of ethics may provide standards for recusal in a given proceeding or matter. Providing that the judge or presiding officer must be free from disabling conflicts of interest makes the fairness of the proceedings less likely to be questioned.
In the practice of law, the duty of loyalty owed to a client prohibits an attorney (or a law firm) from representing any other party with interests adverse to those of a current client. The few exceptions to this rule require informed written consent from all affected clients, i.e., an "ethical wall". In some circumstances, a conflict of interest can never be waived by a client. In perhaps the most common example encountered by the general public, the same firm should not represent both parties in a divorce or child custody matter. Found conflict can lead to denial or disgorgement of legal fees, or in some cases (such as the failure to make mandatory disclosure), criminal proceedings. In 1998, a Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy partner was found guilty of failing to disclose a conflict of interest, disbarred, and sentenced to 15 months of imprisonment. In the United States, a law firm usually cannot represent a client if the client's interests conflict with those of another client, even if the two clients are represented by separate lawyers within the firm, unless (in some jurisdictions) the lawyer is segregated from the rest of the firm for the duration of the conflict. Law firms often employ software in conjunction with their case management and accounting systems in order to meet their duties to monitor their conflict of interest exposure and to assist in obtaining waivers.
Generally (unrelated to the practice of law)
More generally, conflicts of interest can be defined as any situation in which an individual or corporation (either private or governmental) is in a position to exploit a professional or official capacity in some way for their personal or corporate benefit.
Depending upon the law or rules related to a particular organization, the existence of a conflict of interest may not, in and of itself, be evidence of wrongdoing. In fact, for many professionals, it is virtually impossible to avoid having conflicts of interest from time to time. A conflict of interest can, however, become a legal matter, for example, when an individual tries (and/or succeeds in) influencing the outcome of a decision, for personal benefit. A director or executive of a corporation will be subject to legal liability if a conflict of interest breaches his/her duty of loyalty.
There often is confusion over these two situations. Someone accused of a conflict of interest may deny that a conflict exists because he/she did not act improperly. In fact, a conflict of interest can exist even if there are no improper acts as a result of it. (One way to understand this is to use the term "conflict of roles". A person with two roles—an individual who owns stock and is also a government official, for example—may experience situations where those two roles conflict. The conflict can be mitigated—see below—but it still exists. In and of itself, having two roles is not illegal, but the differing roles will certainly provide an incentive for improper acts in some circumstances.)
As an example, in the sphere of business and control, according to the Institute of Internal Auditors:
A few examples of conflict of interest are:
When a member of the commissioners of a state highway commission owns a piece of property where the state will have to condemn it. The conflict of interest comes in because the commission will want to acquire the property at the lowest possible price (subject to it being at least fair market value) while as the property owner, they are going to want the highest possible price they can get.
When an officer or director of a corporation owns a patent or copyright which either was developed before they were involved with the corporation (which means it cannot be subject to a contractual right of assignment or work for hire) or that it was developed for a type of product not related to the scope of their employment. As an author or inventor, they are going to want a large license fee or royalty, while as an officer of the corporation they are expected to offer as little as possible.
A judge deciding a bench trial or arbitrator in binding arbitration must not decide a case where a relative, acquaintance, or business partner is a party. Because they may give overly favorable terms to that party, or where they might impose excessively harsh terms (such as a judge having their estranged child, parent, or ex-spouse as a criminal defendant being sentenced before them.)
Conflict of interest in UN Security Council
Conflict of Interest exists even in UN (United Nations Security Council) regarding United Nations Security Council veto power.
Organizational
An organizational conflict of interest (OCI) may exist in the same way as described above, for instance where a corporation provides two types of service to the government and these services conflict (e.g.: manufacturing parts and then participating on a selection committee comparing parts manufacturers). Corporations may develop simple or complex systems to mitigate the risk or perceived risk of a conflict of interest. These risks can be evaluated by a government agency (for example, in a U.S. Government RFP) to determine whether the risks create a substantial advantage to the organization in question over its competition, or will decrease the overall competitiveness of the bidding process.
Conflict of interest in the health care industry
The influence of the pharmaceutical industry on medical research has been a major cause for concern. In 2009 a study found that "a number of academic institutions" do not have clear guidelines for relationships between Institutional Review Boards and industry.
In contrast to this viewpoint, an article and associated editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine in May 2015 emphasized the importance of pharmaceutical industry-physician interactions for the development of novel treatments, and argued that moral outrage over industry malfeasance had unjustifiably led many to overemphasize the problems created by financial conflicts of interest. The article noted that major healthcare organizations such as National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health, the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, the World Economic Forum, the Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the Food and Drug Administration had encouraged greater interactions between physicians and industry in order to bring greater benefits to patients.
Types
The following are the most common forms of conflicts of interests:
Self-dealing, in which an official who controls an organization causes it to enter into a transaction with the official, or with another organization that benefits the official only. The official is on both sides of the "deal."
Outside employment, in which the interests of one job conflict with another.
Nepotism, in which a spouse, child, or other close relative is employed (or applies for employment) by an individual, or where goods or services are purchased from a relative or from a firm controlled by a relative. To avoid nepotism in hiring, many employment applications ask if the applicant is related to a current employee of the company. This allows recusal if the employed relative has a role in the hiring process. If this is the case, the relative could then recuse from any hiring decisions.
Gifts from friends who also do business with the person receiving the gifts or from individuals or corporations who do business with the organization in which the gift recipient is employed. Such gifts may include non-tangible things of value such as transportation and lodging.
Pump and dump, in which a stock broker who owns a security artificially inflates the price by "upgrading" it or spreading rumors, sells the security and adds short position, then "downgrades" the security or spreads negative rumors to push the price down.
Other improper acts that are sometimes classified as conflicts of interests may have better classification. For example, accepting bribes can be classified as corruption, use of government or corporate property or assets for personal use is fraud, and unauthorized distribution of confidential information is a security breach. For these improper acts, there is no inherent conflict.
COI is sometimes termed competition of interest rather than "conflict", emphasizing a connotation of natural competition between valid interests—rather than the classical definition of conflict, which would include by definition including a victim and unfair aggression. Nevertheless, this denotation of conflict of interest is not generally seen.
Examples
Environmental hazards and human health
Baker summarized 176 studies of the potential impact of Bisphenol A on human health as follows:
Lessig noted that this does not mean that the funding source influenced the results. However, it does raise questions about the validity of the industry-funded studies specifically, because the researchers conducting those studies have a conflict of interest; they are subject at minimum to a natural human inclination to please the people who paid for their work. Lessig provided a similar summary of 326 studies of the potential harm from cell phone usage with results that were similar but not as stark.
Self-regulation
Self-regulation of any group may also be a conflict of interest. If an entity, such as a corporation or government bureaucracy, is asked to eliminate unethical behavior within their own group, it may be in their interest in the short run to eliminate the appearance of unethical behavior, rather than the behavior itself, by keeping any ethical breaches hidden, instead of exposing and correcting them. An exception occurs when the ethical breach is already known by the public. In that case, it could be in the group's interest to end the ethical problem to which the public has knowledge, but keep remaining breaches hidden.
Insurance claims adjusters
Insurance companies retain claims adjusters to represent their interest in adjusting claims. It is in the best interest of the insurance companies that the very smallest settlement is reached with its claimants. Based on the adjuster's experience and knowledge of the insurance policy it is very easy for the adjuster to convince an unknowing claimant to settle for less than what they may otherwise be entitled which could be a larger settlement. There is always a very good chance of a conflict of interest to exist when one adjuster tries to represent both sides of a financial transaction such as an insurance claim. This problem is exacerbated when the claimant is told, or believes, the insurance company's claims adjuster is fair and impartial enough to satisfy both theirs and the insurance company's interests. These types of conflicts could easily be avoided by the use of a third party platform that is independent of the insurers and is agreed to, and named in the policy.
Purchasing agents and sales personnel
A person working as the equipment purchaser for a company may get a bonus proportionate to the amount he's under budget by year end. However, this becomes an incentive for him to purchase inexpensive, substandard equipment. Therefore, this is counter to the interests of those in his company who must actually use the equipment. W. Edwards Deming listed "purchasing on price alone" as number 4 of his famous 14 points, and he often said things to the effect that "He who purchases on price alone deserves to get rooked."
Real estate agents
Real estate brokers have an inherent conflict of interest with the sellers they represent, because the usual commission structures of brokers motivate them to sell quickly rather than to sell at a higher price. However, a broker representing a buyer has a distinct disincentive to negotiate a lower price on behalf of their client, because they will simultaneously be negotiating their own commission lower.
Government officials
Regulating conflict of interest in government is one of the aims of political ethics. Public officials are expected to put service to the public and their constituents ahead of their personal interests. Conflict of interest rules are intended to prevent officials from making decisions in circumstances that could reasonably be perceived as violating this duty of office. Rules in the executive branch tend to be stricter and easier to enforce than in the legislative branch. This is visible through one study which highlights how Members of Congress who have specific stock investments may vote on regulatory and interventionist legislation. Two problems make legislative ethics of conflicts difficult and distinctive. First, as James Madison wrote, legislators should share a "communion of interests" with their constituents. Legislators cannot adequately represent the interests of constituents without also representing some of their own. As Senator Robert S. Kerr once said, "I represent the farmers of Oklahoma, although I have large farm interests. I represent the oil business in Oklahoma...and I am in the oil business...They don't want to send a man here who has no community of interest with them, because he wouldn't be worth a nickel to them." The problem is to distinguish special interests from the general interests of all constituents. Second, the "political interests" of legislatures include campaign contributions which they need to get elected, and which are generally not illegal and not the same as a bribe. But under many circumstances they can have the same effect. The problem here is how to keep the secondary interest in raising campaign funds from overwhelming what should be their primary interest—fulfilling the duties of office.
Politics in the United States is dominated in many ways by political campaign contributions. Candidates are often not considered "credible" unless they have a campaign budget far beyond what could reasonably be raised from citizens of ordinary means. The impact of this money can be found in many places, most notably in studies of how campaign contributions affect legislative behavior. For example, the price of sugar in the United States has been roughly double the international price for over half a century. In the 1980s, this added $3 billion to the annual budget of U.S. consumers, according to Stern, who provided the following summary of one part of how this happens:
This $3 billion translates into $41 per household per year. This is in essence a tax collected by a nongovernmental agency: It is a cost imposed on consumers by governmental decisions, but never considered in any of the standard data on tax collections.
Stern notes that sugar interests contributed $2.6 million to political campaigns, representing well over $1,000 return for each $1 contributed to political campaigns. This, however, does not include the cost of lobbying. Lessig cites six different studies that consider the cost of lobbying with campaign contributions on a variety of issues considered in Washington, D.C. These studies produced estimates of the anticipated return on each $1 invested in lobbying and political campaigns that ranged from $6 to $220. Lessig notes that clients who pay tens of millions of dollars to lobbyists typically receive billions.
Lessig insists that this does not mean that any legislator has sold his or her vote. One of several possible explanations Lessig gives for this phenomenon is that the money helped elect candidates more supportive of the issues pushed by the big money spent on lobbying and political campaigns. He notes that if any money perverts democracy, it is the large contributions beyond the budgets of citizens of ordinary means; small contributions from common citizens have long been considered supporting of democracy.
When such large sums become virtually essential to a politician's future, it generates a substantive conflict of interest contributing to a fairly well documented distortion on the nation's priorities and policies.
Beyond this, governmental officials, whether elected or not, often leave public service to work for companies affected by legislation they helped enact or companies they used to regulate or companies affected by legislation they helped enact. This practice is called the "revolving door". Former legislators and regulators are accused of (a) using inside information for their new employers or (b) compromising laws and regulations in hopes of securing lucrative employment in the private sector. This possibility creates a conflict of interest for all public officials whose future may depend on the revolving door.
Finance industry and elected officials
Conflicts of interest among elected officials is part of the story behind the increase in the percent of US corporate domestic profits captured by the finance industry depicted in that accompanying figure.
From 1934 through 1985, the finance industry averaged 13.8% of U.S. domestic corporate profit. Between 1986 and 1999, it averaged 23.5%. From 2000 through 2010, it averaged 32.6%. Some of this increase is doubtless due to increased efficiency from banking consolidation and innovations in new financial products that benefit consumers. However, if most consumers had refused to accept financial products they did not understand, e.g., negative amortization loans, the finance industry would not have been as profitable as it has been, and the Late-2000s recession might have been avoided or postponed. Stiglitz argued that the Late-2000s recession was created in part because, "Bankers acted greedily because they had incentives and opportunities to do so". They did this in part by innovating to make consumer financial products like retail banking services and home mortgages as complicated as possible to make it easy for them to charge higher fees. Consumers who shop carefully for financial services typically find better options than the primary offerings of the major banks. However, few consumers think to do that. This explains part of this increase in financial industry profits. (Note, however, that Stiglitz has been accused of a conflict of interests and violation of Columbia University transparency policies for failing to disclose his status as a paid consultant to government of Argentina at the same time he was writing articles in defense of Argentina's planned default of over $1billion in bond debt during the 1998–2002 Argentine great depression, and for failing to disclose his paid consultancy to the government of Greece at the same time he was downplaying the risk of Greece defaulting on their debt during the Greek government-debt crisis of 2009.)
However, it is argued that a major portion of this increase and a driving force behind Late-2000s recession has been the corrosive effect of money in politics, giving legislators and the President of the U.S. a conflict of interest, because if they protect the public, they will offend the finance industry, which contributed $1.7 billion to political campaigns and spent $3.4 billion ($5.1 billion total) on lobbying from 1998 to 2008.
To be conservative, suppose we attribute only the increase from 23.5% of 1986 through 1999 to the recent 32.6% average to governmental actions subject to conflicts of interest created by the $1.7 billion in campaign contributions. That's 9% of the $3 trillion in profits claimed by the finance industry during that period or $270 billion. This represents a return of over $50 for each $1 invested in political campaigns and lobbying for that industry. (This $270 billion represents almost $1,000 for every man, woman and child in the United States.) There is hardly any place outside politics with such a high return on investment in such a short time.
Finance industry and economists
Economists (unlike other professions such as sociologists) do not formally subscribe to a professional ethical code. Close to 300 economists have signed a letter urging the American Economic Association (the discipline's foremost professional body), to adopt such a code. The signatories include George Akerlof, a Nobel laureate, and Christina Romer, who headed Barack Obama's Council of Economic Advisers.
This call for a code of ethics was supported by the public attention the documentary Inside Job (winner of an Academy Award) drew to the consulting relationships of several influential economists. This documentary focused on conflicts that may arise when economists publish results or provide public recommendation on topics that affect industries or companies with which they have financial links. Critics of the profession argue, for example, that it is no coincidence that financial economists, many of whom were engaged as consultants by Wall Street firms, were opposed to regulating the financial sector.
In response to criticism that the profession not only failed to predict the financial crisis of 2007–2008 but may actually have helped create it, the American Economic Association has adopted new rules in 2012: economists will have to disclose financial ties and other potential conflicts of interest in papers published in academic journals. Backers argue such disclosures will help restore faith in the profession by increasing transparency which will help in assessing economists' advice.
Stockbrokers
A conflict of interest is a manifestation of moral hazard, particularly when a financial institution provides multiple services and the potentially competing interests of those services may lead to a concealment of information or dissemination of misleading information. A conflict of interest exists when a party to a transaction could potentially make a gain from taking actions that are detrimental to the other party in the transaction.
There are many types of conflicts of interest such as a pump and dump by stockbrokers. This is when a stockbroker who owns a security artificially inflates the price by upgrading it or spreading rumors, and then sells the security and adds short position. They will then downgrade the security or spread negative rumors to push the price back down. This is an example of stock fraud. It is a conflict of interest because the stockbrokers are concealing and manipulating information to make it misleading for the buyers. The broker may claim to have the "inside" information about impending news and will urge buyers to buy the stock quickly. Investors will buy the stock, which creates a high demand and raises the prices. This rise in prices can entice more people to believe the hype and then buy shares as well. The stockbrokers will then sell their shares and stop promoting, the price will drop, and other investors are left holding stock that is worth nothing compared to what they paid for it. In this way, brokers use their knowledge and position to gain personally at the expense of others.
The Enron scandal is a major example of pump and dump. Executives participated in an elaborate scheme, falsely reporting profits, thus inflating its stock prices, and covered up the real numbers with questionable accounting; 29 executives sold overvalued stock for more than a billion dollars before the company went bankrupt.
A financial institution with a conflict of interest may also be charged with market manipulation. Stockbrokers that act as market makers have a duty to establish bona fide. A conflict of interest serves against that regulation. Stockbrokers have to prove that their trading interests and transacting interests do not interfere with serving the interests of investors at brokerages
Media
Any media organization has a conflict of interest in discussing anything that may impact its ability to communicate as it wants with its audience. Most media, when reporting a story which involves a parent company or a subsidiary, will explicitly report this fact as part of the story, in order to alert the audience that their reporting has the potential for bias due to the possibility of a conflict of interest.
The business model of commercial media organizations (i.e., any that accept advertising) is selling behavior change in their audience to advertisers. However, few in their audience are aware of the conflict of interest between the profit motive and the altruistic desire to serve the public and "give the audience what it wants".
Many major advertisers test their ads in various ways to measure the return on investment in advertising. Advertising rates are set as a function of the size and spending habits of the audience as measured by the Nielsen Ratings. Media action expressing this conflict of interest is evident in the reaction of Rupert Murdoch, Chairman of News Corporation, owner of Fox, to changes in data collection methodology adopted in 2004 by the Nielsen Company to more accurately measure viewing habits. The results corrected a previous overestimate of the market share of Fox. Murdoch reacted by getting leading politicians to denounce the Nielsen Ratings as racists. Susan Whiting , president and CEO of Nielsen Media Research, responded by quietly sharing Nielsen's data with her leading critics. The criticism disappeared, and Fox paid Nielsen's fees. Murdoch had a conflict of interest between the reality of his market and his finances.
Commercial media organizations lose money if they provide content that offends either their audience or their advertisers. The substantial media consolidation that occurred since the 1980s has reduced the alternatives available to the audience, thereby making it easier for the ever-larger companies in this increasingly oligopolistic industry to hide news and entertainment potentially offensive to advertisers without losing audience. If the media provide too much information on how congress spends its time, a major advertiser could be offended and could reduce their advertising expenditures with the offending media company; indeed, this is one of the ways the market system has determined which companies won and which either went out of business or were purchased by others in this media consolidation. (Advertisers don't like to feed the mouth that bites them, and often don't. Similarly, commercial media organizations are not eager to bite the hand that feeds them.) Advertisers have been known to fund media organizations with editorial policies they find offensive if that media outlet provides access to a sufficiently attractive audience segment they cannot efficiently reach otherwise.
Election years are a major boon to commercial broadcasters, because virtually all political advertising is purchased with minimal advance planning, paying therefore the highest rates. The commercial media have a conflict of interest in anything that could make it easier for candidates to get elected with less money.
Accompanying this trend in media consolidation has been a substantial reduction in investigative journalism, reflecting this conflict of interest between the business objectives of the commercial media and the public's need to know what government is doing in their name. This change has been tied to substantial changes in law and culture in the United States. To cite only one example, researchers have tied this decline in investigative journalism to an increased coverage of the "police blotter". This has further been tied to the fact that the United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world.
Beyond this, virtually all commercial media companies own substantial quantities of copyrighted material. This gives them an inherent conflict of interest in any public policy issue affecting copyrights. McChesney noted that the commercial media have lobbied successfully for changes in copyright law that have led "to higher prices and a shrinking of the marketplace of ideas", increasing the power and profits of the large media corporations at public expense. One result of this is that "the people cease to have a means of clarifying social priorities and organizing social reform". A free market has a mechanism for controlling abuses of power by media corporations: If their censorship becomes too egregious, they lose audience, which in turn reduces their advertising rates. However, the effectiveness of this mechanism has been substantially reduced over the past quarter century by "the changes in the concentration and integration of the media." Would the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement have advanced to the point of generating substantial protests without the secrecy behind which that agreement was negotiated—and would the government attempts to sustain that secrecy have been as successful if the commercial media had not been a primary beneficiary and had not had a conflict of interest in suppressing discussion thereof?
Mitigation
Removal
Sometimes, people who may be perceived to have a conflict of interest resign from a position or sell a shareholding in a venture, to eliminate the conflict of interest going forward. For example, Lord Evans of Weardale resigned as a non-executive director of the UK National Crime Agency after a tax-avoidance-related controversy about HSBC, where Lord Evans was also a non-executive director. This resignation was stated to have taken place in order to avoid the appearance of conflict of interest.
"Blind trust"
Blind trusts can perhaps mitigate conflicts of interest scenarios by giving an independent trustee control of a beneficiary's assets. The independent trustee must have the power to sell or transfer interests without knowledge of the beneficiary. Thus, the beneficiary becomes "blind" to the impact of official actions on private interests held in trust.
As an example, a politician who owns shares in a company that may be affected by government policy may put those shares in a blind trust with themselves or their family as the beneficiary. It is disputed whether this really removes the conflict of interest, however.
Blind trusts may in fact obscure conflicts of interest, and for this reason it is illegal to fund political parties in the UK via a blind trust if the identity of the real donor is concealed.
Disclosure
Commonly, politicians and high-ranking government officials are required to disclose financial information—assets such as stock, debts such as loans, and/or corporate positions held, typically annually. To protect privacy (to some extent), financial figures are often disclosed in ranges such as "$100,000 to $500,000" and "over $2,000,000". Certain professionals are required either by rules related to their professional organization, or by statute, to disclose any actual or potential conflicts of interest. In some instances, the failure to provide full disclosure is a crime.
However, there is limited evidence regarding the effect of conflict of interest disclosure despite its widespread acceptance. A 2012 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association showed that routine disclosure of conflicts of interest by American medical school educators to pre-clinical medical students were associated with an increased desire among students for limitations in some industry relationships. However, there were no changes in the perceptions of students about the value of disclosure, the influence of industry relationships on educational content, or the instruction by faculty with relevant conflicts of interest.
And, an increasing line of research suggests that disclosure can have "perverse effects" or, at least, is not the panacea regulators often take it to be.
Recusal
Those with a conflict of interest are expected to recuse themselves from (i.e., abstain from) decisions where such a conflict exists. The imperative for recusal varies depending upon the circumstance and profession, either as common sense ethics, codified ethics, or by statute. For example, if the governing board of a government agency is considering hiring a consulting firm for some task, and one firm being considered has, as a partner, a close relative of one of the board's members, then that board member should not vote on which firm is to be selected. In fact, to minimize any conflict, the board member should not participate in any way in the decision, including discussions.
Judges are supposed to recuse themselves from cases when personal conflicts of interest may arise. For example, if a judge has participated in a case previously in some other judicial role he/she is not allowed to try that case. Recusal is also expected when one of the lawyers in a case might be a close personal friend, or when the outcome of the case might affect the judge directly, such as whether a car maker is obliged to recall a model that a judge drives. This is required by law under Continental civil law systems and by the Rome Statute, organic law of the International Criminal Court.
Third-party evaluations
Consider a situation where the owner of a majority of a public companies decides to buy out the minority shareholders and take the corporation private. What is a fair price? Obviously it is improper (and, typically, illegal) for the majority owner to simply state a price and then have the (majority-controlled) board of directors approve that price. What is typically done is to hire an independent firm (a third party), well-qualified to evaluate such matters, to calculate a "fair price", which is then voted on by the minority shareholders.
Third-party evaluations may also be used as proof that transactions were, in fact, fair ("arm's-length"). For example, a corporation that leases an office building that is owned by the CEO might get an independent evaluation showing what the market rate is for such leases in the locale, to address the conflict of interest that exists between the fiduciary duty of the CEO (to the stockholders, by getting the lowest rent possible) and the personal interest of that CEO (to maximize the income that the CEO gets from owning that office building by getting the highest rent possible).
A January 2018 report by the Public Citizen non-profit describes dozens of foreign governments, special interest groups and GOP congressional campaign committees that spent hundreds of thousands of dollars at President Donald Trump's properties during his first year in office. The study said that these groups clearly intended to win over the president by helping his commercial business empire profit while he held the office.
See also
References
Further reading
Acocella, N. and Di Bartolomeo, G. and Piacquadio, P.G. [2009], Conflict of interest, (implicit) coalitions and Nash policy games, in: Economics Letters, 105: 303–305.
External links
Political corruption
Legal ethics
Ethically disputed business practices
Philosophy of science
Ethically disputed political practices
Scientific misconduct | [
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|
236851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictaphone | Dictaphone | Dictaphone was an American company founded by Alexander Graham Bell
that produced dictation machines. It is now a division of Nuance Communications, based in Burlington, Massachusetts.
Although the name "Dictaphone" is a trademark, it has become genericized as a means to refer to any dictation machine.
History
The Volta Laboratory was established by Alexander Graham Bell in Washington, D.C. in 1881. When the Laboratory's sound recording inventions were sufficiently developed with the assistance of Charles Sumner Tainter and others, Bell and his associates created the Volta Graphophone Company, which later merged with the American Graphophone Company, which itself later evolved into Columbia Records.
The name "Dictaphone" was trademarked by the Columbia Graphophone Company in 1907, which soon became the leading manufacturer of such devices. This perpetuated the use of wax cylinders for voice recording, which had otherwise been eclipsed by disc-based technology. Dictaphone was spun off into a separate company in 1923 under the leadership of C. King Woodbridge.
In 1947, having relied on wax-cylinder recording to the end of World War II, Dictaphone introduced its Dictabelt technology. This cut a mechanical groove into a Lexan plastic belt instead of a wax cylinder. The advantage of the Lexan belt was that recordings were permanent and admissible in court. Eventually IBM introduced a dictating machine using an erasable belt made of magnetic tape which enabled the user to correct dictation errors rather than marking errors on a paper tab. Dictaphone in turn added magnetic recording models while still selling the models recording on the Lexan belts. Machines based on magnetic tape recording were introduced in the late seventies, initially using the standard compact (or "C") cassette, but soon, in dictation machines, using mini-cassettes or microcassettes instead. The size of the cassette was important as it enabled the manufacturer to reduce the size of portable recorders.
Walter D. Fuller became the director of the company in 1952. In 1969 he was appointed as chairman.
In Japan, JVC was licensed to produce machines designed and developed by Dictaphone. Dictaphone and JVC later developed the picocassette, released in 1985, which was even smaller than a microcassette but retained a good recording quality and duration.
Dictaphone also developed "endless loop" recording using magnetic tape, introduced in the mid-seventies as the "Thought Tank". The recording medium did not need to be moved from where the dictation took place to the location such as a typing pool where the typists were located. This was normally operated via a dedicated in house telephone system enabling dictation to be made from a variety of locations within the hospital or other organizations with typing pools. One version calculated each typist's turnaround time and allocated the next piece of dictation accordingly.
Dictaphone was prominent in the provision of multi-channel recorders, used extensively in the emergency services to record emergency telephone calls (to numbers such as 911, 999, 112) and subsequent conversations.
Additionally, Dictaphone at one point expanded its product line to market a line of electronic (desktop and portable) calculators.
In 1979, Dictaphone was purchased by Pitney Bowes and kept as a wholly owned but independent subsidiary.
Dictaphone bought Dual Display Word Processor, a stiff competitor to Wang Laboratories, the industry leader.
In 1982 it marketed a word processor from Symantec. The hardware sold for $5,950 in 1982. The software was an additional $600. The advent of the personal computer, MS-DOS, and general-purpose word-processing software saw the demise of the dedicated word-processor, and the division was closed.
In 1995, Pitney Bowes sold Dictaphone to the investment group Stonington Partners of Connecticut for a reported $462 million. Dictaphone thereafter sold a range of products that included speech recognition and voicemail software with limited success as the market only existed among some early adopters despite its vertical markets' enhancements.
In 2000, Dictaphone was acquired by the then-leading Belgian voice-recognition and translation company Lernout & Hauspie for nearly $1 billion. Lernout & Hauspie provided the voice-recognition technology for Dictaphone's enhanced voice recognition-based transcription system. Soon after the purchase, however, the SEC raised questions about Lernout & Hauspie's finances, focusing on the supposedly skyrocketing income reported from its East Asian endeavors. Subsequently, the company and all its subsidiaries, including Dictaphone, were forced into bankruptcy protection.
In early 2002, Dictaphone emerged from bankruptcy as a privately held organization, with Rob Schwager as its chairman and CEO. In 2004, it was split into three divisions:
IHS, focusing on dictation for the healthcare and medical industries;
IVS, focusing on dictation in law offices and police stations;
CRS (Communications Recording Solutions), focusing on voice logging and radios for use by public-safety organizations and quality monitoring by call centers.
In June 2005, Dictaphone sold its Communications Recording Solutions to NICE Systems for $38.5 million. This was considered a great bargain in the industry and came after NICE was ordered to pay Dictaphone $10 million in settlements related to a patent infringement suit in late 2003.
In September 2005, Dictaphone sold its IVS business outside the United States to a private Swiss group around its former VP Martin Niederberger, who formed Dictaphone IVS AG (later Calison AG) in Urdorf, Switzerland and developed "FRISBEE", the first hardware-independent dictation-management software system with integrated speech recognition and workflow management. In 2008, iSpeech AG took over the activities and products of the former Calison AG.
In February and March 2006, the remainder of Dictaphone was sold for $357 million to Nuance Communications (formerly ScanSoft), ending its short tenure as an independent company that had begun in 2002. This, in effect, closed a circle of events, as Dictaphone had been sold to Lernout & Hauspie prior to L&H's bankruptcy which resulted in Dictaphone becoming an independent company.
In March 2007, Nuance acquired Focus Informatics and, with the intention of further expansion in its healthcare transcription business, linked it with its Dictaphone division.
See also
Carl Lindström Company, creator of the Parlophone company, which evolved into a music label that first released The Beatles albums
References
Products introduced in 1907
Audio storage
Brands that became generic
Office equipment
Sound recording technology | [
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|
236852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libor | Libor | The London Inter-Bank Offered Rate is an interest-rate average calculated from estimates submitted by the leading banks in London. Each bank estimates what it would be charged were it to borrow from other banks. The resulting average rate is usually abbreviated to Libor () or LIBOR, or more officially to ICE LIBOR (for Intercontinental Exchange Libor). It was formerly known as BBA Libor (for British Bankers' Association Libor or the trademark bba libor) before the responsibility for the administration was transferred to Intercontinental Exchange. It is the primary benchmark, along with the Euribor, for short-term interest rates around the world. Libor was phased out at the end of 2021, and market participants are being encouraged to transition to risk-free interest rates.
Libor rates are calculated for five currencies and seven borrowing periods ranging from overnight to one year and are published each business day by Thomson Reuters. Many financial institutions, mortgage lenders, and credit card agencies set their own rates relative to it. At least $350 trillion in derivatives and other financial products are tied to Libor.
In June 2012, multiple criminal settlements by Barclays Bank revealed significant fraud and collusion by member banks connected to the rate submissions, leading to the Libor scandal. The British Bankers' Association said on 25 September 2012 that it would transfer oversight of Libor to UK regulators, as proposed by Financial Services Authority managing director Martin Wheatley's independent review recommendations. Wheatley's review recommended that banks submitting rates to Libor must base them on actual inter-bank deposit market transactions and keep records of those transactions, that individual banks' Libor submissions be published after three months, and recommended criminal sanctions specifically for manipulation of benchmark interest rates. Financial institution customers may experience higher and more volatile borrowing and hedging costs after implementation of the recommended reforms. The UK government agreed to accept all of the Wheatley Review's recommendations and press for legislation implementing them.
Significant reforms, in line with the Wheatley Review, came into effect in 2013 and a new administrator took over in early 2014. The British government regulates Libor through criminal and regulatory laws passed by Parliament. In particular, the Financial Services Act 2012 brings Libor under UK regulatory oversight and creates a criminal offence for knowingly or deliberately making false or misleading statements relating to benchmark-setting.
Introduction
The London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) came into widespread use in the 1970s as a reference interest rate for transactions in offshore Eurodollar markets.
In 1984, it became apparent that an increasing number of banks were trading actively in a variety of relatively new market instruments, notably interest rate swaps, foreign currency options and forward rate agreements. While recognizing that such instruments brought more business and greater depth to the London Inter-bank market, bankers worried that future growth could be inhibited unless a measure of uniformity was introduced. In October 1984, the British Bankers' Association (BBA)—working with other parties, such as the Bank of England—established various working parties, which eventually culminated in the production of the BBA standard for interest rate swaps, or "BBAIRS" terms. Part of this standard included the fixing of BBA interest-settlement rates, the predecessor of BBA Libor. From 2 September 1985, the BBAIRS terms became standard market practice. BBA Libor fixings did not commence officially before 1 January 1986. Before that date, however, some rates were fixed for a trial period commencing in December 1984.
Member banks are international in scope, with more than sixty nations represented among its 223 members and 37 associated professional firms as of 2008. Seventeen banks for example currently contribute to the fixing of US Dollar Libor. The panel contains the following member banks:
Bank of America
Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ
Barclays Bank
Citibank NA
Credit Agricole CIB
Credit Suisse
Deutsche Bank
HSBC
JP Morgan Chase
Lloyds Banking Group
Rabobank
Royal Bank of Canada
Société Générale
Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation Europe Ltd
Norinchukin Bank
Royal Bank of Scotland
UBS AG
Scope
Libor is widely used as a reference rate for many financial instruments in both financial markets and commercial fields. There are three major classifications of interest rate fixings instruments, including standard inter bank products, commercial field products, and hybrid products that often use Libor as their reference rate.
Standard interbank products:
Forward rate agreements
Interest rate futures, e.g. Eurodollar futures
Interest rate swaps
Swaptions
Overnight indexed swaps, e.g. Libor–OIS spread
Interest rate options, Interest rate cap and floor
Commercial field products:
Floating rate notes
Floating rate certificates of deposit
Syndicated loans
Variable rate mortgages
Term loans
Hybrid products:
Range accrual notes
Step up callable notes
Target redemption notes
Hybrid perpetual notes
Collateralized mortgage obligations
Collateralized debt obligations
In the United States in 2008, around sixty percent of prime adjustable-rate mortgages and nearly all subprime mortgages were indexed to the US dollar Libor. In 2012, around 45 percent of prime adjustable rate mortgages and more than 80 percent of subprime mortgages were indexed to the Libor. American municipalities also borrowed around 75 percent of their money through financial products that were linked to the Libor. In the UK, the three-month British pound Libor is used for some mortgages—especially for those with adverse credit history. The Swiss franc Libor is also used by the Swiss National Bank as their reference rate for monetary policy.
The usual reference rate for euro denominated interest rate products, however, is the Euribor compiled by the European Banking Federation from a larger bank panel. A euro Libor does exist, but mainly, for continuity purposes in swap contracts dating back to pre-EMU times. The Libor is an estimate and is not intended in the binding contracts of a company. It is, however, specifically mentioned as a reference rate in the market standard International Swaps and Derivatives Association documentation, which are used by parties wishing to transact in over-the-counter interest rate derivatives.
Definition
Libor is defined as:
The rate at which an individual Contributor Panel bank could borrow funds, were it to do so by asking for and then accepting inter-bank offers in reasonable market size, just prior to 11.00 London time.
This definition is amplified as follows:
The rate that each bank submits must be formed from that bank's perception of its cost of funds in the inter-bank market.
Contributions must represent rates formed in London and not elsewhere.
Contributions must be for the currency concerned, not the cost of producing one currency by borrowing in another currency and accessing the required currency via the foreign exchange markets.
The rates must be submitted by members of staff at a bank with primary responsibility for management of a bank's cash, rather than a bank's derivative book.
The definition of "funds" is: unsecured inter-bank cash or cash raised through primary issuance of inter-bank Certificates of Deposit.
The British Bankers' Association publishes a basic guide to the BBA Libor, which contains a great deal of detail as to its history and its current calculation.
Technical features
Calculation
Libor is calculated by the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) and published by Refinitiv. It is an index that measures the cost of funds to large global banks operating in London financial markets or with London-based counterparties. Each day, the BBA surveys a panel of banks (18 major global banks for the USD Libor), asking the question, "At what rate could you borrow funds, were you to do so by asking for and then accepting interbank offers in a reasonable market size just prior to 11 am?" The BBA throws out the highest four and lowest four responses, and averages the remaining middle ten, yielding a 22% trimmed mean. The average is reported at 11:30 am.
Libor is actually a set of indexes. There are separate Libor rates reported for seven different maturities (length of time to repay a debt) for each of 5 currencies. The shortest maturity is overnight, the longest is one year. In the United States, many private contracts reference the three-month dollar Libor, which is the index resulting from asking the panel what rate they would pay to borrow dollars for three months.
Currency
In 1986, the Libor initially fixed rates for three currencies. These were the US dollar, British pound sterling and the Deutsche Mark. Over time this grew to sixteen currencies. After a number of these currencies in 2000 merged into the euro, there remained ten currencies. Following reforms of 2013 Libor rates are calculated for 5 currencies.
Active
US dollar (USD)
Euro (EUR)
British pound sterling (GBP)
Japanese yen (JPY)
Swiss franc (CHF)
Inactive
Australian dollar (AUD)
Canadian dollar (CAD)
New Zealand dollar (NZD)
Danish krone (DKK)
Swedish krona (SEK)
Note that the Euro LIBOR should not be confused with EURIBOR.
Maturities
Until 1998, the shortest duration rate was one month, after which the rate for one week was added. In 2001, rates for a day and two weeks were introduced Following reforms of 2013 Libor rates are calculated for 7 maturities.
Active
1 day
1 week
1 month
2 months
3 months
6 months
12 months
Inactive
2 weeks
4 months
5 months
7 months
8 months
9 months
10 months
11 months
Libor-based derivatives
Libor futures
GBP and CHF LIBOR futures are traded on Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) and on CurveGlobal, part of the London Stock Exchange Group.
Interest rate swaps
Interest rate swaps based on short Libor rates currently trade on the interbank market for maturities up to 50 years. In the swap market a "five-year Libor" rate refers to the 5-year swap rate where the floating leg of the swap references 3- or 6-month Libor (this can be expressed more precisely as for example "5-year rate vs 6-month Libor"). "Libor + x basis points", when talking about a bond, means that the bond's cash flows have to be discounted on the swaps' zero-coupon yield curve shifted by x basis points to equal the bond's actual market price. The day count convention for Libor rates in interest rate swaps is Actual/360, except for the GBP currency for which it is Actual/365 (fixed).
Reliability and scandal
On Thursday, 29 May 2008, The Wall Street Journal (WSJ) released a controversial study suggesting that banks might have understated borrowing costs they reported for Libor during the 2008 credit crunch. Such under-reporting could have created an impression that banks could borrow from other banks more cheaply than they could in reality. It could also have made the banking system or specific contributing bank appear healthier than it was during the 2008 credit crunch. For example, the study found that rates at which one major bank (Citigroup) "said it could borrow dollars for three months were about 0.87 percentage point lower than the rate calculated using default-insurance data."
In September 2008, a former member of the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee, Willem Buiter, described Libor as "the rate at which banks don't lend to each other", and called for its replacement. The former Governor of the Bank of England, Mervyn King, later used the same description before the Treasury Select Committee.
To further bring this case to light, The Wall Street Journal reported in March 2011 that regulators were focusing on Bank of America Corp., Citigroup Inc. and UBS AG. Making a case would be very difficult because determining the Libor rate does not occur on an open exchange. According to people familiar with the situation, subpoenas were issued to the three banks.
In response to the study released by the WSJ, the British Bankers' Association announced that Libor continues to be reliable even in times of financial crisis. According to the British Bankers' Association, other proxies for financial health, such as the default-credit-insurance market, are not necessarily more sound than Libor at times of financial crisis, though they are more widely used in Latin America, especially the Ecuadorian and Bolivian markets.
Additionally, some other authorities contradicted the Wall Street Journal article. In its March 2008 Quarterly Review, The Bank for International Settlements has stated that "available data do not support the hypothesis that contributor banks manipulated their quotes to profit from positions based on fixings."
Further, in October 2008 the International Monetary Fund published its regular Global Financial Stability Review, which also found that "Although the integrity of the U.S. dollar Libor-fixing process has been questioned by some market participants and the financial press, it appears that U.S. dollar Libor remains an accurate measure of a typical creditworthy bank's marginal cost of unsecured U.S. dollar term funding."
On 27 July 2012, the Financial Times published an article by a former trader that stated Libor manipulation had been common since at least 1991. Further reports on this have since come from the BBC and Reuters. On 28 November 2012, the Finance Committee of the Bundestag held a hearing to learn more about the issue.
In late September 2012, Barclays was fined £290m because of its attempts to manipulate the Libor, and other banks are under investigation of having acted similarly. Wheatley called for the
British Bankers' Association to lose its power to determine Libor and for the FSA to be able to impose criminal sanctions as well as other changes in a ten-point overhaul plan.
The British Bankers' Association said on 25 September that it would transfer oversight of LIBOR to UK regulators, as proposed by Financial Services Authority managing director Martin Wheatley and CEO-designate of the new Financial Conduct Authority.
On 28 September, Wheatley's independent review was published, recommending that an independent organisation with government and regulator representation, called the Tender Committee, manage the process of setting LIBOR under a new external oversight process for transparency and accountability. Banks that make submissions to LIBOR would be required to base them on actual inter-bank deposit market transactions and keep records of their transactions supporting those submissions. The review also recommended that individual banks' LIBOR submissions be published, but only after three months, to reduce the risk that they would be used as a measure of the submitting banks' creditworthiness. The review left open the possibility that regulators might compel additional banks to participate in submissions if an insufficient number do voluntarily. The review recommended criminal sanctions specifically for manipulation of benchmark interest rates such as the LIBOR, saying that existing criminal regulations for manipulation of financial instruments were inadequate. LIBOR rates may be higher and more volatile after implementation of these reforms, so financial institution customers may experience higher and more volatile borrowing and hedging costs. The UK government agreed to accept all of the Wheatley Review's recommendations and press for legislation implementing them.
Bloomberg LP CEO Dan Doctoroff told the European Parliament that Bloomberg LP could develop an alternative index called the Bloomberg Interbank Offered Rate that would use data from transactions such as market-based quotes for credit default swap transactions and corporate bonds.
Criminal investigations
On 28 February 2012, it was revealed that the US Department of Justice was conducting a criminal investigation into Libor abuse. Among the abuses being investigated were the possibility that traders were in direct communication with bankers before the rates were set, thus allowing them an advantage in predicting that day's fixing. Libor underpins approximately $350 trillion in derivatives. One trader's messages indicated that for each basis point (0.01%) that Libor was moved, those involved could net "about a couple of million dollars".
On 27 June 2012, Barclays Bank was fined $200m by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, $160m by the United States Department of Justice and £59.5m by the Financial Services Authority for attempted manipulation of the Libor and Euribor rates. The United States Department of Justice and Barclays officially agreed that "the manipulation of the submissions affected the fixed rates on some occasions". On 2 July 2012, Marcus Agius, chairman of Barclays, resigned from the position following the interest rate rigging scandal. Bob Diamond, the chief executive officer of Barclays, resigned on 3 July 2012. Marcus Agius was to fill his post until a replacement is found. Jerry del Missier, chief operating officer of Barclays, also resigned. Del Missier subsequently admitted that he had instructed his subordinates to submit falsified LIBORs to the British Bankers Association.
By 4 July 2012, the breadth of the scandal was evident and became the topic of analysis on news and financial programs that attempted to explain the importance of the scandal. On 6 July, it was announced that the UK Serious Fraud Office had also opened a criminal investigation into the attempted manipulation of interest rates.
On 4 October 2012, Republican US Senators Chuck Grassley and Mark Kirk announced that they were investigating Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner for complicity with the rate manipulation scandal. They accused Geithner of knowledge of the rate-fixing, and inaction which contributed to litigation that "threatens to clog our courts with multi-billion dollar class action lawsuits" alleging that the manipulated rates harmed state, municipal and local governments. The senators said that an American-based interest rate index is a better alternative which they would take steps towards creating.
Aftermath
Early estimates are that the rate manipulation scandal cost US states, counties, and local governments at least $6 billion in fraudulent interest payments, above $4 billion that state and local governments have already had to spend to unwind their positions exposed to rate manipulation.
Reforms
The administration of Libor has itself become a regulated activity overseen by the UK's Financial Conduct Authority. Furthermore, knowingly or deliberately making false or misleading statements in relation to benchmark-setting was made a criminal offence in UK law under the Financial Services Act 2012.
The Danish, Swedish, Canadian, Australian and New Zealand Libor rates have been terminated.
From the end of July 2013, only five currencies and seven maturities will be quoted every day (35 rates), reduced from 150 different Libor rates – 15 maturities for each of ten currencies, making it more likely that the rates submitted are underpinned by real trades.
Since the beginning of July 2013, each individual submission that comes in from the banks is embargoed for three months to reduce the motivation to submit a false rate to portray a flattering picture of creditworthiness.
A new code of conduct, introduced by a new interim oversight committee, builds on this by outlining the systems and controls firms need to have in place around Libor. For example, each bank must now have a named person responsible for Libor, accountable if there is any wrongdoing. The banks must keep records so that they can be audited by the regulators if necessary.
In early 2014, NYSE Euronext took over the administration of Libor from the British Bankers Association. The new administrator was NYSE Euronext Rates Administration Limited, a London-based, UK registered company, regulated by the UK's Financial Conduct Authority.
On 13 November 2013, the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) Group announced the successful completion of its acquisition of NYSE Euronext. As a result of this acquisition, NYSE Euronext Rate Administration Limited was renamed ICE Benchmark Administration Limited. The appointment of a new administrator is a major step forward in the reform of LIBOR.
The scandal also led to the European Commission proposal of EU-wide benchmark regulation that may affect Libor as well.
LIBOR cessation and alternatives available
Due to multiple factors, including the Libor scandal, concerns about the rates' accuracy, and changes in how banks do business, the decision was made to phase out Libor. Most LIBOR settings will stop being issued or become unrepresentative at the end of 2021, while certain U.S. dollar settings will continue to be provided until the end of June 2023. The Financial Conduct Authority may continue to publish certain synthetic rates after these dates for loans that cannot easily be transitioned.
According to a March 2021 estimate, major banks will spend more than US$100 million transitioning away from LIBOR. From January 2022, the lending rate cannot be used as the reference rate in any new derivatives contracts, loans and credit card offers.
A variety of replacements for LIBOR have been offered. In some cases, banks allow their customers to choose which rate to track.
Alternatives for the USD LIBOR
Alternative Reference Rates Committee
In 2014 the U.S. Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York announced the creation of the Alternative Rates Reference Committee (ARRC) to assess viable alternatives to the LIBOR.
In 2016 the ARRC released its first report on the possible indices that could serve as a replacement to the LIBOR.
On March 7, 2018 the ARRC announced that the committee had been reconstituted and the following groups were participating.
The ARRC will comprise the following institutions:
AXA
Bank of America
BlackRock
Citigroup
CME Group
Deutsche Bank
Federal National Mortgage Association
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation
GE Capital
Goldman Sachs
Government Finance Officers Association
HSBC
Intercontinental Exchange
International Swaps and Derivatives Association
JP Morgan Chase & Co.
LCH Clearnet
MetLife
Morgan Stanley
National Association of Corporate Treasurers
Pacific Investment Management Company
TD Bank
The Federal Home Loan Bank of New York
The Independent Community Bankers of America
The Loan Syndications and Trading Association
The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association
Wells Fargo
World Bank Group
In addition, the following agencies will serve as ex officio members of the ARRC:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
Federal Housing Finance Agency
Federal Reserve Bank of New York
Office of Financial Research
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
U.S. Treasury Department
Secured Overnight Financing Rate
In June 2017, the ARRC announced a broad Treasury repo financing rate, SOFR, as its recommended alternative to the USD LIBOR. In its justification for this choice the ARRC said:
Ameribor
Ameribor is a benchmark interest rate created by the American Financial Exchange. Ameribor reflects the actual borrowing costs of thousands of small, medium and regional banks across America, but it is also useful for larger banks and financial institutions that do business with these banks, as well as small and middle market companies. Ameribor has traded more than $550 billion since inception in 2015. In addition, the AFX launched Ameribor futures on August 16, 2019.
U.S. Dollar ICE Bank Yield Index
The U.S. Dollar ICE Bank Yield Index is an index proposed by Intercontinental Exchange Benchmark Administration (IBA) in January 2019 to measure the yields at which investors are willing to lend U.S. dollar funds to large, internationally active banks on a wholesale, unsecured basis over one-month, three-month and six-month periods. Its usage is intended to be similar to how Libor is currently used.
Alternatives for Yen LIBOR
Tokyo Overnight Average Rate (TONAR).
See also
Interbank lending market
Libor scandal
Euribor
JIBAR
LIBID
Libor-OIS spread
SHIBOR
SONIA
SOFR
Ted spread
TIBOR
SIBOR
HIBOR
LIBOR market model
Further reading
Carrick Mollenkamp and Mark Whitehouse, "Study Casts Doubt on Key Rate: WSJ Analysis Suggests Banks May Have Reported Flawed Interest Data for Libor", The Wall Street Journal, Thursday, 29 May 2008, p. 1.
Donald MacKenzie, "What's in a Number?", London Review of Books, 25 September 2008, pp. 11–12.
Matt Taibbi: Everything Is Rigged: The Biggest Price-Fixing Scandal Ever, Rolling Stone 25 April 2013
References
External links
1 year LIBOR rate at MoneyCafe.com with historical data and graph
The Wheatley Review of LIBOR: Final Report
Financial Times: article list
Banking
Interest rates
United States housing bubble
1984 introductions
Reference rates
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236853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%20Graphophone%20Company | Columbia Graphophone Company | Columbia Graphophone Co. Ltd. was one of the earliest gramophone companies in the United Kingdom.
Founded in 1917 as an offshoot of the American Columbia Phonograph Company, it became an independent British-owned company in 1922 in a management buy-out after the parent company went into receivership.
In 1925 it acquired a controlling interest in its American parent company to take advantage of a new electrical recording process. The British firm also controlled the US operations from 1925 until 1931. That year Columbia Graphophone in the UK merged with the Gramophone Company (which sold records under the HMV label) to form EMI. At the same time, Columbia divested itself of its American branch, which was eventually absorbed by Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) in 1938.
As Columbia Records, it became a successful British label in the 1950s and 1960s, and was eventually replaced by the newly created EMI Records, as part of a label consolidation. This in turn was absorbed by the Parlophone Records unit of Warner Music Group in 2013.
Early history
The Columbia Phonograph Company was originally founded in the US by Edward D. Easton in 1887, initially as a distributor with a local monopoly on sales and service of Edison phonographs and phonograph cylinders in Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Delaware. It also made its own compatible cylinder recordings. In 1901 Columbia began selling disc records (invented and patented by Emile Berliner of the Victor Talking Machine Company) and phonographs. For a decade, Columbia competed with both the Edison Phonograph Company cylinders and the Victor discs. Edison discs and Columbia's acoustic records both had a nominal playback speed of 80 rpm.
From about 1898 until 1922 the US parent company managed a UK subsidiary, the Columbia Graphophone Manufacturing Company. Its headquarters and studios were established in Victorian warehouses at 102-108 Clerkenwell Road shortly before the First World War, and the buildings were a key location in the development of the British recording industry until the 1930s. In 1917 the Columbia Graphophone Company was registered as a British company, with the shares being held by the American firm.
A general market downturn in 1921 affected the whole entertainment industry. Profits turned to losses, and in late 1922 the creditors of the US parent company filed a petition for involuntary bankruptcy: Columbia went into receivership. Seeking to raise cash, Columbia sold the British branch in December 1922 to a group of investors led by Columbia's General Manager in Britain, the American-born Louis Sterling (1879–1958).
Columbia in the US emerged from receivership in February 1924 as the Columbia Phonograph Company Inc., but was immediately faced with another crisis as booming radio sales reduced the firm's profitability. Also by 1924 Bell Labs-Western Electric had developed a new electrical recording system to replace the old acoustic recording methods, and was offering exclusive rights to Victor although its Chairman's illness had led to delays. Louis Sterling as Managing Director had turned around the fortunes of UK Columbia, and persuaded Western Electric that granting a monopoly would be a grave mistake. Columbia had been making test electrical recordings since at least August 1924 with the Western Electrical system. Although the Columbia Phonograph Company of New York couldn't afford the royalty payments, Sterling was in a position to buy out the US operation and, as an American company, to purchase the licence for the new Western Electric patents. Satisfied with the progress of the test recordings, in March 1925, Louis Sterling (backed by J.P. Morgan & Co.), acquired a controlling interest in the parent company, Columbia US, for $2.5 million (about £500,000) in order to take advantage of Western Electric's patents. The firm continued in business as the Columbia Graphophone Company in many countries as a British company. Sterling, originally from New York, became chairman of the US operation.
On February 25, 1925, Columbia began recording with the licensed Western Electric recording process and was using it on a regular basis by April. The royalty payments were considerable, and in 1928 Columbia hired the English electronics engineer Alan Blumlein to work on an alternative. By late 1930, he had developed a recording system including a moving-coil microphone and a cutting head with linear characteristics which circumvented Western Electric's patents. Columbia continued to use acoustic recording methods for the cheaper labels, and to release discs made with old acoustic masters on the Harmony and Velvet Tone labels until around 1929.
The repercussions of the stock market Crash of 1929 led to huge losses in the recording industry and, in March 1931, J.P Morgan, the major shareholder, steered the Columbia Graphophone Company (along with Odeon records and Parlophone, which it had owned since 1926) into a merger with the Gramophone Company (HMV) to form Electric and Musical Industries Ltd (EMI). By the time of the merger, the Gramophone Company had not fully developed an alternative to Western Electric's process and was still paying royalty fees, so it was a technically advantageous move.
Since the Gramophone Company (HMV) was a wholly owned subsidiary of Victor, and Columbia in America was a subsidiary of UK Columbia, Victor now technically owned its largest rival in the US. To avoid antitrust legislation, EMI had to sell off its US Columbia operation, which continued to release pressings of matrices made in the UK. The American company was eventually absorbed by Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) (another of its former offshoots) in 1938.
As an EMI label
EMI continued to operate the Columbia record label in the UK until the early 1970s, and in all other territories except for the US, Canada, Mexico, Spain and Japan, until it sold its remaining interest in the Columbia trademark to Sony Music Entertainment in 1990.
Under EMI, UK Columbia's releases were mainly licensed recordings from American Columbia until 1951 when American Columbia switched British distribution to Philips Records. UK Columbia continued to distribute American Columbia sister labels Okeh and Epic until 1968 when American Columbia's then parent CBS moved distribution of all its labels to the new CBS Records created from the purchase of Oriole Records (UK) in late 1964. The loss of American Columbia product had forced UK Columbia to groom its own talent such as Russ Conway, John Barry, Cliff Richard, the Shadows, Helen Shapiro, Frank Ifield, Rolf Harris, Freddie and the Dreamers, the Dave Clark Five, Shirley Bassey, Frankie Vaughan, Des O'Connor, Ken Dodd, the Animals, Herman's Hermits, Gerry and the Pacemakers, the Seekers, the Yardbirds, Jeff Beck, and Pink Floyd. Led by A&R man Norrie Paramor, the label was arguably the most successful in Britain in the rock era prior to the beat boom.
In the mid 1960s, UK Columbia added an audiophile imprint called Studio 2 Stereo. During that time, the Columbia Graphophone Company was absorbed into the Gramophone Company with the label maintaining its identity.
EMI engaged in litigation with CBS regarding the importing of American records bearing the Columbia imprint into areas where EMI owned the Columbia name.
Releases from the British Columbia Graphophone Company appeared in Japan under Nippon Columbia until 1962, when licensing was switched to Toshiba Musical Industries.
Phaseout of label by EMI and trade mark transfer
EMI decided to reserve the HMV label for classical repertoire and had transferred HMV's remaining pop acts to Columbia and Parlophone by 1967. EMI began to replace the Columbia label with the eponymous EMI Records in January 1973. The last Columbia single was issued in 1989. EMI sold its remaining interest in the Columbia name in 1990 to Sony Music Entertainment (formerly CBS Records Group), which already owned Columbia Records in the U.S. and Canada. The formal reassignment of British registered trade marks from EMI, including the "magic notes" logo, took place in 1993.
For the Columbia Records trade mark in the UK and elsewhere, Sony Music now prefers the "walking eye" logo previously used by the old CBS Records, which is based on the Columbia Records logo introduced in the US and Canada in 1955. However, the "magic notes" logo is occasionally used, usually to give a 'retro' feel (such as on the 2016 vinyl reissues of Pink Floyd's Piper at the Gates of Dawn and A Saucerful of Secrets, and on Bob Dylan's Time Out of Mind).
The Columbia name was still on some EMI releases between 1973 and 1990 (such as Baltimora's "Tarzan Boy" in 1985, Jeanne Mas and the 1987 Kiki Dee album Angel Eyes), but it had ceased acting as a fully functioning label.
In Australia and Germany, EMI continued using the Columbia label throughout the 1970s and to at least 1980, but added the EMI label in 1973.
Current ownership
Through its ownership of the former Columbia/EMI catalogue, Parlophone Records' new owner Warner Music Group assumed Columbia's artist roster and catalogue. New reissues bear the Parlophone imprint. Columbia's reissues, and by extension, those from HMV's popular genres, are distributed by WMG's Rhino Entertainment in the United States.
See also
Graphophone, a Bell name & trademark acquired by several US record firms
List of Columbia Graphophone Company artists
List of record labels
Nippon Columbia, one-time Japanese affiliate
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Defunct record labels of the United Kingdom
British record labels
EMI
1922 establishments in the United Kingdom
1973 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1990 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Record labels established in 1922
Record labels disestablished in 1973
Record labels disestablished in 1990
Phonograph manufacturers
Audio equipment manufacturers of the United Kingdom | [
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236856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinonychus | Deinonychus | Deinonychus ( ; ) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur with one described species, Deinonychus antirrhopus. This species, which could grow up to long, lived during the early Cretaceous Period, about 115–108 million years ago (from the mid-Aptian to early Albian stages). Fossils have been recovered from the U.S. states of Montana, Utah, Wyoming, and Oklahoma, in rocks of the Cloverly Formation, Cedar Mountain Formation and Antlers Formation, though teeth that may belong to Deinonychus have been found much farther east in Maryland.
Paleontologist John Ostrom's study of Deinonychus in the late 1960s revolutionized the way scientists thought about dinosaurs, leading to the "dinosaur renaissance" and igniting the debate on whether dinosaurs were warm-blooded or cold-blooded. Before this, the popular conception of dinosaurs had been one of plodding, reptilian giants. Ostrom noted the small body, sleek, horizontal posture, ratite-like spine, and especially the enlarged raptorial claws on the feet, which suggested an active, agile predator.
"Terrible claw" refers to the unusually large, sickle-shaped talon on the second toe of each hind foot. The fossil YPM 5205 preserves a large, strongly curved ungual. In life, archosaurs have a horny sheath over this bone, which extends the length. Ostrom looked at crocodile and bird claws and reconstructed the claw for YPM 5205 as over long. The species name antirrhopus means "counter balance", which refers to Ostrom's idea about the function of the tail. As in other dromaeosaurids, the tail vertebrae have a series of ossified tendons and super-elongated bone processes. These features seemed to make the tail into a stiff counterbalance, but a fossil of the very closely related Velociraptor mongoliensis (IGM 100/986) has an articulated tail skeleton that is curved laterally in a long S-shape. This suggests that, in life, the tail could bend to the sides with a high degree of flexibility. In both the Cloverly and Antlers formations, Deinonychus remains have been found closely associated with those of the ornithopod Tenontosaurus. Teeth discovered associated with Tenontosaurus specimens imply they were hunted, or at least scavenged upon, by Deinonychus.
Discovery and naming
Fossilized remains of Deinonychus have been recovered from the Cloverly Formation of Montana and Wyoming and in the roughly contemporary Antlers Formation of Oklahoma, in North America. The Cloverly formation has been dated to the late Aptian through early Albian stages of the early Cretaceous, about 115 to 108 Ma. Additionally, teeth found in the Arundel Clay Facies (mid-Aptian), of the Potomac Formation on the Atlantic Coastal Plain of Maryland may be assigned to the genus.
The first remains were uncovered in 1931 in southern Montana near the town of Billings. The team leader, paleontologist Barnum Brown, was primarily concerned with excavating and preparing the remains of the ornithopod dinosaur Tenontosaurus, but in his field report from the dig site to the American Museum of Natural History, he reported the discovery of a small carnivorous dinosaur close to a Tenontosaurus skeleton, "but encased in lime difficult to prepare." He informally called the animal "Daptosaurus agilis" and made preparations for describing it and having the skeleton, specimen AMNH 3015, put on display, but never finished this work. Brown brought back from the Cloverly Formation the skeleton of a smaller theropod with seemingly oversized teeth that he informally named "Megadontosaurus". John Ostrom, reviewing this material decades later, realized that the teeth came from Deinonychus, but the skeleton came from a completely different animal. He named this skeleton Microvenator.
A little more than thirty years later, in August 1964, paleontologist John Ostrom led an expedition from Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History which discovered more skeletal material near Bridger. Expeditions during the following two summers uncovered more than 1,000 bones, among which were at least three individuals. Since the association between the various recovered bones was weak, making the exact number of individual animals represented impossible to determine properly, the type specimen (YPM 5205) of Deinonychus was restricted to the complete left foot and partial right foot that definitely belonged to the same individual. The remaining specimens were catalogued in fifty separate entries at Yale's Peabody Museum although they could have been from as few as three individuals.
Later study by Ostrom and Grant E. Meyer analyzed their own material as well as Brown's "Daptosaurus" in detail and found them to be the same species. Ostrom first published his findings in February 1969, giving all the referred remains the new name of Deinonychus antirrhopus. The specific name "antirrhopus", from Greek ἀντίρροπος, means "counterbalancing" and refers to the likely purpose of a stiffened tail. In July 1969, Ostrom published a very extensive monograph on Deinonychus.
Though a myriad of bones was available by 1969, many important ones were missing or hard to interpret. There were few postorbital skull elements, no femurs, no sacrum, no furcula or sternum, missing vertebrae, and (Ostrom thought) only a tiny fragment of a coracoid. Ostrom's skeletal reconstruction of Deinonychus included a very unusual pelvic bone—a pubis that was trapezoidal and flat, unlike that of other theropods, but which was the same length as the ischium and which was found right next to it.
Further findings
In 1974, Ostrom published another monograph on the shoulder of Deinonychus in which he realized that the pubis that he had described was actually a coracoid—a shoulder element. In that same year, another specimen of Deinonychus, MCZ 4371, was discovered and excavated in Montana by Steven Orzack during a Harvard University expedition headed by Farish Jenkins. This discovery added several new elements: well preserved femora, pubes, a sacrum, and better ilia, as well as elements of the pes and metatarsus. Ostrom described this specimen and revised his skeletal restoration of Deinonychus. This time it showed the very long pubis, and Ostrom began to suspect that they may have even been a little retroverted like those of birds.
A skeleton of Deinonychus, including bones from the original (and most complete) AMNH 3015 specimen, can be seen on display at the American Museum of Natural History, with another specimen (MCZ 4371) on display at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. The American Museum and Harvard specimens are from a different locality than the Yale specimens. Even these two skeletal mounts are lacking elements, including the sterna, sternal ribs, furcula, and gastralia.
Even after all Ostrom's work, several small blocks of lime-encased material remained unprepared in storage at the American Museum. These consisted mostly of isolated bones and bone fragments, including the original matrix, or surrounding rock in which the specimens were initially buried. An examination of these unprepared blocks by Gerald Grellet-Tinner and Peter Makovicky in 2000 revealed an interesting, overlooked feature. Several long, thin bones identified on the blocks as ossified tendons (structures that helped stiffen the tail of Deinonychus) turned out to actually represent gastralia (abdominal ribs). More significantly, a large number of previously unnoticed fossilized eggshells were discovered in the rock matrix that had surrounded the original Deinonychus specimen.
In a subsequent, more detailed report, on the eggshells, Grellet-Tinner and Makovicky concluded that the egg almost certainly belonged to Deinonychus, representing the first dromaeosaurid egg to be identified. Moreover, the external surface of one eggshell was found in close contact with the gastralia suggesting that Deinonychus might have brooded its eggs. This implies that Deinonychus used body heat transfer as a mechanism for egg incubation, and indicates an endothermy similar to modern birds. Further study by Gregory Erickson and colleagues finds that this individual was 13 or 14 years old at death and its growth had plateaued. Unlike other theropods in their study of specimens found associated with eggs or nests, it had finished growing at the time of its death.
Implications
Ostrom's description of Deinonychus in 1969 has been described as the most important single discovery of dinosaur paleontology in the mid-20th century. The discovery of this clearly active, agile predator did much to change the scientific (and popular) conception of dinosaurs and opened the door to speculation that some dinosaurs may have been warm-blooded. This development has been termed the dinosaur renaissance. Several years later, Ostrom noted similarities between the forefeet of Deinonychus and that of birds, an observation which led him to revive the hypothesis that birds are descended from dinosaurs. Forty years later, this idea is almost universally accepted.
Because of its extremely bird-like anatomy and close relationship to other dromaeosaurids, paleontologists hypothesize that Deinonychus was probably covered in feathers. Clear fossil evidence of modern avian-style feathers exists for several related dromaeosaurids, including Velociraptor and Microraptor, though no direct evidence is yet known for Deinonychus itself. When conducting studies of such areas as the range of motion in the forelimbs, paleontologists like Phil Senter have taken the likely presence of wing feathers (as present in all known dromaeosaurs with skin impressions) into consideration.
Description
Based on the few fully mature specimens, Deinonychus could reach in length, with a skull length of , a hip height of and a weight of , though there is a higher estimate of . The skull was equipped with powerful jaws lined with around seventy curved, blade-like teeth. Studies of the skull have progressed a great deal over the decades. Ostrom reconstructed the partial, imperfectly preserved skulls that he had as triangular, broad, and fairly similar to Allosaurus. Additional Deinonychus skull material and closely related species found with good three-dimensional preservation show that the palate was more vaulted than Ostrom thought, making the snout far narrower, while the jugals flared broadly, giving greater stereoscopic vision. The skull of Deinonychus was different from that of Velociraptor, however, in that it had a more robust skull roof, like that of Dromaeosaurus, and did not have the depressed nasals of Velociraptor. Both the skull and the lower jaw had fenestrae (skull openings) which reduced the weight of the skull. In Deinonychus, the antorbital fenestra, a skull opening between the eye and nostril, was particularly large.
Deinonychus possessed large "hands" (manus) with three claws on each forelimb. The first digit was shortest and the second was longest. Each hind foot bore a sickle-shaped claw on the second digit, which was probably used during predation.
No skin impressions have ever been found in association with fossils of Deinonychus. Nonetheless, the evidence suggests that the Dromaeosauridae, including Deinonychus, had feathers. The genus Microraptor is both older geologically and more primitive phylogenetically than Deinonychus, and within the same family. Multiple fossils of Microraptor preserve pennaceous, vaned feathers like those of modern birds on the arms, legs, and tail, along with covert and contour feathers. Velociraptor is geologically younger than Deinonychus, but even more closely related. A specimen of Velociraptor has been found with quill knobs on the ulna. Quill knobs are where the follicular ligaments attached, and are a direct indicator of feathers of modern aspect.
Classification
Deinonychus antirrhopus is one of the best known dromaeosaurid species, and also a close relative of the smaller Velociraptor, which is found in younger, Late Cretaceous-age rock formations in Central Asia. The clade they form is called Velociraptorinae. The subfamily name Velociraptorinae was first coined by Rinchen Barsbold in 1983 and originally contained the single genus Velociraptor. Later, Phil Currie included most of the dromaeosaurids. Two Late Cretaceous genera, Tsaagan from Mongolia and the North American Saurornitholestes, may also be close relatives, but the latter is poorly known and hard to classify. Velociraptor and its allies are regarded as using their claws more than their skulls as killing tools, as opposed to dromaeosaurines like Dromaeosaurus, which have stockier skulls. Phylogenetically, the dromaeosaurids represent one of the non-avialan dinosaur groups most closely related to birds. The cladogram below follows a 2015 analysis by paleontologists Robert DePalma, David Burnham, Larry Martin, Peter Larson, and Robert Bakker, using updated data from the Theropod Working Group. This study currently classifies Deinonychus as a member of the Dromaeosaurinae.
A 2021 study of the dromaeosaurid Kansaignathus recovered Deinonychus as a velociraptorine rather than a dromaeosaurine, with Kansaignathus being an intermediate basal form more advanced than Deinonychus but more primitive than Velociraptor. The cladogram below showcases these newly described relationships:
{{clade|{{clade
|1=Mahakala
|label2=Halszkaraptorinae
|2=
|3={{clade
|1=Microraptorinae
|2={{clade
|1=Unenlagiinae
|2={{clade
|1=Bambiraptor
|2={{clade
|1=Dakotaraptor
|label2=Eudromaeosauria
|2={{clade
|1=Saurornitholestinae
|2={{clade
|1=Dromaeosaurinae
|label2=Velociraptorinae
|2={{clade
|1=Deinonychus
|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}|label1=Dromaeosauridae|style=font-size: 85%; line-height:85%}}
Another study in 2022 however, reclassified Deinonychus as a basal eudromaeosaur.
Paleobiology
Predatory behaviorDeinonychus teeth found in association with fossils of the ornithopod dinosaur Tenontosaurus are quite common in the Cloverly Formation. Two quarries have been discovered that preserve fairly complete Deinonychus fossils near Tenontosaurus fossils. The first, the Yale quarry in the Cloverly of Montana, includes numerous teeth, four adult Deinonychus and one juvenile Deinonychus. The association of this number of Deinonychus skeletons in a single quarry suggests that Deinonychus may have fed on that animal, and perhaps hunted it. Ostrom and Maxwell have even used this information to speculate that Deinonychus might have lived and hunted in packs. The second such quarry is from the Antlers Formation of Oklahoma. The site contains six partial skeletons of Tenontosaurus of various sizes, along with one partial skeleton and many teeth of Deinonychus. One tenontosaur humerus even bears what might be Deinonychus tooth marks. Brinkman et al. (1998) point out that Deinonychus had an adult mass of 70–100 kilograms, whereas adult tenontosaurs were 1–4 metric tons. A solitary Deinonychus could not kill an adult tenontosaur, suggesting that pack hunting is possible.
A 2007 study by Roach and Brinkman has called into question the cooperative pack hunting behavior of Deinonychus, based on what is known of modern carnivore hunting and the taphonomy of tenontosaur sites. Modern archosaurs (birds and crocodiles) and Komodo dragons typically display little cooperative hunting; instead, they are usually either solitary hunters, or are drawn to previously killed carcasses, where much conflict occurs between individuals of the same species. For example, in situations where groups of Komodo dragons are eating together, the largest individuals eat first and will attack smaller Komodos that attempt to feed; if the smaller animal is killed, it is cannibalized. When this information is applied to the tenontosaur sites, it appears that what is found is consistent with Deinonychus having a Komodo or crocodile-like feeding strategy. Deinonychus skeletal remains found at these sites are from subadults, with missing parts consistent with having been eaten by other Deinonychus. On the other hand, a paper by Li et al. describes track sites with similar foot spacing and parallel trackways, implying gregarious packing behavior instead of uncoordinated feeding behavior. Contrary to the claim crocodilians do not hunt cooperatively, they have actually been observed to hunt cooperatively, meaning that the notion of infighting, competition for food and cannibalism ruling out cooperative feeding may actually be a false dichotomy.
In 2009, Manning and colleagues interpreted dromaeosaur claw tips as functioning as a puncture and gripping element, whereas the expanded rear portion of the claw transferred load stress through the structure. They argue that the anatomy, form, and function of the foots recurved digit II and hand claws of dromaeosaurs support a prey capture/grappling/climbing function. The team also suggest that a ratchet-like ‘‘locking’’ ligament might have provided an energy-efficient way for dromaeosaurs to hook their recurved digit II claw into prey. Shifting body weight locked the claws passively, allowing their jaws to dispatch prey. They conclude that the enhanced climbing abilities of dromaeosaur dinosaurs supported a scansorial (climbing) phase in the evolution of flight. In 2011, Denver Fowler and colleagues suggested a new method by which Deinonychus and other dromaeosaurs may have captured and restrained prey. This model, known as the "raptor prey restraint" (RPR) model of predation, proposes that Deinonychus killed its prey in a manner very similar to extant accipitrid birds of prey: by leaping onto its quarry, pinning it under its body weight, and gripping it tightly with the large, sickle-shaped claws. Like accipitrids, the dromaeosaur would then begin to feed on the animal while still alive, until it eventually died from blood loss and organ failure. This proposal is based primarily on comparisons between the morphology and proportions of the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs to several groups of extant birds of prey with known predatory behaviors. Fowler found that the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs most closely resemble those of eagles and hawks, especially in terms of having an enlarged second claw and a similar range of grasping motion. However, the short metatarsus and foot strength would have been more similar to that of owls. The RPR method of predation would be consistent with other aspects of Deinonychus's anatomy, such as their unusual jaw and arm morphology. The arms were likely covered in long feathers, and may have been used as flapping stabilizers for balance while atop struggling prey, along with the stiff counterbalancing tail. Its jaws, thought to have had a comparatively weak bite force, might be used for saw motion bites, like the modern Komodo dragon which also has a weak bite force, to finish off its prey if its kicks were not powerful enough.
Bite force
Bite force estimates for Deinonychus were first produced in 2005, based on reconstructed jaw musculature. This study concluded that Deinonychus likely had a maximum bite force only 15% that of the modern American alligator. A 2010 study by Paul Gignac and colleagues attempted to estimate the bite force based directly on newly discovered Deinonychus tooth puncture marks in the bones of a Tenontosaurus. These puncture marks came from a large individual, and provided the first evidence that large Deinonychus could bite through bone. Using the tooth marks, Gignac's team were able to determine that the bite force of Deinonychus was significantly higher than earlier studies had estimated by biomechanical studies alone. They found the bite force of Deinonychus to be between 4,100 and 8,200 newtons, greater than living carnivorous mammals including the hyena, and equivalent to a similarly sized alligator.
Gignac and colleagues also noted, however, that bone puncture marks from Deinonychus are relatively rare, and unlike larger theropods with many known puncture marks like Tyrannosaurus, Deinonychus probably did not frequently bite through or eat bone. Instead, they probably used their high bite force in defense or prey capture, rather than feeding.
Limb function
Despite being the most distinctive feature of Deinonychus, the shape and curvature of the sickle claw varies between specimens. The type specimen described by Ostrom in 1969 has a strongly curved sickle claw, while a newer specimen described in 1976 had a claw with much weaker curvature, more similar in profile with the 'normal' claws on the remaining toes. Ostrom suggested that this difference in the size and shape of the sickle claws could be due to individual, sexual, or age-related variation, but admitted he could not be sure.
There is anatomical and trackway evidence that this talon was held up off the ground while the dinosaur walked on the third and fourth toes.
Ostrom suggested that Deinonychus could kick with the sickle claw to cut and slash at its prey. Some researchers even suggested that the talon was used to disembowel large ceratopsian dinosaurs. Other studies have suggested that the sickle claws were not used to slash but rather to deliver small stabs to the victim. In 2005, Manning and colleagues ran tests on a robotic replica that precisely matched the anatomy of Deinonychus and Velociraptor, and used hydraulic rams to make the robot strike a pig carcass. In these tests, the talons made only shallow punctures and could not cut or slash. The authors suggested that the talons would have been more effective in climbing than in dealing killing blows. In 2009, Manning and colleagues undertook additional analysis dromaeosaur claw function, using a numerical modelling approach to generate a 3D finite element stress/ strain map of a Velociraptor hand claw. They went on to quantitatively evaluate the mechanical behavior of dromaeosaur claws and their function. They state that dromaeosaur claws were well-adapted for climbing as they were resistant to forces acting in a single (longitudinal) plane, due to gravity.
Ostrom compared Deinonychus to the ostrich and cassowary. He noted that the bird species can inflict serious injury with the large claw on the second toe. The cassowary has claws up to long. Ostrom cited Gilliard (1958) in saying that they can sever an arm or disembowel a man. Kofron (1999 and 2003) studied 241 documented cassowary attacks and found that one human and two dogs had been killed, but no evidence that cassowaries can disembowel or dismember other animals. Cassowaries use their claws to defend themselves, to attack threatening animals, and in agonistic displays such as the Bowed Threat Display. The seriema also has an enlarged second toe claw, and uses it to tear apart small prey items for swallowing. In 2011, a study suggested that the sickle claw would likely have been used to pin down prey while biting it, rather than as a slashing weapon.
Biomechanical studies by Ken Carpenter in 2002 confirmed that the most likely function of the forelimbs in predation was grasping, as their great lengths would have permitted longer reach than for most other theropods. The rather large and elongated coracoid, indicating powerful muscles in the forelimbs, further strengthened this interpretation. Carpenter's biomechanical studies using bone casts also showed that Deinonychus could not fold its arms against its body like a bird ("avian folding"), contrary to what was inferred from the earlier 1985 descriptions by Jacques Gauthier and Gregory S. Paul in 1988.
Studies by Phil Senter in 2006 indicated that Deinonychus forelimbs could be used not only for grasping, but also for clutching objects towards the chest. If Deinonychus had feathered fingers and wings, the feathers would have limited the range of motion of the forelimbs to some degree. For example, when Deinonychus extended its arm forward, the 'palm' of the hand automatically rotated to an upward-facing position. This would have caused one wing to block the other if both forelimbs were extended at the same time, leading Senter to conclude that clutching objects to the chest would have only been accomplished with one arm at a time. The function of the fingers would also have been limited by feathers; for example, only the third digit of the hand could have been employed in activities such as probing crevices for small prey items, and only in a position perpendicular to the main wing. Alan Gishlick, in a 2001 study of Deinonychus forelimb mechanics, found that even if large wing feathers were present, the grasping ability of the hand would not have been significantly hindered; rather, grasping would have been accomplished perpendicular to the wing, and objects likely would have been held by both hands simultaneously in a "bear hug" fashion, findings which have been supported by the later forelimb studies by Carpenter and Senter. In a 2001 study conducted by Bruce Rothschild and other paleontologists, 43 hand bones and 52 foot bones referred to Deinonychus were examined for signs of stress fracture; none were found. The second phalanx of the second toe in the specimen YPM 5205 has a healed fracture.
Parsons and Parsons have shown that juvenile and sub-adult specimens of Deinonychus display some morphological differences from the adults. For instance, the arms of the younger specimens were proportionally longer than those of the adults, a possible indication of difference in behavior between young and adults. Another example of this could be the function of the pedal claws. Parsons and Parsons have suggested that the claw curvature (which Ostrom [1976] had already shown was different between specimens) maybe was greater for juvenile Deinonychus, as this could help it climb in trees, and that the claws became straighter as the animal became older and started to live solely on the ground. This was based on the hypothesis that some small dromaeosaurids used their pedal claws for climbing.
Flight
In a 2015 paper, it was reported after further analysis of immature fossils that the open and mobile nature of the shoulder joint might have meant that young Deinonychus were capable of some form of flight.
Speed
Dromaeosaurids, especially Deinonychus, are often depicted as unusually fast-running animals in the popular media, and Ostrom himself speculated that Deinonychus was fleet-footed in his original description. However, when first described, a complete leg of Deinonychus had not been found, and Ostrom's speculation about the length of the femur (upper leg bone) later proved to have been an overestimate. In a later study, Ostrom noted that the ratio of the femur to the tibia (lower leg bone) is not as important in determining speed as the relative length of the foot and lower leg. In modern fleet-footed birds, like the ostrich, the foot-tibia ratio is .95. In unusually fast-running dinosaurs, like Struthiomimus, the ratio is .68, but in Deinonychus the ratio is .48. Ostrom stated that the "only reasonable conclusion" is that Deinonychus, while far from slow-moving, was not particularly fast compared to other dinosaurs, and certainly not as fast as modern flightless birds.
The low foot to lower leg ratio in Deinonychus is due partly to an unusually short metatarsus (upper foot bones). The ratio is actually larger in smaller individuals than in larger ones. Ostrom suggested that the short metatarsus may be related to the function of the sickle claw, and used the fact that it appears to get shorter as individuals aged as support for this. He interpreted all these features—the short second toe with enlarged claw, short metatarsus, etc.—as support for the use of the hind leg as an offensive weapon, where the sickle claw would strike downwards and backwards, and the leg pulled back and down at the same time, slashing and tearing at the prey. Ostrom suggested that the short metatarsus reduced overall stress on the leg bones during such an attack, and interpreted the unusual arrangement of muscle attachments in the Deinonychus leg as support for his idea that a different set of muscles was used in the predatory stroke than in walking or running. Therefore, Ostrom concluded that the legs of Deinonychus represented a balance between running adaptations needed for an agile predator, and stress-reducing features to compensate for its unique foot weapon.
In his 1981 study of Canadian dinosaur footprints, Richard Kool produced rough walking speed estimates based on several trackways made by different species in the Gething Formation of British Columbia. Kool estimated one of these trackways, representing the ichnospecies Irenichnites gracilis (which may have been made by Deinonychus), to have a walking speed of 10.1 kilometers per hour (6 miles per hour).
Eggs
The identification, in 2000, of a probable Deinonychus egg associated with one of the original specimens allowed comparison with other theropod dinosaurs in terms of egg structure, nesting, and reproduction. In their 2006 examination of the specimen, Grellet-Tinner and Makovicky examined the possibility that the dromaeosaurid had been feeding on the egg, or that the egg fragments had been associated with the Deinonychus skeleton by coincidence. They dismissed the idea that the egg had been a meal for the theropod, noting that the fragments were sandwiched between the belly ribs and forelimb bones, making it impossible that they represented contents of the animal's stomach. In addition, the manner in which the egg had been crushed and fragmented indicated that it had been intact at the time of burial, and was broken by the fossilization process. The idea that the egg was randomly associated with the dinosaur was also found to be unlikely; the bones surrounding the egg had not been scattered or disarticulated, but remained fairly intact relative to their positions in life, indicating that the area around and including the egg was not disturbed during preservation. The fact that these bones were belly ribs (gastralia), which are very rarely found articulated, supported this interpretation. All the evidence, according to Grellet-Tinner and Makovicky, indicates that the egg was intact beneath the body of the Deinonychus when it was buried. It is possible that this represents brooding or nesting behavior in Deinonychus similar to that seen in the related troodontids and oviraptorids, or that the egg was in fact inside the oviduct when the animal died.
Examination of the Deinonychus egg's microstructure confirms that it belonged to a theropod, since it shares characteristics with other known theropod eggs and shows dissimilarities with ornithischian and sauropod eggs. Compared to other maniraptoran theropods, the egg of Deinonychus is more similar to those of oviraptorids than to those of troodontids, despite studies that show the latter are more closely related to dromaeosaurids like Deinonychus. While the egg was too badly crushed to accurately determine its size, Grellet-Tinner and Makovicky estimated a diameter of about 7 centimeters (2.7 in) based on the width of the pelvic canal through which the egg had to have passed. This size is similar to the 7.2 centimeters diameter of the largest Citipati (an oviraptorid) eggs; Citipati and Deinonychus also shared the same overall body size, supporting this estimate. Additionally, the thicknesses of Citipati and Deinonychus eggshells are almost identical, and since shell thickness correlates with egg volume, this further supports the idea that the eggs of these two animals were about the same size.
A study published in November 2018 by Norell, Yang and Wiemann et al., indicates that Deinonychus laid blue eggs, likely to camouflage them as well as creating open nests. The study also indicates that Deinonychus and other dinosaurs that created open nests likely represent an origin of color in modern bird eggs as an adaptation both for recognition and camouflage against predators.
Lifecycle
A study on Deinonychus tooth isotopes suggests precociality in the genus. The isotopes examined for different aged specimens indicates that adults and juveniles had different diets across the various age groups. The examinations also indicate a lack of complex, cooperative social behavior that is generally seen in pack-hunting animals, suggesting that Deinonychus had a more typical reptilian set of life stages.
Paleoenvironment
Geological evidence suggests that Deinonychus inhabited a floodplain or swamplike habitat. The paleoenvironment of both the upper Cloverly Formation and the Antlers Formation, in which remains of Deinonychus have been found, consisted of tropical or sub-tropical forests, deltas and lagoons, not unlike today's Louisiana.
Other animals Deinonychus shared its world with include herbivorous dinosaurs such as the armored Sauropelta and the ornithopods Zephyrosaurus and Tenontosaurus. In Oklahoma, the ecosystem of Deinonychus also included the large theropod Acrocanthosaurus, the huge sauropod Sauroposeidon, the crocodilians Goniopholis and Paluxysuchus, and the gar Lepisosteus. If the teeth found in Maryland are those of Deinonychus, then its contemporaries would include Astrodon and a nodosaur (called Priconodon) only known from teeth. The middle portion of the Cloverly Formation ranges in age from 115 ± 10 Ma near the base to 108.5 ± 0.2 Ma near the top.
Cultural significanceDeinonychus were featured prominently in the novels Jurassic Park and The Lost World by Michael Crichton and the film adaptations, directed by Steven Spielberg. However, Crichton ultimately chose to use the name Velociraptor for these dinosaurs, rather than Deinonychus. Crichton had met with John Ostrom several times during the writing process to discuss details of the possible range of behaviors and life appearance of Deinonychus. Crichton at one point apologetically told Ostrom that he had decided to use the name Velociraptor in place of Deinonychus for his book, because he felt the former name was "more dramatic". Despite this, according to Ostrom, Crichton stated that the Velociraptor of the novel was based on Deinonychus in almost every detail, and that only the name had been changed.
The Jurassic Park filmmakers followed suit, designing the film's models based almost entirely on Deinonychus instead of the actual Velociraptor, and they reportedly requested all of Ostrom's published papers on Deinonychus during production. As a result, they portrayed the film's dinosaurs with the size, proportions, and snout shape of Deinonychus''.
See also
Timeline of dromaeosaurid research
Dromaeosauridae
John Ostrom
References
External links
Eudromaeosaurs
Cloverly fauna
Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1969
Taxa named by John Ostrom | [
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|
236857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Estonians | List of Estonians | This is a list of notable Estonians.
Architects
Andres Alver (born 1953)
Dmitri Bruns (1929-2020)
Karl Burman (1882–1965)
Eugen Habermann (1884–1944)
Georg Hellat (1870–1943)
Otto Pius Hippius (1826–1883)
Erich Jacoby (1885–1941)
Herbert Johanson (1884–1964)
Peep Jänes (born 1936)
Louis I. Kahn (1901–1974)
Raine Karp (born 1939)
Alar Kotli (1904–1963)
Edgar-Johan Kuusik (1888–1974)
Ernst Gustav Kühnert (1885–1961)
Vilen Künnapu (born 1948)
Leonhard Lapin (born 1947)
Elmar Lohk (1901–1963)
Ülar Mark (born 1968)
Margit Mutso (born 1966)
Robert Natus (1890–1950)
Uno Prii (1924–2000)
Raivo Puusepp (born 1960)
Jacques Rosenbaum (1878–1943)
Eugen Sacharias (1906–2002)
Olev Siinmaa (1881–1948)
Elmar Tampõld (1920–2013)
Business and politics
Hardo Aasmäe (1951–2014), geographer, politician, encyclopedist
Andrus Ansip (born 1956), politician
Robert Antropov, Estonian politician, was a member of XI Riigikogu
Jaan Anvelt (1884–1937), politician
Ado Birk (1883–1942), politician
Ivi Eenmaa (born 1943), librarian and politician
Kaarel Eenpalu (Karl Einbund, 1888–1942), politician
Ene Ergma (born 1944), politician
Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1622–1686), politician (Sweden)
Karoli Hindriks (born 1983), entrepreneur
Toomas Hendrik Ilves (born 1953), journalist, politician, president
Mati Ilisson, Estonian politician, was a member of VIII Riigikogu
Ernst Jaakson (1905–1998), diplomat
Steve Jurvetson (born 1967), businessman (United States)
Siim Kallas (born 1948), politician
Carmen Kass (born 1978), supermodel, chess players, businesswoman, film actress and politician.
Tunne Kelam (born 1936), politician
Tõnis Kint (1896–1991), politician
Riina Kionka (born 1960), diplomat
Mihkel Klaassen (1880–1952), State judge
August Koern (1900–1989), politician and diplomat
Eerik-Niiles Kross (born 1967), diplomat and politician
Mart Laar (born 1960), politician, historian
Rein Lang (born 1957), journalist, businessman, politician
Robert Lepikson (1952–2006), businessman, politician
Peeter Lepp (born 1943), politician
Jürgen Ligi (born 1959), politician
Elmar Lipping (1906–1994), politician
Ott Lumi (born 1978), politician
Hjalmar Mäe (1901–1978), politician
Tiit Mae (born 1960), politician
Linnart Mäll (1938–2010), orientalist, politician
Harry Männil (1920–2010), businessman, art collector
Heinrich Mark (1911–2004), politician
Jaan Manitski (born 1942), businessman, politician
Maret Maripuu (born 1974), politician
Lennart Meri (1929–2006), writer, filmmaker, president
Jüri Mõis (born 1956), businessman, politician
Aarni Neuvonen (20th century), employment fraudster
Tiit Niilo (born 1962), politician
Ülo Nugis (1944–2011), politician, economist
Kristiina Ojuland (born 1966), politician
Lembit Öpik (born 1965), politician (United Kingdom)
Tiina Oraste (born 1962), politician
Rein Otsason (1931–2004), economist, businessman
Siiri Oviir (born 1947), politician
Ivari Padar (born 1965), politician
Tõnis Palts (born 1953), politician, businessman
Sir Arvi Parbo (1926-2019), businessman (Australia)
Juhan Parts (born 1966), politician
Keit Pentus (born 1976), politician
Hanno Pevkur (born 1977), politician
Jüri Pihl (born 1954), politician
Konstantin Päts (1874–1956), journalist, politician, former president
Jaan Poska (1866–1920), diplomat, politician
Nikolai Põdramägi (born 1944), politician, was a member of XI Riigikogu
Valdo Randpere (born 1958), businessman, musician
August Rei (1886–1963), politician, diplomat
Alfred Rosenberg (1893–1946), politician, ideologist (Germany)
Arno Rossman (born 1954), politician
Arnold Rüütel (born 1928), agricultural manager, politician, president
Edgar V. Saks (1910–1984), statesman, historian and author
Erik Salumäe (born 1970), politician
Edgar Savisaar (born 1950), politician
Johannes Sikkar (1897–1960), politician
Artur Sirk (1900–1937), officer, lawyer, politician
Otto Strandman (1875–1941), politician
Rein Taagepera (born 1933), political scientist, politician
Jaak Tamm (1950–1999), politician
Alexei Tammet-Romanov (died 1977), Romanov impostor
Andres Tarand (born 1940), politician
Indrek Tarand (born 1964), politician, historian, journalist
Enn Tarto (1938–2021), dissident, politician
Otto Tief (1889–1976), military officer, politician
Anti Tammeoks (born 1975), politician
Jaan Tõnisson (1868–1941?/unknown), journalist, politician
Ülo Tulik (born 1957), politician
Anton Uesson (1879–1942), politician, engineer
Jüri Uluots (1890–1945), lawyer, politician
Sulev Vare (born 1962), politician
Priit Vilba (born 1953), businessman, politician
Jüri Vilms (1889–1918), lawyer, politician
Toomas Vilosius (born 1951), physician, politician
Jüri Võigemast, politician
Tiit Vähi (born 1947), businessman, politician
Aleksander Warma (1890–1970), navy officer, politician
Education and science
Julius Aamisepp (1883–1950), agricultural scientist
Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), linguist
Jüri Allik (born 1949), psychologist
Paul Ariste (1905–1990), linguist
Karl Ernst von Baer (1792–1876), biologist (ethnic German)
Girsh Blumberg (born 1959), American - Estonian - experimental physicist
Karl Ernst Claus (1796–1864), chemist (ethnic German)
Georg Dehio (1850–1932), art historian (ethnic German)
Jaan Einasto (born 1929), astrophysicist
Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz (1793–1831), entomologist (ethnic German)
Bengt Gottfried Forselius (c. 1660–1688), founder of public education
Johannes Hint (1914–1985), physicist, inventor
Jakob Hurt (1839–1906), linguist, collector of folklore
Andres Kasekamp (born 1966), historian
Rainer Kattel (born 1974), innovation scholar, political philosopher
Paul Kogerman (1891–1951), chemist
Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), psychologist (ethnic German)
Nikolai Köstner (1889–1959), economist, politician
Eerik Kumari (1912–1984), ornithologist
Helga Kurm (1920 - 2011), dean of the Tartu State University Pedagogical Division
Heinrich Lenz (1804–1865), physicist (ethnic German)
Elmar Leppik (1898–1978), biologist
Otto Liiv (1905–1942), historian, archivist
Endel Lippmaa (1930–2015), chemist, physicist, politician
Mihhail Lotman (born 1952), semiotician (Jewish)
Juri Lotman (1922–1993), semiotician (Jewish)
Richard Karlovich Maack (1825–1886), geographer, botanist, Siberian explorer, educator
Sulev Mäeltsemees (born 1947), public administration theorist
Friedrich Martens (1845–1909), diplomat, international lawyer
Viktor Masing (1925–2001), ecologist
Harri Moora (1900–1968), archaeologist
Ragnar Nurkse (1907–1959), economist
Ernst Öpik (1893–1985), astronomer
Jaak Panksepp (born 1943), psychologist, ethologist, neuroscientist
Erast Parmasto (1928–2012), mycologist
Georg Friedrich Parrot (1767–1852)
Johann Friedrich Parrot (1791–1841), physician, explorer
Jaan Puhvel (born 1932), linguist
Ludvig Puusepp (1875–1942), medical scientist, neurosurgeon
Georg Wilhelm Richmann (1711–1753), physicist
Hillar M. Rootare (1928–2008), chemist
Mart Saarma (born 1949), molecular biologist
Thomas Seebeck (1770–1831), physicist
Otto Wilhelm von Struve (1819–1905), astronomer (ethnic German)
Svante Pääbo (born 1955), paleogeneticist (Sweden, Germany)
Eduard von Toll (1858–1902?), geologist, Arctic explorer
Endel Tulving (born 1927), psychologist
Jakob von Uexküll (1864–1944), biologist, semiotician (ethnic German)
Lauri Vaska (born 1925), chemist (USA)
Mihkel Veske (1843–1890), linguist, poet
Gustav Vilbaste (1885–1967), botanist
Edgar de Wahl (Edgar von Wahl, 1867–1948), teacher, creator of Interlingue (Occidental until 1949)
Literature and journalism
Artur Adson (1889–1977), poet
Artur Alliksaar (1923–1966), poet
Betti Alver (1906–1989), poet
Elise Aun (1863–1932), poet
Johannes Barbarus (1890–1946), poet
Nikolai Baturin (born 1936), writer
Aimée Beekman (born 1933), writer
Vladimir Beekman (1929–2009), poet, novelist, translator
Eduard Bornhöhe (1862–1923), writer
Ernst Enno (1875–1934), poet
Friedrich Robert Faehlmann (1798–1850), writer, physician
August Gailit (1891–1960), writer
Ado Grenzstein (1849–1916), journalist
Lehte Hainsalu (born 1938), poet, novelist, children's author
Indrek Hargla (born 1970), writer, screenwriter
Sass Henno (born 1982), writer
August Wilhelm Hupel (1737–1819), ecclesiastic writer, ethnologist
Ivar Ivask (1927–1992), literary scholar, critic, poet
Carl Robert Jakobson (1841–1882), journalist, political activist
Johann Voldemar Jannsen (1819–1890), journalist, political activist
Fred Jüssi (born 1935), journalist, champion of wildlife
Ain Kaalep (born 1926), poet
Bernard Kangro (1910–1994), poet, writer, journalist
Jaan Kaplinski (1941–2021), writer, journalist, politician
Doris Kareva (born 1958), poet
Kaur Kender (born 1971), writer
August Kitzberg (1855–1927), writer
Albert Kivikas (1898–1978), writer
Andrus Kivirähk (born 1970), writer
Lydia Koidula (Lydia Jannsen, 1843–1886), poet
Madis Kõiv (1929–2014), author, physicist and philosopher
Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882), physician, writer, author of national epic
Jaan Kross (1920–2007), writer
Kalle Kurg (born 1942), poet, writer, critic, translator
Paul Kuusberg (1916–2003), writer
Kalle Lasn (born 1942), founder of Adbusters magazine
Kalju Lepik (1920–1999), poet
Juhan Liiv (1864–1913), poet, writer
Martin Lipp (1854–1923), poet
Viivi Luik (born 1946), poet
Oskar Luts (1887–1953), writer
Iko Maran (1915–1999), writer
Otto Wilhelm Masing (1763–1862), pastor, philologist, journalist
Uku Masing (1909–1985), poet, theologian, ethnologist
Lennart Meri (1929–2006), writer, politician
Kersti Merilaas (1913–1986), poet, playwright
Mait Metsanurk (1879–1957), writer
Mihkel Mutt (born 1953), writer, critic
August Mälk (1900–1987), writer
Ellen Niit (1928–2016), children's writer, poet and translator
Minni Nurme (1917–1994), writer and poet
Tõnu Õnnepalu (aka Emil Tode, born 1962), writer
Ants Oras (1900–1982), writer and translator
Eeva Park (born 1950), writer and poet
Aino Pervik (born 1932), children's author
Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801–1822), poet
Lilli Promet (1922–2007), writer
Eno Raud (1928–1996), children's book author
Mart Raud (1903–1980), writer
Hugo Raudsepp (1883–1952), playwright
Karl Ristikivi (1912–1977), writer, poet
Aarne Ruben (born 1971), writer
Paul-Eerik Rummo (born 1942), poet, politician
Balthasar Russow (c. 1536–1600), chronicler
Peeter Sauter (born 1962), writer
Johannes Semper (1892–1970), writer, poet
Juhan Smuul (1922–1971), writer, poet
Gustav Suits (1883–1956), poet
Heiti Talvik (1904–1947), poet
Harald Tammer (1899–1942), journalist
Anton Hansen Tammsaare (1878–1940), writer
Mats Traat (born 1936), author, poet
Tõnu Trubetsky (born 1963), writer, musician, film director
Friedebert Tuglas (1886–1971), writer, critic, literary scholar
Marie Under (1883–1980), poet
Mati Unt (1944–2005), writer, stage director
Edgar Valter (1929–2006), writer, artist
Arvo Valton (born 1935), writer
Priit Vesilind (born 1943), journalist, photographer, author (United States)
Enn Vetemaa (born 1936), writer
Juhan Viiding (1948–1995), poet, actor
Paul Viiding (1904–1962), poet
Eduard Vilde (1865–1933), writer, journalist
Heiki Vilep (born 1960), writer
Henrik Visnapuu (1890–1951), poet, journalist
Gero von Wilpert (1933–2009), writer
Wimberg (Jaak Urmet; born 1979), journalist, poet
Hella Wuolijoki (1886–1954), writer, politician (Finland)
Military and seafaring
Avdy Andresson (1899–1990), politician
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (1778–1852), geographer, navigator, admiral
Alexander von Benckendorff (1783–1844), general, politician
Konstantin von Benckendorff (1785–1828), general, diplomat
Herbert Brede (1888–1942), general
Ivar Brok (1977–2008), Estonian Army, killed in action in Afghanistan
Aleksander Einseln (1931-2017), general, politician
Jacob De la Gardie (1583–1652), officer, statesman
Otto Heinze (1877–1968), general
Nikolai Helk (1885–1942), general
Aleksander Jaakson (1892–1942), general, statesman
Martin Jervan (1891–1942), general
Otto von Kotzebue (1787–1846), geographer, navigator
Tarmo Kõuts (born 1953), admiral, politician
Adam Johann von Krusenstern (1770–1846), geographer, navigator
Julius Kuperjanov (1894–1919), officer
Ants Laaneots (born 1948), general
Johan Laidoner (1884–1953), general, politician
Andres Larka (1879–1942), general, politician
Hans Leesment (1873–1944), general
Lembitu of Lehola (died 1217), tribal elder, military commander
Andres Nuiamäe (1982–2004), first Estonian soldier killed in action in Iraq
Karl Parts (1886–1941), officer
Johan Pitka (1872–1944?), admiral, politician
Ernst Põdder (1879–1932), general
Viktor Puskar (1889–1943), officer
Alfons Rebane (1908–1976), officer, intelligence operative
Nikolai Reek (1890–1942), general
Harald Riipalu (1912–1961), officer
Paul Maitla (1913–1945), officer
Harald Nugiseks (1921–2014), officer
August Sabbe (1909–1978), guerrilla
Jaan Soots (1880–1942), general
Allain Tikko (1979–2009), Estonian Army, killed in action in Afghanistan
Aleksander Tõnisson (1875–1941), general
Jaan Usin (1887–1941), navy officer, commander of the Peipsi flotilla
Ferdinand von Wrangel (1796–1870), Arctic explorer
Music
Evald Aav (1900–1939), composer, choir conductor
Juhan Aavik (1884–1982), composer, conductor
Urmas Alender (1953–1994), pop musician
Olav Ehala (born 1950), composer
Heino Eller (1887–1970), composer
Olari Elts (born 1971), conductor
Gustav Ernesaks (1908–1993), composer, conductor
Eda-Ines Etti ("Ines", born 1981), pop musician
Miina Härma (1864–1941), composer, conductor
Maarja-Liis Ilus ("Maarja", born 1980), pop musician
Johann Voldemar Jannsen (1819–1890), conductor, journalist
Neeme Järvi (born 1937), conductor
Paavo Järvi (born 1962), conductor
Piret Järvis (born 1984), rock musician
Joonatan Jürgenson (born 1991), classical pianist
Artur Kapp (1878–1952), composer
Eugen Kapp (1908–1996), composer
Tõnu Kaljuste (born 1953), conductor
Mari Kalkun (born 1986), folk singer
Paul Kostabi (born 1962), musician
Maarja Kivi (born 1986), rock/metal musician
Triinu Kivilaan (born 1989), model, pop/rock musician
Eri Klas (1939-2016), conductor (Jewish)
Kerli Kõiv ("Kerli", born 1987), musician, songwriter
Cyrillus Kreek (1889–1962), composer
Lenna Kuurmaa (born 1985), rock musician
Heli Lääts (1932–2018), singer
Käbi Laretei (born 1922), pianist, composer, writer
Artur Lemba (1885–1963), pianist, composer
Ott Lepland (born 1987), singer, actor
Ivo Linna (born 1949), singer, pop musician
Uno Loop (born 1930), singer, musician, athlete, actor, educator
Mihkel Lüdig (1880–1958) composer, organist, choir conductor
Ester Mägi (1922–2021), composer
Tõnis Mägi (born 1948), singer, pop musician
Alo Mattiisen (1961–1996), composer
Maria Minerva (born 1988), experimental musician
Getter Jaani (born 1993), singer, actress
Sandra Nurmsalu (born 1988), singer
Maarja Nuut (born 1986), singer and violinist
Birgit Õigemeel (born 1988), singer
Georg Ots (1920–1975), opera singer
Tanel Padar (born 1980), pop musician
Rene Pais ("Syn Cole", born 1988), DJ, record producer
Arvo Pärt (born 1935), composer
Annely Peebo (born 1971), opera singer
Kristiina Poska (born 1978), conductor
Jaan Rääts (1932–2020), composer
Kalle Randalu (born 1955), pianist
Rein Rannap (born 1953), composer, pianist
Vardo Rumessen (born 1942), pianist, politician
Mart Saar (1882–1963), composer
Evelin Samuel (born 1975), pop musician
Mart Sander (born 1967), singer, actor
Urmas Sisask (born 1960), composer
Katrin Siska (born 1983), rock musician
Eduard Sõrmus (1878–1940), violinist
Lepo Sumera (1950–2000), composer
Eino Tamberg (1930-2010), composer
Kalmer Tennosaar (1928–2004), singer, TV journalist
Rudolf Tobias (1873–1918), composer
Helen Tobias-Duesberg (1919–2010), composer
Kärt Tomingas (born 1967), actress, singer, songwriter
Koit Toome (born 1979), pop musician
Veljo Tormis (born 1930), composer
Tõnu Trubetsky (born 1963), singer, composer, writer
Eduard Tubin (1905–1982), composer
Erkki-Sven Tüür (born 1959), composer
Raimond Valgre (1913–1949), composer
Anne Veski (born 1956), pop musician
Asta Vihandi (1929–1993), opera singer, actress
Vello Viisimaa (1928–1991), singer, actor
Tommy Cash (rapper) (born 1991), rapper
Performing arts
Argo Aadli (born 1980), actor
Ott Aardam (born 1980), actor
Tõnu Aav (1939-2019), actor
Eino Baskin (1929–2015)
Taavi Eelmaa (born 1971), actor
Herta Elviste (1923–2015), actress
Ants Eskola (1908–1989), actor
Ita Ever (born 1931), actress
Viiu Härm (born 1944), actress, poet
Kersti Heinloo (born 1976), actress
Evald Hermaküla (1941–2000), actor and director
Tanel Ingi (born 1976), actor
Jüri Järvet (1919–1995), actor
Ülle Kaljuste (born 1957), actress
Tõnu Kark (born 1947), actor
Volli Käro (born 1940), actor
Carmen Kass (born 1978), supermodel
Kaljo Kiisk (1925–2007), actor, film director and politician
Miliza Korjus (1909–1980), opera singer, film actress
Hele Kõrve (born 1980), actress, singer
Risto Kübar (born 1983), actor
Tiiu Kuik (born 1987), model
Betty Kuuskemaa (1879–1966), actress
Lia Laats (1926–2004), actress
Lauri Lagle (born 1981), actor, director, screenwriter
Silvia Laidla (1927–2012), actress
Anu Lamp (born 1958), actress and director
Astrid Lepa (1924–2015), actress and director
Tiit Lilleorg (born 1941), actor
Raine Loo (1945–2020), actress
Aksella Luts (1905–2005), actress, screenwriter
Ain Lutsepp (born 1954), actor and politician
Theodor Luts (1896–1980), director and cinematographer
Ain Mäeots (born 1971), actor, director, producer
Laine Mägi (born 1959), actress and choreographer
Mait Malmsten (born 1972), actor
Heino Mandri (1922–1990), actor
Konstantin Märska (1896–1951), cinematographer
Marko Matvere (born 1968), actor
Laine Mesikäpp (1917–2012), actress, singer, folk song collector
Mikk Mikiver (1937–2006), stage director, actor
Ornella Muti (born 1955), film actress (Italy)
Gerd Neggo (1891–1974), dancer, choreographer
Ester Pajusoo (born 1934), actress
Paul Pinna (1884–1949), actor, stage director
Mirtel Pohla (born 1982), actress
Salme Poopuu (1939–2017), actress, filmmaker
Erik Norkroos (born 1969), cinematographer, producer, editor and director
Kalju Orro (born 1952), actor
Priit Pärn (born 1946), animated film maker, graphic artist
Leida Rammo (1924–2020), actress
Elsa Ratassepp (1893–1972), actress
Tõnis Rätsep (born 1947), actor, singer, educator, poet, playwright and author
Evi Rauer (1915–2004), actress
Salme Reek (1907–1996), actress
Enn Reitel (born 1950), film actor (UK)
Jaan Rekkor (1958), actor
Moonika Siimets (born 1980), film director
Meeli Sööt (born 1937), actress
Eero Spriit (born 1949), actor and producer
Arno Suurorg (1903–1960), actor
Mena Suvari (born 1979), actress (USA)
Aino Talvi (1909–1992), actress
Kärt Tomingas (born 1967), actress, singer
Tanel Toom (born 1982), Oscar-nominated film director and screenwriter
Jaan Tooming (born 1946), actor, theatre and film director and writer
Aarne Üksküla (1937–2017), actor
Lembit Ulfsak (1947-2017), actor
Olli Ungvere (1906–1991), actress and singer
Katariina Unt (born 1971), actress
Ivo Uukkivi (born 1965), actor and musician
Jan Uuspõld (born 1973), actor, musician
Viire Valdma (born 1960), actress
Ragne Veensalu (born 1986), actress
Kullar Viimne (born 1980), film director and cinematographer
Evelin Võigemast (born 1980), actress, singer
Priit Võigemast (born 1980), actor
Religion
Herman (Aav) (1878–1961), head of Finnish Orthodox Church
Jaan Kiivit, Jr (1940–2005), archbishop
Juhan Leinberg (1812–1885), founder of a religious sect (the Maltsvetians)
Kuno Pajula (1924-2012), archbishop
Andres Põder (born 1949), archbishop
Alexey Ridiger (Patriarch Alexius II, 1929–2008), head of Orthodox Church (Russia)
Arthur Võõbus (1909–1988), theologian, orientalist, church historian
Sport
Moonika Aava (born 1979), javelin thrower
Arvi Aavik (born 1969), wrestler
Aleksander Aberg (1881–1920), wrestler
Friedrich Amelung (1842–1909), chess player
Maret Ani (born 1982), tennis player
Ants Antson (1938–2015), speedskater, Olympic medalist
Marko Asmer (born 1984), racing driver
Lauri Aus (1970–2003), cyclist
Aleksei Budõlin (born 1976), judoka, Olympic medalist
Toomas Edur (born 1954), NHL hockey player
Jaan Ehlvest (born 1962), chess player
Eduard Ellman-Eelma (1902–1943), football player
August Englas (1925-2017), wrestler
Gunnar Friedemann (1909–1943), chess player
Jüri Jaanson (born 1965), rower, Olympic medalist
Georg Hackenschmidt (1878–1968), wrestler
Helger Hallik (born 1972), wrestler
Kaido Höövelson ("Baruto Kaito"; born 1984), sumo wrestler
Margus Hunt (born 1987), former discus thrower, former shot putter, American football player
Elvy Kalep (1899–1989), aviator
Kaia Kanepi (born 1985), tennis player
Meelis Kanep (born 1983), chess grandmaster
Gerd Kanter (born 1979), discus thrower, Olympic medalist
Osvald Käpp (1905–1995), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Paul Keres (1916–1975), chess player
Lionel Kieseritzky (1806–1853), chess player
Jaan Kikkas (1892–1944), weightlifter, Olympic medalist
Jaan Kirsipuu (born 1969), cyclist
Martin Klein (1884–1947), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Aleksander Klumberg (1899–1958), decathlete, Olympic medalist
Leo Komarov (born 1987), ice hockey player
Anett Kontaveit (born 1995), tennis player
Anton Koolmann (1899–1953), wrestler
Johannes Kotkas (1915–1998), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Albert Kusnets (1902–1942), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Marko Kristal (born 1973), football player
Leho Laurine (1904–1998), chess player
Tanel Leok (born 1985), motocross rider
Siim Liivik (born 1988), ice hockey player
Joel Lindpere (born 1981), footballer for New York Red Bulls and the Estonian National Team
Heino Lipp (1922–2006), decathlete
Jüri Lossmann (1891–1984), long distance runner, Olympic medalist
Arnold Luhaäär (1905–1965), weightlifter, Olympic medalist
Georg Lurich (1876–1920), wrestler
Epp Mäe (born 1992), wrestler
Jaak Mae (born 1972), skier, Olympic medalist
Markko Märtin (born 1975), rally driver
Tarmo Mitt (born 1977), World Strong Man
Martin Müürsepp (born 1974), basketball player
Heiki Nabi (born 1985), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Iivo Nei (born 1931), chess player
August Neo (1908–1982), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Alfred Neuland (1895–1966), weightlifter, Olympic medalist
Erki Nool (born 1970), decathlete, Olympic medalist
Mati Nuude (1941–2001), weightlifter and singer
Tõnu Õim (born 1941), chess player
Lembit Oll (1966–1999), chess player
Andres Oper (born 1977), football player
Kristjan Palusalu (1908–1987), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Indrek Pertelson (born 1971), judoka, Olympic medalist
Mart Poom (born 1972), football player
Eduard Pütsep (1898–1960), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Kristjan Rahnu (born 1979), decathlete
Ilmar Raud (1913–1941), chess player
Michael Roos (Mihkel Roos, born 1982), American football player
Salme Rootare (1913–1987), chess player
Vidrik Rootare (c. 1900–1985), chess player
Sven Salumaa (born 1966), tennis player
Erika Salumäe (born 1962), cyclist, Olympic medalist
Jane Salumäe (born 1968), marathon runner
Ortvin Sarapu (1924–1999), chess player (New Zealand)
Roman Steinberg (1900–1928), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Alfred Schmidt (1898–1972), weightlifter, Olympic medalist
Paul Felix Schmidt (1916–1984), chess player
Kristina Šmigun-Vähi (born 1977), skier, Olympic medalist
Tiit Sokk (born 1964), basketball player (1988 Olympic Gold Medalist for USSR)
Nikolai Stepulov (1913–1968), boxer, Olympic medalist
Toivo Suursoo (born 1975), ice hockey player
Jaan Talts (born 1944), weightlifter, Olympic medalist
Harald Tammer (1899–1942), journalist, athlete, weightlifter, Olympic medalist
Aleksander Tammert (born 1973), discus thrower, Olympic medalist
Ott Tänak (born 1987), rally driver
Jüri Tarmak (born 1946), high jumper, Olympic medalist
Tõnu Tõniste (born 1967), yachtsman, businessman, Olympic medalist
Toomas Tõniste (born 1967), yachtsman, businessman, Olympic medalist
Johannes Türn (1898–1993), chess player
Voldemar Väli (1903–1997), wrestler, Olympic medalist
Andrus Värnik (born 1977), javelin thrower
Andrus Veerpalu (born 1971), skier, Olympic medalist
Visual arts
Priidu Aavik (1905–1991), painter
Amandus Adamson (1855–1929), sculptor
Adamson-Eric (Erich Adamson, 1902–1968), painter
Ellinor Aiki (1893–1969), painter
Arnold Akberg (1894–1984), painter
Peeter Allik (1966–2019), painter, black and white artist
Efraim Allsalu (1929–2006), painter
Jüri Arrak (born 1936), painter
Alfred Hirv (1880–1918), painter
Raivo Järvi (1954–2012), illustrator, politician
Mati Karmin (born 1959), sculptor
Elmar Kits (1913–1972), painter
Johann Köler (1826–1899), painter
Andres Koort (born 1969), painter and scenographer
Mark Kostabi (Kalev Mark Kostabi, born 1960), painter (United States)
Meeli Kõiva (born 1960), painter, installation and light artist, sculptor, cinematographer, producer and film director (Finland, United States)
Ants Laikmaa (1866–1943), painter
Leonhard Lapin (born 1947), graphic, painter, sculptor, architect
Ivo Lill (1953–2019), glass artist
Olav Maran (born 1933), artist
Marko Mäetamm (born 1965), painter
Konrad Mägi (1878–1925), painter
Kadri Mälk (born 1958), jewelry artist
Lydia Mei (1896–1965), painter
Natalie Mei (1900–1975), painter
Juhan Muks (1899–1983), painter
Evald Okas (born 1915), painter
Eduard Ole (1898–1995), painter
Ludvig Oskar (1874–1951), painter
Ülo Õun (1940–1988), sculptor
Tiit Pääsuke (born 1941), painter
Karl Pärsimägi (1902–1942), painter
Kaljo Põllu (born 1934), painter, graphic artist
Kristjan Raud (1865–1943), graphic artist
Paul Raud (1865–1930), painter
Enn Roos (1908–1990), sculptor
Endel Ruberg (1917–1989), artist, educator
Richard Sagrits (1910—1968), painter
Michel Sittow (1469–1525), painter
Ülo Sooster (1924–1970), painter
Anton Starkopf (1889–1966), sculptor
Aleksander Tassa (1882–1955), artist and writer
Jaan Toomik (born 1961), painter
Nikolai Triik (1884–1940), painter
Teodor Ussisoo (1878–1959), furniture designer
Helge Uuetoa (1936–2008), painter
Aleksander Uurits (1888–1918), painter, graphic artist
Ado Vabbe (1892–1961), painter
Kuno Veeber (1898–1929), painter
Edmund S. Valtman (1914–2005), cartoonist (USA)
Annes Varjun (1907–1986), ceramic artist
Eduard Viiralt (Eduard Wiiralt, 1898–1954), graphic artist
Kiino Villand (born 1969), Autistic photographer (USA)
Ilon Wikland (born 1930), illustrator (Sweden)
Other
Mari Raamot (1872–1966), activist
See also
100 great Estonians of the 20th century | [
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|
236858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henan%20%28disambiguation%29 | Henan (disambiguation) |
Henan is a province of China.
Henan may also refer to:
Henån, town in Sweden
2085 Henan, main-belt asteroid
Henan (footballer) (born 1987), Henan Faria da Silveira, Brazilian footballer
Places in China
Henan Mongol Autonomous County, a county in eastern Qinghai
Townships
Henan Township, Heilongjiang, in Keshan County, Heilongjiang
Henan Township, Sichuan, in Hanyuan County, Sichuan
Subdistricts
Henan Subdistrict, Gongzhuling, in Gongzhuling, Jilin
Henan Subdistrict, Hunchun, in Hunchun, Jilin
Henan Subdistrict, Jiaohe, in Jiaohe, Jilin
Henan Subdistrict, Panshi, in Panshi, Jilin
Henan Subdistrict, Yanji, in Yanji, Jilin
Former places
Henan Commandery, historical commandery centred on modern Luoyang
Henan Prefecture, historical prefecture centred on modern Luoyang
Luoyang, the seat of Henan Commandery (later Prefecture) and Henan County
Henan Jiangbei province, in the Yuan dynasty
Haizhu District, commonly referred to as "Henan District", referring to its location south of the Pearl River in Guangzhou, China
See also
Hunan | [
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|
236859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward%20rate%20agreement | Forward rate agreement | In finance, a forward rate agreement (FRA) is an interest rate derivative (IRD). In particular it is a linear IRD with strong associations with interest rate swaps (IRSs).
General Description
A forward rate agreement's (FRA's) effective description is a cash for difference derivative contract, between two parties, benchmarked against an interest rate index. That index is commonly an interbank offered rate (-IBOR) of specific tenor in different currencies, for example LIBOR in USD, GBP, EURIBOR in EUR or STIBOR in SEK. An FRA between two counterparties requires a fixed rate, notional amount, chosen interest rate index tenor and date to be completely specified.
Extended Description
Forward rate agreements (FRAs) are interconnected with short term interest rate futures (STIR futures). Because STIR futures settle against the same index as a subset of FRAs, IMM FRAs, their pricing is related. The nature of each product has a distinctive gamma (convexity) profile resulting in rational, no arbitrage, pricing adjustments. This adjustment is called futures convexity adjustment (FCA) and is usually expressed in basis points.
Interest rate swaps (IRSs) are often considered a series of FRAs but this view is technically incorrect due to differences in calculation methodologies in cash payments and this results in very small pricing differences.
FRAs are not loans, and do not constitute agreements to loan any amount of money on an unsecured basis to another party at any pre-agreed rate. Their nature as an IRD product creates only the effect of leverage and the ability to speculate, or hedge, interest rate risk exposure.
Valuation and Pricing
The cash for difference value on an FRA, exchanged between the two parties, calculated from the perspective of having sold an FRA (which imitates receiving the fixed rate) is calculated as:
where is the notional of the contract, is the fixed rate, is the published -IBOR fixing rate and is the decimalised day count fraction over which the value start and end dates of the -IBOR rate extend. For USD and EUR this follows an ACT/360 convention and GBP follows an ACT/365 convention. The cash amount is paid on the value start date applicable to the interest rate index (depending in which currency the FRA is traded, this is either immediately after or within two business days of the published -IBOR fixing rate).
For mark-to-market (MTM) purposes the net present value (PV) of an FRA can be determined by discounting the expected cash difference, for a forecast value :
where is the discount factor of the payment date upon which the cash for difference is physically settled, which, in modern pricing theory, will be dependent upon which discount curve to apply based on the credit support annex (CSA) of the derivative contract.
Uses and Risks
Many banks and large corporations will use FRAs to hedge future interest or exchange rate exposure. The buyer hedges against the risk of rising interest rates, while the seller hedges against the risk of falling interest rates. Other parties that use Forward Rate Agreements are speculators purely looking to make bets on future directional changes in interest rates. The development of swaps in the 1980s provided organisations with an alternative to FRAs for hedging and speculating.
In other words, a forward rate agreement (FRA) is a tailor-made, over-the-counter financial futures contract on short-term deposits. A FRA transaction is a contract between two parties to exchange payments on a deposit, called the Notional amount, to be determined on the basis of a short-term interest rate,
referred to as the Reference rate, over a predetermined time period at a future date. FRA transactions are entered as a hedge against interest rate changes. The buyer of the contract locks in the interest rate in an effort to protect against an interest rate increase, while the seller protects against a possible interest rate decline. At maturity, no funds exchange hands; rather, the
difference between the contracted interest rate and the market rate is exchanged. The buyer of the contract is paid if the published reference rate is above the fixed, contracted rate, and the buyer pays to the seller if the published reference rate is below the fixed, contracted rate. A company that seeks to hedge against a possible increase in interest rates would purchase FRAs, whereas a company that seeks an interest hedge against a possible decline of the rates would sell FRAs.
Quotation and Market-Making
FRA Descriptive Notation and Interpretation
How to interpret a quote for FRA?
[US$ 3x9 - 3.25/3.50%p.a ] - means deposit interest starting 3 months from now for 6 months is 3.25% and borrowing interest rate
starting 3 months from now for 6 months is 3.50% (see also bid–ask spread). Entering a "payer FRA" means paying the fixed rate (3.50% p.a.) and receiving a floating 6-month rate, while entering a "receiver FRA" means paying the same floating rate and receiving a fixed rate (3.25% p.a.).
This information on the notation on FRAs is consistent with the material presented in this citation. This text goes on to specify the additional property of a FRA's 'roll-day' which describes which day of the month (from 1 to 31) that the FRA's value start date is effective from.
See also
Forward-forward agreement
Forward rate
Derivative (finance)
List of finance topics
Further reading
References
External links
Derivatives (finance)
Swaps (finance) | [
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|
236863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsushima%20Maru | Tsushima Maru | Tsushima Maru () was a Japanese passenger/cargo ship that was sunk by the submarine USS Bowfin during World War II, while carrying hundreds of schoolchildren from Okinawa to Nagasaki.
Sinking
On August 22, 1944, at between 10:00 p.m. and 10:30 p.m. local time, USS Bowfin attacked the convoy in which Tsushima Maru was sailing and sank her, close to the island of Akusekijima. Tsushima Maru Commemoration Association Survey Data (As of August 27, 2005), reported a total of 1,661 civilian evacuees, including 834 schoolchildren (of whom 775 were killed and approximately 59 survived the sinking). Shortly after the sinking a "gag order" was enforced and families and survivors rarely spoke about the incident. The number of victims that have been identified by name, based on notifications from bereaved families (As of August 22, 2012), include 780 schoolchildren.
The ship was part of Convoy Namo 103, which consisted of the following ships:
Tsushima Maru (passenger / cargo vessel)
Kazuura Maru (listed as Waura Maru in some sources, assumed to be a cargo vessel)
Gyōkū Maru (cargo vessel)
Destroyer Hasu (Momi class)
Gunboat Uji
Its wreck was located and identified in December 1997.
See also
List by death toll of ships sunk by submarines
References
External links
The Tsushima-maru Memorial Museum
World War II merchant ships of Japan
Ships sunk by American submarines
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Battle of Okinawa
1914 ships
Ships built in Aberdeen
Maritime incidents in August 1944 | [
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|
236866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Gilbert%20Graham | Jack Gilbert Graham | John "Jack" Gilbert Graham (January 23, 1932 – January 11, 1957) was an American mass murderer who, on November 1, 1955, killed 44 people aboard United Airlines Flight 629 near Longmont, Colorado, using a dynamite time bomb. Graham planted the bomb in his mother's suitcase in an apparent move to murder her and claim $37,500 () worth of life insurance money from policies he purchased in the airport terminal just before the flight departure. Graham was charged with and convicted of the murder of his mother. He was sentenced to death and was executed by the state of Colorado in January 1957.
Background
John Gilbert Graham was born on January 23, 1932, in Denver, Colorado, the child of Daisie Graham and her second husband. Nicknamed "Jack," Graham was Daisie's second child, as she already had a daughter from her first marriage. Graham was born during the height of the Great Depression, and, in 1937, his father died from pneumonia, causing Daisie to send the young Jack to an orphanage due to their poverty. In 1941, Daisie was married for the third time to Earl King, who died shortly after their marriage. Using her inheritance from King's death, Daisie became a successful businesswoman, but despite her newfound wealth, Daisie did not collect Graham from the orphanage. The two remained estranged until 1954, when Graham was 22 years old, and Daisie King was running a successful restaurant. After their reunion, King and Graham had a poor relationship, and were often witnessed arguing.
In 1955, shortly before the aircraft bombing, King's restaurant was destroyed in a suspicious gas explosion, believed to have been deliberately caused by Graham. Graham had insured the restaurant and collected on the property insurance following the explosion.
Bombing
United Airlines Flight 629 was using a Douglas DC-6B airliner (named "Mainliner Denver") piloted by World War II veteran Lee Hall on the evening of November 1, 1955. The flight had originated at New York City's LaGuardia Airport, making a stop in Chicago before continuing to Denver; it then took off from Denver, Colorado's Stapleton Airfield, bound for Portland, Oregon, with continuing service to Seattle. Minutes after the plane's departure from Denver, the DC-6B exploded and the flaming wreckage fell to earth over tracts of farmland and sugar beet fields near Longmont, Colorado. There were no survivors.
Graham's mother had been a passenger on Flight 629, and was traveling to Alaska to visit her daughter, Graham's half-sister. At the time, flight insurance could be routinely purchased in vending machines at airports, until changes to the system in the 1980s.
Graham's apparent motive for the bombing was to claim $37,500 () worth of life insurance money from policies he had purchased in the airport terminal just moments before the aircraft's departure.
Arrest and conviction
Investigators discovered that Graham had a criminal record for embezzlement by check forgery, and illegal transport of whiskey for which he had served 60 days in a Texas prison. They also determined that King's restaurant had been severely damaged by "a suspicious explosion" earlier that year, and that Graham had received the insurance settlement. Locals also suspected Graham of deliberately causing his new pick-up truck to be struck by a train that year, in order to collect the insurance. The FBI obtained use of a nearby barn where they re-assembled the fragments of the airplane collected from the site. They were able to determine that explosives were used, and that they had come from certain items of luggage in the baggage compartment. Based on that evidence as well as interviews, contradictory statements, physical evidence found at Graham's house, and finally a confession, Graham was arrested and charged with sabotage. The charge was later changed to murder.
After Graham's arrest, Denver radio station KDEN owner Gene Amole and Rocky Mountain News photographer Morey Engle arranged to sneak a camera into the old Denver County Jail on West Colfax Avenue for an interview of Graham during a reunion with his wife Gloria. "I loved my mother very much", Graham told Amole. "She meant a lot to me. It's very hard for me to tell exactly how I feel. She left so much of herself behind." When Amole asked him why he had signed a confession, he said the FBI had threatened to point out inconsistencies in statements made by his wife Gloria when she was interviewed by the authorities. "I was not about to let them touch her in any way, shape or form", he said. None of the Denver TV stations would agree to air the film, however. Amole said he believed it was because they feared it "might engender pretrial sympathy" for Graham.
The FBI, United Airlines and the district attorney wanted Graham tried, found guilty, and executed promptly as a "deterrent to others who might plan copycat murders", Amole wrote in a 1995 column in the Rocky Mountain News. Decades later, the footage was eventually aired on one of Denver's local PBS stations in a documentary called "Murder in Midair", produced by Don Kinney. However, Graham also confirmed on a number of occasions that he had made and set the bomb. When he described the bomb, he gave details that later were confirmed by investigators. Graham also told prison doctors that he "realized that there were about 50 or 60 people carried on a DC6, but the number of people to be killed made no difference to me; it could have been a thousand. When their time comes, there is nothing they can do about it."
The trial that followed resulted in Colorado becoming the first state to officially sanction the use of television cameras to broadcast criminal trials. There was no federal statute on the books at the time (1955) that made it a crime to blow up an airplane. Therefore, on the day after Graham's confession, the Colorado district attorney moved swiftly to prosecute Graham via the simplest possible route: premeditated murder of a single victim - his mother, Daisie King. Thus, despite the number of victims killed on Flight 629 along with Mrs King, Graham was charged with only one count of first-degree murder. As the case progressed, Graham quickly recanted his confession, but at his 1956 trial his defense was unable to counter the massive amount of evidence presented by the prosecution. In February 1956, he attempted suicide in his cell, and was thereafter put under 24-hour surveillance. On May 5, 1956, Graham was convicted of the murder of his mother, Daisie King, and was sentenced to death.
Execution
Graham was executed in the Colorado State Penitentiary gas chamber on January 11, 1957.
Fictional portrayals
Graham was portrayed by Nick Adams in the 1959 motion picture The FBI Story starring James Stewart and Vera Miles.
The case was the basis for the 1960 "Fire in the Sky" episode of M Squad.
The case was the basis for the 1959 "Flight 169--Mass Murder" episode of Deadline (1959 TV series).
The book Mainliner Denver: The Bombing of Flight 629 by Andrew J. Field (Johnson Books, 2005) was published on the 50th anniversary of the bombing.
The case is the subject of the episode titled "Time Bomb" of the 2013 Investigation Discovery miniseries A Crime to Remember.
Music
Macabre, a grindcore metal band from Chicago, wrote a song about Graham called "There Was a Young Man Who Blew Up a Plane", on their Sinister Slaughter album.
See also
Albert Guay
Capital punishment in Colorado
References
External links
Mainliner Denver: The Bombing of Flight 629 by Andrew J. Field (Johnson Books, 2005)
American male criminals
American mass murderers
American murderers of children
American people convicted of murder
Bombers (people)
Criminals from Colorado
Executed American people
Executed mass murderers
Matricides
Murderers for life insurance money
People convicted of murder by Colorado
People executed by gas chamber
Prisoners sentenced to death by Colorado
1932 births
1957 deaths
20th-century American criminals
20th-century executions by Colorado
20th-century executions of American people
People from Denver | [
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|
236870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viljandi%20County | Viljandi County | Viljandi County ( or Viljandimaa; ) is one of 15 counties of Estonia. It is located in southern Estonia bordering Pärnu, Järva, Jõgeva, Tartu and Valga counties.
History
Viljandimaa, under the German name of Kreis Fellin, was an important centre of commerce and power in the Middle Ages. Today, there are numerous castle ruins there dating from that time.
Soomaa National Park is a national park located partially within Viljandi County, Estonia. Soomaa ("land of bogs") protects 390 km2, and is a Ramsar site of protected wetlands. The park was created in 1993.
County government
The County government () is led by Governor (), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Currently the Governor position is held by Kalle Küttis.
Municipalities
The county is subdivided into municipalities. There is one urban municipality ( – towns) and three rural municipalities ( – parishes) in Viljandi County.
Gallery
References
External links
Viljandimaa – Official website
Viljandi County Government
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|
236873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/79%20Group | 79 Group | The 79 Group was a faction within the Scottish National Party (SNP), named after its year of formation, 1979. The group sought to persuade the SNP to take an active left-wing stance, arguing that it would win more support, and were highly critical of the established SNP leaders. Although it had a tiny membership, the group caused sufficient disquiet that it was expelled from the SNP in 1982, although its members were subsequently readmitted and many attained senior positions in the Scottish Government after 2007. Former First Minister Alex Salmond (2007–2014) was a leading member of the group.
Background
The idea for the 79 Group came from Roseanna Cunningham, then assistant research officer for the SNP, and her brother Chris, during the devolution referendum in early 1979. Although a majority of those voting backed devolution in the referendum, the vote was close and crucially the Yes votes did not reach the threshold of 40% of the electorate set by Parliament. At the SNP national council meeting a few days after the result of the referendum, Margo MacDonald argued that because working-class Scots had supported devolution and middle-class Scots had opposed, the SNP should aim to build its support among the working-class.
A group of eight SNP members who shared this opinion met on 10 March 1979. Before they could meet again, the SNP lost nine of its 11 seats in the 1979 general election; the poor result prompted a period of internal questioning by many SNP members about the direction the party should take. More than 30 attended a second meeting at the Belford Hotel in Edinburgh on 31 May which agreed to set up an "Interim Committee for Political Discussion". This interim committee later became the 79 Group.
Formation
The founders decided to establish their group on a formal footing, with membership cards and elected officers. Three spokespeople were appointed, including Margo MacDonald and Alex Salmond. Stephen Maxwell became the group's principal political theorist. The group was formed as a left wing organisation committed to the establishment of a "socialist and republican Scotland". They began producing campaign material in support of their policies, and standing for internal SNP posts. The established SNP wing, now dubbed "traditionalists", disliked the party appearing ideological. Winifred Ewing eventually formed the 'Campaign for Nationalism in Scotland' as a second internal SNP group to oppose the 79 Group.
Many SNP activists became attracted to the 79 Group, seeing it as a debating forum to discuss the SNP's future, but most left quickly when not attracted by the ideology driving the group. At the 1979 SNP conference, 79 Group candidates were heavily defeated by those in the SNP who put achieving independence over all other policy considerations.
Advances
In 1980, the former Labour MP and founder of the Scottish Labour Party (SLP), Jim Sillars, joined the SNP along with some other SLP members. Given the SLP's stance on the left, Sillars was naturally in line with the 79 Group's policy and immediately joined it too. Although no members of the 79 Group were elected to the SNP National executive at the 1980 conference less than a month after Sillars joined, at the 1981 SNP conference, five were.
Scottish Resistance
A passionate appeal by Stephen Maxwell failed to get a motion critical of private industry passed at the 1981 conference, but conference did vote by a big majority for a motion calling for "a real Scottish resistance" including "political strikes and civil disobedience on a mass scale" after a speech by Sillars. The new policy, dubbed "Scottish Resistance", was unveiled in September 1981 with a logo consisting of figures with raised clenched fists.
Sillars, who was elected as the SNP's Executive Vice-Chairman for Policy, was put in charge of the campaign with the details planned by the Demonstrations Committee. He led the campaign on 16 October 1981 by breaking in, with five other 79 Group members, to the Royal High School in Edinburgh which had been converted to house the Scottish Assembly. The intention had been to symbolically read out a declaration on what the Scottish Assembly would have done to counter unemployment, but the participants were arrested before they had the chance, and a planned later mass demonstration was cancelled. Sillars was later fined for wilful damage by breaking a window to get in. Many in the SNP were uncomfortable with this sort of action; three senior members were quoted in The Scotsman opposing the occupation.
79 Group News
From the Spring of 1981, the 79 Group published a monthly newsletter entitled 79 Group News. The Editorial Committee comprised Chris Cunningham, Stewart Buchanan, Steve Butler, Graeme Purves and Douglas Robertson. After the group was proscribed, Graeme Purves, Douglas Robertson and graphic designer Crawford Cumming became members of the team which relaunched Radical Scotland as a bi-monthly political magazine edited by Kevin Dunion in February 1983.
Decline of the 79 Group
Early in 1982, Sinn Féin wrote inviting a 79 Group speaker to its ardfheis (conference). With Provisional Irish Republican Army violence ongoing, Sinn Féin were considered unacceptable to public opinion in Great Britain. Alex Salmond moved to reject the request and won, but minutes of the meeting were leaked to the press, linking the two groups. Soon after, the 1982 conference of the SNP voted to ditch "Scottish Resistance", despite a strong speech by Salmond claiming that to do so was to adopt "a defeatist and cringing mentality". Many non-79 Group members felt that the civil disobedience campaign had collapsed in farce.
The SNP leadership under Gordon Wilson finally decided that the group's activity must be stopped. At the 1982 SNP conference in Ayr, Wilson threatened to resign unless the conference passed a motion to proscribe all organised political groupings within the party (the motion covered Winifred Ewing's Campaign for Nationalism in Scotland as well). He won what was described as a Pyrrhic victory by 308 to 188. However the 79 Group's members mostly retained their offices within the party.
Expulsions
After the conference resolution, the 79 Group decided to agree to disband, but rather than going away, the Group formed an interim committee to create the "79 Group Socialist Society" outside the party. The interim committee was the same as the executive of the 79 Group. The National Executive declared that membership of this committee was incompatible with that of the SNP.
Armed with the conference mandate, the leadership then moved to expel the leading 79 Group members. Alex Salmond, Kenny MacAskill, Stephen Maxwell, and others were expelled; Roseanna Cunningham was not, on the grounds that she was not a member of the interim committee. Margo MacDonald was not expelled but resigned from the SNP in protest. Other members of the 79 Group in party offices were left alone; when the expelled members appealed against their expulsion, the committee hearing the appeal included 79 Group member Stewart Stevenson.
A Scottish Socialist Society was formed, open to non-SNP members; among those who joined were Susan Deacon and Sarah Boyack, who later became Labour MSPs. However the society was short-lived.
The appeals were narrowly rejected when the SNP National Council debated the report of the Appeals Committee. However, the substantial support for those expelled and the minority report submitted by Stewart Stevenson persuaded National Council to allow their re-admission to the SNP. Once back in the party many would go on to high office in the SNP.
External links
February 1982 edition of 79 Group News
References
Scottish National Party
Political party factions in Scotland
1979 establishments in Scotland
Political parties established in 1979 | [
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236874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K.%20V.%20Mahadevan | K. V. Mahadevan | Krishnankoil Venkadachalam Mahadevan (14 March 1918 – 21 June 2001) was an Indian composer, singer-songwriter, music producer, and musician known for his works in Tamil cinema, Telugu cinema, Kannada cinema, and Malayalam cinema. He is best known for his contributions in works such as Manchi Manasulu (1962), Lava Kusa (1963), Thiruvilaiyadal (1965), Saraswathi Sabatham (1966), Kandan Karunai (1967), Thillana Mohanambal (1968), Adimai Penn (1969), Balaraju Katha (1970), Athiparasakthi (1971), Sankarabharanam (1979), Saptapadi (1981), Sirivennela (1986), Sruthilayalu (1987), Pelli Pustakam (1991), and Swathi Kiranam (1992).
A contemporary of M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy, starting his career in 1942 with Manonmani, Mahadevan scored music for over six hundred feature films, spanning four decades, and has garnered two National Film Awards, the Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Music Director, three Nandi Awards for Best Music Director, and the Filmfare Best Music Director Award (Telugu). He was also conferred the title of "Thirai Isai Thilagam" (Pride of Cine Music Directors) in Tamil cinema.
Early life and career
K. V. Mahadevan was born in 1918 at Krishnancoil, a locality in Nagercoil, Kanyakumari District. Father Venkadachalam Bhagavathar and Mother Pichaiyammal
K. V. Mahadevan, also called by his honorific name Thirai Isai Thilagam (lit. pride of film music), did music composing for more than 50 years, beginning from 1942 till 1993.
Telugu Film Industry crowned him with title "Swara Brahma" (Creator/Father of Musical notes).
His song "mama mama mama" from 1962 Telugu movie Manchi Manasulu became popular those days,as a result, Telugu film industry with love started calling him "Mama" since then.
His favorite music instrument is Nadaswaram similar to (Shehnai).It could be the reason his compositions have always reflected its mellifluous pattern.
Another great characteristic from this scholar as it is known to everyone and open fact that he never asked lyricist to write lyrics for his earlier composed tunes. Always composed tunes to written lyrics.Very few in India have been able to exercise this feat with success.
Music has no Language barriers.
“Sisurvethi, pasurvethi, vethiganarasamphanihi” is a popular Sanskrit axiom which says that Music has the power to impress a child, animal, and the universe alike.
As we can read from Climax song of film Sankarabharanam (1980 film), "Tatva Saadhana ku Satya Shodhana ku Sangeethame Sopanam" (Music is a Stair Case for attaining Enlightenment and truth discovery)
"Swara Brahma" left no foot prints of his mother tongue when it comes to his scores in other languages.
Telugu language being inherited from Sanskrit, has its own nativity which composers of Telugu as their mother tongue and "North" (O. P. Nayyar), "West" (C. Ramchandra), (Shankar–Jaikishan) , (Laxmikant–Pyarelal), (Chirrantan Bhatt), "East" (R. D. Burman), (Salil Chowdhury), (Ravindra Jain), (Bappi Lahiri) like composers could fulfill effortlessly.
"Swara Brahma" automatically had fallen into that groove as he was getting to know meaning of lyrics for every song before composing them. Assistant Puhalendi too exhibited similar characteristics as it was evident from interludes orchestration.
According to famous Director K. Raghavendra Rao opinion as expressed by him, Mama "Mahadevan" is "Saraswati Putra" and
K. Chakravarthy is "Ekalavya".
His 1977 film Adavi Ramudu (1977 film) was recorded as the highest grossing Telugu film of the 1970s.
Director K. Raghavendra Rao 's father K. S. Prakash Rao mostly worked with Pendyala Nageswara Rao between 1950&1974.
K. Chakravarthy too composed good music for music lover K. Raghavendra Rao previous movies Jyothi (1976 film) and Kalpana (1977 film.
But Production house Sathya Chitra earlier production Tahsildar Gari Ammayi music was scored by Mama.
Based on their faith, Sathya chitra insisted and retained "Mama" for N. T. Rama Rao movie Adavi Ramudu (1977 film).
Mama's composition "Krushi vunte Manushulu Rishi avutaaru" (Effort makes Humans Saints) stands testimony to all stake holders of this movie and to every one who believes in determination.
"Yuva Chitra Arts" banner Producer K. Murari being ardent fan of "Mama" stopped producing movies ever since "Mama" called it a day in his career.
Director Bapu (director), Producer S. Gopala Reddy , Director Kodi Ramakrishna and later in his career actor Mohan Babu loved working with "Mama".
It would be tough to guess between "Swara Brahma" and Director "K. Viswanath" as to, who was elemental in whose fame.
Combined effort returned laurels to art of Cinema. May be "Vidhaata talapuna prabhavinchinadi anaadi Jeevana Vedam".
Contemporary musician P. Bhanumathi criticized "Mama" about his score for movie Sankarabharanam (1980 film) as lighter version Carnatic music Raga 's rendered by him. Later she even went on to sing a song "Shree Surya Narayanaa Melukoo" for "Mama" in his 1984 movie Mangammagari Manavadu .
His music assistant known as Puhalendi in Telugu film industry was with him like a life partner throughout his life, though scored few films on his own.
Mahadevan-Puhalendi Pukazhenthi as music director duo scored music for 1993 N. T. Rama Rao movie Srinatha Kavi Sarvabhowmudu directed by Bapu (director).
Selected filmography
Tamil
Manonmani (1942) - Credited as Kalyanam Orchestra
Aanandan or Akkini Puraana Magimai (1942) - Credited as Kalyanam Orchestra with G. Ramanathan
Dhana Amaravathi (1947)
Devadasi (1948)
Jambam (1948)
Kumari (1952)
Madana Mohini (1953)
Rohini (1953) - with G. Ramanathan and D. C. Dutt
Naalvar (1953)
Nallakalam (1954)
Mangalyam (1954)
Koondukkili (1954)
Mullaivanam (1955)
Pennarasi (1955)
Asai Anna Arumai Thambi (1955)
Town Bus (1955)
Thaaikkuppin Thaaram (1956)
Mudhalali (1957)
Neelamalai Thirudan (1957)
Sampoorna Ramayanam (1957)
Makkalai Petra Magarasi (1957)
Raja Rajan (1957)
Nalla Idathu Sammandham (1958)
Thai Pirandhal Vazhi Pirakkum (1958)
Pillai Kaniyamudhu (1958)
Bommai Kalyanam (1958)
Neelavukku Neranja Manasu (1958)
Nalla Idathu Sambandham (1958)
Thirudargal Jakkirathai (1958)
Peria Koil (1958)
Sengottai Singam (1958)
Manamulla Maruthaaram (1958)
Panchaali (1959)
Vaazha Vaitha Deivam (1959)
Naalu Veli Nilam (1959)
Abalai Anjugam (1959)
Vannakili (1959)
Madhavi (1959)
Engal Kuladevi (1959)
Kaveriyin Kanavan (1959)
Sollu Thambi Sollu (1959)
Alli Petra Pillai (1959)
Thayapola Pillai Noolapola Selai (1959)
Uzhavukkum Thozhilukkum Vandhanai Seivom (1959)
Padikkadha Medhai (1960)
Aadavantha Deivam (1960)
Veerakkanal (1960)
Ponni Thirunaal (1960)
Panam Panthiyile (1961)
Thayilla Pillai (1961)
Kudumba Thalaivan (1962)
Sarada (1962)
Aasai Alaigal (1963)
Dharmam Thalai Kaakkum (1963)
Iruvar Ullam (1963)
Ratha Thilagam (1963)
Kaithiyin Kathali (1963)
Kattu Roja (1963)
Kulamagal Radhai (1963)
Needhikkuppin Paasam (1963)
Ninaipadharku Neramillai (1963)
Neengadha Ninaivu (1963)
Thulasi Maadam (1963)
Vanambadi (1963)
Yarukku Sontham (1963)
Aayiram Roobai (1964)
Vazhi Piranthadu (1964)
Alli (1964)
Paditha Manaivi (1965)
Thiruvilayadal (1965)
Idhaya Kamalam (1965)
Chinnanchiru Ulagam (1966)Mugaraasi (1966)Saraswati Sabatham (1966)Mahakavi Kalidas (1966)Thiruvarutchelvar (1967)Kandhan Karunai (1967)Vivasayi (1967)Arasa Kattalai (1967)Kan Kanda Deivam (1967)Thaikku thalaimagan (1967)Seetha (1967)Rajathil (1967)Ponnana Vazhvu (1967)Pesum Deivam (1967)Muhurtha Naal (1967)Paladai (1967)Madi Veettu Mappillai (1967)Arasa Kattalai (1967)Andru Kanda Mugam (1968)Panama Pasama (1968)Jeevanaamsam (film) (1968)Thirumal Perumai (1968)Adimaippenn (1969)Ethiroli (1969)Athiparasakthi (1971)Irulum Oliyum (1971)Thirumagal (1971)Vasantha Maligai (1972)Kurathi Magan (1972)Nalla Neram (1972)Pattikkattu Ponnaiah (1972)Engal Thanga Raja (1973)Vani Rani (1974)Anbu Thangai (1974)Satyam (1975)Ellaikkodu (1974)Pallandu Vazhga (1975)Uthaman (1976)Enippadigal (1979)Gnana Kuzhandhai (1979)Manmatha Radhangal (1980)Kadhal Kiligal (1981)Antha Rathirikku Satchi Illai (1982)Thoongatha Kannendru Ondru (1982)Mel Maruvathoor Aadhiparasakthi (1985)Mel Maruvathoor Arpudhangal (1986)Paimara Kappal (1988)
Telugu
MalayalamNairu Pidicha Pulivalu (1958) - Background Score onlyAana Valarthiya Vanampadiyude Makan (1971)Padmatheertham(1978)Kayalum Kayarum (1979)Enne Snehikkoo Enne Maathram (1981)Kakka (1982)Piriyilla Naam (1984)Vepraalam (1984)Rangam (1985)Mangalya Charthu (1987)
KannadaManini (1979)Guru Shishyaru (1981)Krishna Rukmini (1988)
Playback Singer
Awards
National Film Award for Best Music Direction (1967) for Kandan Karunai (first recipient of the award)
Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Music Director (1969) for Adimai PennNational Film Award for Best Music Direction (1980) for SankarabharanamNandi Award for Best Music Director (1980) for SankarabharanamNandi Award for Best Music Director (1987) for ShrutilayaluNandi Award for Best Music Director (1991) for Manjeera NadamFilmfare Best Music Director Award (Telugu) (1992) for Swathi Kiranam''
Personal life
K.V.Mahadevan, at the time of his death, was survived by his wife, two sons and three daughters. The famous son being V. Mahadevan, whose debut role was that of a Judge in the Tamil film Maasilamani.
Death
K.V. Mahadevan died on 21 June 2001 in Chennai when he was 83.
References
Best Music Direction National Film Award winners
People from Kanyakumari district
Tamil film score composers
Telugu film score composers
Kannada film score composers
Filmfare Awards South winners
Tamil musicians
1918 births
2001 deaths
20th-century Indian musicians
Malayalam film score composers
Indian male film score composers
20th-century male musicians | [
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236876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalevipoeg | Kalevipoeg | Kalevipoeg (, Kalev's Son) is a 19th century epic poem by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald which has since been considered the Estonian national epic.
Origins
In pre-Christian ancient Estonia there existed an oral tradition of legends explaining the origin of the world. Within old Estonian folklore, a malevolent giant by the name of Kalev, Kalevine, Kalevipoiss, Kalevine poisikine and Kalevin poika appears, battling with other giants or enemies of the nation. Early written references are found in Leyen Spiegel in 1641 as "Kalliweh", and in a list of deities published by Mikael Agricola in 1551 as "Caleuanpoiat".
The earliest remaining written reference to Kalevipoeg – also known as Kaleva in Finland and Kalevi, Kalev, Kalevine, Kalevipoiss, Kalevine poisikine, Kalevin Poika in Estonia – is by many experts considered to be one found in Widsith, also known as The Traveller's Song, which also provides the earliest known written usage of the name Viking, with the spelling wicing. Widsith is a 6th or 7th century Anglo-Saxon poem – or song – of 143 lines, which became copied into the Exeter Book, a manuscript of Old English poetry compiled in the late 10th century. Widsith is for the most part a survey of the people, kings and heroes of Europe in the Germanic Heroic Age.
The following is stated in Widsith:
"Caesar ruled the Greeks, Caelic the Finns ... I was with the Greeks and Finns and also with Caesar ...".
Many historians and folklorists believe Widsith's "Caelic" to be a reference to the ancient Finnic ruler Kaleva/Kalevi, discussed in both the Finnish epic Kalevala and the Estonian epic Kalevipoeg.
History
The main material is taken from Estonian folklore of a giant hero named Kalevipoeg ("Kalev's son", often Anglicised as "Kalevide"). These tales mainly interpret various natural objects and features as traces of Kalevipoeg's deeds and have similarities with national epics from neighbouring regions, especially the Finnish Kalevala.
In 1839, Friedrich Robert Faehlmann read a paper at the Learned Estonian Society about the legends of Kalevipoeg. He sketched the plot of a national romantic epic poem. In 1850, after Faehlmann's death, Kreutzwald started writing the poem, interpreting it as the reconstruction of an obsolete oral epic. He collected oral stories and wove them together into a unified whole.
The first version of Kalevipoeg (1853; 13,817 verses) could not be printed due to censorship. The second, thoroughly revised version (19,087 verses) was published in sequels as an academic publication by the Learned Estonian Society in 1857–1861. The publication included a translation into German. In 1862, the third, somewhat abridged version (19,023 verses) came out. This was a book for common readers. It was printed in Kuopio, Finland.
Characters
In Estonian (mainly East Estonian) legends, Kalevipoeg carries stones or throws them at enemies, and also uses planks edgewise as weapons, following the advice of a hedgehog. He also forms surface structures on landscape and bodies of water and builds towns. He walks through deep water. Kalevipoeg eventually dies after his feet are cut off by his own sword owing to his own priorand fatally ambiguousinstructions.
Kalevipoeg was the youngest son of Kalev and Linda, born after his father's death and surpassed his brothers in intelligence and strength. It is often thought that Kalevipoeg's real name was Sohni/Soini, but it actually means simply 'son' and he never had other name than Kalevipoeg. Alevipoeg, and Sulevipoeg were his brothers.
The character only rarely appears in folk songs. In literature, he was first mentioned by Heinrich Stahl in the 17th century.
Synopsis
Kalevipoeg travels to Finland in search of his kidnapped mother. During his travel he purchases a sword but kills the blacksmith's eldest son in an argument. The blacksmith places a curse on the sword and is thrown in the river. On returning to Estonia Kalevipoeg becomes king after defeating his brothers in a stone hurling competition. He constructs towns and forts and tills the land in Estonia. Kalevipoeg then journeys to the ends of the earth to expand his knowledge. He defeats Satan in a trial of strength and rescues three maidens from hell. War breaks out and destruction visits Estonia. Kalevipoeg's faithful comrades are killed, after which he hands the kingship to his brother Olev and withdraws to the forest, depressed. Crossing a river, the sword cursed by the Blacksmith and previously thrown in the river attacks and cuts off his legs. Kalevipoeg dies and goes to heaven. Taara, in consultation with the other gods, reanimates Kalevipoeg, places his legless body on a white steed, and sends him down to the gates of hell where he is ordered to strike the rock with his fist, thus entrapping it in the rock. So Kalevipoeg remains to guard the gates of hell.
Structure
Poetic structure
The epic is written in old Estonian alliterative verse. Approximately one eighth of the verses are authentic; the rest are imitation.
Contents and synopses
The Kalevipoeg consists of twenty cantos.
Canto I - The marriages of Salme and Linda
Three brothers travel to different places. The youngest is Kalev. He is taken to Estonia on the back of a great eagle. He becomes king of the land.
A widow walks alone and finds a hen, a grouse's egg and a crow on her travels. She takes them home and the former 2 grow into the maidens Salme and Linda. The crow--which she discarded--grows into a servant girl.
Many suitors come to the girls, Salme and Linda. Salme is wooed by the sun, moon and stars themselves. Linda is also wooed by them, but she chooses Kalev, the frightening giant, as her husband. Salme and Linda leave with their respective husbands to complete their lives with them.
Canto II - The death of Kalev
Kalev dies, but before his death prophesies the greatness of his unborn sons (Sohni, Kalevide, Son of Kalev).
Linda weeps for seven days and nights over her husband's death. Her tears create Ülemiste järv, situated in Tallinn nowadays. She then prepares him for his funeral and buries him 35 metres below the ground, constructing, as his burial mound, what is now known as the hill of "Toompea" (upon which, today, is seated the Estonian parliament and the seat of Government), in the process.
Linda feels the birth of her son approaching and asks the gods for help. Uku comes to her aid with bedding and comfort.
When her son is born, he cries for months and proceeds to tear his clothes and cradle. He grows quickly, learns the trades of the land and plays games.
Canto III - The fate of Linda
The 3 sons of Kalev go on a hunting trip, leaving their mother to attend to her duties at home.
While the men are off hunting, a Finnish sorcerer (who had previously tried to win the hand of Linda and failed), "Tuuslar", sneaks up on Linda and steals her away. She fights hard and manages to get away. She is turned into stone by the gods.
The brothers return and search in vain for their mother. The Kalevide asks for help from his father's grave.
Canto IV - The island maiden
The Kalevide swims to Finland. He stops off at an island where he meets and seduces a beautiful maiden.
The maiden hears the name and origin of the Kalevide and is horrified. She loses her footing and plunges into the water. The Kalevide jumps in after her but is unable to find her so he carries on to Finland.
The maiden's parents check the sea and find an oak and fir tree and other trinkets, but not their daughter.
A song rises up from the sea telling the story of how the maiden was seduced down into the deep.
Canto V - The Kalevide and the Finnish sorcerer
The parents of the maiden plant the oak tree they found at the bottom of the sea. In a short time it grows to the sky. The mother finds a small man hiding in the wings of an eagle, he is asked to fell the tree, he agrees on the condition he is let free.
The Kalevide reaches Finland and finds the sorcerer in his house. The sorcerer creates a huge army to fend off Kalevide, but the Kalevide fells them all with his mighty strength and proceeds to question the sorcerer about his mother. When he fails to answer, the Kalevide crushes his head with his club and proceeds to weep for his crime.
Canto VI - The Kalevide and the swordsmiths
The Kalevide visits Ilmarinen (Ilmarine in Estonian), the famous Finnish blacksmith, and asks him to create a sword. He presents various swords. He tests them by striking them against the cliff walls of the smithy, itself. None are adequate, so Ilmarinen presents a sword created at the bequest of Kalev, which pleases the Kalevide greatly. This sword, imbued with magical properties and having taken 7 years to forge, Kalevipoeg tests by striking against the anvil upon which it was forged, which it splits in two. This proves the sword's worthiness and he agrees to pay a rich price for it to Ilmarine.
A great feast and drinking bout is held. Unfortunately, the Kalevide argues with, gets angry and fells the head of Ilmarinen's eldest son (who is also intoxicated at this point, as is Kalevipoeg) with the very sword he helped create. Ilmarinen curses the sword. He leaves and later realises his second great crime and weeps.
The great oak tree of the maiden of the island is felled to create a bridge, ships and a hut.
Canto VII - The return of the Kalevide
The Kalevide takes the sorcerer's boat and returns home. The brothers tell their stories. The Kalevide visits his father's grave again.
Canto VIII - The contest and parting of the brothers
Kalev's 3 sons go to a lake's edge and throw stones to decide who will stay and rule the land. The Kalevide wins and the brothers part.
The Kalevide tends to the land and falls into a deep sleep. During this time, his horse is eaten by wolves.
Canto IX - Rumours of war
The Kalevide wakes from a terrible dream that his horse was killed by wolves only to find it is true. He runs through the land, killing all the wild beasts his can find in vengeance. He becomes tired and sleeps again.
A messenger comes to the Kalevide and informs him of a battle against his people.
Canto X - The heroes and the Water-Demon
While the Kalevide and his cousin Alevide are walking through the country they come across a pair of demons arguing over the ownership of a pool. The Alevide drains the pool, but the host water-demon asks him to desist. The Alevide tricks the water-demon out of his riches.
The Alevide sends his cousin's servant to the water-demons lair. He is teased and runs away. The Kalevide wrestles the water-demon and wins.
The Kalevide decides to fortify towns for protection, he goes to Lake Peipus to fetch wood. He meets the Air-maiden in a well.
Canto XI - The loss of the sword
The Kalevide walks across Lake Peipus but a sorcerer spies him and decides to drown him. His efforts fail.
The sorcerer steals the Kalevide's sword. After an attempt to take it away, he is forced to drop it in a stream. When the Kalevide awakes he goes hunting for his sword. When he finds it, he consults it and finds it is happier in the stream. He leaves it there, but orders it to cut off the feet of the sorcerer should he ever return.
The Kalevide carries on in this journey and meets a man of human stature who regales him with a story of giants. The Kalevide is amused and offers his protection. He places the man in his wallet.
Canto XII - The fight with the sorcerer's sons
The three sons of the sorcerer attack the Kalevide while he is walking on his way. He fights hard but gains no ground until he hears and heeds the advice of a small voice from the underbrush. He defeats the sorcerer's sons and asks his helper to show himself. After some persuasion, his helper comes out of the underbrush and the Kalevide cuts some of his coat for the small creature to cover himself up, but only cuts enough to cover his back.
The Kalevide discovers that man in his wallet is dead and grieves. He falls asleep and is enchanted by the sorcerer. He sleeps for 7 weeks and dreams about Ilmarine's workshop.
Canto XIII - The Kalevide's first journey to Hades
On his return journey, the Kalevide sees demons cooking at the entrance to a cave. He enters the cave and finds the palace of Sarvik. He breaks in and meets 3 maidens.
The Kalevide and the maidens talk and they give him a magic hat and rod. He promises to free them from Sarvik and find them husbands.
Canto XIV - The palace of Sarvik
The 3 maidens show the Kalevide around Sarvik's palace. It is an intricate and massive castle. They confess that they are immortal and ever radiant, but they are unhappy and have no joys in life. The Kalevide tells them he will rescue them and he makes plans to wrestle with Sarvik. The 2 oldest maidens switch Sarvik's magical liquors so he will be weakened when he drinks. The Kalevide uses the magic hat to make himself appear smaller.
When Sarvik returned, he demanded the Kalevide explain himself. Kalevide makes his challenge and the 2 combatants wrestle viciously. When they stop for a rest, the Kalevide uses the hat to regain his old size and strength and bashes Sarvik into the ground.
The Kalevide and the maidens flee from Sarvik's palace. The Kalevide burns the magic hat much to the distress of the maidens.
Canto XV - The marriage of the sisters
The maidens and the Kalevide are chased by demons. The youngest maiden uses the magic rod to create a torrent of water and a bridge to take them to safety.
Tühi questions the Kalevide about his visit to Põrgu and his fight with Sarvik, the Kalevide answers sarcastically.
The maidens are married to Alevide and Sulevide but the second maiden is kidnapped by a sorcerer. They hunt for her, kill the sorcerer and recover her, she is married to their friend Olevide.
Canto XVI - The voyage of the Kalevide
The Kalevide ponders a voyage to the end of the world. A great ship called Lennuk is created.
The Kalevide meets a Laplander called Varrak who tells him that the end of the world is not reachable. He offers to take them home. The Kalevide says he needs no help to return home but would be grateful if Varrak would take them to the world's end. The voyage to an island of fire, steam and smoke where the Sulevide gets scorched.
They are found by a giant child who carries them to her father. The father requests that they solve his riddles for their release. They are successful and the daughter takes them to their boat and blows them out to sea.
The group carries on in its journey north. They witness the northern lights and eventually come to an island of dog men. After some troubles, peace is made with the dog men and the leader of them tells the Kalevide that he has wasted his time. The Kalevide finally decides to go home.
Canto XVII - The heroes and the dwarf
Magnificent fortified cities have been built by Olevide. Alevide and the Sulevide have also built fine cities. The Kalevide names Olevide's city after his mother, Lindanisa (modern day Tallinn).
News of a great invasion force reaches the Kalevide and he sets of to fight in a long pitched battle, during which he loses his horse in the sheer depth of gore created during the battle.
After the battle is over and the spoils handed out, the Kalevide and his friends set out to find further invaders. They come across an old woman cooking and settle down for the night.
During the night a dwarf appears and asks each of the heroes if he can take a sip from the pot of soup the old woman was cooking. All but the Kalevide allow him to and he proceeds to drink the whole pot, grow to the sky then vanish.
After the dwarf has appeared to all of the heroes the daughters of the Meadow Queen dance and sing and tell the tale of adventures still to come to the Kalevide.
Canto XVIII - The Kalevide's journey to Põrgu (Hell)
The Kalevide wakes in the night and finds the gates to Põrgu. He enters and proceeds into the depths of hell itself, aided by creatures along the way.
The Kalevide comes across a large iron bridge and the huge army of Sarvik. He battles hard and eventually gets over the bridge to the palace of Sarvik. He beats his way in and is greeted by a vision of his mother and Sarvik's mother.
Canto XIX - The last feast of the heroes
The Kalevide and Sarvik have a lengthy wrestling match in which the Kalevide prevails. He binds Sarvik heavily with chains, takes a small treasure and leaves for the world of men.
The Kalevide and his friends have a meal of ox which the Alevide was able to kill.
The Kalevide and his friends return to Lindanisa and a great feast and drinking bout begins. Many songs are sung and much joy is in the air. There is news of yet another invasion from all sides of the country by many enemies.
Varrak departs for Lapland, taking with him a book of wisdom, given to him by the Kalevide, much to the dismay of the Olevide and Sulevide.
Many refugees arrive with news of the impending battles. The Kalevide consults his Father's grave, but no answer comes.
Canto XX - Armageddon
The Kalevide and his friends prepare for war. The Kalevide buries his treasure and protects it with incantations to Taara.
The Kalevide and his friends engage in a fierce battle which lasts many days and in which the Kalevide loses his horse and the Sulevide is badly injured. The Sulevide eventually dies.
Olevide builds a large bridge over the river Võhandu and the army proceeds over to engage the remaining enemy. The battle rages hard for many days until the heroes are exhausted and decide to take a drink. The Alevide slips and falls into the lake and drowns.
The Kalevide is so grief-stricken he abdicates and places his kingdom in the hands of Olevide. The Kalevide leaves for a peaceful life on the banks of the river Koiva. He does not get the peace he desires and is annoyed by many visitors, some aggressive. He wanders around the country annoyed by these intrusions and makes his way to Lake Peipus. He wades into Kääpa, the brook where his old sword lay, and the sword keeps its promise to cut off the feet of anyone who dares wade in the brook. Unfortunately the Kalevide had forgotten this promise and his feet are cut off.
The Kalevide dies and is taken to heaven. However, he is deemed too valuable and is reanimated in his old body to stand guard for eternity at the gates of Põrgu to keep watch on Sarvik and his demons. He is there still tied to the gates of Põrgu by his hand, which is locked in a rock.
Comparative mythology
The amputation of the legs of Kalevide by a magical sword is similar to the Hurrian mythic theme of the amputation of the feet of Ullikummi by a supernatural knife. According to Eustathius (ad Hor.), the Telkhin-es were likewise beings without feet.
Kalevipoeg's quick temper and tendency to kill people in arguments at parties is echoed in many legendary heroes throughout Europe, including Ireland's Cúchulainn and Scotland's Gawayne (who later became fused with the Welsh Gwalchmei to become one of the knights in Arthurian legends, Gawain).
Influences
Kalevipoeg has been referenced in both official contexts and in popular culture. The Estonian Declaration of Independence begins with a passage that quotes a god in Canto XX, right after the death of the protagonist Kalevipoeg: "In the course of centuries never have the Estonian people lost their desire for independence. From generation to generation have they kept alive the hidden hope that in spite of enslavement and oppression by hostile invaders the time will come to Estonia 'when all splints, at both end, will burst forth into flames' and when 'Kalev will come home to bring his children happiness'. Now that time has arrived."
Editions
The Hero of Estonia. And other studies in the romantic literature of that country - William Forsell Kirby. 1895
Kalevipoeg: An Ancient Estonian Tale - Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Trans. Jüri Kurman - . 1982
Kalevipoeg: the Estonian National Epic - Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Trans. Triinu Kartus. Estonian Literary Museum, 2011
Further reading
Cornelius Hasselblatt: Kalevipoeg Studies. The Creation and Reception of an Epic. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society – SKS 2016. (Studia Fennica Folkloristica 21)
See also
Toell the Great
Kalevala
Estonian mythology
References
External links
The English version (translated by W. F. Kirby) at Project Gutenberg. Kalevipoeg as well as other Estonian folk tales.
The English version (translated by W. F. Kirby) at Sacred Texts. Kalevipoeg as well as other Estonian folk tales.
Kalevipoeg
An article exploring the meaning and depth of the Kalevipoeg
An article on the compilers of the Kalevipoeg
A site containing the five initial Cantos of Kalevipoeg (in Estonian)
Digital images of first printing at EEVA
A short film version of the myth by Estonian director Ekke Vasli
1850s establishments in Estonia
1853 establishments in the Russian Empire
Estonian mythology
Estonian giants | [
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|
236878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian%20Provincial%20Assembly | Estonian Provincial Assembly | Estonian Provincial Assembly () was elected after the February Revolution in 1917 as the national diet of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia in Russian Empire.
On November 28, 1917, after the October Revolution the Assembly declared itself the sovereign power on Estonia and called for the elections of the Estonian Constituent Assembly. On the eve of the German occupation of Estonia in World War I the council elected the Estonian Salvation Committee and issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence on February 24, 1918.
History
On April 12, 1917 the Russian Provisional Government issued an order on the provisional autonomy of Estonia. The Governorate of Estonia, comprising what is now northern Estonia was merged with the Estophone northern part of the Governorate of Livonia, to form the autonomous governorate. The Russian Provisional Government decreed that a provincial assembly, colloquially known as the Maapäev, be created with members elected by indirect universal suffrage.
Elections for the 62 deputies of the diet were held in many stages; members representing the rural communities were elected in two-tiered elections in May–June, while the town representatives were elected in July–August, 1917. The election process saw the creation and reorganization of Estonian national parties.
Six parties were represented at the diet, with three independent deputies and two deputies representing the Baltic German and Swedish-Estonian minorities.
Results
Aftermath
In the wake of the November revolution in St Petersburg, when the Bolshevik Estonian Military Revolutionary Committee staged a coup d’état, the Maapäev refused to recognize the new Bolshevik rule. The Bolsheviks then attempted to disband the council. In its last meeting on 15 November, the Maapäev proclaimed itself the supreme legal authority of Estonia until the convening of the Constituent Assembly. The Committee of Elders was authorized to issue laws. The council was then dissolved by force on 26 November by the Bolsheviks, compelling leading politicians to go underground. In the Constituent Assembly elections in early 1918, which were organised by the Bolsheviks, two-thirds of the voters supported the parties who stood for national statehood. The Bolsheviks then immediately proclaimed the elections null and void. On 19 February 1918, the Committee of Elders of the Land Council decided to proclaim Estonian independence. A Salvation Committee (a three-member committee formed by the Maapäev as executive body for the time when the activities of the Assembly were hindered) with special powers was set up for that purpose. On 24 February, after the Bolsheviks abandoned Tallinn and one day before German forces occupied the country's capital city, the Salvation Committee issued a formal declaration of independence of the Republic of Estonia.
After the German occupation of Estonia ended, the Maapäev continued as the legislature of Estonia until 1919.
See also
Autonomous Governorate of Estonia
Salvation Committee
History of Estonia
List of Chairmen of the Estonian Provincial Assembly
Estonian War of Independence
Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)
References
External links
Tartu rahu sepistaja Jaan Poska väärib monumenti
Livland. Estland. Kurland. Œsel.
On 28 November 1917, the Estonian Diet (the Maapäev) declared itself fee supreme power in Estonia.
On 28 November 1917, the Land council proclaimed itself the highest power in Estonia...
On This Day – 28 November 1917
Though the popularly elected Provisional National Council, had proclaimed itself the highest authority in Estonia as early as 28 November 1917...
Elections in Estonia
Estonian Provincial Assembly election
Independence of Estonia
Defunct unicameral legislatures
1917 establishments in Estonia
1919 disestablishments
Estonian Provincial Assembly election
Estonian Provincial Assembly election
Estonian Provincial Assembly election
Estonian Provincial Assembly election | [
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236890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malgudi | Malgudi | Malgudi is a fictional town located in South India in Ramanathapuram in the novels and short stories of R. K. Narayan. It forms the setting for most of Narayan's works. Starting with his first novel, Swami and Friends , all but one of his fifteen novels and most of his short stories take place here. Malgudi was a portmanteau of two Bangalore localities - Malleshwaram and Basavanagudi.
Narayan has successfully portrayed Malgudi as a microcosm of India. Malgudi was created, as mentioned in Malgudi Days, by Sir Fredrick Lawley, a fictional British officer in the 19th century by combining and developing a few villages. The character of Sir Fredrick Lawley may have been based on Arthur Lawley, the Governor of Madras in 1905. But now MP of Shimoga (Lok Sabha constituency) has requested Indian Railways to rename Arasalu Railway Station a small station on Shimoga-Talaguppa railway line to Malgudi Railway station.
Geography and origins
Malgudi is located on the banks of the fictional river Sarayu, near the also-fictional Mempi forest, on border of the states of Mysore and Madras and a few hours' away from Madras.
Narayan's assertion that Malgudi is work of fiction has not deterred readers from speculating about its actual location being Mysore, with a river on one side and a forest on the other, and buildings and lanes similar to those of Malgudi, such as Lawley road, Variety Hall, and Bombay Anand Bhavan. Other possible 'locations' include Lalgudi situated on the banks of the river Kaveri and Yadavgiri in the erstwhile state of Mysore.
Malgudi was a portmanteau of two Bangalore localities - Malleshwaram and Basavanagudi, the story is apocryphal. He created the town on September 1930, on Vijayadashami, an auspicious day to start new efforts and thus chosen for him by his grandmother. As he mentioned in a later interview to his biographers Susan and N. Ram, in his mind, he first saw a railway station, and slowly the name Malgudi came to him.
Localities and landmarks
Sarayu River
Malgudi is located on the banks of the river Sarayu. In Swami and Friends, Swami, Mani and Rajam spend most of their evenings playing or chatting by the river. In The Guide, holy-man Raju fasts on the banks of the dry river Sarayu, praying for the rains to come. When Mahatma Gandhi visits Malgudi, the meetings and speeches are held right on the banks of river Sarayu.
Streets and neighborhoods
Market Street is the central street of Malgudi, the location of several big shops including Bombay Anand Bhavan and Truth Printing Works. Kabir Street is the residence of the elite of Malgudi, while Lawley Extension is a new upcoming lane housing the rich and the influential. Ellaman Street, home to the oil-mongers, is the last street and beyond it lies the river Sarayu. Other streets include Grove Street, Kalighat Lane and Vinayak Mudali Street.
Between Ellaman Street and the river lie Nallappa's Grove and the cremation ground. The Untouchables and sweepers live on the lower banks of the river.
Buildings
Palace Talkies was built in 1935 to replace the old Variety Hall. Albert Mission School and Albert Mission College are the more popular educational institutions. There are also the board school and the town elementary schools.
Other landmarks
Malgudi has a small railway station which in many episodes, is central to the storyline. The main hospital of Malgudi is Malgudi Medical Centre (MMC). The statue of Sir Fredrick, seated on a horse, forms another major landmark.
Another important place is The Boardless, a small restaurant without any board. Boardless is a centre of discussion for current events in Malgudi.
Mempi Forest
Mempi forest is on the other side of Sarayu. It houses many hills and caves. Animals to be found there include tigers, members of the deer family, langurs and water buffalos.
Conceptualization
Various critics compare Narayan's Malgudi with Thomas Hardy's Wessex or William Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha. It was a town created from his own experiences, his childhood, his upbringing. The people in it were people he met every day. He thus created a place which every Indian could relate to. A place, where, in the words of Graham Greene (from the introduction to The Financial Expert), you could go "into those loved and shabby streets and see with excitement and a certainty of pleasure a stranger approaching past the bank, the cinema, the hair cutting saloon, a stranger who will greet us, we know, with some unexpected and revealing phrase that will open the door to yet another human existence."
In contemporary culture
Malgudi Days a 1986 Indian television series directed by Kannada actor and director Shankar Nag, based on the eponymous works of R.K. Narayan was mostly shot near Agumbe in Shimoga District, Karnataka. Some episodes, however, were also shot at Bengaluru and Devarayanadurga in Tumakuru District, Karnataka.
The concept of Malgudi as an "idyllic spot located in South India" seems to have taken root in popular imagination. Some restaurants offering South Indian fare go by the name or extensions of "Malgudi." The Shyam Group operates Malgudi restaurants in Chennai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad. A restaurant named "Malgudi Junction" is located in Kolkata.
See also
Malgudi Days
Masinagudi
References
Fictional populated places in India
R. K. Narayan | [
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|
236893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest%20rate%20cap%20and%20floor | Interest rate cap and floor | An interest rate cap is a type of interest rate derivative in which the buyer receives payments at the end of each period in which the interest rate exceeds the agreed strike price. An example of a cap would be an agreement to receive a payment for each month the LIBOR rate exceeds 2.5%.
Similarly an interest rate floor is a derivative contract in which the buyer receives payments at the end of each period in which the interest rate is below the agreed strike price.
Caps and floors can be used to hedge against interest rate fluctuations. For example, a borrower who is paying the LIBOR rate on a loan can protect himself against a rise in rates by buying a cap at 2.5%. If the interest rate exceeds 2.5% in a given period the payment received from the derivative can be used to help make the interest payment for that period, thus the interest payments are effectively "capped" at 2.5% from the borrowers' point of view.
Interest rate cap
An interest rate cap is a derivative in which the buyer receives payments at the end of each period in which the interest rate exceeds the agreed strike price. An example of a cap would be an agreement to receive a payment for each month the LIBOR rate exceeds 2.5%. They are most frequently taken out for periods of between 2 and 5 years, although this can vary considerably. Since the strike price reflects the maximum interest rate payable by the purchaser of the cap, it is frequently a whole number integer, for example 5% or 7%. By comparison the underlying index for a cap is frequently a LIBOR rate, or a national interest rate. The extent of the cap is known as its notional profile and can change over the lifetime of a cap, for example, to reflect amounts borrowed under an amortizing loan. The purchase price of a cap is a one-off cost and is known as the premium.
The purchaser of a cap will continue to benefit from any rise in interest rates above the strike price, which makes the cap a popular means of hedging a floating rate loan for an issuer.
The interest rate cap can be analyzed as a series of European call options, known as caplets, which exist for each period the cap agreement is in existence. To exercise a cap, its purchaser generally does not have to notify the seller, because the cap will be exercised automatically if the interest rate exceeds the strike (rate). Note that this automatic exercise feature is different from most other types of options. Each caplet is settled in cash at the end of the period to which it relates.
In mathematical terms, a caplet payoff on a rate L struck at K is
where N is the notional value exchanged and is the day count fraction corresponding to the period to which L applies. For example, suppose that it is January 2007 now and you own a caplet on the six month USD LIBOR rate with an expiry of 1 February 2007 struck at 2.5% with a notional of 1 million dollars. Next, if on 1 February the USD LIBOR rate sets at 3%, then you will receive the following payment:
Customarily the payment is made at the end of the rate period, in this case on 1 August 2007.
Interest rate floor
An interest rate floor is a series of European put options or floorlets on a specified reference rate, usually LIBOR. The buyer of the floor receives money if on the maturity of any of the floorlets, the reference rate is below the agreed strike price of the floor.
Interest rate collars and reverse collars
An interest rate collar is the simultaneous purchase of an interest rate cap and sale of an interest rate floor on the same index for the same maturity and notional principal amount.
The cap rate is set above the floor rate.
The objective of the buyer of a collar is to protect against rising interest rates (while agreeing to give up some of the benefit from lower interest rates).
The purchase of the cap protects against rising rates while the sale of the floor generates premium income.
A collar creates a band within which the buyer's effective interest rate fluctuates
A reverse interest rate collar is the simultaneous purchase of an interest rate floor and simultaneously selling an interest rate cap.
The objective is to protect the bank from falling interest rates.
The buyer selects the index rate and matches the maturity and notional principal amounts for the floor and cap.
Buyers can construct zero cost reverse collars when it is possible to find floor and cap rates with the same premiums that provide an acceptable band.
Valuation of interest rate caps
The size of cap and floor premiums are impacted by a wide range of factors, as follows; the price calculation itself is performed by one of several approaches discussed below.
The relationship between the strike rate and the prevailing 3-month LIBOR
premiums are highest for in the money options and lower for at the money and out of the money options
Premiums increase with maturity.
The option seller must be compensated more for committing to a fixed-rate for a longer period of time.
Prevailing economic conditions, the shape of the yield curve, and the volatility of interest rates.
upsloping yield curve—caps will be more expensive than floors.
the steeper is the slope of the yield curve, ceteris paribus, the greater are the cap premiums.
floor premiums reveal the opposite relationship.
Black model
The simplest and most common valuation of interest rate caplets is via the Black model. Under this model we assume that the underlying rate is distributed log-normally with volatility . Under this model, a caplet on a LIBOR expiring at t and paying at T has present value
where
P(0,T) is today's discount factor for T
F is the forward price of the rate. For LIBOR rates this is equal to
K is the strike
N is the standard normal CDF.
and
Notice that there is a one-to-one mapping between the volatility and the present value of the option. Because all the other terms arising in the equation are indisputable, there is no ambiguity in quoting the price of a caplet simply by quoting its volatility. This is what happens in the market. The volatility is known as the "Black vol" or implied vol.
As negative interest rates became a possibility and then reality in many countries at around the time of Quantitative Easing, so the Black model became increasingly inappropriate (as it implies a zero probability of negative interest rates). Many substitute methodologies have been proposed, including shifted log-normal, normal and Markov-Functional, though a new standard is yet to emerge.
As a bond put
It can be shown that a cap on a LIBOR from t to T is equivalent to a multiple of a t-expiry put on a T-maturity bond. Thus if we have an interest rate model in which we are able to value bond puts, we can value interest rate caps. Similarly a floor is equivalent to a certain bond call. Several popular short-rate models, such as the Hull–White model have this degree of tractability. Thus we can value caps and floors in those models.
Valuation of CMS Caps
Caps based on an underlying rate (like a Constant Maturity Swap Rate) cannot be valued using simple techniques described above. The methodology for valuation of CMS Caps and Floors can be referenced in more advanced papers.
Implied Volatilities
An important consideration is cap and floor (so called Black) volatilities. Caps consist of caplets with volatilities dependent on the corresponding forward LIBOR rate. But caps can also be represented by a "flat volatility", a single number which if plugged in the formula for valuing each caplet recovers the price of the cap i.e. the net of the caplets still comes out to be the same. To illustrate: (Black Volatilities) → (Flat Volatilities) : (15%,20%,....,12%) → (16.5%,16.5%,....,16.5%)
Therefore, one cap can be priced at one vol. This is extremely useful for market practitioners as it reduces greatly the dimensionality of the problem: instead of tracking n caplet Black volatilities, you need to track just one: the flat volatility.
Another important relationship is that if the fixed swap rate is equal to the strike of the caps and floors, then we have the following put–call parity: Cap-Floor = Swap.
Caps and floors have the same implied vol too for a given strike.
Imagine a cap with 20% vol and floor with 30% vol. Long cap, short floor gives a swap with no vol. Now, interchange the vols. Cap price goes up, floor price goes down. But the net price of the swap is unchanged. So, if a cap has x vol, floor is forced to have x vol else you have arbitrage.
When in the money, a Cap at strike 0% equals the price of a floating leg (just as a call at strike 0 is equivalent to holding a stock) regardless of volatility cap.
Compare
Interest rate swap
Notes
References
External links
Basic Fixed Income Derivative Hedging - Article on Financial-edu.com.
Convexity Conundrums by Patrick Hagan
Martingales and Measures: Black's Model Dr. Jacqueline Henn-Overbeck, University of Basel
Bond Options, Caps and the Black Model Dr. Milica Cudina, University of Texas at Austin
Online Caplet And Floorlet Calculator Dr. Shing Hing Man, Thomson Reuters Risk Management
Introduction to Caps, Floors, Collars and Swaptions
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|
236894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference%20rate | Reference rate | A reference rate is a rate that determines pay-offs in a financial contract and that is outside the control of the parties to the contract. It is often some form of LIBOR rate, but it can take many forms, such as a consumer price index, a house price index or an unemployment rate. Parties to the contract choose a reference rate that neither party has power to manipulate.
Examples of use
The most common use of reference rates is that of short-term interest rates such as LIBOR in floating rate notes, loans, swaps, short-term interest rate futures contracts, etc. The rates are calculated by an independent organisation, such as the British Bankers Association (BBA) as the average of the rates quoted by a large panel of banks, to ensure independence.
Another example is that of swap reference rates for constant maturity swaps. The ISDAfix rates used are calculated daily for an independent organisation, the International Swaps and Derivatives Association, from quotes from a large panel of banks.
In the credit derivative market a similar concept to reference rates is used. Pay offs are not determined by a rate, but by possible events. In this case, the reference event has to be a very precisely defined credit event, to make sure there can be no disagreement on whether the event has occurred or not..
Typically the benchmark LIBOR is the three-month rate.
Reference rates for short-term interest rates
Examples of reference rates for short-term interest rates are:
LIBOR - London Interbank Offered Rate
Euribor - Euro Interbank Offered Rate
TIBOR - Tokyo Interbank Offered Rate
SIBOR - Singapore Interbank Offered Rate
STIBOR - Stockholm Interbank Offered Rate
WIBOR - Warsaw Interbank Offered Rate
MIBOR - Mumbai Interbank Offered Rate
PRIBOR - Prague Interbank Offered Rate
BUBOR - Budapest Interbank Offered Rate
HIBOR - Hong Kong Interbank Offered Rate
SHIBOR - Shanghai Interbank Offered Rate
EONIA - Euro OverNight Index Average
ISDAfix - International Swap Dealers Association Fix
TELBOR - Tel Aviv Interbank Offered Rate
Interest rates
Reference rates | [
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236895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative%20capability | Negative capability | Negative capability is a phrase first used by Romantic poet John Keats in 1817 to explain the capacity of the greatest writers (particularly Shakespeare) to pursue a vision of artistic beauty even when it leads them into intellectual confusion and uncertainty, as opposed to a preference for philosophical certainty over artistic beauty. The term has been used by poets and philosophers to describe the ability to perceive and recognise truths beyond the reach of consecutive reasoning.
Keats: The poet's turn of phrase
Keats used the phrase only briefly in a private letter, and it became known only after his correspondence was collected and published. In a letter to his brothers, George and Thomas, on 22 December 1817, Keats described a conversation he had been engaged in a few days previously:
I had not a dispute but a disquisition with Dilke, upon various subjects; several things dove-tailed in my mind, and at once it struck me what quality went to form a Man of Achievement, especially in Literature, and which Shakespeare possessed so enormously—I mean Negative Capability, that is, when a man is capable of being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason—Coleridge, for instance, would let go by a fine isolated verisimilitude caught from the Penetralium of mystery, from being incapable of remaining content with half-knowledge. This pursued through volumes would perhaps take us no further than this, that with a great poet the sense of Beauty overcomes every other consideration, or rather obliterates all consideration.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was, by 1817, a frequent target of criticism by the younger poets of Keats's generation, often ridiculed for his infatuation with German idealistic philosophy. Against Coleridge's obsession with philosophical truth, Keats sets up the model of Shakespeare, whose poetry articulated various points of view and never advocated a particular vision of truth.
Keats's ideas here, as was usually the case in his letters, were expressed tersely with no effort to fully expound what he meant, but passages from other letters enlarge on the same theme. In a letter to J.H. Reynolds in February 1818, he wrote:
We hate poetry that has a palpable design upon us—and if we do not agree, seems to put its hand in its breeches pocket. Poetry should be great & unobtrusive, a thing which enters into one's soul, and does not startle it or amaze it with itself but with its subject.
In another letter to Reynolds the following May, he contrived the metaphor of 'the chamber of maiden thought' and the notion of the 'burden of mystery', which together express much the same idea as that of negative capability:
I compare human life to a large Mansion of Many Apartments, two of which I can only describe, the doors of the rest being as yet shut upon me—The first we step into we call the infant or thoughtless Chamber, in which we remain as long as we do not think—We remain there a long while, and notwithstanding the doors of the second Chamber remain wide open, showing a bright appearance, we care not to hasten to it; but are at length imperceptibly impelled by the awakening of the thinking principle—within us—we no sooner get into the second Chamber, which I shall call the Chamber of Maiden-Thought, than we become intoxicated with the light and the atmosphere, we see nothing but pleasant wonders, and think of delaying there for ever in delight: However among the effects this breathing is father of is that tremendous one of sharpening one's vision into the heart and nature of Man—of convincing ones nerves that the World is full of Misery and Heartbreak, Pain, Sickness, and oppression—whereby This Chamber of Maiden Thought becomes gradually darken'd and at the same time on all sides of it many doors are set open—but all dark—all leading to dark passages—We see not the balance of good and evil. We are in a Mist—We are now in that state—We feel the 'burden of the Mystery,' To this point was Wordsworth come, as far as I can conceive when he wrote 'Tintern Abbey' and it seems to me that his Genius is explorative of those dark Passages. Now if we live, and go on thinking, we too shall explore them. he is a Genius and superior to us, in so far as he can, more than we, make discoveries, and shed a light in them—Here I must think Wordsworth is deeper than Milton[.]
Keats understood Coleridge as searching for a single, higher-order truth or solution to the mysteries of the natural world. He went on to find the same fault in Dilke and Wordsworth. All these poets, he claimed, lacked objectivity and universality in their view of the human condition and the natural world. In each case, Keats found a mind which was a narrow private path, not a "thoroughfare for all thoughts". Lacking for Keats were the central and indispensable qualities requisite for flexibility and openness to the world, or what he referred to as negative capability.
This concept of negative capability is precisely a rejection of set philosophies and preconceived systems of nature. He demanded that the poet be receptive rather than searching for fact or reason, and to not seek absolute knowledge of every truth, mystery, or doubt.
Use of the word 'negative'
In the same way that chameleons are 'negative' for colour, Keatsian poets are negative for self and identity: they change their identity with each subject they inhabit. This is a kind of personal Tao, and like the cosmic Tao, negative capability can be difficult to grasp because it is not a name for a thing but rather a way of feeling or of knowing. This intuitive knowing of the inner life of, for example, a nightingale or a Grecian urn, cannot be grasped as a concept; as with Tao, it is known through actual living experience of one's everyday changeable being. This capability depends on being negative to what Keats called 'consequitive reasoning'.
Another explanation of the word negative relies on hypothesising that Keats was influenced in his studies of medicine and chemistry, and that it refers to the negative pole of an electric current which is passive and receptive. In the same way that the negative pole receives the current from the positive pole, the poet receives impulses from a world that is full of mystery and doubt, which cannot be explained but which the poet can translate into art.
Modern psychological experiments demonstrate that if a composing poet is placed in a functional magnetic resonance imager (fMRI), the initial stage of poetic inspiration relates to something negative: the attenuation of self-monitoring and top-down attention, related to decreases in executive control mediated by deactivation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). In this sense, Keats might be seen as providing an antidote to E. M. Forster's mantra of 'Only connect...'. Keats might be seen as saying 'Only disconnect...' from our reassuring certainties, from our hyperconnected world, from our executive control, and from our prefrontal cortex. 'O for a Life of Sensations rather than of Thoughts!' is how Keats expressed this in a letter to Benjamin Bailey in 1817.
Contrasted with positive capability
When humans are presented with external stress, the autonomic nervous system provides them with a 'fight or flight' response. This seems like a binary choice, but Keats provides a third option. Fight or flight has been called positive capability, and teachers of mindfulness stress the importance of cultivating negative capability in order to overcome and provide an alternative to our routine reactions to stress. They point out that this teaches tolerance of uncertainty, and enriches decision making. It may not be productive to discuss whether negative or positive capability is more important, as they are analogous to the poles of a battery: a battery is only a battery if it has both positive and negative terminals.
Importance
The sections below show that negative capability is not the exclusive preserve of poets, but can describe the pre-creative mood of any artist, scientist, or religious person. Negative capability is important as an explanation of how periods of indolence give rise to periods of creativity.
The competition (varieties of prepoetry)
Negative capability needs to be understood as just one of a number of moods that may compete in the poet's mind before the poem arrives—i.e. during the phase that may be called prepoetry, after the musical form of the same name which delights in 'uncertainties, mysteries, [and] doubts'. The only valid way to approach this subject is through the words of poets themselves, e.g.:
Emotion recollected in tranquility and wise passivity (e.g. Wordswoth)The systematic derangement of the senses (e.g. Rimbaud).Automatic writing and thought transference (e.g. Yeats).Frenzy (e.g. Shakespeare).
The poet's eye, in fine frenzy rolling,Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven;And as imagination bodies forth forms of things unknown, the poet's pen Turns them to shapes and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name.
<p align=right>(A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act V scene 1, from line 1841)
At one point Coleridge thought of the poet as Truth's Ventriloquist, as if truth were in a cauldron. When it is stirred, e.g. by social events, truths bubble up and exit through the nearest poet, whose role is reduced to that of scribe. How to become the nearest poet? According to Coleridge, 2 grains of opium did the trick in the genesis of Kubla Khan. (Best not to try this at home: the wrong dose might be fatal, and opium addiction slowly destroyed Coleridge.)
Are its results fraudulent?
Autumn can be a pretty time of year; birdsong can sound nice; and an old Greek vase may briefly attract the attention of tourists meandering aimlessly around a museum, but Keats's great odes (to Autumn, to a Nightingale, and on a Grecian Urn) seem to exaggerate the beauty of these topics, and to go beyond the evidence. Nightingales' songs, for example, are a bit disappointing. If this unwarranted exaggeration is the result of having negative capability, maybe it is not such a good thing.
To quash this argument, it is not necessary to invoke poetry at all. A good curator of a museum can take a cracked piece of discarded junk and show that it was once a bronze mirror, on whose polished surface emperors and concubines used to come and go. If we can accept that a great curator can teach us how to see, then we may be able to accept that a great poet can teach us how to feel. But what is it that we feel? The answer is different for each reader, but if with Keats we can feel half in love with easeful death we may be ready for a new kind of life. And if so, negative capability will be found at its wellspring.
Its miraculous nature
The above attempts to show how negative capability can inspire great poetry. It does not explain how this mood is then engendered in readers of that poetry. This is one of the miraculous features of Keats's poetry: miraculous in the sense that an engine would be miraculous if it took in a high-octane fuel and then produced more fuel of an even higher octane rather than exhaust. It is possible for a reader to listen to a great Ode, and to read an analysis of it, and still not be moved by it or to feel a sense of negative capability being transmitted. Patience is required, and travel: travel down Keats's winding mossy ways, along his realms of gold, and through labyrinths of suffering and loss. Then when such a traveller returns to the great Odes, their truth and beauty may be more fully appreciated.
There is one other way in which negative capability is miraculous. Poets have long likened their verse to great or sacred rivers, and philosophers such as Heraclitus, from before the time of Socrates, have pointed out that "you can't step into the same river twice, because both you and the river change". Transience confers immortality and change confers identity. The river would not be a river if it did not change or flow. In this sense, the reader cannot step into the same Ode twice. When readers put aside their certainties and embrace change and 'uncertainties, mysteries, and doubts' they set themselves adrift in a drunken boat on this 'miraculous stream'. This current takes the reader down to a 'sunless sea' and a place 'under sleep where all the waters meet', i.e. towards a kind of negative capability, which is now seen to be both the origin and the destination of at least some great poetry. No poet has written his name more clearly or more transparently in these miraculous streams, rivers, and seas than the poet John Keats whose own self-written epitaph reads "Here lies One whose Name was writ in Water".
Unger: The thesis of negative capability
Roberto Mangabeira Unger appropriated Keats' term in order to explain resistance to rigid social divisions and hierarchies. For Unger, negative capability is the "denial of whatever in our contexts delivers us over to a fixed scheme of division and hierarchy and to an enforced choice between routine and rebellion." It is thus through negative capability that we can further empower ourselves against social and institutional constraints, and loosen the bonds that entrap us in a certain social station.
An example of negative capability can be seen at work in industrial innovation. In order to create an innovator's advantage and develop new forms of economic enterprise, the modern industrialist could not just become more efficient with surplus extraction based on pre-existing work roles, but rather needed to invent new styles of flexible labor, expertise, and capital management. The industrialist needed to bring people together in new and innovative ways and redefine work roles and workplace organization. The modern factory had to, at once, stabilize its productive environment by inventing new restraints upon labor, such as length of the work day and division of tasks, but at the same time could not be too severe or risk being at a disadvantage to competitors, e.g. not being able to shift production tasks or capacity. Those industrialists and managers who were able to break old forms of organizational arrangements exercised negative capability.
This thesis of negative capability is a key component in Unger's theory of false necessity and formative context. The theory of false necessity claims that our social worlds are the artifact of our own human endeavors. There is no pre-set institutional arrangement that our societies adhere to, and there is no necessary historical mold of development that they will follow. Rather we are free to choose and develop the forms and the paths that our societies will take through a process of conflicts and resolutions. However, there are groups of institutional arrangements that work together to bring out certain institutional forms, liberal democracy, for example. These forms are the basis of a social structure, and which Unger calls formative contexts. In order to explain how we move from one formative context to another without the conventional social theory constraints of historical necessity (e.g. feudalism to capitalism), and to do so while remaining true to the key insight of individual human empowerment and anti-necessitarian social thought, Unger recognized that there are an infinite number of ways of resisting social and institutional constraints, which can lead to an infinite number of outcomes. This variety of forms of resistance and empowerment (i.e. negative capability) make change possible.
This thesis of negative capability addresses the problem of agency in relation to structure. It recognizes the constraints of structure and its molding influence upon the individual, but at the same time finds the individual able to resist, deny, and transcend their context. Unlike other theories of structure and agency, negative capability does not reduce the individual to a simple actor possessing only the dual capacity of compliance or rebellion, but rather sees him as able to partake in a variety of activities of self empowerment.
Bion
The twentieth-century British psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion elaborated on Keats's term to illustrate an attitude of openness of mind which he considered of central importance, not only in the psychoanalytic session, but in life itself. For Bion, negative capability was the ability to tolerate the pain and confusion of not knowing, rather than imposing ready-made or omnipotent certainties upon an ambiguous situation or emotional challenge. His idea has been taken up more widely in the British Independent School, as well as elsewhere in psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.
Lyacos: Negative capability and the social outcasts
Greek author Dimitris Lyacos considers people living "in the margins" as possessing the negative capability that permits them to cross boundaries and, by accepting "the burden of the mystery", explore uncertainty and the flux of life against western norms and structures. In an interview in Berfrois Magazine Lyacos notes: "We carry with us a backpack of ideas, theories, insecurities and the detailed scenarios we project onto the future. Unlike us, outcasts, fugitives and people in the margins are the ones possessing the negative capability, the power to bear the "burden of the mystery"; immigrants cross seas that might engulf them. Their fear is overcome not only by the hope of a better life but also by their acceptance of those darker alleys, where time and space are created at the moment in which they are experienced."
In the context of Zen
The notion of negative capability has been associated with Zen philosophy. Keats' man of negative capability had qualities that enabled him to "lose his self-identity, his 'imaginative identification' with and submission to things, and his power to achieve a unity with life". The Zen concept of satori is the outcome of passivity and receptivity, culminating in "sudden insight into the character of the real". Satori is reached without deliberate striving. The antecedent stages to satori: quest, search, ripening and explosion. The "quest" stage is accompanied by a strong feeling of uneasiness, resembling the capacity to practice negative capability while the mind is in a state of "uncertainties, mysteries and doubts". In the explosive stage (akin to Keats' 'chief intensity'), a man of negative capability effects a "fellowship with essence".
In film, poems, songs, and popular culture
Keats's concept of negative capability was little known except to scholars, poets, and other careful readers, until 2 November 2018 when the British singer-songwriter Marianne Faithfull released her album entitled Negative Capability. Then, on 15 November 2020, the BBC aired the second installment of the second series of His Dark Materials based on the trilogy by Philip Pullman, of the same name. Here the idea of negative capability is given great prominence, in what for the BBC was its most lavish production to date. It is presented not as an idea or a theory or a concept or a thesis, but as a mood which the heroine Lyra is able to sink into, and which enables her especial ability to read the rare and beautiful and truth-telling alethiometer. This device, like a nightingale, issues a code that cannot be understood by purely reductive means. Its beauty is part of its truth. Lyra visits the Dark Materials Research Laboratory where she meets the chief researcher, Mary Malone, who, has the uncanny ability to see particles of dark matter, if she puts herself in the right mood. She tells Lyra "you can't see them unless you put your mind in a certain state. Do you know the poet John Keats? He has a phrase for it: negative capability. You have to hold your mind in a state of expectation without impatience..." The implication is that Keats's nightingale is his alethiometer, whose truth, like the truth of poetry itself, is not amenable to any amount of vivisection. Philip Pullman has written that 'many poems are interrogated until they confess, and what they confess is usually worthless, as the results of torture always are: broken little scraps of information, platitudes, banalities'. But if we can follow Lyra and Mary Malone, and put ourselves in the right mood, the dark materials between the lines may become visible or audible. This is the nightingale's code referred to in popular songs such as in one alternate-take version of Bob Dylan's Visions of Johanna and also in the song of the woodthrush in TS Eliot's poem Marina. In the latter's case 'where all the waters meet' is a neat confirmation of the negative polarity view of negative capability alluded to above. It is as if the poet's mind is the negative terminal or the sinkhole in which everything meets and is reconciled. The negativity here depends on the self abnegation of the poet, and its that which allows the current to flow.
Perhaps the darkest evocation of the mood of negative capability in popular culture comes from Bob Dylan's song "Not Dark Yet" which is best listened to rather than read. Bob Dylan has famously been called 'Keats with a guitar' by the New York Times and others, and this song shows their close affinity through contiguous explorations of their respective negative capabilities.
In 2013 jazz guitarist Bern Nix released an album titled Negative Capability, containing liner notes explaining Keats definition.
Criticism
Stanley Fish has expressed strong reservations about the attempt to apply the concept of negative capability to social contexts. He criticized Unger's early work as being unable to chart a route for the idea to pass into reality, which leaves history closed and the individual holding onto the concept while kicking against air. Fish finds the capability Unger invokes in his early works unimaginable and unmanufacturable that can only be expressed outright in blatant speech, or obliquely in concept. More generally, Fish finds the idea of radical culture as an oppositional ideal in which context is continuously refined or rejected impracticable at best, and impossible at worst. Unger has addressed these criticisms by developing a full theory of historical process in which negative capability is employed.
In The Life in the Sonnets, David Fuller makes use of negative capability in addressing the qualities and potential of writing literary criticism. A critic's experience and feelings altogether form a strong framework to expand one's ability in critical thinking, while negative capability replaces the notion of correctness in analyzing literary texts.
See also
Notes
Further reading
A. C. Bradley, 'The Letters of Keats' in Oxford Lectures on Poetry (1965[1909])
W.J. Bate, Negative Capability: The Intuitive Approach in Keats. Intro by Maura Del Serra (New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2012).
S. Fish, "Unger and Milton", in Doing What Comes Naturally (1989): 339–435.
Li Ou, Keats and Negative Capability (2009)
Wigod, Jacob D. 1952. "Negative Capability and Wise Passiveness". Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. 67 (4): 383–390.
Social concepts
Skills | [
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|
236896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansion%20of%20Many%20Apartments | Mansion of Many Apartments | The Mansion of Many Apartments is a metaphor that the poet John Keats expressed in a letter to John Hamilton Reynolds dated Sunday, 3 May 1818. I compare human life to a large Mansion of Many Apartments, two of which I can only describe, the doors of the rest being as yet shut upon me - The first we step into we call the infant or thoughtless Chamber, in which we remain as long as we do not think - We remain there a long while, and notwithstanding the doors of the second Chamber remain wide open, showing a bright appearance, we care not to hasten to it; but are at length imperceptibly impelled by awakening of the thinking principle - within us - we no sooner get into the second Chamber, which I shall call the Chamber of Maiden-Thought, than we become intoxicated with the light and the atmosphere, we see nothing but pleasant wonders, and think of delaying there for ever in delight: However among the effects this breathing is father of is that tremendous one of sharpening one's vision into the nature and heart of Man — of convincing one's nerves that the World is full of misery and Heartbreak, Pain, sickness and oppression — whereby This Chamber of Maiden Thought becomes gradually darken'd and at the same time on all sides of it many doors are set open - but all dark - all leading to dark passages — We see not the balance of good and evil. We are in a Mist - We are now in that state — We feel the burden of the Mystery.Colvin, SidneyJohn Keats: His Life and Poetry, His Friends, Critics and After-Fame, Admant Media Corp 2006, p267
Here Keats suggests that people were capable of different levels of thought. Those who did not consider the world around them remained in the thoughtless chamber. Even though the door to move on to the next "apartment" was open, they had no desire to think any deeper and to go into that next apartment.
When you did move on into the next chamber, you would for the first time have a choice of direction, as from this apartment there were several different dark passages. Keats believed that he was at this point when he wrote the letter, as was William Wordsworth when he wrote Tintern Abbey.
Keats expressed this idea in The Fall of Hyperion: A Dream (1819).
See also
Keats
Negative Capability
Notes
External links
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/keatsltr.html
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|
236898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer%27s%20blue | Engineer's blue | Engineer's blue (also known as scraping blue, Prussian blue, or simply bluing) is a highly pigmented paste used to assist in the mating of two or more components.
History
Joseph Whitworth popularized the first practical method of making accurate flat surfaces, during the 1830s, by using engineer's blue and scraping techniques on three trial surfaces. Prior to his scraping technique, the same three plate method was employed using polishing techniques, giving less accurate results. This improvement led to an explosion of development of precision instruments using these flat surface generation techniques as a basis for further construction of precise shapes.
Preparation
Engineer's blue is prepared by mixing Prussian blue with a non-drying oily material (for example, grease). The coloured oil is rubbed onto a reference surface, and the workpiece is then rubbed against the coloured reference; the transfer (by contact) of the pigment indicates the position of high spots on the workpiece or conversely highlight low points. This method has been used to test the flatness of surfaces and the trueness of a bearing assembly.
The fitter may be told to "blue it up" when using this piece of equipment.
Use in toolmaking
Prussian blue is widely used by tool makers when the core and cavity of a mould is matched during final assembly. It is also used in other tooling applications—especially during assembly—such as stamping tools and pressure die casting tools. A thin coating of Prussian blue is applied (usually with a paint brush) on the "insert"—regardless of the shape or contour—of the mould or tool before the matching is done with the mating part. If the Prussian blue (generally called just "blue") appears evenly on the mating area, it is considered—by the tool makers—as "good matching", indicating a good final product from the tool. Usually no tool would be transferred to testing or production without "blue matching", (a term generally used by tool makers in Asia). Prussian blue is considered as an integral part of precision tool making.
References
Inorganic pigments
Metalworking measuring instruments | [
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|
236899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictabelt | Dictabelt | The Dictabelt, in early years and much less commonly also called a Memobelt, is an analog audio recording medium commercially introduced by the American Dictaphone company in 1947. Having been intended for recording dictation and other speech for later transcription, it is a write-once-read-many medium consisting of a thick transparent vinyl (according to a 1960s Dictaphone user manual: cellulose acetate butyrate) plastic belt wide and around. The belt is loaded onto a pair of metal cylinders, put under tension, then rotated like a tank tread. It is inscribed with an audio-signal-modulated helical groove by a stylus which is slowly moved across the rotating belt. Unlike the stylus of a record cutter, the Dictabelt stylus is blunt and in recording mode it simply impresses a groove into the plastic rather than engraving it and throwing off a thread of waste material. The Dictabelt system was popular, and by 1952, made up 90% of Dictaphone's sales.
Dictabelts were more convenient and provide better audio quality than the reusable wax cylinders they replaced. The belts can be folded for storage and will fit into an ordinary letter-size envelope. However, the plastic loses flexibility as it ages. If a belt is stored sharply folded for a long time, it will become permanently creased and unplayable without special treatment. Dictabelts were red until 1964, blue from 1964 to 1975, then purple until they were discontinued around 1980. Each has a capacity of about 15 minutes at the standard speed. At least one Dictaphone model featured a half-speed, low-fidelity 30-minute option.
In the 1960s, Virginia required that all of its circuit courts be outfitted with Dictabelt machines.
Along with a Gray Audograph sound recorder, a Dictabelt recorded the police department radio channels in Dallas, Texas, during the John F. Kennedy assassination.
These recordings were reviewed by the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA).
See also
John F. Kennedy assassination Dictabelt recording
References
External links
Image - History of the Dictation Equipment Industry (archived)
Funny, That Doesn’t Sound Like Me - Article with several images
Vintage Tech: Dictaphone Dictabelt 800 Record Cutter, databits via YouTube, uploaded on 2 July 2016
Audiovisual introductions in 1947
Audio storage
1947 in technology
Products introduced in 1947 | [
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|
236901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin%20Rosemont | Franklin Rosemont | Franklin Rosemont (2 October 1943 – 12 April 2009) was an American poet, artist, historian, street speaker, and co-founder of the Chicago Surrealist Group. Over four decades, Franklin produced a body of work, of declarations, manifestos, poetry, collage, hidden histories, and other interventions.
Early life
He was born in Chicago, Illinois, to Henry, a typographer and labor activist, and Sally, a jazz musician. In 1960, he dropped out of Proviso East High School, Maywood, Illinois, but was admitted to Roosevelt University in Chicago in 1962, studying under African-American scholar St. Clair Drake.
Career
He edited and wrote an introduction for What is Surrealism?: Selected Writings of André Breton, and edited Rebel Worker,Arsenal/Surrealist Subversion, The Rise & Fall of the DIL Pickle: Jazz-Age Chicago's Wildest & Most Outrageously Creative Hobohemian Nightspot and Juice Is Stranger Than Friction: Selected Writings of T-Bone Slim. With his wife Penelope Rosemont, herself the author and editor of several books and active in the Chicago Surrealists, and poet and storyteller Paul Garon, he edited The Forecast is Hot!. His work has been deeply concerned with both the history of surrealism (writing a forward for Max Ernst and Alchemy: A Magician in Search of Myth) and of the radical labor movement in America, for instance, writing a biography of Joe Hill. According to PoetrySoup.com Franklin Rosemont "became perhaps "the most productive scholar of labor and the left in the United States."
Publications
Rosemont is the author of the poetry collections The Morning of a Machine Gun: Twenty Poems & Documents. Profusely Illustrated By the Author, The Apple of the Automatic Zebra's Eye, and Penelope: A Poem, as well as An Open Entrance to the Shut Palace of Wrong Numbers, a book that explores the phenomenon of "wrong numbers" from a surrealist perspective, which was published by Black Swan Press in 2003. He also edited and introduced Hobohemia: Emma Goldman, Lucy Parsons, Ben Reitman & other agitators & outsiders in 1920s/30s Chicago, by Frank O. Beck.
In 1990 he published a collected edition of short stories by the socialist utopian author Edward Bellamy, titled Apparitions of Things to Come. He is co-editor, with Archie Green, David Roediger, and Salvatore Salerno, of The Big Red Songbook (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 2007).
References
External links
Franklin Rosemont 1943–2009 This "cyber-tombeau" at Silliman's Blog by poet Ron Silliman includes comments, tributes, and links
Remembering a Wobbly Surrealist an extensive tribute to Rosemont
Franklin Rosemont, fellow worker, surrealist poet, great American comprehensive set of links to obituaries on Rosemont found around the web as of April 2009
Franklin and Penelope Rosemont collection of IWW Publications at Newberry Library
Franklin W. Rosement Papers at the Newberry Library
1943 births
2009 deaths
Writers from Chicago
American male poets
Surrealist poets
Burials at Forest Home Cemetery, Chicago
Industrial Workers of the World members
American surrealist writers
American surrealist artists
20th-century American poets
American Book Award winners
20th-century American male writers | [
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|
236903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When%20I%20Survey%20the%20Wondrous%20Cross | When I Survey the Wondrous Cross | The hymn, "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross", was written by Isaac Watts, and published in Hymns and Spiritual Songs in 1707. It is significant for being an innovative departure from the early English hymn style of only using paraphrased biblical texts, although the first couplet of the second verse paraphrases Galatians 6:14a and the second couplet of the fourth verse paraphrases Gal.6:14b. The poetry of "When I survey..." may be seen as English literary baroque.
Text
The second line of the first stanza originally read "Where the young Prince of Glory dy'd". Watts himself altered that line in the 1709 edition of Hymns and Spiritual Songs, to prevent it from being mistaken as an allusion to Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, the heir to the throne who died at age 11.
The hymn's fourth stanza ("His dying crimson...") is commonly omitted in printed versions, a practice that began with George Whitefield in 1757.
In the final stanza, some modern variations substitute the word "offering" for "present".
1. When I survey the wond'rous Cross
On which the Prince of Glory dy'd,
My richest Gain I count but Loss,
And pour Contempt on all my Pride.
2. Forbid it, Lord, that I should boast,
Save in the Death of Christ my God:
All the vain Things that charm me most,
I sacrifice them to his Blood.
3. See from his Head, his Hands, his Feet,
Sorrow and Love flow mingled down!
Did e'er such Love and Sorrow meet?
Or Thorns compose so rich a Crown?
4. His dying Crimson, like a Robe,
Spreads o'er his Body on the Tree;
Then I am dead to all the Globe,
And all the Globe is dead to me.
5. Were the whole Realm of Nature mine,
That were a Present far too small;
Love so amazing, so divine,
Demands my Soul, my Life, my All.
Musical settings
The hymn is usually sung to either "Rockingham" or "Hamburg", the former being more closely associated with the text in British and Commonwealth hymnals. Another alternative, associated with the text in the 19th and 20th centuries, is "Eucharist" by Isaac B. Woodbury.
"Rockingham" was written by Edward Miller, the son of a stone mason who ran away from home to become a musician, being a flautist in Händel's orchestra. It has long been associated with Watt's text in British and Commonwealth hymnals, first being associated with the text in the seminal Hymns Ancient and Modern (1861), and appearing again in the 1906 English Hymnal:
"Hamburg" is an adaptation of a plainchant melody by American composer Lowell Mason, and it remains the most frequent pairing in the United States. First written in 1824 and published a year later, it was not set to this text until The Sabbath Hymn and Tune Book (1859), and even then it did not gain wide traction until late in the 19th century. Paul Westermeyer notes, however, that the tune is sometimes seen as less than an ideal match for the text, and that it is "dull to the analyst, but often appreciated by congregations."
Other uses
Sung to the tune 'Rockingham', it has been used for many years by the BBC to introduce its 7am broadcast on Good Friday.
It forms the musical setting for the culmination of a passion play told in dance choreographed by Walter Nicks, an American modern dancer.
Contemporary Christian worship artists Matt Redman and Chris Tomlin recorded it as "The Wonderful Cross" for the latter's debut album The Noise We Make, with an added chorus that follows a markedly contemporary format. Redman, though English, sings the traditional verses to the tune of "Hamburg."
Showbread, a Christian "Raw Rock" band, used excerpts of the lyrics in their song "The Beginning" from the album Nervosa.
References
External links
, sung by the Ely Cathedral Choir
1707 works
English Christian hymns
Passion hymns
Songs about Jesus
18th-century hymns
Hymns in The English Hymnal | [
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236906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo%20Veronese | Paolo Veronese | Paolo Caliari (152819 April 1588), known as Paolo Veronese ( , also , ), was an Italian Renaissance painter based in Venice, known for extremely large history paintings of religion and mythology, such as The Wedding at Cana (1563) and The Feast in the House of Levi (1573). Included with Titian, a generation older, and Tintoretto, a decade senior, Veronese is one of the "great trio that dominated Venetian painting of the cinquecento" and the Late Renaissance in the 16th century. Known as a supreme colorist, and after an early period with Mannerism, Paolo Veronese developed a naturalist style of painting, influenced by Titian.
His most famous works are elaborate narrative cycles, executed in a dramatic and colorful style, full of majestic architectural settings and glittering pageantry. His large paintings of biblical feasts, crowded with figures, painted for the refectories of monasteries in Venice and Verona are especially famous, and he was also the leading Venetian painter of ceilings. Most of these works remain in situ, or at least in Venice, and his representation in most museums is mainly composed of smaller works such as portraits that do not always show him at his best or most typical.
He has always been appreciated for "the chromatic brilliance of his palette, the splendor and sensibility of his brushwork, the aristocratic elegance of his figures, and the magnificence of his spectacle", but his work has been felt "not to permit expression of the profound, the human, or the sublime", and of the "great trio" he has often been the least appreciated by modern criticism. Nonetheless, "many of the greatest artists ... may be counted among his admirers, including Rubens, Watteau, Tiepolo, Delacroix, and Renoir".
Life and work
Birth and names
Veronese took his usual name from his birthplace of Verona, then the largest possession of Venice on the mainland. The census in Verona attests that Veronese was born sometime in 1528 to a stonecutter, or spezapreda in the Venetian language, named Gabriele, and his wife Caterina. He was their fifth child. It was common for surnames to be taken from a father's profession, and thus Veronese was known as Paolo Spezapreda. He later changed his name to Paolo Caliari, because his mother was the illegitimate daughter of a nobleman called Antonio Caliari. His earliest known painting is signed "P. Caliari F., "the first known instance in which he used this surname", and after using "Paolo Veronese" for several years in Venice, after about 1575 he resumed signing his paintings as "Paolo Caliari". He was often called "Paolo Veronese" before the last century to distinguish him from another painter from Verona, "Alessandro Veronese", now known as Alessandro Turchi (1578–1649).
Youth
By 1541, Veronese was apprenticed with Antonio Badile, who was later to become his father-in-law, and in 1544 was an apprentice of Giovanni Francesco Caroto; both were leading painters in Verona. An altarpiece painted by Badile in 1543 includes striking passages that were most likely the work of his fifteen-year-old apprentice; Veronese's precocious gifts soon surpassed the level of the workshop, and by 1544 he was no longer residing with Badile. Although trained in the culture of Mannerism then popular in Parma, he soon developed his own preference for a more radiant palette.
In his late teens he painted works for important churches in Verona, and in 1551 he was commissioned by the Venetian branch of the important Giustiniani family to paint the altarpiece for their chapel in the church of San Francesco della Vigna, which was then being entirely rebuilt to the design of Jacopo Sansovino. In the same year he worked on the decoration of the Villa Soranzo near Treviso, with his fellow Veronese Giovanni Battista Zelotti and Anselmo Canneri; only fragments of the frescos remain, but they seem to have been important in establishing his reputation. The description by Carlo Ridolfi nearly a century later mentions that one of the mythological subjects was The Family of Darius before Alexander, the rare subject in Veronese's grandest treatment of secular history, now in the National Gallery, London.
In 1552 Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga, great-uncle of the ruling Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, commissioned an altarpiece for Mantua Cathedral (now Caen, France), which Veronese painted in situ. He doubtless used his time in Mantua to study the ceilings by Giulio Romano; it was a painter of ceiling frescos that he would initially make his mark in Venice, where he based himself permanently from the following year.
Venice
Veronese moved to Venice in 1553 after obtaining his first state commission, ceilings in fresco decorating the Sala dei Consiglio dei Dieci (the Hall of the Council of Ten) and the adjoining Sala dei Tre Capi del Consiglio in the Doge's Palace, in the new rooms replacing those lost in the fire of 1547. His panel of Jupiter Expelling the Vices for the former is now in the Louvre. He then painted a History of Esther in the ceiling for the church of San Sebastiano (1556–57). It was these ceiling paintings and those of 1557 in the Marciana Library (for which he was awarded a prize judged by Titian and Sansovino) that established him as a master among his Venetian contemporaries. Already these works indicate Veronese's mastery in reflecting both the subtle foreshortening of the figures of Correggio and the heroism of those by Michelangelo.
Villa Barbaro and refectory paintings
By 1556 Veronese was commissioned to paint the first of his monumental banquet scenes, the Feast in the House of Simon, which would not be concluded until 1570. Owing to its scattered composition and lack of focus, however, it was not his most successful refectory mural. In the late 1550s, during a break in his work for San Sebastiano, Veronese decorated the Villa Barbaro in Maser, a newly finished building by the architect Andrea Palladio. The frescoes were designed to unite humanistic culture with Christian spirituality; wall paintings included portraits of the Barbaro family, and the ceilings opened to blue skies and mythological figures. Veronese's decorations employed complex perspective and trompe-l'œil, and resulted in a luminescent and inspired visual poetry. The encounter between architect and artist was a triumph.
The Wedding at Cana, painted in 1562–1563, was also collaboration with Palladio. It was commissioned by the Benedictine monks for the San Giorgio Maggiore Monastery, on a small island across from Saint Mark's, in Venice. The contract insisted on the huge size (to cover 66 square meters), and that the quality of pigment and colors should be of premium quality. For example, the contract specified that the blues should contain the precious mineral lapis-lazuli. The contract also specified that the painting should include as many figures as possible. There are a number of portraits (including those of Titian and Tintoretto, as well as a self-portrait of Veronese) staged upon a canvas surface nearly ten meters wide. The scene, taken from the New Testament Book of John, II, 1–11, represents the first miracle performed by Jesus, the making of wine from water, at a marriage in Cana, Galilee. The foreground celebration, a frieze of figures painted in the most shimmering finery, is flanked by two sets of stairs leading back to a terrace, Roman colonnades, and a brilliant sky.
In the refectory paintings, as in The Family of Darius before Alexander (1565–1570), Veronese arranged the architecture to run mostly parallel to the picture plane, accentuating the processional character of the composition. The artist's decorative genius was to recognize that dramatic perspectival effects would have been tiresome in a living room or chapel, and that the narrative of the picture could best be absorbed as a colorful diversion. These paintings offer little in the representation of emotion; rather, they illustrate the carefully composed movement of their subjects along a primarily horizontal axis. Most of all they are about the incandescence of light and color. The exaltation of such visual effects may have been a reflection of the artist's personal well-being, for in 1565 Veronese married Elena Badile, the daughter of his first master, and by whom he would eventually have a daughter and four sons.
Also painted between 1565 and 1570 is his Madonna and Child with St. Elizabeth, the Infant St. John the Baptist, and St. Justina in the Timken Museum of Art, San Diego. St. Justina, a patroness of Padua and Venice, is at the right with the Blessed Virgin Mother and the Christ child in the center. In contrast to Italian works of a century earlier the infant is rendered convincingly as an infant. What makes one stop and take notice in this painting is the infant's reaching out to St. Justina, since a baby of this age would normally limit his gaze to his mother. Completing the work is St. Elizabeth, the cousin of Mary and mother of St. John the Baptist, located on the left. The artist delicately balances the forms of the extended Holy Family and renders them using a superb balance of warm and cool colors.
The Feast in the House of Levi
In 1573 Veronese completed the commission for The Feast in the House of Levi, a last-supper painting for the rear wall of the refectory at the Basilica di Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Castello, Venice. Originally titled The Last Supper, the painting was to replace a Titian painting burnt in a fire; Veronese's oversized (5.55m x 12.80m) replacement depicted a Last Supper banquet scene that included German soldiers, dwarves, and animals – the human and animal exotica usual to Veronese's representational narratives. Artistically, The Feast in the House of Levi indicates Veronese's technical development in using intense and luminous colors for texture, attention to narrative coherence, the acute representation of human emotion, and the psychologically subtle interplay occurring among the characters who crowd the scene.
Given the subject of the painting, the biblical Last Supper, the humanistic depictions of the characters lacked the piousness usual to Roman Catholic art depicting the Christ character and the events of his life; and the Inquisition readily noticed Veronese's irreligiosity. By the 1570s, the theology of the Counter-Reformation had given legal authority to Roman Catholic doctrine in Venice, which was a new, political development for an artist such as Veronese. In the Venetian republic of the Late–Renaissance, for an artist, painting crowd scenes had acquired political ramifications regarding who and what appeared in a religious painting commissioned from him, regardless of the patron or patroness.
A decade earlier, the Benedictine monks who commissioned The Wedding at Cana (1563) had directed Veronese to freely include as many human figures as would fit in the banquet scene. In contrast, a decade later, Veronese encountered legal, religious constraints that determined the suitability (theological, political, sociological) of who and what he depicted in a painting—thus, on 18 July 1573, Veronese was summoned before the Venetian Holy Inquisition to explain the presence of what Church doctrine considered characters, animals, and indecorum extraneous to an image of the Last Supper of the Christ.
The tribunal's interrogation of Veronese was cautionary, rather than punitive; political, rather than judicial; nonetheless, Veronese explained to the Inquisitiors that "we painters take the same liberties as poets and madmen" in telling a story. Although the Inquisition's tribunal ordered Veronese to repaint the last-supper scene, he opposed their remedy to his theological offences, yet was compelled to re-title the painting from the sacramental The Last Supper to The Feast in the House of Levi. That an artist, such as Veronese, had successfully perdured against the Inquisition's implied accusation of heresy, indicated he had the discreet political support of a patrician patron of the arts.
Assessment
An artist's biography of Paolo Veronese was included in the second edition of the Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (1568), by Giorgio Vasari, with improved coverage of the painters of the Venetian school.
A fuller biography of Veronese had to await Le maraviglie dell’ Arte ovvero, Le vite degli Illustri Pittori Veneti and dello Stato (1648), by Carlo Ridolfi, a compilation of the Venetian School painters. Ridolfi said that Veronese's painting of The Feast in the House of Levi (1573) is "by far, the most important source for our knowledge of his art," because "it gave rein to joy, made beauty majestic, made laughter, itself, more festive."
In 2014, the art historian Charles Hope wrote of Veronese's strengths and weaknesses: "He is notable above all as a colorist who used a range of bright hues with a boldness unmatched in his time and scarcely equaled since", but because his use of color "was often calculated to create a harmonious overall effect rather than to single out the main protagonists", his paintings convey little narrative drama. According to Hope, "the effect is sumptuous, seductive but ultimately excessive and a little monotonous, rather like a visit to a patisserie."
In Paintings in the Louvre (1987), Lawrence Gowing’s modern assessment of Paolo Veronese’s artistic achievement is that:
The French had no doubts, as the critic Théophile Gautier wrote in 1860, that Veronese was the greatest colorist who ever lived—greater than Titian, Rubens, or Rembrandt because he established the harmony of natural tones in place of the modeling in dark and light that remained the method of academic chiaroscuro. Delacroix wrote that Veronese made light without violent contrasts, "which we are always told is impossible, and maintained the strength of hue in shadow".
This innovation could not be better described. Veronese’s bright outdoor harmonies enlightened and inspired the whole nineteenth century. He was the foundation of modern painting. But whether his style is in fact naturalistic, as the Impressionists thought, or a most subtle and beautiful imaginative invention must remain a question for each age to answer for itself.
Working practices
In addition to the ceiling creations and wall paintings, Veronese also produced altarpieces (The Consecration of Saint Nicholas, 1561–62, London's National Gallery), paintings on mythological subjects (Venus and Mars, 1578, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art), and portraits (Portrait of a Lady, 1555, Louvre). A significant number of compositional sketches in pen, ink and wash, figure studies in chalk, and chiaroscuro modelli and ricordi survive.
He headed a family workshop, including his younger brother Benedetto (1538–1598) as well as his sons Carlo and Gabriele, and his nephew Luigi Benfatto (also called dal Friso; 1559–1611), that remained active for a decade or so after his death in Venice in 1588, signing their work "Haeredes Pauli" ("Heirs of Paolo"), and continuing to use his drawings. According to Nicholas Penny, "The role of the workshop seems to have increased steadily, and after 1580 it is rare that we can feel confident that Veronese's was the sole hand involved". Among his pupils were his contemporary Giovanni Battista Zelotti and later, Giovanni Antonio Fasolo, Sigismondo de Stefani, and Anselmo Canneri. The Caliari family continued and another Paolo Caliari published the first monograph on his ancestor in 1888.
Veronese was one of the first painters whose drawings were sought by collectors during his lifetime.
Selected works
Veronese in popular culture
The Monty Python sketch "The Last Supper" from Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl is based on the story of Veronese's painting The Feast in the House of Levi.
An imaginary Veronese painting called La Morte dil Cesare is prominently featured in a story arc of the award-winning comics series 100 Bullets.
Veronese in religion
In the Ascended Master Teachings of Elizabeth Clare Prophet, Paolo Veronese is regarded as one of the earthly embodiments of one of the ascended masters, a group of beings guiding the spiritual destiny of the planet Earth and its people. Specifically, he is regarded as the Master Paul the Venetian, Master of the Third Ray.
See also
Holy Family with Saint Catherine and Saint John the Baptist
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
Portrait of Iseppo da Porto and his son Adriano
Notes
References
Ilchman, Frederick, et al., Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto: Rivals in Renaissance Venice, MFA Publications, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2009,
Penny, Nicholas, National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume II, Venice 1540–1600, 2008, National Gallery Publications Ltd,
Rearick, W. R., The Art of Paolo Veronese 1528–1588, National Gallery of Art, 1988
Rosand, David, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, 2nd ed. 1997, Cambridge University Press,
Salomon, Xavier F., Veronese, National Gallery London, 2014,
Watson, Peter, Wisdom and Strength: The Biography of a Renaissance Masterpiece, Hutchinson, 1990,
External links
Art view; Homage to a Gentleman of Verona
Veronese biography on Web Gallery of Art with link to images of many of his paintings
Paolo Caliari – Biographical article in the 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia
Gallery at Museum Syndicate
1528 births
1588 deaths
16th-century Venetian people
16th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Italian Roman Catholics
Italian Renaissance painters
Mannerist painters
Painters from Venice
Painters from Verona
Sibling artists
Trompe-l'œil artists
Catholic painters | [
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|
236910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veronese | Veronese | Veronese is the Italian word denoting someone or something from Verona, Italy and may refer to:
Veronese Riddle, a popular riddle in the Middle Ages
Veronese (moth), a moth genus in the family Crambidae
Monte Veronese, an Italian cheese made from cow's milk
the Veronese embedding of a projective space by a complete linear system
Veronese (typeface), Monotype typeface series 59, cut in 1911 for publisher J.M. Dent
Places
Velo Veronese, Italy
Cavaion Veronese, Italy
Povegliano Veronese, Italy
People
Angela Veronese (1778-1847), Italian poet
Bonifazio Veronese (1487-1553), Italian Renaissance painter
Paolo Caliari, usually known as Veronese (1528–1588), Italian Renaissance painter in Venice.
Giuseppe Veronese (1854–1917), Italian mathematician
Joe Alioto Veronese (born 1973), San Francisco politician | [
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236912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharat%20Ratna | Bharat Ratna | {{Infobox civilian award
| name = Bharat Ratna
| image = Bharat Ratna Award.png
| type = National civilian
| country =
| presenter = President of India
| ribbon =
| obverse = An image of the Sun along with the words "Bharat Ratna", inscribed in Devanagari script, on a peepal (Ficus religiosa) leaf
| reverse = A platinum State Emblem of India placed in the centre with the national motto, "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari script
| established =
| firstawarded = 1954
| lastawarded = 2019
| total_awarded = 48
| description =
| higher = None| lower = Padma Vibhushan
}}
The Bharat Ratna (; Jewel of India) is the highest civilian award of the Republic of India. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is conferred in recognition of "exceptional service/performance of the highest order", without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally limited to achievements in the arts, literature, science, and public services, but the government expanded the criteria to include "any field of human endeavour" in December 2011. The recommendations for the Bharat Ratna are made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees being awarded per year. The recipients receive a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a peepal leaf-shaped medallion. There is no monetary grant associated with the award. Bharat Ratna recipients rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
The first recipients of the Bharat Ratna were: the last Governor-General of the Dominion of India and the former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu – C. Rajagopalachari, second President and the first Vice President of India – Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Nobel Prize Laureate and Physicist C. V. Raman; who were honoured in 1954. Since then, the award has been bestowed upon 48 individuals, including 14 who were awarded posthumously. The original statutes did not provide for posthumous awards but were amended in January 1955 to permit them. Former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first individual to be honoured posthumously. In 2014, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar, then aged 40, became the youngest recipient; while social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. The first singer to be awarded was M. S. Subbulakshmi and the first actor to be awarded was M. G. Ramachandran. Though usually conferred on India-born citizens, the Bharat Ratna has been awarded to one naturalized citizen – Mother Teresa, and to two non-Indians: Abdul Ghaffar Khan (born in British India and later citizen of Pakistan) and Nelson Mandela, born in and citizen of South Africa. On 25 January 2019, the government announced the award to social activist Nanaji Deshmukh (posthumously), singer-music director Bhupen Hazarika (posthumously) and to the former President of India, Pranab mukherjee.
The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, was briefly suspended from July 1977 to January 1980, during the change in the national government; and for a second time from August 1992 to December 1995, when several public-interest litigations challenged the constitutional validity of the awards. In 1992, the government's decision to confer the award posthumously on Subhas Chandra Bose was opposed by those who had refused to accept the fact of his death, including some members of his extended family. Following a 1997 Supreme Court decision, the press communiqué announcing Bose's award was cancelled; it is the only time when the award was announced but not conferred.
The bestowals of the award have met with criticism are the posthumous awards of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1991) and Madan Mohan Malaviya (2015) drew criticism because they died before the award was instituted.
History
On 2 January 1954, a press communique was released from the office of the secretary to the President announcing the creation of two civilian awards—Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award, and the three-tier Padma Vibhushan, classified into "Pahela Warg" (Class I), "Dusra Warg" (Class II), and "Tisra Warg" (Class III), which rank below the Bharat Ratna. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards; the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri.
There is no formal provision that recipients of the Bharat Ratna should be Indian citizens. It has been awarded to a naturalised Indian citizen, Mother Teresa in 1980, and to two non-Indians, Abdul Ghaffar Khan of Pakistan in 1987 and the former South African president Nelson Mandela in 1990. M. S. Subbulakshmi from Tamil Nadu became the first musician to receive the honour. Sachin Tendulkar, at the age of 40, became the youngest person and first sportsperson to receive the honour. In a special ceremony on 18 April 1958, Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. , the award has been conferred upon 45 people with 12 posthumous declarations.
The award was briefly suspended twice in its history. The first suspension occurred after Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister in 1977. His government withdrew all personal civil honours on 13 July 1977. The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980, after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister. The civilian awards were suspended again in mid-1992, when two Public-Interest Litigations were filed, one in the Kerala High Court and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court, challenging the "constitutional validity" of the awards. The awards were reintroduced by the Supreme Court in December 1995, following the conclusion of the litigation.
Regulations
The Bharat Ratna is conferred "in recognition of exceptional service/performance of the highest order", without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally confined to the arts, literature, science, and public services, as per the 1954 regulations. In December 2011, the rules were changed to include "any field of human endeavour". The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute, and Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1966.
Although there is no formal nomination process, recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President with a maximum number of three nominees being awarded per year. However, in 1999, four individuals were awarded the honour. The recipient receives a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a medallion without any monetary grant. Usage of the title 'Bharat Ratna' as a prefix by the awardee is exempt from Article 18 (1) of the Constitution, as per the Supreme Court's precedent in Balaji Raghavan/S.P. Anand v. Union of India in 1995. Additionally, recipients may either use the expression "Awarded Bharat Ratna by the President" or "Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award" to indicate that they have been honoured with the award. The holders of the Bharat Ratna rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
As with many official announcements, recipients are announced and registered in The Gazette of India, a publication released by the Department of Publication, Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices; without publication in the Gazette, conferral of the award is not considered official. Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored, both of which require the authority of the President, are registered in the Gazette. Recipients whose awards have been revoked are required to surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
Specifications
The original 1954 specifications of the award was a circle made of gold in diameter with a centred sun burst design on the obverse side. The text "Bharat Ratna", in Devanagari Script, is inscribed on the upper edge in silver gilt with a wreath set along on the lower edge. A platinum State Emblem of India was placed in the center of the reverse side with the national motto, "Satyameva Jayate" in Devanagari Script (; lit. "Truth alone triumphs"), inscribed in silver-gilt on the lower edge.
A year later, the design was modified. The current medal is in the shape of a peepal leaf, approximately long, wide and thick and rimmed in platinum. The embossed sun burst design, made of platinum, on the obverse side of the medal has a diameter of with rays spreading out from to from the center of the Sun. The words "Bharat Ratna" on the obverse side remained the same as the 1954 design as did the emblem of India and "Satyameva Jayate" on the reverse side. A white ribbon is attached to the medal so it can be worn around the neck. In 1957, the silver-gilt decoration was changed to burnished bronze. The Bharat Ratna medals are produced at Alipore Mint, Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Padma Vibushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri, and Param Veer Chakra.
Entitlements
Bharat Ratna can not be used as a prefix or suffix, however recipients may identify themselves as "Awarded Bharat Ratna by the President" or "Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award". The award does not carry any monetory benefits, however there several special entitlements which include:
The medallion and miniature
A Sanad (certificate) signed by the President of India.
Treatment as a state guests by state governments when traveling within a state.
Indian missions abroad requested to facilitate recipients when requested.
Entitlement to a diplomatic passport.
Lifetime free executive class travel on Air India.
Placed 7a in the Indian order of precedence.
Controversies
The Bharat Ratna has been mired in several controversies and award grants have been subject to multiple Public-Interest Litigations (PILs).
Jawaharlal Nehru has been criticised for awarding Bharat Ratna to himself while serving as Prime Minister of India in 1955. This claim was proved partly correct by the team of The Wire, as the then President of India, Rajendra Prasad himself confessed that he conferred this award to Nehru, “unconstitutionally, without any recommendation or advice from the Prime Minister or the Cabinet”, for Nehru’s successful visit of the European countries and the Soviet Union (a visit aimed for the promotion of peace as the Cold War was rapidly escalating) and Nehru’s efforts to establish India as a major player in world affairs, which found popular support outside India.
Similar claims have been made with regards to Nehru’s daughter Indira Gandhi who succeeded him as the third Prime Minister of India. These accusation also proved to be factually incorrect as the then President of India, V. V. Giri conferred this award to Indira Gandhi for steering India to victory in the 14-day-long 1971 war with Pakistan over East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). President V. V. Giri took full responsibility for conferring the honour to Indira.
However, Rajiv Gandhi was awarded Bharat Ratna, without any controversy, posthumously after he was assassinated by LTTE in 1991. It was a unanimous decision of the ruling party and the opposition.
Subhas Chandra Bose (1992)
On 23 January 1992, a press release was published by the President's Secretariat to confer the award posthumously on Subhas Chandra Bose. The decision triggered much criticism and a PIL was filed in the Calcutta High Court to revoke the award. The petitioner took objection to the conferral of the award and its posthumous mention of Bose, saying that honouring a personality higher than the award is "ridiculous", and it was an act of "carelessness" to classify such a person with past and future recipients. It said that the award cannot be conferred to Bose posthumously as the Government had not officially accepted his death on 18 August 1945. The petitioner requested the whereabouts of Bose from 18 August 1945 to date, based on the information collected by the 1956 Shah Nawaz Committee and the 1970 Khosla Commission. Bose's family members expressed their unwillingness to accept the award.
To deliver the judgement, the Supreme Court formed a Special Division Bench with Judge Sujata V. Manohar and G. B. Pattanaik. The Solicitor General noted that to confer the award per the appropriate regulations pertaining to the Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri, the name of the recipient must be published in The Gazette of India and entered in the recipients register maintained under the direction of the President. It was noted that only an announcement had been made by press communiqué, but the government had not proceeded to confer the award by publishing the name in the Gazette and entering the name in the register. Furthermore, the then presidents, Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1987–92) and Shankar Dayal Sharma (1992–97), had not conferred a Sanad'' (certificate) with their signature and seal.
On 4 August 1997, the Supreme Court delivered an order that since the award had not been officially conferred, it cannot be revoked and declared that the press communiqué be treated as cancelled. The court declined to pass any judgement on the posthumous mention of Bose and his death.
Civilian awards as "Titles" (1992)
In 1992, two PILs were filed in the High Courts; one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court (Indore Bench) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being "Titles" per an interpretation of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution. On 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court was formed comprising five judges; A. M. Ahmadi C. J., Kuldip Singh, B. P. Jeevan Reddy, N. P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgement that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution".
C. N. R. Rao and Sachin Tendulkar (2013)
Following the announcement, in November 2013, that C. N. R. Rao and Sachin Tendulkar were to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, multiple PILs were filed challenging the conferring of the award. The PIL filed against Rao declared that other Indian scientists, such as Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai, had contributed more than Rao and his claim of publishing 1400 research papers was "physically impossible". The suit stated that as Rao had proven cases of plagiarism, he should not be presented with the award but rather should be annulled. The PIL filed against Tendulkar to the Election Commission under the Right to Information Act indicated that the awarding him the Bharat Ratna was a violation of the model code of conduct. The petitioner noted that as Tendulkar was an Indian National Congress nominated Member of Rajya Sabha, the decision to award him the Bharat Ratna would influence the voters of Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Mizoram where the election process was underway at the time. Another PIL was filed against Tendulkar and a few ministers, alleging an apparent "conspiracy to ignore" the famed Indian field hockey player Dhyan Chand.
On 4 December 2013, the Election Commission rejected the petition stating that conferring the award on people from non-polling states did not amount to a violation of the code. Other High Courts as well rejected the petitions raised against Rao and Tendulkar.
Criticism
In 1988, then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi (1984–89) conferred the Bharat Ratna posthumously on movie actor and former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M. G. Ramachandran, in a bid to influence voters prior to the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1989. The decision was criticised for awarding Ramachandran before independence activist B. R. Ambedkar and Vallabhbhai Patel, who were bestowed the honour in 1990 and 1991, respectively. While Ravi Shankar was accused of lobbying for the award, the decision by Indira Gandhi to posthumously honour K. Kamaraj was considered to have been aimed at placating Tamil voters for the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1977. The seventh Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap Singh was criticised for posthumously honouring B. R. Ambedkar to please the Dalits.
The posthumous conferments of the award on the recipients who died before the Indian independence in 1947 or the award was instituted in 1954 have been criticised by historians. It was noted that such conferments could lead to more demands to honour people like Maurya Emperor Ashoka, Mughal Emperor Akbar, Maratha Emperor Shivaji, Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, Hindu spiritualist Swami Vivekananda, and independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The then Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao (1991–96) was criticised for bestowing the award upon Vallabhbhai Patel in 1991, 41 years after his death in 1950; and upon Subhas Chandra Bose in 1992, who died in 1945. In 2015, the Prime Minister Narendra Modi's decision to award Madan Mohan Malaviya, who died in 1946, close to the elections in Uttar Pradesh met with criticism.
A few of the conferments have been criticised for honouring personalities only after they received global recognition. The award for Mother Teresa was announced in 1980, a year after she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Satyajit Ray received an Academy Honorary Award in 1992 followed by the Bharat Ratna the same year. In 1999, Amartya Sen was awarded the Bharat Ratna, a year after his 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The award was proposed by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee to President K. R. Narayanan who agreed to the proposal.
Popular demands
Though, as per the statutes for the Bharat Ratna, the recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, there have been several demands from various political parties to honour their leaders. In January 2008, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) leader L. K. Advani wrote to the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh recommending Singh's predecessor Atal Bihari Vajpayee for the award. This was immediately followed by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) lobbying for their leader, Jyoti Basu, former Chief Minister of West Bengal. Basu, India's longest-serving chief minister at that time, said that he would decline the honour, even if awarded. Similar demands were made by Telugu Desam Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, and Shiromani Akali Dal for their respective leaders N. T. Rama Rao, Kanshi Ram, and Parkash Singh Badal. In September 2015, regional political party Shiv Sena demanded the award for the independence activist Vinayak Damodar Savarkar stating that he had been "deliberately neglected by previous governments" but his family clarified that they are not making such demand and that the freedom fighter is known for his contribution towards independence movement and did not need an award for recognition.
Per the original statutes, sportspersons were not eligible for the Bharat Ratna; however, a revision of the rules in December 2011 made eligible "any field of human endeavour". Subsequently, several sportspersons' names were discussed; among the most talked-about of these were field-hockey player Dhyan Chand and former world chess champion Viswanathan Anand. In 2011, 82 members of parliament recommended Chand's name for the award to the Prime Minister's Office. In January 2012, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports forwarded his name again, this time along with 2008 Summer Olympics gold medallist shooter Abhinav Bindra and mountaineer Tenzing Norgay. Bindra had earlier been recommended for the award in May 2013 by the National Rifle Association of India. In July 2013, the ministry again recommended Dhyan Chand. However, in November 2013, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar became the first sports-person to receive the honour and this garnered much criticism for the government.
A PIL was filed in the Karnataka High Court where in the petitioner requested the court to issue a direction to the Ministry of Home Affairs to consider their representation dated 26 October 2012 and confer the Bharat Ratna upon Mahatma Gandhi. On 27 January 2014, a counsel appearing for the petitioner noted that after multiple representations from the petitioner, they were provided with the information under RTI that the recommendations to confer the award on Gandhi have been received multiple times in the past and were forwarded to the Prime Minister's Office. A Division bench comprising Chief Justice D.H. Waghela and Justice B.V. Nagarathna dismissed the petition stating that the subject is not amenable to any adjudication process and the nominations and conferment process is stated to be informal and in the discretion of the highest authority in the Government.
List of recipients
See also
Padma Vibhushan
Padma Bhushan
Padma Shri
The Greatest Indian
Explanatory notes
Posthumous recipients
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Sabharwal,D.P. Wing Commander (2008). Bharat Ratnas. Rupa Publications.
External links
भारत रत्न पुरस्कार विजेता व वर्ष Bharat Ratna Winner List Latest 2021
1954 establishments in India
Awards established in 1954
Civil awards and decorations of India
Lists of Indian award winners | [
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|
236915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Mohs | Friedrich Mohs | Carl Friedrich Christian Mohs (; 29 January 1773 – 29 September 1839) was a German geologist and mineralogist. He was the creator of the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Mohs also introduced a classification of the crystal forms in crystal systems independently of Christian Samuel Weiss.
Early life
Mohs was born in Gernrode, in the Harz mountains Germany. He showed a clear interest in science at an early age and received private education before entering the University of Halle.
Education
Mohs studied chemistry, mathematics and physics at the University of Halle. In 1798 he joined the Mining Academy in Freiberg, Saxony, being student of Abraham Gottlob Werner.
Career
After assuming the position of a foreman at a mine in 1801, Mohs moved in 1802 to Austria, where he was employed in trying to identify the minerals in a private collection of the banker J. F. van der Nüll. Mohs described this collection, a catalogue was printed and published. In 1812 he moved to Graz where he was employed by Archduke Johann in his newly established museum and science academy, which was subsequently divided into the Joanneum and the Graz University of Technology. In 1818 Mohs was appointed successor of his former professor at the Freiberg Mining Academy A. G. Werner, who died in 1817. In 1826 Mohs became full professor of mineralogy at the University of Vienna. At the same time he was assigned curator of the Imperial Mineralogical Collection, in which the van der Nüll collection of minerals was incorporated in 1827. In 1835 Mohs resigned. He became Bergrath which meant being an imperial counselor in charge of mining affairs, published under orders from his department an instruction on mining and was commissioned with the establishment of a montanistic museum in Vienna.
Mineral properties
As part of this task, he started classifying minerals by their physical characteristics, instead of their chemical composition, as had been done traditionally. This emphasis on physical characteristics was at odds with the prevailing chemical systematics. However, both Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder had compared the relative hardness of minerals known to them in the ancient world, including diamond and quartz. They knew that diamond could scratch quartz, so showing it to be harder. This became the basis of the hardness scale developed by Mohs. The hardest mineral, diamond was given a value of 10 and softer minerals such as talc were given the very low value of 1 (unity). Other minerals were given intermediate values, depending on their ability to scratch another mineral in the scale. Thus gypsum was given the value 2 because it will scratch talc crystals, and calcite the value 3 because it will scratch gypsum. Minerals are also now classified by chemical characteristics, but the physical properties are still useful in field examination.
In 1812, Mohs became a professor in Graz.
In 1818, Mohs was appointed professor at his alma mater in Freiberg.
In 1826, Mohs was a Professor in Vienna.
Personal life
In 1816, Mohs settled in Vienna. In 1818, Mohs moved to Freiberg, Saxony. Mohs died during a trip to Agordo, Italy in 1839, at the age of 66.
See also
Mohs scale of mineral hardness
Notes
References
Wilhelm von Gümbel: Mohs, Friedrich. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. Band 22, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1885, S. 76–79.
Josef Zemann: Mohs Friedrich, Montanist, Mineraloge und Kristallograph. In: Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815–1950 (ÖBL). Band 6, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1975, , S. 345.
Friedrich Mohs. In: Austria-Forum
Johannes Uray, Chemische Theorie und mineralogische Klassifikationssysteme von der chemischen Revolution bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts. In: Berhard Hubmann, Elmar Schübl, Johannes Seidl (eds.), Die Anfänge geologischer Forschung in Österreich. Beiträge zur Tagung „10 Jahre Arbeitsgruppe Geschichte der Erdwissenschaften Österreichs" von 24. bis 26. April 2009 in Graz. Graz 2010, S. 107–25.
External links
19th-century German geologists
German mineralogists
19th-century Austrian geologists
Austrian mineralogists
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
1773 births
1839 deaths
Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Freiberg University of Mining and Technology faculty | [
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236918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert | Concert | A concert is a live music performance in front of an audience. The performance may be by a single musician, sometimes then called a recital, or by a musical ensemble, such as an orchestra, choir, or band. Concerts are held in a wide variety and size of settings, from private houses and small nightclubs, dedicated concert halls, amphitheatres and parks, to large multipurpose buildings, such as arenas and stadiums. Indoor concerts held in the largest venues are sometimes called arena concerts or amphitheatre concerts. Informal names for a concert include show and gig.
Regardless of the venue, musicians usually perform on a stage (if not actual then an area of the floor designated as such). Concerts often require live event support with professional audio equipment. Before recorded music, concerts provided the main opportunity to hear musicians play. For large concerts or concert tours, the challenging logistics of arranging the musicians, venue, equipment and audience (ticket sales) are handled by professional tour promoters.
Many musicians performing in large venues or to a mass audience through electronic media experience stage fright or performance anxiety. The psychological stress of maintaining performance at a high level over a long concert tour is associated with depression and substance abuse. Modern rock concerts are often conducted at extremely high volume levels, near the threshold of hearing loss. The intensity of the sound environment and the crush of the mass audience induces a trance-like psychological state in some audience members, and beyond the music itself, functions as an entry point to achieve an altered state of consciousness. Vocalists and other musicians (if their instrument permits this) will often dance or strut on stage as they perform, and the audience will often dance or sway in response (space permitting); this can also be considered a manifestation of crowd psychology. In some concert settings, such as classical music, the audience participates passively. In other concert settings, especially folk or rock concerts, the performers encourage and engage with an active audience response.
History
While the first concerts didn't officially appear until the late 17th century, similar gatherings had been around throughout the 17th century at several European universities, such as Oxford and Cambridge. Officially, though, the first public concerts that required an admission were created by the English violinist, John Banister. Over the next few centuries, concerts began to gain larger audiences, and classical symphonies were very popular. Finally, after World War 2, these events changed into the modern concerts that take place today. An example of an early, post-WW2 concert is the Moondog Coronation Ball.
17th Century
The first known occurrence of concerts where people are charged admission took place at violinist John Banister's home in Whitefriars, London in 1672. 6 years later in 1678, a man by the name of Thomas Britton held weekly concerts in Clerkenwell. However, these concerts were different. Before, you had an admission that you paid upon entering the building where the concert was held but at Britton's concerts, patrons purchased a yearly subscription to come to the concerts. At 10 shillings a year, people could see as many concerts they wanted to.
In addition to holding concerts at certain venues, concerts also went to the people. In 17th century France, concerts were performed in the homes of the nobility, for only the nobility. Organized by Anne Danican Philidor, the first public concerts in France, and arguably the world, were the Concerts Spirituels. These concerts were held on religious holidays when the Opera was closed and served as a model for concert societies all over the world.
18th Century
In the late 18th century, music from the likes of Haydn and Mozart was brought and performed in English concerts. One notable work from Haydn performed at these concerts was his set of 12 symphonies, also referred to as the London Symphonies. Concerts reflecting the elegance of England during the time period were held at the gardens of Vauxhall, Ranelagh, and Marylebone. The musical repertoire performed at these events ranged from works composed by young Mozart, to songs that were popular in that time period.
Types
The nature of a concert varies by musical genre, individual performers, and the venue. Concerts by a small jazz combo or small bluegrass band may have the same order of program, mood, and volume—but vary in music and dress. In a similar way, a particular musician, band, or genre of music might attract concert attendees with similar dress, hairstyle, and behavior. For example, concert goers in the 1960s often had long hair (sometimes in dread lock form), sandals and inexpensive clothing made of natural fibers. Regular attendees to a concert venue might also have a recognizable style that comprises that venue's scene.
Recital
A recital is a concert by a soloist or small group which follows a program. It can highlight a single performer, sometimes accompanied by piano, or a performance of the works of a single composer, or a single instrument (organ recital). The invention of the solo piano recital has been attributed to Franz Liszt. Also, a recital may have many participants, as for a dance recital. A dance recital is a presentation of choreographed moves for an audience, usually in an established performing arts venue, possibly competitively. Some dance recitals are seasonal.
Theatrical
Some performers or groups put on very elaborate and expensive shows. To create a memorable and exciting atmosphere and increase the spectacle, performers frequently include additional entertainment devices. These can include elaborate stage lighting, electronic imagery via (IMAG) system and/or pre-recorded video, inflatable sets, artwork or other set pieces, various special effects such as theatrical smoke and fog and pyrotechnics, and unusual costumes or wardrobe. Some singers, especially popular music, augment concert sound with pre-recorded accompaniment, back-up dancers, and even broadcast vocal tracks of the singer's own voice. Activities during these concerts can include dancing, sing-alongs, and moshing.
Classical
Classical concerts embody two different styles of classical music — orchestral and choral. They are performed by a plethora of different groups in concert halls or other performing art venues. For orchestra, depending on the number of performers and the instruments used, concerts include chamber music, chamber orchestra, or symphony orchestra. Chamber orchestra is a small-scale orchestra containing between ten and forty members, mostly string instruments, and likely led by a conductor. Symphony orchestra, on the other hand, is a large-scale orchestra that can have up to eighty or more members, which is led by a conductor and is performed with instruments such as strings, woodwinds, brass instruments, and percussion. For choral style pieces, concerts include Choral music, Opera, and musical theater. Each encompassing a variety of singers who are organized by a conductor or director.
Venues
There are a wide variety of concert venues that can range in size, location, and the type of music that is hosted at that particular venue. A concert hall is a concert venue which hosts mainly classical music such as a symphony, and they are often a part of a larger performing arts center. One of the most famous concert halls is Royal Albert Hall located in the United Kingdom. This venue hosts a wide variety of genres of music from classical concerts to pop concerts. An amphitheater is an uncovered circular or oval-shaped venue with tiers of seats surrounding the stage. Amphitheaters such as the well-known Red Rocks Amphitheatre, located in Colorado, hosts mainly rock and pop concerts. Rock and pop concerts, however, are mainly held in sports stadiums and arenas such as Madison Square Garden because of the tendency for these stadiums to have a larger capacity.
After the outbreak of coronavirus (COVID-19), there are a lot of online concert venues to support artist. Some are live streamed like Jambase and others are pre-recorded and paid. Riffbook.org as The Hindu says is one of the first such websites to come out of India to support independent artists. There are many such across the world.
Formats
Festivals
Concerts involving a greater number of artists, especially those that last for multiple days, are known as festivals. Unlike other concerts, which typically remain in a single genre of music or work of a particular artist, festivals often cover a broad scope of music and arts. Due to their size, festivals are almost exclusively held outdoors. New platforms for festivals are becoming increasingly popular such as Jam Cruise, which is a festival held on a cruise ship, as well as Mayan Holidaze, which is a destination festival held in Tulum.
Tour
A concert tour is a series of concerts by an artist or group of artists in different cities, countries or locations. Often concert tours are named, to differentiate different tours by the same artist and associate a specific tour with a particular album or product (for example Ariana Grande: Sweetener World Tour, BTS: Love Yourself World Tour, Michael Jackson: Dangerous World Tour). Especially in the popular music world, such tours can become large-scale enterprises that last for several months or even years, are seen by hundreds of thousands or millions of people, and bring in millions of dollars (or the equivalent) in ticket revenues.
Residency
A concert residency or musical residency is a series of live music concerts similar to a concert tour, but only performed at one location.
Revenue and attendance
While admission to some concerts is free, it is common practice to charge money for concerts by selling admission tickets. Before the advent of recorded-music sales and mechanical royalties in the early 20th century, concerts were the primary source of revenue for musicians. Revenue from ticket sales typically goes to the performing artists, producers, venue, organizers and the brokers. In the case of benefit concerts, a portion of profits often go towards a charitable organization.
Additional revenue is also often raised through in-concert advertising, from free local concerts for local sponsorships to sponsorships from corporations during major tours e.g. 2009's "Vans' Warped Tour Presented by AT&T". Both Vans and AT&T would have paid significant amounts to have their company names included at the forefront in all marketing material for the Warped Tour.
Concessions and merchandise are also often sold during and after concerts; often by the venue in the case of the former, and by the performing band or artist in the case of the latter.
, Italian singer Vasco Rossi holds the record for the biggest attendance of a ticketed concert with a total of 220,000 tickets sold for his show at Enzo Ferrari Park, Modena, Italy on 1 July 2017. The record was previously held by Paul McCartney's 1990 concert with a paying audience of 185,000 in Maracanã Stadium, Rio de Janeiro. Rod Stewart also holds the record for the biggest attendance in a free concert, with an estimated audience of 3.5 million during his 1994 New Year's Eve concert in Copacabana Beach, Rio de Janeiro.
See also
Concert version
Concerto
Gig
Environmental impact of live music
References
External links
A piece on the economics of touring.
Music performance | [
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|
236921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatness | Flatness | Flatness may refer to:
Flatness (art)
Flatness (cosmology)
Spectral flatness
Flatness (liquids)
Flatness (manufacturing), a geometrical tolerance required in certain manufacturing situations
Flatness (mathematics)
Flat module in abstract algebra
Flatness (systems theory), a property of nonlinear dynamic systems
Flat intonation
See also
Flattening | [
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236925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Action | Human Action | Human Action: A Treatise on Economics is a work by the Austrian economist and philosopher Ludwig von Mises. Widely considered Mises' magnum opus, it presents the case for laissez-faire capitalism based on praxeology, his method to understand the structure of human decision-making. It rejects positivism within economics. It defends an a priori epistemology and underpins praxeology with a foundation of methodological individualism and laws of apodictic certainty. Mises argues that the free-market economy not only outdistances any government-planned system, but ultimately serves as the foundation of civilization itself.
Nationalökonomie: Theorie des Handelns und Wirtschaftens is the 1940 German-language predecessor to Human Action.
Synopsis
Mises sees economic calculation as the most fundamental problem in economics. The economic problem to Mises is that of action. Man acts to dispel feelings of uneasiness, but can only succeed in acting if he comprehends causal connections between the ends that he wants to satisfy, and available means. The fact that man resides in a world of causality means that he faces definite choices as to how he satisfies his ends. Human action is an application of human reason to select the best means of satisfying ends. The reasoning mind evaluates and grades different options. This is economic calculation.
Economic calculation is common to all people. Mises insisted that the logical structure of human minds is the same for everybody. Of course, this is not to say that all minds are the same. Individuals make different value judgments and possess different data, but logic is the same for all. Human reason and economic calculation have limitations, but Mises sees no alternative to economic calculation as a means of using scarce resources to improve our well being.
Human action concerns dynamics. The opposite to action is not inaction. Rather, the opposite to action is contentment. In a fully contented state there would be no action, no effort to change the existing order of things (which might be changed by merely ceasing to do some things). Man acts because he is never fully satisfied, and will never stop because he can never be fully satisfied. This might seem like a simple point, but modern economics is built upon ideas of contentment-equilibrium analysis and indifference conditions. It is true that some economists construct models of dynamic equilibrium, but the idea of a dynamic equilibrium is oxymoronic to Mises. An actual equilibrium may involve a recurring cycle, but not true dynamics. True dynamics involve non-repeating evolutionary change.
Mises explains dynamic change in terms of "the plain state of rest." A final state of rest involves perfect plans to fully satisfy human desires. A plain state of rest is a temporary and imperfect equilibrium deriving from past human plans. Though any set of plans is imperfect, to act means attempting to improve each successive set of plans. Movement from one plain state of rest to another represents the process of change, either evolutionary or devolutionary.
Mises links progress and profits. Profits earned from voluntary trades are the indicator of economic success. It is monetary calculation of profits that indicates whether an enterprise has generated a net increase in consumer well being over true economic costs. Loss, in Mises' own words, is failure, and is simply consumers projecting to the theoretical entrepreneur that he has failed. The close association that Mises draws between economic calculation and monetary calculation leads him to conclude that market prices (upon which monetary profits are calculated) are indispensable to progress in bettering the human condition. Without markets there are no prices, and without prices there is no economic calculation. Monetary calculation is vitally important. Mises writes:"We have assumed that the director has already made up his mind in regard to the construction of a definite plant or building. However, in order to make such a desision he already needs economic calculation. If a hydroelectric power station is to be built, one must know whether or not this is the most economical way to produce the energy needed. How can he know this if he cannot calculate costs and output?"Mises establishes that the allocation of resources requires economic calculation. In his view, without economic calculation, there is no economy, as one cannot allocate resources in a rational manner.
Mises stresses the importance of entrepreneurship because only entrepreneurs actually do monetary calculation. This fact puts entrepreneurs at the center of all progress (and failure). Entrepreneurs who estimate costs more correctly than their rivals earn high profits while also serving consumers. Such people rise to top positions in industry. Entrepreneurs who err seriously in their calculations experience financial losses and cease to direct production. Mises described this market test of entrepreneurial skills as the only process of trial and error that really matters. The concepts of monetary calculation, financial speculation, and entrepreneurship form the basis for the von Mises critique of socialism.
Publishing history
The German-language predecessor to Human Action, titled Nationalökonomie: Theorie des Handelns und Wirtschaftens, first appeared in 1940. Human Action was not a direct translation of the earlier work, but used its general framework and expanded on it.
Yale University Press published the first edition of Human Action in 1949. When production delays pushed back the planned released date of a revised and expanded second edition, Lyle Munson, publisher of Bookmailer, Inc., suggested that Mises could take the book to another publisher, and offered to publish it himself. Mises used this offer as leverage to get Yale University Press to accelerate its release. The resulting 1963 edition was full of typographical errors, and another one had to be printed quickly afterwards by another editor. Henry Regnery published the revised third edition in 1966.
A posthumous fourth edition was published in 1996, with revisions by Bettina B. Greaves. It is available in hardback single (Liberty Fund, ) and four-volume paperback editions (Liberty Fund, ), as well as single-volume paperback (Fox & Wilkes, ). In 1998, the Ludwig von Mises Institute brought back the first edition as the "Scholar's Edition" (). In 2010, the Institute reissued the first edition as a portable "Pocket Edition" ().
Translations
In Italian (1959) as L'azione umana : trattato di economia, Torino: UTET
In Chinese (1976) as 人的行為 : 經濟學硏論 / Ren de xing wei : jing ji xue yan lun by 台湾銀行經濟硏究室, Taiwan yin hang jin ji yan jiu shi, (Bank of Taiwan)
In French (1985) as L’action humaine: Traité d’économie. Libre échange. Paris : PUF, 1985.
In Portuguese (1990) as Ação humana: Um tratado de economia. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Liberal. ISRN 0-8092-9743-4.
In Spanish (1995) as La acción humana: tratado de economía. Madrid: Unión Editorial D.L.,
In Czech (2006) as Lidské jednání: Pojednání o ekonomii. Prague: Liberální institut. .
In Polish (2007) as Ludzkie działanie: traktat o ekonomii
In Turkish (2008) as İnsan eylemi: iktisat üzerine bir inceleme, Ankara: Liberte Yayınları.
In Japanese (2008) as ヒューマン・アクション: 人間行為の経済学 / Hyūman akushon: Ningen kōi no keizaigaku, 春秋社, Tōkyō: Shunjūsha. .
In Dutch (2016) as Het menselijk handelen: een economische verhandeling, Amsterdam: Stichting Pierson & Templeton. .
In Romanian (2002), as „Acțiunea umană. Un tratat de economie” available on-line at http://mises.ro/43/actiunea-umana.
In Swedish (2021), as Mänskligt handlande, Stockholm: Timbro förlag. .
See also
Action theory
Demonstrated preference
Man, Economy, and State
Methodenstreit
Socialism (book)
References
External links
1949 edition (reissued 1998): Full text in PDF HTML
Nationalökonomie, 1940 edition: Full text in PDF
Audio files for Forewords, Introduction, and all chapters: Media File
1949 non-fiction books
Books by Ludwig von Mises
Books about capitalism
Classical liberalism
Yale University Press books
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|
236931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Flame%20%28band%29 | Big Flame (band) | Big Flame (often rendered bIG*fLAME) were a post-punk/indie rock three piece band, based in Manchester, England and active from 1983 to 1986. The members were Alan Brown (bass, vocals), Greg Keeffe (guitar) and Dil Green (drums). After a debut EP ("Sink") on their own Laughing Gun label, they joined the Ron Johnson roster for a series of mid-1980s singles as well as an appearance on the NME's C86 compilation.
On the reverse of the "Two Kan Guru" compilation, it was jokingly stated that Green and Brown played in the original line-up of Wham! with George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley.
In addition to releasing five singles and a compilation EP, Big Flame also recorded four sessions for the John Peel Show. Big Flame were a major influence on Manic Street Preachers. In a 1991 interview, Richey Edwards stated "The 80s, for us, was the biggest non-event ever, like C86. All we had was Big Flame. Big Flame was the most perfect band. But we couldn't play their records 'cos they were too avant garde".
The group also operated beyond the confines of the band itself. Keeffe and Green hosted a night at Manchester's Man Alive club which they christened "The Wilde Club" providing a useful venue for groups other than their own. This spirit was also reflected in Ugly Noise Undercurrents which was a band-swap concept conceived by Brown, to provide emerging groups with a facility for securing gigs in towns and cities beyond their home base. The Allez Ugly newsletter was the primary driver for this.
After the band split in 1986, Brown joined Ron Johnson labelmates A Witness on drums, touring the UK and Europe and appearing on several records (the 12" EP 'One Foot in the Groove' and Strange Fruit Double Peel Sessions) and three sessions for BBC Radio One DJ John Peel. He left A Witness in 1988 to form solo project Great Leap Forward, while Keeffe joined Meatmouth (with Mark Whittam and Nicholas Blincoe) who released "Meatmouth is Murder" on Factory Records, FAC 196.
After a break from music, Alan Brown teamed up with Daren Garratt (of Pram) and Vince Hunt (of A Witness) in the band Marshall Smith, releasing an album Colours in 2006 on the Euphonium label.
In 2007, Alan Brown joined Sarandon as bass player, and performed with a reformed A Witness in 2014. Since 2008 he revived The Great Leap Forward and continues to release albums on a sporadic basis.
Greg Keeffe was professor of sustainable architecture at Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds until May 2012, and is now Professor of Architecture at Queen's University Belfast.
Dil Green is now an architect based in London.
Discography
"Sink"/"Illness"/"Sometimes" - 7" EP, Laughing Gun Records (own label), 1984
"Rigour" - 7" EP, Ron Johnson Records, 1985
"Tough" - 7" EP, Ron Johnson Records, 1985
"Two Kan Guru" (compilation) - 10" EP, Ron Johnson Records, 1985
"Why Popstars Can't Dance" - 7" EP, Ron Johnson Records, 1986
"Cubist Pop Manifesto" - 7" EP, Ron Johnson Records, 1986
"Cubist Pop Manifesto" - 12" EP, Constrictor Records, 1987
Rigour - CD compilation album of all the above, Drag City Records, 1996
Tracks released on other complications
"New Way (Quick Wash And Brush Up With Liberation Theology)" on cassette NME C86 1986
"Debra" on "Commercially Unfriendly" CD Gott Discs 2005
"¡Cuba!" on "Death To Trad Rock" CD Cherry Red Records 2009
"Debra" on "Scared To Get Happy" CD Cherry Red Records 2013
"New Way (Quick Wash And Brush Up With Liberation Theology)" on CD NME C86 Cherry Red Records 2014
"Why PopStars Can't Dance" on Manchester North Of England CD Cherry Red Records 2017
References
External links
Fan site with good information on Ron Johnson Records
listings of John Peel Sessions
bIG fLAME recorded live at John Peel ICA rock week 4 October 1984
English indie rock groups
Musical groups from Manchester | [
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|
236933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DMark | 3DMark | 3DMark is a computer benchmarking tool created and developed by UL, (formerly Futuremark), to determine the performance of a computer's 3D graphic rendering and CPU workload processing capabilities. Running 3DMark produces a 3DMark score, with higher numbers indicating better performance. The 3DMark measurement unit is intended to give a normalized mean for comparing different PC hardware configurations (mostly graphics processing units and central processing units), which proponents such as gamers and overclocking enthusiasts assert is indicative of end-user performance capabilities.
Many versions of 3DMark have been released since 1998. Scores cannot be compared across versions as each test is based on a specific version of the DirectX API.
Versions
See also
Benchmark (computing)
PCMark
Futuremark
References
External links
3DMark website
UL benchmarks
Unsupported benchmarks (3DMark99 MAX - 11)
1998 software
Benchmarks (computing)
Software developed in Finland | [
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|
236934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolworth | Woolworth | Woolworth, Woolworth's, or Woolworths may refer to:
Businesses
F. W. Woolworth Company, the original US-based chain of "five and dime" (5¢ and 10¢) stores
Woolworths Group (United Kingdom), former operator of the Woolworths chain of shops in the UK, ceased trading and liquidated in early 2009
Woolworths (Ireland), originally part of F.W. Woolworth, closed in 1984
Woolworth GmbH, the owner of the Woolworth chain of high street shops in Germany and Austria
Woolworth Mexicana, originally part of F.W. Woolworth, operates a chain of small variety stores in Mexico
Woolworths (Cyprus), originally part of F.W. Woolworth, sold off in 1985 and subsequently split
Woolworths.co.uk, a defunct online retail company owned by "Shop Direct Group"
Woolworths Group and related business in Oceania
Woolworths Group (Australia), the largest retail company in Australia and New Zealand; named after the American F.W. Woolworth company, but unrelated
Woolworths (New Zealand supermarket chain), a New Zealand chain of supermarkets under ownership by Woolworths Group Australia, trading as Countdown
Woolworths Supermarkets, a chain of supermarkets in Australia owned by Woolworths Group
South African Woolworths Holdings Limited
Woolworths Holdings Limited, one of the largest South African retail and supermarket chain stores; named after the American F.W. Woolworth company, but unrelated
People
Frank Winfield Woolworth (1852–1919), American retail entrepreneur, founder of the company that bore his name
Charles Sumner Woolworth (1856–1947) American retail entrepreneur, company partner and younger brother of the above
Michael Woolworth (born 1960), American artist/printer
Buildings
List of Woolworth buildings
F. W. Woolworth Building (Lexington, Kentucky), a department store building in Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.
Woolworth Building, New York City, U.S., a skyscraper
Woolworth Building (San Diego), built in 1886, in San Diego, California, U.S.
Woolworth Estate, Glen Cove, New York, U.S., the historic estate of Frank Winfield Woolworth
Places
Woolworth, Mississippi, a ghost town in Lincoln County, Mississippi, U.S.
Other uses
Escort carrier, also called a "Woolworth Carrier" by the Royal Navy
FP-45 Liberator, nicknamed the "Woolworth gun" due to its low quality
Lists
List of Woolworth buildings
List of Woolworth divisions and namesakes | [
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|
236936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufous%20hummingbird | Rufous hummingbird | The rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) is a small hummingbird, about long with a long, straight and slender bill. These birds are known for their extraordinary flight skills, flying during their migratory transits. It is one of seven species in the genus Selasphorus.
Description
The adult male has a white breast, rufous face, flanks and tail and an iridescent orange-red throat patch or gorget. Some males have some green on back and/or crown. The female has green, white, some iridescent orange feathers in the center of the throat, and a dark tail with white tips and rufous base.
The female is slightly larger than the male. Females and the rare green-backed males are extremely difficult to differentiate from Allen's hummingbird. The typical "notched" shape of the second rectrix (R2) is considered an important field mark to distinguish the adult male rufous hummingbird from the adult male Allen's hummingbird. This is a typical-sized hummingbird, being a very small bird. It weighs , measures long and spans across the wings.
They feed on nectar from flowers using a long extendable tongue or catch insects on the wing. These birds require frequent feeding while active during the day and become torpid at night to conserve energy. Because of their small size, they are vulnerable to insect-eating birds and animals.
Breeding
Their primary breeding habitats are open areas, mountainsides and forest edges in western North America from southern Alaska through British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest to California, nesting further north (Alaska) than any other hummingbird. The female builds a nest in a protected location in a shrub or conifer. Males are promiscuous, mating with several females.
Migration
Western rufous hummingbirds migrate through the Rocky Mountains and nearby lowlands during May to September to take advantage of the wildflower season. They may stay in one local region for the entire summer, in which case the migrants, like breeding birds, often aggressively take over and defend feeding locations. Most winter in wooded areas in the Mexican state of Guerrero, traveling over by an overland route from its nearest summer home – a prodigious journey for a bird weighing only 3 to 4 g.
Adult male rufous hummingbirds tend to migrate slightly earlier than females or young. Since juveniles or females are essentially indistinguishable from Allen's hummingbirds unless confirmed by close inspection, eastern rufous migrants may be classified as "rufous/Allen's hummingbirds".
Hovering mechanics, metabolism, and sexual dimorphism
Digital imaging velocimetry was used to capture rufous hummingbird wing movements on film, enabling determination that the bird supports its body weight during hovering primarily by wing downstrokes (75% of lift) rather than by upstrokes (25% of lift). When hovering during fasting, rufous hummingbirds oxidize fatty acids to support metabolism and food energy requirements, but can rapidly switch to carbohydrate metabolism (within 40 minutes) after feeding on flower nectar.
Both male and female S. rufus are territorial; however, they defend different types of territories. The more aggressive males fight to defend areas with dense flowers, pushing females into areas with more sparsely populated flowers. Males generally have shorter wings than females, therefore their metabolic cost for hovering is higher. This allows males to beat their wings at high frequencies, giving them the ability to chase and attack other birds to defend their territory. The metabolic cost of short wings is compensated for by the fact that these males do not need to waste energy foraging for food, because their defended territory provides plenty of sustenance. Females on the other hand are not given access to the high concentration food sources, because the males fight them off. Therefore, females generally defend larger territories, where flowers are more sparsely populated, forcing them to fly farther between food sources. The metabolic cost of flying farther is compensated for with longer wings providing more efficient flight for females. The differences in wing length for S. rufus demonstrate a distinct sexual dimorphism, allowing each sex to best exploit resources in an area.
Conservation
In 2018, the rufous hummingbird was uplisted from least concern to near threatened on the IUCN Red List, on the basis that due to its reliance on insect prey during the wintering season, it will be heavily affected by the global decline in insect populations due to pesticides and intensified agriculture. Due to climate change, many flowers that the rufous hummingbird feeds on during the breeding season have started blooming two weeks prior to the birds' arrival to their breeding locations, which may lead to rufous hummingbirds arriving too late to feed on them.
Gallery
References
External links
Rufous hummingbird Species Account - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
rufous hummingbird
Native birds of Alaska
Native birds of Western Canada
Native birds of the Northwestern United States
rufous hummingbird
rufous hummingbird | [
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236940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Swinney | John Swinney | John Ramsay Swinney (born 13 April 1964) is a Scottish politician currently serving as Deputy First Minister of Scotland since 2014 and Cabinet Secretary for Covid Recovery since 2021. He was the leader of the Scottish National Party (SNP) from 2000 to 2004. He served as Finance Secretary from 2007 to 2016 and as Education Secretary from 2016 to 2021. Swinney has also served as the Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for Perthshire North since 2011, having previously represented North Tayside from 1999 to 2011.
Swinney served in the British House of Commons as Member of Parliament for Tayside North from 1997 to 2001. After Alex Salmond resigned the leadership in 2000, Swinney was elected Leader of the Scottish National Party in the ensuring leadership election. He became Leader of the Opposition in the Scottish Parliament. Swinney's leadership proved ineffectual, with a loss of one MP in 2001 and a further reduction to 27 MSPs in 2003 despite the Officegate scandal unseating previous First Minister Henry McLeish. However, the only parties to gain seats in that election where the Scottish Greens and the Scottish Socialist Party (SSP) which, like the SNP, support independence. After an unsuccessful leadership challenge in 2003, Swinney stepped down following disappointing results in the 2004 European Parliament election with Salmond returning to the role in the subsequent 2004 leadership contest.
The SNP won the highest number of seats in the Scottish Parliament in the 2007 election and Salmond was subsequently appointed First Minister. Swinney served under Salmond as Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Employment and Sustainable Growth from 2007 to 2014. After Nicola Sturgeon succeeded Salmond, she appointed Swinney as Deputy First Minister of Scotland in 2014. He also served as Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Constitution and Economy, until that role was divided into two posts in the second Sturgeon government as a result of the expansion of the Scottish Parliament's financial powers; he was then appointed Education Secretary in 2016, and then as Cabinet Secretary for Covid Recovery in 2021.
Early life
Swinney was born in the Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, the son of Kenneth Swinney, a garage manager. His uncle Tom Hunter was awarded the Victoria Cross whilst serving with the Royal Marines in World War II. He was educated at Forrester High School, before attending the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated with an MA Honours degree in politics in 1986.
Early political career
Swinney joined the SNP at the age of 15, citing his anger at the way in which Scotland had been portrayed by television commentators at the Commonwealth Games. He involved himself in the SNP Youth Wing and gradually became more active in the party, becoming firstly the SNP assistant national secretary and then the national secretary in 1986, at the age of 22.
Swinney was a research officer for the Scottish Coal Project (1987–1988), a senior management consultant with Development Options (1988–1992), and a strategic planning principal with Scottish Amicable (1992–1997). In the SNP, he served as national secretary until 1992, then vice convenor, later senior vice-convenor (deputy leader) 1992–1997. At the time of the 1990 leadership contest he supported Margaret Ewing in her bid to become SNP leader, but this did not stop him becoming politically close to the man who went on to win that contest, Alex Salmond.
House of Commons
At the 1997 general election, he was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for the Tayside North constituency, and in 1999 he was elected to represent the same area at the Scottish Parliament.
He stood down as a Westminster MP at the 2001 general election in order to avoid splitting his time, in line with all of his colleagues who found themselves in a similar 'dual mandate' position.
Member of the Scottish Parliament
Leader of the SNP
The leadership contest in 2000, caused by Alex Salmond's decision to step down as party leader, was marked by serious argument between the Gradualist wing of the party, who in the main supported Swinney, and the Fundamentalist wing, who in the main supported Alex Neil. Swinney won the contest but the media raised some doubt about his ability to lead the party following poor SNP performances in the 2001 UK general election and the 2003 Scottish Parliament election. He saw off a leadership challenge from Bill Wilson in 2003, winning by 577 votes to 111.
In September 2003 he urged SNP activists to ask the public, "Do you want independence, yes or no? And then tell the Brits to get off." A spokesman for Scottish Labour condemned the Swinney's use of language and said, "There is no place in Scotland for his brand of extreme nationalism."
Though retaining its two seats at the 2004 European elections, in a smaller field of 7 (Scotland up until then had 8 MEPs) the Scottish press and certain elements within the fundamentalist wing of the Party depicted the result as a disaster for the SNP putting further pressure on Swinney who resigned soon afterwards on 22 June 2004.
Finance Secretary
After the SNP emerged as the largest party following the 2007 Scottish Parliament election, Swinney led coalition talks with the Scottish Greens. He was later appointed Cabinet Secretary for Finance and Sustainable Growth in the Cabinet of the minority SNP government.
As response to Swinney not notifying the Scottish Parliament that he had let the Scottish Variable Rate lapse due to not funding this tax mechanism, the Scottish Parliament voted to censure him and called his actions "an abuse of power". Subsequently, a freedom of information request showed that even if Swinney had funded the mechanism, problems and delays in the HM Revenue & Customs computer system made any collection of the tax impossible. The Scottish Government added, "The power has not lapsed, the HMRC simply does not have an IT system capable of delivering a ten-month state of readiness."
Deputy First Minister of Scotland (2014–present)
In November 2014, Swinney was appointed by newly elected First Minister Nicola Sturgeon to serve as the Deputy First Minister of Scotland. He remained as Finance Secretary in Sturgeon's new cabinet.
Cabinet Secretary for Education
Following the SNP's victory in the 2016 Scottish election, Swinney was reshuffled in Sturgeon's second cabinet. He, for the first time in nine years, was shifted from his roles as Cabinet Secretary for Finance to Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills.
After the 2017 General Election saw the SNP lose 21 seats, pollster Professor John Curtice told the BBC that the party's record on education had likely dented its popularity:
“The SNP may want to reflect that their domestic record, not least on schools, is beginning to undermine their support among those who on the constitutional question are still willing to support the Nationalist position.”
In March 2020, after the results of Scottish students dropped in maths and science in the international PISA rankings for education, Swinney admitted, "There is progress to be made in maths and science." Scottish Conservative education spokeswoman Liz Smith said: "These two areas are so critical to the success of much of Scotland's modern economy. We should be doing so much better."
2020 SQA exam controversy
In August 2020 he was subject to a vote of no confidence in Parliament, with the Conservatives, Labour and the Liberal Democrats all accusing Swinney of creating an exam results system which "unfairly penalised pupils at schools which had historically not performed so well". Swinney claimed there was "no evidence" the system disadvantaged poorer pupils. During the No Confidence debate, Nicola Sturgeon described him as “one of the most decent and dedicated people in Scottish politics”, while The Herald newspaper reported that: "Mr Swinney endured a deeply uncomfortable hour in the Holyrood chamber, as opposition MSPs said he had been a serial failure at the education portfolio, and he knew it." The motion was defeated by 67 votes to 58 resulting in Swinney surviving the vote and remaining as Scottish Education Secretary.
Vote of no confidence
In March 2021 Swinney was the subject of a second motion of no confidence. As the minister in charge of liaising with the Committee on the Scottish Government Handling of Harassment Complaints, Swinney twice refused to publish legal advice requested by the committee. After two votes in Parliament failed to persuade him to publish the advice, opposition parties announced a motion of no confidence in him. Swinney u-turned and published the advice; the Scottish Greens declared they would not support the motion of no confidence and it was defeated by 65 votes to 57.
Attainment gap
A report by Audit Scotland in March 2021 concluded that the results of Swinney's efforts to reduce the poverty related attainment gap in Scottish education were "limited and [fell] short of the Scottish Government’s aims. Improvement needs to happen more quickly and there needs to be greater consistency across the country.” In 10 Scottish council areas the attainment gap between the richest and the poorest children increased.
Cabinet Secretary for Covid recovery
Following the 2021 Scottish Parliament election, Scottish Labour urged Sturgeon to replace Swinney as Cabinet Secretary for Education, citing what it called "a litany of failures", in the “hope a new minister can stop the rot.” On the 18th May, Sturgeon announced John Swinney would continue as Deputy First Minister but would be reshuffled to the new cabinet role as Cabinet Secretary for Covid Recovery.
Personal life
Swinney has held several posts within the party at local and national level, including National Secretary, Vice Convener for Publicity and Depute Leader. In 2000, Swinney was elected Leader (or National Convenor) of the SNP, becoming Leader of the Opposition in the Scottish Parliament. He stood down as SNP leader in 2004 and became Convener of the Scottish Parliament's European and External Relations Committee.
Swinney was previously a Member of Parliament (MP) for Tayside North in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, before taking the same seat in the Scottish Parliament's 1999, 2003 and 2007 elections. In 2007 he achieved the largest constituency vote for any candidate in Scotland. At the election in May 2011, he was re-elected with 18,219 votes, and a majority of 10,353. Swinney's vote was the second highest in Scotland, second only to the then First Minister, Alex Salmond MSP.
Following Nicola Sturgeon taking the office of First Minister, it was announced on 21 November 2014 that Swinney would become Deputy First Minister of Scotland in a cabinet reshuffle.
Swinney is married and has three children.
References
External links
John Swinney MSP
1964 births
Living people
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Scottish constituencies
Leaders of the Scottish National Party
Scottish National Party MPs
Scottish National Party MSPs
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Finance ministers of Scotland
UK MPs 1997–2001
Members of the Scottish Parliament 1999–2003
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2003–2007
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2007–2011
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2011–2016
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2016–2021
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2021–2026
People educated at Forrester High School
Politicians from Edinburgh
Deputy First Ministers of Scotland | [
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|
236943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20noise | Environmental noise | Environmental noise is an accumulation of noise pollution that occurs outside. This noise can be caused by transport, industrial, and recreational activities.
Noise is frequently described as 'unwanted sound'. Within this context, environmental noise is generally present in some form in all areas of human, animal, or environmental activity. The effects in humans of exposure to environmental noise may vary from emotional to physiological and psychological. Noise at low levels is not necessarily harmful. Environmental noise can also convey a sense of liveliness in an area, which can be desirable. The adverse effects of noise exposure (i.e. noise pollution) could include: interference with speech or other 'desired' sounds, annoyance, sleep disturbance, anxiety, hearing damage and stress-related cardiovascular health problems.
As a result, environmental noise is studied, regulated, and monitored by many governments and institutions around the world. This creates a number of different occupations. The basis of all decisions is supported by the objective and accurate measurement of noise. Noise is measured in decibels (dB) using a pattern-approved sound level meter. The measurements are typically taken over a period of weeks, in all weather conditions.
Emission
Noise from transportation is typically emitted by machinery (e.g. the engine or exhaust) and aerodynamic noise (see aerodynamics and aircraft noise) caused by the compression and friction in the air around the vessel during motion. Environmental noise from the railway specifically is variable depending on the speed and quality of the tracks used for transportation.
Industrial and recreational noise could be generated by a multitude of different sources and processes. Industrial noise can be generated by factories and plants (i.e., product fabrication or assembly), power generation (hydroelectricity or wind turbines), construction activities, or agricultural and meat processing facilities. Sources of recreational noise vary widely but they can include music festivals, shooting ranges, sporting events, car racing, woodworking, pubs, people's activities on the street, etc.
Sound propagation outdoors is subject to meteorological effects (e.g. wind, temperature) that affect the distance, speed, and direction with which environmental noise travels from a source to a listener.
Children
Children and adolescents are just as susceptible to environmental noise exposure as adults. Similar to adults, with the exposure to noise there can be damaging outcomes on mental health. The environmental noises that children can be exposed to are traffic noise, aircraft, trains, and more. There are some pieces of evidence that show a small correlation between environmental noise and reading and oral comprehension.
Environmental noise in children is most commonly by people around them whether that be siblings crying or friends screaming. Then children are mostly exposed to animal noises and traffic noise. When researchers asked children how they felt when it came to environmental noises around them, more felt negative emotions as compared to positive emotions. The negative emotions were tied to environmental sound, for example, traffic noise, industrial noises, sirens, and alarms. The positive emotions were tied to winds, fans, and everyday household noises.
Health effects
Noise and quality of life are correlated. The increase of environmental noise, especially for those living near railways and airports, has created conflict. Getting adequate and quality sleep is difficult for those who live in areas of high noise exposure. When the body is at rest, noise stimuli is continually being presented in the environment. The body responds to these sounds which can negatively affect sleep.
High exposure to environmental noise can play a role in cardiovascular disease. Noise can raise blood pressure, change heart rate, and release stress hormones. Consistent changes in these health stats can lead to risks for hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and even more serious events such as a stroke or myocardial infarction.
Sleep deprivation is another aspect of health that is affected by environmental noise. In order for our bodies to function properly, we need sleep and for some people having excessive environmental noise around them can cause difficulties sleeping. For many, even ambient noise can affect their sleep state which can then affect their quality of life and outlook.
Policy and regulation
United States
The Noise Control Act of 1972 established a U.S. national policy to promote an environment for all Americans to be free from noise that jeopardizes their health and welfare. In the past, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) coordinated all federal noise control activities through its Office of Noise Abatement and Control. The EPA phased out the office's funding in 1982 as part of a shift in federal noise control policy to transfer the primary responsibility of regulating noise to state and local governments. The Noise Control Act of 1972 and the Quiet Communities Act of 1978 were never rescinded by Congress and remain in effect today, although essentially unfunded.
Today, in the absence of a national guidance and enforcement by the EPA, states, cities, and municipalities have had little or no guidance on writing competent and effective noise regulations. Since the EPA last published its Model Community Noise Ordinance in 1974, communities have struggled to develop their ordinances, often relying on copying guidance from other communities, and sometimes copying their mistakes. Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities though most specify some general prohibition against making noise that is a nuisance and the allowable sound levels that can cross a property line. Some ordinances set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates aircraft noise by specifying the maximum noise level that individual civil aircraft can emit through requiring aircraft to meet certain noise certification standards. These standards designate changes in maximum noise level requirements by "stage" designation. The U.S. noise standards are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 Part 36 – Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification (14 CFR Part 36). The FAA also pursues a program of aircraft noise control in cooperation with the aviation community. The FAA has set up a process to report aviation-related noise complaints for anyone who may be impacted by Aircraft noise.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) developed noise regulations to control highway noise as required by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970. The regulations requires promulgation of traffic noise-level criteria for various land use activities, and describe procedures for the abatement of highway traffic noise and construction noise.
The Department of Transportation's Bureau of Transportation Statistics has created a National Transportation Noise Map to provide access to comprehensive aircraft and road noise data on national and county-level. The map aims to assist city planners, elected officials, scholars, and residents to gain access to up-to-date aviation and Interstate highway noise information.
European Union
The European Union has a special definition based on the European directive 2002/49/EC article 10.1. This directive gives a definition for environmental noise. The main goal is to create an integrated noise management system. The Environmental Noise Directive (END) was created in the European Union to provide guidelines, laws, and standards in the management of environmental noise. The END has created noise mapping, noise action plans, and quiet areas to control environmental noise and the negative effects it can have on individuals.
The implementation is divided into phases: In the first phase, the member states shall inform about major roads with more than six million vehicles a year, major railways with more than 60,000 trains per year, major airports with more than 50,000 movements per year and metropolitan areas with more than 250,000 inhabitants. In the second phase, these numbers are halved; only the criteria for airports remains unchanged. In the third and the following phases, the methods for calculation of the noise levels will change while the criteria remains unchanged. Each phase consists of three steps: the collection of the data from the main sources of noise, strategic noise maps and action plans. The countries listed below follow the guidelines of the European Union.
There are many groups of people affected by environmental noise within the European Union. Shift workers, older adults, and those without proper insulation in their homes are just some of those affected. Within the European Union 40% of people are exposed to environmental noise in their daily commutes on the road which exceeds 55 dB(A). During the daytime, approximately 20% of people are exposed to environmental noise levels above 65 dB(A) and during the nighttime, 30% of people are exposed to environmental noise above 55 dB(A).
Austria
In Austria the institution which is responsible for the noise sources is also responsible for the noise maps concerning these sources. This means that the Federation is responsible for the federal roads and each state is responsible for the country's roads.
France
France reported 24 metropolitan areas. Paris was the biggest with 9.6 million inhabitants and 272 square kilometres.
Many of France's residents are exposed to high levels of noise. Previously it was estimated that 10% of the population, approximately 2 million people, were exposed to above 70 dB Leq. That number is estimated higher today.
Aircraft plays a major role in environmental noise. A study conducted in 2018 found that while aircraft noise in decibel level cannot cause any psychological-illness, there is a link to how aircraft noise causes an annoyance to residents which then leads to psychological illness. The sensitivity of noise among people has an association with environmental noise and those affects.
Germany
Germany implemented national regulations in 2005 and 2006 and reported 27 metropolitan areas in the first phase. Berlin was the most populated with 3.39 million inhabitants and 889 square kilometres, Hamburg was considered the largest with 1,045 square kilometres and 2 million inhabitants. The smallest was Gelsenkirchen with 270,000 inhabitants and 105 square kilometres. In the national legislation, noise resulting from recreational activities like sports and leisure is not considered as environmental noise.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has 28 metropolitan areas, and London is the largest with 8.3 million inhabitants. Most are in England. Three are in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
Within the United Kingdom, researchers revealed that approximately 55% of the population lived where the sound level exceeded the recommended level of 55 dB Leq in the daytime and 67% lived where the sound level exceeded the recommended level of 45 dB Leq at night. About 20% of London residents were exposed to environmental noise near their home that was above 60 dBA Leq. All of these environmental noise exposures have led to higher increases in blood pressure within the UK population.
See also
Acoustical engineering
Ambient noise level
Noise control
Noise calculation
Ambience (sound recording)
Buy Quiet
Motorcycle and Scooter (Muffler)
General
Noise measurement
Noise pollution
Health effects from noise
Environmental health
Safe listening
World Hearing Day
References
Notes
Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council concerning Directive 2002/49/EC
Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise
External links
Noise effects. Beyond annoyance
Noise Observation and Information Service for Europe
Information: Lärm – ein Problem in Europa / Noise – a problem in Europe
NIOSH Buy Quiet Topic Page
Noise-Planet: app to make an open source noise map of environmental noise
Noise pollution
Environmentalism
Acoustics
European Union law
Audiology | [
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236944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naoise | Naoise | In Irish mythology, Naisi, Noíse or Noisiu (modern spelling: Naoise ) was the nephew of King Conchobar mac Nessa of Ulster, and a son of Uisneach (or Uisliu). He is mentioned in the tale known as the Tragic Tale of the Sons of Uisnech, or Exiles of the Sons of Uisnech, usually found within the set of stories in the Táin Bó Cúailnge, part of the Ulster Cycle.
In the tale he becomes the lover of Deirdre, a woman of great beauty, who is also desired by the king of Ulster Conchobar mac Nessa - as a consequence the lovers with Naoise's two brothers go into exile in Scotland (Alba). Eventually, Conchobar seeks to get them to return, but a series of unfortunate events (including a geas placed on Fergus mac Róich their protector and escort, as well as Naoise and his brothers' repeated disregard for Deirdre's prophetic warnings) and the treachery of Conchobar brought on by his desire for Deirdre, leads to tragedy.
The tale climaxes with battle at the Red Branch house at Emain Macha, with many dead including Naoise, his brothers Ainle and Ardan, and Conchobar's son Fiacha. Ultimately the sons of Uisnech are killed in one blow delivered by Maine Red Hand son of the King of Norway (or by Éogan mac Durthacht depending on source). The whole event leads to considerable strife between Ulster and Connacht, the disinheritance of Conchobar and his descendants to the title King of Ulster, and the destruction of Emain Macha.
Mythic biography
Naoise's and Deirdre's story appears in the Táin Bó Cúailnge (Cattle raid of Cooley), in the story part sometimes entitled "The Tragical Death of the Sons of Usnach". The following summary is based on the translations of Whitley Stokes and O'Flanagan edited in , Naoise here rendered as Naisi in the text :
When Deirdre was born, Cathbad the druid named her, and prophesied that she would cause much trouble and strife - on hearing this the assembled lords would have had her killed then, but king Conchobar prevented it and decided to have her brought up in seclusion, and that when she was old enough, he would marry her. She grew up to outshine other women of the time in beauty.
One snowy day when she saw her foster father kill a calf, on which a raven fell to drink the animals blood - she said she wanted a husband who had in him the three colors she saw - hair the color of the raven, cheeks red like the calf's blood, and skin the color of snow. She was told that such a man existed in the house of Conchobar - named Naisi (Naoise), son of Usnach, son of Conall Flatnailed, son of Rury the Great. She asked that she might speak with him, in secret. Naisi met with her, and she declared her love for him, and asked to elope, which he agreed to, though he was tardy to carry out, for fear of Conchobar.
Thus Naisi and his two brothers Ainle and Ardan together with and one hundred and fifty warriors went to Scotland and entered the paid service of the King of Scotland. The Scottish King heard of Deirdre's great beauty and too tried to get her for himself, on which Naisi and his brothers left for an island in the sea, after many battles with the king's men.
Conchobar was at another feast with his people, and asked them if they wanted for anything. They replied they had no want, except the loss of their kinsmen Naisi, Ainle, and Ardan - because of the woman Deirdre. Having heard this Conchobar decided to send an envoy. However Naisi was probited from returning to Ireland except with either Cúchulainn, Conall Cernach, or Fergus mac Ross. Conchobar chose Fergus to go fetch for them.
Fergus journeyed to Loch Etive in Alba (Scotland), and found the hunting lodges of the Naisi and his two brothers, but there was no recent sign of them. Fergus then went to the harbor and made a loud call for them, which was heard by Naisi and Deirdre. Naisi said he had heard an Irish voice, and so had Deirdre, but she lied and said she thought it was a Scottish voice. Fergus called again, and the same happened; and then a third time, and Naisi became sure it was Fergus' voice and asked Ardan to go and meet him.
Deirdre confessed that she had recognized the voice, but concealed the truth as she had a vision the previous night, of three birds from Emain Macha bringing honey in their beaks but returning with blood in their beaks - she interpreted this as meaning that the messenger came with a false promise of peace. Nevertheless, they greeted Fergus warmly, and he then told him of his task as envoy, to make them return to Ulster. The exiles spoke of their missing Ireland, but Deirdre still did not wish to go out of worry - Fergus promised he would give them his protection against any in Ireland, and so Naisi agreed to return.
On the way they came to the fort of Borrach (son of Annte). Borrach welcomed them, and offered a feast (as Conchobar had instructed him to do), but placed Fergus under a geasa not to leave the feast until it was finished. Fergus became flustered, telling Borrach that he had promised to bring the three back to Emain Macha on the same day that they returned to Ireland. Fergus decided to stay at the feast and send his own two sons with the returning exiles back to Emain Macha.
The exiles left Borrach's place. Deirdre counseled Naisi to stay at the island of Cuilenn, but Fergus's sons (Illann the Fair, and Buinne the Ruthless Red) spoke against it. Then they went to the White Cairn of Watching on Slaib Fuad, but Deirdre fell behind, and fell asleep. Naisi turned back and found her as she awoke from a dream. She told Naisi of her dream - in it she sees Naisi and Illann headless, but Buinne not with them. Next the party went to Ard na Sailech. Again Deirdre had premonitions, envisioning a 'cloud of blood' over Naisi, Ainle, and Ardan's head. She counselled that they should go to Dún Delgan (Dundalk) and stay until Fergus could join them, or seek Cúchulainn as escort, but the brothers were not worried, and did not follow her advice.
They then went straight to Emain Macha. On reaching it Deirdre foretold a way they could tell whether or not Concobar would do them ill - if they were invited into Cochobar's house they were safe, but if they were invited into the house of the Red Branch without Concobar then evil was intended for them.
At Emain Macha they knocked, and on telling the doorman who it was Concobar said to send them to the Red Branch house. Deirdre suggested they leave, but the men would not, lest they be called timid. They entered the house of the Red Branch, and were served with great food and drink - all the servants drank and ate and became merry, but the exiles would not eat or drink. Naisi then called for Concobar's chessboard (the Cennchaem) to be brought so they could play - at the same time Conchobar inquired of Deirdre, asking if she was still so beautiful. Concobar's envoy (Levarcham) returned and told him who was there, and that Deirdre was changed from when she left.
Conchobar sent messengers to tell him of Deirdre's appearance twice more. Then he spoke to Tréndorn saying "do you know who killed my father (and three brothers)?" - Tréndhorn replied it was Naisi - then Conchobar sent him report on Deirdre's appearance. As he spied through a window he was spotted, and Naisi threw a chess piece at him so well he lost an eye - he returned to Conchobar and told him "The woman whose form and feature are loveliest in the world is there, and Naisi would be king of the world if she were left to him." Conchobar became enraged and ordered an assault on the Red Branch house.
A the house Conchobar and his men, and the Naisi and his exchanged words, then fighting began. Buinne slew many of Conchobar's men, but Conchobar asked his price, and bribed him with land, and he deserted his companions. The Illann came forth and killed many of Conchobar's men, and would not take a bribe like his brother. Conchobar asked for his own son Fiacha, born on the same night as Illann. He gave Fiacha his arms, but after a hard fight, Illann won. Conchobar's shield made a great sound when its wielder was in distress, and Conall son of Amargin heard it, thinking Conchobar was in need, and came - seeing the scene of the battle he took his spear (Culghlas) and killed Illann. Wounded, Illann asked who had done it, and told them he was there to guard Naisi and his brothers - on hearing this Conall was sorry, and killed Fiacha in revenge. Illann called Naisi to the fight, then died.
Ardan defended the Red Branch house on the first night, slaying many; the next night Ainle defended; on the third night Naisi defended, also killing many attackers. The three then formed a shield around Deirdre, and leapt outside the walls of Emain. Concobar told his druid Cathbad to put an enchantment on the escapees, stating that if he did so he would not harm the. Cathad conjured water to prevent them. Concobar then called for someone to kill Naisi but none from Ulster would. However one Maine Red-hand from Norway, whose father and brothers had been killed by Naisi, was willing to do the beheading.
Ardan said he should die first, as the youngest, but Ainle offered himself; Naisi gave his exceptional sword, which was from Manannán mac Lir himself, to Maine, and Maine killed all three with it, in one blow. Deirdre kissed her dead husband and drank his blood, and sang a long lament. She then flung herself into Naisi's grave and died.
Cathbad cursed Emain Macha because of the evil of that day, and said that neither Conchobar nor his descendants would ever possess it again. Fergus came the next day, and saw the disaster, and (together with Cormac conloinggeas and Dubhtach daelultach) gave battle to Conchobar, brought the destruction of Emain Macha, together with Conchobar's women. Fergus then sought aid from Ailill King of Connacht, and Maeve the queen. Much of Ulster was raided or destroyed, with hostilities continuing for several years.
Other sources
The tale is also found in the "Glenmasan manuscript" version of the Táin Bó Flidhais.
Cultural references
Naoise appears in many interpretations of the story of Deirdre and the sons of Uisnech, such as W.B. Yeats 1907 Deirdre. For others see Deirdre.
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Hemming, Jessica. "Red, White, and Black in Symbolic Thought: The Tricolour Folk Motif, Colour Naming, and Trichromatic Vision." Folklore 123, no. 3 (2012): 310-29. Accessed June 20, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/41721562.
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|
236945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Hancock | Anthony Hancock | Anthony Hancock may refer to:
Tony Hancock (1924–1968), British comedian
Tony Hancock (footballer)
Anthony Hancock (publisher) (1947–2012), British far-right publisher
Anthony Hancock (American football) (born 1960), former NFL wide receiver
See also
Tony Hancox (1927–2017), English rower | [
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236947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20map%20for%20peace | Road map for peace | The Roadmap for peace or road map for peace ( Mapa had'rakhim, Khāriṭa ṭarīq as-salāmu) was a plan to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict proposed by the Quartet on the Middle East: the United States, the European Union, Russia and the United Nations. The principles of the plan, originally drafted by U.S. Foreign Service Officer Donald Blome, were first outlined by U.S. President George W. Bush in a speech on 24 June 2002, in which he called for an independent Palestinian state living side by side with Israel in peace. A draft version from the Bush administration was published as early as 14 November 2002. The final text was released on 30 April 2003. The process reached a deadlock early in phase I and the plan was never implemented.
Background
The Second Intifada, which started in September 2000, was an escalation of mutual violence. In March 2002, in response to a wave of Palestinian suicide attacks, culminating in the "Passover massacre", Israel launched a major military operation in the West Bank, dubbed Operation Defensive Shield. Virtually the entire Palestinian public administration was destroyed by the Israeli army. Israel re-established its full exclusive military control over the West Bank, including Areas A and B, which were intended to be handed over to the Palestinian Authority within the framework of the Oslo II Accord. The army largely destroyed Arafat's Compound in Ramallah, containing the main offices of the PA, and placed President Yasser Arafat under siege.
The US, EU, UN and Russia, who became the Quartet on the Middle East, tried to save the "peace process" with a new plan. This happened against the background of George W. Bush's ″War on Terror″, which started after the 11 September 2001 attacks and dominated international politics.
Development of the plan
The Roadmap is based on a speech of U.S. President George W. Bush on 24 June 2002. A first EU-draft, proposed in September 2002, was put aside in favour of a U.S.-draft. The draft version from the Bush administration was published as early as 14 November 2002. The EU pushed the Quartet to present the final text on 20 December 2002, but failed, due to Israeli opposition. Sharon pledged support for the Roadmap, provided the Palestinian state was restricted to 42% of the West Bank and 70% of the Gaza strip; and under full Israeli control. Israel ruled out the division of Jerusalem and the Palestinian right of return and requested more than 100 changes to the Roadmap. Only after Sharon's re-election, the nomination of Mahmoud Abbas as Palestinian prime minister and the installation of a new Palestinian government the plan was finally published on 30 April 2003, the day the invasion phase of the Iraq War ended. In a statement, Bush made clear that the plan was developed by the United States, not by the Quartet.
The plan
Described as a "performance-based and goal-driven roadmap", the Roadmap was built on goals without going into details. It may be summarized as: end the violence; halt settlement activity; reform Palestinian institutions; accept Israel's right to exist; establish a viable, sovereign Palestinian state; and reach a final settlement on all issues by 2005. However, as a performance-based plan, progress would require and depend upon the good faith efforts of the parties, and their compliance with each of the obligations the Quartet put into the plan. This made the Roadmap different from former peace plans; there was no (unrealistic) time-scheme to reach the goal, a Palestinian state.
The Roadmap was composed of three phases: I. Satisfying the preconditions for a Palestinian state; II. Creating an independent Palestinian state with provisional borders; III. Negotiations on a permanent status agreement, recognition of a Palestinian state with permanent borders and end of conflict.
Phase I (finished as early as May 2003): Mutual recognition; an immediate and unconditional ceasefire to end armed activity and all acts of violence against Israelis anywhere; Palestinian political-institutional reform; Palestinian elections; Israeli withdrawal to the positions of 28 September 2000 (the start date of the Second Intifada; the plan does not speak of any further withdrawal). Israel refrains from deportations, attacks on civilians, demolitions and destructions, and other measures; reopens Palestinian institutions in East Jerusalem; improves the humanitarian situation, fully implements the Bertini report, eases movement; freezes settlement expansion and dismantles settlement outposts built since 2001.
Phase II (June–December 2003): An international summit to support Palestinian economic recovery and launch a process leading to establishment of an independent Palestinian state with provisional borders; revival of multilateral engagement on issues including regional water resources, environment, economic development, refugees, and arms control issues; Arab states restore pre-intifada links to Israel (including trade offices, etc.).
Phase III (2004–2005): A second international conference; permanent status agreement and end of conflict; agreement on final borders, clarification of the highly controversial question of the fate of Jerusalem, refugees and settlements; Arab states to agree to peace deals with Israel.
Note: A provisional state in Phase II would thus include all existing settlements and exclude East Jerusalem. Although the plan was presented with considerable delay, the original timetable was not adapted.
Sharon's rejection of a settlement freeze
On 12 May 2003 it was reported that Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon had stated that a settlement freeze, a main Road Map commitment, would be "impossible" due to the need to build new houses for settlers who start families. Ariel Sharon asked, then US Secretary of State, Colin Powell "What do you want, for a pregnant woman to have an abortion just because she is a settler?".
Israel's conditions
While the Palestinian Prime Minister Mahmoud Abbas accepted the Roadmap, right-wing ministers in the Israeli government opposed it. Sharon could only accept the plan with "some artful language", thus the Government accepted "the steps set out in the Roadmap", rather than the Roadmap itself.
On 25 May 2003, the Prime Minister's Cabinet approved the Roadmap with 14 reservations.
These included:
1.
The Palestinians will dismantle the (PA's) security organizations and reform their structures;
The Palestinians must cease violence and incitement and educate for peace;
The Palestinians must complete the dismantling of Hamas and other militant groups and their infrastructure, and collect and destroy all illegal weapons;
No progress to Phase II before all above-mentioned conditions are fulfilled;
(Unlike the Palestinians) Israel is not obliged to cease violence and incitement against the other party, pursuant to the Roadmap.
2. No progress to the next phase before complete cessation of terror, violence and incitement. No timelines for carrying out the Roadmap.
3. Replacement and reform of the current leadership in the Palestinian Authority (including Yasser Arafat). Otherwise no progress to Phase II.
4. The process will be monitored by the United States (not the Quartet).
5. The character of the provisional Palestinian state will be determined through negotiations. The provisional state will be demilitarized, with provisional borders and "certain aspects of sovereignty", and subjected to Israeli control of the entry and exit of all persons and cargo, plus its airspace and electromagnetic spectrum (radio, television, internet, radar, etc.).
6. Declaration of Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state, as well as the waiver of any right of return of Palestinian refugees to Israel.
9. Prior to the final settlement talks in Phase III, no discussions about settlements, Jerusalem and borders would be allowed. Topics would be limited to a settlement freeze and illegal outposts.
10. No references other than the key provisions of United Nations Security Council resolutions 242 and 338. No reference to other peace initiatives (it is unclear if the Oslo Accords are included).
12. Withdrawal to the September 2000 lines will be conditional.
13. Israel is not bound to the Bertini Report with respect to improving Palestinian humanitarian issues.
Validity of the reservations
The Roadmap was offered for acceptance "as it is", without room for adaptations. The Government statement of 25 May 2003, however, made clear that Israel regarded its reservations part of the Roadmap:
"The Government of Israel affirms the Prime Minister's announcement, and resolves that all of Israel's comments, as addressed in the Administration's statement, will be implemented in full during the implementation phase of the Roadmap."
Furthermore, the Government definitively ruled out the right of return:
"The Government of Israel further clarifies that, both during and subsequent to the political process, the resolution of the issue of the refugees will not include their entry into or settlement within the State of Israel."
A U.S. official, however, said that U.S. commitment did not mean that all of Israel's demands would be met. Abbas called the Israeli reservations to the map "not part of the map and ... not relevant to its implementation, and ... not acceptable to the Palestinians."
Start and deadlock
Restructuring the Palestinian Government
The first step on the Roadmap was the appointment of the first-ever Palestinian Prime Minister Mahmoud Abbas (also known as Abu Mazen), by Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat. The United States and Israel demanded that Arafat be neutralized or sidelined in the Roadmap process, claiming that he had not done enough to stop Palestinian attacks against Israelis while in charge. The United States refused to release the Roadmap until a Palestinian prime minister was in place. Abbas was appointed on 19 March 2003, clearing the way for the release of the Roadmap's details on 30 April 2003.
Hostilities after publication
The publication of the Roadmap could not stop the violence of the Second Intifada. Hamas rejected it, saying that "Abu Mazen is betraying the Palestinian people's struggle and jihad in order to appease the USA and to avoid angering Israel". From 1 to 17 May 2003, 43 Palestinian civilians were killed; from 5 to 17 May, 4 Israeli civilians. After a suicide attack on 18 May, which killed 6 Israelis, the army carried out 35 punitive demolitions of Palestinian homes.
On 27 May 2003, Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon stated that the "occupation" of Palestinian territories was "a terrible thing for Israel and for the Palestinians" and "can't continue endlessly." Sharon's phraseology prompted shock from many in Israel, leading to a clarification that by "occupation," Sharon meant control of millions of Palestinian lives rather than actual physical occupation of land.
The Route 60 ambush took place on June 20, as Secretary of State Colin Powell was in Jerusalem engaging in peace negotiations.
Summits
President Bush visited the Middle East from 2 to 4 June 2003 for two summits as part of a seven-day overseas trip through Europe and Russia in an attempt to push the Roadmap. On 2 June, Israel freed about 100 Palestinian prisoners before the first summit in Egypt as a sign of goodwill. The list consisted largely of administrative detainees who were due to be released. Subsequent prisoner releases involved members of Hamas and Islamic Jihad, but the government insisted that those slated for release did not have Israeli "blood on their hands." In Egypt on 3 June, President Bush met with the leaders of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Bahrain, and with Prime Minister Abbas. The Arab leaders announced their support for the Roadmap and promised to work on cutting off funding to terrorist groups. On 4 June, Bush headed to Jordan to meet directly with Ariel Sharon and Mahmoud Abbas.
After Bush left the region violence resumed, threatening to derail the Roadmap plan.
Hudna
On 29 June 2003, a tentative unilateral cease-fire ("hudna" in Arabic) was declared by the Palestinian Authority and four major Palestinian groups. Palestinian Islamic Jihad and Hamas announced a joint three-month cease-fire, while Yasser Arafat's Fatah faction declared a six-month truce. The cease-fire was later joined by the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine. One condition of maintaining the truce was a demand for the release of prisoners from Israeli jails, which was not part of the Roadmap process. This coincided with a visit to the region by United States National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice.
On 1 July 2003, in Jerusalem, Sharon and Abbas held a first-ever ceremonial opening to peace talks, televised live in both Arabic and Hebrew. Both leaders said the violence had gone on too long and that they were committed to the Roadmap for peace. On 2 July, Israeli troops pulled out of Bethlehem and transferred control to Palestinian security forces. The plan required that Palestinian police take over from withdrawing Israeli forces and stop any anti-Israeli militant attacks. At the same time, the U.S. announced a $30 million aid package to the Palestinian Authority to help rebuild infrastructure destroyed by Israeli incursions.
The hudna quickly collapsed. On 3 July, the IDF killed 2 civilians. In an IDF operation to arrest Hamas members, gunfight broke out in which an Israeli soldier and two alleged Hamas militants were killed. A new cycle of violence happened. Hamas responded with a suicide bombing on 12 August, killing one Israeli civilian. Fatah claimed responsibility for a second suicide bombing on 12 August, killing another Israeli citizen. Despite this de facto violation of the hudna, Hamas stated that the cease-fire would continue.
Hostilities then escalated. The Israeli army killed Islamic Jihad's Muhammad Seeder on 14 August 2003; the Jerusalem bus 2 massacre by Hamas and Islamic Jihad on 19 August, killed 23 and wounded 136 people. Israel reacted causing large-scale destruction to Palestinian population centres. On 21 August, Israel assassinated Hamas' political leader Ismail Abu Shanab. Shanab, who supported a two-state solution, strongly opposed suicide bombings and tried to uphold the ceasefire, was regarded as one of Hamas's more moderate and pragmatic leaders. Along with Shanab, three other civilians (his two bodyguards and a 74-year-old man) were killed. The following days it continued with a range of further Israeli killing-attacks. The assassinations of Seeder and Shanab resulted in Hamas calling off the ceasefire with Israel. International criticism of Israel increased because Israel was widely believed to be unwilling to respect the truce.
Deadlock
In November 2003, the United Nations Security Council endorsed the Roadmap in United Nations Security Council Resolution 1515 which called for an end to all violence including "terrorism, provocation, incitement and destruction". By the end of 2003, the Palestinian Authority had not prevented Palestinian terrorism, and Israel had neither withdrawn from Palestinian areas occupied since 28 September 2000, nor frozen settlement expansion. Thus the requirements of Phase I of the Roadmap were not fulfilled, and the Roadmap has not continued further. It eventually reached deadlock.
Developments in 2004
In 2004, the "peace process" was still overshadowed by the Second Intifada, characterized by mutual Palestinian and Israeli violence. Reportedly, some 110 Israelis and 820 Palestinians were killed in the conflict: 40 Israeli military and 67 civilians were killed; some 350 Palestinian militants, 452 civilians and 18 unknown were killed. While a number of the Palestinian militants were killed when carrying out an attack, many were killed in IDF raids on Palestinian neighbourhoods or at arrest attempts.
Sharon's announcement of the disengagement plan
On 14 April 2004, Prime Minister Ariel Sharon wrote a letter to US President George W. Bush, in which he reconfirmed his commitment to the Roadmap. He also accused the Palestinian Authority of not carrying out its part of the responsibilities under the Roadmap. Stating that "there exists no Palestinian partner with whom to advance peacefully toward a settlement", Sharon announced his unilateral disengagement plan (Israeli withdrawal from Gaza), which meant the removal of all Israeli settlements from the Gaza Strip and four settlements in the West Bank. The plan was already suggested by him on 18 December 2003 at the Fourth Herzliya Conference.
Although not undertaken under the Roadmap, Sharon declared this unilateral step not inconsistent with it. President Bush gave his support to the plan, calling it "a bold and historic initiative that can make an important contribution to peace".
Shifting U.S. position
Until 2004, the official U.S. position had been that Israel, in principle, should return to the 1949 armistice lines (the Green Line) and that changes to these lines must be mutually agreed to in final-status negotiations. Israel's ongoing settlement activities were criticised, because they prejudiced final-status negotiations.
In his answer on the 14 April letter from Ariel Sharon, Bush took some distance from this principle. He said "In light of new realities on the ground, including already existing major Israeli population centers, it is unrealistic that the outcome of final status negotiations will be a full and complete return to the armistice lines of 1949 ... It is realistic to expect that any final status agreement will only be achieved on the basis of mutually agreed changes "that reflect these realities".For Bush and Sharon, 'Confidence' and 'Realities' Are Crucial. New York Times, 15 April 2004
Regarding the Palestinian refugees Bush said that "It seems clear that an agreed, just, fair and realistic framework for a solution to the Palestinian refugee issue as part of any final status agreement will need to be found through the establishment of a Palestinian state and the settling of Palestinian refugees there rather than in Israel."The letter was widely seen as a triumph for Sharon, since Bush seemed to accept Israel's policy of facts on the ground, the view that the passage of time and new realities (Israeli settlements in the West Bank) obviated Israel's obligation to withdraw more or less to the 1967 lines in return for peace, recognition and security.
In a 26 May 2005 joint press conference with Palestinian leader Mahmoud Abbas in the White House Rose Garden, President Bush said: "Any final status agreement must be reached between the two parties, and changes to the 1949 armistice lines must be mutually agreed to. A viable two-state solution must ensure contiguity of the West Bank, and a state of scattered territories will not work. There must also be meaningful linkages between the West Bank and Gaza. This is the position of the United States today, it will be the position of the United States at the time of final status negotiations."This statement was widely seen as a triumph for Abbas, as many commentators view it as contradictory to his 14 April 2004 letter. The Bush administration made no attempts to clarify any perceived discrepancies between the two statements.
Armed activity and military actions
While the Palestinians persisted in violent attacks against Israelis, Israel executed major military operations in Gaza. In 2004, most Israeli civilians were killed in 6 bomb attacks inside Israel. The Israeli army invaded and besieged southern Gaza in May in Operation Rainbow, invaded and besieged Beit Hanoun in northern Gaza in the summer in a 37 days long raid, and invaded northern Gaza again from 29 September to 16 October in Operation Days of Penitence.
Reform of the PA structure
Bush's call for new leaders
The Roadmap was based on president Bush's idea that Palestinian terror was the primary obstacle for an Israeli–Palestinian peace agreement, that the Palestinian authorities (PA) were encouraging terrorism, and that the dismantling of the current Palestinian leadership was a prerequisite for a Palestinian state. In his speech of 24 June 2002, Bush said:
"Peace requires a new and different Palestinian leadership, so that a Palestinian state can be born. I call on the Palestinian people to elect new leaders, leaders not compromised by terror." ... "And when the Palestinian people have new leaders, new institutions and new security arrangements with their neighbors, the United States of America will support the creation of a Palestinian state whose borders and certain aspects of its sovereignty will be provisional until resolved as part of a final settlement in the Middle East." ... "Today, Palestinian authorities are encouraging, not opposing, terrorism." ... "The Palestinian Authority has rejected your [the Israeli] offer at hand, and trafficked with terrorists."
Israel agreed. It wanted to expel Arafat, but the US opposed. Instead it was suggested to create the post of Prime Minister. In October 2003, the Government declared that "Arafat is the main obstacle for any progress in the Middle East peace process." Prime Minister Ariel Sharon said there is no hope for a political settlement "as long as [Arafat] is around.", but he considered expelling Arafat not good for Israel.
Introduction of a Prime Minister
Although President Arafat had undertaken significant reform steps since May 2002, the process stalled from March 2003 due to both Israeli measures and internal political factors. In March 2003, President Arafat nominated Mahmoud Abbas for the post of the first Prime Minister. On 29 April, the Palestinian Parliament approved the appointment of the PM and his new Government.Arafat chooses Palestinian prime minister. CNN, 6 March 2003 However, a struggle for power between Abbas and Arafat as well as members of the old clique paralysed the new government. Abbas was in a weak position, due to his failing to counter the Israelis, who refused to release prisoners and continued with the occupation of Palestinian cities, settlement activities, assassinations and incursions, and the maintenance of checkpoints. Abbas resigned in September 2003. Also under his successor Ahmed Qurei (Abu Alaa), the needed reform did not appear. An international task force concluded that only general elections could transform the political system, which, however, was impossible under the continued Israeli occupation. After Arafat's death in November 2004, Abbas was elected as the second President of the Palestinian Authority.
PA's role towards terror and Israeli reactions
The PA was created by the Oslo Accords and set out in detail. The PA was committed to combat Palestinian terror. Yet, its Security Forces were banned from Area C, some 60% of the West Bank, where Israel has exclusive responsibility for security control. Moreover, they were not able to move freely between all parts of the Palestinian controlled areas, which were splintered into more than 160 enclaves within Area C. Nevertheless, Israel held the PA, notably President Arafat, responsible for terrorist attacks committed by militant groups who were not affiliated with him.Bombing of bus triggers claims, condemnation. CNN, 5 June 2002"Israel once again put the blame for the bombing squarely on the Palestinian Authority, as it has repeatedly after such attacks, for failing to stop terrorism."Sixteen of our citizens are lying dead because Arafat, the Palestinian Authority have taken no action whatsoever to stop terrorist activity" After two suicide bombings in Israel and Jerusalem executed by Hamas members, the Israeli security Cabinet decided on 11 September 2003 that "Israel will act to remove this obstacle [Arafat] in the manner, at the time, and in the ways that will be decided on separately".Killing Arafat An Option. Ellen Crean, CBS/Associated Press, 15 September 2003
Israel on principle refused to accept cease-fires with militant groups, because "Israel deals only with the Palestinian Authority" and "The Israelis don't deal with these terrorist organizations", while advancing its policy of targeted killing. Instead, Israel reacted on terrorist attacks by attacking the PA's Security Forces and its offices.Israeli attacks kill 1 in Arafat's bodyguard unit. CNN, 28 March 2001
When the Second Intifada began, Israel started with the systematic destruction of security service's offices until 90% of them were destroyed by 2003, and about three-quarters of the national security officers were locked up in Israeli detention camps, others were killed.Palestinian Security Force in Ruins. AP Online, 25 April 2002. Summary on highbeam.com Israeli attacks were mainly concentrated on Palestinian security forces, even though Hamas was responsible for a majority of the bombings and shootings. The siege of Arafat's compound, which started in March 2002 during Operation Defensive Shield was maintained in 2003 and 2004, until Arafat died in a mysterious way.
With the destruction of hundreds of PA offices, like the Education Ministry, the Higher Education Ministry and the Health Ministry, along with equipment, computers and dossiers, the IDF wiped out the public data banks, according to Amira Hass apparently to destroy Palestinian civil institutions, sabotaging for years to come the Palestinian goal for independence.
Expanding West Bank settlement
Israel did not withdraw to the positions of 28 September 2000, a key requirement of Phase I of the Roadmap. Instead, movement of Palestinians was heavily impeded by numerous roadblocks, earth mounds and checkpoints,West Bank Closures (2.5 MB). December 2003, OCHAoPt and movement between West Bank and Gaza was virtually impossible. According to Israel, the Palestinians did not fulfil their obligation to end violence and terrorism, and therefore they refused to withdraw.
Israel also did not freeze settlement expansion, nor dismantle outposts built since 2001, another requirement of the Roadmap. Instead, the number of settlers continued growing. Even during the Second Intifada the settler population kept growing at a high rate, in a remarkably straight line. From 2000 to 2004, the number of settlers in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem increased with more than 50,000. From 2004 to 2008, the Jewish population grew with some 70,000.
However, the total construction in the settlements from 2004 to 2008 was only 6,868 housing units in the four years.
Additionally, more Palestinian land was confiscated and annexed by means of the expanding West Bank barrier. Despite a ruling of the International Court of Justice, who declared the barrier beyond the Green Line illegal, Israel decided to build the Wall up to 22 km inside the West Bank, east of Ariel, and east of other large settlement blocs. On the other hand, more than 1,500 Palestinian homes were demolished throughout the Palestinian Territories, and build-up of Palestinian structures was virtually completely denied.
British involvement
Until 2003, British intelligence officer Alastair Crooke played an important role as mediator between Israel and the Palestinians. He realized ceasefires and truces until he was recalled in August 2003.
According to Crooke, the then British Prime Minister Tony Blair played an important role in the development of a 2003 MI6 plan for a wide-ranging crackdown on Hamas. It was a "Palestinian Security Plan", drawn up to implement Phase I of the Roadmap.UK Security Plan: British MI6 Palestinian Security Plan with Annex, 2003. On The aim was to stop violent attacks by Hamas, including suicide bombings and the firing of Qassam rockets on South Israel.
The plan also mentioned the Israeli requirements of the Roadmap: "an end to 'deportations, attacks on civilians, confiscation and/or demolition of Palestinian homes and property ... (and) destruction of Palestinian institutions and infrastructure'. To these we would add assassinations and construction of the wall/fence within the Occupied Territories." The document mentions the complaints of the international community about the IDF who destroyed new resources they provided to the Palestinian police force.
In March 2005, MI6 sent a detailed follow-up of the Palestinian Security Plan''. This report notes that the NSF (Palestinian National Security Forces), who were assumed to prevent terror, were denied by the Israelis equipment, ammunition en freedom of movement.
After Tony Blair sent British Intelligence officers to the Gaza Strip, in August 2005, to persuade Palestinian terrorists to call a halt to their suicide bomb attacks against Israel, Israel sent a sharp protest to the UK, because it opposed dealing with Hamas.
When in March 2006 Hamas won the parliamentary elections, Israel and the international community did not accept a role for the political arm of Hamas until it renounced violence and recognized Israel.
As Hamas attacks and kidnappings continued, many Hamas leaders and politicians were detained by Israel, or assassinated by targeted killing. In June 2007, Hamas took control of Gaza in the Fatah–Hamas battle.
Roadmap in the peace process
In the Sharm el-Sheikh Summit on 8 February 2005, Israelis and Palestinians reconfirmed their commitment to the Roadmap. At the Annapolis Conference on 27 November 2007, both parties again expressed their commitment to the Roadmap. Despite intensive negotiations in the following months, the parties did not reach an agreement. The negotiations ended in September 2008 without result. When the Olmert government started a major assault on Gaza in December 2008 to stop rocket fire into Israel, dubbed Operation Cast Lead, the "peace process" completely collapsed.
After the end of President Bush's term of office in January 2009, the Roadmap fell into the background. The main issues remained: the permanent status of the occupied territories in the West Bank, the ongoing expansion of the settlements, Palestinian terrorism, and the final borders of Israel.
See also
One State Solution
Elon Peace Plan
List of Middle East peace proposals
References
External links
Full text of the "road map", 30 April 2003.
Israeli–Palestinian peace process
Israel–United States relations
2002 in Israel
2002 in the Palestinian territories
State of Palestine–United States relations
2002 in international relations
Two-state solution | [
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|
236952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallaroo | Wallaroo | Wallaroo is a common name for several species of moderately large macropods, intermediate in size between the kangaroos and the wallabies. The word "wallaroo" is from the Dharug walaru, not from blending the words "kangaroo" and "wallaby", as is commonly assumed.
Wallaroos are typically distinct species from kangaroos and wallabies. An exception is the antilopine wallaroo, which is commonly known as an antilopine kangaroo when large, an antilopine wallaby (when small), or an antilopine wallaroo when of intermediate size.
Wallaroo may refer to one of several species in the genus Osphranter:
The common wallaroo or wallaroo (Osphranter robustus) is the best-known species. There are four subspecies of the common wallaroo: the eastern wallaroo (O. r. robustus) and the euro (O. r. erubescens), which are both widespread, and two of more restricted range, one from Barrow Island (the Barrow Island wallaroo (O. r. isabellinus)), the other from the Kimberley region (the Kimberley wallaroo (O. r. woodwardi)).
The black wallaroo (O. bernardus) occupies an area of steep, rocky ground in Arnhem Land. At around in length (excluding tail) it is the smallest wallaroo and the most heavily built. Males weigh , females about . Because it is very wary and is found only in a small area of remote and very rugged country, it is little-known.
The antilopine wallaroo (O. antilopinus), also known as the antilopine kangaroo or the antilopine wallaby, is a creature of the grassy plains and woodlands and is gregarious, unlike other wallaroos which are solitary.
References
External links
Macropods
Marsupials of Australia
Australian Aboriginal words and phrases
Mammal common names | [
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|
236957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancor%20Jackhammer | Pancor Jackhammer | The Pancor Corporation Jackhammer is a 12-gauge, blow-forward gas-operated bullpup automatic shotgun designed in 1984 and patented in 1987. Only three working prototypes of the Jackhammer were built. Nonetheless, its distinctive aesthetics and futuristic design have made it a prop in action films, television programs, and video games.
Development
The Jackhammer was designed by John A. Anderson, who formed the company Pancor Industries in New Mexico. Anderson designed it based on his experiences using pump action shotguns in the Korean War and believed he could create a better shotgun, finding reloading pump action shotguns awkward and time consuming. Reportedly, several foreign governments expressed interest in the design and even ordered initial production units once ready for delivery. However, export of the design was held up for production due to United States Department of Defense testing, though the design was eventually rejected. Testing was done by HP White Labs in destructive tests (destroying two of the three produced). Those sent to HP White Labs reportedly had of material removed with increased stamping instead of casting and a different easier method of reloading. Thus the sole surviving example is not indicative of what would've been an actual production model and is better considered a tool room prototype. Several dozen non-functioning examples were made from sheet tin, balsa wood, and clay in order to make working tool prototypes. Civilian sales were made impossible by the classification in the US of the Jackhammer as a machine gun and restrictions on machine gun manufacture enacted in 1986. Additionally those foreign governments that did express interest were unwilling to finance development and final production. With no customers and little interest, Pancor went bankrupt. Supposed overseas orders were subject to United States Department of State approval that was not forthcoming. The assets of Pancor were sold off, including the few prototypes built.
A toolroom prototype that is in technical firing condition, but is constructed largely with machine screws and requires disassembly to reload, was owned by Movie Gun Services, during which its forearm was replaced with an MP5SD handguard. This example has since been auctioned. Another prototype with more refined construction, though non-functional, was legally registered as a machine gun and has also been seen auctioned.
Design
Though unconventional, the Jackhammer can best be described as a gas-operated revolver. Many parts were constructed of Rynite polymer to reduce weight. Layout was of a bullpup configuration with a 10-round revolving cylinder that fired conventional, 12-gauge shells. The cylinder's method of rotation was very similar to the Webley–Fosbery Automatic Revolver, an operating rod being used to rotate the cylinder, although gas-operated as opposed to the recoil operation of the Webley-Fosbery.
The Jackhammer is capable of semi-automatic and fully automatic fire by way of a thumb safety/selector switch. At the moment of firing, the front of the shell sealed inside the breech of the barrel much like the Nagant M1895 revolver. Unlike the Nagant, whose cylinder moved forward to form the seal, the barrel of the Jackhammer was driven forward and away from the cylinder by a ring-piston, using gas tapped from the bore. As the barrel moved forward, the breech cleared the front of the fired cartridge and an operating rod attached to the barrel rotated the cylinder through a "zig-zag" cam arrangement. As the next shell aligned with the bore, the barrel returned under spring pressure back into the front end of the cylinder. Spent shells were retained in the cylinder, as in a traditional revolver. The Jackhammer has a charging handle in the forward grip to charge the weapon and a cocking lever in the buttstock to recock the firing mechanism in case of light strikes to the primer. For reloading, the cylinder was removed from the bottom of its housing and shells were manually extracted. Removing the cylinder required the barrel be moved and secured in the forward position.
Bear Trap anti-personnel device
Unique to the Jackhammer was the ability to convert a loaded cylinder from the weapon into an anti-personnel device similar to a land mine by the addition of a firing mechanism. The cylinder would be loaded with up to ten 12-gauge shells and the firing mechanism fitted over the bottom section of the cylinder. A pressure plate or plunger can then set to mechanically fire the shells in the cylinder upon pressing or initiate a spring-loaded timer which can be set to trigger firing up to twelve hours later, in one hour intervals. As the cylinder is designed to contain the pressure of firing normally, it can be discharged and reused when used in Bear Trap configuration.
There is some disagreement over whether working models of the Bear Trap were built. According to Ian McCollum of Forgotten Weapons, no working prototypes were produced, however plastic model prototypes were produced and reportedly worked well. However, according to Jane's, development of the Bear Trap was fully completed as of 1994.
See also
Armsel Striker (Street Sweeper)
Atchisson AA-12
Daewoo Precision Industries USAS-12
List of bullpup firearms
List of shotguns
Saiga-12
Webley–Fosbery Automatic Revolver - earlier use of zig-zag revolver operation
References
External links
Modern Firearms – Jackhammer
Movie Gun Services – Pancor Jackhammer
Pancor Jackhammer Mk3
Patents
Bullpup shotguns
Trial and research firearms of the United States
Automatic shotguns
Shotguns of the United States | [
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|
236960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X3D | X3D | X3D is a royalty-free ISO/IEC standard for declaratively representing 3D computer graphics. File format support includes XML, ClassicVRML, Compressed Binary Encoding (CBE) and a draft JSON encoding. X3D became the successor to the Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) in 2001. X3D features extensions to VRML (e.g. CAD, geospatial, humanoid animation, NURBS, etc.), the ability to encode the scene using an XML syntax as well as the Open Inventor-like syntax of VRML97, or binary formatting, and enhanced application programming interfaces (APIs).
The X3D extension supports multi-stage and multi-texture rendering; it also supports shading with lightmap and normalmap. Starting in 2010, X3D has supported deferred rendering architecture. Now X3D can import SSAO, CSM and Realtime Environment Reflection/Lighting. The user can also use optimizations including BSP/QuadTree/OctTree or culling in the X3D scene.
X3D can work with other open source standards including XML, DOM and XPath.
Standardization
X3D defines several profiles (sets of components) for various levels of capability including X3D Core, X3D Interchange, X3D Interactive, X3D CADInterchange, X3D Immersive, and X3D Full. Browser makers can define their own component extensions prior to submitting them for standardisation by the Web3D Consortium. Formal review and approval is then performed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Liaison and cooperation agreements are also in place between the Web3D Consortium and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) and the Khronos Group.
A subset of X3D is XMT-A, a variant of XMT, defined in MPEG-4 Part 11. It was designed to provide a link between X3D and 3D content in MPEG-4 (BIFS).
The abstract specification for X3D (ISO/IEC 19775) was first approved by the ISO in 2004. The XML and ClassicVRML encodings for X3D (ISO/IEC 19776) were first approved in 2005.
Applications
There are several applications, most of which are open-source software, which natively parse and interpret X3D files, including the 3D graphics and animation editor Blender and the Sun Microsystems virtual world client Project Wonderland. An X3D applet is a software program that runs within a web browser and displays content in 3D, using OpenGL 3D graphics technology to display X3D content in several different browsers (IE, Safari, Firefox) across several different operating systems (Windows, Mac OS X, Linux). However, X3D has not received as wide acceptance as that of other, more notable software applications.
In the 2000s, many companies such as Bitmanagement improved the quality level of virtual effects in X3D to the quality level of DirectX 9.0c, but at the expense of using proprietary solutions. All main features including game modeling are already complete. They include multi-pass render with low level setting for Z-buffer, BlendOp, AlphaOp, Stencil, Multi-texture, Shader with HLSL and GLSL support, real-time Render To Texture, Multi Render Target (MRT) and post-processing. Many demos shows that X3D already supports lightmap, normal mapping, SSAO, CSM and real-time environment reflection along with other virtual effects.
Striving to become the 3D standard for the Web, X3D is designed to be as integrated into HTML5 pages as other XML standards such as MathML and SVG. X3DOM is a proposed syntax model and its implementation as a script library that demonstrates how this integration can be achieved without a browser plugin, using only WebGL and JavaScript.
Example
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE X3D PUBLIC "ISO//Web3D//DTD X3D 3.2//EN"
"http://www.web3d.org/specifications/x3d-3.2.dtd">
<X3D profile="Interchange" version="3.2"
xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
xsd:noNamespaceSchemaLocation="http://www.web3d.org/specifications/x3d-3.2.xsd">
<Scene>
<Shape>
<IndexedFaceSet coordIndex="0 1 2">
<Coordinate point="0 0 0 1 0 0 0.5 1 0"/>
</IndexedFaceSet>
</Shape>
</Scene>
</X3D>
The VRML representation is the same as , except that the version line is changed to reflect the X3D profile (#X3D V3.2 utf8).
For JSON and binary formats, see web3D for a list of tools.
Alternatives
WebGL: JavaScript API for rendering interactive 3D graphics and 2D graphics within any compatible web browser, managed by the Khronos Group
3DMLW: 3D Markup Language for Web
glTF: a standard file format for three-dimensional scenes and models managed by the Khronos Group
COLLADA: interchange file format for interactive 3D applications, managed by the Khronos Group
O3D: developed by Google
U3D: Ecma International standard ECMA-363
VRML: precursor of X3D
3MF: An XML-based format that includes 3D additive manufacturing data such as material properties.
A-Frame: An HTML-based declarative 3D scene-graph language and interaction framework commonly used for WebVR
See also
Active Worlds virtual reality multi-user 3D chat platform
Additive Manufacturing File Format
Blaxxun virtual reality multi-user 3D chat platform
Flux, freely downloadable VRML/X3D editor/browser, now discontinued
FreeWRL, free Open Source VRML/X3D browser
List of vector graphics markup languages
MeshLab open source mesh processing system that can export VRML/X3D
Open XML Paper Specification
OZ Virtual
Seamless3d free Open Source 3D modeling software for Microsoft Windows
Unity: a game engine which can be used online via a browser plugin
Virtual tour
Virtual Environment Software
Web3D and Web3D Consortium
References
External links
Web3D Consortium official website
X3D official website
X3D Specifications: Schema and DOCTYPE Validation
X3DOM
3D graphics file formats
Graphics standards
ISO/IEC 19775
Vector graphics markup languages
Virtual reality | [
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|
236962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Meretzky | Steve Meretzky | Steven Eric Meretzky (born May 1, 1957) is an American video game developer. He is best known for creating Infocom games in the early 1980s, including collaborating with author Douglas Adams on the interactive fiction version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, one of the first games to be certified "platinum" by the Software Publishers Association. Later, he created the Spellcasting trilogy, the flagship adventure series of Legend Entertainment. He has been involved in almost every aspect of game development, from design to production to quality assurance and box design.
His keen wit, prose, and coding skill made him one of the first interactive fiction writers (along with Dave Lebling) admitted to the Science Fiction Writers of America, and in September 1999, PC Gamer magazine named Meretzky as one of their twenty-five "Game Gods"; those who have made an indelible mark on the history of computer gaming.
Biography
Meretzky was raised in Yonkers, New York. His father was trained as an accountant, but spent a career of 25 years selling automotive hardware. Meretzky's mother was a bookkeeper. He graduated from Yonkers High School in 1975. He went on to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he earned a Bachelor of Science in construction management in 1979. After working in the construction industry for two years, in 1981 Meretzky decided to pursue a career as a game tester for Infocom after co-founder Marc Blank asked Meretzky to take over the job from his roommate Mike Dornbrook. In 1983, he became a full-time writer (an "Implementor"), scripting Planetfall and creating the famous cult figure robot sidekick "Floyd".
While working on Planetfall, people noted the similarities between his game and Douglas Adams' Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Meretzky listened to the radio series and enjoyed it, so he included a reference to the series in his game. In 1984, Meretzky collaborated with Adams over the course of three months in order to create a computer game adaption of Adams' series, which became one of the bestselling games of the era. A sequel to the game, titled Milliways: The Restaurant at the End of the Universe was proposed, but got cancelled due to the dwindling popularity of text adventure games.
Another popular game was Leather Goddesses of Phobos, whose risque writing pushed the boundaries of the art. In an interview, Meretzky said that he originally just wrote the name on a project board as a joke, but was later asked to actually develop a game to go along with the title.
In A Mind Forever Voyaging, Meretzky attempted to address social issues, but Infocom's success was declining, and the 1988 Zork Zero was his last title there.
In 1994, Meretzky co-founded Boffo Games Dornbrook and Leo DaCosta, and developed such titles as the story puzzle game Hodj 'n' Podj and the detective comedy The Space Bar until the company closed its doors in 1997. In 1998, he worked as a consultant on Blizzard Entertainment's canceled adventure game Warcraft Adventures: Lord of the Clans.
Around the year 2000, Meretzky joined WorldWinner as a game advisor and Principal Game Designer. Meretzky is also a charter member of the Computer Game Developers Association, and a frequent speaker at industry conferences such as GDC.
Meretzky appears as himself antagonizing rapper MC Frontalot in the music video for "It Is Pitch Dark." (released on Secrets from the Future). The song references several of Meretzky's text adventure games, and the video is directed by documentarian Jason Scott Sadofsky, whose film GET LAMP is about the genre.
Several years later, Meretzky joined Blue Fang Games to work on the popular Zoo Tycoon franchise. He was employed as a Vice President of Design at social media game developer Playdom from 2008 to 2013, at which point he became Vice President of Creative at GSN Games. In November 2016 he became Vice President of Games at Swedish mobile game company King.
Games
Meretzky has been credited on games developed by: Infocom, Legend Entertainment Company, Activision Inc., Boffo Games Inc., MicroProse, GameFX, Floodgate Entertainment, and Tom Snyder Productions. In the following titles, Meretzky was sole or lead designer / creative director.
Infocom
Planetfall (1983)
Sorcerer (1984)
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1984)
A Mind Forever Voyaging (1985)
Leather Goddesses of Phobos (1986)
Stationfall (1987)
Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz (1988)
Lane Mastodon vs. the Blubbermen (1988)
Activision
Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2: Gas Pump Girls Meet the Pulsating Inconvenience from Planet X! (1992), (under the "Infocom" label)
Legend Entertainment
Spellcasting 101: Sorcerers Get All The Girls (1990)
Spellcasting 201: The Sorcerer's Appliance (1991)
Spellcasting 301: Spring Break (1992)
Superhero League of Hoboken (1994)
Boffo Games
Hodj 'n' Podj (1995), Virgin Interactive Entertainment
The Space Bar (1997), Rocket Science Games, SegaSoft
WorldWinner
Meretzky created various mobile games during his time at WorldWinner, including Tile City, Word Cubes, Hangmania, Catch-21, SwapIt!, Blockwerx, and Triv!.
Other works
Video games
For these video games, Meretzky had a lesser role, such as in an advisory capacity:
Frederik Pohl's Gateway (1992), Legend Entertainment Company
Rex Nebular and the Cosmic Gender Bender (1992), MicroProse
Eric the Unready (1993), Legend Entertainment Company
Warcraft Adventures: Lord of the Clans (canceled 1998), Blizzard Entertainment
Sinistar Unleashed (1999), THQ Inc.
Cubis 2 (2004), FreshGames LLC.
Books
Steve Meretzky's Spellcasting 301: Spring Break: The Official Hint Book from Legend Entertainment Company, 1993, Compute, (as S. Eric Meretzky)
Zork: The Forces of Krill (A What-Do-I-Do-Now Book, Zork #1), 1983, Tor Books,
Zork: The Malifestro Quest (A What-Do-I-Do-Now Book, Zork #2), 1983, Tor Books,
Zork: The Cavern of Doom (A What-Do-I-Do-Now Book, Zork #3), 1983, Tor Books,
Zork: Conquest at Quendor (A What-Do-I-Do-Now Book, Zork #4), 1984, Tor Books,
Articles
"Humor in Game Design", 1997, Proceedings of Computer Game Developers Conference
"Building Character: An Analysis of Character Creation", 2001, Gamasutra
"Interactive Storytelling", Free Audio File, iTunes U, MIT, Comparative media Studies, Media Industries & Systems, Spring 2006, Week 6: Interactive Storytelling
References
External links
Meretzky's home page
Infocom biography
Interview with Steve Meretzky, Adventure Classic Gaming (2001)
Infocom authors
Steven Meretzky papers housed at Stanford University Libraries
1957 births
Living people
American video game designers
Infocom
Interactive fiction writers
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
People from Yonkers, New York
Puzzle designers | [
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|
236963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lissamphibia | Lissamphibia | The Lissamphibia is a group of tetrapods that includes all modern amphibians. Lissamphibians consist of three living groups: the Salientia (frogs, toads, and their extinct relatives), the Caudata (salamanders, newts, and their extinct relatives), and the Gymnophiona (the limbless caecilians and their extinct relatives). A fourth group, the Allocaudata, was moderately successful, spanning 160 million years from the Middle Jurassic to the Early Pleistocene, but became extinct two million years ago.
For several decades, this name has been used for a group that includes all living amphibians, but excludes all the main groups of Paleozoic tetrapods, such as Temnospondyli, Lepospondyli, Embolomeri, and Seymouriamorpha. Some scientists have concluded that all of the primary groups of modern amphibians—frogs, salamanders and caecilians—are closely related.
Some writers have argued that the early Permian dissorophoid Gerobatrachus hottoni is a lissamphibian. If it is not, the earliest known lissamphibians are Triadobatrachus and Czatkobatrachus from the Early Triassic.
Characteristics
Some, if not all, lissamphibians share the following characteristics. Some of these apply to the soft body parts, hence do not appear in fossils. However, the skeletal characteristics also appear in several types of Palaeozoic amphibians:
Double or paired occipital condyles
Two types of skin glands (mucous and granular)
Fat bodies associated with gonads
Double-channeled sensory papillae in the inner ear
Green rods (a special type of visual cell, unknown in caecilians)
Ribs do not encircle body. Anurans do not have ribs.
Ability to elevate the eyes (with the levator bulbi muscle)
Forced-pump respiratory mechanism, the primitive breathing system also found in labyrinthodont amphibians
Cylindrical centra (the main body of the vertebrae; cylindrical centra are also found in several groups of early tetrapods)
Pedicellate teeth (the crowns of the teeth are separated from the roots by a zone of fibrous tissue; also found in some Dissorophoidea; the teeth of some fossil salamanders are not pedicellate)
Bicuspid teeth (two cusps per tooth, also found in juvenile dissorophoids)
Operculum (small bone in the skull, linked to shoulder girdle by the opercularis muscle; perhaps involved in hearing and balance; absent in caecilians and some salamanders, fused to the columella (ear bone) in most anurans)
Loss of posterior skull bones (also in Microsauria and Dissorophoidea)
Small, widely separated pterygoid bones (also found in Temnospondyli and Nectridea)
Wide cultriform process of the parasphenoid (also found in some Microsauria (Rhynchonkos) and Lysorophia)
Relationships and definition
The features uniting the Lissamphibia were first noted by Ernst Haeckel, even though in Haeckel's work, Lissamphibia excluded the caecilians. Nevertheless, Haeckel considered the caecilians to be closely related to what he called Lissamphibia (gr. λισσός, smooth), which is now called Batrachia and includes frogs and salamanders. In the early to mid 20th century, a biphyletic origin of amphibians (and thus of tetrapods in general) was favoured. In the late 20th century, a flood of new fossil evidence mapped out in some detail the nature of the transition between the elpistostegalid fish and the early amphibians. Most herpetologists and paleontologists, therefore, no longer accept the view that amphibians have arisen twice, from two related but separate groups of fish. The question then arises whether Lissamphibia is monophyletic as well. Unfortunately, the origin and relationships of the various lissamphibian groups both with each other and among other early tetrapods remain controversial. Not all paleontologists today are convinced that Lissamphibia is indeed a natural group, as there are important characteristics shared with some non-lissamphibian Palaeozoic amphibians.
Currently, the two prevailing theories of lissamphibian origin are:
Monophyletic within Temnospondyli
Monophyletic within Lepospondyli
One of the hypotheses regarding their ancestors is that they evolved by paedomorphosis and miniaturization from early tetrapods.
Recent molecular studies of extant amphibians based on multiple-locus data favor one or the other of the monophyletic alternatives and indicate a Late Carboniferous date for the divergence of the lineage leading to caecilians from the one leading to frogs and salamanders, and an early Permian date for the separation of the frog and salamander groups.
References
Bibliography
Benton, M. J. (2005), Vertebrate Palaeontology, 3rd ed. Blackwell.
Carroll, R. L. (1988), Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution, WH Freeman & Co.
External links
Biology 356 - Major Features of Vertebrate Evolution by Dr. Robert Reisz, University of Toronto
Amphibians
Extant Early Triassic first appearances
Taxa named by Ernst Haeckel | [
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|
236964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah%20teapot | Utah teapot | The Utah teapot, or the Newell teapot, is a 3D test model that has become a standard reference object and an in-joke within the computer graphics community. It is a mathematical model of an ordinary Melitta-brand teapot that appears solid with a nearly rotationally symmetrical body. Using a teapot model is considered the 3D equivalent of a "Hello, World!" program, a way to create an easy 3D scene with a somewhat complex model acting as the basic geometry for a scene with a light setup. Some programming libraries, such as the OpenGL Utility Toolkit, even have functions dedicated to drawing teapots.
The teapot model was created in 1975 by early computer graphics researcher Martin Newell, a member of the pioneering graphics program at the University of Utah. It was one of the first to be modeled using bézier curves rather than precisely measured.
History
For his work, Newell needed a simple mathematical model of a familiar object. His wife, Sandra Newell, suggested modelling their tea set since they were sitting down for tea at the time. He sketched the teapot free-hand using graph paper and a pencil. Following that, he went back to the computer laboratory and edited bézier control points on a Tektronix storage tube, again by hand.
The teapot shape contained a number of elements that made it ideal for the graphics experiments of the time: it was round, contained saddle points, had a genus greater than zero because of the hole in the handle, could project a shadow on itself, and could be displayed accurately without a surface texture.
Newell made the mathematical data that described the teapot's geometry (a set of three-dimensional coordinates) publicly available, and soon other researchers began to use the same data for their computer graphics experiments. These researchers needed something with roughly the same characteristics that Newell had, and using the teapot data meant they did not have to laboriously enter geometric data for some other object. Although technical progress has meant that the act of rendering the teapot is no longer the challenge it was in 1975, the teapot continued to be used as a reference object for increasingly advanced graphics techniques.
Over the following decades, editions of computer graphics journals (such as the ACM SIGGRAPH's quarterly) regularly featured versions of the teapot: faceted or smooth-shaded, wireframe, bumpy, translucent, refractive, even leopard-skin and furry teapots were created.
Having no surface to represent its base, the original teapot model was not intended to be seen from below. Later versions of the data set fixed this.
The real teapot is 33% taller (ratio 4:3) than the computer model. Jim Blinn stated that he scaled the model on the vertical axis during a demo in the lab to demonstrate that they could manipulate it. They preferred the appearance of this new version and decided to save the file out of that preference.
Versions of the teapot model — or sample scenes containing it — are distributed with or freely available for nearly every current rendering and modelling program and even many graphic APIs, including AutoCAD, Houdini, Lightwave 3D, MODO, POV-Ray, 3ds Max, and the OpenGL and Direct3D helper libraries. Some RenderMan-compliant renderers support the teapot as a built-in geometry by calling RiGeometry("teapot", RI_NULL). Along with the expected cubes and spheres, the GLUT library even provides the function glutSolidTeapot() as a graphics primitive, as does its Direct3D counterpart D3DX (D3DXCreateTeapot()). While D3DX for Direct3D 11 does not provide this functionality anymore, it is supported in the DirectX Tool Kit. Mac OS X Tiger and Leopard also include the teapot as part of Quartz Composer; Leopard's teapot supports bump mapping. BeOS included a small demo of a rotating 3D teapot, intended to show off the platform's multimedia facilities. Later same demo appears and in Haiku.
Teapot scenes are commonly used for renderer self-tests and benchmarks.
Original teapot model
The original, physical teapot was purchased from ZCMI (a department store in Salt Lake City) in 1974. It was donated to the Boston Computer Museum in 1984, where it was on display until 1990. It now resides in the ephemera collection at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California where it is catalogued as "Teapot used for Computer Graphics rendering" and bears the catalogue number X00398.1984. The original teapot the Utah teapot was based on is still available from Friesland Porzellan, once part of the German Melitta group. Originally it was given the rather plain name ('household teapot'); the company only found out about their product's "fame" in 2017, whereupon they officially renamed it "Utah Teapot". It is available in three different sizes and various colors; the one Martin Newell had used is the white "1,4L Utah Teapot".
Appearances
One famous ray-traced image, by James Arvo and David Kirk in 1987, shows six stone columns, five of which are surmounted by the Platonic solids (tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron). The sixth column supports a teapot. The image is titled "The Six Platonic Solids", with Arvo and Kirk calling the teapot "the newly discovered Teapotahedron". This image appeared on the covers of several books and computer graphic journals.
The Utah teapot sometimes appears in the "Pipes" screensaver shipped with Microsoft Windows, but only in versions prior to Windows XP, and has been included in the "polyhedra" XScreenSaver hack since 2008.
Jim Blinn (in one of his "Project MATHEMATICS!" videos) proves an amusing (but trivial) version of the Pythagorean theorem: construct a (2D) teapot on each side of a right triangle and the area of the teapot on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the teapots on the other two sides.
Loren Carpenter's 1980 CGI film Vol Libre features the teapot, appearing briefly at the beginning and end of the film in the foreground with a fractal-rendered mountainscape behind it.
Vulkan and OpenGL graphics APIs feature the Utah teapot along with the Stanford dragon and the Stanford bunny on their badges.
With the advent of the first computer-generated short films, and later full-length feature films, it has become an in-joke to hide the Utah teapot in films' scenes. For example, in the movie Toy Story, the Utah teapot appears in a short tea-party scene. The teapot also appears in The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror VI" in which Homer discovers the "third dimension." In The Sims 2, a picture of the Utah teapot is one of the paintings available to buy in-game, titled "Handle and Spout".
An origami version of the teapot, folded by Tomohiro Tachi, was shown at the Tikotin Museum of Japanese Art in Israel in a 2007–2008 exhibit.
OBJ conversion
Although the original tea set by Newell can be downloaded directly, this tea set is specified using a set of Bézier patches in a custom format, which can be difficult to import directly into many popular 3D modeling applications. As such, a tesselated conversion of the dataset in the popular OBJ file format can be useful. One such conversion of the complete Newell teaset is available on the University of Utah website.
3D printing
Through 3D printing, the Utah Teapot has come full circle from being a computer model based on an actual teapot to being an actual teapot based on the computer model. It is widely available in many renderings in different materials from small plastic knick-knacks to a fully functional ceramic teapot. It is sometimes intentionally rendered as a low poly object to celebrate its origin as a computer model.
In 2009, a Belgian design studio, Unfold, 3D printed the Utah Teapot in ceramic with the objective of returning the iconographic teapot to its roots as a piece of functional dishware while showing its status as an icon of the digital world.
In 2015, the California-based company Emerging Objects followed suit, but this time printed the teapot, along with teacups and teaspoons, out of actual tea.
Gallery
See also
3D modeling
Stanford bunny
Stanford dragon
Suzanne (3D model)
Cornell box
List of common 3D test models
List of filmmaker's signatures
Lenna
References
External links
Image of Utah teapot at the Computer History Museum
Newell's teapot sketch at the Computer History Museum
S.J. Baker's History of the teapot, including patch data
Teapot history and images, from A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation (Wayback Machine copy)
WebGL teapot demonstration
History of the Teapot video from Udacity's online Interactive 3D Graphics course
The World's Most Famous Teapot - Tom Scott explains the story of Martin Newell's digital creation (YouTube)
3D graphics models
Test items
Teapots
In-jokes | [
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|
236967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27%20%28disambiguation%29 | ' (disambiguation) | The character has number 39 in ASCII and code U+0027 in Unicode. It is used as:
Apostrophe (as straight version of the character), a punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritical mark
Single quotation mark (as straight version of the and characters)
It is often used in informal contexts to replace other similar looking characters that include:
Accents, pronunciation, or stress
Diacritical marks
Acute accent , a diacritic used in many modern written languages
Geresh , a sign in Hebrew writing
Grave accent , a diacritical mark in many written languages
Apex , a diacritic used to indicate a long vowel
Modifier letter punctuation
Modifier letter apostrophe , a glyph
Modifier letter left half ring , a character used to transliterate the letter ayin, representing the sound ʕ
Modifier letter right half ring
Other uses as accents, pronunciation, or stress
ʻOkina , a unicameral consonant letter
Saltillo (linguistics) or , a glottal stop consonant, ʔ
Spiritus lenis
Stress (linguistics) , relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word
Ejective consonant , used in the International Phonetic Alphabet
Units of measure
Prime (symbol) , used to designate units and for other purposes in mathematics, the sciences, linguistics, and music
Foot (unit), a unit of length in the imperial and US customary systems of measurement
Minute, a unit of time
Minute of arc, a unit of arc
See also
Apostrophe (disambiguation)
Comma, a punctuation mark that appears in several variants in different languages | [
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|
236968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Some%20Time%20in%20New%20York%20City | Some Time in New York City | Some Time in New York City is a part-studio, part-live double album by John Lennon and Yoko Ono as Plastic Ono Band that included backing by the American rock band Elephant's Memory. Released in June 1972 in the US and in September 1972 in the UK on Apple Records, it is the third album to bear Lennon's name since he left the Beatles, and his fourth with Ono. Like Lennon's previous solo albums, it was co-produced by Lennon, Ono and Phil Spector. The album's agitprop lyrics are very politically charged compared to its predecessors, discussing political and social issues and topics such as sexism, incarceration, colonialism, and racism.
Recording for the album's studio portion took place between December 1971 and March 1972 while the live portion, released as Live Jam, was recorded on 15 December 1969 at the Lyceum Ballroom in London for a UNICEF charity concert and on 6 June 1971 at Fillmore East in New York City. Musicians who contributed to the 1969 performance included Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Nicky Hopkins, Keith Moon and Klaus Voormann, while the 1971 performance featured Frank Zappa and his band the Mothers of Invention.
Preceded by the single "Woman Is the Nigger of the World", which caused controversy due to its title, Some Time in New York City received scathing reviews on release and performed poorly commercially. Reviewers were especially critical of its politically charged content. Zappa was critical of Lennon and Ono's handling of the recordings of the Mothers performance, eventually releasing his own version of the performance on Playground Psychotics (1992). Some Time in New York City was reissued on compact disc in 2005 as a single album, removing several of the Live Jam songs while adding other non-album singles, and again on CD in 2010 in its original double album format.
Background
John Lennon and Yoko Ono moved to New York City in September 1971 and continued their involvement in political, peace and social justice causes of the counterculture era. When they settled in Greenwich Village, in October, they were quickly contacted by activists Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman who persuaded them to appear at an upcoming rally for left-wing writer John Sinclair, who had been jailed for possession of two marijuana joints. The Lennons also spoke out on the Attica Prison riots, jailing of Angela Davis and oppression of women. On 12 November, Lennon and Ono taped numerous demos of "The Luck of the Irish", which were filmed by director John Reilly for a 17-minute documentary short titled Luck of the Irish – A Videotape by John Reilly. On 9 December, Lennon and Ono flew to Ann Arbor, Michigan, for the John Sinclair rally, which was due to start the next day. Soon after their arrival, Lennon recorded "Chords of Fame" with Phil Ochs. At the rally itself, Lennon and Ono played four songs that would end up on Some Time in New York City: "Attica State", "The Luck of the Irish", "Sisters O Sisters" and "John Sinclair". The performance was filmed, and included in the short film Ten for Two which was shown locally in Ann Arbor sometime in December.
Lennon and Ono, along with David Peel, performed Peel's "The Ballad of New York" on The David Frost Show, with Lennon playing tea-chest bass. The trio, now joined by The Lower East Side Band, played the same set of songs that Lennon and Ono had played at the John Sinclair rally, though the version of "The Luck of the Irish" was shorter. This episode was recorded on 16 December 1971 and broadcast on 13 January 1972. The next day, Lennon and Ono performed at a benefit concert for families of victims of the Attica Prison riot at the Apollo Theater, playing acoustic versions of "Imagine", "Attica State", and "Sisters, O Sisters". By January 1972, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had opened a file on the Lennons, fearing they would organise the youth vote and prevent a second term for President Richard Nixon. Soon, the government would begin deportation proceedings against the couple, and the FBI began intense surveillance, documenting their every move.
Recording
The original double album contained the live album Live Jam, featuring the Plastic Ono Supergroup's 15 December 1969 live performances of "Cold Turkey" and "Don't Worry Kyoko (Mummy's Only Looking for Her Hand in the Snow)" at the Lyceum Ballroom in London, for a UNICEF charity show billed as the "Peace for Christmas Concert". In addition to Lennon and Ono, the supergroup featured George Harrison, The Who's drummer Keith Moon, Delaney & Bonnie, Billy Preston and Legs Larry Smith, among others. Harrison, who had been touring with Delaney & Bonnie, received a phone call from Lennon and was excited about the prospect of performing with him. The ballroom had its interior covered by posters declaring "WAR IS OVER, if you want it, love John and Yoko." For "Cold Turkey", Ono sat inside a white bag located near Lennon's feet, later jumping out of the bag during "Don't Worry Kyoko (Mummy's Only Looking for Her Hand in the Snow)", facing the crowd and screaming at them. Toward the end of the latter performance, Ono broke down crying. An early mix of the two tracks was produced by the Abbey Road Studios engineers on 26 November 1970 and was sent to Lennon and Ono. The album also featured a recording of Lennon and Ono performing with Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention at the Fillmore East on 6 June 1971, a collaboration instigated by Andy Warhol. Ono arranged for the performance to be filmed, and Klaus Voormann overdubbed some of his bass parts at a later date.
Throughout January, until the 21st, Lennon mixed the live album at the Record Plant. Lennon also mixed the recordings of the John Sinclair rally, as well as the Apollo Theatre and Lyceum Ballroom performances, for possible release as EPs; however, only the Lyceum performance was released. Lennon and Ono, with the assistance of studio drummer Jim Keltner, hired Elephant's Memory, a local band known for their hard partying and anti-establishment musical style, to back them for a series of albums and live performances. Lennon once again brought in Phil Spector to co-produce the new studio album, which was completed on 20 March 1972. Around this time, Lennon and Ono were producing Elephant's Memory's self-titled album. Several jams were recorded, featuring Lennon and Elephant's Memory, all of which remained unreleased: "Don't Be Cruel", "Hound Dog", "Send Me Some Lovin'", "Roll Over Beethoven", "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin' On", "It'll Be Me", "Not Fade Away", "Ain't That a Shame" and "Caribbean".
Music and lyrics
The opening song of the studio album, "Woman Is the Nigger of the World" (a phrase Ono had coined in the late 1960s), was intended as a negation of sexism and was also issued as a single in the US to controversial reaction, and – as a consequence – little airplay. The Lennons went to great lengths (including a press conference attended by staff from Jet and Ebony magazines) to explain that the word "nigger" was not meant as an affront to black people. A quote from Ron Dellums, referring to the use of the word "nigger", appeared in an issue of Billboard (referred to on an episode of The Dick Cavett Show). Lennon's other tracks include the biographical "New York City", a Chuck Berry-styled rocker that details the Lennons' early months in their new home, as well as "John Sinclair", his musical plea for Sinclair's release from a ten-year sentence for giving two marijuana joints to an undercover policewoman.
Ono, a feminist, responds musically with "Sisters, O Sisters", tackles the lacking education system with "Born in a Prison", and celebrates a culture of one in "We're All Water". The album is generally seen as the beginning of Ono's emergence as a songwriter. Together, Lennon and Ono lament police brutality in "Attica State", the hardships of war-torn Northern Ireland in "Sunday Bloody Sunday" and "The Luck of the Irish" (see Bloody Sunday (1972) article), and pay tribute to Angela Davis with "Angela".
Release
Some Time in New York City was issued in the US on 12 June 1972 but delayed until 15 September in the UK, due to a dispute with Northern Songs over publishing rights on songs co-written by Lennon and Ono. The album was packaged like a newspaper (an approach previously employed on The Four Seasons' The Genuine Imitation Life Gazette, Jefferson Airplane's Volunteers and Jethro Tull's Thick as a Brick), depicting the events covered in the album's songs, causing even more consternation with an image of Richard Nixon and Mao Zedong dancing nude together. (The photo was stickered over on many of the issued copies, with a non-removable seal.)
With most of the gatefold cover space taken up by printed lyrics and photographs, the album credits appeared on the first disc's inner sleeve. The customised label, featuring the face of Lennon morphing into Ono's, was created by Iain Macmillan. The inner sleeve for Live Jam featured Lennon's doodling over the cover of Zappa's album, Fillmore East - June 1971, adding his credits and commentary to Zappa's.
Initial copies of the US edition included a photograph of the Statue of Liberty and a mailable petition to allow citizenship for John and Yoko. Also, the message "John and Yoko forever Peace on earth and goodwill to all men '72" is inscribed in the dead wax on Side 1.
Although the UK release managed a number 11 chart peak, it only went to number 48 in the US. Lennon was reportedly stunned by the album's failure and consequently did not record new music for almost a year.
Critical reception
On release, Some Time in New York City provided a startling contrast for listeners expecting a repeat of the well-received Imagine in 1971. According to author Robert Rodriguez, the new album received "abysmal reviews". In a scathing critique published in Rolling Stone, Stephen Holden wrote that "the Lennons should be commended for their daring", but not before calling the album "incipient artistic suicide". Holden added: "except for 'John Sinclair' the songs are awful. The tunes are shallow and derivative and the words little more than sloppy nursery-rhymes that patronise the issues and individuals they seek to exalt. Only a monomaniacal smugness could allow the Lennons to think that this witless doggerel wouldn't insult the intelligence and feelings of any audience."
Dave Marsh wrote a mixed review for Creem, stating that "it's not half bad. It may be 49.9% bad, but not half." The Milwaukee Sentinel declared that John and Yoko had produced "another crude, superficial look at trendy leftist politics and have plunged even further into their endless echo chamber". In the NME, Tony Tyler presented his album review in the form of an open letter, titled "Lennon, you're a pathetic, ageing revolutionary". After criticising Lennon for "the general tastelessness of the presentation", particularly the album's lyrics and cover art, Tyler concluded: "Don't rely on cant and rigidity. Don't alienate. Stimulate. You know, like you used to."
More recently, Garry Mulholland of Uncut magazine has described Some Time in New York City as "a contender for the worst LP by a major musical figure, its list of '70s left-wing clichés hamstrung by the utter absence of conviction within the melodies and lyrics". Writing in the Boston Phoenix in 2005, Eliot Wilder said that listening to the album was "a painful experience". Although he conceded that Lennon "had his heart in the right place", Wilder opined: "these tracks – pedantic, topical, elitist – show that a latter-day Dylan he was not ... Refer to the Beatles' 'Revolution' or his own 'Give Peace a Chance' if you need a dose of John the Protest Singer." More impressed, Mark Kemp of Paste considered that "the album has been unfairly chastised", identifying "Woman Is the Nigger of the World" as "one of Lennon's finest songs" and Ono's "Born in a Prison" as another highlight.
Legacy
On 30 August 1972, Lennon and Ono performed two benefit concerts for the Willowbrook State School for the mentally challenged at Madison Square Garden, at friend Geraldo Rivera's request. The shows, known as One to One, were filmed and recorded, with the evening show broadcast on ABC Television, and the earlier matinée show compiled for release as the 1986 live album and video, Live in New York City. New York mayor John Lindsay declared the date "One to One Day", and the performances proved to be Lennon's last full live concerts.
Zappa criticised the presentation of the Mothers' performance on Some Time in New York City, as the vocals of Mark Volman and Howard Kaylan had been removed, and Zappa did not receive writing credit for "King Kong", which was wrongly identified on this release as "Jamrag". He and Lennon had also agreed that each would release their own version of the performance, but Zappa was legally prevented from issuing his version, which did not appear until the release of Playground Psychotics in 1992.
After Lennon's death, the album, along with seven other Lennon albums, was reissued by EMI as part of a box set, released in the UK on 15 June 1981. Some Time in New York City was remixed, remastered and reissued in November 2005 as a single CD, removing, in the process, several of the Live Jam cuts, while adding "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" and "Listen, the Snow Is Falling". On this remastered release, "John Sinclair" and "Attica State" were not remixed. In 2010, the album was digitally remastered and reissued on CD in its original double album format. Another remix is slated for 2022.
Track listing
All songs written by John Lennon and Yoko Ono, except where noted.
Side one
"Woman Is the Nigger of the World" – 5:15
"Sisters, O Sisters" (Ono) – 3:46
"Attica State" – 2:54
"Born in a Prison" (Ono) – 4:03
"New York City" (Lennon) – 4:30
Side two
"Sunday Bloody Sunday" – 5:00
"The Luck of the Irish" – 2:56
"John Sinclair" (Lennon) – 3:28
"Angela" – 4:06
"We're All Water" (Ono) – 7:11
Side three
Performed live on 15 December 1969 at the Lyceum Ballroom in London, England for a UNICEF charity concert with George Harrison
"Cold Turkey" (Lennon) – 8:35
"Don't Worry Kyoko" (Ono) – 16:01
Side four
Recorded live on 6 June 1971 at the Fillmore East in New York City with Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention
"Well (Baby Please Don't Go)" (Walter Ward) – 4:41
"Jamrag" – 5:36
"Scumbag" (Lennon, Ono, Frank Zappa) – 4:27
"Aü" – 8:04
Remixed version of Side 4
A remixed version of the live recordings captured on side four of Some Time in New York City was released in 1992 on Frank Zappa's album Playground Psychotics. The remixes make Zappa and his band more prominent in the mix, most notably in the song "Scumbag" where Mark Volman and Howard Kaylan's singing became audible, which it had not been on Some Time in New York City. In some cases the songs were given new titles: "Say Please" and "Aaawk" are edited from "Jamrag" (a longer piece on Some Time in New York City), and "Aü" is retitled "A Small Eternity With Yoko Ono". The songs, which appear as tracks 22 through 26 on disc one of the CD, are denoted as follows:
2005 CD reissue
This remixed/remastered edition, issued on a single disc, omits much of the live material with Zappa (though it is available in a different mix/edit on Zappa's Playground Psychotics) and includes two bonus tracks. Some of the track times, notably for "We're All Water" and "Don't Worry Kyoko", differ from those on the original vinyl LPs.
"Woman Is the Nigger of the World" (Lennon, Ono) – 5:17
"Sisters, O Sisters" (Ono) – 3:48
"Attica State" (Lennon, Ono) – 2:55
"Born in a Prison" (Ono) – 4:05
"New York City" (Lennon) – 4:29
"Sunday Bloody Sunday" (Lennon, Ono) – 5:03
"The Luck of the Irish" (Lennon, Ono) – 2:59
"John Sinclair" (Lennon) – 3:30
"Angela" (Lennon, Ono) – 4:08
"We're All Water" (Ono) – 5:19
"Cold Turkey" (Live Jam) (Lennon) – 8:35
"Don't Worry Kyoko" (Live Jam) (Ono) – 15:20
"Well (Baby Please Don't Go)" (Live Jam) (Ward) – 4:33
Bonus tracks
"Listen, the Snow Is Falling" (Ono) – 3:06
"Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" (Lennon, Ono) – 3:34
Personnel
Studio album
John Lennon – guitars, vocals
Yoko Ono – vocals
Jim Keltner – drums, percussion
Elephant's Memory:
Stan Bronstein – saxophone, flute
Wayne 'Tex' Gabriel – guitar
Richard Frank Jr. – drums, percussion
Adam Ippolito – piano, organ
Gary Van Scyoc – bass guitar
John La Boosca – piano
Live Jam
All credits taken from Lennon's handwritten credits on the Live Jam inner sleeve.
15 December 1969
John Lennon – guitar, vocals
Yoko Ono – bag, vocals
For everyone except himself and Ono, Lennon made up pseudonyms:
Eric Clapton ('Derek Claptoe') – guitar
Delaney & Bonnie ('Bilanie & Donnie') – guitar, percussion (and friends, brass, percussion)
Jim Gordon ('Jim Bordom') – drums
George Harrison ('George Harrisong') – guitar
Nicky Hopkins ('Sticky Topkins') – electric piano (overdubbed in N.Y. as organ was lost)
Bobby Keys ('Robbie Knees') – saxophone
Keith Moon ('Kief Spoon') – drums
Billy Preston ('Billy Presstud') – organ
Klaus Voormann ('Raus Doorman') – bass
Alan White ('Dallas White') – drums
The audience in attendance is credited on the label as "a cast of 1000's" and on the dust jacket as a "star-studded cast of thousands!!"
Uncredited
Jim Price – trumpet
6 June 1971
John Lennon – guitar, vocals
Yoko Ono – bag, vocals
Aynsley Dunbar – drums
Bob Harris – keyboards, vocals
Howard Kaylan – vocals
Jim Pons – bass guitar, vocals
Don Preston – Mini-Moog
Ian Underwood – keyboard, vocals, woodwinds
Mark Volman – vocals
Klaus Voormann – bass guitar, vocals
Frank Zappa – guitar, vocals
Charts
Weekly charts
References
Footnotes
Citations
External links
John Lennon albums
Yoko Ono albums
1972 albums
Live at the Fillmore East albums
Apple Records albums
Albums produced by Phil Spector
Plastic Ono Band albums
1972 live albums
Apple Records live albums
EMI Records albums
EMI Records live albums
Albums produced by John Lennon
Albums produced by Yoko Ono
Political music albums by English artists | [
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236970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20von%20Tirpitz | Alfred von Tirpitz | Alfred Peter Friedrich von Tirpitz (19 March 1849 – 6 March 1930) was a German grand admiral, Secretary of State of the German Imperial Naval Office, the powerful administrative branch of the German Imperial Navy from 1897 until 1916. Prussia never had a major navy, nor did the other German states before the German Empire was formed in 1871. Tirpitz took the modest Imperial Navy and, starting in the 1890s, turned it into a world-class force that could threaten Britain's Royal Navy. However, during World War I, his High Seas Fleet proved unable to end Britain's command of the sea and its chokehold on Germany's economy. The one great engagement at sea, the Battle of Jutland, ended in a narrow German tactical victory but a strategic failure. As the High Seas Fleet's limitations became increasingly apparent during the war, Tirpitz became an outspoken advocate for unrestricted submarine warfare, a policy which would ultimately bring Germany into conflict with the United States. By the beginning of 1916, he was dismissed from office and never regained power.
Family and early life
Tirpitz was born in Küstrin (today Kostrzyn in Poland) in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, the son of lawyer and later judge Rudolf Tirpitz (1811–1905). His mother was the daughter of a doctor. Tirpitz grew up in Frankfurt (Oder). He recorded in his memoirs that as a child he was a mediocre pupil.
Tirpitz spoke English fluently and was sufficiently at home in Britain that he sent his two daughters to Cheltenham Ladies' College.
On 18 November 1884 he married Maria Augusta Lipke (born 11 October 1860 in Schwetz, West Prussia, died after 1941).
On 12 June 1900 he was elevated to the Prussian nobility, becoming von Tirpitz. His son, Oberleutnant zur See Wolfgang von Tirpitz, was taken prisoner of war after the sinking of in the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914. His daughter Ilse von Hassell married diplomat Ulrich von Hassell who was executed in 1944 as an anti-Hitler activist. Their daughter and her young sons were then taken as hostages. She wrote of the experience in A Mother's War.
Naval career
Tirpitz joined the Prussian Navy more by accident than design when a friend announced that he was doing so. Tirpitz decided he liked the idea and with the consent of his parents became a naval cadet at the age of 16, on 24 April 1865. He attended Kiel Naval School. Within a year Prussia was at war with Austria. Tirpitz became a midshipman (Seekadett) on 24 June 1866 and was posted to a sailing ship patrolling the English Channel. In 1866 Prussia became part of the North German Confederation, the navy officially became that of the confederation and Tirpitz joined the new institution on 24 June 1869.
On 22 September 1869 he had obtained the rank of Unterleutnant zur See (sub-lieutenant) and served on board . During the Franco-Prussian War the Prussian Navy was greatly outnumbered and so the ship spent the duration of the war at anchor, much to the embarrassment of the navy. During the early years of Tirpitz's career, Prussia and Great Britain were on good terms and the Prussian Navy spent much time in British ports. Tirpitz reported that Plymouth was more hospitable to German sailors than was Kiel, while it was also easier to obtain equipment and supplies there, which were of better quality than available at home. At this time the British Royal Navy was pleased to assist that of Prussia in its development and Prussian officers had considerable respect for their British counterparts.
Development of torpedoes
Unification of Germany in 1871 again meant a change of name, to the German Imperial Navy. On 25 May 1872 Tirpitz was promoted to Leutnant zur See (lieutenant at sea) and on 18 November 1875 to Kapitänleutnant (captain-lieutenant). In 1877 he was chosen to visit the Whitehead Torpedo development works at Fiume and afterwards was placed in charge of the German torpedo section, later renamed the Torpedo Inspectorate. By 1879 a working device had been produced, but even under demonstration conditions Tirpitz reckoned it was as likely to miss a target as to hit it. On 17 September 1881 he became Korvettenkapitän (corvette captain). From developing torpedoes, Tirpitz moved on to developing torpedo boats to deliver them. The State Secretary for the Navy, Leo von Caprivi, was a distant relation, and Tirpitz now worked with him on the development of tactics. Caprivi envisioned that the boats would be used defensively against their most likely enemy, France, but Tirpitz set about developing plans to attack the French home port of Cherbourg. Tirpitz later described his time with torpedo boats as "the eleven best years of my life".
Strategic development of the navy
In 1887 the torpedo boats escorted Prince Wilhelm to attend the Golden Jubilee celebrations of his grandmother, Queen Victoria. This was the first time Tirpitz met Wilhelm. In July 1888 Caprivi was succeeded by Alexander von Monts. Torpedo boats were no longer considered important, and Tirpitz requested transfer, commanding the cruisers and then . He was promoted to captain (Kapitän zur See) 24 November 1888 and in 1890 became chief of staff of the Baltic Squadron. On one occasion the Kaiser was attending dinner with the senior naval officers at Kiel and asked their opinion on how the navy should develop. Finally the question came to Tirpitz and he advised building battleships. This was an answer which appealed to the Kaiser, and nine months later he was transferred to Berlin to work on a new strategy for creating a high seas fleet. Tirpitz appointed a staff of officers he had known from his time with the torpedo boats and collected together all sorts of vessels as stand-in battleships to conduct exercises to test out tactics. On 1 December 1892 he made a presentation of his findings to the Kaiser. This brought him into conflict with the Navy State Secretary, Admiral Friedrich von Hollmann. Hollmann was responsible for procurement of ships, and had a policy of collecting ships as funding permitted. Tirpitz had concluded that the best fighting arrangement was a squadron of eight identical battleships, rather than any other combination of ships with mixed abilities. Further ships should then be added in groups of eight. Hollmann favoured a mixed fleet including cruisers for long-distance operations overseas. Tirpitz believed that in a war no number of cruisers would be safe unless backed up by sufficient battleships.
Kapitän zur See (captain at sea) Tirpitz became chief of the naval staff in 1892 and was made a Konteradmiral (rear admiral) in 1895.
In autumn 1895, frustrated by the non-adoption of his recommendations, Tirpitz asked to be replaced. The Kaiser, not wishing to lose him, asked instead that he prepare a set of recommendations for ship construction. This was delivered on 3 January 1896, but the timing was bad as it coincided with raids into the Transvaal in Southern Africa by pro-British forces against the pro-German Boers. The Kaiser immediately set his mind to demanding cruisers which could operate at a distance and influence the war. Hollman was tasked with obtaining money from the Reichstag for a building programme, but failed to gain funding for enough ships to satisfy anyone. Imperial Chancellor Hohenlohe saw no sense in naval enlargement and reported back that the Reichstag opposed it. Admiral Gustav von Senden-Bibran, Chief of the Naval Cabinet, advised that the only possibility lay in replacing Hollmann: Wilhelm impulsively decided to appoint Tirpitz.
Meanwhile, however, Hollmann had obtained funding for one battleship and three large cruisers. It was felt that replacing him before the bill had completed approval through the Reichstag would be a mistake. Instead, Tirpitz was placed in charge of the German East Asia Squadron in the Far East but with a promise of appointment as secretary at a suitable moment. The cruiser squadron operated from British facilities in Hong Kong which were far from satisfactory as the German ships always took second place for available docks. Tirpitz was instructed to find a suitable site for a new port, selecting four possible sites. Although he initially favoured the bay at Kiautschou/Tsingtao, others in the naval establishment advocated a different location and even Tirpitz wavered on his commitment in his final report. A "lease" on the land was acquired in 1898 after it was fortuitously occupied by German forces. On 12 March 1896 the Reichstag cut back Hollmann's appropriation of 70 million marks to 58 million, and Hollman offered his resignation. Tirpitz was summoned home and offered the post of secretary of the Imperial Navy office (Reichsmarineamt). He went home the long way, touring the United States on the way and arriving in Berlin 6 June 1897. He was pessimistic of his chances of succeeding with the Reichstag.
State Secretary of the Imperial Navy Office
On 15 June Tirpitz presented a memorandum on the makeup and purpose of the German fleet to the Kaiser. This defined the principal enemy as Great Britain, and the principal area of conflict to be that between Heligoland and the Thames. Cruiser warfare around the globe was deemed impractical because Germany had few bases to resupply ships, while the chief need was for as many battleships as possible to take on the British fleet. A target was outlined for two squadrons of eight battleships, plus a fleet flagship and two reserves. This was to be completed by 1905 and cost 408 million marks, or 58 million per year, the same as the existing budget. The proposal was innovative in several ways. It made a clear statement of naval needs, whereas before the navy had grown piecemeal. It set out the programme for seven years ahead, which neither the Reichstag nor the navy should change. It defined a change in German foreign policy so as to justify the existence of the fleet: Great Britain up to this point had been friendly, now it was officially an enemy. The Kaiser agreed the plan and Tirpitz retired to St Blasien in the Black Forest with a team of naval specialists to draft a naval bill for presentation to the Reichstag. Information about the plan leaked out to Admiral Knorr, head of the Naval High Command. Tirpitz agreed to a joint committee to discuss changes in the navy, but then arranged that it never receive any information. Similarly, he arranged a joint committee with the Treasury State Secretary to discuss finance, which never discussed anything. Meanwhile, he continued his best efforts to convince the Kaiser and Chancellor, so that in due course he could announce the issues had already been decided at a higher level and thereby avoid debate.
Once the bill was nearly complete Tirpitz started a round of visits to obtain support. First he visited the former chancellor and elder statesman, Prince Bismarck. Armed with the announcement that the Kaiser intended to name the next ship launched Furst Bismarck, he persuaded the former chancellor, who had been dismissed from office for disagreement with Wilhelm II, to modestly support the proposals. Tirpitz now visited the King of Saxony, the Prince Regent of Bavaria, the Grand Duke of Baden and Oldenburg and the councils of the Hanseatic towns. On 19 October the draft bill was sent to the printers for presentation to the Reichstag. Tirpitz's approach was to be as accommodating with the deputies as he could. He was patient and good humoured, proceeding on the assumption that if everything was explained carefully, then the deputies would naturally be convinced. Groups were invited to private meetings to discuss the bill. Tours of ships and shipyards were arranged. The Kaiser and Chancellor stressed that the fleet was only intended for protection of Germany, but so that even a first class power might think twice before attacking. Highlights from a letter Prince Bismarck wrote were read out in the Reichstag, though not mentioning passages where he expressed reservations. Papers were circulated showing the relative size of foreign fleets, and how much Germany had fallen behind, particularly when considering the great power of her army compared to others.
A press bureau was created in the Navy Ministry to ensure journalists were thoroughly briefed, and to politely answer any and all objections. Pre-written articles were provided for the convenience of journalists. University professors were invited to speak on the importance of protecting German trade. The Navy League was formed to popularise the idea of world naval power and its importance to the Empire. It was argued that colonies overseas were essential, and Germany deserved her "place in the sun". League membership grew from 78,000 in 1898, to 600,000 in 1901 and 1.1 million by 1914. Especial attention was given to members of the budget committee who would consider the bill in detail. Their interests and connections were analysed to find ways to influence them. Steel magnate Fritz Krupp and shipowner Albert Ballin of the Hamburg-America Line were invited to speak on the benefits of the bill to trade and industry.
Objections were raised that the bill surrendered one of the most important powers of the Reichstag, that of annually scrutinising expenditure. Conservatives felt that expenditure on the navy was wasted, and that if money was available it should go to the army, which would be the deciding factor in any likely war. Eugen Richter of the Liberal Radical Union opposing the bill observed that if it was intended for Germany now seriously to take up the trident to match its other forces then such a small force would not suffice and there would be no end to ship building. August Bebel of the Social Democrats argued that there existed a number of deputies who were Anglophobes and wished to pick a fight with Britain, but that to imagine such a fleet could take on the Royal Navy was insanity and anyone saying it belonged in the madhouse.
Yet by the end of the debates the country was convinced that the bill would and should be passed. On 26 March 1898 it did so, by a majority of 212 to 139. All those around the Kaiser were ecstatic at their success. Tirpitz as navy minister was elevated to a seat on the Prussian Ministry of State. His influence and importance as the man who had accomplished this miracle was assured and he was to remain at the centre of government for the next nineteen years.
Second Naval Bill
One year after the passage of the bill Tirpitz appeared before the Reichstag and declared his satisfaction with it. The specified fleet would still be smaller than the French or British, but would be able to deter the Russians in the Baltic. Within another year all had changed. In October 1899 the Boer War broke out between the British and Boers in South Africa. In January 1900 a British cruiser intercepted three German mail steamers and searched them for war supplies intended for the Boers. Germany was outraged and the opportunity presented itself for a second Naval Bill. The second bill doubled the number of battleships from nineteen to thirty-eight. This would form four squadrons of eight ships, plus two flagships and four reserves. The bill now spanned seventeen years from 1901 to 1917 with the final ships being completed by 1920. This would constitute the second-largest fleet in the world and although no mention was made in the bill of specific enemies, it made several general mentions of a greater power which it was intended to oppose. There was only one navy which could be meant. On 5 December 1899 Tirpitz was promoted to Vizeadmiral (vice admiral). The bill passed on 20 June 1900.
Specifically written into the preamble was an explanation of Tirpitz's risk theory. Although the German fleet would be smaller, it was likely that an enemy with a world spanning empire would not be able to concentrate all its forces in local waters. Even if it could, the German fleet would still be sufficiently powerful to inflict significant damage in any battle, sufficient damage that the enemy would be unable to maintain its other naval commitments and must suffer irreparable harm. Thus no such enemy would risk an engagement. Privately, Tirpitz acknowledged a second risk: that Britain might see the growing German fleet and attack before it grew to a dangerous size. A similar course had been taken before when Lord Nelson sank Danish ships at Copenhagen to prevent them falling into French hands. Tirpitz calculated this danger period would end in 1904 or 1905. In the event, Britain responded to the increased German building programme by building more ships herself and the theoretical danger period extended itself to beyond the start of the Great War. As a reward for the successful bill Tirpitz was ennobled with the hereditary article von before his name in 1900.
Tirpitz noted the difficulties in his relationship with the Kaiser. Wilhelm respected him as the only man who had succeeded in persuading the Reichstag to start and then increase a world class navy, but he remained unpredictable. He was fanatical about the navy, but would come up with wild ideas for improvements, which Tirpitz had to deflect to maintain his objectives. Each summer Tirpitz would go to St Blasien with his aides to work on naval plans, then in September he would travel to the Kaiser's retreat at Rominten, where Tirpitz found he would be more relaxed and willing to listen to a well argued explanation.
Three supplementary naval bills (Novelles) were passed, in June 1906, April 1908 and June 1912. The first followed German diplomatic defeats over Morocco, and added six large cruisers to the fleet. The second followed fears of British encroachment, and reduced the replacement time which a ship would remain in service from 25 to 20 years. The third was caused by the Agadir Crisis where again Germany had to draw back. This time three more battleships were added.
The first naval law caused little alarm in Great Britain. There was already in force a dual power standard defining the size of the British fleet as at least that of the next two largest fleets combined. There was now a new player, but her fleet was similar in size to the other two possible threats, Russia and France, and a number of battleships were already under construction. The second naval law, however, caused serious alarm: eight King Edward VII-class battleships were ordered in response. It was the regularity and efficiency with which Germany was now building ships, which were seen to be as good as any in the world, which raised concern. Information about the design of the new battleships suggested they were only intended to operate within a short range of a home base and not to stay at sea for extended periods. They seemed designed only for operations in the North Sea. The result was that Britain abandoned its policy of isolation which had held force since the time of Nelson and began to look for allies against the growing threat from Germany. Ships were withdrawn from around the world and brought back to British waters, while construction of new ships increased.
Tirpitz Plan
Tirpitz's design to achieve world power status through naval power, while at the same time addressing domestic issues, is referred to as the Tirpitz Plan. Politically, the Tirpitz Plan was marked by the Fleet Acts of 1898, 1900, 1908 and 1912. By 1914, they had given Germany the second-largest naval force in the world (roughly 40% smaller than the Royal Navy). It included seventeen modern dreadnoughts, five battlecruisers, twenty-five cruisers and twenty pre-dreadnought battleships as well as over forty submarines. Although including fairly unrealistic targets, the expansion programme was sufficient to alarm the British, starting a costly naval arms race and pushing the British into closer ties with the French.
Tirpitz developed a "risk theory" whereby, if the German Imperial Navy reached a certain level of strength relative to the British Royal Navy, the British would try to avoid confrontation with Germany (that is, maintain a fleet in being). If the two navies fought, the German Navy would inflict enough damage on the British that the latter ran a risk of losing their naval dominance. Because the British relied on their navy to maintain control over the British Empire, Tirpitz felt they would opt to maintain naval supremacy in order to safeguard their empire, and let Germany become a world power, rather than lose the empire at the cost of keeping Germany less powerful. This theory sparked a naval arms race between Germany and Great Britain in the first decade of the 20th century.
This theory was based on the assumption that Great Britain would have to send its fleet into the North Sea to blockade the German ports (blockading Germany was the only way the Royal Navy could seriously harm Germany), where the German Navy could force a battle. However, due to Germany's geographic location, Great Britain could blockade Germany by closing the entrance to the North Sea in the English Channel and the area between Bergen and the Shetland Islands. Faced with this option a German admiral commented, "If the British do that, the role of our navy will be a sad one", correctly predicting the role the surface fleet would have during the First World War.
Politically and strategically, Tirpitz's risk theory ensured its own failure. By its very nature it forced Britain into measures that would have been previously unacceptable to the British establishment. The necessity to concentrate the fleet against the German threat involved Britain making arrangements with other powers that enabled her to return the bulk of her naval forces to home waters. The first evidence of this is seen in the Anglo-Japanese treaty of 1902 that enabled the battleships of the China squadron to be re-allocated back to Europe. The Japanese fleet, largely constructed in British shipyards, then proceeded to utterly destroy the Russian Navy in the war of 1904–05, removing Russia as a credible maritime opponent. The necessity to reduce the Mediterranean Fleet in order to reinforce the navy in home waters was also a powerful influence in its détente and Entente Cordiale with the French. By forcing the British to come to terms with its most traditional opponent, Tirpitz scuttled his own policy. Britain was no longer at risk from France, and the Japanese destruction of the Russian fleet removed that nation as a naval threat. In the space of a few years, Germany was faced with virtually the whole strength of the Royal Navy deployed against its own fleet, and Britain committed to her list of potential enemies. The Tirpitz risk theory made it more probable that, in any future conflict between the European powers, Britain would be on the side of Germany's foes, and that the full force of the most powerful navy in the world would be concentrated against her fleet.
Tirpitz had been made a Großadmiral (grand admiral) in 1911, without patent (the document that accompanied formal promotions personally signed at this level by the Kaiser himself). At that time, the German Imperial Navy had only four ranks for admirals: rear admiral, (Konteradmiral, equal to a Generalmajor in the army, with no pips on the shoulders); vice admiral (Vizeadmiral, equal to a Generalleutnant, with one pip); admiral (equal to a General der Infanterie, with two pips), and grand admiral (equal to a field marshal). Tirpitz's shoulder boards had four pips, and he never received a grand admiral's baton or the associated insignia.
World War I
Despite the building programme he oversaw, he believed that the war had come too soon for a successful surface challenge to the Royal Navy, as the Fleet Act of 1900 had included a seventeen-year timetable. Unable to direct naval operations from his purely administrative position, Tirpitz became a vocal spokesman for unrestricted U-boat warfare, which he felt could break the British stranglehold on Germany's sea lines of communication. While the German Navy briefly abandoned the observance of prize rules in 1915, this policy was soon reversed following the outcry over the Lusitania sinking. When the restrictions on the submarine war were not lifted, he fell out with the Kaiser and felt compelled to resign on 15 March 1916. He was replaced as Secretary of State of the Imperial Naval Office by Eduard von Capelle.
Despite his support for unrestricted U-boat warfare, Tirpitz placed a low priority on submarine construction during his leadership of the Imperial Naval Office. Ultimately, this decision would result in a severe shortage of newly built U-boats by 1917.
Fatherland Party
In September 1917 Grand Admiral Tirpitz became a co-founder of the Pan-Germanic and nationalist Fatherland Party (Deutsche Vaterlandspartei). The party was organised jointly by Heinrich Claß, Konrad Freiherr von Wangenheim, Tirpitz as chairman and Wolfgang Kapp as his deputy. The party attracted the opponents of a negotiated peace; it organised opposition to the parliamentary majority in the Reichstag, which was seeking peace negotiations. It sought to bring together outside parliament all parties on the political right, which had not previously been done. At its peak, in the summer of 1918, the party had around 1,250,000 members. It proposed both Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff as "people's emperors" of a military state whose legitimacy was based on war and on war aims instead of on the parliamentary government of the Reich. Internally, there were calls for a coup d'etat against the German government, to be led by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, even against the Kaiser if necessary. Tirpitz's experience with the Navy League and with mass political agitation convinced him that the means for a coup was at hand.
Tirpitz considered that one of the main aims of the war must be annexation of new territory in the west, to allow Germany to develop into a world power. This meant holding the Belgian ports of Zeebrugge and Ostend, with an eye to the main enemy, the United Kingdom. He proposed a separate peace treaty with Russia, giving them access to the ocean. Germany would be a great continental state but could maintain its world position only by expanding world trade and continuing the fight against the UK. He complained of indecision and ambiguity in German policy, humanitarian ideas of self-preservation, a policy of appeasement of neutrals at the expense of vital German interests, and begging for peace. He called for vigorous warfare without regard for diplomatic and commercial consequences and supported the most extreme use of weapons, especially unrestricted submarine warfare.
The Fatherland Party had ceased its operations by February 1919.
From 1908 to 1918 Tirpitz served as a member of the Prussian House of Lords.
After 1918
After Germany's defeat Tirpitz supported the right-wing German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei, or DNVP) and sat for it in the Reichstag from 1924 until 1928.
Tirpitz died in Ebenhausen, near Munich, on 6 March 1930. He is buried in the Waldfriedhof in Munich.
Commemoration
The Tirpitz Range on the island of New Hanover in Papua New Guinea takes its name from Alfred von Tirpitz.
Honours
Honorary doctorates from the universities of Göttingen, 16 June 1913; and Greifswald
Honorary doctorate of engineering from the Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg
Freeman of the city of Frankfurt (Oder), 15 January 1917
The German battleship Tirpitz .
Tirpitzia, a genus of plants from China and Asia (the family Linaceae), was named after him in 1921 by Johannes Gottfried Hallier.
German orders and decorations
Foreign orders and decorations
Works
Republished in a single volume by NSNB with an introduction by Erik Empson in 2013 ASIN B00DH2E9LE.
See also
Anglo-German naval arms race
German interest in the Caribbean
Notes
Bibliography
Works
Tirpitz, Alfred von, Erinnerungen (Leipzig: K.F.Koehler, 1919).
Secondary source
Berghahn, V.R. Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (Macmillan, 1973). pp. 25–42
Berghahn, Volker Rolf. Der Tirpitz-Plan (Droste Verlag, 1971). in German
Bird, Keith. "The Tirpitz Legacy: The Political Ideology of German Sea Power," Journal of Military History, July 2005, Vol. 69 Issue 3, pp. 821–825
Bönker, Dirk. Militarism in a Global Age: Naval Ambitions in Germany and the United States before World War I (2012) excerpt and text search; online review
Bönker, Dirk. "Global Politics and Germany's Destiny 'from an East Asian Perspective': Alfred von Tirpitz and the Making of Wilhelmine Navalism." Central European History 46.1 (2013): 61–96.
Clark, Sir Christopher, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (New York: Harper 2013)
Epkenhans, Michael. Tirpitz: Architect of the German High Seas Fleet (2008) excerpt and text search, 106pp
Herwig, Holger H., 'Admirals versus Generals: The War Aims of Imperial German Navy 1914–1918', Central European History 5 (1972), pp. 208–233.
Hobson, Rolf. Imperialism at Sea: Naval Strategic Thought, the Ideology of Sea Power, and the Tirpitz Plan, 1875–1914 (Brill, 2002)
Hulsman, John C. "To Dare More Boldly: The Audacious Story of Political Risk" (Princeton UP, 2018 ) ch 9 on "1898-1912: the promised land fallacy: Von Tirpitz disastrously builds a Navy." Pp 209–232.
Kelly, Patrick J. "Strategy, Tactics, and Turf Wars: Tirpitz and the Oberkommando der Marine, 1892–1895," Journal of Military History, October 2002, Vol. 66 Issue 4, pp. 1033–1060
Kennedy, Paul. The rise and fall of British naval mastery (2017) pp. 205–239.
Primary sources
Marinearchiv, Der Krieg zur zee 1914–1918 (18 vols, Berlin and Frankfurt: E.S.Mittler & Sohn, 1932–66).
Marinearchiv, Der Krieg zur See 1914–1918. Der Handelskrieg mit U-Booten (5 vols., Berlin: E.S. Mittler & Sohn, 1923–66).
External links
1849 births
1930 deaths
People from Kostrzyn nad Odrą
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Imperial German Navy admirals of World War I
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Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers | [
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236971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs%20Treaty | Adams–Onís Treaty | The Adams–Onís Treaty () of 1819, also known as the Transcontinental Treaty, the Florida Purchase Treaty, or the Florida Treaty, was a treaty between the United States and Spain in 1819 that ceded Florida to the U.S. and defined the boundary between the U.S. and New Spain. It settled a standing border dispute between the two countries and was considered a triumph of American diplomacy. It came in the midst of increasing tensions related to Spain's territorial boundaries in North America against the United States and the United Kingdom in the aftermath of the American Revolution; it also came during the Latin American wars of independence.
Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or garrisons, so the Spanish government decided to cede the territory to the United States in exchange for settling the boundary dispute along the Sabine River in Spanish Texas. The treaty established the boundary of U.S. territory and claims through the Rocky Mountains and west to the Pacific Ocean, in exchange for the U.S. paying residents' claims against the Spanish government up to a total of $5 million and relinquishing the U.S. claims on parts of Spanish Texas west of the Sabine River and other Spanish areas, under the terms of the Louisiana Purchase.
The treaty remained in full effect for only 183 days: from February 22, 1821, to August 24, 1821, when Spanish military officials signed the Treaty of Córdoba acknowledging the independence of Mexico; Spain repudiated that treaty, but Mexico effectively took control of Spain's former colony. The Treaty of Limits between Mexico and the United States, signed in 1828 and effective in 1832, recognized the border defined by the Adams–Onís Treaty as the boundary between the two nations.
History
The Adams–Onís Treaty was negotiated by John Quincy Adams, the Secretary of State under U.S. President James Monroe, and the Spanish "minister plenipotentiary" (diplomatic envoy) Luis de Onís y González-Vara, during the reign of King Ferdinand VII.
Florida
Spain had long rejected repeated American efforts to purchase Florida. But by 1818, Spain was facing a troubling colonial situation in which the cession of Florida made sense. Spain had been exhausted by the Peninsular War (1807–1814) against Napoleon in Europe and needed to rebuild its credibility and presence in its colonies. Revolutionaries in Central America and South America had been waging wars of independence since 1810. Spain was unwilling to invest further in Florida, encroached on by American settlers, and it worried about the border between New Spain (a large area including today's Mexico, Central America, and much of the current U.S. western states) and the United States. With minor military presence in Florida, Spain was not able to restrain the Seminole warriors who routinely crossed the border and raided American villages and farms, as well as protected southern slave refugees from slave owners and traders of the southern United States.
The United States from 1810 to 1813 annexed and then invaded most of West Florida up to the Perdido River (modern border river between the states of Alabama and Florida), claiming that the Louisiana Purchase covered West Florida also. General James Wilkinson invaded and occupied Mobile during the War of 1812 and the Spanish never returned to West Florida west of the Perdido River.
While fighting escaped African-American slaves, outlaws, and Native Americans in U.S.-controlled Georgia during the First Seminole War, American General Andrew Jackson had pursued them into Spanish Florida. He built Fort Scott, at the southern border of Georgia (i.e., the U.S.), and used it to destroy the Negro Fort in northwest Florida, whose existence was perceived as an intolerable disruptive risk by Georgia plantation owners.
To stop the Seminole based in East Florida from raiding Georgia settlements and offering havens for runaway slaves, the U.S. Army led increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory. This included the 1817–1818 campaign by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War, after which the U.S. effectively seized control of northeastern Florida; albeit for purposes of lawful government and administration in Georgia and not for the outright annexation of territory for the U.S.
Adams said the U.S. had to take control because Florida (along the border of Georgia and Alabama Territory) had become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them". Spain asked for British intervention, but London declined to assist Spain in the negotiations. Some of President Monroe's cabinet demanded Jackson's immediate dismissal for invading Florida, but Adams realized that his success had given the U.S. a favorable diplomatic position. Adams was able to negotiate very favorable terms.
Louisiana
In 1521, the Spanish Empire created the Virreinato de Nueva España (Viceroyalty of New Spain) to govern its conquests in the Caribbean, North America, and later the Pacific Ocean. In 1682, La Salle claimed Louisiana for France. For the Spanish Empire, this was an intrusion into the northeastern frontier of New Spain. In 1691, Spain created the Province of Tejas in an attempt to inhibit French settlement west of the Mississippi River. Fearing the loss of his American territories in the Seven Years' War, King Louis XV of France ceded Louisiana to King Charles III of Spain with the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1762. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 split Louisiana with the portion east of the Mississippi River becoming a part of British North America and the portion west of the river becoming the District of Louisiana within New Spain. This eliminated the French threat, and the Spanish provinces of Luisiana (Spanish), Tejas, and Santa Fe de Nuevo México coexisted with only loosely defined borders. In 1800, French First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte forced King Charles IV of Spain to cede Louisiana to France with the secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Spain continued to administer Louisiana until 1802 when Spain publicly transferred the district to France. The following year, Napoleon sold the territory to the United States to raise money for his military campaigns.
The United States and the Spanish Empire disagreed over the territorial boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The United States maintained the claim of France that Louisiana included the Mississippi River and "all lands whose waters flow to it". To the west of New Orleans, the United States assumed the French claim to all land east and north of the Sabine River. Spain maintained that all land west of the Calcasieu River and south of the Arkansas River belonged to Tejas and Santa Fe de Nuevo México.
Oregon Country
The British government claimed the region west of the Continental Divide between the undefined borders of Alta California and Russian Alaska on the basis of (1) the third voyage of James Cook in 1778, (2) the Vancouver Expedition in 1791–1795, (3) the solo journey of Alexander Mackenzie to the North Bentinck Arm in 1792–1793, and (4) the exploration of David Thompson in 1807–1812. The Third Nootka Convention of 1794 stipulated that both the British and Spanish would abandon any settlements they had in the Nootka Sound.
The United States claimed essentially the same region on the basis of (1) the voyage of Robert Gray up the Columbia River in 1792, (2) the United States Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806, and (3) the establishment of Fort Astoria on the Columbia River in 1811. On 20 October 1818, the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 was signed setting the border between British North America and the United States east of the Continental Divide along the 49th parallel north and calling for joint Anglo-American occupancy west of the Great Divide. The Anglo-American Convention ignored the Nootka Convention of 1794 which gave Spain joint rights in the region. The convention also ignored Russian settlements in the region. The U.S. government referred to this region as the Oregon Country, while the British government referred to the region as the Columbia District.
Russian America
On 16 July 1741, the crew of the Imperial Russian Navy ship Saint Peter (Святой Пётр), captained by Vitus Bering, sighted Mount Saint Elias, the fourth-highest summit in North America. While dispatched on the Russian Great Northern Expedition, they became the first Europeans to land in northwestern North America. The Russian fur trade soon followed the discovery. By 1812, the Russian Empire claimed Alaska and the Pacific Coast of North America as far south as the Russian settlement of Fortress Ross, only northwest of the Spain's Presidio Real de San Francisco.
New Spain
The Spanish Empire claimed all lands west of the Continental Divide throughout the Americas. Between 1774 and 1779, King Charles III of Spain ordered three naval expeditions north along the Pacific Coast to assert Spain's territorial claims. In July 1774, Juan José Pérez Hernández reached latitude 54°40′ north off the northwestern tip of Langara Island before being forced to turn south. On 15 August 1775, Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra reached the latitude 59°0′ before returning south. On 23 July 1779, Ignacio de Arteaga y Bazán and Bodega y Quadra reached Puerto de Santiago on Isla de la Magdalena (now Port Etches on Hinchinbrook Island) where they held a formal possession ceremony commemorating Saint James, the patron saint of Spain. This marked the northernmost Spanish exploration in the Pacific Ocean.
Between 1788 and 1793, Spain launched several more expeditions north of Alta California. On 24 June 1789, Esteban José Martínez Fernández y Martínez de la Sierra established the Spanish colony of Santa Cruz de Nuca on the northwest coast of Vancouver Island. Asserting Spain's claim of exclusive sovereignty and navigation rights, Martínez seized several ships in Nootka Sound provoking the Nootka Crisis with Great Britain. In negotiations to resolve the crisis, Spain claimed that its Nootka Territory extended north from Alta California to the 61st parallel north and from the Continental Divide west to the 147th meridian west. On 11 January 1794, the Spanish and British governments signed the Third Nootka Convention which called for the abandonment of all permanent settlements on Nootka Sound. Santa Cruz de Nuca was formally abandoned on 28 March 1795. The convention also stipulated that both nations were free to use Nootka Sound as a port and erect temporary structures, but, "neither ... shall form any permanent establishment in the said port or claim any right of sovereignty or territorial dominion there to the exclusion of the other. And Their said Majesties will mutually aid each other to maintain for their subjects free access to the port of Nootka against any other nation which may attempt to establish there any sovereignty or dominion". On 19 August 1796, Spain made the decision to join the French Republic in their war against Great Britain with the signing of the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso, thus ending Spanish and British cooperation in the Americas.
East of the Continental Divide, the Spanish Empire claimed all land south of the Arkansas River that was west of the Medina River and all land south of the Red River that was west of the Calcasieu River. The vast disputed region between the territorial claims of the United States and Spain was occupied primarily by native peoples with very few traders of either Spain or the United States. In the south, the disputed region between the Calcasieu River and the Sabine River encompassed Los Adaes, the first capital of Spanish Texas. The region between the Calcasieu and Sabine rivers become a lawless no man's land. The United States saw great potential in these western lands, and hoped to settle their borders. Spain, seeing the end of New Spain, hoped to employ its territorial claims before it would be forced to grant Mexico its independence (later in 1821). Spain hoped to regain much of its territory after the regional demands for independence subsided.
Details of the treaty
The treaty, consisting of 16 articles was signed in Adams' State Department office at Washington, on February 22, 1819, by John Quincy Adams, U.S. Secretary of State, and Luis de Onís, Spanish minister. Ratification was postponed for two years, because Spain wanted to use the treaty as an incentive to keep the United States from giving diplomatic support to the revolutionaries in South America. As soon as the treaty was signed, the U.S. Senate ratified unanimously; but because of Spain's stalling, a new ratification was necessary and this time there were objections. Henry Clay and other Western spokesmen demanded that Spain also give up Texas. This proposal was defeated by the Senate, which ratified the treaty a second time on February 19, 1821, following ratification by Spain on October 24, 1820. Ratifications were exchanged three days later and the treaty was proclaimed on February 22, 1821, two years after the signing.
The Treaty closed the first era of United States expansion by providing for the cession of East Florida under Article 2; the abandonment of the controversy over West Florida under Article 2 (a portion of which had been seized by the United States); and the definition of a boundary with the Spanish province of Mexico, that clearly made Spanish Texas a part of Mexico, under Article 3, thus ending much of the vagueness in the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. Spain also ceded to the U.S. its claims to the Oregon Country, under Article 3.
The U.S. did not pay Spain for Florida, but instead agreed to pay the legal claims of American citizens against Spain, to a maximum of $5 million, under Article 11. Under Article 12, Pinckney's Treaty of 1795 between the U.S. and Spain was to remain in force. Under Article 15, Spanish goods received exclusive most-favored-nation privileges in the ports at Pensacola and St. Augustine for twelve years.
Under Article 2, the U.S. received ownership of Spanish Florida. Under Article 3, the U.S. relinquished its own claims on parts of Texas west of the Sabine River and other Spanish areas.
Border
Article 3 of the treaty states:
The Boundary Line between the two Countries, West of the Mississippi, shall begin on the Gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the River Sabine in the Sea (), continuing North, along the Western Bank of that River, to the 32d degree of Latitude (); thence by a Line due North to the degree of Latitude, where it strikes the Rio Roxo of Nachitoches, or Red-River (), then following the course of the Rio-Roxo Westward to the degree of Longitude, 100 West from London and 23 from Washington (), then crossing the said Red-River, and running thence by a Line due North to the River Arkansas (), thence, following the Course of the Southern bank of the Arkansas to its source in Latitude, 42. North and thence by that parallel of Latitude to the South-Sea [Pacific Ocean]. The whole being as laid down in Melishe's Map of the United States, published at Philadelphia, improved to the first of January 1818. But if the Source of the Arkansas River shall be found to fall North or South of Latitude 42, then the Line shall run from the said Source () due South or North, as the case may be, till it meets the said Parallel of Latitude 42 (), and thence along the said Parallel to the South Sea ().
At the time the treaty was signed, the course of the Sabine River, Red River, and Arkansas River had only been partially charted. Furthermore, the rivers changed course periodically. It would take many years before the location of the border would be fully determined.
South of the 32nd parallel north, the Spanish Empire and the United States settled for the U.S. claim along the Sabine River. Between the meridians 94°2′45" and 100° west, the parties settled on the Spanish claim along the Red River. West of the 100th meridian west, the parties settled on the Spanish claim along the Arkansas River. From the source of the Arkansas River in the Rocky Mountains, the parties settled on a border due north along that meridian (106°20′37″W) to the 42nd parallel north, thence west along the 42nd parallel to the Pacific Ocean.
Spain won substantial buffer zones around its provinces of Tejas, Santa Fe de Nuevo México, and Alta California in New Spain. While the United States relinquished substantial territory east of Continental Divide, the newly defined border allowed settlement of the southwestern part of the State of Louisiana, the Territory of Arkansaw, and the Territory of Missouri.
Spain relinquished all claims in the Americas north of the 42nd parallel north. This was a historic retreat in its 327-year pursuit of lands in the Americas. The previous Anglo-American Convention of 1818 meant that both American and British citizens could settle land north of the 42nd parallel and west of the Continental Divide. The United States now had a firm foothold on the Pacific Coast and could commence settlement of the jointly occupied Oregon Country (known as the Columbia District to the British government). The Russian Empire also claimed this entire region as part of Russian America.
For the United States, this Treaty (and the Treaty of 1818 with Britain agreeing to joint control of the Pacific Northwest) meant that its claimed territory now extended far west from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. For Spain, it meant that it kept its colony of Texas and also kept a buffer zone between its colonies in California and New Mexico and the U.S. territories. Many historians consider the Treaty to be a great achievement for the U.S., as time validated Adams's vision that it would allow the U.S. to open trade with the Orient across the Pacific.
Informally this new border has been called the "Step Boundary", although the step-like shape of the boundary was not apparent for several decades—the source of the Arkansas, believed to be near the 42nd parallel north, was not known until John C. Frémont located it in the 1840s, hundreds of miles south of the 42nd parallel.
Implementation
Washington set up a commission, 1821 to 1824, that handled American claims against Spain. Many notable lawyers, including Daniel Webster and William Wirt, represented claimants before the commission. Dr. Tobias Watkins served as secretary. During its term, the commission examined 1,859 claims arising from over 720 spoliation incidents, and distributed the $5 million in a basically fair manner.
The treaty reduced tensions with Spain (and after 1821 Mexico), and allowed budget cutters in Congress to reduce the army budget and reject the plans to modernize and expand the army proposed by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun.
The treaty was honored by both sides, although inaccurate maps from the treaty meant that the boundary between Texas and Oklahoma remained unclear for most of the 19th century. The American boundary was expanded in 1848 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico.
Later developments
The treaty was ratified by Spain in 1820, and by the United States in 1821 (during the time that Spain and Mexico were engaged in the prolonged Mexican War of Independence). Luis de Onís published a 152-page memoir on the diplomatic negotiation in 1820, which was translated from Spanish to English by US diplomatic commission secretary, Tobias Watkins in 1821.
Spain finally recognized the independence of Mexico with the Treaty of Córdoba signed on August 24, 1821. While Mexico was not initially a party to the Adams–Onís Treaty, in 1831 Mexico ratified the treaty by agreeing to the 1828 Treaty of Limits with the U.S.
With the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, the Russian Empire ceded its claims south of parallel 54°40′ north to the United States. With the Treaty of Saint Petersburg in 1825, Russia set the southern border of Alaska on the same parallel in exchange for the Russian right to trade south of that border and the British right to navigate north of that border. This set the absolute limits of the Oregon Country/Columbia District between the 42nd parallel north and the parallel 54°40′ north west of the Continental Divide.
By the mid-1830s, a controversy developed regarding the border with Texas, during which the United States demonstrated that the Sabine and Neches rivers had been switched on maps, moving the frontier in favor of Mexico. As a consequence, the eastern boundary of Texas was not firmly established until the independence of the Republic of Texas in 1836. It was not agreed upon by the United States and Mexico until the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, which concluded the Mexican–American War. That treaty also formalized the cession by Mexico of Alta California and today's American Southwest, except for the territory of the later Gadsden Purchase of 1854.
Another dispute occurred after Texas joined the Union. The treaty stated that the boundary between the French claims on the north and the Spanish claims on the south was Rio Roxo de Natchitoches (Red River) until it reached the 100th meridian, as noted on the John Melish map of 1818. But, the 100th meridian on the Melish map was marked some east of the true 100th meridian, and the Red River forked about east of the 100th meridian. Texas claimed the land south of the North Fork, and the United States claimed the land north of the South Fork (later called the Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River). In 1860 Texas organized the area as Greer County. The matter was not settled until a United States Supreme Court ruling in 1896 upheld federal claims to the territory, after which it was added to the Oklahoma Territory.
The treaty gave rise to a later border dispute between the states of Oregon and California, which remains unresolved. Upon statehood in 1850, California established the 42nd parallel as its constitutional de jure border as it had existed since 1819 when the territory was part of Spanish Mexico. In an 1868–1870 border survey following the admission of Oregon as a state, errors were made in demarcating and marking the Oregon-California border, creating a dispute that continues to this day.
In 2020, a hoax appeared in Spain according to which, in 2055, the Adams–Onís Treaty would expire and Florida would be returned to Spain by the United States, which is false.
See also
List of treaties
Spain–United States relations
Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest
Stephen H. Long's Expedition of 1820, an outcome of the treaty
Republic of East Florida
Footnotes
References
Further reading
, the standard history.
.
Sources
Avalon Project – Treaty Text
Text of the Adams–Onís Treaty
External links
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Adams–Onís Treaty
1819 treaties
Boundary treaties
New Spain
Missouri Territory
Spanish Florida
Spanish Texas
Treaties of the Spanish Empire
Treaties of the United States
Mexico–United States border
1819 in New Spain
1819 in the United States
1819 in Alta California
16th United States Congress
History of United States expansionism
Pre-statehood history of Florida
Spain–United States relations
Red River of the South
February 1819 events
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|
236975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interview | Interview | An interview is a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the other provides answers. In common parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks questions to which the interviewee responds, usually providing information. That information may be used or provided to other audiences immediately or later. This feature is common to many types of interviews – a job interview or interview with a witness to an event may have no other audience present at the time, but the answers will be later provided to others in the employment or investigative process. An interview may also transfer information in both directions.
Interviews usually take place face-to-face and in person but the parties may instead be separated geographically, as in videoconferencing or telephone interviews. Interviews almost always involve spoken conversation between two or more parties. In some instances a "conversation" can happen between two persons who type their questions and answers.
Interviews can be unstructured, free-wheeling and open-ended conversations without predetermined plan or prearranged questions. One form of unstructured interview is a focused interview in which the interviewer consciously and consistently guides the conversation so that the interviewee's responses do not stray from the main research topic or idea. Interviews can also be highly structured conversations in which specific questions occur in a specified order. They can follow diverse formats; for example, in a ladder interview, a respondent's answers typically guide subsequent interviews, with the object being to explore a respondent's subconscious motives. Typically the interviewer has some way of recording the information that is gleaned from the interviewee, often by keeping notes with a pencil and paper, or with a video or audio recorder. Interviews usually have a limited duration, with a beginning and an ending.
The traditional two-person interview format, sometimes called a one-on-one interview, permits direct questions and follow-ups, which enables an interviewer to better gauge the accuracy and relevance of responses. It is a flexible arrangement in the sense that subsequent questions can be tailored to clarify earlier answers. Further, it eliminates possible distortion due to other parties being present.
Face to face interviewing helps both parties to interact and form a connection, and understand the other. Further, face to face interview sessions can be more enjoyable.
Etymology
Contexts
Interviews can happen in a wide variety of contexts:
Employment. A job interview is a formal consultation for evaluating the qualifications of the interviewee for a specific position. One type of job interview is a case interview in which the applicant is presented with a question or task or challenge, and asked to resolve the situation. Candidates may be treated to a mock interview as a training exercise to prepare the respondent to handle questions in the subsequent 'real' interview. A series of interviews may be arranged, with the first interview sometimes being a short screening interview, followed by more in-depth interviews, usually by company personnel who can ultimately hire the applicant. Technology has enabled new possibilities for interviewing; for example, video telephony has enabled inteviewing applicants from afar.
Psychology. Psychologists use a variety of interviewing methods and techniques to try to understand and help their patients. In a psychiatric interview, a psychiatrist or psychologist or nurse asks a battery of questions to complete what is called a psychiatric assessment. Sometimes two people are interviewed by an interviewer, with one format being called couple interviews. Criminologists and detectives sometimes use cognitive interviews on eyewitnesses and victims to try to ascertain what can be recalled specifically from a crime scene, hopefully before the specific memories begin to fade in the mind.
Marketing and Academic. In marketing research and academic research, interviews are used in a wide variety of ways as a method to do extensive personality tests. Interviews are the most used form of data collection in qualitative research. Interviews are used in marketing research as a tool that a firm may utilize to gain an understanding of how consumers think. Consumer research firms sometimes use computer-assisted telephone interviewing to randomly dial phone numbers to conduct highly structured telephone interviews, with scripted questions and responses entered directly into the computer.
Journalism and other media. Typically, reporters covering a story in journalism conduct interviews over the phone and in person to gain information for subsequent publication. Reporters also interview government officials and political candidates for broadcast. In a talk show, a radio or television "host" interviews one or more people, with the topic usually chosen by the host, sometimes for the purposes of entertainment, sometimes for informational purposes. Such interviews are often recorded.
Other situations. Sometimes college representatives or alumni conduct college interviews with prospective students as a way of assessing a student's suitability while offering the student a chance to learn more about a college. Some services specialize in coaching people for interviews. Embassy officials may conduct interviews with applicants for student visas before approving their visa applications. Interviewing in legal contexts is often called interrogation. Debriefing is another kind of interview.
Blind interview
In a blind interview the identity of the interviewee is concealed so as to reduce interviewer bias. Blind interviews are sometimes used in the software industry and are standard in orchestral auditions. Blind interviews have been shown in some cases to increase the hiring of minorities and women.
Interviewer bias
The relationship between the interviewer and interviewee in research settings can have both positive and negative consequences. Their relationship can bring deeper understanding of the information being collected, however this creates a risk that the interviewer will be unable to be unbiased in their collection and interpretation of information. Bias can be created from the interviewers perception of the interviewee, or from the interviewee's perception of the interviewer. Additionally, a researcher can bring biases to the table based on the researcher’s mental state, their preparedness for conducting the research, and the researcher conducting inappropriate interviews. Interviewers can use various practices known in qualitative research to mitigate interviewer bias. These practices include subjectivity, objectivity, and reflexivity. Each of these practices allows the interviewer, or researcher, the opportunity to use their bias to enhance their work by gaining a deeper understanding of the problem they are studying.
See also
Repertory grid interview
In research
Telephone interview
Computer assisted telephone interviewing
Interview (research)
Knowledge transfer
Online interview
Mall intercept interview
Qualitative research interview
Structured interview
Unstructured interview
In journalism and media
Interview (journalism)
Talk show
In other contexts
College interview
Reference interview, between a librarian and a library user
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|
236978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%20A | Model A | Model A may refer to:
Ford Model A (1927–31), a model of car built by the Ford Motor Company
Ford Model A (1903–04), a model of car built by the Ford Motor Company
One of the letter-series models of Farmall tractors
John Deere Model A, a model of John Deere tractor build by Deere & Company
A structural model of personality in Socionics
A character mode in the video game Mega Man ZX Advent
Chu Hummingbird Model A, an experimental co-axial helicopter
Ritz Model A, ultralight aircraft
Wright Model A, an early aircraft
Model A (band), American music group
See also
Class A (disambiguation)
Type A (disambiguation) | [
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236981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniote | Amniote | Amniotes are a clade of tetrapod vertebrates that comprise sauropsids (including reptiles and birds) and synapsids (including mammals). They are distinguished by a membrane (amnion) protecting the embryo and a lack of a larval stage. Because of this trait, amniotes lay eggs on land or retain them within the mother, unlike anamniotes (fishes and amphibians), which typically lay eggs in water. Older sources, particularly before the 20th century, may refer to amniotes as "higher vertebrates" and anamniotes as "lower vertebrates", based on the antiquated idea of the evolutionary great chain of being. The term amniote comes from the Greek ἀμνίον amnion, "membrane surrounding the fetus", and earlier "bowl in which the blood of sacrificed animals was caught", from ἀμνός amnos, "lamb".
The amnion comprises several extensive membranes. In eutherian mammals (such as humans), these include the amniotic sac that surrounds the fetus. The amnion is a critical divergence within vertebrates that allows the embryos to survive out of the water. This enabled amniotes to reproduce on land and so move into drier environments—free of the need to return to water for reproduction as amphibians. The eggs could also "breathe" and cope with wastes, allowing the eggs and individuals to evolve into larger forms.
The first amniotes, referred to as "basal amniotes", resembled small lizards and evolved from the amphibian reptiliomorphs about 312 million years ago, in the Carboniferous geologic period. Amniotes spread around Earth's land and became the dominant land vertebrates. They soon diverged into synapsids and sauropsids, which persist today. The oldest known fossil synapsid is Protoclepsydrops from about 312 million years ago, while the oldest known sauropsid is probably Paleothyris, in the order Captorhinida, from the Middle Pennsylvanian epoch (c. 306–312 million years ago).
Description
Zoologists characterize amniotes in part by embryonic development that includes the formation of several extensive membranes, the amnion, chorion, and allantois. Amniotes develop directly into a (typically) terrestrial form with limbs and a thick stratified epithelium (rather than first entering a feeding larval tadpole stage followed by metamorphosis, as amphibians do). In amniotes, the transition from a two-layered periderm to a cornified epithelium is triggered by thyroid hormone during embryonic development, rather than by metamorphosis. The unique embryonic features of amniotes may reflect specializations for eggs to survive drier environments; or the increase in size and yolk content of eggs may have permitted, and coevolved with, direct development of the embryo to a large size.
Adaptation for terrestrial living
Features of amniotes evolved for survival on land include a sturdy but porous leathery or hard eggshell and an allantois that facilitates respiration while providing a reservoir for disposal of wastes. Their kidneys (metanephros) and large intestines are also well-suited to water retention. Most mammals do not lay eggs, but corresponding structures develop inside the placenta.
The ancestors of true amniotes, such as Casineria kiddi, which lived about 340 million years ago, evolved from amphibian reptiliomorphs and resembled small lizards. At the late Devonian mass extinction (360 million years ago), all known tetrapods were essentially aquatic and fish-like. Because the reptiliomorphs were already established 20 million years later when all their fishlike relatives were extinct, it appears they separated from the other tetrapods somewhere during Romer's gap, when the adult tetrapods became fully terrestrial (some forms would later become secondarily aquatic). The modest-sized ancestors of the amniotes laid their eggs in moist places, such as depressions under fallen logs or other suitable places in the Carboniferous swamps and forests; and dry conditions probably do not account for the emergence of the soft shell. Indeed, many modern-day amniotes require moisture to keep their eggs from desiccating. Although some modern amphibians lay eggs on land, all amphibians lack advanced traits like an amnion. The amniotic egg formed through a series of evolutionary steps. After internal fertilization and the habit of laying eggs in terrestrial environments became a reproduction strategy amongst the amniote ancestors, the next major breakthrough appears to have involved a gradual replacement of the gelatinous coating covering the amphibian egg with a fibrous shell membrane. This allowed the egg to increase both its size and in the rate of gas exchange, permitting a larger, metabolically more active embryo to reach full development before hatching. Further developments, like extraembryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, and allantois) and a calcified shell, were not essential and probably evolved later. It has been suggested that shelled terrestrial eggs without extraembryonic membranes could still not have been more than about 1 cm (0.4 inch) in diameter because of diffusion problems, like the inability to get rid of carbon dioxide if the egg was larger. The combination of small eggs and the absence of a larval stage, where posthatching growth occurs in anamniotic tetrapods before turning into juveniles, would limit the size of the adults. This is supported by the fact that extant squamate species that lay eggs less than 1 cm in diameter have adults whose snout-vent length is less than 10 cm. The only way for the eggs to increase in size would be to develop new internal structures specialized for respiration and for waste products. As this happened, it would also affect how much the juveniles could grow before they reached adulthood.
A similar pattern can be seen in modern amphibians. Frogs that have evolved terrestrial reproduction and direct development have both smaller adults and fewer and larger eggs compared to their relatives that still reproduce in water.
The egg membranes
Fish and amphibian eggs have only one inner membrane, the embryonic membrane. Evolution of the amniote egg required increased exchange of gases and wastes between the embryo and the atmosphere. Structures to permit these traits allowed further adaption that increased the feasible size of amniote eggs and enabled breeding in progressively drier habitats. The increased size of eggs permitted increase in size of offspring and consequently of adults. Further growth for the latter, however, was limited by their position in the terrestrial food-chain, which was restricted to level three and below, with only invertebrates occupying level two. Amniotes would eventually experience adaptive radiations when some species evolved the ability to digest plants and new ecological niches opened up, permitting larger body-size for herbivores, omnivores and predators.
Amniote traits
While the early amniotes resembled their amphibian ancestors in many respects, a key difference was the lack of an otic notch at the back margin of the skull roof. In their ancestors, this notch held a spiracle, an unnecessary structure in an animal without an aquatic larval stage. There are three main lines of amniotes, which may be distinguished by the structure of the skull and in particular the number of temporal fenestrae (openings) behind each eye. In anapsids, the ancestral condition, there are none, in synapsids (mammals and their extinct relatives) there is one, and most diapsids (including birds, crocodilians, squamates, and tuataras), have two. Turtles were traditionally classified as anapsids because they lack fenestrae, but molecular testing firmly places them in the diapsid line of descent - they therefore secondarily lost their fenestrae.
Post-cranial remains of amniotes can be identified from their Labyrinthodont ancestors by their having at least two pairs of sacral ribs, a sternum in the pectoral girdle (some amniotes have lost it) and an astragalus bone in the ankle.
Definition and classification
Amniota was first formally described by the embryologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866 on the presence of the amnion, hence the name. A problem with this definition is that the trait (apomorphy) in question does not fossilize, and the status of fossil forms has to be inferred from other traits.
Traditional classification
Classifications of the amniotes have traditionally recognised three classes based on major traits and physiology:
Class Reptilia (reptiles)
Subclass Anapsida ("proto-reptiles", possibly including turtles)
Subclass Diapsida (majority of reptiles, progenitors of birds)
Subclass Euryapsida (plesiosaurs, placodonts, and ichthyosaurs)
Subclass Synapsida (mammal-like reptiles, progenitors of mammals)
Class Aves (birds)
Subclass Archaeornithes (reptile-like birds, progenitors of all other birds)
Subclass Enantiornithes (early birds with an alternative shoulder joint)
Subclass Hesperornithes (toothed aquatic flightless birds)
Subclass Ichthyornithes (toothed, but otherwise modern birds)
Subclass Neornithes (all living birds)
Class Mammalia (mammals)
Subclass Prototheria (Monotremata, egg-laying mammals)
Subclass Theria (metatheria (such as marsupials) and eutheria (such as placental mammals))
This rather orderly scheme is the one most commonly found in popular and basic scientific works. It has come under critique from cladistics, as the class Reptilia is paraphyletic—it has given rise to two other classes not included in Reptilia.
Classification into monophyletic taxa
A different approach is adopted by writers who reject paraphyletic groupings. One such classification, by Michael Benton, is presented in simplified form below.
Series Amniota
Class Synapsida
A series of unassigned families, corresponding to Pelycosauria
Order Therapsida
Class Mammalia – mammals
Class Reptilia
Subclass Parareptilia
Family Mesosauridae †
Family Millerettidae †
Family Bolosauridae †
Family Procolophonidae †
Order Pareiasauromorpha
Family Nycteroleteridae †
Family Pareiasauridae †
Subclass Eureptilia
Family Captorhinidae †
Infraclass Diapsida
Family Araeoscelididae †
Family Weigeltisauridae †
Order Younginiformes †
Infraclass Neodiapsida
Order Testudinata
Suborder Testudines – turtles
Infraclass Lepidosauromorpha
Unnamed infrasubclass
Infraclass Ichthyosauria †
Order Thalattosauria †
Superorder Lepidosauriformes
Order Sphenodontida – tuatara
Order Squamata – lizards & snakes
Infrasubclass Sauropterygia †
Order Placodontia †
Order Eosauropterygia †
Suborder Pachypleurosauria †
Suborder Nothosauria †
Order Plesiosauria †
Infraclass Archosauromorpha
Family Trilophosauridae †
Order Rhynchosauria †
Order Protorosauria †
Division Archosauriformes
Subdivision Archosauria
Infradivision Crurotarsi
Order Phytosauria†
Family Ornithosuchidae †
Family Stagonolepididae †
Family Rauisuchidae †
Superfamily Poposauroidea †
Superorder Crocodylomorpha
Order Crocodylia – crocodilians
Infradivision Avemetatarsalia
Infrasubdivision Ornithodira
Order Pterosauria †
Family Lagerpetidae †
Family Silesauridae †
Superorder Dinosauria – dinosaurs
Order Ornithischia †
Order Saurischia
Suborder Theropoda - theropods
Class Aves – birds
Phylogenetic classification
With the advent of cladistics, other researchers have attempted to establish new classes, based on phylogeny, but disregarding the physiological and anatomical unity of the groups. Unlike Benton, for example, Jacques Gauthier and colleagues forwarded a definition of Amniota in 1988 as "the most recent common ancestor of extant mammals and reptiles, and all its descendants". As Gauthier makes use of a crown group definition, Amniota has a slightly different content than the biological amniotes as defined by an apomorphy.
Cladogram
The cladogram presented here illustrates the phylogeny (family tree) of amniotes, and follows a simplified version of the relationships found by Laurin & Reisz (1995), with the exception of turtles, which more recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies placed firmly within diapsids. The cladogram covers the group as defined under Gauthier's definition.
References
Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances
Taxa named by Ernst Haeckel | [
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|
236984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timocharis | Timocharis | Timocharis of Alexandria ( or Τιμοχάρης, gen. Τιμοχάρους; c. 320–260 BC) was a Greek astronomer and philosopher. Likely born in Alexandria, he was a contemporary of Euclid.
Work
What little is known about Timocharis comes from citations by Ptolemy in the Almagest. These indicate that Timocharis worked in Alexandria during the 290s and 280s BC. Ptolemy lists the declination of 18 stars as recorded by Timocharis or Aristillus in roughly the year 290 BC. Between 295 and 272 BC, Timocharis recorded four lunar occultations and the passage of the planet Venus across a star. These were recorded using both the Egyptian and Athenian calendars. The observed stellar passage by Venus may have occurred on October 12, 272 BC when the planet came within 15 arcminutes of the star η Virginis.
The observations by Timocharis are among the oldest Greek records that can be assigned a specific date. They are only exceeded by records of the summer solstice of 432 BC, as noted by Euctemon and Meton. Timocharis worked with Aristillus in an astronomical observatory that was most likely part of the Library of Alexandria. Their equipment would have been simple, most likely consisting of gnomons, sundials and an armillary sphere. The two were contemporaries of Aristarchus of Samos, but it is unclear whether there was any association between Timocharis and Aristarchus.
During his astronomical observations, Timocharis recorded that the star Spica was located 8° west of the Autumnal equinox. Later, Hipparchus observed that Spica was only 6° west of the Autumnal equinox. Hipparchus was able to deduce the period during which Timocharis made his observations based upon the records of earlier lunar eclipses. From this difference, Hipparchus discovered that the longitudes of the stars had changed over time, which led him to determine the first value of the precession of the equinoxes as no less than 1/100° per year.
In approximately 3rd century BC, with the help of Aristillus, he created the first star catalogue in the Western world.
He is regarded as the first astronomer to have made a recorded mention of the planet Mercury.
The crater Timocharis on the Moon is named after him.
References
320s BC births
260 BC deaths
3rd-century BC Greek people
Ancient Greek astronomers | [
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|
236986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens%2C%20Pas-de-Calais | Lens, Pas-de-Calais | Lens (; ) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. It is one of the main towns of Hauts-de-France along with Lille, Valenciennes, Amiens, Roubaix, Tourcoing, Arras and Douai. The inhabitants are called Lensois ().
Metropolitan area
Lens belongs to the intercommunality of Lens-Liévin, which consists of 36 communes, with a total population of 250,000. Lens, along with Douai, forms the metropolitan area of Douai-Lens, whose population at the 1999 census was 552,682.
History
Lens was initially a fortification from the Norman invasions. In 1180, it was owned by the Count of Flanders, and sovereignty was exercised by the Crown of France. In the 13th century, Lens received a charter from Louis VIII of France, allowing it to become a city. The Flemish razed the city in 1303. Prior to this, the city's population relied on its markets. In 1526, Lens was made part of the Spanish Netherlands under the ownership of the French monarchy, and only passed back to France on 7 November 1659 with the Treaty of the Pyrenees.
In 1849, coal was discovered in Lens after surveys were carried out at Annay, Courrières and Loos-en-Gohelle. This led to the expansion of the city into an important industrial center. The Lens Mining Company was founded in 1852 and experienced large profits. The city was largely destroyed in the First World War and half of the population perished. In World War II, the Allies bombarded the city from the air, leaving 500 dead.
Approximately nine kilometres from Lens, the Canadian National Vimy Memorial was opened in 1936, dedicated to the Battle of Vimy Ridge (part of the Battle of Arras) and the First World War Canadian soldiers who lost their lives during the war; the Memorial is also the site of two Canadian cemeteries. The centennial commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge was held at the Memorial on 9 April 2017. The official ceremony included comments from Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Governor General David Johnston as representative of the Monarchy of Canada, Prince Charles as representative of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry, the President of France François Hollande, and the Prime Minister of France Bernard Cazeneuve.
The last coal mine in Lens closed in 1986. Since 2012, Lens has been the location of the Louvre-Lens art museum.
Population
Transport
The Lens railway station, built in 1927, is served by regional trains towards Lille, Arras, Douai, Dunkirk, Calais and Valenciennes. It is also connected to the TGV network, with high speed trains to Paris. It is served by the Lens-Béthune bus network, with bus services running across Lens and connecting it to nearby towns.
Sport
Football club RC Lens plays in the town. Their stadium, Stade Bollaert-Delelis, was used for UEFA Euro 1984, the 1998 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016 and the 1999 Rugby World Cup and the 2007 Rugby World Cup.
Gallery
See also
Stade Bollaert-Delelis
Communes of the Pas-de-Calais department
:Category:Counts of Lens
Institut de génie informatique et industriel
References
INSEE commune file
External links
Official web site
Communauté d'Agglomeration of Lens-Liévin
Communes of Pas-de-Calais
Subprefectures in France
County of Artois | [
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|
236988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salam%20Pax | Salam Pax | Salam Pax is the pseudonym of Salam Abdulmunem (), aka Salam al-Janabi (), under which he became the "most famous blogger in the world" during and after the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Along with a massive readership, his site "Where is Raed?" received notable media attention. The pseudonym consists of the word for "peace" in Arabic (salām) and in Latin (pax). His was one of the first instances of an individual's blog having a wide audience and impact.
Bio
Salam Abdulmunem (the name he uses now, based on Abd al-Munim) was born to a well-to-do secular family in Baghdad in 1973. His father Adnan Abd al-Munim al-Janabi, a Sunni, worked for OPEC, his mother was a Shi'ite, while Salam himself became skeptical of religion. He travelled to Vienna, Austria, with his parents when he was 5, the family returned to Baghdad five years later. At 16 years old Salam returned to Austria alone in order to study at the Vienna International School where he became fluent in English in addition to German and his native Arabic.
When he went through his yearly allowance from back home in a month, his family brought him to Iraq in 1995, where Salam continued his study of architecture at the University of Baghdad. He described the first two years as the most difficult period in his life:
I felt lost somewhere between the East and the West. I did not know where I belonged for a long time.
After graduation, he worked for the Baghdad office of a Beirut, Lebanon, architectural consultancy and as an occasional interpreter for foreign journalists before and during the invasion of Iraq, when he became a successful English-language blogger under the name Salam Pax and a contributor to The Guardian beginning from 4 June 2003. He moved to London in 2007, where he took up journalism at City University London, and then lived in Beirut. Salam Abdulmunem returned to Baghdad in 2009 and started working as Communications Officer for UNICEF in Iraq in 2010.
Where is Raed?
In his blog, Salam discussed his friends, disappearances of people under the government of Saddam Hussein, the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and his work as an interpreter for journalist Peter Maass. The title of Salam's site referred to his friend Raed Jarrar, who was working on his master's degree in Jordan at that time. Raed did not respond promptly to e-mails, so Salam set up the weblog for him to read. Salam continued to post updates to the site even after it was temporarily blocked in Iraq. During the war, he gave accounts of bombings and other attacks from his suburb of Baghdad until his Internet access (and the electrical grid) was interrupted. Salam remained offline for weeks, writing his diary entries on paper in order to post them later.
Putting an end to earlier doubts and speculations about the blog's authenticity, The Guardian newspaper tracked its author down in May 2003 and printed a story confirming that the person behind the pseudonym Salam Pax indeed lived in Iraq, that Salam was his real first (given) name, and that he was a 29-year-old architect. Subsequent entries discussed the chaotic postwar economy, and a June 1, 2003, post appeared to celebrate an anarchist effort, centered in the western Al-Adel Neighborhood of Baghdad, to provide free Internet access to all of Iraq. It turned out not to be instigated by political anarchists, but by Iraqis who ran the prewar Internet cafes in Baghdad for Uruknet, the former government ISP.
The Baghdad Blog and other reporting
In 2003 Atlantic Books, in association with The Guardian, published a book based on "Where is Raed?" under the title The Baghdad Blog (). It comprises Salam's blog entries from September 2002 to June 2003 with footnotes.
In August 2004, after not having updated his previous blog for several months, Pax started a second blog titled "shut up you fat whiner!" He also worked as a journalist for The Guardian, writing columns and featured articles. In October 2004 he was sent to the United States by The Guardian to report on the American presidential race and current thought there on the subject of Iraq.
In February 2005 a series of filmed reports by Salam Pax, produced by Guardian Films and transmitted by the BBC's Newsnight television programme, won the Royal Television Society Award for Innovation. In his Newsnight report broadcast in October 2005, he interviewed Iraqi Member of Parliament Adnan al-Janabi, a Sunni moderate who served as vice-chair of the constitutional committee, about the proposed Iraqi constitution and revealed that al-Janabi was his father. Salam also mentioned that his mother was Shia, and described his family as being secular in political orientation.
Quotes
"23/3 8:30pm (day4) we start counting the hours from the moment one of the news channels report that the B52s have left their airfield. It takes them around 6 hours to get to Iraq. On the first day of the bombing it worked precisely. Yesterday we were a bit surprised that after 6 hours bombs didn't start falling. The attacks on Baghdad were much less than two days ago. We found out today in the news that the city of Tikrit got the hell bombed out of it. Today the B52s took off at 3pm, in half an hour we will know whether it is Baghdad tonight or another city."
"One day, like in Afghanistan, those journalists will get bored and go write about Syria or Iran; Iraq will be off your media radar. Out of sight, out of mind. Lucky you, you have that option. I have to live it."
"There were days when the Red Crescent was begging for volunteers to help in taking the bodies of dead people off the city street and bury them properly. The hospital grounds have been turned to burial grounds.."
"You can follow the trail of the foreigners by how much things cost in a certain district."
"Anyway, all that doesn't matter now. Saddam is gone, thanks to you. Was it worth it? Be assured it was. We all know that it got to a point where we would have never been rid of Saddam without foreign intervention; I just wish it would have been a bit better planned."
Notes and references
See also
Riverbend (blogger)
External links
Blogs
Where is Raed? - Salam Pax's original blog, 12/2002-4/2004.
Photo, Where is Raed? - Salam Pax's accompanying photoblog, 6-7/2003.
shut up you fat whiner! - Salam Pax's blog, 8/2004-7/2006.
Mind the Globe (at mindtheglo.be, now defunct) - London news site launched by Salam Pax and other CUL students, 5-6/2008.
Salam Pax: the Baghdad Blogger - 8/2004-4/2009, with archived "Where is Raed?" (12/2002-4/2004).
Raed Jarrar's blog - Raed in the Middle.
Interviews
Sarah Montague, How have the events of the past week affected daily life for Iraqis?, Today, 25 February 2006, BBC Radio 4. - The interview begins 3' into the clip.
Andrew Denton, Salam Pax, Enough Rope, 17 May 2004, ABC Television, Australia.
Terry Gross, The Baghdad Blogger Salam Pax, Fresh Air, 18 September 2003, NPR.
(Webchat), Baghdad War Diary, Today, 9 September 2003, BBC Radio 4.
Sarah Montague, The Most Famous Web Diarist in the World - Salam Pax. Today, 9 September 2003, BBC Radio 4.
Articles
CNN World's Untold Stories - Baghdad Blogger Salam Pax: Part 2, 17 April 2007.
CNN World's Untold Stories - Baghdad Blogger Salam Pax: Part 1, 11 April 2007.
Salam Pax, "The Baghdad Blogger Goes to Washington: Day One," The Guardian, 22 October 2004.
Salam Pax, "Baghdad Blogger," The Guardian, 4 June 2003.
Peter Maass, "Salam Pax Is Real," Slate, 2 June 2003.
Rory McCarthy, "Salam's Story," The Guardian, 30 May 2003.
Daniel Zalewski, "A Baghdad Blogger." The New Yorker, 3 March 2003.
Videos
Don Arbor, Salam Pax (Peace): A Peace Anthem for our Time, released February 2008.
Civilians in war
Living people
Iraqi bloggers
Iraqi journalists
Writers from Baghdad
1973 births
Anonymous bloggers
Warblogs
University of Baghdad alumni
Alumni of City, University of London | [
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236994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20H.%20Humphrey%20Metrodome | Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome | The Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome (commonly called the Metrodome) was a domed sports stadium located in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota. It opened in 1982 as a replacement for Metropolitan Stadium, the former home of the National Football League's (NFL) Minnesota Vikings and Major League Baseball's (MLB) Minnesota Twins, and Memorial Stadium, the former home of the Minnesota Golden Gophers football team.
The Metrodome was the home of the Vikings from 1982 to 2013, the Twins from 1982 to 2009, the National Basketball Association's (NBA) Minnesota Timberwolves in their 1989–90 inaugural season, the Golden Gophers football team from 1982 to 2008, and the occasional home of the Golden Gophers baseball team from 1985 to 2010 and their full-time home in 2012. It was also the home of the Minnesota Strikers of the North American Soccer League in 1984. The Vikings played at the University of Minnesota's TCF Bank Stadium for the 2014 and 2015 NFL seasons, ahead of the planned opening of U.S. Bank Stadium in 2016.
The stadium had a fiberglass fabric roof that was self-supported by air pressure and was the third major sports facility to have this feature (the first two being the Pontiac Silverdome and the Carrier Dome). The Metrodome was similar in design to the former RCA Dome and to BC Place, though BC Place was reconfigured with a retractable roof in 2010. The Metrodome was the inspiration for the Tokyo Dome in Tokyo, Japan. The stadium was the only facility to have hosted a Super Bowl (1992), World Series (1987, 1991), MLB All-Star Game (1985) and NCAA Division I Basketball Final Four (1992, 2001).
The Metrodome had several nicknames such as "The Dome", "The Thunderdome", and "The Homer Dome." Preparation for the demolition of the Metrodome began the day after the facility hosted its final home game for the Minnesota Vikings on December 29, 2013, and the roof was deflated and demolition began on January 18, 2014. The Metrodome was torn down in sections while construction of U.S. Bank Stadium began.
History
By the early 1970s, the Minnesota Vikings were unhappy with Metropolitan Stadium's relatively small capacity for football. Before the AFL-NFL merger, the NFL had declared that stadiums with a capacity smaller than 50,000 were not adequate for their needs. The Met never held more than 49,700 people for football, and could not be expanded. The biggest stadium in the area was the University of Minnesota's Memorial Stadium. However, the Vikings were not willing to be tenants in a college football stadium even on a temporary basis, and demanded a new venue. Supporters of a dome also believed that the Minnesota Twins would benefit from a climate-controlled stadium to insulate the team from harsh Minnesota weather later in the season. This was with the backdrop of the Twin Cities' harsh winter climate, which provided the Vikings with an overwhelming home-field advantage late in the season and in the playoffs. However, the Met would have likely needed to be replaced in any event, as it was not well maintained. Broken railings and seats could be seen in the upper deck by the 1970s; by its final season, they had become a distinct safety hazard.
Construction success of other domed stadiums, particularly the Pontiac Silverdome near Detroit, paved the way for voters to approve funding for a new stadium. Downtown Minneapolis was beginning a revitalization program, and the return of professional sports from suburban Bloomington was seen as a major success story. A professional team hadn't been based in downtown Minneapolis since the Minneapolis Lakers left for Los Angeles in 1960.
Construction on the Metrodome began on December 20, 1979, and was funded by a limited hotel-motel and liquor tax, local business donations, and payments established within a special tax district near the stadium site. Uncovering the Dome by Amy Klobuchar (now a U.S. Senator) describes the 10-year effort to build the venue. The stadium was named in memory of former mayor of Minneapolis, U.S. Senator, and U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who died in 1978. The building's construction was designed by Bangladeshi-American architect Fazlur Rahman Khan, of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.
The Metrodome itself cost $68 million to build—significantly under budget—totaling around $124 million with infrastructure and other costs associated with the project added. It was a somewhat utilitarian facility, though not quite as spartan as Metropolitan Stadium. One stadium official once said that all the Metrodome was designed to do was "get fans in, let 'em see a game, and let 'em go home."
The Metrodome is the only venue to have hosted an MLB All-Star Game (1985), a Super Bowl (1992), an NCAA Final Four (1992 & 2001), and a World Series (1987 & 1991).
The NCAA Final Four was held at the Metrodome in 1992 and 2001. The Metrodome also served as one of the four regional venues for the NCAA Division I Basketball Championship in 1986, 1989, 1996, 2000, 2003, 2006, and 2009. The dome also held first- and second-round games in the NCAA Basketball Tournament in addition to regionals and the Final Four, most recently in 2009.
The Metrodome was recognized as one of the loudest venues in which to view a game, due in part to the fact that sound was recycled throughout the stadium because of the fabric domed roof. Stadium loudness is a sports marketing issue, as the noise lends the home team a home advantage against the visiting team. Until its demolition, the Metrodome was the loudest domed NFL stadium. During the 1987 World Series and 1991 World Series, peak decibel levels were measured at 125 and 118 respectively compared to a jet airliner—both close to the threshold of pain.
The 1991 World Series is considered one of the best of all time. The blue colored seat back and bottom where Kirby Puckett's 1991 World Series Game 6 walk-off home run landed in Section 101, Row 5, Seat 27 (renumbered 34 after the home run in honor of Kirby), is now in the Twins archives, along with the gold-colored back and bottom that replaced it for several years. The Twins reinstalled a blue seat back and bottom as well as Puckett's #34 on the seat where it remained until the final Vikings game of 2013 in the Metrodome when, as local media reported, a fan took the #34 plate off the seat. The original World Series armrests and hardware, as well as the replacement blue seat back and bottom, are now part of a private Kirby Puckett collection in Minnesota.
Seating capacity
Career-achievement events
The Metrodome was the scene of several players joining the 3,000 hit club, including Eddie Murray, Dave Winfield, and Cal Ripken Jr.
The Metrodome was the site of Dallas Cowboys running back Tony Dorsett's 99-yard run, on January 3, 1983, the longest run from scrimmage in NFL history, in a Monday night game that was won by the Minnesota Vikings.
Dwyane Wade recorded the fourth triple double in NCAA Men's Basketball Tournament history on March 29, 2003.
On June 28, 2007, at the top of the first inning, Frank Thomas hit a three-run home run to left-center against Carlos Silva for his 500th career home run. He was later ejected for arguing balls and strikes.
On September 30, 2007, Brett Favre of the Green Bay Packers threw his record-breaking 421st career touchdown pass to Greg Jennings while playing the Vikings at the Metrodome.
On November 4, 2007, Antonio Cromartie of the San Diego Chargers returned a 57-yard field goal attempt, which was short, 109 yards for a touchdown, which became the longest play in NFL history. In the same game, Adrian Peterson, running back for the Minnesota Vikings, had 30 carries for an NFL single-game record 296 rushing yards, along with three touchdowns.
On November 30, 2008, against the Chicago Bears, Vikings quarterback Gus Frerotte threw a 99-yard touchdown pass to Bernard Berrian, tying an NFL record for the longest pass.
On July 28, 2009, White Sox pitcher Mark Buehrle broke the MLB record for consecutive batters retired. The record was 41; Buehrle retired 45 in a row. His record includes his perfect game tossed on July 23, 2009.
On October 5, 2009, with a 30–23 victory over the Green Bay Packers, his former team, Brett Favre of the Vikings became the first quarterback in NFL history to defeat each of the league's 32 franchises.
On October 27, 2013, in a 44–31 loss to the Green Bay Packers, Viking Cordarrelle Patterson returned the opening kickoff 109 yards for a touchdown. This tied the longest play in NFL history. The previous 109-yard play also took place at the Metrodome, as mentioned above.
Features
From the time the stadium was built to when it was demolished, the economics of sports marketing changed. Teams began charging higher prices for tickets and demanding more amenities, such as bigger clubhouses and locker rooms, more luxury suites, and more concession revenue. Team owners, the media, and fans pressured the State of Minnesota to provide newer, better facilities to host its teams. The Metrodome served its primary purpose: to provide a climate-controlled facility to host the three sports tenants in Minnesota with the largest attendance.
For Major League baseball, the Metrodome was regarded as a hitter's park, with a low (7 ft) left-field fence (343 ft) that favored right-handed power hitters, and the higher (23 ft) but closer (327 ft) right-field Baggie that favored left-handed power hitters. It gave up even more home runs before air conditioning was installed in 1983. Before 1983, the Dome had been nicknamed "the Sweat Box". The Metrodome is climate controlled, and has protected the baseball schedule during the entire time it was the venue for the Minnesota Twins. Major League Baseball schedulers had the luxury of being able to count on dates played at Metrodome. Doubleheader games only occurred when purposely scheduled. The last time that happened was when the Twins scheduled a day-night doubleheader against the Kansas City Royals on August 31, 2007. The doubleheader was necessitated after an August 2 game vs. Kansas City was postponed one day after the I-35W Bridge collapse in downtown Minneapolis.
Roof
The Metrodome's air-supported roof was designed by the inventor of air-supported structures, David H. Geiger, through his New York-based Geiger Berger Associates, and manufactured and installed by Birdair Structures. An air-supported structure supported by positive air pressure, it required 250,000 ft³/min (120 m³/s) of air to keep it inflated. The air pressure was supplied by twenty fans. The roof was made of two layers: the outer layers were Teflon-coated fiberglass and the inner was a proprietary acoustical fabric. By design, the dead air space between the layers insulated the roof; in winter, warm air was blown into space between layers to help melt snow that had accumulated on top. At the time it was built, the of fabric made the roof the largest expanse ever done in that manner. The outside Teflon membrane was of an inch thick and the inner liner of woven fiberglass was of an inch thick. The entire roof weighed roughly . It reached , or about 16 stories, at its highest point.
To prevent roof tears like those that occurred in its first years of service, the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission adopted a twofold strategy: When snow accumulation was expected, hot air was pumped into the space between the roof's two layers. Workers also climbed on the roof and used steam and high-powered hot-water hoses to melt snow. In addition, before the storm that caused the December 2010 collapse, the inside of the stadium was heated to nearly .
To maintain the differential air pressure, spectators usually entered and left the seating and concourse areas through revolving doors, since the use of regular doors without an airlock would have caused significant loss of air pressure. The double-walled construction allowed warmed air to circulate beneath the top of the dome, melting accumulated snow. A sophisticated environmental control center in the lower part of the stadium was manned to monitor the weather and make adjustments in air distribution to maintain the roof.
Because it was unusually low to the playing field, the air-inflated dome occasionally figured into game action during baseball games. Major League Baseball had specific ground rules for the Metrodome. Any ball which struck the Dome roof, or objects hanging from it, remained in play; if it landed in foul territory it became a foul ball, if it landed in fair territory it became a fair ball. Any ball which became caught in the roof over fairground was a ground rule double. That has only happened three times in its history – Dave Kingman for the Oakland Athletics on May 4, 1984, the University of Minnesota Gophers player George Behr and Corey Koskie in 2004. The speakers, being closer to the playing surface, were hit more frequently, especially the speakers in foul ground near the infield, which were typically hit several times a season, which posed an extra challenge to infielders trying to catch them. However, beginning with the 2005 season, the ground rules for Twins games were changed such that any batted ball that struck a speaker in the foul territory would automatically be called a foul ball, regardless of whether or not it was caught.
The dome's roof color made it close to impossible to catch balls without taking the eye off the ball. As a result, fielders frequently lost balls in the roof. An example of this is seen in a home run derby put on by a softball entertainment crew before a Twins game. Taken at the field level, the balls generally tended to be lost in the roof.
1980s roof incidents
Five times in the stadium's history, heavy snows or other weather conditions have significantly damaged the roof and in four instances caused it to deflate. Four of the five incidents occurred within the stadium's first five years of operation:
On November 19, 1981, a rapid accumulation of over a foot of snow caused the roof to collapse, requiring it to be re-inflated. It deflated the following winter on December 30, 1982, again because of a tear caused by heavy snow. This was four days before the Vikings played the Dallas Cowboys in the last regular-season game of the 1982 NFL season. In the spring following that same winter, on April 14, 1983, the Metrodome roof deflated because of a tear caused by late-season heavy snow, and the scheduled Twins' game with the California Angels were postponed. On April 26, 1986, the Metrodome roof suffered a slight tear because of high winds, causing a nine-minute delay in the bottom of the seventh inning versus the Angels; however, the roof did not deflate.
2010 inspection
Birdair had conducted a regular inspection of the Metrodome roof in April 2010. Its report to the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission stated that "the outer membrane is in good condition and still holding up well", and rated the inner liner's condition as "fair to poor". The inspectors also noted that the inner liner of the roof was dirty (mostly due to emissions from automotive events) and had some holes in it, advising that the holes be monitored to avoid large tears from enlarging. Also, Birdair noted some minor areas on the outer membrane that needed repairing, which was done by the time of the Commission's July regular meeting. Overall, Birdair noted the membrane was weathering as anticipated and had exceeded its service life of 20 years; it recommended planning for replacement of the roof fabric and noted that planning and implementation would take an additional five years and cost $12–15 million. In forming their own conclusion, the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission staff decided that the outer membrane was in very good shape and that the roof continued to have serviceable life, and planned to schedule another testing in four years; the Commission made no recommendations.
2010 roof incident and replacement
A severe snowstorm arrived in Minneapolis in the late evening of December 10. The snowstorm lasted to the following night on December 11, with of snow accumulated across the city. Due to strong winds, hoses malfunctioning, and a hazardous slippery layer building up on the roof, workers were not allowed to remove the snow from the roof. As the workers were pulled back, many noticed that the roof’s center was sagging down by the weight of the snow.
At around 5:00 a.m. CST on December 12, three of the roof’s panels tore open. Snow fell through, covering the turf field. The night before the incident a Fox Sports crew, who were setting up for the football game between the New York Giants and Vikings, noticed water was leaking through the roof. They decided to leave their cameras on; the cameras captured footage of the roof deflation and the snow dropping to the field. The footage was aired on Fox NFL Sunday and quickly went viral.
The game between the Vikings and Giants, scheduled to take place on December 12 during the afternoon, was postponed to the next day and relocated to Ford Field in Detroit. There were considerations moving the game to the University of Minnesota’s nearby TCF Bank Stadium. However, the stadium had limited seating capacity, as well as snow that would have taken several days to clear. A couple days later, a fourth panel ripped open, allowing more snow to enter the stadium. This forced another game between the Vikings and Chicago Bears (originally scheduled at the Metrodome on December 20) to be relocated to TCF Bank Stadium. The final two games for the Vikings for the season were on the road, and the Vikings were already eliminated from the playoffs, meaning no additional home games were to be played.
The roof collapse also caused schedule complications for the Golden Gophers baseball team. All Big Ten Conference home games were moved to Target Field, the home stadium of Major League Baseball's (MLB) Minnesota Twins. A Metrodome tournament was replaced with a three-game series against Gonzaga. Another tournament named the Dairy Queen Classic was relocated to Tucson, Arizona. Other changes included many home game cancellations, and some games being pushed to next year's season.
On February 10, 2011, it was announced that the entire Metrodome roof needed to be replaced at an estimated cost of $18 million. In November 2010, the University of Minnesota men's baseball team had announced plans to play all of their 2011 games at the Metrodome; however, the roof collapse caused those plans to be abandoned. On February 18, 2011, the Gophers announced that all 12 scheduled Big Ten home games in April and May would be played at Target Field, with three non-conference games moved to on-campus Siebert Field.
On July 13, 2011, it was announced that the roof was repaired and had been inflated that morning. However, other construction and repairs were still in progress. The remaining construction and repairs were done by August 1, 2011.
The field
During its early years of operation, the field at the Metrodome was surfaced with SuperTurf. The surface, also known as SporTurf, was very bouncy—so bouncy, in fact, that Billy Martin once protested a game after seeing a base hit that would normally be a pop single turn into a ground-rule double. Baseball and football players alike complained that it was too hard.
This surface was upgraded to Astroturf in 1987, and in 2004, the sports commission had a newer artificial surface, called FieldTurf, installed. FieldTurf is thought to be a closer approximation to natural grass than Astroturf in its softness, appearance, and feel. A new Sportexe Momentum Turf surface was installed during the summer of 2010.
When the conversion between football and baseball took place, the pitcher's mound was raised and lowered by an electric motor. The mound weighed and was in diameter. With the field repair, the sliding pits and pitcher's mound used by the Twins and Gophers were removed. Any future baseball games would see baserunners slide on "grass". The home plate area was kept, as it was not "in-play" for football configuration. The original home plate installed at the dome was memorably dug up after the Twins' final game and has been installed at Target Field. A new field was installed in the summer of 2011 due to the damage from the December 2010 roof collapse.
Plexiglas
From 1985 to 1994, the left-field wall included a clear Plexiglas screen for a total height of . It was off this Plexiglas wall that Twins player Kirby Puckett jumped to rob Ron Gant of the Atlanta Braves of an extra-base hit during Game 6 of the 1991 World Series (a game that Puckett would win with an 11th-inning walk-off homer) – in later years, with the Plexiglas removed, it would have been a potential home run ball.
The Baggie
The Metrodome's right-field wall was composed of the -high fence around the whole outfield and a -high plastic wall extension in right field, known as the "Baggie", or the "Hefty Bag". The seats above and behind the Baggie were home run territory; the Baggie itself was part of the outfield wall. Fenway Park's "Green Monster", a comparable but taller feature, is closer to home plate than the Baggie was, so batters who hit short, high fly balls were not typically helped by it. However, it was an attractive target for left-handed power hitters, and it was not uncommon for upper-deck home runs to be hit to the right field. When in a rectangular configuration for football and other small-field events, the Baggie was taken down and the seats behind it extended to form complete lower-deck seating.
Stadium usage
Minnesota Vikings football
As the stadium was designed first and foremost for the Minnesota Vikings, they had the fewest problems. However, the economics of 21st century professional sports meant that the Vikings owners wanted more luxury suites and better concessions. Renovations were rejected twice, with the 2001 price tag at $269 million.
The Vikings played their first game at the Metrodome in a preseason matchup
against the Seattle Seahawks on August 21, 1982. Minnesota won 7–3. The first touchdown in the dome was scored by Joe Senser on an 11-yard pass from Tommy Kramer. The first regular-season game at the Metrodome was the 1982 opener on September 12, when the Vikings defeated Tampa Bay Buccaneers, 17–10. Rickey Young scored the first regular-season touchdown in the dome on a 3-yard run in the 2nd quarter. On January 9, 1983, the Vikings defeated the Atlanta Falcons, 30–24, in a 1st-round game that was the first playoff game at the Metrodome. On January 17, 1999, the Falcons defeated the Vikings in the first NFC championship game played at the Metrodome. On December 29, 2013, the Vikings played their final game at the Metrodome, a 14–13 victory over the Detroit Lions. The team's record at the dome was 162–88 in the regular season and 6–4 in playoff games. They finished with a perfect record at the dome against the Arizona Cardinals (8–0), Baltimore Ravens (1–0), Cincinnati Bengals (4–0), and Houston Texans (1–0), but with a winless record there against the New York Jets (0–3).
Super Bowl XXVI
NFL owners voted during their May 24, 1989 meeting to award Super Bowl XXVI to Minneapolis over Indianapolis, Pontiac and Seattle. The game on January 26, 1992, was the second Super Bowl to be played in a cold, winter climate city. The first one was Super Bowl XVI on January 24, 1982, in Pontiac, Michigan. The Washington Redskins defeated the Buffalo Bills 37–24.
Minnesota Twins baseball
When opened in 1982, the Metrodome was appreciated for the protection it gave from mosquitoes, and later the weather. Over the years there had been a love-hate relationship with the fans, sportswriters, and stadium.
The Minnesota Twins won two World Series championships at the Metrodome. The Twins won the 1987 World Series and 1991 World Series by winning all four games held at the Dome in both seasons. The loud noise, white roof, quick turf, and the right-field wall (or "Baggie") provided a substantial home-field advantage for the Twins. The 1991 World Series has been considered one of the best of all time.
For Twins baseball, the address of the Metrodome became 34 Kirby Puckett Place, an honor given to one of the most famous Minnesota Twins players. In 1996, a section of Chicago Avenue in front of the Metrodome was renamed Kirby Puckett Place by the city of Minneapolis. The Metrodome Plaza was added along Kirby Puckett Place before the 1996 season. Before that, the address for the Twins was 501 Chicago Avenue South. For baseball, the Metrodome informally has been called "The House That Puck Built".
By 2001, several newer purpose-built Major League Baseball stadiums had been constructed, and the Metrodome was considered to be among the worst venues in Major League Baseball.
Only two Twins games at the Metrodome were ever postponed. The first was on April 14, 1983, when a massive snowstorm prevented the California Angels from getting to Minneapolis. The game would have likely been postponed in any case, however; that night heavy snow caused part of the roof to collapse. The second was on August 2, 2007, the day after the I-35W Mississippi River bridge had collapsed a few blocks away from the Metrodome. The game scheduled for August 1 was played as scheduled (about one hour after the bridge had collapsed) because the team and police officials were concerned about too many fans departing Metrodome at one time, potentially causing conflict with rescue workers. The August 2 ceremonial groundbreaking at the eventual Target Field was also postponed, for the same reason. The Metrodome carried a memorial decal on the backstop wall for the remainder of the 2007 season.
The Twins played their final scheduled regular-season game at the Metrodome on October 4, 2009, beating the Kansas City Royals, 13–4. After the game, they held their scheduled farewell celebration. Because they ended the day tied with the Detroit Tigers for first place in the American League Central, a one-game playoff between the teams was played there on October 6, 2009, with the Twins beating the Tigers 6–5 in 12 innings. The division clincher would be the Twins' last win at the Metrodome. The announced crowd was 54,088, setting the regular-season attendance record.
The final Twins game at the Metrodome was on October 11, 2009, when they lost to the New York Yankees 4–1, resulting in a three-game sweep in the 2009 ALDS. The Twins' appearance in this series gave Metrodome the distinction of being the first American League stadium to end its Major League Baseball history with post-season play. The only other stadiums whose final games came in the postseason are Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta (1996), the Astrodome in Houston (1999) and Busch Memorial Stadium in St. Louis (2005), all of which were home venues for National League teams. With the departure of the Twins, this leaves the Tampa Bay Rays as the last remaining major league team to play their games in a domed stadium.
Basketball
When configured as a basketball arena, the fans in the nearby bleachers got a suitable view of the court, but the action was difficult to see in the upper decks. Concessions were very far away from the temporary infrastructure. The Metrodome as a basketball arena was much larger than most NBA and major college basketball arenas, which run to about 20,000 seats; it functioned like Syracuse's large Carrier Dome. However, the NCAA made a significant amount of money selling the high number of seats for regional and championship games for the men's basketball tournament.
Ten NCAA tournaments took place at the stadium:
1986 1st and 2nd round
1989 Midwest Regional
1991 1st and 2nd round
1992 Final Four
1996 Midwest Regional
2000 1st and 2nd round
2001 Final Four
2003 Midwest Regional
2006 Minneapolis Regional
2009 1st and 2nd round
The Timberwolves used the stadium for their home games during their inaugural season (1989–90) in the NBA while the team waited for construction of Target Center to be completed. The team set NBA records for the highest single-season attendance ever: 1,072,572 fans in 41 home games. The largest crowd for a single game occurred on April 17, 1990: 49,551 fans watched the T-Wolves lose to the Denver Nuggets in the last game of the season. This was the third-largest crowd in the NBA's history.
College football
Beginning in the 1982 college football season, the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers began playing their home football games at the Metrodome. The first game was a 57–3 victory over the Ohio Bobcats on September 11, 1982. The Gophers football record at the Metrodome 1982–2008 (27 seasons) 169 total games 87–80–2 .521%. 109 Big Ten Conference games 41–66–2 .385%
With the Gophers' move to TCF Bank Stadium, only two NCAA Division I FBS football programs now play in domed stadiums. Idaho and Syracuse have their own such facilities on campus (the Kibbie Dome and the Carrier Dome, respectively). When the Gophers first moved to the Metrodome, the NFL-class facilities were seen as an improvement over the aging Memorial Stadium. Initially, attendance increased. However, fans waxed nostalgic over fall days playing outdoors on campus. TCF Bank Stadium now provides an outdoor, on-campus venue for the team.
College baseball
In the 2010 season, the University of Minnesota Golden Gopher Baseball team played all of their home games at the Metrodome (except a game at the new Target Field on March 27, 2010). The University of Minnesota Golden Gophers baseball team had played games at the Metrodome during February and March since 1985 because of weather. Later games were played at Siebert Field, except for 2006 when all but two home games were played at the Metrodome. The team often played major tournaments at the Dome, which included the Dairy Queen Classic, where three other major Division I baseball teams play in an invitational. Before the NCAA's 2008 rule in Division I regarding the start of the college baseball season, the Golden Gophers would often play home games at the Metrodome earlier than other teams in the area to neutralize the advantage of warmer-weather schools starting their seasons earlier in the year. Some early Big Ten conference games were played at the Metrodome, and the Golden Gophers enjoyed home-field advantage during the early part of the season before the weather warmed, and the Gophers could play games on-campus. Other small colleges also played games in the stadium during the weeks before the Metrodome was open for Division I play. In 2010, 420 amateur baseball and softball games—including the majority of the Golden Gophers' home schedule—were played at the Metrodome.
The size of Siebert Field also affected the Golden Gophers starting in 2010. The Golden Gophers last hosted an NCAA baseball tournament regional in 2000, with temporary seating added. With the Metrodome being available for the tournament starting in 2010, the team could easily place a bid for, and have a better possibility of hosting, an NCAA baseball regional or super regional.
Other cold-weather teams have played at the Metrodome. Big 12 Conference member Kansas has played two series (2007 and 2010) at the Metrodome because of inclement weather against South Dakota State University and Eastern Michigan, respectively.
Soccer
The Minnesota Kicks were supposed to move into the Metrodome for the 1982 NASL season. However, the franchise folded in November 1981. The Minnesota Strikers played the 1984 NASL season at the Dome. 52,621 saw the Minnesota Strikers defeat Tampa Bay 1–0 on May 28, 1984. MSHSL boys and girls soccer championships were also held at the stadium. The Minnesota Thunder played selected games at the Dome from 1990 to 2009. The Minnesota Stars FC opened their 2012 season at the stadium. The Minnesota United FC used the Dome for the 2013 NASL Spring Season. The field dimensions for soccer at the Metrodome were . The largest crowd to see a soccer game in Minnesota was at the Metrodome.
Large concerts
The concert capacity of the Metrodome was around 60,000 people, depending on seating and stage configurations, which made it a profitable location for stadium tours during the late 80s and 90s. By comparison, the Target Center in Minneapolis has a concert capacity of up to 20,500. Acoustics at the Metrodome for these concerts were "iffy at best".
Other events
2002 and 2008 Victory Bowls, the NCCAA National Football Championships.
Prep Bowl (Minnesota State High School League (MSHSL); state high school football championships) (1982–2013).
MSHSL football semifinal games (1990–2013)
MSHSL soccer championships and semifinals (1986–2013).
High school and small college baseball games through the spring.
Small college football games in November hosted by Augsburg College. Also other small college football events including the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference and the Upper Midwest Athletic Conference.
AMA Motocross Championship (1994–2004, 2008, 2013)
The Stadium Super Trucks off-road racing series scheduled an event in 2013.
Other motorsport events.
Large religious services and gatherings.
The American Wrestling Association, promoted WrestleRock 86 on April 20, 1986, drawing 23,000. This was one of the AWA's last major shows before they went out of business several years later.
Rollerdome inline skating around the stadium's concourses and Minnesota Distance Running Association running (exercise programs in the concourses).
Conventions, such as Twins Fest, golf shows, home and garden expos, and car shows.
Cultural celebrations, such as Hmong New Year gatherings and the Oromo Jilboo American Games.
Youth in Music Band Championships
The Promise Keepers, an all-men's evangelical Christian service.
The annual Hmong American New Year celebration was held in December over the course of two days.
Monster Jam.
The 1991 World Special Olympics Summer Games Opening Ceremonies
Oddities
Stadium neighborhood
The Metrodome was constructed in an area of downtown Minneapolis known as "Industry Square". Development in the Downtown East neighborhood around Metrodome took many years to materialize. For many years, there were few bars or restaurants nearby where fans could gather, and tailgating was expressly forbidden in most parking areas. The City of Minneapolis was directing the development of the entertainment districts along with Seven Corners in Cedar-Riverside, Hennepin Avenue, and the Warehouse district. The Metrodome existed among several parking areas built upon old rail yards, along with defunct factories and warehouses. The Star Tribune owns several blocks nearby that have remained parking lots. The Metrodome was not connected to the Minneapolis Skyway System, although that had been proposed in 1989 to be completed in time to host Super Bowl XXVI. The Star Tribune properties and the Minneapolis Armory had not been developed and stood between the Metrodome and the rest of Downtown Minneapolis. Only in recent years did redevelopment begin moving Southeast to reach the Metrodome. More restaurants, hotels, and condominiums have been built nearby. The METRO Blue Line light rail connected the Minneapolis entertainment district with the Metrodome and the Airport.
Sight lines
The Metrodome was not a true multi-purpose stadium. Rather, it was built as a football stadium that could convert into a baseball stadium. The seating configuration was almost rectangular in shape, with the baseball field tucked into one corner. The seats along the four straight sides directly faced their corresponding seats on the opposite side, while the seats in the corners were four quarter-circles.
While this was more than suitable for the Vikings and Gophers, with few exceptions this resulted in poor sightlines for baseball. For instance, the seats directly along the left-field line faced the center field and right field fences. Unlike other major league parks, there were no seats down to field level. Only 8,000 seats were located in the lower deck between home plate and the dugouts, where most game action occurs. Seats in these areas were popularly known as "the baseball section." However, even the closest front-row seats were at least above the field.
The way that many seats were situated forced some fans to crane their necks to see the area between the pitcher's mound and home plate. Some fans near the foul poles had to turn more than 80°, compared to less than 70° with the original Yankee Stadium or 75° at Camden Yards. For that reason, the seats down the left-field line were typically among the last ones sold; the (less expensive) outfield lower deck seating tended to fill up sooner. Nearly 1,400 seats were at least partially obstructed – some of them due to the right-field upper deck being directly above (and somewhat overhanging) the folded-up football seats behind right field; and some of them due to steel beams in the back rows of the upper deck which are part of the dome's support system.
On the plus side, there was relatively little foul territory, which was not typical of most domed stadiums (especially those primarily built for football). Also, with the infield tucked into one corner of the stadium, the seats in the so-called "baseball section" had some of the closest views in Major League Baseball. In 2007, the Twins began selling seats in extra rows behind the plate which were previously only used for football. The sight lines were also very good in the right field corner, which faced the infield and was closer to the action than the left field corner.
Unlike most domed stadiums, the Metrodome's baseball configuration had asymmetrical outfield dimensions.
The Twins stopped selling most of the seats in sections 203–212 of the upper level in 1996. This area was usually curtained off during the regular season. However, the stadium could easily be expanded to full capacity for the postseason, or when popular opponents came to town during the regular season.
Scheduling conflicts
As part of the deal with Metrodome, the Minnesota Twins had post-season priority over the Gophers in scheduling. If the Twins were in the playoffs with a home series, the baseball game took priority and the Gopher football game had to be moved to a time suitable to allow the grounds crew to convert the playing field and the stands to the football configuration.
The last month of Major League Baseball's regular season often included one or two Saturdays in which the Twins and Gophers used Metrodome on the same day. On those occasions, the Twins game would start at about 11 am local time (TV announcer Dick Bremer sometimes joked that the broadcast was competing with SpongeBob SquarePants). Afterward, the conversion took place and the Gophers football game started at about 6 pm. The University of Minnesota was the only school in the Big Ten that shared a football facility with professional sports teams for an extended period of years.
In 2007, there were two such schedule conflicts, on September 1 and 22. In 2008, there were no conflicts on the regular-season schedule.
Due to the minimum time needed to convert the field, a baseball game that ran long in clock time had to be suspended, and concluded the next day. The only time this happened was on October 2, 2004, when a game between the Twins and Indians reached the end of the 11th inning after 2:30 pm in a tie and resumed the next day.
The Vikings had rights to the Dome over the Twins except for World Series games. In 1987, the Vikings' home date with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers scheduled for the same day as Game 2 of the World Series was moved to Tampa, and the Vikings' game with the Denver Broncos scheduled for the same day as Game 7 was pushed back to the following Monday night.
The Twins' 2009 AL Central division tiebreaker with the Detroit Tigers was played on Tuesday, October 6, 2009. One-game playoffs are normally held the day after the regular season ends (in this case, the season ended on Sunday, October 4), but the Vikings were using Metrodome for Monday Night Football on October 5. The Twins were awarded the right to host the tiebreaker because they won the season series against Detroit.
Record NFL plays
The Metrodome will also be remembered in NFL history as the site of four of the longest NFL touchdowns in history in terms of yardage. From scrimmage, only 15 plays have ever gone the maximum 99 yards for a touchdown in league history. One of the two runs on that list is by Dallas Cowboys running back Tony Dorsett against the Vikings on January 3, 1983 during a Monday Night Football game. One of the 13 such pass plays is Vikings quarterback Gus Frerotte's connection with receiver Bernard Berrian during a game against the Chicago Bears on November 30, 2008.
Because returns can go longer than 99 yards, the Metrodome had also seen the record set for longest return at the maximum possible total of 109 yards. On November 4, 2007, the San Diego Chargers' Antonio Cromartie returned a missed Vikings field goal for a touchdown, a mark that stood unequaled until October 27, 2013, when Minnesota's Cordarrelle Patterson returned the Green Bay Packers' opening kickoff of Sunday Night Football, the maximum distance.
Naming rights
In 2009, Mall of America purchased naming rights for the field at Metrodome. The contract stated that the field would be called "Mall of America Field at Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome" for a three-year period, beginning October 5, 2009, and ending February 28, 2012. The name was still used for the 2012 and 2013 seasons.
Despite possible inference from the signage, the MoA name applied only to the field, not the stadium as a whole. The building remained Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome. The connection between Mall of America and the Metrodome is also notable because Mall of America is built on the site of the former Metropolitan Stadium. The mall and the dome were located about apart from each other.
Foul "poles"
From the tops of the outfield fences upwards, the baseball foul poles in the Metrodome were unique, in that they were not "poles" at all. Instead, they consisted of a fabric-like material. In left field, the "pole" hung from the roof, down to the top of the left field fence. In right field, the "pole" hung from the bottom of the upper deck to the top of the right field fence. Because the upper deck in right field overhung the playing field slightly, this resulted in the foul pole not being vertical, actually leaning inward slightly toward home plate.
Replacement facilities
With the passage of time, the Metrodome was thought to be an increasingly poor fit for its three major tenants, all of whom claimed the stadium was nearing the end of its useful life.
One major complaint was about the concourses, which were considered somewhat narrow by modern standards, making for cramped conditions whenever attendance was anywhere near capacity. During a 2010 Vikings game, Fox Sports' Alex Marvez wrote that the Metrodome's passageways were so cramped that it would be difficult for fans to evacuate in the event of an emergency.
Two of the former tenants, the Gophers (football) and Twins, moved out, while the Vikings played their final years there until demolition. The Vikings' 2014 and 2015 seasons were played at the University of Minnesota's TCF Bank Stadium, and U.S. Bank Stadium, built on the Metrodome site, opened in time for the team's 2016 season.
The Twins, the Vikings, and the Gophers all proposed replacements for the Metrodome, and all three were accepted. The first of the three major tenants to move was the Gophers, who opened their new TCF Bank Stadium in September 2009. The next to depart were the Twins, whose new Target Field was completed in time for Opening Day 2010. On May 10, 2012, the Vikings were granted a new stadium by the Minnesota legislators that was built on the Metrodome site, which opened for the 2016 NFL season. Governor Mark Dayton signed the bill on May 14.
Minnesota Twins
The Twins moved to their new ballpark, Target Field, in 2010, after attaining their new stadium with an effort that began in the mid-1990s. Although indoor baseball had critics when Metrodome opened, it was positively regarded by players and fans. By 2001, with Metrodome's peculiarities revealed, and several newer purpose-built Major League Baseball stadiums constructed, an ESPN Page 2 reader poll ranked it as one of the worst Major League Baseball stadiums. Twins management claimed Metrodome generated too little revenue for the Twins to be competitive; specifically, they received no revenue from luxury suite leasing (as those were owned by the Vikings) and only a small percentage of concessions sales. This came to a head in 2001, when the Twins were nearly contracted along with the Montreal Expos, who were also generating insufficient revenue and had a stadium in poor condition. Also, the percentage of season-ticket-quality seats was said to be very low compared to other stadiums. From 2003 through 2009, the Twins had year-to-year leases, and could have moved to another city at any time. However, with no large American markets or new major-league-quality stadiums existing without a current team, it was accepted that the Twins could not profit from a move. The Twins sought a taxpayer subsidy of more than $200 million to assist in construction of the stadium. On January 9, 2005, the Twins went to court to argue that their Metrodome lease should be considered "dead" after the 2005 season. In February, the district court ruled that the Twins' lease was year-to-year and the team could vacate Metrodome at the end of the 2005 season.
In late April 2007, Hennepin County officially took over the future ballpark site (through a form of eminent domain called "quick-take") which had been an ongoing struggle between the county and the land owners. On October 15, 2007, the two sides reached a negotiated settlement of just under $29 million, ending the dispute. As a result, the county noted it would have to cut back on some improvements to the surrounding streetscapes, though it also revealed that the Pohlad family had committed another $15 million for infrastructure.
University of Minnesota Gopher football
The Minnesota Golden Gophers football program began playing in Metrodome for the 1982 season. Attendance was expected to increase over the old Memorial Stadium attendance, especially for late fall games, due to the climate controlled comfort. Initially, average attendance had increased over previous seasons at Memorial Stadium. But, the venue was removed from the traditional on-campus football atmosphere if fans wanted to attend a Gophers football game. Students had to take a bus from the campus to the stadium. The distance from the main campus, along with poor performance by the Gopher football team, caused interest to wane.
The Gophers officially moved back onto campus, to TCF Bank Stadium, for the 2009 football season. The University believed an on-campus stadium would motivate its student base for increased ticket sales, and also would benefit from athletic revenues, not only for the football program, but the non-revenue sports as well. The new stadium reportedly cost less than half of a current-era NFL-style football stadium, and was built on what were former surface parking lots just a few blocks east of the former Memorial Stadium, with the naming rights purchased by TCF Financial Corporation. The University of Minnesota expected to raise more than half the cost of the stadium via private donations. The Gopher Stadium bill was passed by both houses on May 20, 2006, the day before the Twins Stadium bill passed. On May 24, 2006, Governor Pawlenty signed the Gopher bill on the University campus.
Minnesota Vikings
The Vikings initially supported a Superfund site in Arden Hills, but costs of developing infrastructure made the site unworkable. A number of sites in Minneapolis were floated before the team and state settled on a location adjacent to and including the current Metrodome site.
On May 10, 2012, the Minnesota Legislature approved funding for a new Vikings stadium on that site. The project has a budget of $1.027 billion, with the Vikings covering $529 million, the state covering $348 million, and $150 million covered by a hospitality tax in Minneapolis. The bill was signed by Governor Dayton on May 14. The Vikings played in the Metrodome until the end of the 2013 season. The Vikings' temporary home during construction was TCF Bank Stadium.
Demolition
With the approval of the new Vikings stadium at the Dome site by the Minnesota legislature, the fate of the Metrodome was sealed. The Vikings played their final game at the Metrodome on December 29, 2013, beating the Detroit Lions 14-13. The following day, a local company began removal of seats for sale to the public and various charities and nonprofits. Individual chairs went for $40 each to charities, $60 each to the public and $80 each for specific seat requests.
The roof was deflated for the final time on January 18. On the morning of February 2, 2014 the steel support cables that stretched from end-to-end of stadium that held together the roof were severed, as construction crews set off a simultaneous set of 42 explosive charges that detached the cables from the concrete structure. The general public was not informed about this phase of the demolition process, prompting about a half-dozen phone calls to police from people who wondered what was going on. This was viewed as the final step before the destruction of the concrete bowl of the Metrodome would begin. On February 10, 2014, shortly after 9:15 a.m., after more than two months of preliminary work that dated back all the way to the groundbreaking of the new Vikings stadium, demolition of the stadium walls finally began.
Just after 1 p.m. on February 17, 2014, one week after demolition of the stadium bowl had begun, demolition crews were working on taking down the concrete ring beam that encircled to top of the Metrodome, when a portion of the ring beam collapsed out of sequence, bringing an immediate halt to the work. No one was hurt and no equipment was damaged by the collapse. After five days of investigation from structural and demolition experts, it was decided that the remaining portion of the concrete ring beam would be destroyed using controlled explosive charges—virtually the same method that was used to bring down the Metrodome's steel support cables for the roof. This second controlled explosion was a continued deviation from the original plan to not use explosives to destroy the stadium, as it was determined that this was the safest way to bring down the remaining ring beam structure. On February 23, 2014, the remaining ring beam and corners of the Metrodome were brought down with 84 explosive charges of dynamite. This enabled demolition crews to continue with the wrecking ball demolition method that was originally chosen (though the order in which the sections would be brought down were changed as a result of the ring beam implosion), to bring down what was left of the Metrodome. Despite this unexpected setback, Mortenson Construction said that the demolition of the Metrodome and construction of U.S. Bank Stadium were both still on schedule.
On March 15, 2014 the final upper deck bleachers and concrete bleacher-support girders (on the northwest side of the Metrodome) were brought down, taking away any standing remnants of the exterior stadium walls. On April 11, 2014 the final portion of the inner-stadium concrete walls were reduced to rubble, marking the official end of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome. Demolition of the Metrodome was formally declared complete six days later—a month ahead of schedule—as the final truckload of rubble was loaded up and removed from the new stadium construction site. Officials from Mortenson Construction said the entire demolition job required 4,910 truckloads and 16,000 man hours to complete the job.
References
External links
Metrodome Dreamscapes - digital ephemera archive
Ballpark Digest review of Metrodome
Blog with pictures of 2011 roof
Defunct multi-purpose stadiums in the United States
2014 disestablishments in Minnesota
Hubert Humphrey
Demolished sports venues in Minnesota
Sports venues in Minneapolis
Defunct college baseball venues in the United States
Defunct college football venues
Defunct Major League Baseball venues
Minnesota Golden Gophers football venues
Minnesota Timberwolves venues
Minnesota Twins stadiums
Minnesota Vikings stadiums
Fort Lauderdale Strikers stadiums
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Defunct baseball venues in the United States
Defunct National Football League venues
Former National Basketball Association venues
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings
Air-supported structures
Sports venues completed in 1982
1982 establishments in Minnesota
American inventions
Bangladeshi inventions
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) stadiums
Sports venues demolished in 2014
Defunct soccer venues in the United States
Soccer venues in Minnesota
NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament Final Four venues
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236999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money%20market | Money market | The money market is a component of the economy which provides short-term funds. The money market deals in short-term loans, generally for a period of a year or less.
As short-term securities became a commodity, the money market became a component of the financial market for assets involved in short-term borrowing, lending, buying and selling with original maturities of one year or less. Trading in money markets is done over the counter and is wholesale.
There are several money market instruments in most Western countries, including treasury bills, commercial paper, banker's acceptances, deposits, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, repurchase agreements, federal funds, and short-lived mortgage- and asset-backed securities. The instruments bear differing maturities, currencies, credit risks, and structures.
A market can be described as a money market if it is composed of highly liquid, short-term assets. Money market funds typically invest in government securities, certificates of deposit, commercial paper of companies, and other highly liquid, low-risk securities. The four most relevant types of money are commodity money, fiat money, fiduciary money (cheques, banknotes), and commercial bank money. Commodity money relies on intrinsically valuable commodities that act as a medium of exchange. Fiat money, on the other hand, gets its value from a government order.
Money markets, which provide liquidity for the global financial system including for capital markets, are part of the broader system of financial markets.
Participants
The money market consists of financial institutions and dealers in money or credit who wish to either borrow or lend. Participants borrow and lend for short periods, typically up to twelve months. Money market trades in short-term financial instruments commonly called "paper". This contrasts with the capital market for longer-term funding, which is supplied by bonds and equity.
The core of the money market consists of interbank lending—banks borrowing and lending to each other using commercial paper, repurchase agreements and similar instruments. These instruments are often benchmarked to (i.e., priced by reference to) the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) for the appropriate term and currency.
Finance companies typically fund themselves by issuing large amounts of asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP), which is secured by the pledge of eligible assets into an ABCP conduit. Examples of eligible assets include auto loans, credit card receivables, residential/commercial mortgage loans, mortgage-backed securities and similar financial assets. Some large corporations with strong credit rating issue commercial paper on their own credit. Other large corporations arrange for banks to issue commercial paper on their behalf.
In the United States, federal, state and local governments all issue paper to meet funding needs. States and local governments issue municipal paper, while the U.S. Treasury issues Treasury bills to fund the U.S. public debt:
Trading companies often purchase bankers' acceptances to tender for payment to overseas suppliers.
Retail and institutional money market funds
Banks
Central banks
Cash management programs
Merchant banks
Functions of the money market
Money markets serve five functions—to finance trade, finance industry, invest profitably, enhance commercial banks' self-sufficiency, and lubricate central bank policies.
Financing trade
The money market plays a crucial role in financing domestic and international trade. Commercial finance is made available to the traders through bills of exchange, which are discounted by the bill market. The acceptance houses and discount markets help in financing foreign trade.
Financing industry
The money market contributes to the growth of industries in two ways:
They help industries secure short-term loans to meet their working capital requirements through the system of finance bills, commercial papers, etc.
Industries generally need long-term loans, which are provided in the capital market. However, the capital market depends upon the nature of and the conditions in the money market. The short-term interest rates of the money market influence the long-term interest rates of the capital market. Thus, money market indirectly helps the industries through its link with and influence on long-term capital market.
Profitable investments
The money market enables commercial banks to use their excess reserves in profitable investments. The main objective of commercial banks is to earn income from its reserves as well as maintain liquidity to meet the uncertain cash demand of its depositors. In the money market, the excess reserves of commercial banks are invested in near money assets (e.g., short-term bills of exchange), which are easily converted into cash. Thus, commercial banks earn profits without sacrificing liquidity.
Self-sufficiency of commercial banks
Developed money markets help commercial banks to become self-sufficient. In an emergency, when commercial banks have scarcity of funds, they need not approach the central bank and borrow at a higher interest rate. They can instead meet their requirements by from the money market.
Help to central bank
Though the central bank can function and influence the banking system in the absence of a money market, the existence of a developed money market smooths the functioning and increases the efficiency of the central bank.
Money markets help central banks in two ways:
Short-run interest rates serve as an indicator of the monetary and banking conditions in the country and, in this way, guide the central bank to adopt an appropriate banking policy,
Sensitive and integrated money markets help the central bank secure quick and widespread influence on the sub-markets, thus facilitating effective policy implementation
Money market instruments
Certificate of deposit – Time deposit, commonly offered to consumers by banks, thrift institutions, and credit unions.
Repurchase agreements – Short-term loans—normally for less than one week and frequently for one day—arranged by selling securities to an investor with an agreement to repurchase them at a fixed price on a fixed date.
Money market mutual funds - short term investment debt, operated by professional institutions. Money market mutual funds are an investment fund where a number of investors invest their money in mutual fund institutions, and they diversify the funds in various investments.
Commercial paper – Short term instruments promissory notes issued by company at discount to face value and redeemed at face value
Eurodollar deposit – Deposits made in U.S. dollars at a bank or bank branch located outside the United States.
Federal agency short-term securities – In the U.S., short-term securities issued by government sponsored enterprises such as the Farm Credit System, the Federal Home Loan Banks and the Federal National Mortgage Association. Money markets is heavily used function.
Federal funds – In the U.S., interest-bearing deposits held by banks and other depository institutions at the Federal Reserve; these are immediately available funds that institutions borrow or lend, usually on an overnight basis. They are lent for the federal funds rate.
Municipal notes – In the U.S., short-term notes issued by municipalities in anticipation of tax receipts or other revenues
Treasury bills – Short-term debt obligations of a national government that are issued to mature in three to twelve months
Money funds – Pooled short-maturity, high-quality investments that buy money market securities on behalf of retail or institutional investors
Foreign exchange swaps – Exchanging a set of currencies in spot date and the reversal of the exchange of currencies at a predetermined time in the future
Short-lived mortgage- and asset-backed securities
Discount and accrual instruments
There are two types of instruments in the fixed income market that pay interest at maturity, instead of as coupons—discount instruments and accrual instruments. Discount instruments, like repurchase agreements, are issued at a discount of face value, and their maturity value is the face value. Accrual instruments are issued at face value and mature at face value plus interest.
See also
Interbank lending market
Liquidity crisis
Lombard Street: A Description of the Money Market – One of the earliest popular books on the money market
Money fund
Money market account
Money supply
Demand for money
Liquidity preference
Overnight market
Sweep account
References
External links
"Money Market Funds Enter a World of Risk", New York Times, September 18, 2008
Study on the identification of euro money market transactions in TARGET2
Money market instruments
Financial markets | [
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237003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target%20Center | Target Center | Target Center is a multi-purpose arena located in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It hosts major family shows, concerts, sporting events, graduations and private events. Target Corporation is the original and current naming rights partner of the arena. Seating over 20,000 for a concert, it contains 702 club seats and 68 suites.
The arena is home to the Minnesota Timberwolves of the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the Minnesota Lynx of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The facility has also hosted the LFL's Minnesota Valkyrie, the RHI's Minnesota Arctic Blast and the Arena Football League's Minnesota Fighting Pike in the past.
History
Management
Original Timberwolves owners Marv Wolfenson and Harvey Ratner built, owned and operated the arena for five years beginning in 1990. The venue was managed by Ogden Entertainment after the city of Minneapolis purchased the arena in 1995. Glen Taylor acquired the Timberwolves in 1994 and the Lynx in 1999.
In 2000, SFX (later Clear Channel Entertainment) took over the contract. The management was changed in May 2004 from Clear Channel to Midwest Entertainment Group, a joint venture of the Timberwolves and Nederlander Concerts.
On May 2, 2007, AEG Facilities assumed the management contract of Target Center. The city of Minneapolis owns the arena and AEG Facilities manages day-to-day operations.
Renovations
In 2004, Target Center underwent a major renovation that saw the replacement of all 19,006 of its original seats plus the addition of nearly 1,500 new seats as well as the reconfiguration of the lower bowl to make the arena more "fan-friendly". In addition the arena's original scoreboard was replaced with a new video screen and LED signage, LED signage on the upper deck fascia, a new lounge (Club Cambria) and improved access for fans with disabilities.
Target Center was once one of three NBA arenas with parquet floors, including TD Garden in Boston, and Amway Arena (later Amway Center) in Orlando—the floor was replaced prior to the 2007-08 NBA season.
Target Center is the first arena to have a green roof. It was unveiled on September 15, 2009. In February 2011, the Timberwolves and the city of Minneapolis introduced a $155 million proposal to remodel the Target Center. Plans included shifting the main entrance to the corner of 6th Street and First Avenue, two large glass atriums, another restaurant, and a complete remodel of the interior. The plan was approved in 2012 by the Minnesota Legislature, as part of the bill that authorized a new stadium for the Minnesota Vikings.
On April 3, 2015, the Minneapolis City Council gave the final approval for renovation plans for Target Center. The total cost was $140 million, which upgraded the exterior, seats, technology and loading bays, among other areas. The city contributed $74 million. Glen Taylor, owner of the Timberwolves and Lynx, paid a total of $60 million; AEG contributed $5.9 million. As a result, the Timberwolves' lease will run until 2035. The renovated building reopened in October 2017.
Naming rights
On August 7, 1990 it was announced that Target had purchased the naming rights of the Timberwolves' arena and that it would be called Target Center. Since then, the naming rights have been renewed every five years. Target extended its naming rights agreement through 2014 in September 2011. In 2012, a "Target Dog" neon sign was installed to face towards Target Field as a home run celebration sign.
Basketball
It hosted the 1994 NBA All-Star Game, the 1995 NCAA Women's Final Four, 2000 NBA draft and the 2018 WNBA All-Star Game. It had been slated to host an NCAA Men's Regional Final in 2021, but on November 16, 2020, the NCAA announced that it would hold the entire tournament in one city, seeming to rule out the Twin Cities.
In 2011, Target Center played host to its first championship event, the 2011 WNBA Finals. The Minnesota Lynx won their first two games on their home floor, and ultimately won the WNBA Championship, the first title won by a team that played in Target Center.
Ice hockey
Target Center hosted 6 neutral site NHL games during the 1993–94 NHL season. The International Hockey League's Minnesota Moose played several of their games at Target Center during their existence from 1994 to 1996. The Boys' State High School Hockey Tournament was held at Target Center in 1998 and 1999. In June 2012, it was announced that the arena would play host to the future NCHC tournament games starting in 2014. The NCHC moved the tournament to the Xcel Energy Center in nearby St. Paul starting in 2018.
Notable events
Concerts
The arena has been a popular venue that has hosted many concerts, including artists like Billy Joel, Celine Dion, Garth Brooks, Justin Bieber, Elton John, Katy Perry, Metallica, Paul McCartney, and Minnesota legend Prince.
Unofficial and Incomplete Concert history
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
U2 – May 1, 2001, September 23, 2005
Bruce Springsteen – November 29, 1999
Josh Groban – February 23, 2005
Garth Brooks – October 4, 1999 – October 14, 1999 (nine concerts)
Jeff Foxworthy – June 23, 2007
Prince – July 7, 2007
The Moody Blues – July 15, 2007
Nickelback – July 23, 2007 with Staind and Daughtry
Hilary Duff – August 23, 2007
Joan Sebastian and Pepe Aguilar – September 29, 2007
Sugarland – October 13, 2007, April 17, 2009, May 7, 2011
Miley Cyrus – October 21, 2007 as herself and Hannah Montana with Jonas Brothers and October 29, 2009 with Metro Station
Van Halen – October 24, 2007
Ozzy Osbourne – October 31, 2007
Trans-Siberian Orchestra – December 15, 2007
Dancing with the Stars – January 3, 2008
Sesame Street Live – January 16–20, 2008
Martina McBride – January 26, 2008
Jonas Brothers – February 20, 2008
Foo Fighters – February 27, 2008
Avril Lavigne – March 20, 2008
Three Days Grace – March 24, 2008
Alicia Keys – April 30, 2008
Kid Rock – January 7–10, 2000, August 5, 2000, March 13, 2004, and May 24, 2008
True Colors Tour – June 9, 2008
Kanye West – June 11, 2008
Steve Miller Band – July 3, 2008
Tom Petty – July 23, 2008
Nine Inch Nails – August 2, 2008
American Idols LIVE! Tour 2008 – August 31, 2008
Rage Against the Machine – September 3, 2008
Journey & Cheap Trick – September 16, 2008
The Eagles – September 30, 2008
Gorillaz – October 17, 2010
Selena Gomez – November 21, 2013
Celine Dion – November 1, 2019 as part of her Courage World Tour.
For King and Country - December 11, 2021
MMA & professional wrestling
WWE has held many events at this venue and is best known for SummerSlam 1999, Judgment Day 2005, Bragging Rights 2010, Elimination Chamber 2014, TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs 2017 & TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs 2019.
Professional wrestling promotion All Elite Wrestling taped an episode of their weekly television show AEW Rampage at the center on November 12, 2021. The center also hosted that year's edition of their annual pay-per-view event Full Gear, which occurred the following day.
The Target Center held the memorable UFC championship UFC 87: Seek and Destroy in August 2008, which featured the Welterweight title match where Georges St-Pierre defeated Jon Fitch.
On October 5, 2012, UFC on FX: Browne vs. Bigfoot was held at the venue.
On June 29, 2019, UFC on ESPN: Ngannou vs. dos Santos was held at the venue.
Gymnastics
In 2016, the arena hosted the Kellogg's Tour of Gymnastics Champions.
Other events
In 1991, the center hosted the 1991 U.S. Figure Skating Championships, where skater Tonya Harding became the first American woman and second in the world to land a triple axel jump in competition. Harding took home the gold medal.
In 1999, Target Center hosted the "People's Celebration" inaugural event for Gov. Jesse Ventura. The event drew 14,000 people, and included performances by Jonny Lang, Warren Zevon, and America.
The Professional Bull Riders held a Built Ford Tough Series event at Target Center during the 2003 and 2006 seasons.
The Target Center hosted the Rally for the Republic convention organized by the Campaign for Liberty, a movement founded by Texas Congressman Ron Paul, who ran an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 Republican presidential nomination. Among the attendees of the convention included former Governor of Minnesota Jesse Ventura, Barry Goldwater Jr., and former Governor of New Mexico Gary Johnson.
The Target Center is home to the Target Corporation Annual Sales Meeting, events which host more than 10,000 retail managers and employees near Target's corporate offices. In 2018, Dave Matthews performed a short set at the event.
President Donald Trump rally October 10, 2019.
Attendance records
The current confirmed highest attendance record for a single event in the arena's history was the Timberwolves and Warriors game on March 10, 2017 attended by 20,412 people.
The highest grossing one-day event was UFC on August 8, 2009.
U.S. Bank Theater
Target Center can convert into a 2,500-to-7,500-seat theater known as the U.S. Bank Theater. The Theater contains a movable floor-to-ceiling curtain system that allows the venue to be transformed based on specific show needs. In addition to concerts, the U.S. Bank Theater can also be used for family and Broadway shows.
Transportation and location
Target Center is a block away from the following Metro Transit stations:
Warehouse District/Hennepin Avenue, served by the METRO Blue and Green light rail lines
Ramp A/7th St. Transit Center that serves 11 bus routes
Ramp B/5th St. Transit Center that serves 10 bus routes
The arena is also across the street from the well-known Minneapolis nightclub First Avenue. Target Field, the home of Major League Baseball's Minnesota Twins, is located just across the street from the Target Center, and shares the public parking that the arena also uses.
References
External links
Target Center Renovation, Official by the Target Center.
1990 establishments in Minnesota
Arena football venues
Basketball venues in Minnesota
Gymnastics venues in the United States
Indoor ice hockey venues in Minneapolis
Event venues established in 1990
Sports venues completed in 1990
Legends Football League venues
Minnesota Lynx venues
Minnesota Timberwolves venues
Mixed martial arts venues in the United States
National Basketball Association venues
Sports venues in Minneapolis
Target Corporation
Minnesota Arctic Blast
Indoor arenas in Minnesota | [
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|
237004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan%20Stadium | Metropolitan Stadium | Metropolitan Stadium (often referred to as "the Met", "Met Stadium", or now "the Old Met" to distinguish from the Metrodome) was an outdoor sports stadium in the north central United States, located in Bloomington, Minnesota, a suburb south of Minneapolis.
The Minneapolis Millers minor league baseball team was the original tenant from 1956 to 1960, but Metropolitan Stadium was best known as the home of the American League's Minnesota Twins and the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League (NFL); both played at the "Met" for 21 seasons, from 1961 through 1981. The Minnesota Kicks of the North American Soccer League (NASL) also played there from 1976 to 1981.
Southwest of the airport, the stadium site is now the Mall of America, which opened in 1992.
History
Origins and construction
Beginning in 1953, inspired by the Boston Braves' move to Milwaukee, Gerald Moore, the president of the Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce, led the drive to lure a major league team to Minnesota by constructing a modern stadium built to major league specifications. After the rejection of numerous sites, a stadium committee appointed by Moore approved a plot of farmland in Bloomington. The stadium would replace Nicollet Park as the home of the American Association's Minneapolis Millers. The site was approximately equidistant from the downtowns of Minneapolis and St. Paul, and it was believed this would be the best location for a prospective major league team.
After a plan by architects Thorshov & Cerny won approval, groundbreaking was scheduled to begin on June 20, 1955. The construction was almost delayed, however, when the owners of the property began a protest, claiming they had not yet been paid. One of these owners created a barricade of farm equipment along his property line that ran directly through the future infield. The dispute was settled in time for the groundbreaking to move forward as planned. Many spectators and dignitaries attended the groundbreaking, including Minneapolis mayor Eric G. Hoyer and several members of the Minneapolis Millers.
On February 7, 1956, an accident occurred on the construction site when a portable heater used to cure concrete exploded in the stadium's basement. After $50,000 of repairs and a three-week delay in construction, Metropolitan Stadium opened in time to hold its first game, a minor league contest between the Millers and the Wichita Braves on April 24 of that year. (At the time of its opening, the stadium still lacked an official name; the park was not named until a July announcement declaring it "Metropolitan Stadium".)
In the 1950s, major league owners Calvin Griffith and Horace Stoneham called the stadium the finest facility in the minors; Stoneham added that "there were not two better" major league stadiums of the time (although not specifying which specific two he thought were the Met's equal) The Millers were then the top farm team of Stoneham's New York Giants, and there was some hope or expectation that the Giants might relocate there. Under major league rules of the time, by virtue of owning the Millers, the Giants owned the major league rights to Minneapolis. Negotiations were also held with Griffith's Washington Senators, as well as the Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Indians, and Philadelphia Athletics. However, the Giants chose to follow the Brooklyn Dodgers to the west coast at the urging of Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley, who owned the Millers' crosstown rivals, the St. Paul Saints. San Francisco had long been home to the Pacific Coast League's San Francisco Seals, the top farm team of the Boston Red Sox. As part of the deal, the Millers' parent team then became the Red Sox, who had no plans to move anywhere in the foreseeable future.
Multiple exhibition games featuring Major League teams were held at the Met at this time; a game between the Detroit Tigers and Cincinnati Reds was held at the Met in 1957, and a matchup between the Senators and the Philadelphia Phillies was held shortly after the 1958 All-Star break. The latter game brought 15,990 fans to the stadium, including Calvin Griffith, who described the stadium as "terrific."
Baseball and football
In October 1960, Calvin Griffith announced that his Washington Senators would move to Metropolitan Stadium as the Minnesota Twins. The Twins played their first home game on April 21, 1961, with a loss to the new Washington Senators (now the Texas Rangers). The Millers and Saints were then promptly folded by Major League Baseball. To ready the stadium for the Twins, a $9 million renovation increased the seating capacity from about 22,000 to over 30,000 by the completion of the Twins' inaugural season. During the Twins' first ten seasons at the Met, they outdrew the average American League team each year.
The National Football League (NFL) was also interested in placing a team at the Met. Conversations were had with Violet Bidwill Wolfner, owner of the Chicago Cardinals, about moving her team to the stadium. The Cardinals moved two of their 1959 regular season home games against the Philadelphia Eagles (October 25) (att: 20,112) and New York Giants (November 22) (att: 26,625) to Bloomington. A preseason football game was held each September at the Met for its first five years, 1956 through 1960:
September 15, – Pittsburgh Steelers 14 Philadelphia Eagles 12 (att: 14,742)
September 21, – Green Bay 10 Pittsburgh 10 (att: 17,226)
September 21, – Chicago Cardinals 31 Green Bay 24 (att: 18,520)
September 20, – Green Bay 13 Pittsburgh 10 (att: 18,018)
September 11, – Green Bay 28 Dallas Cowboys 23 (att: 20,151)
The Met finally got a football team when the new American Football League (AFL) announced Minneapolis–St. Paul as one of its charter cities for the inaugural 1960 season. However, the NFL persuaded the team's owners to pull out of the AFL in January 1960 and join the NFL as an expansion team in , and was later named the Minnesota Vikings. As it turned out, the year's delay worked to the Vikings' benefit. By the time the Vikings played their first game, the Twins had moved in and the Met had been expanded to befit its new status as a big-league stadium. (The Chicago Cardinals, after playing two games in Bloomington in 1959, announced in March 1960 that they were moving to St. Louis.)
The park had a disjointed, skeletal feel; it was obvious that it had once been a minor league baseball stadium. For instance, when bleachers were erected to expand the stadium for the Twins, no concourse was built to connect them to the rest of the stadium. Due to this design flaw, fans in the bleachers literally had to leave the stadium to get to the grandstand. Unlike most multipurpose stadiums built during this time, there were very few bad seats for baseball. The stadium was built using cantilever construction for the overhanging decks, eliminating posts that blocked the fans' view. It was well known as a hitter's park; its short foul lines— to left (east), to right (south)—were particularly friendly to pull hitters such as Harmon Killebrew. The 330 marker in right was actually closer to right-center, leading to speculation that right field was even closer. Since the Met was built in 1956, however, this would not have been a problem for the Twins; baseball required all parks built after 1958 to have foul lines of at least . Met Stadium distance signs included meters 1974–77. The diamond was aligned southeast (home plate to center field); recommended alignment is east-northeast.
The Met was often considered less than ideal for football. The gridiron ran from around third base to right field (north-south), with barely enough room to fit the playing field and end zones. Wooden bleachers were brought onto the field during football season to bring fans closer to the game. For 1965, a large double-decked grandstand was installed in left field to replace the temporary wooden bleachers. The Vikings actually paid for this new grandstand in return for reduced rent; this location was prime sideline seating in the football configuration. This left the Met with the unique configuration of a double deck in left field, and bleachers behind third base. The left-field grandstand was originally planned to be capable of sliding toward or away from the gridiron (as Denver's Mile High Stadium later would be), but that part of the project was never realized.
The Met provided an overwhelming home-field advantage for the Vikings late in the season and in the playoffs due to Minnesota's famously cold temperatures. The Vikings hosted ten playoff games at the Met and won seven of them.
In the 1965 baseball season, both the All-Star Game and the World Series were played at Metropolitan Stadium, one of the few times that coincidence has happened since the former event was inaugurated in 1933. (Game 7 of that year's World Series drew 50,596 fans to the Met, the only time a baseball crowd exceeded 50,000 and remained its attendance record for baseball.) The Vikings hosted and won the 1969 NFL Championship Game at the stadium, the last NFL game prior to the merger.
Soccer and other events
Metropolitan Stadium was the home of the Minnesota Kicks soccer team from 1976 until the team folded in November 1981. The Kicks, members of the North American Soccer League (NASL), were highly anticipated in Minnesota and had to delay their first game at the Met by fifteen minutes to accommodate the large crowd waiting to buy tickets. To help speed things along, the Kicks' owners let two thousand fans enter the stadium for free. An NASL attendance record was set one month later, when Pelé and the New York Cosmos drew 46,164 fans to Metropolitan Stadium. Large crowds continued for the Kicks, who drew 41,505 for that year's opening playoff game. Four days later, another record was set when 49,571 fans came to see the Kicks defeat San Jose, 3–1. The team enjoyed great success in their first four seasons in Minnesota, winning a division title each year. Attendance dipped toward the end of the franchise's history, however, with an average of 16,605 per game in 1981, their final season. The size of the field for soccer games was 100 by 72 yards 1976–78 and 104 by 72 yards 1979–81.
Concerts
The Met also hosted multiple concerts.
Wrestling
Numerous wrestling matches were held at Metropolitan Stadium, including contests featuring Hard Boiled Haggerty, Bob Geigel, Wilbur Snyder, Kay Noble, Lord Littlebrook, Verne Gagne, Gene Kiniski, Rene Goulet, Larry Hennig, Hans Schmidt, Mad Dog Vachon and Dick the Bruiser.
Final years and demise
Although the Met was responsible for bringing MLB and the NFL to the Twin Cities, it had not aged well. By the early 1970s, the Vikings were making noises about moving out. For instance, there was no prospect of building permanent seats along third base. The Vikings weren't willing to pay to build seats in an area that would have been in the end zone in the football configuration, and the Twins couldn't afford it. Discussions for a new stadium actually began in 1970, with six years remaining in both the Twins' and Vikings' leases. At one point, there were plans to place a dome over Metropolitan Stadium, or build a new football stadium located between the Met and the Met Center, which had opened in 1967 just north of the Met.
While the initial talks focused on a stadium for the Vikings, the Twins quickly joined the discussions. The idea of a dome was particularly appealing to Griffith given the bitterly cold weather that is common in the Twin Cities early and late in baseball season. This accelerated the push for construction of a new stadium, the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, which was completed in 1982.
However, it is very likely that a new stadium would have been needed in any event, as the Met was not well maintained. By the park's final season, railings in the grandstand's third deck had become a major safety hazard. Additionally, players had begun to complain about the quality of the field; the infield in particular was considered the worst in the majors. Additionally, as part of the AFL–NFL merger, the NFL declared that stadiums with less than 50,000 seats were inadequate for its needs; at its height the Met only seated 49,700 people for football (48,400 at the time of closure). However, the Vikings would not even consider playing at the University of Minnesota's Memorial Stadium even on a temporary basis.
Rumors abounded that the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission, which by then had taken over the stadium from the city of Minneapolis, had deliberately let the Met go to seed in order to aid the push for the Metrodome.
The Minnesota Kicks' last regular season game at Met Stadium was a 2–1 victory over the Dallas Tornado on August 19, 1981. A week later, the team's last game at the Met was a 1-0 shoot-out playoff victory over the Tulsa Roughnecks. The team's last game played was a home playoff loss, 3–0 to the Fort Lauderdale Strikers, on September 6, 1981. The game was moved to Memorial Stadium due to a scheduling conflict with the Twins.
The Twins played their last game at the Met on September 30, 1981, losing to the Kansas City Royals 5–2 on a rainy afternoon. The night before the final game, home plate was stolen, and after the final game ended, hundreds of fans gathered on the field, searching (mostly unsuccessfully) for mementoes.
The Vikings played their last game on December 20, 1981, dropping a 10–6 decision to the Kansas City Chiefs. Fans, sensing that this was the final game of any sort at the stadium, were more determined to claim souvenirs. In preparation, the Vikings tripled their security force for the contest. In the game's final minutes, many of the 41,110 fans in attendance began dismantling seats and bleachers, and thousands stormed the field once the game ended. The goal posts were torn down, pieces of sod from the field were dug up, and speakers and lightbulbs on the scoreboard were removed. Hundreds of injuries were reported, mostly minor scrapes and bruises but also multiple head injuries sustained during the melee.
Met Stadium was officially abandoned when the Vikings and the Twins moved to the Metrodome in January 1982, and the Kicks folded after the 1981 soccer season. For the next three years, Met Stadium sat unused, decaying, and highly vandalized. Demolition kickoff for Metropolitan Stadium started in 1985 on January 28, and continued for the next four months. After the rubble was cleared, the lot sat vacant for several years, although the nearby Met Center continued to provide entertainment for NHL hockey fans for another decade.
After the Met
The Mall of America, which opened in 1992, stands on the site of what is now nostalgically called "the Old Met." A brass plaque in the shape of home plate, embedded in the floor in the northwest corner of Nickelodeon Universe, commemorates the site's days as a sports venue by marking where home plate once sat. Near the opposite corner, mounted high on the wall, is a red stadium chair denoting the precise landing spot (including elevation) of Harmon Killebrew's home run, a blast to the upper deck in deep left-center field on June 3, 1967. This was the longest homer of Killebrew's career, and the longest ever hit in Metropolitan Stadium. Unlike the chair at the Mall, the Met's outfield seating featured green bleacher-style benches.
For a time, there was talk of building a new park for the Twins on the old Met site that would be connected to the Mall of America. However, the terms of the agreement in which the land was sold to Triple Five Group, owners of the Mall of America, do not allow another stadium to be built on the site. Even without this to consider, the site is now directly in a flight path for Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport.
The old flagpole at the stadium was purchased by the Minneapolis/Richfield American Legion Post when the stadium was razed. The pole was sold back to the Twins and restored in ; it was then placed in the plaza at Target Field.
Photo gallery: abandonment
A series of photographs taken in the mid-1980s during Metropolitan Stadium's abandonment.
References
External links
Hail Mary pass
Reference to longest home run
Base from Metropolitan Stadium, Minnesota Historical Society
Tribute page (BallparkMagic)
News coverage of the Vikings' last game at the Met (YouTube)
1978 Minnesota Kicks game
1972 softball practice at the Met
December 1981: Last Vikings game at Met Stadium ends in melee
1956 establishments in Minnesota
1985 disestablishments in Minnesota
Sports venues in Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Sports venues completed in 1956
Demolished sports venues in Minnesota
Defunct baseball venues in the United States
Defunct Major League Baseball venues
m
Defunct soccer venues in the United States
Minnesota Twins stadiums
Minnesota Vikings stadiums
Buildings and structures in Bloomington, Minnesota
Defunct National Football League venues
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) stadiums
Sports venues demolished in 1985 | [
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|
237006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy%20Green%20%28judge%29 | Guy Green (judge) | Sir Guy Stephen Montague Green, (born 26 July 1937) is a retired Australian judge who served as the Governor of Tasmania from 1995 to 2003. He was the first Tasmanian-born governor of the state, although not the first Australian-born.
Early life and career
Guy Green was born in Launceston, Tasmania, and attended the Launceston Church Grammar School. He studied law at the University of Tasmania's Hobart Campus, graduating with honours in 1960. He was Chief Justice of Tasmania from 1973 until 1995, the culmination of a distinguished career in law in Tasmania, which saw him serve as a magistrate from 1971 to 1973.
Green was also heavily involved in the University of Tasmania, serving as chancellor before his appointment as governor. He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws by the university in 1996. Sir Guy was also chancellor of the Australian Priory of the Order of St John of Jerusalem before assuming Vice-Regal office.
On 11 May 2003, the Governor-General, Peter Hollingworth, stood aside following a controversy about his past handling of child abuse allegations. Green, the longest-serving state governor, was appointed Administrator of the Commonwealth, or in effect acting governor-general. Hollingworth later announced that he would not be returning to the position. Green served as administrator until Michael Jeffery took office in August 2003. He retired afterwards and was replaced as Tasmanian governor by Richard Butler.
Green was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1982, appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia in 1994, and appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order during Queen Elizabeth II's visit to Tasmania in 2000. He was awarded the Centenary Medal in 2001.
On retiring from the governorship, Green continued to contribute to Tasmania, as chairman of trustees of the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, and chairman of the board of the 10 Days on the Island festival.
Green was appointed (1975–1980) as a board director of the Duke of Edinburgh's International Award – Australia and during this period was the Tasmanian Chair for the Award.
Honours, awards and styles
Guy Green (1939–1973)
The Hon. Guy Green (1973–1982)
The Hon. Sir Guy Green, KBE (1982–1994)
The Hon. Sir Guy Green, AC, KBE (1994–1995)
His Excellency the Hon. Sir Guy Green, AC, KBE, 24th Governor of Tasmania (1995–2000)
His Excellency the Hon. Sir Guy Green, AC, KBE, CVO, 24th Governor of Tasmania (2000–2003)
The Hon. Sir Guy Green, AC, KBE, CVO (2003–Present)
References
1937 births
Living people
Governors of Tasmania
Chief Justices of Tasmania
Judges of the Supreme Court of Tasmania
20th-century Australian judges
Companions of the Order of Australia
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Australian Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order
Recipients of the Centenary Medal
People educated at Launceston Church Grammar School
Australian monarchists | [
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|
237010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Monetary%20Market | International Monetary Market | The International Monetary Market (IMM), a related exchange created within the old Chicago Mercantile Exchange and largely the creation of Leo Melamed, is today one of four divisions of the CME Group (CME), the largest futures exchange in the United States, for the trading of futures contracts and options on futures. The IMM was started on May 16, 1972. Two of the more prevalent contracts traded are currency futures and interest rate futures, specifically, 3-month Eurodollar time deposits and 90-day U.S. Treasury bills. The other two CME divisions includes the Index and Option Market (IOM) and Growth and Emerging Markets (GEM). All products fall under one of these three divisions.
See also
List of futures exchanges
IMM dates
Notes
External links
Chicago Mercantile Exchange website
Futures exchanges
1972 establishments in Illinois
Settlement (finance) | [
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|
237011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vimy | Vimy | Vimy ( or ; ; Dutch: Wimi) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region of France. Located east of Vimy is the Canadian National Vimy Memorial dedicated to the Battle of Vimy Ridge and the Canadian soldiers who were killed during the war. The Memorial is also the site of two Canadian cemeteries.
Geography and history
Vimy is a farming town, situated some north of Arras, at the junction of the D51 and the N17 roads. It is situated on the crest of Vimy Ridge, a prominent feature overlooking the Artois region.
The town was first mentioned in 1183 as Viniarcum and was the scene of much fighting during the fourteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries among the French, English, Dutch and Spanish forces.
The ridge was the scene of fierce fighting in the First World War. Seized by the Germans in 1914, it was the subject of a French assault in 1915. In 1917 the Battle of Vimy Ridge took place southeast of Vimy and was an important battle of the war for Canadian military history. The town was practically destroyed during the fighting in the area.
Places of interest
Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park
Set on the highest point of Vimy Ridge, the Canadian National Vimy Memorial is the largest of Canada's war monuments. In 1922, use of the land for the battlefield park which contains the memorial was granted, in perpetuity, by the French nation to the people of Canada in recognition of Canada's war efforts. of the former Vimy Ridge battlefield is preserved as part of the memorial park which surrounds the monument. The grounds of the site are still honeycombed with wartime tunnels, trenches and craters, closed off for public safety.
The project took designer Walter Seymour Allward 11 years to see built. (The total cost was $1.5 million, which is over $20 million in present terms.) King Edward VIII unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of French President Albert Lebrun and a crowd of over 50,000 including over 6200 Canadian veterans and their families.
Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen Elizabeth II re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. A new $10 million visitor center was completed before the 9 April 2017 commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the battle. The event was anticipated to be attended by as many as 30,000 people.
The official ceremony included comments by Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Governor General David Johnston as representative of the Monarchy of Canada, Prince Charles as representative of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry, the President of France François Hollande, and the Prime Minister of France Bernard Cazeneuve.
Town of Vimy
The church of St.Martin, rebuilt, along with much of the village, after World War I.
The remains of a thirteenth-century castle, destroyed in 1833, now the site of the current town hall.
Population
Twin towns
Horley in Surrey, England.
Fischach in Bavaria, Germany.
See also
Communes of the Pas-de-Calais department
References
INSEE commune file
Communes of Pas-de-Calais
County of Artois | [
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237012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon%20Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | Simeon Borisov von Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (, ; born 16 June 1937) is a Bulgarian politician who reigned as the last tsar of the Kingdom of Bulgaria as Simeon II from 1943 until 1946. He was six years old when his father Boris III of Bulgaria died in 1943 and royal power was exercised on his behalf by a regency led by Simeon's uncle Kiril, Prince of Preslav, General Nikola Mihov and prime minister, Bogdan Filov. In 1946 the monarchy was abolished by referendum, and Simeon was forced into exile.
He returned to his home country in 1996, formed the political party National Movement Simeon II (NMSP) and was elected Prime Minister of the Republic of Bulgaria from July 2001 until August 2005. In the next elections, as a leader of NMSP, he took part in a coalition government with the Bulgarian Socialist Party. In 2009, after NMSP failed to win any seats in Parliament, he left politics.
On 24 July 2001, he gave his official oath in the name of Republic of Bulgaria to serve as Prime Minister.
Royal history
Simeon was born to Boris III of Bulgaria and Giovanna of Italy. Following his birth, Boris III sent an air force officer to the Jordan River to obtain water for Simeon's baptism in the Orthodox faith. He was pointed to accede to the throne on 28 August 1943 upon the death of his father, who had just returned to Bulgaria from a meeting with Adolf Hitler. Then a massive media campaign was launched throughout Bulgaria in the name of the Tsar to uphold the national spirit during heavy War-times. Since Simeon was only six years old, his uncle Prince Kiril, Prime Minister Bogdan Filov, and Lt. General Nikola Mihov of the Bulgarian Army were appointed regents.
Under his father, Bulgaria had reluctantly joined the Axis powers in World War II but had managed to preserve diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Still, on 5 September 1944 Stalin declared war on Bulgaria and three days later, the Red Army entered the country without encountering resistance. On the next day, 9 September 1944, Prince Kyril and the other regents were deposed by a Soviet-backed coup and arrested. The three regents, all members of the last three governments, Parliament deputies, heads of the army and eminent journalists were executed by the Communists in February 1945.
Towards exile
The royal family—Queen Giovanna, Simeon, and his sister Maria-Louisa—remained at Vrana Palace near Sofia, while three new regents were appointed (Todor Pavlov, Venelin Ganev and Tsvetko Boboshevski). On 15 September 1946, a referendum was held in the presence of the Soviet army. It resulted in a 95.6% approval for republic and abolition of the monarchy.
On 16 September 1946, the royal family was exiled from Bulgaria while given a way to take out large amount of movable property along with the train composition. They first went to Alexandria, Egypt, where Queen Giovanna's father Vittorio Emanuele III, the former king of Italy, lived in exile. There, in 1951 Simeon studied at Victoria College (along with Crown Prince Leka of Albania). In July 1951, General Francisco Franco's dictatorship in Spain granted asylum to the family.
Education and business career
In Madrid, Simeon studied at the Lycée Français. On 16 June 1955, upon turning 18, in accordance with the Tarnovo Constitution Simeon read a proclamation to the Bulgarian people, claiming he is Tsar of Bulgaria, confirming his will to be Tsar of all Bulgarians and to follow the principles contrary to then ruled by communist regime Bulgaria. In 1958, he enrolled at Valley Forge Military Academy and College in the United States, where he was known as "Cadet Rylski No. 6883", and graduated as a second lieutenant. Once again in Spain (between 1959 and 1962), Simeon studied law and business administration.
He became a businessman. For thirteen years, he was chairman of the Spanish subsidiary of Thomson, a French defense and electronics group. He was also an adviser in the banking, hotel, electronics, and catering sectors.
Marriage and issue
On 21 January 1962, Simeon married a Spanish aristocrat, Doña Margarita Gómez-Acebo y Cejuela. The couple have had five children – four sons (Kardam, Kiril, Kubrat and Konstantin) and a daughter, Kalina, all of whom subsequently married Spaniards. All of his sons received names of Bulgarian Tsars, his daughter has a Bulgarian name, although only four of his eleven grandchildren have Bulgarian names (Boris, Sofia, Mirko and Simeon).
Kardam (1962 – 7 April 2015) married Miriam Ungría y López. They had two sons, Boris and Beltran.
Kiril (born 1964) married María del Rosario Nadal y Fuster de Puigdórfila. They have two daughters, Mafalda and Olimpia, and one son, Tassilo.
Kubrat (born 1965) married Carla María de la Soledad Royo-Villanova y Urrestarazu. They have three sons: Mirko, Lukás and Tirso.
Konstantin-Assen (born 1967) married María García de la Rasilla y Gortázar. They have twins, Umberto and Sofia.
Kalina (born 1972) married Antonio José "Kitín" Muñoz y Valcárcel. They have one son, Simeon Hassan Muñoz.
Political return
In 1990, just months after the fall of communism, Simeon was issued a new Bulgarian passport. In 1996, fifty years after the abolition of the monarchy, Simeon returned to Bulgaria and was met in many places by crowds of approval. He did not, at that point, make any political announcements or moves, as he had already denied in a TV interview (1990) to have any material property claims against Bulgaria. However, these social sentiments gradually disappeared after his premiership, with Simeon making moves to take back large areas or real estate property in Bulgaria that was under the monarchy's governance before 1945.
In 2001, Simeon, who had by this time taken the name Simeon Borisov Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, announced he would return to Bulgaria to form a new political party, the National Movement Simeon II (later renamed to NMSP), dedicated to "reforms and political integrity." Simeon promised that in 800 days the Bulgarian people would feel tangible positive effects of his government and would enjoy significantly higher standards of living.
Prime Minister
NMSP won a large victory in the parliamentary elections held on 17 June 2001, capturing 120 of the 240 seats in Parliament and defeating the two main pre-existing political parties. Simeon gave an oath as Prime Minister of Republic of Bulgaria on 24 July, forming a coalition with the ethnic Turkish party, Movement for Rights and Freedoms (MRF). He gave ministerial positions in his government mainly to technocrats and Western-educated economic specialists.
During his time in power, Bulgaria joined NATO, after he had agreed to enter into the USA led coalition against Iraq. In 2002, he received the Path to Peace Award from the Path to Peace Foundation.
In the 2005 elections, Simeon's party ranked second and participated in the grand coalition government led by the Bulgarian Socialist Party and including the Movement for Rights and Freedoms. Simeon was given the unofficial ceremonial post of Chairman of the Coalition Council.
The party got just 3.01% of votes and no seats at the parliamentary elections of 2009. Shortly after, on 6 July, Simeon also resigned as NMSP leader.
Views on restoration of the Bulgarian monarchy
Although not yet formally renouncing his claim to the Bulgarian throne, Simeon and his family take part in long orchestrated media campaigns and moves throughout Bulgarian political space. Since he was a minor at the time of the Monarchy, his legal capacity to hold such a claim in a clear manner would have been questionable at best. He used the title "Tsar of the Bulgarians" in his political statements during his exile. Since his return to Bulgaria, however, Simeon has consistently avoided revealing his views on the restoration of the Bulgarian monarchy, notwithstanding the original name of his party, while keeping himself away from media who do not refer to him as a monarch.
Autobiography
Simeon wrote an autobiography in French under the title Simeon II de Bulgarie, un destin singulier that was released in Bulgaria on 28 October 2014. It was first presented at the headquarters of the UNESCO in Paris on 22 October 2014.
Longevity
At the time of his death, Ferdinand I held the record for the longest-lived head of state in Bulgarian history, having been 87 years, and 197 days old when he died on 10 September 1948. Simeon will break this record if he remains living after December 31, 2024.
Titles and styles
15 September 1946 – present: (unofficial and legally disputed) His Majesty Tsar Simeon II of the Bulgarians (title of pretense and by courtesy)
24 July 2001 – present: Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
In a statement published on its website on 1 May 2015, the Bulgarian Patriarchy announced that Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha will be referred to as Tsar of Bulgaria in all public and private services held in the dioceses of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church.
Dynastic honours
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry: Knight and Grand Master of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry: Grand Master of the Royal Order of Saint Alexander
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry: Grand Master of the Royal Order of Bravery
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry: Grand Master of the Royal Order of Civil Merit
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry: Grand Master of the Royal Order of Military Merit
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry: Recipient of the Coming of age Medal of Tsar Simeon II
National state honours
: Grand Cross of the Order of Stara Planina
Bulgarian Ministry of Defence: Collar of the Order of Justice
Foreign state and dynastic honours
: Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II
: Grand'Croix of the Order of the Legion of Honour
Orléans-French Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Lazarus
Greek Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Redeemer
Italian Royal Family: Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation
: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre
: Bailiff Knight Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Two Sicilian Royal Family:
Knight of the Royal Order of Saint Januarius
Bailiff Knight Grand Cross of the Two Sicilian Royal Sacred Military Order of Saint George
: Grand Cordon of the Order of Independence
Portugese Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
Russian Imperial Family: Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Andrew
:
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III
Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece
National awards
: Honorary degree of the National Guards Unit of Bulgaria
: Jubilee badge of honour of the Bulgarian Chitalishte community
Foreign awards
: Paneuropean Union integration award
: Honorary degree of the University of Bucharest
: Adoptive Son of Madrid
Arms
Patronages
National patronages
: Patron of the National day of Bulgaria
Foreign patronages
: Patron of restoration of the Statue of St. John of Nepomuk in Divina, realised out under auspices of the Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in Slovakia (2017).
Ancestry
See also
The Boy Who Was a King, a 2011 Bulgarian documentary by Andrey Paounov.
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
References
Bibliography
Ramon Perez-Maura, El rey possible: Simeon de Bulgaria, Belacqua, Madrid, 2002 ()
Simeon II de Bulgarie, Sébastien de Courtois, Un destin singulier, Flammarion, 2014 ()
Books
In addition to the books listed in the References, the following may be mentioned:
Walter J.R. Curley, Monarchs in Waiting. London: Hutchinson & Co., 1975. (pp. 23–25: "Bulgaria: His Majesty King Simeon II")
Pashanko Dimitroff, Boris III of Bulgaria 1894–1943. London, 1986.
Charles Fenyvesi, Royalty in Exile. London: Robson Books, 1981. (pp. 153–171: "Czar Simeon of the Bulgars")
Stephane Groueff Crown of Thorns, Lanham MD. and London, 1987.
Gregory Lauder-Frost, The Betrayal of Bulgaria, Monarchist League Policy Paper, London, 1989.
Robert K. Massie and Jeffrey Firestone, The Last Courts of Europe. New York: Greenwich House, 1983.
Articles
The Daily Telegraph, Obituary for "HM Queen Ioanna of the Bulgarians", London, 28 February 2000.
External links
King Simeon II – Personal website
The first website about Simeon II of Bulgaria focuses on his pre-1995 history
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha's statement, 5 July 2002 concerning Bulgaria's candidacy for NATO membership: "The role of the international community should be gradually transformed from crisis response to integration. Palliative measures intended to mitigate yet another crisis cannot bring stability and prosperity. The best solution is the region's integration into the European and Euroatlantic institutions."
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha's address, 10 February 2005 concerning amending the constitution to bring it in line with EU requirements, Standart
1937 births
20th-century Bulgarian monarchs
Simeon
Leaders ousted by a coup
Living people
Modern child rulers
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Politicians from Sofia
Child pretenders
Prime Ministers of Bulgaria
Rulers deposed as children
Victoria College, Alexandria alumni
Valley Forge Military Academy and College alumni
World War II political leaders
Grand Master of the Order of Military Merit (Bulgaria)
Recipients of the Order of Bravery
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II
Grand Cordons of the Order of Independence (Jordan)
Knights of the Holy Sepulchre
Bailiffs Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Recipients of the Order of Saint Lazarus (statuted 1910)
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
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|
237014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorum | Quorum | A quorum is the minimum number of members of a deliberative assembly (a body that uses parliamentary procedure, such as a legislature) necessary to conduct the business of that group. According to Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised, the "requirement for a quorum is protection against totally unrepresentative action in the name of the body by an unduly small number of persons." In contrast, a plenum is a meeting of the full (or rarely nearly full) body. A body, or a meeting or vote of it, is quorate if a quorum is present (or casts valid votes).
The term quorum is from a Middle English wording of the commission formerly issued to justices of the peace, derived from Latin quorum, "of whom", genitive plural of qui, "who". As a result, quora as plural of quorum is not a valid Latin formation. In modern times a quorum might be defined as the minimum number of voters needed for a valid election.
In Robert's Rules of Order
According to Robert, each assembly determines the number of members that constitutes a quorum in its governing documents (such as in its constitution, charter, bylaws or standing orders). The quorum may also be set by law. Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised states that the quorum set in an organization's bylaws "should approximate the largest number that can be depended on to attend any meeting except in very bad weather or other extremely unfavorable conditions."
In the absence of such a provision, a quorum is an assembly whose membership can be determined is a majority of the entire membership. In the meetings of a convention, unless provided otherwise, a quorum is a majority of registered delegates, even if some have departed. In a mass meeting or in an organization in which the membership cannot be accurately determined, the quorum consists of those who attend the meeting.
In committees and boards, a quorum is a majority of the members of the board or committee unless provided otherwise. The board or committee cannot set its own quorum unless given such power. In a committee of the whole or its variants, a quorum is the same as the assembly unless otherwise provided.
In online groups, a quorum has to be determined in a different manner since no one is actually "present". The rules establishing such groups would have to prescribe this determination. An example is that a quorum in such groups could be established as "present" if enough members state that they are "present" at the designated meeting time.
Determination of a quorum
The chairperson of the group has the responsibility to determine if a quorum is present. In addition, any member can raise a point of order about an apparent absence of a quorum. Because it is difficult to determine exactly when a quorum was lost, points of order relating to the absence of a quorum are "generally not permitted to affect prior action; but upon clear and convincing proof, such a point of order can be given effect retrospectively by a ruling of the presiding officer, subject to appeal."
Limited actions in the absence of a quorum
When a quorum is not met, the assembly can only take limited procedural actions. These limited actions are to fix the time to which to adjourn, adjourn, recess, or take measures to obtain a quorum, such as a motion that absent members be contacted during a recess.
Any other business that is conducted is not valid unless it is ratified at a later meeting where a quorum is present. However, there is no obligation to ratify such action and those responsible may be punished for their actions.
Call of the house
In legislatures and other assemblies that have the legal power to compel the attendance of their members, the call of the house procedure may be used to obtain a quorum. This procedure does not exist in ordinary societies, since voluntary associations have no coercive power.
When a call of the house is ordered, the clerk calls the roll of members and then the names of absentees. Members who do not have an excused absence are arrested and brought in. The arrested members may be charged a fee.
Both chambers of the United States Congress have the power to compel the attendance of absent members; this procedure, authorized by Article I, Section 5 of the U.S. Constitution is rarely used in the modern Congress.Martin B. Gold & Ronald Weich, Common Interpretation: Article I, Section 5, Interactive Constitution, National Constitution Center.Voting and Quorum Procedures in the House of Representatives, Congressional Research Service (March 26, 2020), p. 12.
By country
Australia
While Section 22 and section 39 of the Constitution of Australia set the quorum for sittings of the House of Representatives and Senate at one-third of the whole number of MPs and senators, respectively, Parliament is permitted to change the quorum for each House by ordinary legislation.
In the House of Representatives, the quorum was amended down to one-fifth by the House of Representatives (Quorum) Act 1989, which means the quorum of the current House of 151 MPs is 31 MPs. In the senate, the quorum was amended down to one-quarter by the Senate (Quorum) Act 1991, so 19 senators is a quorum. The quorum includes the occupant of the Chair, and is not reduced by the death or resignation of a member or senator.
If at the beginning of a sitting the quorum is not met, the bells are rung for five minutes and a count is then taken; if the quorum is still not met the sitting is adjourned until the next sitting day. During the sitting, any MP or senator may draw attention to the lack of quorum in which the bells are rung for four minutes, and if a quorum is still not met the sitting is adjourned.
Although quorum-busting is virtually unheard of in Australia, it is not unknown for parties to deliberately use quorum counts as a disruptive tactic and there have been some suggestions to enact rules to restrict this practice; however, this is very difficult due to the explicit mention of a quorum in the constitution. It is considered disorderly to call attention to quorum when one exists, and members or senators who do so can be punished.
Austria
In the National Council of Austria at least one-third of the representatives must be present, so that they may decide on a simple law (participation quorum of 33.3%). At least half of the members must participate if a constitutional law should pass the parliament (participation quorum of 50% based on the total number of members). Over and above that, constitutional laws require the consent of at least two-thirds of the members present (quorum agreement of 66.6% based on the number of voting present).
Canada
In Canada, the Constitution Act, 1867 sets quorum for sittings of the House of Commons of Canada at 20 MPs. If a member calls for quorum to be counted and a first count shows there are fewer than 20 members, bells are rung to call in the members; if after 15 minutes there are still fewer than 20 members, the session is adjourned to the next sitting day; the members present sign a roll on the table of the house, and this list is included in the Journal of the House. There is no need for quorum when the attendance of the House is requested in the Senate of Canada, for example, when royal assent is being given to bills. The quorum of the Senate is 15.
Provincial and territorial quorums
Germany
In the German Bundestag at least half of the members (355 out of 709) must be present so that it is empowered to make resolutions. It is however common that fewer members are present, because they can still make effective decisions as long as no parliamentary group or 5% of the members of the parliament are complaining about the lack of quorum. This, in rare cases, is used by opposition parties to delay votes.
Hong Kong
Article 75 of the Basic Law of Hong Kong stipulates that the quorum required for the meetings of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong (LegCo) as "not less than one-half of its members". Between 1997 and 2012 the quorum was 30, and since 2012 it has been 35. Prior to 1997 transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, the quorum was set at 20.
The quorum for the panels, committees and subcommittees is, nevertheless, one-third or three members, whichever the greater, as according to the Rules of Procedure. The three standing committees, namely, the Finance Committee, the Public Accounts Committee and Committee on Members' Interests, is exceptional that the quorums are 9, 3 and 3 respectively.
Quorum-busting was used at least twice since 1997. In 2005, when some pro-democracy members of the council paid a silent tribute to late leader of the People's Republic of China, Zhao Ziyang, against the Rules of Procedure, the president of the council suspended the meeting. When the meeting was recalled, pro-Beijing members refused to return to the chamber, forcing the meeting to be adjourned.
On 27 January 2010, when five pro-democracy members were intending to make their resignation speeches, pro-Beijing members of the council left the chamber as a sign of protest. One of the pro-Beijing members nevertheless stayed in the chamber to call for the quorum to be counted, effectively forcing the meeting to be adjourned. The resignation was intended as a de facto referendum across all five geographical constituencies of the territory, involving the entire electorate, which would not be officially recognised anyway. Most other factions, although against the move by these five Members, stayed in the chamber.
On 2 May 2012, when the LegCo was debating a law change to bar resigning legislators to participate in by-elections in 6 months, effectively discouraging any more "de facto" referenda, some of the five pro-democracy members who resigned constantly issued quorum calls, especially when they were making their resignation speeches intended for 2 years before. In the nine-hour meeting, 23 quorum calls were issued, taking up to 3 hours. When LegCo reconvened on 3 May, it was adjourned for lack of quorum amid a boycott by the pan-democrats. The pro-government members drew a timetable to ensure a quorum, but it failed to prevent another lack of quorum.
On 18 June 2015, when the LegCo was due to vote on a resolution to amend the provisions for the election of the territory's Chief Executive, pro-Beijing members left the chamber to force a quorum roll call to make sure that a sick member could be able to rush back to the chamber. However some of the members stayed behind, citing miscommunication, and the division proceeded with two members above the required quorum of 35. While the resolution was originally predicted to be narrowly defeated due to not able to get super-majority support votes, it turned out to be a landslide defeat.
Quorum-busting and attempts to thwart it are also a common feature during the annual motion debate related to the 1989 Tiananmen massacre moved by pro-democracy Members. The quorum is called to be counted from time to time by the pan-democrats, in order to force the pro-Beijing camp to keep some members in the chamber.
India
Article 100 of the Constitution of India stipulates that at least 10% of total number of members of the House must be present to constitute the quorum to constitute a meeting of either House of Parliament. For example, if the House has the total membership of 250, at least 25 members must be present for the House to proceedings with its business.
If at any time during a meeting of a House there is no quorum, the Chairman has to either adjourn the House or suspend it until there is a quorum.
Ireland
According to the most recent standing orders, published in 2011, the quorum for the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament, for both the lower House, Dáil Éireann, and the upper House, Seanad Éireann, is 20 members.
The chamber of Dáil Éireann is rarely full outside question time, with often just one government representative (often an ordinary Teachta Dála, not a minister) present to answer opposition questions.
Pakistan
Article 55 of the constitutions of Pakistan states that, If at any time during a sitting of the National Assembly the attention of the person presiding is drawn to the fact that less than one-fourth of the total membership of the Assembly is present, he shall either adjourn the Assembly or suspend the meeting until at least one-fourth of such membership is present, which comprises 87 out of total 342.
Philippines
In Congress of the Philippines, half of the membership (13 in the Senate and 153 in the House of Representatives) is needed to muster a quorum. If someone contests the lack of quorum, a roll call shall be done, and if there is indeed less than a majority of members present, the meeting shall be adjourned.
Both majority and minority blocs in Congress have used the lack of quorum in defeating bills that they don't want to be passed without putting it to a vote. After an election during the lame-duck session, quorums are notoriously difficult to muster, more so in the House of Representatives as winning incumbents may opt to go on vacation, and defeated incumbents may opt to not to show up.
Turkey
According to article 96 of the Turkish Constitution, unless otherwise stipulated in the Constitution, the Turkish Grand National Assembly shall convene with at least, one-third of the total number of members (184 out of 550) and shall take decisions by an absolute majority of those present; however, the quorum for decisions can, under no circumstances, be less than a quarter plus one of the total
number of members (138 out of 550).
Before the constitutional referendum of 2007, there was a quorum of two-thirds required in the Turkish Parliament: after opposition parties used the quorum to deadlock the presidential election of 2007, making it impossible for the parliament to choose a president, the ruling AK party proposed a referendum to lower the quorum to prevent a repeat of this event. Nearly seventy percent of the participants supported the constitutional changes.
United Kingdom
In the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the House of Commons has a quorum of 40 MPs, including the Speaker, out of 650 members of the House. There is no need for a quorum to be present at all times: Commons debates could theoretically continue even if only one MP and the Speaker were present.
However, if a division is called and fewer than 40 MPs are present, then a decision on the business being considered is postponed and the House moves on to consider the next item of business.
The quorum for votes on legislation in the House of Lords is 30, but just three of the 753 peers, including the Lord Speaker, are required to be present for a debate to take place.
Historically, the quorum was a select group of the justices of the peace in each county in early modern Britain. In theory, they were men experienced in law, but many of the quorum were appointed because of their status. Some legislation required the involvement of a member of the quorum (e.g., granting a license to a badger). In practice, they increasingly were not qualified, as the proportion in the quorum rose faster than the proportion who were called to the bar or practising lawyers. By 1532, an average 45% of justices of the peace nationally were of the quorum. In Somerset, the proportion rose from 52% in 1562 to 93% in 1636. By then, most of those not on the quorum were new to the bench. Sometimes justices of the peace were removed from the quorum as a disciplinary measure less drastic than removal from the bench.
United Nations
The large deliberative bodies of the United Nations (the General Assembly and Economic and Social Council, as well as their subsidiary organs) generally require the attendance of one-third of the membership (currently 65 states in the General Assembly and 18 in ECOSOC) to conduct most business, but a majority of members (currently 97 states in the General Assembly and 28 states in ECOSOC) in order to take any substantive decisions. The rules of the United Nations Security Council make no provisions for quorum, but nine votes are in all cases required to pass any substantive measure, effectively meaning that a meeting with fewer than nine members in attendance is pointless.
United States
Article I, Section 5, Clause 1 of the United States Constitution provides that "Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business..."
Therefore, in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, a quorum is a simple majority of their respective members (currently 218 in the House and 51 in the Senate).
The only exceptions are those stated in the Twelfth Amendment:
In cases where no candidate for President of the United States receives a majority in the Electoral College, the election is decided by the House of Representatives, in which case "a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states" (a possible quorum as low as 34).
In cases in which no candidate for Vice President of the United States receives a majority in the Electoral College, the election is decided by the Senate, in which case "a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators" (a quorum of 67).
The Senate has the additional ordinary requirement in Rule VI of its Standing Rules that "A quorum shall consist of a majority of the Senators duly chosen and sworn."
Call of the house in the United States Senate
In the United States Senate, the procedure was last used in the early morning hours of 25 February 1988.
Senator Robert C. Byrd of West Virginia, then the Senate Majority Leader, moved a call of the house after the minority Republicans walked out of the chamber in an attempt to deny the Senate a quorum after Senate aides began bringing cots into the Senate cloakrooms in preparation for an all-night session over campaign finance reform for congressional elections.
Byrd's motion was approved 45-3 and arrest warrants were signed for all 46 Republicans: Senate Sergeant-at-Arms Henry K. Giugni and his staff searched the Capitol's corridor and Senate office buildings for absent Senators, and after checking several empty offices, spotted Senator Steve Symms of Idaho, who fled down a hallway and escaped arrest. After a cleaning woman gave a tip that Senator Robert Packwood of Oregon was in his office, Giugni opened the door with a skeleton key. Packwood attempted to shove the door closed, but Giugni and two assistants pushed it open. Packwood was subsequently carried feet-first into the Senate chamber by three plainclothes officers and sustained bruised knuckles.
Prior to 1988, the last time the procedure had been used was during a 1942 filibuster over civil rights legislation: Southern Democrat senators had spent days filibustering legislation to end poll taxes, days after the midterm elections had resulted in the Democrats losing of nine seats. Democratic Majority Leader Alben W. Barkley obtained an order on a Saturday session on 14 November 1942, directing Sergeant at Arms Chesley W. Jurney to detain the five Southern absentees to obtain a quorum. Jurney sent his Deputy Sergeant at Arms, J. Mark Trice, to the apartment of Democratic Senator Kenneth McKellar of Tennessee at the Mayflower Hotel. Then 73 years old and the third-most senior Senator, McKellar was later described by Republican Senator Bill Frist in his book on Tennessee senators as an "extraordinarily shrewd man of husky dimensions with a long memory and a short fuse." Trice called from the lobby, but McKellar refused to answer his phone, so the deputy sergeant-at-arms walked up to the apartment and convinced the senator's maid to let him in:
Quorum-busting
Quorum-busting, also known as a walkout, is a tactic that prevents a legislative body from attaining a quorum, and can be used by a minority group seeking to block the adoption of some measure they oppose. This generally only happens where the quorum is a super-majority, as quorums of a majority or less of the membership mean that the support of a majority of members is always sufficient for the quorum (as well as for passage). Rules to discourage quorum-busting have been adopted by legislative bodies, such as the call of the house, outlined above.
Quorum-busting has been used for centuries. For instance, during his time in the Illinois Legislature, Abraham Lincoln leapt out of a first story window (the doors of the Capitol had been locked to prevent legislators from fleeing) in a failed attempt to prevent a quorum from being present.
Recent prominent examples
Texas (2003)
During the 2003 Texas redistricting, the majority Republicans in the Texas House of Representatives sought to carry out a controversial mid-decade congressional redistricting bill which would have favored Republicans by displacing five Democratic U.S. Representatives from Texas, nicknamed the "Texas Five", from their districts. The House Democrats, certain of defeat if a quorum were present, took a plane to the neighboring state of Oklahoma to prevent a quorum from being present (and thus the passage of the bill). The group gained the nickname the "Killer Ds".
Similarly, the minority Democrats in the Texas Legislature's upper chamber, the Texas Senate, fled to New Mexico to prevent a quorum of the Senate to prevent a redistricting bill from being considered during a special session. The group, nicknamed the "Texas Eleven", stayed in New Mexico for 46 days before John Whitmire returned to Texas, creating a quorum. Because there was now no point in staying in New Mexico, the remaining ten members of the Texas Eleven returned to Texas to vote in opposition to the bill.
Wisconsin (2011)
During the 2011 Wisconsin protests, fourteen Democratic members of the Wisconsin Senate went to Illinois in order to bust the necessary 20-member quorum. Democrats in the Indiana House of Representatives did the same in order to block another union-related bill, causing the legislative clock on the bill to expire. Traveling out of their state placed these legislators beyond the jurisdiction of state troopers who could compel them to return to the chamber.
Oregon (2019)
Beginning in May 2019, Republican state senators in Oregon made a series of walkouts in opposition to an emissions trading bill. On 20 June 2019, Gov. Kate Brown authorized the Oregon State Police to bring back the senators, who had left the Oregon State Capitol to bust the needed quorum. State Sen. Brian Boquist said that he told the state police superintendent to "send bachelors and come heavily armed. I'm not going to be a political prisoner in the state of Oregon. It's just that simple."
Texas (2021)
Democratic House Representatives in Texas fled the state on the 12th of July 2021 to block the passage of a bill that would change voting rules. At least 51 Democrats – the number needed to break quorum – left the state to Washington D.C. via plane. On 10 August 2021 the House authorised arrest warrants for the legislators breaking quorum. After 38 days quorum was regained when three Democrats, Garnet Coleman, Armando Walle and Ana Hernandez returned, though with Coleman providing quorum from home due to serious illness and Republican Steve Allison isolating in a side room of the chamber due to contracting COVID-19.
Disappearing quorum
The similar tactic of a disappearing quorum—refusing to vote although physically present on the floor or walking out before a vote–was used by the minority to block votes as a filibuster in the United States House of Representatives from 1842 (when a speaking time limit was introduced) until 1890, when Speaker Thomas Brackett Reed ordered that members who were present but abstaining would count for the purpose of a quorum.
See also
Quorum call
Minyan – the quorum of 10 Jews (traditionally, ten male adults, above the age of 13) necessary for Jewish communal prayer to be conducted
Quorum sensing in bacteria
References
External links
Political terminology
Parliamentary procedure
Majority
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|
237015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1aki%20Urdangarin | Iñaki Urdangarin | Don Iñaki Urdangarin Liebaert (born 15 January 1968) is a retired Spanish handball player turned entrepreneur and the husband of Infanta Cristina, younger daughter of King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofía. He was the brother-in-law of King Felipe VI. Urdangarin was convicted of embezzling about 6 million euros in public funds for sporting events since 2004 through his nonprofit foundation, the so-called Nóos case, and of political corruption by using his former courtesy title of Duke of Palma de Mallorca as the husband of Infanta Cristina. In June 2018 he was sentenced to 5 years and 10 months in prison; he is currently imprisoned in Ávila.
Early life and education
Iñaki Urdangarin was born on 15 February 1968 in Zumárraga, Basque Country, the son of Juan María Urdangarin Berriochoa (b. Zumárraga, 19 September 1932 – d. Vitoria-Gasteiz, 10 May 2012), engineer and businessman in the chemical and the banking industries, and wife Claire Françoise Liebaert Courtain (b. Antwerp, 16 July 1935), of Spanish Basque and Belgian (both Walloon and Flemish) descent respectively. He has six siblings. His paternal grandparents Laureano de Urdangarin y Larrañaga (1898–1982) and wife Ana de Berriochoa y Elgarresta (1902–1996) came from the tiny and humble Basque village of Zumarraga.
He obtained an MBA after a "tailor made study".
Sports career
At the age of 18, Urdangarin became a professional handball player with FC Barcelona Handbol, where he remained until his retirement in 2000. Meanwhile, he studied at the Escuela Superior de Administración y Dirección de Empresas (ESADE) in Barcelona, from which he received a master's degree in business administration.
As a member of the Spanish handball team, he participated in the 1992, 1996, and 2000 Summer Olympics, serving as team captain in 2000. The team won the bronze medal in 1996 and 2000.
Urdangarin has been a member of the Spanish Olympic Committee since 4 April 2001, and was elected first deputy chairman on 16 February 2004. In 2001, he received the Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Sports Merit.
In September 2001, it was reported that Urdangarin had been appointed director of planning and development at Octagon Esedos, a company dedicated to sports marketing. At the same time, he retired from professional handball.
Corruption and money laundering
In November 2011, Urdangarin was accused of diverting public funds for his own profit through the non-profit Nóos institute in the 'Palma Arena' case. The Spanish Anticorruption bureau conducted searches at the Nóos institute. The daily El País published a budget document for an international event organized by the Noos Institute. It is believed that he persuaded various Spanish public administrations (mostly regional governments) to sign agreements with the Nóos Institute for both work that was never done and work that was dramatically overstated, amounting to up to €5,800,000 of funding from public administrations.
In December 2011, the Anticorruption Bureau confirmed that Urdangarin had been sending substantial sums of public money to accounts in Belize and the United Kingdom. That same month, the Royal Household of Spain announced that Urdangarin would not participate in any official Royal Family activity for the foreseeable future, as a result of the scandal. In his 2011 Christmas Eve National Speech, King Juan Carlos stated that "La justicia es igual para todos" ("Justice is the same for everyone"); the following day he clarified that he was speaking generally.
On 6 February 2012, Urdangarin appeared before a judge regarding allegations of corruption. He was investigated with 14 others, including Jaume Matas, former premier of the Balearics. He appeared again on 25 February 2012 in Mallorca to answer questions before the investigating judge, José Castro.
On 26 January 2013, the Spanish royal household removed from its official website the section covering Iñaki Urdangarin.
On 10 June 2016 Prosecutor Pedro Horrach called for Urdangarin to be jailed for 19 and a half years and to be fined 980,000 euros. He was sentenced to six years and three months of jail and a fine of €512,000 on 17 February 2017. On 12 June 2018, the Supreme Court of Spain in appeal sentenced Urdangarin to five years and ten months imprisonment. On 18 June 2018, he reported to the prison of Brieva in Ávila.
Personal life
According to the Royal Household, Urdangarin met the Infanta Cristina, Duchess of Palma de Mallorca at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. However Consuelo León Llorente and María Molina maintain in their book, Infanta Cristina, that they met in 1992. They married in Barcelona on 4 October 1997. The couple have four children, all born at Teknon Medical Centre in Barcelona: Juan (born 29 September 1999); Pablo (born 6 December 2000); Miguel (born 30 April 2002); and Irene (born 5 June 2005). As is social custom in Spain, Urdangarin had often been accorded the male form of his wife's title with the courtesy title of Duke of Palma de Mallorca since his marriage. Cristina would lose this title in 2015.
The family lived in Barcelona from 1997 until 2009, where Urdangarin was director of planning and development for Motorpress Ibérica and a founding partner of Nóos Consultoría Estratégica. From 2009 to 2011, they lived in Washington, D.C., where he worked for Telefónica. In August 2013, Urdangarin remained in Barcelona to stand trial, while his wife and children moved to Geneva, Switzerland, to work with the Caixabank Foundation. On 24 January 2022, Cristina and Urdangarin announced their separation.
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles
15 January 1968 – 4 October 1997: Iñaki Urdangarin Liebaert
4 October 1997 – 12 June 2015: The Most Excellent The Duke of Palma de Mallorca
12 June 2015 – present: The Most Excellent Iñaki Urdangarin Liebaert
In view of contradictory Spanish legislation, enacted over the past 30 years, Urdangarin was not entitled to use the ducal title of his wife (Royal Decree 1368/1987, Transitory Provisions, Third). But by centuries-old social convention in Spain, he was considered a duke. However, Iñaki Urdangarin retained the style of The Most Excellent since, although he ceased to be the consort of a duchess, he is still a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Sports Merit.
Honours
See also List of honours of the Spanish Royal Family by country
National honour
: Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Sports Merit (Real Orden del Mérito Deportivo, 30/11/2001).
Foreign honours
: Grand cross 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (11/11/2002).
: Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown (07/05/2001).
References
External link
1968 births
Living people
Handball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Handball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Handball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Spanish male handball players
Olympic handball players of Spain
Spanish people of Belgian descent
Spanish people of Flemish descent
Olympic bronze medalists for Spain
FC Barcelona Handbol players
Sportspeople from Gipuzkoa
ESADE alumni
Dukes of Palma de Mallorca
Olympic medalists in handball
Grandees of Spain
Tax evasion
Spanish criminals
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
People named in the Panama Papers
People from Goierri
Handball players from the Basque Country (autonomous community) | [
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|
237018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sher%20Shah | Sher Shah | Sher Shah may refer to:
People
Sher Shah Suri (1486–1545), founder of the Suri dynasty
Sher Shah (VC) (1917–1945), British Indian Army soldier and Victoria Cross recipient
Shershah Syed, Pakistani physician
Places
India
Sher Shah Suri Mosque, mosque in Patna, Bihar, India
Tomb of Sher Shah Suri, tomb of Sher Shah Suri in Sasaram, Bihar, India
Sher Shah Suri Marg, another name for some of the Indian parts of the Grand Trunk Road
Shershahabad, another name for Purana Qila in Delhi, India
Pakistan
Sher Shah (Karachi), neighbourhood of Kiamari Town, Karachi, Pakistan
Sher Shah Bridge, a flyover in the neighborhood
Sher Shah, Multan, town in Multan District, Pakistan
Others
Shershah College of Engineering, Sasaram, Bihar, India
Shershaah, 2021 Indian war film by Vishnuvardhan
Shershahabadia, an Indian Muslim community
Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi, a chronicle of the rule of Sher Shah Suri
See also
Sher Khan (disambiguation) | [
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237019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen%20F.C. | Aberdeen F.C. | Aberdeen Football Club is a Scottish professional football club based in Aberdeen, Scotland. They compete in the Scottish Premiership and have never been relegated from the top division of the Scottish football league system since they were promoted in 1905. Aberdeen have won four Scottish league titles, seven Scottish Cups and six Scottish League Cups. They are also the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies, having won the European Cup Winners' Cup and the European Super Cup in 1983.
Formed in 1903 as a result of the amalgamation of three clubs from Aberdeen, they rarely challenged for honours until the post war decade, when they won each of the major Scottish trophies under manager Dave Halliday. This level of success was surpassed in the 1980s, when, under the management of Sir Alex Ferguson, they won three league titles, four Scottish Cups and a Scottish League Cup, alongside the two European trophies. Aberdeen were the last club outside the Old Firm to win a league title, in 1984–85, and also the last Scottish team to win a European trophy. The team has enjoyed less success since this golden era, though a 19-year wait for a major trophy was ended by winning the 2013–14 Scottish League Cup, followed up by multiple second-place finishes behind Celtic in the league during the 2010s.
Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium since their inception. The ground currently has a capacity of and was the first all-seated and all-covered stadium in the United Kingdom. Pittodrie was also the first football stadium to feature a dug-out, an invention of player and coach Donald Colman.
The club's colours have been primarily red and white since 1939; before this, they played in black and gold vertical stripes. In modern times, Aberdeen have almost exclusively played with all-red strips with white detailing. Aberdeen attract support from the city and surrounding areas, as they have no geographically close rivals. Lacking a local competitor, Aberdeen have instead developed rivalries with more distant opponents such as Dundee United (collectively known as the "New Firm" in the 1980s) and Rangers.
History
Formation and early years (1903–1939)
The current Aberdeen F.C. was formed following the merger of three clubs based in the city—Aberdeen, Victoria United and Orion—in 1903. The new club played its first match on 15 August 1903: a 1–1 draw with Stenhousemuir. That first season produced a win in the Aberdeenshire Cup, but only a third-place finish in the Northern League. The club applied for membership of the Scottish League for the following season, and were elected to the Second Division.
In 1904, the club were managed by Jimmy Philip. At the end of its first season, despite having finished seventh out of twelve teams, Aberdeen were elected to the new, expanded First Division. They have remained in the top tier of Scottish football ever since. From 1906, the club made steady progress, with a Scottish Cup semi-final appearance in 1908 and another in 1911. In that season of 1910–11, Aberdeen recorded their first victories over the Old Firm of Celtic and Rangers, and led the league for a time, but finished the season in second place.
Wartime affected the club as much as any other; despite spending cuts and other economies, by 1917 the situation became untenable. Aberdeen dropped out of competitive football, along with Dundee and Raith Rovers. Senior football returned on 16 August 1919, and Aberdeen resumed with a fixture against Albion Rovers. Philip was still in charge, and continued to oversee a team capable of isolated good results, but never quite able to sustain a challenge long enough to win a trophy. In 1923, Aberdeen were drawn against Peterhead in the Scottish Cup, and posted their record score—a 13–0 victory. Philip retired a year later, and was replaced as manager by Paddy Travers. He presided over the team's first Scottish Cup final in 1937.
Travers' "trainer"—first team coach in modern parlance—was former player Donald Colman. Colman conceived the dug-out, a covered area set slightly below the level of the playing surface to better aid his observations. Everton visited Pittodrie soon after its introduction, and exported the idea to the English leagues, from where it spread throughout the football-playing world. Travers left to become manager of Clyde in 1939.
Halliday to McNeill (1939–1978)
Travers was replaced by former Yeovil Town manager Dave Halliday, one of more than a hundred applicants for the role, and the club moved from their black and gold strip to red and white. Halliday had barely begun his work when World War II halted competitive football in the United Kingdom. For these six years, the club was temporarily taken over by then-directors Charles B Forbes and George Anderson while Halliday served in the war.
Halliday's place in the Aberdeen Hall of Fame was secured after the war when he became the first manager to bring national trophies to Pittodrie. Aberdeen won the Southern League Cup in the 1945–46 season, defeating Rangers 3–2 at Hampden. They then reached the 1947 Scottish Cup final, defeating Hibernian 2–1 with George Hamilton, signed from Halliday's former club Queen of the South, scoring to gain the club's first major trophy. From this early success, Halliday's side reached two more Scottish Cup finals, in 1953 and 1954, though they lost both. Halliday's team were not to be denied, however, and the following season, 1954–55, Aberdeen won their first Scottish League title. Though league winners, the club did not participate in the first European Cup competition—Scotland's place was awarded to Hibernian, who took part by special invitation.
Halliday and Hamilton left at the end of that championship-winning season, and Halliday was replaced by Davie Shaw. Aberdeen won the League Cup under his guidance, beating St Mirren in 1955–56, and reached another Scottish Cup final in 1959. However, Shaw stepped aside for another former favourite player, Tommy Pearson, in 1959. Pearson's time in charge coincided with a high turnover of players, and yielded no trophies. He retired in 1965, making way for Eddie Turnbull.
Turnbull led Aberdeen to the 1967 Scottish Cup final, where the side was ultimately defeated by Celtic. Despite this loss, Aberdeen qualified for the European Cup Winner's Cup in the following season thanks to their appearance in this final, the first time the club had competed in European competition. Their first tie was a 14–1 aggregate victory over KR Reykjavik, although they lost the second round tie with Standard Liège 3–2 on aggregate. Two years later, Derek "Cup-tie" McKay recorded the only four goals of his Aberdeen career to help his team to the 1969–70 Scottish Cup, scoring the winning goals in the quarter- and semi final, and two in the final itself. As Scottish Cup holders, Aberdeen once again qualified for the same competition, but were eliminated in the first round following a 4–4 aggregate tie with Honvéd. This tie, level after extra time and also level on away goals, was decided by the first penalty shoot-out in UEFA competition history, Honvéd winning the shootout 5–4 in Budapest.
The Aberdeen side of the 1970s regularly challenged for domestic honours. However, they rarely won trophies, with the exception of the Drybrough Cup in 1971 under Jimmy Bonthrone and the League Cup in 1976, under Ally MacLeod. During this decade, Aberdeen had five managers: Eddie Turnbull, Jimmy Bonthrone, Ally MacLeod, Billy McNeill and Alex Ferguson. They reached two more national cup finals—the Scottish Cup in 1978 under Billy McNeill and the League Cup in the following season under the new manager Alex Ferguson.
Alex Ferguson era (1978–1986)
Under Ferguson's guidance, the club won three league championships, four Scottish Cups, one League Cup, the European Cup Winner's Cup, the European Super Cup and a Drybrough Cup—all in the space of seven years. Players such as Jim Leighton, Willie Miller, Alex McLeish and Gordon Strachan became the backbone of the team. Aberdeen's second League title was won in 1979–80, and this initial success was built upon, with Scottish Cup wins in three successive seasons from 1982 to 1984, and two more league titles in 1983–84 and 1984–85.
During the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1983, Aberdeen beat FC Sion, Dinamo Tirana and Lech Poznań to face the German Cup winners Bayern Munich. This game was won 3–2 at Pittodrie after a goalless draw in Germany, John Hewitt with the winning goal. They then faced now-defunct Belgian club Waterschei in the semi-final. Aberdeen beat them 5–1 at home, and lost for the first time in the tournament, 1–0 away, resulting in an aggregate victory which sent Aberdeen to the final. On 11 May 1983, Aberdeen beat Real Madrid 2–1 after extra time to win the cup and become only the third Scottish side to win a European trophy. The club released a song, "European Song", to coincide with the appearance in the final. This was followed up with the capture of the European Super Cup in December, when Hamburger SV were beaten over two legs.
Aberdeen reached the semi-finals of the 1983–84 European Cup Winners' Cup, before losing to Porto 2–0 on aggregate. In the first round of the 1984–85 European Champion Club's Cup Aberdeen lost to East Berlin side BFC Dynamo in a penalty shoot-out 4–5, following a 3–3 on aggregate in regular times. Today, both clubs enjoy friendly relations.
Post-Ferguson (1987–1999)
After Ferguson moved south of the border to manage Manchester United in November 1986, Aberdeen struggled to compete with Celtic and a resurgent Rangers.
Aberdeen signed new co-managers in 1989, pairing Alex Smith and Jocky Scott. A number of foreign players were signed, including Dutch internationals Theo Snelders and Hans Gillhaus. In the 1989–90 season, the club won both the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup. In 1991, they lost the last game of the season, and the league title, to Rangers. Former player Willie Miller took over in 1992 and presided over two seasons where Aberdeen came close to winning the title. However, the club ended the 1994–95 season second-bottom, and had to rely on a play-off victory over Dunfermline Athletic to retain their Premier Division status. Miller was sacked in February 1995, and replaced by Roy Aitken. Despite a Scottish League Cup success in 1995, the club continued to struggle. Alex Miller and Paul Hegarty had spells in charge in the late 1990s, but with the financial burden of a new stand putting the club into debt for the first time in its history, the directors turned to Stewart Milne, a local businessman whose firm had built the stand, hiring him as the club's chairman.
Skovdahl to Brown (1999–2013)
Aberdeen's first and only foreign manager, Ebbe Skovdahl, was appointed in 1999 and his time in charge coincided with some of the heaviest defeats in the club's history. The low point of the club's history came in the 1999–2000 season, where they finished bottom of the table. As the Scottish Premier League (SPL) was being expanded to twelve teams, Aberdeen were due to take part in a three team play-off with the teams that finished second and third in the First Division. The play-off never happened though, as one of those clubs (Falkirk) did not meet SPL stadium requirements, and Aberdeen retained their top flight status. This was followed by an early-season defeat to Irish club Bohemians on the away goals rule in the next season's UEFA Cup.
Steve Paterson was appointed to replace Skovdahl following his resignation in 2002, but lasted only two seasons. Paterson's tenure with Aberdeen was marred by his addiction to alcohol. In March 2003 he failed to attend a home game against Dundee due to being too hungover after a night of drinking prior to the match.
Jimmy Calderwood took over in 2004 and Aberdeen posted more consistent results than in previous seasons. In the 2006–07 season, the club finished in third place in the league and entered the final qualifying round for the 2007–08 UEFA Cup. Aberdeen defeated Dnipro on the away goals rule to progress (the first time Aberdeen had won on away goals in European football for 40 years). They went on to beat F.C. Copenhagen 4–0, which was the biggest margin of victory and one of Pittodrie's biggest crowds since the 1980s. This set up a meeting with German giants Bayern Munich, which they lost 7–3 on aggregate after a 2–2 draw which saw Aberdeen lead twice in the first leg. Calderwood was sacked by Aberdeen on 24 May 2009, hours after he took the club to a fourth-place finish and back into Europe. Poor domestic cup performances were thought to be the reason for Calderwood's dismissal.
Mark McGhee of Motherwell was appointed as Calderwood's replacement in June 2009. McGhee controversially dismissed Aberdeen legend and goalkeeping coach Jim Leighton in August 2009 and replaced him with Colin Meldrum. Aberdeen suffered a 9–0 defeat to Celtic on 6 November 2010, their heaviest ever defeat. McGhee and his assistants were eventually sacked in December of that year.
Aberdeen approached Craig Brown, who was working without a contract at Motherwell, to replace McGhee. Brown initially rebuffed an offer, but after further discussions with the club Brown resigned as manager at Motherwell to be announced as the next manager at Aberdeen two days later. The first act of the new management team of Brown and Archie Knox was to re-instate Leighton. Aberdeen failed to produce better results under Craig Brown's tenure, and in March 2013 he announced his retirement to take up a non-executive director role on the club's board.
Recent years (2013–present)
Derek McInnes was announced as the successor to Craig Brown in March 2013. In McInnes' first season as manager, Aberdeen won the 2013–14 Scottish League Cup after defeating Inverness 4–2 on penalties, their first trophy in 19 years. Aberdeen finished third in the Scottish Premiership, and began the next season by coming through the early rounds of the Europa League, beating Dutch club FC Groningen before eventually being eliminated by Spanish side Real Sociedad. The club ended the season in second place—their best league position since 1993–94—in 2015, 2016, and 2017. In recent seasons' Europa League competitions, they were defeated in the third qualifying round four times: In 2015–16 by FC Kairat, in 2016–17 by NK Maribor, in 2017–18 by Apollon Limassol, and in 2019–20 by HNK Rijeka.
Aberdeen were league runners-up once more in 2016–17 and reached both cup finals, but were beaten 3–0 by Celtic in the League Cup and 2–1 by the same opponents in the Scottish Cup, echoing the outcome in 1992–93 when Aberdeen had finished second to Rangers in all competitions. They were again second the following season, earning a first league win against Celtic away from home for fourteen years in the final game of the season. This qualified them for the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, where they were defeated after extra time by Premier League side Burnley in the second qualifying round.
In November 2019, Major League Soccer side Atlanta United FC acquired a less than 10 percent stake in Aberdeen for £2 million (US$2.57 million) as part of a strategic alliance between the two clubs. As part of this deal, vice-chairman Dave Cormack became chairman of the club, replacing Stewart Milne. Atlanta United president Darren Eales also took a seat on Aberdeen's board of directors. McInnes left the post of manager in March 2021 after almost 8 years in charge, and was replaced by Atlanta United 2 manager and former Aberdeen player Stephen Glass, who was dismissed in February 2021 after just 11 months in the role.
Colours and crest
For the first season of the club's existence, the team played in a predominantly white strip. This is variously reported as all-white, or as white shirts with blue shorts and socks. This colour scheme was the direct descendant of the colours worn by the precursor Aberdeen club, but lasted only one season before being replaced.
For the 1904–05 season, Aberdeen adopted a black and gold striped shirt, which led to the team being nicknamed "the Wasps". This strip, with only minor variations, was worn until just before the start of the Second World War. The blue shorts lasted until 1911, and then were replaced with white ones. Socks were black with gold trim, either as stripes or as a solid bar at the turndown.
In March 1939, Aberdeen changed the black and gold colours to red and white, reflecting the silver and red colours of the official City of Aberdeen arms. The first red strips were worn with white shorts, with either red or white socks from 1939 until the 1965–66 season. In 1966, Aberdeen adopted red shorts, making the official kit all-red, similar to that of Liverpool, who made a similar change at around the same time. This arrangement has continued to the present day, with several variations in design, in common with most senior clubs as the replica shirt market has expanded. In the late 1970s an Admiral strip featured five vertical white stripes on the left side of the shirt and shorts, and the early 1980s shirts—as worn at the 1983 European Cup Winners Cup final—featured white vertical pinstripes. Later design changes included significant amounts of blue, and a one-season reversion to white shorts, although the all-red scheme returned in 1997.
Shirt sponsorship began in 1987, and the initial shirt sponsor was JVC. Since then, with the club making fewer appearances on the international stage, shirt sponsors have tended to be local to Aberdeen—they have included one of the local commercial radio stations, Northsound, as well as several Aberdeen-based oil service companies. , the current shirt sponsor is Saltire Energy.
Away colours have tended to be either white—often with black shorts—or a combination of yellow and black, referring back to the black and gold strips of the pre-war era, although for a time in the 1970s, Aberdeen sported an all-blue change strip with white socks. For the 2007–08 season, the change strip was all-white, with a third kit of yellow and black halves available if needed for European games, or in the event of a clash involving both red and white.
The club did not have an official crest before 1972, but several variations on the letters AFC had from time to time featured on the shirt, usually in some kind of cursive font. In November 1972, the club unveiled an official crest or logo, designed by Aberdonian graphic designer Donald Addison. The design represented a capital letter A as the side view of a football goal, with a ball forming the crossbar of the letter. This ball was crosshatched in such a way as to depict it as being inside the net, signifying the scoring of a goal. The logo was completed by the letters FC in smaller type at a level with the ball element. This badge was used on the shirts from around 1978, with no significant alterations until the mid-1980s when the words "Aberdeen Football Club" were added in a circular border, and the date of the club's founding, 1903, was added under the goal element. The current version of the crest, which retains these elements in a unified design, was introduced at the start of the 1997–98 season. Two stars signifying the winning of the two European trophies in 1983 were introduced over the badge in the 2005–06 season.
Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors
Stadium
Aberdeen have played throughout their existence at Pittodrie Stadium, the name of which comes from the Pictish for "place of manure". The ground was first used by the original Aberdeen F.C. in 1899, in a 7–1 win over Dumbarton; when they merged with two other teams in 1903, the new club took over the old Aberdeen ground. On 15 August 1903, 8,000 spectators turned up to watch the new Aberdeen draw 1–1 against Stenhousemuir, the first game played at Pittodrie by its amalgamated tenants. The club initially rented the ground, but subsequently bought it in 1920. The stadium currently seats . The record attendance is 45,061, during a Scottish Cup match between Aberdeen and Hearts on 13 March 1954.
The stadium consists of four stands: the Main Stand, which also houses the club offices and players facilities; the Merkland Road Family Stand; the South Stand, which is opposite the main stand and holds the largest number of spectators; and the Richard Donald stand to the east, which was completed in 1993, contains hospitality suites, and is named after former chairman Dick Donald. A quarter of the South Stand is used to accommodate travelling supporters. In 1978, Pittodrie became the first all covered, all-seater stadium in Britain.
Training facilities
Aberdeen train at Cormack Park, which was opened on 31 October 2019 by former manager Sir Alex Ferguson, who described the development as "up there with the best" that he had seen. As well as being a training centre for the first team, the complex is also home to the Bobby Clark Football Academy and the AFC Community Trust, as well as acting as a community sports hub. The training facilities are named after chairman Dave Cormack, due to the significant financial investment he made to realise the completion of the project.
The complex is made up of a training pavilion, groundsman’s accommodation, three full-sized training pitches, two floodlit 3G pitches and two grass pitches. There is also flexible outdoor and indoor space that can be used for sporting or recreational purposes. All the pitches are named after club legends, chosen by the fans via an online poll.
Prior to the opening of Cormack Park, the first team trained in a variety of locations around the city, including the local Gordon Barracks, beach, Seaton Park, Aberdeen Sports Village and Countesswells, the playing fields of Robert Gordon's College.
New Aberdeen Stadium
Since 2009, Aberdeen have been examining a move to a new stadium. Plans for a new stadium began when the club indicated that further development of Pittodrie Stadium was not possible due to the age of the ground and the restrictions from surrounding land. Aberdeen City Council approved an initial project in May 2009, to be situated near Loirston Loch in the south of the city, subject to planning permission. In August 2010, a planning application for the new stadium was submitted to the council, which was approved the following February.
The move was delayed by a year in May 2012 due to problems with land ownership, and suffered a serious setback the following August, when the council rejected a joint application by Aberdeen and Cove Rangers to build a community sports centre at nearby Calder Park. Aberdeen announced in November 2014 new plans to instead build training facilities at Balgownie, on land owned by the University of Aberdeen, but the project was ultimately scrapped in the following July.
Plans to develop a new stadium and training facilities near Westhill, close to the newly developed Aberdeen Western Peripheral Route, were announced in May 2016. The new stadium is expected to have a similar capacity to Pittodrie Stadium. Although the project overcame legal challenges from local residents, progress stalled due to the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland. Alternative designs at the city's beachfront close to Pittodrie were released in August 2021.
Supporters and nicknames
Supporters
Aberdeen's supporters, known as the Red Army, are listed in the team squad list as wearing the number 12 shirt. In 1999, a group of supporters founded the Red Ultras group with the express aim of improving the atmosphere at Pittodrie. However, it was decided that this particular group was to disband at the beginning of 2010. Organised chants and choreography still take place in 'centre block' of the top tier of the Richard Donald Stand and Aberdeen fans still do choreographies at home and away games.
Aberdeen are the only full-time team in the third largest city in Scotland, a city which is relatively remote, geographically, from other large population centres, and as a result have a large catchment area of potential supporters. The average attendance in the 2018–19 Scottish Premiership was 14,924.
In the 1980s, a minority of the club's supporters had a reputation as one of Britain's most prominent casuals groups, the Aberdeen Soccer Casuals. The rise of the Aberdeen Casuals coincided with the most successful period in the club's history, and has been chronicled in more than one published account. Whilst numbers have steadily declined with the introduction of Football Banning Orders preventing hooligans from travelling to games, the Aberdeen Casuals still appear at big fixtures often away from home and in the UEFA Europa League. There were clashes at both fixtures against FC Groningen in 2014, as well as 13 arrests after violent clashes with Dundee United fans at a game in December 2015.
Rivalries
Aberdeen have rarely played in the same division as their geographically closest neighbours (Cove Rangers, Peterhead, Brechin City, Montrose, Arbroath, Elgin City, and Forfar Athletic), so rivalries have tended to come from further afield. Cove Rangers from the same city entered the professional leagues for the first time in 2019, although the Aberdeen derby is yet to occur in a league meeting.
In the early 1980s, owing to the success both domestically and in Europe of Aberdeen and Dundee United, the pair were known as the New Firm. However, Dundee United have their city neighbours Dundee as close rivals, and the antagonism was not always reciprocated to the same degree.
The same situation applies to Aberdeen's rivalry with Rangers, in that Rangers have their own much older and well-known Old Firm rivalry with Celtic. Aberdeen's rivalry with Rangers arose after a number of incidents in matches between the two clubs in the 1980s, namely Willie Johnston's stamp on John McMaster's neck in the Scottish League Cup and Neil Simpson's tackle on Ian Durrant in 1988, as well as Aberdeen's dominance in Scottish football throughout the decade. There are still often violent clashes between both sets of supporters within and outwith the stadium to this day.
Aberdeen developed a minor rivalry with Inverness Caledonian Thistle since Inverness were first promoted to the SPL in 2004. It is known as the North derby due to the fact that Aberdeen and Inverness are the two largest settlements in the north of Scotland.
Aberdeen's re-emerged as one of the top teams in Scotland during the 2010s, which increased the rivalry with Celtic both competitively and between supporters. There have been minor incidents at games, mainly relating to political disturbances by Celtic supporters at games between the clubs, including the disruption of minute's silences and the display of banners showing support for the 1981 Irish hunger strike.
Nicknames
Aberdeen are known as "The Dons", a name that has been in use since at least 1913. The origin of this nickname is unclear. One theory is that it derives from the word "don" meaning "teacher", given Aberdeen's history as a university town. It may also be a reference to the nearby River Don, or a contraction of "Aberdonians". Before the popular adoption of "The Dons", the team were variously known as "The Wasps" or "The Black and Golds", both names a reference to the yellow and black striped shirts of the time. As with many teams that play in red, Aberdeen may also be called "The Reds", and are referred to by some supporters as "The Dandy Dons" or "The Dandies".
Rival clubs occasionally refer to Aberdeen as "The Sheep" and their supporters as "The Sheep Shaggers". The term was eventually accepted by the club's supporters, and fans began chanting "the sheep are on fire" at games. The song was originally sung by away fans poking fun at an Aberdeen fan set on fire on a train while wearing a homemade sheep costume. This in turn led to specialised merchandise being sold by the club and local businesses.
Songs
Chants and songs include The Northern Lights of Old Aberdeen, a version of which was recorded and performed by local performer Iona Fyfe. Dons fans also sing their club song 'Stand Free' which is set to the tune of Lord of the Dance.
Honours
Domestic
Scottish League
Winners (4): 1954–55, 1979–80, 1983–84, 1984–85
Runners-up: 17 times
Scottish Cup
Winners (7): 1946–47, 1969–70, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1989–90
Runners-up: 9 times
Scottish League Cup
Winners (6): 1955–56, 1976–77, 1985–86, 1989–90, 1995–96, 2013–14
Runners-up: 9 times
European
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
Winners: 1982–83
UEFA Super Cup
Winners: 1983
UEFA rankings
Other Awards
France Football European Team of the Year: 1
1983
Club officials
Technical staff
Manager: Jim Goodwin
Assistant Manager: Lee Sharp
Goalkeeping Coaches: Gordon Marshall & Craig Samson
Head of Recruitment: Darren Mowbray
Pathways Manager: Neil Simpson
Academy Director: Gavin Levey
Development Phase Manager and U18 Head Coach: Barry Robson
Youth Phase Manager: Stuart Duff
Development Phase Coach: Scott Anderson
Head of Sports Science and Fitness: Graham Kirk
Head of Medical Services: Adam Stokes
Management
Chairman: Dave Cormack
Board of Directors:
Tom Crotty (non-executive)
Darren Eales (non-executive)
Stewart Milne (non-executive)
Zoe Ogilvie (non-executive)
Kevin MacIver (finance)
Robert Wicks (commercial)
Secretary: Roy Johnston
Director of Football: Steven Gunn
Club Ambassador: Craig Brown
Honorary President: Ian Donald
Players
Current squad
On loan
Notable players
Hall of Fame
Aberdeen inaugurated a Hall of Fame as part of the club's centenary celebrations in 2003. Six players were inducted following the initial dinner in March 2004, and a further six were included in November 2004. Ex-manager Alex Ferguson was inducted at a re-launch event in November 2015.
In 2017, Neale Cooper, Archie Knox, John McMaster and Graham Leggat were inducted into the Hall of Fame. In 2018, Eoin Jess, Peter Weir, Bobby Clark and Donald Colman were inducted.
Chris Anderson
Jim Bett
Henning Boel
Martin Buchan
Bobby Clark
Donald Colman
Neale Cooper
Dick Donald
Alex Ferguson
Arthur Graham
Joe Harper
Jim Hermiston
John Hewitt
Drew Jarvie
Eoin Jess
Stuart Kennedy
Archie Knox
Graham Leggat
Jim Leighton
Ally MacLeod
Fred Martin
Alex McLeish
John McMaster
Willie Miller
Teddy Scott
Ally Shewan
Neil Simpson
Eddie Turnbull
Peter Weir
Alec Young
Greatest ever team
In November 2015, supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Aberdeen team.
Jim Leighton (1977–88, 1997–2000)
Stuart Kennedy (1976–83)
Willie Miller (1972–90)
Alex McLeish (1978–94)
Russell Anderson (1996–2007, 2012–15)
Gordon Strachan (1977–84)
Eoin Jess (1987–96, 1997–2001)
Jim Bett (1985–94)
Neil Simpson (1980–90)
Joe Harper (1969–72, 1976–81)
Duncan Shearer (1992–97)
Records
Individual
All players are from Scotland unless otherwise stated. Competitive, professional matches only, up to the end of the 2020–21 season.
Top goalscorers
Most appearances
Managers
List of full-time managers, as of 13 February 2022. Only competitive matches are counted. Caretaker managers are not listed.
References
Bibliography
External links
AFC Heritage Trust
Football clubs in Scotland
Association football clubs established in 1903
Football clubs in Aberdeen
Former Highland Football League teams
1903 establishments in Scotland
Scottish Football League teams
Scottish Cup winners
Scottish Premier League teams
Scottish Professional Football League teams
Scottish League Cup winners
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup winning clubs
UEFA Super Cup winning clubs
United Soccer Association imported teams
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237027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Suspect | Prime Suspect | Prime Suspect is a British police procedural television drama series devised by Lynda La Plante. It stars Helen Mirren as Jane Tennison, one of the first female Detective Chief Inspectors in Greater London's Metropolitan Police Service, who rises to the rank of Detective Superintendent while confronting institutionalised sexism within the police force.
Plot
Prime Suspect focuses on a no-nonsense female Detective Chief Inspector (DCI), Jane Tennison (played by Helen Mirren), who is an officer in the Metropolitan Police, initially at the fictional Southampton Row police station.
The series follows her constant battles to prove herself within a male-dominated profession in which many of her colleagues are determined to see her fail, though she has the support of her boss, Detective Chief Superintendent Mike Kernan (John Benfield), and the loyalty of Detective Sergeant Richard Haskons (Richard Hawley).
In later series, Tennison is reassigned to rotating duties, including a vice squad in Soho and a gang squad in Manchester. She is promoted to Detective Superintendent in series 4 and retires from policing at the end of series 7.
Cast
Main cast
Helen Mirren as Detective Chief Inspector Jane Tennison, initially of Southampton Row Police Station in Central London, later Detective Superintendent in series 4. Mirren has described Tennison as "extremely directed, ambitious, talented and very uncompromising. Therefore she is deeply frustrated by her job; the way her sex is a barrier."
John Benfield as Detective Superintendent Michael Kernan (series 1–4), Tennison's supervisor, later Detective Chief Superintendent
Richard Hawley as Detective Constable Richard Haskons (series 1–4), later Detective Sergeant and Detective Inspector
Tom Bell as Detective Sergeant Bill Otley (series 1, 3, 7)
Jack Ellis as Detective Inspector Tony Muddyman (series 1–2, 4)
Craig Fairbrass as Detective Inspector Frank Burkin (series 1–2)
Mossie Smith as Constable Maureen Havers (series 1, 4)
Ian Fitzgibbon as Detective Constable Jones (series 1–2)
Philip Wright as Detective Constable Lillie (series 1–3)
Andrew Tiernan as Detective Constable Rosper (series 1–2)
Gary Whelan as Detective Sergeant Terry Amson (series 1)
Stephen Boxer as Detective Chief Inspector Thorndike, later Detective Superintendent (series 2–4)
Stafford Gordon as Commander Traynor (series 2–4)
Mark Strong as Detective Inspector Larry Hall (series 3, 6), later Detective Chief Superintendent in series 6
Robert Pugh as Detective Sergeant Alun Simms (series 6–7)
Supporting cast, including notable guest stars
Tom Wilkinson as Peter Rawlins (series 1), Tennison's divorced live-in boyfriend
Zoë Wanamaker as Moyra Hanson (series 1), George Marlow's common law wife
Ralph Fiennes as Michael (series 1)
John Bowe as George Marlow (series 1)
Maxine Audley as Doris Marlow (series 1)
Colin Salmon as Detective Sergeant Bob Oswalde (series 2)
George Harris as Vernon Allen (series 2)
Lloyd McGuire as Sergeant Calder (series 2)
Peter Capaldi as Vera/Vernon Reynolds (series 3)
Andrew Woodall as Detective Inspector Brian Dalton (series 3)
David Thewlis as James Jackson (series 3)
James Frain as Jason Baldwin (series 3), an adult child abuse victim
Struan Rodger as Superintendent Halliday (series 3)
Chris Fairbank as Detective Chief Inspector David Lyall (series 3)
Ciarán Hinds as Edward Parker-Jones (series 3), the manager of a community centre
Kelly Hunter as Jessica Smithy (series 3), a reporter
Jonny Lee Miller as Anthony Field (series 3), an adult victim of child abuse
Mark Drewry as Detective Inspector Ray Hebdon (series 3)
Danny Dyer as Martin Fletcher (series 3), a homeless street boy
Stuart Wilson as Dr Patrick Schofield (series 4), a psychologist whom Tennison consults, and then dates
Sophie Stanton as Detective Sergeant Christine Cromwell (series 4)
Beatie Edney as Susan Covington (series 4), a young mother whose child is kidnapped
Robert Glenister as Chris Hughes (series 4)
Lesley Sharp as Anne Sutherland (series 4)
Jill Baker as Maria Henry (series 4), a lawyer
Kelly Reilly as Polly Henry (series 4), Maria's daughter
Christopher Fulford as Detective Chief Inspector Tom Mitchell (series 4)
Tim Woodward as George Marlow (series 4)
Joyce Redman as Doris Marlow (series 4)
David Ryall as Oscar Bream (series 4)
Marc Warren as Detective Constable Andy Dyson (series 4)
Steven Mackintosh as Clive Norton "The Street" (series 5)
David O'Hara as Detective Sergeant Gerry Rankine (series 5)
Marsha Thomason as Janice Lafferty (series 5)
Ray Emmet Brown as Michael Johns (series 5)
John McArdle as Detective Chief Superintendent Ballinger (series 5)
Julia Lane as Detective Inspector Claire Devanney (series 5)
Liam Cunningham as Robert West (series 6)
Ben Miles as Detective Chief Inspector Simon Finch (series 6)
Sam Hazeldine as Detective Constable David Butcher (series 6)
Barnaby Kay as Detective Constable Michael Philips (series 6)
Ingeborga Dapkūnaitė as Jasmina Blekic (series 6)
Tanya Moodie as Detective Constable Lorna Grieves (series 6)
Velibor Topic as Dusan Zigic (series 6)
Oleg Menshikov as Milan Lukic/Dragan Yankovich (series 6)
Clare Holman as Mrs Lukic (series 6)
Frank Finlay as Arnold Tennison (series 6)
Phoebe Nicholls as Shaw (series 6)
Rad Lazar as Kasim Ibrahimovic (series 6)
Gary Lewis as Tony Sturdy (series 7)
Stephen Tompkinson as Sean Philips (series 7)
Laura Greenwood as Penny Philips (series 7)
Eve Best as Linda Philips (series 7)
Brendan Coyle as DCS Mitchell (series 7)
Robbie Gee as Detective Inspector Traynor (series 7)
Ellie Kendrick as Melanie (series 7)
Russell Mabey as Detective Inspector Cox (series 7)
Carolyn Pickles as Pauline Hammond (series 7)
Episodes
Concept and development
Themes
The first series features sexism in the workplace as a significant subplot and a barrier to the investigation. Sequels have tended to downplay this theme, relying on straight procedure or on other subplots, such as institutional racism in Prime Suspect 2 or child sexual abuse and prostitution in Prime Suspect 3, but they continue to demonstrate the determination of some of Tennison's male peers and those in upper echelons to see her fail.
Tennison's difficulty in achieving a balance between her work and her life outside the job, and her difficulty in maintaining stable relationships, are recurring themes within the series. Towards the end of Prime Suspect 3 she arranges to have her pregnancy terminated. As the series progresses, she increasingly relies on alcohol to help her cope. This culminates in the final episode of the series in her attending meetings of Alcoholics Anonymous, where she finally acknowledges and confronts her addiction.
Setting
Prime Suspect is set mostly in London and surrounding areas, but series 5 is set in Manchester.
Production
Every series of Prime Suspect except series 4 follows a single case and runs around 3½ hours (excluding commercials). It has usually been shown in two or four parts. Prime Suspect 4 is an exception at slightly over five hours, with three separate cases.
The first five series were produced annually from 1991 to 1996, until Mirren left the role, supposedly to avoid typecasting (according to a PBS interview). She returned to play the character in 2003 and again in 2006.
Prime Suspect was produced by Granada Television for the ITV network. Series four through seven were co-produced by WGBH Boston for its Masterpiece Mystery anthology series.
Music
The first five series were scored by the Academy Award-winning composer Stephen Warbeck, who was nominated for a BAFTA TV Award for Prime Suspect series one. Rob Lane composed the music for Series 6. Nicholas Hooper won a BAFTA TV Award for his score for Series 7.
Reception and impact
Prime Suspect was voted 68th in the list of 100 Greatest British Television Programmes as compiled by a poll given by the British Film Institute, and in 2007 it was listed as one of Time magazine's "100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME." The series has won multiple BAFTA Awards, Emmy Awards, and a Peabody Award.
Awards and nominations
Prime Suspect won the BAFTA TV Award for Best Drama Serial over G.B.H. in 1991. Afterwards, four of the seven voting members of the jury raised a discrepancy to jury chairperson Irene Shubik, and later signed a public statement declaring that they had voted for G.B.H. to win. BAFTA Chairman Richard Price stated that the ballot papers passed on to him by Shubik had shown four votes for Prime Suspect and three for G.B.H. Price claimed that the ballot papers could not be recounted as they had subsequently been destroyed. Prime Suspect won Best Drama Serial once more for series three, and was nominated four other times. The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries three times, and was nominated twice more.
Mirren has won three BAFTA TV Awards for Best Actress for the role, and has been nominated three other times. She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie twice, with four additional nominations.
Prime Suspect 3 was awarded a Peabody Award in 1993 for its realistic scenes and dialogue. Writer/creator Lynda La Plante received an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for series one in the category of Best TV Feature or Miniseries. The following year, Allan Cubitt won in the same category for series two. Prime Suspect was later nominated for series three and six.
Influence on other programmes
Many observers have viewed Prime Suspect as the inspiration for female characters in U.S. TV series, particularly noting strong similarities between this series in general—and the character of Jane Tennison in particular—and the later American series The Closer, starring Kyra Sedgwick in the role of Deputy Chief of Police Brenda Leigh Johnson. Critics noted the similarities between the series in a stronger way during the first seasons of The Closer, with one 2006 article in USA Today calling The Closer "an unofficial Americanization" of the British series, and a later reviewer noting that, "When The Closer was first shown, critics were quick to compare it to Prime Suspect...[and] there's something in that...."
In interviews Sedgwick has acknowledged that The Closer owes "a debt" to Prime Suspect, and that her admiration for that show and for Mirren were factors that first interested her in the role. According to Sedgwick, Prime Suspect was one of the shows that "paved the way" for The Closer, and her manager got her interested in the series by saying that it was "a little bit like Prime Suspect." Sedgwick is quoted as saying that the Tennison character did become her inspiration in some ways for her portrayal of Brenda Leigh Johnson.
Reviewers in U.S. papers, including the Christian Science Monitor, have noted that The Closer, while not a direct remake of the British series, "owes" much to it, or that it "echoes many of the elements" of it. One New York Times article refers to The Closer as a "direct descendant" of Prime Suspect, although less hard-hitting than the original:
Other reviewers have also made the point that the differences between Tennison and Johnson are as important as their similarities:
NBC picked up an adaptation of the British series for the 2011–2012 season. It was taken off the schedule after 13 episodes were produced.
Spoofs
In 1997 a short spoof episode Prime Cracker was produced for the BBC's biennial Red Nose Day charity telethon in aid of Comic Relief. A crossover with ITV stablemate crime drama Cracker, the spoof starred Mirren and Cracker lead Robbie Coltrane as their characters from the respective series, sending up the perceived ultra-seriousness of both shows.
Dead Ringers featured a parody with Queen Elizabeth II in the lead role, as a reaction to Helen Mirren's portrayal of her in the 2006 film The Queen.
Prequel series
A six-part prequel, Prime Suspect 1973, was announced in 2015 by ITV, based on the book Tennison by Lynda La Plante, adapted by Glen Laker. It tells the story of a 22 year old Jane Tennison as a probationary WPC in Hackney, London, investigating her first murder case. The series began airing on 2 March 2017. The role of Tennison is played by Stefanie Martini. In June 2017, ITV confirmed that the series had not been recommissioned for a second series.
Home media
On 1 October 2013, Netflix made the Series 1–6 available online for streaming. On 27 August 2013, Acorn Media released the entire series in a seven-disc Blu-ray Disc set. Each disc contains the individual programme, upscaled to 720p HD and converted to 16:9 Widescreen. Bonus material includes a 50-minute behind-the-scenes special, a 23-minute Series 6 behind-the-scenes featurette, a photo gallery and cast filmographies.
The DVD format of the series was released in 2010 by ITV Studios/Global entertainment. It has an overall running time of 1,437 minutes approximately, and encompasses ten discs, with each Series set on one disc except the triple-episode Series 4, which is set over three discs. As with the Blu-ray production, the final disc contains a Behind-the-Scenes of Series 7.
References
External links
Prime Suspect at the British Film Institute's Screenonline
1991 British television series debuts
2006 British television series endings
1990s British crime drama television series
2000s British crime drama television series
Anthony Award-winning works
Edgar Award-winning works
English-language television shows
ITV crime dramas
Peabody Award-winning television programs
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries winners
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Television shows produced by Granada Television
Television series by ITV Studios
Television series by WGBH
Television shows set in London
British detective television series
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|
237028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcel%20Energy%20Center | Xcel Energy Center | Xcel Energy Center (also known as "The X") is a multipurpose arena in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. It is named for its locally based corporate sponsor Xcel Energy. With an official capacity of 17,954, the arena has four spectator levels: one suite level and three for general seating. The building is home to the NHL's Minnesota Wild.
The arena is owned by the city of Saint Paul and operated by the Wild's parent company, Minnesota Sports & Entertainment. It is on the same block as the RiverCentre convention facility, Roy Wilkins Auditorium and the Ordway Center for the Performing Arts, in downtown St. Paul, and shares a single indoor access area with RiverCentre and Roy Wilkins Auditorium. It also hosted the 2008 Republican National Convention.
History
The arena opened on September 29, 2000. It was built on the site of the demolished St. Paul Civic Center. The push for a new arena in Saint Paul grew after the National Hockey League's Minnesota North Stars moved to Dallas. Saint Paul courted the Hartford Whalers and Winnipeg Jets under Mayor Norm Coleman, but the Civic Center was an obstacle to both deals.
In order to get an NHL expansion team, Saint Paul needed to build a new arena. After several failed attempts to get funding, the state funded the project in April 1998. It gave Saint Paul a no-interest loan of $65 million for the $130 million project, though it forgave $17 million of that in exchange for having high school sports championships played at the arena.
The Minnesota Wild played their first game at the arena on October 11, 2000, against the Philadelphia Flyers. It was a 3–3 tie. Peter White scored the first goal in the arena while Darby Hendrickson scored the first goal for the Wild. The Wild's first win at the arena came on October 18, 2000, when they defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning 6–5. Not until April 14, 2003, did the Wild play a playoff game at the arena. In that game, the Wild suffered a 3–0 loss to the Colorado Avalanche. On April 21, 2003, the Wild won their first playoff game 3–2 on an overtime game-winner by Richard Park.
In 2004, ESPN named the Xcel Center the best overall sports venue in the U.S. The 10 millionth person passed through its gates on July 3, 2007.
The Twin Cities were selected as the hosting metropolis for the 2008 Republican National Convention on September 27, 2006, and the arena was chosen as the main venue. The convention was held here on September 1–4.
In 2010, ESPN magazine listed a Minnesota Wild game at the X as the third-best stadium experience in North America. First on the list were the Minnesota Twins and Target Field.
On April 26, 2015, the Wild won their first playoff series at the arena, defeating the St. Louis Blues 4–1 in game six of the Western Conference Quarterfinals.
The arena hosted the Vote for Change Tour on October 5, 2004, featuring performances by Bright Eyes, R.E.M. and Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band (with special guest John Fogerty and unannounced guest Neil Young).
The Minnesota Lynx of the WNBA used the Xcel Energy Center during the 2016 WNBA Playoffs, and played a full season there in 2017, as their home arena, Minneapolis's Target Center, was undergoing renovation.
Features
The concourse areas contain hockey jerseys from every Minnesota high school on the walls, reflecting the "State of Hockey." Surrounding the arena at all four corners are "crow's nests." One features an organ and is played during Wild games. The second features a lighthouse that houses a foghorn that is blasted when the team takes the ice before games, for all Wild goals, and after a victory. The third is used for the Wild's drum line. The fourth provides an additional stage for various uses.
Before it opened, the arena installed an integrated scoring, video, information and advertising display system by Daktronics. The system includes a large LED circular, center-hung scoreboard with multiple displays, nearly of ribbon display technology mounted on the fascia and large video displays outside the facility. The center ice display was replaced in the summer of 2014. Of the 10 LED screens, the largest measures wide by high. In 2015 the arena began replacing every seat in the building with cushioned seating. This was finished by early 2016.
Attendance records
March 6, 2015: 21,609 fans attended the 2015 State Boys' Hockey Tournament Class AA semifinals at Xcel Energy Center, setting a new record for the largest crowd to ever attend an indoor hockey game in the state of Minnesota.
March 9, 2012: The Minnesota State High School League Boys' hockey tournament again set a new attendance record during the 2012 AA semifinal session. Hill-Murray and Moorhead played in the first game followed by Benilde St-Margaret's and Lakeville South in front of a crowd of 19,893.
March 8, 2008: The Minnesota State High School League Boys' hockey tournament set a new attendance record during the AA semifinal session. Edina and Benilde-St. Margaret's played in the first game followed by Roseau and Hill-Murray in front of a crowd of 19,559.
February 8, 2004: The NHL All-Star Game set a record for attendance at a hockey game in Minnesota at 19,434.
The record attendance for a Wild game was set May 6, 2014 at 19,416, against the Chicago Blackhawks.
On October 28, 2003, Shania Twain set the arena's single-night concert attendance record of 20,554.
On March 17, 2007, 19,463 spectators watched the final game of the WCHA Final Five tournament, the largest crowd ever for an indoor United States college ice hockey game (i.e. not including games held in football stadiums such as the Cold War).
On November 3 & 4, 2012, Madonna performed two sold-out shows on her record-breaking MDNA Tour.
On January 19, 2013, 19,298 fans watched the Wild defeat the Colorado Avalanche in the first game after the shortened 2012–13 season. It also marked the debuts of signees Zach Parise and Ryan Suter.
Every Wild game at the Xcel Energy Center sold out until October 16, 2010, totaling 400 consecutive home games.
Sustainability efforts
In 2014 the campus of the Xcel Energy Center, RiverCentre, and Legendary Roy Wilkins Auditorium earned three world class certifications.
Green Globes Certification – July 2014
APEX / ASTM Certification – August 2014
LEED Certification – September 2014
The Xcel Energy Center and RiverCentre Campus is the first complex in the world to receive all three of those certifications. The road to achieving them has spanned several years, and could not have happened without the support of all staff members. Some of the steps taken in order to achieve these awards are:
60% of all waste is recycled
40% of staff commute by bus, bike, carpool or an efficient vehicle
90% of cleaning products meet green standards
In addition to the efforts made by staff, the Xcel Energy Center has partnered with the NHL to join Change the Course, a national initiative promoting water conservation and restoration. To highlight the incredible achievements the X has earned, it has produced Exceptionally Green: Minnesota Wild, Saint Paul RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center.
Other events
The X is the site of the WCHA Final Five, the Minnesota Girls' High School Volleyball Tournament, the High School Wrestling tournaments, the boys' Minnesota High School Hockey Tournament, and the Minnesota State High School League-sponsored volleyball state tournament.
It hosted the 2002, 2011, and 2018 NCAA Frozen Four.
The National Lacrosse League's Minnesota Swarm played in the arena from January 2005 until they moved to Georgia in 2015.
The venue formerly hosted the Big Ten Men's Ice Hockey Tournament, alternating with Joe Louis Arena in Detroit. As of 2018, it is host venue of the NCHC Frozen Faceoff.
Concerts
2000s
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Funding
In 1998, the state made a $65 million interest-free loan toward construction of the $130 million arena, $17 million of which was forgiven when the team agreed to allow amateur and public events. That left a loan of $48 million.
In 2013, the state legislature passed an omnibus jobs, housing and commerce bill that included forgiveness of the remaining $32.7 million loan to Xcel Energy Center.
Under the terms of the forgiveness deal in this bill, St. Paul's annual loan payment was reduced by $500,000 in 2014 and again in 2015. The balance of the loan was forgiven in 2016. The city still owes $56.8 million in bonds on the arena, of the $72.7 million it borrowed in 1998.
References
External links
Xcel Energy Center official website
Sports venues completed in 2000
Indoor lacrosse venues in the United States
Minnesota Wild
National Hockey League venues
Sports venues in Saint Paul, Minnesota
College ice hockey venues in the United States
Xcel Energy
Indoor ice hockey venues in Saint Paul, Minnesota
2000 establishments in Minnesota
Indoor arenas in Minnesota | [
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|
237029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%20Arenas | Toronto Arenas | The Toronto Arenas or Torontos were a professional men's ice hockey team that played in the first two seasons of the National Hockey League (NHL). It was operated by the owner of the Arena Gardens, the Toronto Arena Company. As the ownership of the National Hockey Association (NHA) Toronto Blueshirts franchise was in dispute, the new NHL league was started, and a temporary Toronto franchise was operated. The NHL itself was intended to only be a one-year entity until the NHA could be reactivated, although it never was.
For the first season, 1917–18, the team operated without a formal organization separate from the Arena Company and without an official club nickname. However, the press would dub the team the "Blue Shirts" or "Torontos" as they had done with the NHA franchise. After the 1918–1919 season, the Arena Company was granted a permanent franchise in the NHL, which evolved into today's Toronto Maple Leafs.
Franchise history
1917–18 season
By the fall of 1917, a dispute between Eddie Livingstone, owner of the Blueshirts, and the owners of the NHA's other four clubs—the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Ottawa Senators and Quebec Bulldogs had come to a boil. The other NHA owners were eager to disassociate themselves from Livingstone, but discovered that the NHA's constitution did not allow them to simply vote Livingstone out. With this in mind, on November 22 the NHA board of directors voted to suspend operations. At the same time, the other four NHA clubs voted to create a new league—the National Hockey League. However, they did not invite Livingstone to join them, effectively leaving him in a one-team league.
However, the other club owners felt it would be unthinkable not to have a team from Canada's second-largest city in the NHL. They also needed a fourth team to balance the schedule, since the Bulldogs were forced to suspend operations due to financial troubles (and, as it turned out, would not return until 1920). To solve the problem, NHL president Frank Calder assigned the contracts of the Blueshirt players to a 'temporary' Toronto franchise to be operated by the Toronto Arena Company, who also owned the Montreal Arena. Calder had ordered Livingstone to sell the team, but Livingstone turned down several offers. The Arena Company was given a year to resolve the dispute or lose the franchise. The Arena Company did agree to compensate Livingstone for the use of the players for the season, although no suitable figure was ever reached, and the league itself disputed any claims that Livingstone had on the players.
As the Arena Gardens was the only suitable place to play at the time, the players had little choice but to play for the Arena team, if they wanted to play in the NHL. The NHL had also publicly announced that there was an agreement to buy out Livingstone, though this never took place. The team did not have an official name, but since it was made up mostly of former Blue Shirts, the media and fans called them "the Torontos" or even "the Blue Shirts," as they had Livingstone's former team. Many of the players signed contracts with both Livingstone and the Torontos, and often were paid in cash or personal cheques on a week-by-week basis. Despite this uncertainty, the team was successful from the start under coach Dick Carroll and general manager Charlie Querrie. The team won the second half of the 1917–18 NHL season, leading to a playoff against the Montreal Canadiens. The Torontos won the playoff and would then face off against the Vancouver Millionaires for the Stanley Cup. Toronto then won the best-of-five series 3–2. After the Cup win, the team did not engrave its name on the Stanley Cup, as would later become the custom.
Unlike the other two NHL franchises with NHA roots, the Canadiens and the Senators, the Maple Leafs do not claim the Blue Shirts' history as their own, as the NHL was formed to remove Livingstone from the NHA and that franchise was folded. As such, pre-NHL Toronto could not be part of Maple Leafs history. They do, however, claim the history of the "temporary" Toronto franchise of 1917–18.
1918–1919 season
In 1918, the NHA voted to suspend operations once again, and the other owners made plans to operate the NHL for a second season. Since the Torontos had won the Cup, even more revenue was at stake and Livingstone held out for $20,000, though the Arena offered $6,000. This led to Livingstone filing another lawsuit, this against the Arena owners. In response, instead of returning the players to Livingstone, or even paying Livingstone, the Arena Company returned their temporary franchise to the NHL and immediately formed a new club, the Toronto Arena Hockey Club, popularly known as the Toronto Arenas, with Arena Company auditor Hubert Vearncombe as president. The new club was a separate corporation that could exist separate from any legal action. This new team was readily admitted to the NHL as a member in good standing. (The Maple Leafs themselves say they were known as the Arenas during their first season, but the name "Arenas" was not recorded to commemorate the team's 1918 Cup victory until 1947.) They also decided that only NHL teams would be allowed to play at the Arena Gardens, effectively foreclosing Livingstone's efforts to resurrect the NHA.
To restate and clarify a somewhat confusing series of events: four of the five clubs that played in the NHA seceded to form the NHL in 1917. The players from the fifth club, the Blueshirts, were "leased" to the Arena Company and skated as a "temporary" Toronto NHL franchise in the league's inaugural season. After the Torontos won the Stanley Cup, the Arena Company was granted a permanent NHL franchise, but retained the former Blueshirts players. It is this franchise that began the lineage of today's Maple Leafs.
This year, the club was not successful, falling to 5 wins and 13 losses, finishing last in both halves of the season. Attendance was especially poor, recorded as only hundreds for a February 4, 1919 game against the Canadiens. Several players left the team, including Harry Holmes, Harry Meeking and Dave Ritchie. This was partly due to the legal status of the team; since most players were really still "property" of the Blueshirts, they didn't have formal contracts and were being paid under the table in cash.
The team wrote to Calder to end the season early, and the season ended after each team had played 18 games. The Toronto Arenas then officially withdrew from the league on February 20, 1919. This left the two remaining teams, Montreal and Ottawa, to play a playoff for the league championship.
1919–1920 season
On December 13, 1919, the NHL approved the sale of the Arenas to a group fronted by Querrie, for the fee of $5,000. While the money was to go to Livingstone to compensate him for the loss of his NHA club, Livingstone never received the money. By all accounts, Calder pocketed the money himself. The team was renamed the Toronto St. Patricks. The incorporation date of the club was December 22, 1919. Querrie, Fred Hambly, Percy Hambly, and Paul Ciceri owned 99 shares each, while Richard Greer owned 4 shares.
Notable players
Jack Adams – Hall of Fame player, later Detroit coach and general manager
Hap Holmes – Hall of Fame goaltender
Harry Cameron – Hall of Fame defenseman
Reg Noble – Hall of Fame center
Rusty Crawford – Hall of Fame left winger
Coaches
Dick Carroll
See also
Eddie Livingstone
Toronto Maple Leafs
Toronto St. Pats
History of the National Hockey League
History of the Toronto Maple Leafs
List of Stanley Cup champions
1918 Stanley Cup Finals
References
Defunct National Hockey League teams
Defunct ice hockey teams in Canada
National Hockey League teams based in Canada
Are
1917 establishments in Ontario
1919 disestablishments in Ontario
Ice hockey clubs established in 1917
Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 1919 | [
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|
237030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow-browed%20warbler | Yellow-browed warbler | The yellow-browed warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus) is a leaf warbler (family Phylloscopidae) which breeds in the east Palearctic. This warbler is strongly migratory and winters mainly in tropical South Asia and South-east Asia, but also in small numbers in western Europe. Like the rest of Phylloscopidae, it was formerly included in the Old World warbler assemblage.
It was formerly considered to comprise three subspecies, but P. i. humei and P. i. mandellii are now split as a separate species, Hume's leaf warbler P. humei, leaving P. inornatus monotypic. The two sister species differ slightly but consistently in morphology, bioacoustics, and molecular characters. Before the species was split, the names yellow-browed willow warbler and inornate warbler were used by a few authors.
Taxonomy
The yellow-browed warbler was first described by the English zoologist Edward Blyth in 1842 and given the binomial name Regulus inornatus. The current genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific inornatus is Latin for "plain".
Description
This is one of the smaller Old World warblers, at 9.5–11 cm long and weighing 4–9 g distinctly smaller than a chiffchaff but slightly larger than Pallas's leaf warbler. Like many other leaf warblers, it has overall greenish upperparts and white underparts. It also has prominent double wing bars formed by yellowish-white tips to the wing covert feathers (a long bar on the greater coverts and a short bar on the median coverts), yellow-margined tertial feathers, and long yellow supercilium. Some individuals also have a faint paler green central crown stripe though many do not show this.
It is not shy, but its arboreal life style makes it difficult to observe. It is almost constantly in motion. Its song is a high pitched medley of whistles; the call is piercing, often disyllabic "tseeweest", strikingly loud for the bird's small size. The only real possibility of confusion is with the similar-looking Hume's leaf warbler (P. humei), which in the limited area of overlap has duller colours, a faint second wing bar and dark legs and lower mandible. Their songs and calls are clearly distinct, with Hume's having a more chirping "chwee" call. It can easily be distinguished from Pallas's warbler as it does not have the a conspicuous yellow central crown stripe and rump patch shown by that species.
Ecology and distribution
Like most warblers, it is insectivorous. The nest is built in dense vegetation often at the base of a tree or old stump; two to four (occasionally more) eggs are laid, hatching after 11–14 days, with the chicks fledging when 12–13 days old.
This is an abundant bird of lowland and montane forests and woodlands; particularly in winter it may also be found in more open woods. Its breeding range extends from just west of the Ural Mountains eastwards to eastern Siberia, Mongolia and Northeast China. Its winter habitat is lowland broadleaf or coniferous forest, from West Bengal and Assam in northeastern India east through southern China to Taiwan, and through Bangladesh south to the Malay Peninsula. In summer, it occurs at altitudes of up to 2,440 m, and in winter, up to 1,525 m.
The European breeding population west of the Urals has increased westwards in recent decades; in 1950 it was described as 'fairly scarce', but 'locally abundant' with 45,000–46,000 pairs in 1990.
Small numbers, most likely from the western end of the breeding range, regularly winter in western Europe. These arrive in Great Britain in late September and October after a 3,000–3,500 km migration from the Urals, a markedly shorter distance than the 5,500–6,000 km they would need to fly to reach the normal wintering areas in southeastern Asia. Exact numbers in this population are unknown, but typically several hundred are found arriving in Great Britain each autumn; given their unobtrusive behaviour, this is probably only a fraction of the total. In the past widely considered to be vagrants, these birds are now thought to be undertaking a normal regular migration, able to take advantage of the mild oceanic climate winters on the western fringes of Europe for wintering.
A common species in most of its wide range, the yellow-browed warbler is not considered threatened by the IUCN.
Hume's leaf warbler overlaps its breeding range with yellow-browed warbler in the western Sayan Mountains, but the species apparently do not hybridise. Their lineages diverged roughly 2.5 million years ago.
Footnotes
References
Ernst, S. (1996): Zweiter Beitrag zur Vogelwelt des Östlichen Altai ["Second contribution regarding the avifauna of the Sayan Mountains"]. Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum Berlin 72, Suppl. Ann. Ornithol. 20: 123–180 [In German].
Inskipp, Carol; Inskipp, Tim & Sherub (2000): The ornithological importance of Thrumshingla National Park, Bhutan. Forktail 14: 147–162.
External links
yellow-browed warbler
Birds of North Asia
Birds of Manchuria
yellow-browed warbler
yellow-browed warbler | [
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|
237031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top%20of%20the%20Pops | Top of the Pops | Top of the Pops (TOTP) is a British music chart television programme, made by the BBC and originally broadcast weekly between 1January 1964 and 30 July 2006. Top of the Pops was the world's longest running weekly music show. For most of its history, it was broadcast on Thursday evenings on BBC One. Each weekly show consisted of performances from some of that week's best-selling popular music records, usually excluding any tracks moving down the chart, including a rundown of that week's singles chart. This was originally the Top 20, though this varied throughout the show's history. The Official Charts Company states "performing on the show was considered an honour, and it pulled in just about every major player."
Dusty Springfield’s "I Only Want to Be with You" was the first song performed on TOTP, while The Rolling Stones were the first band to perform with "I Wanna Be Your Man". Snow Patrol were the last act to play live on the weekly show when they performed their single "Chasing Cars". In addition to the weekly show there was a special edition of TOTP on Christmas Day (and usually, until 1984, a second edition a few days after Christmas), featuring some of the best-selling singles of the year and the Christmas Number 1. Although the weekly show was cancelled in 2006, the Christmas special has continued. End-of-year round-up editions have also been broadcast on BBC1 on or around New Year's Eve, albeit largely featuring the same acts and tracks as the Christmas Day shows. It also survives as Top of the Pops 2, which began in 1994 and features vintage performances from the Top of the Pops archives. Though TOTP2 ceased producing new episodes since 2017, repeats of older episodes are still shown.
The show has seen seminal performances over its history. The March 1971 TOTP appearance of T. Rex frontman Marc Bolan wearing glitter and satins as he performed "Hot Love" is often seen as the inception of glam rock, and David Bowie's performance of "Starman" inspired future musicians. In the 1990s, the show's format was sold to several foreign broadcasters in the form of a franchise package, and at one point various versions of the show were shown in more than 120 countries. Editions of the programme from 1976 onwards started being repeated on BBC Four in 2011 and are aired on most Friday evenings – as of January 2022 the repeat run has reached 1992. Episodes featuring disgraced presenters and artists such as Jonathan King, Jimmy Savile (who opened the show with its familiar slogan, 'It's Number One, it's Top of the Pops'), Dave Lee Travis, Rolf Harris, Gary Glitter, and R. Kelly are no longer repeated.
History
Johnnie Stewart devised the rules which governed how the show would operate: the programme would always end with the number one record, which was the only record that could appear in consecutive weeks. The show would include the highest new entry and (if not featured in the previous week) the highest climber on the charts, and omit any song going down in the chart. Tracks could be featured in consecutive weeks in different formats. For example, if a song was played over the chart countdown or the closing credits, then it was acceptable for the act to appear in the studio the following week.
These rules were sometimes interpreted flexibly and were more formally relaxed from 1997 when records descending the charts were featured more regularly, possibly as a response to the changing nature of the Top 40 (in the late 1990s and early 2000s climbers in the charts were a rarity, with almost all singles peaking at their debut position).
When the programme's format changed in November 2003, it concentrated increasingly on the top 10. Later, during the BBC Two era, the top 20 was regarded as the main cut-off point, with the exception made for up and coming bands below the top 20. Singles from below the top 40 (within the top 75) were shown if the band were up and coming or had a strong selling album. If a single being performed was below the top 40, just the words "New Entry" were shown and not the chart position.
The show was originally intended to run for only a few programmes but lasted over 42 years, reaching landmark episodes of 500, 1,000, 1,500 and 2,000 in the years 1973, 1983, 1992 and 2002 respectively.
The first show
Top of the Pops was first broadcast on Wednesday, 1January 1964 at 6:35 pm. It was produced in Studio A at Dickenson Road Studios in Rusholme, Manchester.
DJ Jimmy Savile presented the first show live from the Manchester studio (with a brief link to Alan Freeman in London to preview the following week's programme), which featured (in order) Dusty Springfield with "I Only Want to Be with You", the Rolling Stones with "I Wanna Be Your Man", the Dave Clark Five with "Glad All Over", the Hollies with "Stay", the Swinging Blue Jeans with "Hippy Hippy Shake" and the Beatles with "I Want to Hold Your Hand", that week's number one – throughout its history, the programme proper always (with very few exceptions) finished with the best-selling single of the week, although there often was a separate play-out track over the end credits.
1960s and 1970s
Later in 1964, the broadcast time was moved to one hour later, at 7:35 pm, and the show moved from Wednesdays to what became its regular Thursday slot. Additionally its length was extended by 5minutes to 30 minutes.
For the first three years Alan Freeman, David Jacobs, Pete Murray and Jimmy Savile rotated presenting duties, with the following week's presenter also appearing at the end of each show, although this practice ceased from October 1964 onwards. Neville Wortman filled in as director/producer on Johnnie Stewart's holiday break.
In the first few editions, Denise Sampey was the "disc girl", who would be seen to put the record on a turntable before the next act played their track. However, a Mancunian model, Samantha Juste, became the regular disc girl after a few episodes, a role she performed until 1967.
Initially acts performing on the show would mime (lip-sync) to the commercially released record, but in 1966 after discussions with the Musicians' Union, miming was banned. After a few weeks during which some bands' attempts to play as well as on their records were somewhat lacking, a compromise was reached whereby a specially recorded backing track was permitted, as long as all the musicians on the track were present in the studio. As a result, Stewart hired Johnny Pearson to conduct an in-studio orchestra to provide musical backing on select performances, beginning with the 4 August 1966 edition. Later, vocal group The Ladybirds began providing vocal backing with the orchestra.
With the birth of BBC Radio 1 in 1967, new Radio1 DJs were added to the roster – Stuart Henry, Emperor Rosko, Simon Dee and Kenny Everett.
Local photographer Harry Goodwin was hired to provide shots of non-appearing artists, and also to provide backdrops for the chart run-down. He continued in the role until 1973.
After two years at the Manchester Dickenson Road Studios, the show moved to London (considered to be better located for bands to appear), initially for six months at BBC TV Centre Studio2 and then to the larger Studio G at BBC Lime Grove Studios in mid-1966 to provide space for the Top of the Pops Orchestra, which was introduced at this time to provide live instrumentation on some performances (previously, acts had generally mimed to the records). In November 1969, with the introduction of colour, the show returned to BBC TV Centre, where it stayed until 1991, when it moved to Elstree Studios Studio C.
For a while in the early 1970s, non-chart songs were played on a more regular basis, to reflect the perceived growing importance of album sales; there was an album slot featuring three songs from a new LP, as well as a New Release spot and a feature of a new act, dubbed Tip for the Top. These features were dropped after a while, although the programme continued to feature new releases on a regular basis for the rest of the decade.
During its heyday, it attracted 15 million viewers each week. The peak TV audience of 19 million was recorded in 1979, during the ITV strike, with only BBC1 and BBC2 on air.
Christmas Top of the Pops
A year-end Christmas show featuring a review of the year's biggest hits was inaugurated on 24 December 1964, and has continued every year since. From 1965 onward, the special edition was broadcast on Christmas Day (although not in 1966) and from the same year, a second edition was broadcast in the days after Christmas, varying depending on the schedule, but initially regularly on 26 December. The first was shown on 26 December 1965. In 1973, there was just one show, airing on Christmas Day. In place of the traditional second show, Jimmy Savile hosted a look back at the first 10 years of TOTP, broadcast on 27 December. In 1975, the first of the two shows was broadcast prior to Christmas Day, airing on 23 December, followed by the traditional Christmas Day show two days later.
The 1978 Christmas Day show was disrupted due to industrial action at the BBC, requiring a change in format to the broadcast. The first show, due to be screened on 21 December, was not shown at all because BBC1 was off the air. For Christmas Day, Noel Edmonds (presenting his last ever edition of TOTP) hosted the show from the 'TOTP Production Office' with clips taken from various editions of the show broadcast during the year and new studio footage performed without an audience. The format was slightly tweaked for the Christmas Day edition in 1981, with the Radio1 DJs choosing their favourite tracks of the year and the following edition on 31 December featuring the year's number1 hits.
The second programme was discontinued after 1984.
1980s
The year 1980 marked major production changes to Top of the Pops and a hiatus forced by industrial action. Steve Wright made his presenting debut on 7 February 1980. Towards the end of February 1980, facing a £40 million budget deficit, the BBC laid off five orchestras as part of £130 million in cuts. The budget cuts led to a Musicians' Union strike that suspended operations of all 11 BBC orchestras and performances of live music on the BBC; Top of the Pops went out of production between 29 May and 7 August 1980. During the Musicians' Union strike, BBC1 showed repeats of Are You Being Served? in the regular Top of the Pops Thursday night time slot.
Following the strike, Nash was replaced as executive producer by Michael Hurll, who introduced more of a "party" atmosphere to the show, with performances often accompanied by balloons and cheerleaders, and more audible audience noise and cheering. Hurll also laid off the orchestra, as the Musicians' Union was loosening enforcement of the 1966 miming ban.
Guest co-presenters and a music news feature were introduced for a short while, but had ceased by the end of 1980. The chart rundown was split into three sections in the middle of the programme, with the final Top 10 section initially featuring clips of the songs' videos, although this became rarer over the next few years.
An occasional feature showing the American music scene with Jonathan King was introduced in November 1981, and ran every few weeks until February 1985. In January 1985, a Breakers section, featuring short video clips of new tracks in the lower end of the Top 40, was introduced, and this continued for most weeks until March 1994.
Although the programme had been broadcast live in its early editions, it had been recorded on the day before transmission for many years. However, from May 1981, the show was sometimes broadcast live for a few editions each year, and this practice continued on an occasional basis (often in the week of a bank holiday, when the release of the new chart was delayed, and for some special editions) for the rest of the decade.
The programme moved in September 1985 to a new regular half-hour timeslot of 7 pm on Thursdays, where it would remain until June 1996.
The end of 1988 was marked by a special 70-minute edition of the show broadcast on 31 December 1988, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the first show. The pre-recorded programme featured the return of the original four presenters (Savile, Freeman, Murray and Jacobs) as well as numerous presenters from the show's history, anchored by Paul Gambaccini and Mike Read. Numerous clips from the history of the show were included in between acts performing in the studio, which included Cliff Richard, Engelbert Humperdinck, Lulu, the Four Tops, David Essex, Mud, Status Quo, Shakin' Stevens, the Tremeloes and from the very first edition, the Swinging Blue Jeans. Sandie Shaw, the Pet Shop Boys and Wet Wet Wet were billed in the Radio Times to appear, but none featured in the show other than Shaw in compilation clips.
Paul Ciani took over as producer in 1988. The following year, in an attempt to fit more songs in the allocated half-hour, he restricted the duration of studio performances to three minutes, and videos to two minutes, a practice which was largely continued until May 1997. In July 1990, he introduced a rundown of the Top5 albums, which continued on a monthly basis until May 1991. Ciani had to step down due to illness in 1991, when Hurll returned as producer to cover for two months (and again for a brief time as holiday cover in 1992).
1991: 'Year Zero' revamp
From 1967, the show had become closely associated with the BBC radio station Radio 1, usually being presented by DJs from the station, and between 1988 and 1991 the programme was simulcast on the radio station in FM stereo (that is, until BBC's launch of NICAM stereo for TV made such simulcasts redundant). However, during the last few years of the 1980s the association became less close, and was severed completely (although not permanently) in a radical shake-up known as the 'Year Zero' revamp.
Following a fall in viewing figures and a general perception that the show had become 'uncool' (acts like the Clash had refused to appear in the show in previous years), a radical new format was introduced by incoming executive producer Stanley Appel (who had worked on the programme since 1966 as cameraman, production assistant, director and stand-in producer) in October 1991, in which the Radio1 DJs were replaced by a team of relative unknowns, such as Claudia Simon and Tony Dortie who had previously worked for Children's BBC, 17-year-old local radio DJ Mark Franklin, Steve Anderson, Adrian Rose and Elayne Smith, who was replaced by Femi Oke in 1992. A brand new theme tune ("Now Get Out of That"), title sequence and logo were introduced, and the entire programme moved from BBC Television Centre in London to BBC Elstree Centre in Borehamwood.
The new presenting team would take turns hosting (initially usually in pairs but sometimes solo), and would often introduce acts in an out-of-vision voiceover over the song's instrumental introduction. They would sometimes even conduct short informal interviews with the performers, and initially the Top 10 countdown was run without any voiceover. Rules relating to performance were also altered meaning acts had to sing live as opposed to the backing tracks for instruments and mimed vocals for which the show was known. To incorporate the shift of dominance towards American artists, more use was made of out-of-studio performances, with acts in America able to transmit their song to the Top of the Pops audience "via satellite". These changes were widely unpopular and much of the presenting team were axed within a year, leaving the show hosted solely by Dortie and Franklin (apart from the Christmas Day editions, when both presenters appeared) from October 1992, on a week-by-week rotation.
1994–1997
By 1994, much of the 'Year Zero' revamp was quickly undone and the arrival of Ric Blaxill as producer in February 1994 signalled a return to presentation from established Radio1 DJs Simon Mayo, Mark Goodier, Nicky Campbell and Bruno Brookes. Blaxill expanded the use of "via satellite" performances, taking the acts out of studios and concert halls and setting them against landmark backdrops. As a consequence, Bon Jovi performed Always from Niagara Falls and Celine Dion beamed in Think Twice from Miami Beach.
The last remnants of the Year Zero revamp were replaced in 1995, when a new title sequence, logo and theme tune were introduced (the logo having first been introduced on the new programme Top of the Pops 2 some months previously), coinciding with the introduction of a new set. Blaxill also increasingly experimented with handing presenting duties to celebrities, commonly contemporary comedians and pop stars who were not in the charts at that time. In an attempt to keep the links between acts as fresh as the performances themselves, the so-called "golden mic" was used by, amongst others, Kylie Minogue, Meat Loaf, Des Lynam, Chris Eubank, Damon Albarn, Harry Hill, Jack Dee, Lulu, Björk, Jarvis Cocker, Stewart Lee and Richard Herring. Radio1 DJs still presented occasionally, including Lisa I'Anson, Steve Lamacq, Jo Whiley and Chris Evans.
TOTP was traditionally shown on a Thursday night, but was moved to a Friday starting on 14 June 1996, originally at 7 pm, but then shifted to 7.30 pm, a change which placed the programme up against the soap opera Coronation Street on ITV. This began a major decline in audience figures as fans were forced to choose between Top of the Pops and an episode of the soap.
1997–2003
In 1997, incoming producer Chris Cowey phased out the use of celebrities and established a rotating team (similar to the 1991 revamp, although much more warmly received) of former presenters of youth music magazine The O-Zone Jayne Middlemiss and Jamie Theakston as well as Radio1 DJs Jo Whiley and Zoe Ball. The team was later augmented by Kate Thornton and Gail Porter.
Chris Cowey in particular instigated a set of 'back to basics' changes when he took over the show. In 1998, a remixed version of the classic "Whole Lotta Love" theme tune previously used in the 1970s was introduced, accompanied by a new 1960s-inspired logo and title sequence. Cowey also began to export the brand overseas with localised versions of the show on air in Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Italy by 2003. Finally, the programme returned to its previous home of BBC Television Centre in 2001, where it remained until its cancellation in 2006.
2003: All New Top of the Pops
On 28 November 2003 (three months after the appointment of Andi Peters as executive producer), the show saw one of its most radical overhauls since the ill-fated 1991 'Year Zero' revamp in what was widely reported as a make-or-break attempt to revitalise the long-running series. In a break with the previous format, the show played more up-and-coming tracks ahead of any chart success, and also featured interviews with artists and a music news feature called "24/7". Most editions of the show were now broadcast live, for the first time since 1991 (apart from a couple of editions in 1994). The launch show, which was an hour long, was notable for a performance of "Flip Reverse" by Blazin' Squad, featuring hordes of hooded teenagers choreographed to dance around the outside of BBC Television Centre.
Although the first edition premièred to improved ratings, the All New format, hosted by MTV presenter Tim Kash, quickly returned to low ratings and brought about scathing reviews. Kash continued to host the show, but Radio1 DJs Reggie Yates and Fearne Cotton (who had each presented a few shows in 2003, before the revamp) were brought back to co-host alongside him, before Kash was completely dropped by the BBC, later taking up a new contract at MTV. The show continued to be hosted by Reggie Yates and Fearne Cotton (usually together, but occasionally solo) on Friday evenings until 8July 2005.
On 30 July 2004, the show took place outside a studio environment for the first time by broadcasting outside in Gateshead. Girls Aloud, Busted, Will Young and Jamelia were among the performers that night.
2005: The Beginning of the End
Figures had plummeted to below three million, prompting an announcement by the BBC that the show was going to move, again, to Sunday evenings on BBC Two, thus losing the prime-time slot on BBC One that it had maintained for more than forty years.
This move was widely reported as a final "sidelining" of the show, and perhaps signalled its likely cancellation. At the time, it was insisted that this was so the show would air immediately after the official announcement of the new top 40 chart on Radio 1, as it was thought that by the following Friday, the chart seemed out of date. The final Top of the Pops to be shown on BBC One (barring Christmas and New Year specials) was broadcast on Monday 11 July 2005, which was edition number 2,166.
The first edition on BBC Two was broadcast on 17 July 2005 at 7.00 pm with presenter Fearne Cotton. After the move to Sundays, Cotton continued to host with a different guest presenter each week, such as Rufus Hound or Richard Bacon. On a number of occasions, however, Reggie Yates would step in, joined by female guest presenters such as Lulu, Cyndi Lauper and Anastacia. Viewing figures during this period averaged around 1½ million. Shortly after the move to BBC Two, Peters resigned as executive producer. He was replaced by the BBC's Creative Head of Music Entertainment Mark Cooper, while producer Sally Wood remained to oversee the show on a weekly basis.
2006: Cancellation
On 20 June 2006, the show was formally cancelled and it was announced that the last edition would be broadcast on 30 July 2006. Edith Bowman co-presented its hour-long swansong, along with Jimmy Savile (who was the main presenter on the first show), Reggie Yates, Mike Read, Pat Sharp, Sarah Cawood, Dave Lee Travis, Rufus Hound, Tony Blackburn and Janice Long.
The final day of recording was 26 July 2006 and featured archive footage and tributes, including the Rolling Stones – the very first band to appear on Top of the Pops – opening with "The Last Time", the Spice Girls, David Bowie, Wham!, Madonna, Beyoncé, Gnarls Barkley, the Jackson 5, Sonny and Cher and Robbie Williams. The show closed with a final countdown, topped by Shakira, as her track "Hips Don't Lie" (featuring Wyclef Jean) had climbed back up to number one on the UK Singles Chart earlier in the day. The show ended with Savile ultimately turning the lights off in the empty studio.
Fearne Cotton, who was the current presenter, was unavailable to co-host for the final edition due to her filming of ITV's Love Island in Fiji but opened the show with a quick introduction recorded on location, saying "It's still number one, it's Top of the Pops". BARB reported the final show's viewing figures as 3.98 million.
As the last episode featured no live acts in the studio, the last act to actually play live on a weekly episode of TOTP was Snow Patrol, who performed "Chasing Cars" in the penultimate edition; the last act ever featured visually on a weekly Top of the Pops was Girls Aloud, as part of the closing sequence of bands performing on the show throughout the years. They were shown performing "Love Machine".
2006–present: After the end
The magazine and TOTP2 have both survived despite the show's axing, and the Christmas editions also continue after returning to BBC One. However, the TOTP website, which the BBC had originally promised would continue, is now no longer updated, although many of the old features of the site – interviews, music news, reviews – have remained, now in the form of the Radio 1-affiliated TOTP ChartBlog accessible via the remains of the old website.
Calls for its return
In October 2008, British Culture Secretary Andy Burnham and Manchester indie band the Ting Tings called for the show to return.
On 29 October 2008, Simon Cowell stated in an interview that he would be willing to buy the rights to Top of the Pops from the BBC. The corporation responded that they had not been formally approached by Cowell, and that in any case the format was "not up for sale". In November 2008, it was reported by The Times and other newspapers that the weekly programme was to be revived in 2009, but the BBC said there were no such plans.
In July 2009, Pet Shop Boys singer Neil Tennant criticised the BBC for ending the programme, stating that new acts were missing out on "that great moment of being crowned that week's Kings of Pop".
In early 2015 there was increased speculation of a return of the show including rumours that Dermot O'Leary might present alongside Fearne Cotton. According to a report in the Daily Mirror, a BBC insider stated that "some at the highest level are massive supporters of the plan [of a return] and have given the go-ahead." The move of the UK charts to a Friday due to take place in summer 2015 was also said to favour the possibility of a return, making it "the perfect tie-in" and a "perfect start to the weekend", but no weekly return has occurred.
BBC Four reruns
In April 2011, the BBC began to reshow Top of the Pops on Thursday nights on BBC Four beginning with the equivalent show from 35 years earlier in a 7:30 pm–8:00 pm slot approximating to the time the programme was traditionally shown. The first programme shown, 1April 1976, was chosen because it was from approximately this episode onwards that most editions remain in the BBC archive. The repeat programmes come in two versions; the first is edited down to fit in the 30-minute 7:30 slot, the second is shown normally twice overnight in the following weekend, and is usually complete. However both the short and longer editions can be edited for a number of reasons. Potentially offensive content to modern audiences is cut (for example The Barron Knights' in-studio performance of "Food For Thought" on the edition of 13 December 1979 including a segment parodying Chinese takeaways using mannerisms that may now be viewed as offensive), and cinematic film footage can be truncated, replaced or removed entirely due to the costs to the BBC of reshowing such footage. The BBC also makes the repeats available on BBC iPlayer. The repeats are continuing as of January 2022 with episodes from 1992.
Since October 2012, episodes featuring Jimmy Savile have ceased to be broadcast due to the Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal and subsequent Operation Yewtree police investigation. Following the arrest of Dave Lee Travis by Operation Yewtree officers, and his subsequent conviction for indecent assault, episodes featuring Travis were also omitted. Following Gary Glitter's conviction for sexual assault, episodes featuring him are not included in the run, or otherwise have Glitter's performances edited out.
Mike Smith decided not to sign the licence extension that would allow the BBC to repeat the Top of the Pops episodes that he presented, with the BBC continuing to respect his wishes following his death. As a result, episodes featuring Smith are also omitted.
In 2021, it was discovered that episodes hosted by Adrian Rose (later Adrian Woolfe) were being skipped, starting with the 28th November 1991 episode featuring Nirvana's famous performance of "Smells Like Teen Spirit" (mentioned below).
Other edits that have been made to episodes have included Jonathan King's reports from the US during episodes from the early 1980s, sometimes also resulting in the removal of a performance or video introduced as part of the report, and the removal of The Doors' performance of "Light My Fire" from a 1991 episode, due to The Doors not being covered by the BBC's music licensing agreement (which also resulted in another 1991 episode being skipped).
"Story of" Specials
Prior to the 1976 BBC reruns shown in 2011, the BBC produced a special programme, "The Story of 1976". This comprised excerpts from the 1976 programmes, interspersed with new interviews with people discussing the time period. They have produced similar programmes prior to subsequent annual reruns, "The Story of 1990" being the most recent such programme in October 2020, as 1991 and 1992 reruns started without a 'The Story of...' programme preceding them.
"Big Hits" compilation
A series of "Big Hits" compilations have been broadcast with on-screen captions about artists.In December 2016, a festive special using the format of the "Big Hits" programmes, Top of the Pops: Christmas Hits was broadcast on BBC Four, featuring a mix of Christmas music and non-festive songs which had been hits at Christmas time. This effectively replaced the annual Christmas edition of Top of the Pops 2, which did not run that year.
Christmas and New Year specials
Although the weekly Top of the Pops has been cancelled, the Christmas Specials have continued, hosted by Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates. The Christmas specials are broadcast on Christmas Day afternoon on BBC One. Since 2008 (apart from 2010 and 2011), a New Year special has also been broadcast. A new logo and title sequence were introduced on the 2019 Christmas special. The BBC's Head of Music Television, Mark Cooper, continued to oversee the programme as executive producer until 2019 when he was replaced by Alison Howe. Meanwhile, Stephanie McWhinnie, who had replaced Wood as producer with effect from Christmas 2011, was replaced by Caroline Cullen (who had previously worked as assistant producer on the show) from Christmas 2020, when both festive shows were recorded with new studio performances but no live audience physically in attendance. On 4December 2017, Yates stepped down from hosting Top of the Pops due to comments he made regarding Jewish people and rappers. The BBC later announced Clara Amfo as Yates' replacement, she continues to hold the role. Amfo was joined by Jordan North for the 2021 specials, with him replacing Cotton.
Comic Relief specials
The show was given a one-off revival (of sorts) for Comic Relief 2007 in the form of Top Gear of the Pops, presented by Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond and James May. It was filmed at the Top Gear aerodrome studio in Surrey on Sunday, 11 March 2007, although it bore little resemblance to the usual Top of the Pops format.
On 13 March 2009, Top of The Pops was once again revived, this time in its usual format, for a special live Comic Relief edition, airing on BBC Two while the main telethon took a break for the BBC News at Ten on BBC One. As with the Christmas specials the show was presented by Radio1 duo Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates with special guest presenter Noel Fielding and appearances from Dawn French, Jennifer Saunders, Claudia Winkleman, Jonathan Ross, Davina McCall (dancing in the audience and later as a Flo Rida dancer with Claudia Winkleman and French and Saunders) and David Tennant.
Live performances – interspersed with Comic Relief appeal films – included acts such as Franz Ferdinand, Oasis, Take That, U2, James Morrison and Flo Rida (that week's Number1). Kicking off the show was a performance from Rob Brydon and Ruth Jones in their Gavin & Stacey guises, feat. Tom Jones and Robin Gibb with "(Barry) Islands in the Stream", the Comic Relief single.
Performers, performances and presenters
In its extensive history, Top of the Pops has featured many artists, many of whom have appeared more than once on the show to promote many of their records.
Green Day hold the record for the longest Top of the Pops performance: "Jesus of Suburbia" broadcast on 6November 2005, lasted 9minutes and 10 seconds. There is uncertainty about what was the shortest performance. In 2005, presenter Reggie Yates announced on the show that it was Super Furry Animals with "Do or Die", broadcast on 28 January 2000, clocking in at 95 seconds. However, "It's My Turn" by Angelic was 91 seconds on 16 June 2000 and, according to an August 2012 edition of TOTP2, "Here Comes the Summer" by the Undertones was just 84 seconds on 26 July 1979. Cliff Richard appeared the most times on the show, with almost 160 performances. Status Quo were the most frequent group with 106 performances.
Miming
Throughout the show's history, many artists mimed to backing tracks. Early on, Musicians' Union rules required that groups re-record backing tracks with union members performing when possible. However, as The Guardian recounted in 2001: "In practice, artists pretended to re-record the song, then used their original tapes."
The miming policy also led to the occasional technical hitch. In 1967, as Jimi Hendrix prepared to perform "Burning of the Midnight Lamp", the song "The House That Jack Built" by Alan Price was played in studio instead, prompting Hendrix to respond: "I like the voice...but I don't know the words." In 1988, All About Eve appeared to perform "Martha's Harbour". Although the song was being played on the television broadcast, it was not being played in studio, so lead singer Julianne Regan remained silent on a stool on stage while Tim Bricheno (the only other band member present) did not play his guitar.
Occasionally bands played live, examples in the 1970s and 1980s being the Four Seasons, the Who, Blondie, John Otway, Sham 69, Eddie and the Hot Rods, Jimmy James and the Vagabonds, The Sweet, The Jackson 5, Heavy Metal Kids, Elton John, Typically Tropical, New Order, Whitney Houston and David Bowie. In 1980, heavy metal band Iron Maiden played live on the show when they refused to mime to their single "Running Free". Solo artists and vocal groups were supposed to sing live to the Top of the Pops Orchestra. Billy Ocean, Brotherhood of Man, Anita Ward, Thelma Houston, Deniece Williams, Hylda Baker and the Nolans all performed in this way.
In 1991 the producers of the show allowed artists the option of singing live over a backing track. Miming has resulted in a number of notable moments. In 1991, Nirvana refused to mime to the pre-recorded backing track of "Smells Like Teen Spirit" with Kurt Cobain singing in a deliberately low voice and altering lyrics in the song, and bassist Krist Novoselic swinging his bass over his head and drummer Dave Grohl playing randomly on his kit. In 1995, the Gallagher brothers of Oasis switched places while performing "Roll with It". During their performance of "Don't Leave Me This Way" the Communards singers Jimmy Somerville and Sarah Jane Morris swapped lyrics for part of the song towards the end. Another example of whimsy was John Peel's appearance as the mandolin soloist for Rod Stewart on "Maggie May". The new practice also exposed a number of poor live singers, and was dropped as a general rule.
In its final few years miming had become less and less common, especially for bands, as studio technology became more reliable and artists were given the freedom to choose their performance style. Former Executive Producer Andi Peters said there was no policy on miming and that it was entirely up to the performer whether they wanted to sing live or mime.
Orchestra and backing singers
From 1966 to 1980, Top of the Pops had an in-studio orchestra conducted by Johnny Pearson accompany select musical performances, with The Ladybirds (later Maggie Stredder Singers) providing backing vocals. Credited on the show as musical associate, Derek Warne played piano and provided musical arrangements for the orchestra. As The Telegraph recounted, Pearson and the orchestra improvised accompaniments with about 20 minutes of rehearsal time per song, and the musicians, "almost all middle-aged, often struggled with the enormous range of rock and pop tunes with which they were presented." In contrast, The Times said upon Pearson's passing in 2011 that the orchestra "often elicit[ed] excellent performances with barely enough time beforehand for a couple of run-throughs."
Other notable members of the orchestra include drummer Clem Cattini, trombonist Bobby Lamb, and lead trumpeters Leon Calvert and Ian Hamer. From 1971 to 1974, Martin Briley played guitar for the orchestra before joining rock group Greenslade.
Following the 1980 Musicians Union strike, the programme resumed broadcast on 7 August 1980 without its orchestra or backing singers. However, Pearson continued to make occasional contributions as musical director until the 900th episode in the summer of 1981. Afterwards, Warne occasionally made musical arrangements through April 1982. Ronnie Hazlehurst conducted the orchestra from 1982 to 1983.
Music videos
When an artist or group was unavailable to perform in studio, Top of the Pops would show a music video in place. According to Queen guitarist Brian May, the groundbreaking 1975 music video for "Bohemian Rhapsody" was produced so that the band could avoid miming on TOTP since they would have looked off miming to such a complex song.
Dance troupes
January to October 1964 – no dance troupes
In the era before promotional videos were routinely produced for every charting single, the BBC would frequently have neither the band themselves nor alternative footage available for a song selected for the programme. In the first few months of the show in 1964, the director would just scan across the audience dancing in the absence of any other footage, but by October 1964 a decision was made to at least occasionally bring in a dance troupe with a choreographed routine to some of the tracks.
November 1964 to April 1968 – The Go-Jos
An initial candidate troupe was the existing BBC TV Beat Girls, but an ex-dancer from the Beat Girls, Jo Cook, was eventually engaged to create a troupe, the all-female Go-Jos, with Cook as choreographer. The Go-Jos also worked outside of Top of the Pops, notably for two years on the Val Doonican show – Doonican said in 1968 "I thought the Gojos were fabulous, something really new. When I got my own television series I just had to have them with me."
They were initially a three-piece (Pat Hughes for the first edition only, Linda Hotchkin and Jane Bartlett), but their number eventually grew to six (Hotchkin, Bartlett, Lesley Larbey, Wendy Hilhouse, Barbara van der Heyde and Thelma Bignell) with Cook as full-time choreographer. Lulu remembered of their costumes "They mostly wore white boots to the knee and short skirts and the camera would go up the skirt and it was all very risqué."
Cook herself said of working on the Doonican show (of which she was dance director) comparing to Top of the Pops, "Pop steps are limited... With Val we have more scope, and we can work to get more of the feel of ballet into our numbers."
May to June 1968 – Go-Jos/Pan's People transition
In April 1968, a Top of the Pops choreographer, Virginia Mason, auditioned for dancers for a routine on Top of The Pops ("Simon Says" by the 1910 Fruitgum Company); two of whom that were successful (Ruth Pearson and Patricia "Dee Dee" Wilde) were part of the existing six-female dance troupe, Pan's People. Like the Go-Jos, this group was also partly drawn from ex-members of the Beat Girls.
Although this routine did not make it onto the programme itself, in subsequent weeks, members of Pan's People (Louise Clarke, Felicity "Flick" Colby, Barbara "Babs" Lord, Pearson, Andrea "Andi" Rutherford and Wilde) started to appear on the programme separately to the Go-Jos. Pan's People were then selected by the BBC over the Go-Jos when they chose a group to be the resident troupe. The Go-Jos' final Top of the Pops performance was in June 1968 dancing to "Jumping Jack Flash" by the Rolling Stones.
July 1968 to April 1976 – Pan's People
As with the Go-Jos, in the first eighteen months of the Pan's People era the dancers were not a weekly fixture on the programme. However, due to group fan mail and good viewing figures, by 1970 the group was on nearly every week. Pay was not high – they were paid the minimum Equity rate of £56 per week.
One of the original Pan's People dancers, Colby, became the full-time choreographer in 1971.
Colby spoke of the dancing – "They weren't Broadway-standard routines... we were definitely doing watercolours, not oil paintings."
May to October 1976 – Ruby Flipper
In early 1976, the last remaining of the early members of Pan's People, Ruth Pearson announced her retirement, leaving just four members all of whom who had joined within the last four years; Cherry Gillespie, Mary Corpe, Lee Ward and Sue Menhenick. Rather than continue with this line up or add additional members, it was decided by Colby and BBC production staff to replace this group with a male and female group created for the programme, Ruby Flipper, choreographed by Colby and managed by Colby with Pearson. Lee Ward left shortly after this decision was made, reportedly saying regarding the change: "It's a big mistake. Men rush home to watch sexy ladies. They do not want to see other men."
Rehearsals for this new group started in March 1976, and the group began appearing on Top of the Pops in May 1976. Whilst producers were aware of the switch to the new group, Bill Cotton, the then head of the light entertainment unit of which Top of the Pops was part, was not. This group started as a seven-piece with three men (Gavin Trace, Floyd Pearce and Phil Steggles) and four women (Menhenick, Gillespie, Patti Hammond and Lulu Cartwright). Corpe was not invited to join the new troupe. Trace, Pearce, Steggles and Cartwright joined following open auditions, Hammond, an established dancer, was invited to join to complete the "look" following a later individual audition. Colby viewed this gender-mixed group as an opportunity to develop more physical routines including lifts, more duets and generally not have the whole group at each performance.
However, by August the BBC had decided to terminate the group due to perceived unpopularity and being "...out of step with viewers". Their final appearance was in October 1976.
November 1976 to October 1981 – Legs and Co
The group created to replace Ruby Flipper was Legs & Co, reverting to an all-female line-up, and once more choreographed by Colby. Three of the six in the initial line-up (Menhenick, Cartwight and Hammond) were taken from Ruby Flipper. with Rosie Hetherington, Gill Clarke and Pauline Peters making up the six. Despite being an all-female group, on occasion one or more male dancers were brought in, notably Pearce several times.
During their run, the group covered the transition from Disco to Punk, Electronic and Modern Romantic music. Notably, they danced to two Sex Pistols tracks.
December 1981 to September 1983 – Zoo
By late 1981, Legs & Co (by this time Anita Chellamah had replaced Peters) had become more integrated into the studio audience, rather than performing set-piece routines, as a result of the 'party atmosphere' brought in by Michael Hurll. Also by this time Colby was particularly keen to work once more with male dancers; feeling it time for a change, Legs & Co's stint was ended, and a twenty-member dance troupe (ten male, ten female), named Zoo was created, with a set of performers drawn from the pool of twenty each week. Colby was now credited as "Dance Director". Three members of previous troupes, Menhenick, Corpe and Chellamah, made at least one appearance each during the Zoo period. The dancers now chose their own clothes, moving away from the synchronised appearance of previous troupes.
October 1983 to 2006 – After Zoo
By the early 1980s, record companies were offering the BBC free promotional videos, meaning dance troupes no longer fulfilled their original purpose. Zoo's run ended in 1983, and with it the use of dance troupes on Top of the Pops.
After the demise of Zoo, the audience took a more active role, often dancing in more prominent areas such as behind performing acts on the back of the stage, and on podiums. However, the show also employed cheerleaders to lead the dancing.
Dance Troupe chronology
Go-Jos' first performance: 19 November 1964 – Dancing to "Baby Love" by the Supremes
Pan's People first performance (three of the dancers, independently contracted): April 1968 – Dancing to "Young Girl" by Gary Puckett & the Union Gap or "Respect" by Aretha Franklin
Pan's People's first performance (as the six-piece group of early 1968): 30 May 1968 – Dancing to "U.S. Male" by Elvis Presley
Go-Jos' final performance: 27 June 1968 – Dancing to "Jumping Jack Flash" by the Rolling Stones
Pan's People's final performance: 29 April 1976 – Dancing to "Silver Star" by the Four Seasons
Ruby Flipper's first performance: 6 May 1976 – Dancing to "Can't Help Falling In Love" by the Stylistics
Ruby Flipper's final performance: 14 October 1976 – Dancing to "Play That Funky Music" by Wild Cherry
Legs & Co's first performance (credited as Ruby Flipper & Legs & Co): 21 October 1976 – Dancing to "Queen of My Soul" by Average White Band
Legs & Co's first performance (credited as Legs & Co): 11 November 1976 – Dancing to "Spinning Rock Boogie" by Hank C. Burnette
Legs & Co's final performance: 29 October 1981 – Dancing to "Favourite Shirts (Boy Meets Girl)" by Haircut 100
Zoo's first performance: 5 November 1981 – Dancing to "Twilight" by E.L.O.
Zoo's final performance: 29 September 1983 – Dancing to "What I Got Is What You Need" by Unique
Theme music
For much of the 1960s, the show's theme music was an organ-based instrumental track, also called "Top of the Pops", by the Dave Davani Four.
1 January 1964 to ?: Instrumental percussion piece written by Johnnie Stewart and Harry Rabinowitz and performed by drummer Bobby Midgly.
1965 to 1966: Dave Davani Four's "Top of the Pops" with the Ladybirds on backing vocal harmonies. Originally the opening theme, this was later played as a closing theme from 1966 up until 1970.
20 January 1966 to 13 November 1969: Unknown instrumental guitar track.
27 November 1969 to 29 October 1970: Unknown brass track played over colour titles with a voiceover proclaiming, "Yes! It's number one! It's Top of the Pops!" There was no TOTP on 20 November 1969 due to the Apollo 12 Moon landing.
5 November 1970 to 14 July 1977: An instrumental version of the Led Zeppelin-Willie Dixon composition "Whole Lotta Love" performed by CCS members.
21 July 1977 to 29 May 1980: No opening theme tune; a contemporary chart song was played over the countdown stills. "Whole Lotta Love" featured only in Christmas editions, the 800th edition from 26 July 1979 and the voice-over only edition from 22 November 1979.
7 August 1980 to 2July 1981: No opening theme tune; the CCS version of "Whole Lotta Love" was played over some of the images of the featured artists and during the countdown stills in the Top 30 and Top 20 sections which were moved later on in the programme. From the edition of 7August 1980 to the edition of 2July 1981, "Whole Lotta Love" was heard only during the chart rundowns.
9 July 1981 to 27 March 1986: "Yellow Pearl" was commissioned as the new theme music. From May 1983 to July 1984, a re-recording of "Yellow Pearl" was played over the chart rundown and a pop rock version from August 1984 to March 1986.
3 April 1986 to 26 September 1991: "The Wizard", a composition by Paul Hardcastle.
3 October 1991 to 26 January 1995: "Now Get Out of That" composed by Tony Gibber.
2 February 1995 to 8 August 1997 (except 27 June & 25 July 1997 and 15 August 1997 to 24 April 1998) and 10 October 1997: the theme was a track called "Red Hot Pop" composed by Vince Clarke of Erasure.
27 June and 25 July 1997 then 15 August 1997 to 24 April 1998 (except 10 October 1997): No theme tune; the opening of the first song of the episode was played under the titles and a song from the top 20 was played under the chart rundown.
1 May 1998 to 21 November 2003: Updated, drum and bass version of "Whole Lotta Love" by Ben Chapman.
28 November 2003 to 30 July 2006 and until 2012 for TOTP2 and Xmas specials: A remixed version of "Now Get Out of That" by Tony Gibber.
25 December 2013 to present for Top of the Pops Christmas and New Year Specials: A mix of both the 1970s "Whole Lotta Love" theme and the 1998 remix.
Lost episodes
Due to the then standard practice of wiping videotape, the vast majority of the episodes from the programme's history prior to 1976 have been lost, including any official recording of the only live appearance by the Beatles.
Of the first 500 episodes (1964–73), only about 20 complete recordings remain in the BBC archives, and the majority of these are from 1969 onwards. The earliest surviving footage dates from 26 February 1964, and consists of performances by Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas and the Dave Clark Five. Some programmes exist only partially (largely performances that were either pre-recorded or re-used in later editions). There are also two examples of rehearsal footage, which are both from 1965, one which includes Alan Freeman introducing the Seekers, and another with Sandie Shaw rehearsing "Long Live Love"—both believed to be for the end-of-year Christmas Special. There are also cases of shows that exist only in their raw, unedited form. The oldest complete episode in existence was originally transmitted on Boxing Day in 1967 (only five complete recordings from the 1960s survive, two of which have mute presenter links). The most recent that is not held is dated 8September 1977. Most editions after this date exist in full, except a few 1981–85 episodes recorded live feature mute presenter links (These episodes were skipped on the BBC Four re-runs).
Some off-air recordings, made by fans at home with a microphone in front of the TV speaker, exist in varying quality, including the Jimi Hendrix Experience performing a live version of "Hey Joe" in December 1966.
Some segments of TOTP which were not retained do survive in some form owing to having been included in other programmes, either by the BBC itself or by foreign broadcasters. What was thought to be the only surviving footage of the Beatles on the programme, for instance, comes from its re-use in episode one of 1965 Doctor Who serial The Chase. Additionally a number of recordings are believed to exist in private collections. However, in 2019, an 11-second clip of the group's only live appearance on TOTP, from 16 June 1966, was unearthed – this was recorded by a viewer using an 8mm camera to film the live transmission on their television. Other individual but complete clips that have surfaced over recent years include The Hollies performing "Bus Stop", and The Jimi Hendrix Experience playing both "Purple Haze" and "The Wind Cries Mary".
Thanks to a deal between the BBC and German television network ZDF around the turn of the 1970s, several TOTP clips were sent over to be shown on Disco, a similar-styled chart show. This meant that performances from the likes of The Kinks (Apeman), The Who (The Seeker) and King Crimson (Cat Food) still exist in German archives.
Two complete episodes from 1967 were discovered in a private collection in 2009, having been recorded at home on an early available open reel to reel video recorder. Whilst the tapes suffered from major damage and degradation of both sound and picture quality, one show featured Pink Floyd with original leader Syd Barrett performing "See Emily Play", whilst the second contained Dave Davies singing his solo hit "Death of a Clown".
The programme was forced off the air for several weeks by industrial action by the Musicians' Union in both 1974 and 1980.
Spin-offs
Top of the Pops has a sister show called TOTP2 which uses archive footage from as early as the late 1960s. It began on 17 September 1994. The early series were narrated by Johnnie Walker, before Steve Wright took over as narrator. In summer 2004 BBC Two's controller, Roly Keating, announced that it was being "rested". Shortly after UKTV G2 began showing re-edited versions of earlier programmes with re-recorded dialogue. Finally after a two-year break TOTP2 returned to the BBC Two schedules for a new series on Saturday, 30 September 2006, in an evening timeslot. It was still narrated by Steve Wright and featured a mixture of performances from the TOTP archive and newly recorded performances. The first edition of this series featured new performances by Razorlight and Nelly Furtado recorded after the final episode of Top of the Pops. In 2009 Mark Radcliffe took over as narrator. TOTP2 continued to receive sporadic new episodes from this point onwards, most notably Christmas specials, until 2017 when the show ceased producing new episodes, though previous episodes are still repeated on both BBC Two and BBC Four.
Aired on BBC Radio 1 between the mid-1990s and late 2001 was Top of the Pops: The Radio Show which went out every Sunday at 3 pm just before the singles chart, and was presented by Jayne Middlemiss and Scott Mills. It later reappeared on the BBC World Service in May 2003 originally presented by Emma B, where it continues to be broadcast weekly in an hourly format, now presented by Kim Robson and produced by former BBC World Service producer Alan Rowett.
The defunct channel Play UK created two spin offs; TOTP+ Plus and TOTP@Play (2000–2001) (until mid-2000, this show was called The Phone Zone and was a spin-off from BBC Two music series The O-Zone). BBC Choice featured a show called TOTP The New Chart (5 December 1999 – 26 March 2000) and on BBC Two TOTP+ (8 October 2000 – 26 August 2001) which featured the TOTP @ Play studio and presenters. This is not to be confused with the UK Play version of the same name. A more recent spin-off (now ended) was Top of the Pops Saturday hosted originally by Fearne Cotton and Simon Grant, and its successor Top of the Pops Reloaded. This was shown on Saturday mornings on BBC One and featured competitions, star interviews, video reviews and some Top of the Pops performances. This was aimed at a younger audience and was part of the CBBC Saturday morning line-up. This was to rival CD:UK at the same time on ITV.
Send-ups
A number of performers have sent up the format in various ways. This was often by performers who disliked the mime format of the show, as a protest against this rather than simply refusing to appear.
When Fairport Convention appeared to promote their 1969 hit "Si Tu Dois Partir", drummer Dave Mattacks wore a T-shirt printed "MIMING".
When the Smiths appeared on the show to perform their single "This Charming Man", lead singer Morrissey was unhappy about having to lip-sync and so held a bunch of gladioli on the stage instead of a microphone.
While performing their 1982 hit "Jackie Wilson Said (I'm in Heaven When You Smile)", the band Dexy's Midnight Runners were seen performing in front of a projection of the darts player with a similar sounding name (Jocky Wilson instead of soul singer Jackie Wilson). Dexy's frontman Kevin Rowland later said in an interview that the use of the Jocky Wilson picture was his idea and not a mistake by the programme makers as is sometimes stated.
A performance of "Marguerita Time" by Status Quo in early 1984 in which a clearly-refreshed Rick Parfitt walks directly into the drum kit at the end of the song, taking the drummer and whole kit with him as the others continue miming
Frankie Goes To Hollywood performed one of the many 1984 performances of their hit "Two Tribes" with bassist Mark O'Toole playing drums whilst drummer Ped Gill played bass.
When Oasis mimed to "Whatever" on Top of the Pops in 1994, one of the cello players from the symphony was replaced by rhythm guitarist Bonehead, who clearly had no idea how the instrument should be played. Towards the end of the song, he gave up the pretence and started using the bow to conduct. A woman plays his rhythm guitar.
Singer Les Gray of Mud went on stage to perform with a ventriloquist dummy during the performance of "Lonely This Christmas" and had the dummy lip-synch to the voice-over in the middle of the song.
During Mott the Hoople's performance of their single "Roll Away the Stone" in 1973, drummer Dale Griffin plays with oversized drumsticks.
EMF appeared on the show with one of the guitarists strumming along while wearing boxing gloves.
At the end of The Who's performance of "5:15" the band proceeded to destroy their instruments despite the fact the backing track was still playing.
In Blur's performance of "Charmless Man" in 1996, Dave Rowntree decided to play with oversized drumsticks, while Graham Coxon played a mini guitar.
In Green Day's first Top of the Pops appearance in 1994, the band played the song "Welcome to Paradise". Frontman Billie Joe Armstrong wore an otherwise plain white T-shirt with the phrase "Who am I fooling anyway?" handwritten on it, most likely a reference to his own miming during the performance. He could also be seen not playing his guitar during the instrumental bridge in the song.
The performance of "Maggie May" by Rod Stewart and the Faces featured John Peel miming on mandolin. Near the end of the song, Rod and the Faces begin to kick around a football. This is despite the fact that the music can be still heard playing in the background.
The Cure were known for their abhorrence for miming their songs whilst on TOTP and on several occasions made it obvious they were not playing their parts – using such stunts as playing guitar left-handed and miming very badly out of synch.
Ambient house group the Orb sat and played chess while an edited version of their 39:57-minute single "Blue Room" played in the background.
Depeche Mode's performance of "Barrel of a Gun" in 1997 featured Dutch photographer and director Anton Corbijn who mimed playing the drums. Also Tim Simenon (who produced the album the song appeared on) mimed playing keyboards along with Andy Fletcher.
When the Cuban Boys performed "Cognoscenti vs. Intelligentsia" at the end of 1999, a performance which was reportedly unbroadcast, the band wearing labcoats, covered in cobwebs.
International versions
Europe
The TOTP format was sold to RTL in Germany in the 1990s, and aired on Saturday afternoons. It was very successful for a long time, with a compilation album series and magazine. However, in 2006 it was announced that the German show would be ending. The Italian version (first broadcast on Rai 2 and later on Italia 1) also ended in 2006. In February 2010 the show returned on Rai 2, and was broadcast for two seasons before being cancelled again in October 2011. The French version of the show ended by September 2006 on France 2.
In the Netherlands, TopPop was broadcast by AVRO 1970–1988, and a version of the show continued to run on BNN until the end of December 2006. BBC Prime used to broadcast re-edited episodes of the BBC version, the weekend after it was transmitted in the UK. Ireland began transmitting Top of the Pops in November 1978 on RTÉ2. This was the UK version being transmitted at the same time as on BBC. The broadcasts ceased in late 1993.
United States
Top of the Pops had short-lived fame in the United States. In October 1987, the CBS television network decided to try an American version of the show. It was hosted by Nia Peeples and even showed performances from the BBC version of the programme (and vice versa). The show was presented on late Friday nights as part of CBS Late Night, and lasted almost half a year.
In 2002, BBC America presented the BBC version of Top of the Pops as part of their weekend schedule. The network would get the episodes one week after they were transmitted in the UK. BBC America then tinkered with the show by cutting a few minutes out of each show and moving it to a weekday time slot.
On 23 January 2006, Lou Pearlman made a deal to bring Top of the Pops back to the airwaves in the United States. It was expected to be similar to the 1987 version, but it would also utilise the Billboard magazine music charts, most notably the Hot 100 chart. It was supposed to be planned for a possible 2006 or 2007 launch, but with several lawsuits against Lou and his companies (which resulted in his conviction in 2008), as well as the cancellation of the UK version, the proposed US project never went forward. On 19 August 2006, VH1 aired the UK series' final episode.
The United States had its own similar series, American Bandstand, which aired nationally on ABC from 1957 to 1987 (although it would continue in first-run syndication until 1988 and end its run on USA in 1989). Similar series also included Soul Train (1970–2006, featuring R&B artists), Club MTV (1986–92, featuring dance music acts; hosted by Downtown Julie Brown, an alumnus of TOTP as part of the show's last dance troupe Zoo) and Solid Gold (1980–88; like the early TOTP, it also used dance troupes).
Canada
Canada's version was Electric Circus (1988–2003) on MuchMusic, which was also seen in the USA through MuchMusic USA. It had a national chart (mostly of dance music and some pop) as well as live performances, and was based on a local late '70s programme in Toronto called CITY-TV Boogie.
New Zealand
The Top of the Pops brand has also been exported to New Zealand. Although the British show has been broadcast intermittently in New Zealand, the country historically relied on music video-based shows to demonstrate its own Top 20, as the major international acts, who dominated the local charts, considered New Zealand too small and remote to visit regularly. This changed to an extent in 2002, when the New Zealand government suggested a voluntary New Zealand music quota on radio (essentially a threat that if the stations did not impose a quota themselves then one would be imposed on them). The amount of local music played on radio stations increased, as did the number of local songs in the top 20. Therefore, a new local version of Top of the Pops became feasible for the first time, and the show was commissioned by Television New Zealand. The show was executive produced by David Rose, managing director and owner of Satellite Media, and began airing in early 2004 with host Alex Behan. The hour-long show (as opposed to the 30-minute UK version) which was broadcast at 5 pm on Saturdays on TV2 contained a mixture of performances recorded locally on a sound stage in the Auckland CBD, as well as performances from the international versions of the show. The New Zealand Top 20 singles and Top 10 albums charts are also featured. Alex Behan stayed as host for two years before Bede Skinner took over. Despite having a sizeable fan base, in 2006 TVNZ announced that Top of the Pops had been axed.
Free-to-air music channel C4 then picked up the UK version of Top of the Pops and aired it on Saturdays at 8 pm with a repeat screening on Thursdays. However, since the weekly UK version was axed itself, this arrangement also ended.
Africa, Asia and the Middle East
An edited version of the UK show was shown on BBC Prime, the weekend after UK transmission.
In addition, a licensed version was shown on the United Arab Emirates-based MBC2 television channel. This version consisted of parts of the UK version, including the Top 10 charts, as well as live performances by Arabic pop singers.
Latin America
A complete version of the UK show was shown on People+Arts, two weeks after the UK transmission.
Brazilian network TV Globo aired a loosely based version of the original format in 2018, labeled as 'Só Toca Top', hosted by singer Luan Santana and actress Fernanda Souza.
Compilation albums
A number of compilation albums using the Top of the Pops brand have been issued over the years. The first one to reach the charts was BBC TV's The Best of Top of the Pops on the Super Beeb record label in 1975, which reached number 21 and in 1986 the BBC released The Wizard by Paul Hardcastle (the 1986-1990 Top of The Pops theme tune) on Vinyl under the BBC Records and Tapes banner.
Starting in 1968 and carrying on through the 1970s a rival series of Top of the Pops albums were produced, however these had no connection with the television series except for its name. They were a series of budget cover albums of current chart hits recorded by anonymous session singers and musicians released on the Hallmark record label. They had initially reached the charts but were later disallowed due to a change in the criteria for entering the charts. These albums continued to be produced until the early 1980s, when the advent of compilation albums featuring the original versions of hits, such as the Now That's What I Call Music! series, led to a steep decline in their popularity.
In the 1990s, the BBC Top of the Pops brand was again licensed for use in a tie-in compilation series. Starting in 1995 with Sony Music's Columbia Records label, these double disc collections moved to the special marketing arm of PolyGram / Universal Music Group TV, before becoming a sister brand of the Now That's What I Call Music! range in the EMI / Virgin / Universal joint venture.
Similarly to the roles of Top of the Pops on BBC One and BBC Two in the late 1990s and early 2000s, the compilation albums range featured current hits for the main series and classic hits (such as '70s Rock) for the "Top of the Pops 2" spin-offs.
The Top of the Pops brand has now been licensed by EMI who released a compilation series in 2007–08, with one CD for each year that Top of the Pops was running. The boxset for the entire series of 43 discs was released 7July 2008. A podcast supporting the release of the boxset featuring interviews with Mark Goodier, Miles Leonard, Malcolm McLaren and David Hepworth is available.
Number One in the Compilation Charts
These albums in the series reached No. 1:
Top of the Pops 1 (Columbia Records, 1995)
Top of the Pops '99 – Volume 2 (Universal Music TV, 1999)
Top of the Pops 2000 – Volume Two (BBC Music / Universal Music TV, 2000)
Top of the Pops magazine
Top of the Pops magazine has been running since February 1995, and filled the void in the BBC magazine portfolio where Number One magazine used to be. It began much in the mould of Q magazine, then changed its editorial policy to directly compete with popular teen celebrity magazines such as Smash Hits and Big, with free sticker giveaways replacing Brett Anderson covers.
A July 1996 feature on the Spice Girls coined the famous "Spice" nicknames for each member (Baby, Ginger, Posh, Scary and Sporty) that stayed with them throughout their career as a group and beyond.
The BBC announced that the magazine would continue in publication despite the end of the television series, and is still running.
An earlier Top of the Pops magazine appeared briefly in the mid-1970s. Mud drummer Dave Mount sat reading an edition throughout a 1975 appearance on the show.
In popular culture
The Number 6 track of the Kinks' 1970 eighth studio album Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround, Part One is called "Top of the Pops" and narrates the path to stardom by reaching Number1 in the music charts.
Benny Hill did a parody of Top of the Pops in January 1971 called "Top of the Tops". It featured satires of many music acts at the time as well as impersonations of both Jimmy Savile and Tony Blackburn.
The Scottish punk band the Rezillos lampooned the show in their song "Top of the Pops". The band performed the song on the programme twice when it entered the charts in 1978.
In 1984, British Rail HST power car 43002 was named Top of the Pops, by Jimmy Savile. This followed an edition which was broadcast live on a train, which 43002 was one of the power cars for. The nameplates were removed in 1989.
The Smashie and Nicey 1994 TV special Smashie and Nicey: The End of an Era featured doctored and recreated footage of the two fictional DJs hosting a montage of 1970s editions of Top of the Pops, including a "Black music" edition, which the pair presented in Blackface.
In the opening credits of the Spice Girls' 1997 feature film Spiceworld: The Movie, the girls perform their hit single "Too Much" on a fictional episode of the show. They did also perform it on the show in real life when it became their second Christmas number one in the UK that same year.
A 2001 episode of Tweenies featured a parody of Top of the Pops, complete with Max imitating Jimmy Savile. The episode was unintententionally repeated in January 2013, and received 216 complaints.
Licensing
In May 2006, following a special Red Hot Chili Peppers concert recorded in the car park of BBC Television Centre, Hammersmith and Fulham Council (which governs the area the centre is located) informed the BBC that it lacked the necessary public entertainment license (as required by the Licensing Act 2003). Until the BBC could obtain the license, BBC staff stood-in as audience members for live music programmes.
DVDs
In 2004 there was a DVD released called Top of the Pops 40th Anniversary 1964–2004 DVD. It features live performances, containing one song for each year, except 1966. (Two tracks from 1965 are featured instead). Also included as extras are seven opening titles, most notably the one with the flying coloured LP's from 1981. This title sequence had Phil Lynott's song "Yellow Pearl" as the theme. The 1986 and 1989 titles are also featured, with Paul Hardcastle's hit "The Wizard" as the theme. This DVD was to celebrate 40 years since the show started.
There was also a DVD quiz released in 2007 called The Essential Music Quiz. There was also a DVD in 2001 called Summer 2001, a sister DVD to the album of the same name.
See also
Alright Now
The Old Grey Whistle Test
Ready Steady Go!
Revolver (TV series)
Top of the Box
The Tube (TV series)
References
Further reading
Blacknell, Steve. The Story of Top of the Pops. Wellingborough, Northants: Patrick Stephens, 1985
Gittens, Ian. Top Of The Pops: Mishaps, Miming and Music: True Adventures of TV's No.1 Pop Show. London: BBC, 2007
Seaton, Pete with Richard Down. The Kaleidoscope British Television Music & Variety Guide II: Top Pop: 1964–2006. Dudley: Kaleidoscope Publishing, 2007
Simpson, Jeff. Top of the Pops: 1964–2002: it's still number one, its Top of the Pops! London: BBC, 2002
External links
1964 British television series debuts
British music television shows
1964 in British music
1960s British music television series
1970s British music television series
1980s British music television series
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Television series by CBS Studios
Television series by BBC Studios
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Jimmy Savile
British television series revived after cancellation
Television shows shot at BBC Elstree Centre | [
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|
237035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiffel%2065 | Eiffel 65 | Eiffel 65 is an Italian music group that was formed in 1997 in the studios of the Turin record company Bliss Corporation, consisting of Jeffrey Jey, Maurizio Lobina and Gabry Ponte. They gained global popularity with their singles "Blue (Da Ba Dee)" and "Move Your Body" from their 1999 studio album Europop. The singles reached number one in many countries, while the album peaked at number four on the Billboard 200 chart. Their following two albums, Contact! (2001) and their 2003 self titled album did not gain as much success, but still managed to gain success in Italy.
Over the course of their career, the group won a World Music Award in 2000 for the World Best Selling Italian Group, and a B.M.I USA in Los Angeles, rewarding the most-broadcast song on radio in the United States. They were also nominated at the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording for "Blue (Da Ba Dee)." Europop was crowned as the greatest album of the 1990s by Channel 4.
Eiffel 65 also composed remixes of numerous popular songs, and they recorded "One Goal," one of the official songs of the UEFA Euro 2000, and "Living In My City," for the 2006 Winter Olympics. With more than 20 million copies sold and many gold, platinum and diamond records, Eiffel 65 is one of Italy's most popular electronic groups.
In 2005, DJ Gabry Ponte left the group to focus on his solo career, and later that year, the remaining members Jeffrey Jey and Maurizio Lobina formed their own duo called Bloom 06. In 2010, the original group reunited; although Ponte does not participate in record production and concerts, he never officially left the group.
History
Formation
Randone, Ponte and Lobina met at Bliss Corporation, which was founded in 1992 by Massimo Gabutti. A computer chose the name Eiffel randomly from a group of words the three had selected but the number 65 was added to it by mistake: the producer had written a phone number on a piece of paper and two digits of it ended up on the label copy. The graphic artist who received it assumed that it had been added afterwards so he just fused it to the band name for their first release.
1997–2005
Eiffel 65 became famous for their international chart-topping hits "Blue (Da Ba Dee)" and "Move Your Body." Both songs were featured singles on their debut album Europop, which was released on November 22, 1999.
The band achieved considerable success in Italy and the rest of Europe, in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil. Europop peaked in the top five on the Billboard 200 and in the Billboard Canadian Albums. "Blue (Da Ba Dee)" peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100, got to 1 in UK and in Germany and to number 3 in Italian charts. Their second album, Contact! was released in 2001, with "'80s Stars" peaking at #9 in Italy. A self-titled album was released in 2003.
Eiffel 65 also remixed, between 1999 and 2002, other artists' tracks, like "The Bad Touch" by Bloodhound Gang, Nek's hit single "La vita è,” and S Club 7's "Reach" and in early 2005 a remix of Yo Yo Mundi's "L'ultimo testimone.”
Bloom 06
In early March 2005, the group's DJ, Gabry Ponte, left to focus on his solo career. On 16 May 2005, the remaining members, Maurizio Lobina and Jeffrey Jey, decided to leave Bliss Corporation to continue with their own production company. Since the name "Eiffel 65" was a property of Bliss Corporation, the duo decided to continue under a new name, as announced in June 2005, Bloom 06.
Eiffel 65's long anticipated fourth album, under the working title Crash Test, had already finished production by the time of Maury and Jeffrey's departure from Bliss Corporation. It was renamed Crash Test 01 and was released by Bloom 06 on 13 October 2006. The album contains lyrics in English and Italian.
Reunion
Bliss Corporation confirmed that a new Eiffel 65 lineup would make their debut in the summer of 2007 but the debut was postponed. In 2009, Bliss Corporation began to promote work from older bands by subtitling music videos and releasing "unseen" video footage from Eiffel 65. In June 2010, it was announced on the Bloom 06 website that Eiffel 65 would reunite once again to produce new music as well as touring. In an April 2012 interview, Jeffrey Jey commented on the progress of the new album:
In the meantime they toured Europe with their New Planet Tour, a multimedia show with wide screens and in the summer of 2012, they announced a mini tour in Australia on their site.
On 2 April 2016, a demo of Eiffel 65's new single "Panico" was posted on Bliss Corporation's YouTube channel. "Panico" and its English version "Critical" were officially released on iTunes on 1 June 2016. However, their fourth album release date is still unknown.
Zorotl
"Zorotlekuykauo Sushik IV "Zorotl"" is a character created by the Bliss Corporation and featured in the videos of "Blue (Da Ba Dee)," "Move Your Body," and "Lucky (In My Life)." Zorotl was supposed to be a malicious character but since he was designed with a funny round body, the authors of the "Blue (Da Ba Dee)" video decided to portray it as tender, changing the script and giving it a happy ending. In 2000, Bliss Corporation made a video for the unreleased Eiffel 65 song "I Wanna Be." An alpha version of the video appeared as enhanced content for Eiffel 65's single "Too Much of Heaven". The song is credited to Zorotl even though it was recorded by members of Eiffel 65, so Zorotl is considered a virtual group.
Members
Jeffrey Jey (real name Gianfranco Randone), born 5 January 1970 in Lentini, Sicily – vocals, producer (1997-2005, 2010–present)
Maury Lobina (previously known as Apollo, real name Maurizio Lobina), born 30 October 1973 in Asti, Piedmont – producer, keyboards, keytar, piano (1997-2005, 2010–present)
Gabry Ponte (real name Gabriele Ponte), born 20 April 1973 in Turin, Piedmont – DJ, producer (1997-2005, 2010–present)
Discography
Europop (1999)
Contact! (2001)
Eiffel 65 (2003)
Awards and nominations
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Nominee(s)
! scope="col" | Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"|
|-
! scope="row"|BMI Pop Awards
| 2001
| Award-Winning Song
| "Blue (Da Ba Dee)"
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|Grammy Awards
| 2001
| Best Dance Recording
| "Blue (Da Ba Dee)"
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|World Music Awards
| 2000
| World's Best Selling Italian Group
| Themselves
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|Hungarian Music Awards
| 2000
| Best Foreign Dance Album
| Europop
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|International Dance Music Awards
| 2000
| Best HiNRJ 12'
| "Blue (Da Ba Dee)"
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|RSH Gold Awards
| 2000
| Best Dance Act
| Themselves
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|Smash Hits Poll Winners Party
| 1999
| Best Dance Choon
| "Blue (Da Ba Dee)"
|
|-
! scope="row"|The Record of the Year
| 1999
| Record of the Year
| "Blue (Da Ba Dee)"
|
|
References
External links
1997 establishments in Italy
Musical groups established in 1998
Musical groups disestablished in 2005
Musical groups reestablished in 2010
Italian Eurodance groups
Europop groups
People from Turin
Warner Records artists
Republic Records artists
Universal Records artists | [
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237036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20Video%20Coding | Advanced Video Coding | Advanced Video Coding (AVC), also referred to as H.264 or MPEG-4 Part 10, Advanced Video Coding (MPEG-4 AVC), is a video compression standard based on block-oriented, motion-compensated coding. It is by far the most commonly used format for the recording, compression, and distribution of video content, used by 91% of video industry developers . It supports resolutions up to and including 8K UHD.
The intent of the H.264/AVC project was to create a standard capable of providing good video quality at substantially lower bit rates than previous standards (i.e., half or less the bit rate of MPEG-2, H.263, or MPEG-4 Part 2), without increasing the complexity of design so much that it would be impractical or excessively expensive to implement. This was achieved with features such as a reduced-complexity integer discrete cosine transform (integer DCT), variable block-size segmentation, and multi-picture inter-picture prediction. An additional goal was to provide enough flexibility to allow the standard to be applied to a wide variety of applications on a wide variety of networks and systems, including low and high bit rates, low and high resolution video, broadcast, DVD storage, RTP/IP packet networks, and ITU-T multimedia telephony systems. The H.264 standard can be viewed as a "family of standards" composed of a number of different profiles, although its "High profile" is by far the mostly commonly used format. A specific decoder decodes at least one, but not necessarily all profiles. The standard describes the format of the encoded data and how the data is decoded, but it does not specify algorithms for encoding video that is left open as a matter for encoder designers to select for themselves, and a wide variety of encoding schemes has been developed. H.264 is typically used for lossy compression, although it is also possible to create truly lossless-coded regions within lossy-coded pictures or to support rare use cases for which the entire encoding is lossless.
H.264 was standardized by the ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) of Study Group 16 together with the ISO/IEC JTC1 Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG). The project partnership effort is known as the Joint Video Team (JVT). The ITU-T H.264 standard and the ISO/IEC MPEG-4 AVC standard (formally, ISO/IEC 14496-10 – MPEG-4 Part 10, Advanced Video Coding) are jointly maintained so that they have identical technical content. The final drafting work on the first version of the standard was completed in May 2003, and various extensions of its capabilities have been added in subsequent editions. High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC), a.k.a. H.265 and MPEG-H Part 2 is a successor to H.264/MPEG-4 AVC developed by the same organizations, while earlier standards are still in common use.
H.264 is perhaps best known as being the most commonly used video encoding format on Blu-ray Discs. It is also widely used by streaming Internet sources, such as videos from Netflix, Hulu, Amazon Prime Video, Vimeo, YouTube, and the iTunes Store, Web software such as the Adobe Flash Player and Microsoft Silverlight, and also various HDTV broadcasts over terrestrial (ATSC, ISDB-T, DVB-T or DVB-T2), cable (DVB-C), and satellite (DVB-S and DVB-S2) systems.
H.264 is restricted by patents owned by various parties. A license covering most (but not all) patents essential to H.264 is administered by a patent pool administered by MPEG LA.
The commercial use of patented H.264 technologies requires the payment of royalties to MPEG LA and other patent owners. MPEG LA has allowed the free use of H.264 technologies for streaming Internet video that is free to end users, and Cisco Systems pays royalties to MPEG LA on behalf of the users of binaries for its open source H.264 encoder.
Naming
The H.264 name follows the ITU-T naming convention, where the standard is a member of the H.26x line of VCEG video coding standards; the MPEG-4 AVC name relates to the naming convention in ISO/IEC MPEG, where the standard is part 10 of ISO/IEC 14496, which is the suite of standards known as MPEG-4. The standard was developed jointly in a partnership of VCEG and MPEG, after earlier development work in the ITU-T as a VCEG project called H.26L. It is thus common to refer to the standard with names such as H.264/AVC, AVC/H.264, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, or MPEG-4/H.264 AVC, to emphasize the common heritage. Occasionally, it is also referred to as "the JVT codec", in reference to the Joint Video Team (JVT) organization that developed it. (Such partnership and multiple naming is not uncommon. For example, the video compression standard known as MPEG-2 also arose from the partnership between MPEG and the ITU-T, where MPEG-2 video is known to the ITU-T community as H.262.) Some software programs (such as VLC media player) internally identify this standard as AVC1.
History
Overall history
In early 1998, the Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG – ITU-T SG16 Q.6) issued a call for proposals on a project called H.26L, with the target to double the coding efficiency (which means halving the bit rate necessary for a given level of fidelity) in comparison to any other existing video coding standards for a broad variety of applications. VCEG was chaired by Gary Sullivan (Microsoft, formerly PictureTel, U.S.). The first draft design for that new standard was adopted in August 1999. In 2000, Thomas Wiegand (Heinrich Hertz Institute, Germany) became VCEG co-chair.
In December 2001, VCEG and the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG – ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29/WG 11) formed a Joint Video Team (JVT), with the charter to finalize the video coding standard. Formal approval of the specification came in March 2003. The JVT was (is) chaired by Gary Sullivan, Thomas Wiegand, and Ajay Luthra (Motorola, U.S.: later Arris, U.S.). In July 2004, the Fidelity Range Extensions (FRExt) project was finalized. From January 2005 to November 2007, the JVT was working on an extension of H.264/AVC towards scalability by an Annex (G) called Scalable Video Coding (SVC). The JVT management team was extended by Jens-Rainer Ohm (RWTH Aachen University, Germany). From July 2006 to November 2009, the JVT worked on Multiview Video Coding (MVC), an extension of H.264/AVC towards 3D television and limited-range free-viewpoint television. That work included the development of two new profiles of the standard: the Multiview High Profile and the Stereo High Profile.
Throughout the development of the standard, additional messages for containing supplemental enhancement information (SEI) have been developed. SEI messages can contain various types of data that indicate the timing of the video pictures or describe various properties of the coded video or how it can be used or enhanced. SEI messages are also defined that can contain arbitrary user-defined data. SEI messages do not affect the core decoding process, but can indicate how the video is recommended to be post-processed or displayed. Some other high-level properties of the video content are conveyed in video usability information (VUI), such as the indication of the color space for interpretation of the video content. As new color spaces have been developed, such as for high dynamic range and wide color gamut video, additional VUI identifiers have been added to indicate them.
Fidelity range extensions and professional profiles
The standardization of the first version of H.264/AVC was completed in May 2003. In the first project to extend the original standard, the JVT then developed what was called the Fidelity Range Extensions (FRExt). These extensions enabled higher quality video coding by supporting increased sample bit depth precision and higher-resolution color information, including the sampling structures known as Y′CBCR 4:2:2 (a.k.a. YUV 4:2:2) and 4:4:4. Several other features were also included in the FRExt project, such as adding an 8×8 integer discrete cosine transform (integer DCT) with adaptive switching between the 4×4 and 8×8 transforms, encoder-specified perceptual-based quantization weighting matrices, efficient inter-picture lossless coding, and support of additional color spaces. The design work on the FRExt project was completed in July 2004, and the drafting work on them was completed in September 2004.
Five other new profiles (see version 7 below) intended primarily for professional applications were then developed, adding extended-gamut color space support, defining additional aspect ratio indicators, defining two additional types of "supplemental enhancement information" (post-filter hint and tone mapping), and deprecating one of the prior FRExt profiles (the High 4:4:4 profile) that industry feedback indicated should have been designed differently.
Scalable video coding
The next major feature added to the standard was Scalable Video Coding (SVC). Specified in Annex G of H.264/AVC, SVC allows the construction of bitstreams that contain layers of sub-bitstreams that also conform to the standard, including one such bitstream known as the "base layer" that can be decoded by a H.264/AVC codec that does not support SVC. For temporal bitstream scalability (i.e., the presence of a sub-bitstream with a smaller temporal sampling rate than the main bitstream), complete access units are removed from the bitstream when deriving the sub-bitstream. In this case, high-level syntax and inter-prediction reference pictures in the bitstream are constructed accordingly. On the other hand, for spatial and quality bitstream scalability (i.e. the presence of a sub-bitstream with lower spatial resolution/quality than the main bitstream), the NAL (Network Abstraction Layer) is removed from the bitstream when deriving the sub-bitstream. In this case, inter-layer prediction (i.e., the prediction of the higher spatial resolution/quality signal from the data of the lower spatial resolution/quality signal) is typically used for efficient coding. The Scalable Video Coding extensions were completed in November 2007.
Multiview video coding
The next major feature added to the standard was Multiview Video Coding (MVC). Specified in Annex H of H.264/AVC, MVC enables the construction of bitstreams that represent more than one view of a video scene. An important example of this functionality is stereoscopic 3D video coding. Two profiles were developed in the MVC work: Multiview High profile supports an arbitrary number of views, and Stereo High profile is designed specifically for two-view stereoscopic video. The Multiview Video Coding extensions were completed in November 2009.
3D-AVC and MFC stereoscopic coding
Additional extensions were later developed that included 3D video coding with joint coding of depth maps and texture (termed 3D-AVC), multi-resolution frame-compatible (MFC) stereoscopic and 3D-MFC coding, various additional combinations of features, and higher frame sizes and frame rates.
Versions
Versions of the H.264/AVC standard include the following completed revisions, corrigenda, and amendments (dates are final approval dates in ITU-T, while final "International Standard" approval dates in ISO/IEC are somewhat different and slightly later in most cases). Each version represents changes relative to the next lower version that is integrated into the text.
Version 1 (Edition 1): (May 30, 2003) First approved version of H.264/AVC containing Baseline, Main, and Extended profiles.
Version 2 (Edition 1.1): (May 7, 2004) Corrigendum containing various minor corrections.
Version 3 (Edition 2): (March 1, 2005) Major addition containing the first amendment, establishing the Fidelity Range Extensions (FRExt). This version added the High, High 10, High 4:2:2, and High 4:4:4 profiles. After a few years, the High profile became the most commonly used profile of the standard.
Version 4 (Edition 2.1): (September 13, 2005) Corrigendum containing various minor corrections and adding three aspect ratio indicators.
Version 5 (Edition 2.2): (June 13, 2006) Amendment consisting of removal of prior High 4:4:4 profile (processed as a corrigendum in ISO/IEC).
Version 6 (Edition 2.2): (June 13, 2006) Amendment consisting of minor extensions like extended-gamut color space support (bundled with above-mentioned aspect ratio indicators in ISO/IEC).
Version 7 (Edition 2.3): (April 6, 2007) Amendment containing the addition of the High 4:4:4 Predictive profile and four Intra-only profiles (High 10 Intra, High 4:2:2 Intra, High 4:4:4 Intra, and CAVLC 4:4:4 Intra).
Version 8 (Edition 3): (November 22, 2007) Major addition to H.264/AVC containing the amendment for Scalable Video Coding (SVC) containing Scalable Baseline, Scalable High, and Scalable High Intra profiles.
Version 9 (Edition 3.1): (January 13, 2009) Corrigendum containing minor corrections.
Version 10 (Edition 4): (March 16, 2009) Amendment containing definition of a new profile (the Constrained Baseline profile) with only the common subset of capabilities supported in various previously specified profiles.
Version 11 (Edition 4): (March 16, 2009) Major addition to H.264/AVC containing the amendment for Multiview Video Coding (MVC) extension, including the Multiview High profile.
Version 12 (Edition 5): (March 9, 2010) Amendment containing definition of a new MVC profile (the Stereo High profile) for two-view video coding with support of interlaced coding tools and specifying an additional supplemental enhancement information (SEI) message termed the frame packing arrangement SEI message.
Version 13 (Edition 5): (March 9, 2010) Corrigendum containing minor corrections.
Version 14 (Edition 6): (June 29, 2011) Amendment specifying a new level (Level 5.2) supporting higher processing rates in terms of maximum macroblocks per second, and a new profile (the Progressive High profile) supporting only the frame coding tools of the previously specified High profile.
Version 15 (Edition 6): (June 29, 2011) Corrigendum containing minor corrections.
Version 16 (Edition 7): (January 13, 2012) Amendment containing definition of three new profiles intended primarily for real-time communication applications: the Constrained High, Scalable Constrained Baseline, and Scalable Constrained High profiles.
Version 17 (Edition 8): (April 13, 2013) Amendment with additional SEI message indicators.
Version 18 (Edition 8): (April 13, 2013) Amendment to specify the coding of depth map data for 3D stereoscopic video, including a Multiview Depth High profile.
Version 19 (Edition 8): (April 13, 2013) Corrigendum to correct an error in the sub-bitstream extraction process for multiview video.
Version 20 (Edition 8): (April 13, 2013) Amendment to specify additional color space identifiers (including support of ITU-R Recommendation BT.2020 for UHDTV) and an additional model type in the tone mapping information SEI message.
Version 21 (Edition 9): (February 13, 2014) Amendment to specify the Enhanced Multiview Depth High profile.
Version 22 (Edition 9): (February 13, 2014) Amendment to specify the multi-resolution frame compatible (MFC) enhancement for 3D stereoscopic video, the MFC High profile, and minor corrections.
Version 23 (Edition 10): (February 13, 2016) Amendment to specify MFC stereoscopic video with depth maps, the MFC Depth High profile, the mastering display color volume SEI message, and additional color-related VUI codepoint identifiers.
Version 24 (Edition 11): (October 14, 2016) Amendment to specify additional levels of decoder capability supporting larger picture sizes (Levels 6, 6.1, and 6.2), the green metadata SEI message, the alternative depth information SEI message, and additional color-related VUI codepoint identifiers.
Version 25 (Edition 12): (April 13, 2017) Amendment to specify the Progressive High 10 profile, hybrid log–gamma (HLG), and additional color-related VUI code points and SEI messages.
Version 26 (Edition 13): (June 13, 2019) Amendment to specify additional SEI messages for ambient viewing environment, content light level information, content color volume, equirectangular projection, cubemap projection, sphere rotation, region-wise packing, omnidirectional viewport, SEI manifest, and SEI prefix.
Version 27 (Edition 14): (August 22, 2021) Amendment to specify additional SEI messages for annotated regions and shutter interval information, and miscellaneous minor corrections and clarifications.
Patent holders
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Applications
The H.264 video format has a very broad application range that covers all forms of digital compressed video from low bit-rate Internet streaming applications to HDTV broadcast and Digital Cinema applications with nearly lossless coding. With the use of H.264, bit rate savings of 50% or more compared to MPEG-2 Part 2 are reported. For example, H.264 has been reported to give the same Digital Satellite TV quality as current MPEG-2 implementations with less than half the bitrate, with current MPEG-2 implementations working at around 3.5 Mbit/s and H.264 at only 1.5 Mbit/s. Sony claims that 9 Mbit/s AVC recording mode is equivalent to the image quality of the HDV format, which uses approximately 18–25 Mbit/s.
To ensure compatibility and problem-free adoption of H.264/AVC, many standards bodies have amended or added to their video-related standards so that users of these standards can employ H.264/AVC. Both the Blu-ray Disc format and the now-discontinued HD DVD format include the H.264/AVC High Profile as one of three mandatory video compression formats. The Digital Video Broadcast project (DVB) approved the use of H.264/AVC for broadcast television in late 2004.
The Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) standards body in the United States approved the use of H.264/AVC for broadcast television in July 2008, although the standard is not yet used for fixed ATSC broadcasts within the United States. It has also been approved for use with the more recent ATSC-M/H (Mobile/Handheld) standard, using the AVC and SVC portions of H.264.
The CCTV (Closed Circuit TV) and Video Surveillance markets have included the technology in many products.
Many common DSLRs use H.264 video wrapped in QuickTime MOV containers as the native recording format.
Derived formats
AVCHD is a high-definition recording format designed by Sony and Panasonic that uses H.264 (conforming to H.264 while adding additional application-specific features and constraints).
AVC-Intra is an intraframe-only compression format, developed by Panasonic.
XAVC is a recording format designed by Sony that uses level 5.2 of H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, which is the highest level supported by that video standard. XAVC can support 4K resolution (4096 × 2160 and 3840 × 2160) at up to 60 frames per second (fps). Sony has announced that cameras that support XAVC include two CineAlta cameras—the Sony PMW-F55 and Sony PMW-F5. The Sony PMW-F55 can record XAVC with 4K resolution at 30 fps at 300 Mbit/s and 2K resolution at 30 fps at 100 Mbit/s. XAVC can record 4K resolution at 60 fps with 4:2:2 chroma sampling at 600 Mbit/s.
Design
Features
H.264/AVC/MPEG-4 Part 10 contains a number of new features that allow it to compress video much more efficiently than older standards and to provide more flexibility for application to a wide variety of network environments. In particular, some such key features include:
Multi-picture inter-picture prediction including the following features:
Using previously encoded pictures as references in a much more flexible way than in past standards, allowing up to 16 reference frames (or 32 reference fields, in the case of interlaced encoding) to be used in some cases. In profiles that support non-IDR frames, most levels specify that sufficient buffering should be available to allow for at least 4 or 5 reference frames at maximum resolution. This is in contrast to prior standards, where the limit was typically one; or, in the case of conventional "B pictures" (B-frames), two.
Variable block-size motion compensation (VBSMC) with block sizes as large as 16×16 and as small as 4×4, enabling precise segmentation of moving regions. The supported luma prediction block sizes include 16×16, 16×8, 8×16, 8×8, 8×4, 4×8, and 4×4, many of which can be used together in a single macroblock. Chroma prediction block sizes are correspondingly smaller when chroma subsampling is used.
The ability to use multiple motion vectors per macroblock (one or two per partition) with a maximum of 32 in the case of a B macroblock constructed of 16 4×4 partitions. The motion vectors for each 8×8 or larger partition region can point to different reference pictures.
The ability to use any macroblock type in B-frames, including I-macroblocks, resulting in much more efficient encoding when using B-frames. This feature was notably left out from MPEG-4 ASP.
Six-tap filtering for derivation of half-pel luma sample predictions, for sharper subpixel motion-compensation. Quarter-pixel motion is derived by linear interpolation of the halfpixel values, to save processing power.
Quarter-pixel precision for motion compensation, enabling precise description of the displacements of moving areas. For chroma the resolution is typically halved both vertically and horizontally (see 4:2:0) therefore the motion compensation of chroma uses one-eighth chroma pixel grid units.
Weighted prediction, allowing an encoder to specify the use of a scaling and offset when performing motion compensation, and providing a significant benefit in performance in special cases—such as fade-to-black, fade-in, and cross-fade transitions. This includes implicit weighted prediction for B-frames, and explicit weighted prediction for P-frames.
Spatial prediction from the edges of neighboring blocks for "intra" coding, rather than the "DC"-only prediction found in MPEG-2 Part 2 and the transform coefficient prediction found in H.263v2 and MPEG-4 Part 2. This includes luma prediction block sizes of 16×16, 8×8, and 4×4 (of which only one type can be used within each macroblock).
Integer discrete cosine transform (integer DCT), a type of discrete cosine transform (DCT) where the transform is an integer approximation of the standard DCT. It has selectable block sizes and exact-match integer computation to reduce complexity, including:
An exact-match integer 4×4 spatial block transform, allowing precise placement of residual signals with little of the "ringing" often found with prior codec designs. It is similar to the standard DCT used in previous standards, but uses a smaller block size and simple integer processing. Unlike the cosine-based formulas and tolerances expressed in earlier standards (such as H.261 and MPEG-2), integer processing provides an exactly specified decoded result.
An exact-match integer 8×8 spatial block transform, allowing highly correlated regions to be compressed more efficiently than with the 4×4 transform. This design is based on the standard DCT, but simplified and made to provide exactly specified decoding.
Adaptive encoder selection between the 4×4 and 8×8 transform block sizes for the integer transform operation.
A secondary Hadamard transform performed on "DC" coefficients of the primary spatial transform applied to chroma DC coefficients (and also luma in one special case) to obtain even more compression in smooth regions.
Lossless macroblock coding features including:
A lossless "PCM macroblock" representation mode in which video data samples are represented directly, allowing perfect representation of specific regions and allowing a strict limit to be placed on the quantity of coded data for each macroblock.
An enhanced lossless macroblock representation mode allowing perfect representation of specific regions while ordinarily using substantially fewer bits than the PCM mode.
Flexible interlaced-scan video coding features, including:
Macroblock-adaptive frame-field (MBAFF) coding, using a macroblock pair structure for pictures coded as frames, allowing 16×16 macroblocks in field mode (compared with MPEG-2, where field mode processing in a picture that is coded as a frame results in the processing of 16×8 half-macroblocks).
Picture-adaptive frame-field coding (PAFF or PicAFF) allowing a freely selected mixture of pictures coded either as complete frames where both fields are combined for encoding or as individual single fields.
A quantization design including:
Logarithmic step size control for easier bit rate management by encoders and simplified inverse-quantization scaling
Frequency-customized quantization scaling matrices selected by the encoder for perceptual-based quantization optimization
An in-loop deblocking filter that helps prevent the blocking artifacts common to other DCT-based image compression techniques, resulting in better visual appearance and compression efficiency
An entropy coding design including:
Context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC), an algorithm to losslessly compress syntax elements in the video stream knowing the probabilities of syntax elements in a given context. CABAC compresses data more efficiently than CAVLC but requires considerably more processing to decode.
Context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC), which is a lower-complexity alternative to CABAC for the coding of quantized transform coefficient values. Although lower complexity than CABAC, CAVLC is more elaborate and more efficient than the methods typically used to code coefficients in other prior designs.
A common simple and highly structured variable length coding (VLC) technique for many of the syntax elements not coded by CABAC or CAVLC, referred to as Exponential-Golomb coding (or Exp-Golomb).
Loss resilience features including:
A Network Abstraction Layer (NAL) definition allowing the same video syntax to be used in many network environments. One very fundamental design concept of H.264 is to generate self-contained packets, to remove the header duplication as in MPEG-4's Header Extension Code (HEC). This was achieved by decoupling information relevant to more than one slice from the media stream. The combination of the higher-level parameters is called a parameter set. The H.264 specification includes two types of parameter sets: Sequence Parameter Set (SPS) and Picture Parameter Set (PPS). An active sequence parameter set remains unchanged throughout a coded video sequence, and an active picture parameter set remains unchanged within a coded picture. The sequence and picture parameter set structures contain information such as picture size, optional coding modes employed, and macroblock to slice group map.
Flexible macroblock ordering (FMO), also known as slice groups, and arbitrary slice ordering (ASO), which are techniques for restructuring the ordering of the representation of the fundamental regions (macroblocks) in pictures. Typically considered an error/loss robustness feature, FMO and ASO can also be used for other purposes.
Data partitioning (DP), a feature providing the ability to separate more important and less important syntax elements into different packets of data, enabling the application of unequal error protection (UEP) and other types of improvement of error/loss robustness.
Redundant slices (RS), an error/loss robustness feature that lets an encoder send an extra representation of a picture region (typically at lower fidelity) that can be used if the primary representation is corrupted or lost.
Frame numbering, a feature that allows the creation of "sub-sequences", enabling temporal scalability by optional inclusion of extra pictures between other pictures, and the detection and concealment of losses of entire pictures, which can occur due to network packet losses or channel errors.
Switching slices, called SP and SI slices, allowing an encoder to direct a decoder to jump into an ongoing video stream for such purposes as video streaming bit rate switching and "trick mode" operation. When a decoder jumps into the middle of a video stream using the SP/SI feature, it can get an exact match to the decoded pictures at that location in the video stream despite using different pictures, or no pictures at all, as references prior to the switch.
A simple automatic process for preventing the accidental emulation of start codes, which are special sequences of bits in the coded data that allow random access into the bitstream and recovery of byte alignment in systems that can lose byte synchronization.
Supplemental enhancement information (SEI) and video usability information (VUI), which are extra information that can be inserted into the bitstream for various purposes such as indicating the color space used the video content or various constraints that apply to the encoding. SEI messages can contain arbitrary user-defined metadata payloads or other messages with syntax and semantics defined in the standard.
Auxiliary pictures, which can be used for such purposes as alpha compositing.
Support of monochrome (4:0:0), 4:2:0, 4:2:2, and 4:4:4 chroma sampling (depending on the selected profile).
Support of sample bit depth precision ranging from 8 to 14 bits per sample (depending on the selected profile).
The ability to encode individual color planes as distinct pictures with their own slice structures, macroblock modes, motion vectors, etc., allowing encoders to be designed with a simple parallelization structure (supported only in the three 4:4:4-capable profiles).
Picture order count, a feature that serves to keep the ordering of the pictures and the values of samples in the decoded pictures isolated from timing information, allowing timing information to be carried and controlled/changed separately by a system without affecting decoded picture content.
These techniques, along with several others, help H.264 to perform significantly better than any prior standard under a wide variety of circumstances in a wide variety of application environments. H.264 can often perform radically better than MPEG-2 video—typically obtaining the same quality at half of the bit rate or less, especially on high bit rate and high resolution video content.
Like other ISO/IEC MPEG video standards, H.264/AVC has a reference software implementation that can be freely downloaded. Its main purpose is to give examples of H.264/AVC features, rather than being a useful application per se. Some reference hardware design work has also been conducted in the Moving Picture Experts Group.
The above-mentioned aspects include features in all profiles of H.264. A profile for a codec is a set of features of that codec identified to meet a certain set of specifications of intended applications. This means that many of the features listed are not supported in some profiles. Various profiles of H.264/AVC are discussed in next section.
Profiles
The standard defines several sets of capabilities, which are referred to as profiles, targeting specific classes of applications. These are declared using a profile code (profile_idc) and sometimes a set of additional constraints applied in the encoder. The profile code and indicated constraints allow a decoder to recognize the requirements for decoding that specific bitstream. (And in many system environments, only one or two profiles are allowed to be used, so decoders in those environments do not need to be concerned with recognizing the less commonly used profiles.) By far the most commonly used profile is the High Profile.
Profiles for non-scalable 2D video applications include the following:
Constrained Baseline Profile (CBP, 66 with constraint set 1) Primarily for low-cost applications, this profile is most typically used in videoconferencing and mobile applications. It corresponds to the subset of features that are in common between the Baseline, Main, and High Profiles.
Baseline Profile (BP, 66) Primarily for low-cost applications that require additional data loss robustness, this profile is used in some videoconferencing and mobile applications. This profile includes all features that are supported in the Constrained Baseline Profile, plus three additional features that can be used for loss robustness (or for other purposes such as low-delay multi-point video stream compositing). The importance of this profile has faded somewhat since the definition of the Constrained Baseline Profile in 2009. All Constrained Baseline Profile bitstreams are also considered to be Baseline Profile bitstreams, as these two profiles share the same profile identifier code value.
Extended Profile (XP, 88) Intended as the streaming video profile, this profile has relatively high compression capability and some extra tricks for robustness to data losses and server stream switching.
Main Profile (MP, 77) This profile is used for standard-definition digital TV broadcasts that use the MPEG-4 format as defined in the DVB standard. It is not, however, used for high-definition television broadcasts, as the importance of this profile faded when the High Profile was developed in 2004 for that application.
High Profile (HiP, 100) The primary profile for broadcast and disc storage applications, particularly for high-definition television applications (for example, this is the profile adopted by the Blu-ray Disc storage format and the DVB HDTV broadcast service).
Progressive High Profile (PHiP, 100 with constraint set 4) Similar to the High profile, but without support of field coding features.
Constrained High Profile (100 with constraint set 4 and 5) Similar to the Progressive High profile, but without support of B (bi-predictive) slices.
High 10 Profile (Hi10P, 110) Going beyond typical mainstream consumer product capabilities, this profile builds on top of the High Profile, adding support for up to 10 bits per sample of decoded picture precision.
High 422 Profile (Hi422P, 122) Primarily targeting professional applications that use interlaced video, this profile builds on top of the High 10 Profile, adding support for the 4:2:2 chroma sampling format while using up to 10 bits per sample of decoded picture precision.
High 444 Predictive Profile (Hi444PP, 244) This profile builds on top of the High 4:2:2 Profile, supporting up to 4:4:4 chroma sampling, up to 14 bits per sample, and additionally supporting efficient lossless region coding and the coding of each picture as three separate color planes.
For camcorders, editing, and professional applications, the standard contains four additional Intra-frame-only profiles, which are defined as simple subsets of other corresponding profiles. These are mostly for professional (e.g., camera and editing system) applications:
High 10 Intra Profile (110 with constraint set 3) The High 10 Profile constrained to all-Intra use.
High 422 Intra Profile (122 with constraint set 3) The High 4:2:2 Profile constrained to all-Intra use.
High 444 Intra Profile (244 with constraint set 3) The High 4:4:4 Profile constrained to all-Intra use.
CAVLC 444 Intra Profile (44) The High 4:4:4 Profile constrained to all-Intra use and to CAVLC entropy coding (i.e., not supporting CABAC).
As a result of the Scalable Video Coding (SVC) extension, the standard contains five additional scalable profiles, which are defined as a combination of a H.264/AVC profile for the base layer (identified by the second word in the scalable profile name) and tools that achieve the scalable extension:
Scalable Baseline Profile (83) Primarily targeting video conferencing, mobile, and surveillance applications, this profile builds on top of the Constrained Baseline profile to which the base layer (a subset of the bitstream) must conform. For the scalability tools, a subset of the available tools is enabled.
Scalable Constrained Baseline Profile (83 with constraint set 5) A subset of the Scalable Baseline Profile intended primarily for real-time communication applications.
Scalable High Profile (86) Primarily targeting broadcast and streaming applications, this profile builds on top of the H.264/AVC High Profile to which the base layer must conform.
Scalable Constrained High Profile (86 with constraint set 5) A subset of the Scalable High Profile intended primarily for real-time communication applications.
Scalable High Intra Profile (86 with constraint set 3) Primarily targeting production applications, this profile is the Scalable High Profile constrained to all-Intra use.
As a result of the Multiview Video Coding (MVC) extension, the standard contains two multiview profiles:
Stereo High Profile (128) This profile targets two-view stereoscopic 3D video and combines the tools of the High profile with the inter-view prediction capabilities of the MVC extension.
Multiview High Profile (118) This profile supports two or more views using both inter-picture (temporal) and MVC inter-view prediction, but does not support field pictures and macroblock-adaptive frame-field coding.
The Multi-resolution Frame-Compatible (MFC) extension added two more profiles:
MFC High Profile (134) A profile for stereoscopic coding with two-layer resolution enhancement.
MFC Depth High Profile (135)
The 3D-AVC extension added two more profiles:
Multiview Depth High Profile (138) This profile supports joint coding of depth map and video texture information for improved compression of 3D video content.
Enhanced Multiview Depth High Profile (139) An enhanced profile for combined multiview coding with depth information.
Feature support in particular profiles
Levels
As the term is used in the standard, a "level" is a specified set of constraints that indicate a degree of required decoder performance for a profile. For example, a level of support within a profile specifies the maximum picture resolution, frame rate, and bit rate that a decoder may use. A decoder that conforms to a given level must be able to decode all bitstreams encoded for that level and all lower levels.
The maximum bit rate for the High Profile is 1.25 times that of the Constrained Baseline, Baseline, Extended and Main Profiles; 3 times for Hi10P, and 4 times for Hi422P/Hi444PP.
The number of luma samples is 16×16=256 times the number of macroblocks (and the number of luma samples per second is 256 times the number of macroblocks per second).
Decoded picture buffering
Previously encoded pictures are used by H.264/AVC encoders to provide predictions of the values of samples in other pictures. This allows the encoder to make efficient decisions on the best way to encode a given picture. At the decoder, such pictures are stored in a virtual decoded picture buffer (DPB). The maximum capacity of the DPB, in units of frames (or pairs of fields), as shown in parentheses in the right column of the table above, can be computed as follows:
Where MaxDpbMbs is a constant value provided in the table below as a function of level number, and PicWidthInMbs and FrameHeightInMbs are the picture width and frame height for the coded video data, expressed in units of macroblocks (rounded up to integer values and accounting for cropping and macroblock pairing when applicable). This formula is specified in sections A.3.1.h and A.3.2.f of the 2017 edition of the standard.
For example, for an HDTV picture that is 1,920 samples wide (PicWidthInMbs = 120) and 1,080 samples high (FrameHeightInMbs = 68), a Level 4 decoder has a maximum DPB storage capacity of floor(32768/(120*68)) = 4 frames (or 8 fields). Thus, the value 4 is shown in parentheses in the table above in the right column of the row for Level 4 with the frame size 1920×1080.
It is important to note that the current picture being decoded is not included in the computation of DPB fullness (unless the encoder has indicated for it to be stored for use as a reference for decoding other pictures or for delayed output timing). Thus, a decoder needs to actually have sufficient memory to handle (at least) one frame more than the maximum capacity of the DPB as calculated above.
Implementations
In 2009, the HTML5 working group was split between supporters of Ogg Theora, a free video format which is thought to be unencumbered by patents, and H.264, which contains patented technology. As late as July 2009, Google and Apple were said to support H.264, while Mozilla and Opera support Ogg Theora (now Google, Mozilla and Opera all support Theora and WebM with VP8). Microsoft, with the release of Internet Explorer 9, has added support for HTML 5 video encoded using H.264. At the Gartner Symposium/ITXpo in November 2010, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer answered the question "HTML 5 or Silverlight?" by saying "If you want to do something that is universal, there is no question the world is going HTML5." In January 2011, Google announced that they were pulling support for H.264 from their Chrome browser and supporting both Theora and WebM/VP8 to use only open formats.
On March 18, 2012, Mozilla announced support for H.264 in Firefox on mobile devices, due to prevalence of H.264-encoded video and the increased power-efficiency of using dedicated H.264 decoder hardware common on such devices. On February 20, 2013, Mozilla implemented support in Firefox for decoding H.264 on Windows 7 and above. This feature relies on Windows' built in decoding libraries. Firefox 35.0, released on January 13, 2015, supports H.264 on OS X 10.6 and higher.
On October 30, 2013, Rowan Trollope from Cisco Systems announced that Cisco would release both binaries and source code of an H.264 video codec called OpenH264 under the Simplified BSD license, and pay all royalties for its use to MPEG LA for any software projects that use Cisco's precompiled binaries, thus making Cisco's OpenH264 binaries free to use. However, any software projects that use Cisco's source code instead of its binaries would be legally responsible for paying all royalties to MPEG LA. Target CPU architectures include x86 and ARM, and target operating systems include Linux, Windows XP and later, Mac OS X, and Android; iOS was notably absent from this list, because it doesn't allow applications to fetch and install binary modules from the Internet. Also on October 30, 2013, Brendan Eich from Mozilla wrote that it would use Cisco's binaries in future versions of Firefox to add support for H.264 to Firefox where platform codecs are not available. Cisco published the source code to OpenH264 on December 9, 2013.
Although iOS was not supported by the 2013 Cisco software release, Apple updated its Video Toolbox Framework with iOS 8 (released in September 2014) to provide direct access to hardware-based H.264/AVC video encoding and decoding.
Software encoders
Hardware
Because H.264 encoding and decoding requires significant computing power in specific types of arithmetic operations, software implementations that run on general-purpose CPUs are typically less power efficient. However, the latest quad-core general-purpose x86 CPUs have sufficient computation power to perform real-time SD and HD encoding. Compression efficiency depends on video algorithmic implementations, not on whether hardware or software implementation is used. Therefore, the difference between hardware and software based implementation is more on power-efficiency, flexibility and cost. To improve the power efficiency and reduce hardware form-factor, special-purpose hardware may be employed, either for the complete encoding or decoding process, or for acceleration assistance within a CPU-controlled environment.
CPU based solutions are known to be much more flexible, particularly when encoding must be done concurrently in multiple formats, multiple bit rates and resolutions (multi-screen video), and possibly with additional features on container format support, advanced integrated advertising features, etc. CPU based software solution generally makes it much easier to load balance multiple concurrent encoding sessions within the same CPU.
The 2nd generation Intel "Sandy Bridge" Core i3/i5/i7 processors introduced at the January 2011 CES (Consumer Electronics Show) offer an on-chip hardware full HD H.264 encoder, known as Intel Quick Sync Video.
A hardware H.264 encoder can be an ASIC or an FPGA.
ASIC encoders with H.264 encoder functionality are available from many different semiconductor companies, but the core design used in the ASIC is typically licensed from one of a few companies such as Chips&Media, Allegro DVT, On2 (formerly Hantro, acquired by Google), Imagination Technologies, NGCodec. Some companies have both FPGA and ASIC product offerings.
Texas Instruments manufactures a line of ARM + DSP cores that perform DSP H.264 BP encoding 1080p at 30fps. This permits flexibility with respect to codecs (which are implemented as highly optimized DSP code) while being more efficient than software on a generic CPU.
Licensing
In countries where patents on software algorithms are upheld, vendors and commercial users of products that use H.264/AVC are expected to pay patent licensing royalties for the patented technology that their products use. This applies to the Baseline Profile as well.
A private organization known as MPEG LA, which is not affiliated in any way with the MPEG standardization organization, administers the licenses for patents applying to this standard, as well as other patent pools, such as for MPEG-4 Part 2 Video, HEVC and MPEG-DASH. The patent holders include Fujitsu, Panasonic, Sony, Mitsubishi, Apple, Columbia University, KAIST, Dolby, Google, JVC Kenwood, LG Electronics, Microsoft, NTT Docomo, Philips, Samsung, Sharp, Toshiba and ZTE, although the majority of patents in the pool are held by Panasonic ( patents), Godo Kaisha IP Bridge ( patents) and LG Electronics ( patents).
On August 26, 2010, MPEG LA announced that royalties won't be charged for H.264 encoded Internet video that is free to end users. All other royalties remain in place, such as royalties for products that decode and encode H.264 video as well as to operators of free television and subscription channels. The license terms are updated in 5-year blocks.
Since the first version of the standard was completed in May 2003 ( years ago) and the most commonly used profile (the High profile) was completed in June 2004 ( years ago), a substantial number of the patents that originally applied to the standard have been expiring, although one of the US patents in the MPEG LA H.264 pool lasts at least until 2027.
In 2005, Qualcomm sued Broadcom in US District Court, alleging that Broadcom infringed on two of its patents by making products that were compliant with the H.264 video compression standard. In 2007, the District Court found that the patents were unenforceable because Qualcomm had failed to disclose them to the JVT prior to the release of the H.264 standard in May 2003. In December 2008, the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit affirmed the District Court's order that the patents be unenforceable but remanded to the District Court with instructions to limit the scope of unenforceability to H.264 compliant products.
See also
VC-1, a standard designed by Microsoft and approved as a SMPTE standard in 2006
Comparison of H.264 and VC-1
Dirac (video compression format), a video coding design by BBC Research & Development, released in 2008
VP8, a video coding design by On2 Technologies (later purchased by Google), released in 2008
VP9, a video coding design by Google, released in 2013
High Efficiency Video Coding (ITU-T H.265 or ISO/IEC 23008-2), an ITU/ISO/IEC standard, released in 2013
AV1, a video coding design by the Alliance for Open Media, released in 2018
Versatile Video Coding (ITU-T H.266 or ISO/IEC 23091-3), an ITU/ISO/IEC standard, released in 2020
IPTV
Group of pictures
Intra-frame coding
Inter frame
References
Further reading
External links
MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 Information Doom9's Forum
H.264/MPEG-4 Part 10 Tutorials (Richardson)
(dated December 2007)
(dated April 2009)
(dated May 2010)
High-definition television
Open standards covered by patents
Video codecs
Video compression
Videotelephony
ITU-T recommendations
ITU-T H Series Recommendations
H.26x
ISO standards
MPEG-4 Part 10
IEC standards | [
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237037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian%20closed%20category | Cartesian closed category | In category theory, a category is Cartesian closed if, roughly speaking, any morphism defined on a product of two objects can be naturally identified with a morphism defined on one of the factors. These categories are particularly important in mathematical logic and the theory of programming, in that their internal language is the simply typed lambda calculus. They are generalized by closed monoidal categories, whose internal language, linear type systems, are suitable for both quantum and classical computation.
Etymology
Named after (1596–1650), French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, whose formulation of analytic geometry gave rise to the concept of Cartesian product, which was later generalized to the notion of categorical product.
Definition
The category C is called Cartesian closed if and only if it satisfies the following three properties:
It has a terminal object.
Any two objects X and Y of C have a product X ×Y in C.
Any two objects Y and Z of C have an exponential ZY in C.
The first two conditions can be combined to the single requirement that any finite (possibly empty) family of objects of C admit a product in C, because of the natural associativity of the categorical product and because the empty product in a category is the terminal object of that category.
The third condition is equivalent to the requirement that the functor – ×Y (i.e. the functor from C to C that maps objects X to X ×Y and morphisms φ to φ×idY) has a right adjoint, usually denoted –Y, for all objects Y in C.
For locally small categories, this can be expressed by the existence of a bijection between the hom-sets
which is natural in both X and Z.
Take care to note that a Cartesian closed category need not have finite limits; only finite products are guaranteed.
If a category has the property that all its slice categories are Cartesian closed, then it is called locally cartesian closed. Note that if C is locally Cartesian closed, it need not actually be Cartesian closed; that happens if and only if C has a terminal object.
Basic constructions
Evaluation
For each object Y, the counit of the exponential adjunction is a natural transformation
called the (internal) evaluation map. More generally, we can construct the partial application map as the composite
In the particular case of the category Set, these reduce to the ordinary operations:
Composition
Evaluating the exponential in one argument at a morphism p : X → Y gives morphisms
corresponding to the operation of composition with p. Alternate notations for the operation pZ include p* and p∘-. Alternate notations for the operation Zp include p* and -∘p.
Evaluation maps can be chained as
the corresponding arrow under the exponential adjunction
is called the (internal) composition map.
In the particular case of the category Set, this is the ordinary composition operation:
Sections
For a morphism p:X → Y, suppose the following pullback square exists, which defines the subobject of XY corresponding to maps whose composite with p is the identity:
where the arrow on the right is pY and the arrow on the bottom corresponds to the identity on Y. Then ΓY(p) is called the object of sections of p. It is often abbreviated as ΓY(X).
If ΓY(p) exists for every morphism p with codomain Y, then it can be assembled into a functor ΓY : C/Y → C on the slice category, which is right adjoint to a variant of the product functor:
The exponential by Y can be expressed in terms of sections:
Examples
Examples of Cartesian closed categories include:
The category Set of all sets, with functions as morphisms, is Cartesian closed. The product X×Y is the Cartesian product of X and Y, and ZY is the set of all functions from Y to Z. The adjointness is expressed by the following fact: the function f : X×Y → Z is naturally identified with the curried function g : X → ZY defined by g(x)(y) = f(x,y) for all x in X and y in Y.
The category of finite sets, with functions as morphisms, is Cartesian closed for the same reason.
If G is a group, then the category of all G-sets is Cartesian closed. If Y and Z are two G-sets, then ZY is the set of all functions from Y to Z with G action defined by (g.F)(y) = F(g−1.y) for all g in G, F:Y → Z and y in Y.
The category of finite G-sets is also Cartesian closed.
The category Cat of all small categories (with functors as morphisms) is Cartesian closed; the exponential CD is given by the functor category consisting of all functors from D to C, with natural transformations as morphisms.
If C is a small category, then the functor category SetC consisting of all covariant functors from C into the category of sets, with natural transformations as morphisms, is Cartesian closed. If F and G are two functors from C to Set, then the exponential FG is the functor whose value on the object X of C is given by the set of all natural transformations from to F.
The earlier example of G-sets can be seen as a special case of functor categories: every group can be considered as a one-object category, and G-sets are nothing but functors from this category to Set
The category of all directed graphs is Cartesian closed; this is a functor category as explained under functor category.
In particular, the category of simplicial sets (which are functors X : Δop → Set) is Cartesian closed.
Even more generally, every elementary topos is Cartesian closed.
In algebraic topology, Cartesian closed categories are particularly easy to work with. Neither the category of topological spaces with continuous maps nor the category of smooth manifolds with smooth maps is Cartesian closed. Substitute categories have therefore been considered: the category of compactly generated Hausdorff spaces is Cartesian closed, as is the category of Frölicher spaces.
In order theory, complete partial orders (cpos) have a natural topology, the Scott topology, whose continuous maps do form a Cartesian closed category (that is, the objects are the cpos, and the morphisms are the Scott continuous maps). Both currying and apply are continuous functions in the Scott topology, and currying, together with apply, provide the adjoint.
A Heyting algebra is a Cartesian closed (bounded) lattice. An important example arises from topological spaces. If X is a topological space, then the open sets in X form the objects of a category O(X) for which there is a unique morphism from U to V if U is a subset of V and no morphism otherwise. This poset is a Cartesian closed category: the "product" of U and V is the intersection of U and V and the exponential UV is the interior of .
A category with a zero object is Cartesian closed if and only if it is equivalent to a category with only one object and one identity morphism. Indeed, if 0 is an initial object and 1 is a final object and we have , then which has only one element.
In particular, any non-trivial category with a zero object, such as an abelian category, is not Cartesian closed. So the category of modules over a ring is not Cartesian closed. However, the functor tensor product with a fixed module does have a right adjoint. The tensor product is not a categorical product, so this does not contradict the above. We obtain instead that the category of modules is monoidal closed.
Examples of locally Cartesian closed categories include:
Every elementary topos is locally Cartesian closed. This example includes Set, FinSet, G-sets for a group G, as well as SetC for small categories C.
The category LH whose objects are topological spaces and whose morphisms are local homeomorphisms is locally Cartesian closed, since LH/X is equivalent to the category of sheaves . However, LH does not have a terminal object, and thus is not Cartesian closed.
If C has pullbacks and for every arrow p : X → Y, the functor p* : C/Y → C/X given by taking pullbacks has a right adjoint, then C is locally Cartesian closed.
If C is locally Cartesian closed, then all of its slice categories C/X are also locally Cartesian closed.
Non-examples of locally Cartesian closed categories include:
Cat is not locally Cartesian closed.
Applications
In Cartesian closed categories, a "function of two variables" (a morphism f : X×Y → Z) can always be represented as a "function of one variable" (the morphism λf : X → ZY). In computer science applications, this is known as currying; it has led to the realization that simply-typed lambda calculus can be interpreted in any Cartesian closed category.
The Curry–Howard–Lambek correspondence provides a deep isomorphism between intuitionistic logic, simply-typed lambda calculus and Cartesian closed categories.
Certain Cartesian closed categories, the topoi, have been proposed as a general setting for mathematics, instead of traditional set theory.
The renowned computer scientist John Backus has advocated a variable-free notation, or Function-level programming, which in retrospect bears some similarity to the internal language of Cartesian closed categories. CAML is more consciously modelled on Cartesian closed categories.
Dependent sum and product
Let C be a locally Cartesian closed category. Then C has all pullbacks, because the pullback of two arrows with codomain Z is given by the product in C/Z.
For every arrow p : X → Y, let P denote the corresponding object of C/Y. Taking pullbacks along p gives a functor p* : C/Y → C/X which has both a left and a right adjoint.
The left adjoint is called the dependent sum and is given by composition .
The right adjoint is called the dependent product.
The exponential by P in C/Y can be expressed in terms of the dependent product by the formula .
The reason for these names is because, when interpreting P as a dependent type , the functors and correspond to the type formations and respectively.
Equational theory
In every Cartesian closed category (using exponential notation), (XY)Z and (XZ)Y are isomorphic for all objects X, Y and Z. We write this as the "equation"
(xy)z = (xz)y.
One may ask what other such equations are valid in all Cartesian closed categories. It turns out that all of them follow logically from the following axioms:
x×(y×z) = (x×y)×z
x×y = y×x
x×1 = x (here 1 denotes the terminal object of C)
1x = 1
x1 = x
(x×y)z = xz×yz
(xy)z = x(y×z)
Bicartesian closed categories
Bicartesian closed categories extend Cartesian closed categories with binary coproducts and an initial object, with products distributing over coproducts. Their equational theory is extended with the following axioms, yielding something similar to Tarski's high school axioms but with additive inverses:
x + y = y + x
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
x×(y + z) = x×y + x×z
x(y + z) = xy×xz
0 + x = x
x×0 = 0
x0 = 1
Note however that the above list is not complete; type isomorphism in the free BCCC is not finitely axiomatizable, and its decidability is still an open problem.
References
External links
A blog post on the relationship between CCCs and the lambda calculus:https://golem.ph.utexas.edu/category/2006/08/cartesian_closed_categories_an_1.html
Closed categories
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|
237042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIS | AIS | AIS may refer to:
Medicine
Abbreviated Injury Scale, an anatomical-based coding system to classify and describe the severity of injuries
Acute ischemic stroke, the thromboembolic type of stroke
Androgen insensitivity syndrome, an intersex condition in which there is an inability of many cells in the affected genetic male to respond to androgenic hormones
Athens Insomnia Scale, used to measure severity of insomnia
Organizations and companies
Advanced Info Service, Thai 3G/4GLTE mobile phone operator
Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino (International Academy of Sciences San Marino, a scientific association
AIS Airlines, Dutch airline
Armée islamique du salut, military wing of the Islamic Salvation Front, a former political party in Algeria
Asahi India Glass Limited, Indian manufacturing company
Association for Information Systems, an international professional organization
Australian Information Service, historical Australian government agency (1973–1986)
Australian Institute of Sport, a division of the Australian Sports Commission
Australian Iron & Steel
Aviatsionnaya Ispitatelnaya Stantsiya, Russian World War I naval aviation station and aircraft company
Schools
Agnes Irwin School in Pennsylvania, U.S.
American International School (disambiguation), several schools, some known as AIS
Antonine International School, in Ajaltoun, Lebanon
Antwerp International School, in Antwerp, Belgium
Atlanta International School, Georgia, U.S.
Australian International School (disambiguation), several schools, some known as AIS
Almaty International School in Almaty, Kazakhstan
Software and technology
Accounting information system, a system of collecting, storing and processing financial and accounting data
Aeronautical Information Service, distributor of air navigation information
Alarm indication signal in a telecommunications system
Alarm indication signal line (AIS-L)
Alarm indication signal path (AIS-P)
Alternate Instruction Set, a second processor mode in Centaur/VIA C3 x86 CPUs
Application Interface Specification, for high-availability application software
Archival information system
Artificial immune system, in artificial intelligence
Artificial Intelligence System, a distributed computing project undertaken by Intelligence Realm, Inc.
Automatic identification system, for tracking ships
Automotive Industry Standards, vehicle technical specifications of India
Automated information system, an assembly of computer hardware, software, firmware, or any combination of these, configured to accomplish specific information-handling operations
Others
AIS, IATA code for Arorae Island Airport, Kiribati
Ais people, a Native American tribe living on the Atlantic coast of Florida, U.S.
Ais, an alternate spelling of Eyeish, a native American tribe in Texas, U.S.
American Indycar Series (1988–2005), a former American auto racing series | [
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|
237051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detmold | Detmold | Detmold () is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, with a population of . It was the capital of the small Principality of Lippe from 1468 until 1918 and then of the Free State of Lippe until 1947. Today it is the administrative center of the district of Lippe and of the Regierungsbezirk Detmold. The Church of Lippe has its central administration located in Detmold. The Reformed Redeemer Church is the preaching venue of the state superintendent of the Lippe church.
History
Iron Age
About to the southwest of Detmold is the hill with a prehistoric circular rampart and the Hermann monument (). The monument commemorates the so-called Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, a battle in 9 AD which may or may not have been fought close to the present location of Detmold. In this encounter, Germanic tribes led by Hermann () defeated Roman legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus.
Middle Ages
Detmold was first mentioned as Theotmalli in 783, the year of a battle between the Saxons and Charlemagne's forces nearby. This was an event in the Saxon Wars. In 1005 a Tietmelli or Theotmalli region (Gau) is referred to in documents.
In 1263, Bernard III of Lippe fortified the settlement at the crossing of the trade route from Paderborn to Lemgo over the Werre River with stone walls and granted it a municipal charter. Its population was reported in 1305 as 305. Market rights granted in 1265 led to rapid economic development. Its defenses were greatly strengthened after severe damage had been inflicted on the town during the conflict with Soest in 1447. A major fire in 1547 destroyed more than 70 houses.
In 1550, Detmold became the permanent residence of Count Simon III of Lippe. The counts were elevated to princes in 1789, and Detmold remained the capital of the small Principality of Lippe until the end of the World War I in 1918, when all princely states in Germany were abolished. Today, Stephan, Prince of Lippe is the owner of Detmold Castle.
Modern era
Street lighting was introduced in 1809, with oil-fired lanterns. By 1835, the town had become the most populous in Lippe, with over 4,000 residents. It grew to 12,000 in 1900 and over 30,000 in 1950.
From 1919 to 1947, Detmold was the capital of the Free State of Lippe. When Lippe was incorporated into the new German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, the town became the seat of the Lippe district, and since 1972 it has been the seat of the district administration of Lippe. With the administrative reform of 1970, 25 nearby villages were incorporated into the city.
The former Hobart Barracks is nearby.
Main sights
(falconry)
Donoper Teich (pond)
Externsteine
Fürstliches Residenzschloß, a Renaissance castle in the center of the town park
Hasselbachteich (pond)
Hermannsdenkmal (Arminius monument)
Hochschule für Musik Detmold (Music Academy of Detmold)
OWL University of Applied Sciences and Arts (Technische Hochschule OWL)
Landestheater Detmold, Detmolder Sommertheater
Lippisches Landesmuseum (museum)
LWL-Freilichtmuseum Detmold (Detmold open-air museum)
Vogelpark Heiligenkirchen (bird sanctuary)
Culture
The town supports the Nordwestdeutsche Philharmonie for regular symphony concerts.
Schools
, founded 1602
Stadtgymnasium Detmold, founded 1830
Christian-Dietrich-Grabbe-Gymnasium, founded 1925
Twin towns – sister cities
Detmold is twinned with:
Hasselt, Belgium
Saint-Omer, France
Savonlinna, Finland
Zeitz, Germany
Oraiokastro, Greece
Notable people
Notable people born in Detmold include:
Friedrich Adolph Lampe (1683–1729), theologian
Simon August, Count of Lippe-Detmold (1727–1782), Count of Lippe
Leopold I, Prince of Lippe (1767–1802), Prince of Lippe
Leopold Zunz (1794–1886), scientist, founder of Reform Judaism
Leopold II, Prince of Lippe (1796–1851), Prince of Lippe
Christian Dietrich Grabbe (1801–1836), alongside Georg Büchner the most important innovator of German-language drama in his time
Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810–1876), poet and author
Leopold III, Prince of Lippe (1821–1875), Prince of Lippe
Ferdinand Weerth (1774–1836), Pastor and School Reformer
Georg Weerth (1822–1856)
Gustav Wallis (1830–1878), botanist and South American traveler
(1879–1966), actor, spieler, elocutionist, singer and regional poet
Jürgen Stroop (1895–1952), Nazi general of the SS, executed for war crimes
Werner Buchholz (1922–2019), engineer, creator of the art word byte
Manfred Fuhrmann (1925–2005), old philologist
Hans-Ulrich Schmincke (born 1937), volcanologist
Heinz Burt (1942–2000), British musician and member of The Tornados
Hartmut Fladt (1945), musicologist
(born 1946), art historian, for 11 years curator of the German Historical Museum in Berlin
Iris Berben (born 1950), actress
Peter Lampe (born 1954), theologian
Detlef Grumbach (born 1955), journalist, journalist, author and publisher
Frank-Walter Steinmeier (born 1956), foreign minister, Vice Chancellor, and current President of Germany
Manfred Ostermann (born 1958), local politician (independent) and former Landrat of Soltau-Fallingbostel
Andreas Voßkuhle (born 1963), jurist, president of the Bundesverfassungsgericht
Ludger Beerbaum (born 1963), jumping rider
Wotan Wilke Möhring (born 1967), actor
Matthias Opdenhövel (born 1970), television presenter and journalist
Sven Montgomery (born 1976), Swiss-American cyclist
Vera Ludwig (born 1978), poet
Tujamo (born 1988), DJ and record producer
Stefan Langemann (born 1990), footballer
Long-time residents of Detmold include:
Albert Lortzing (1801–1851), composer
Johannes Brahms (1833–1897), composer, lived in Detmold in the winters of 1857–60
Heinrich Drake (1881–1970), politician
Felix Fechenbach (1894–1933), journalist
Florian Reike, entrepreneur
Giselher Klebe (1925–2009), composer
Thomas Quasthoff (born 1959), bass-baritone
Others:
Detmold child, a child mummy who got its name from this city.
Amongst the honorary citizens of Detmold, besides politicians are scientists and artists who have served in Detmold. The best-known are the builder of the Hermannsdenkmal, Ernst von Bandel (1871), Reich Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1895), and Reich President Paul von Hindenburg (1917).
References
External links
Lippe
Principality of Lippe
Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia | [
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237052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entoprocta | Entoprocta | Entoprocta (), or Kamptozoa , is a phylum of mostly sessile aquatic animals, ranging from long. Mature individuals are goblet-shaped, on relatively long stalks. They have a "crown" of solid tentacles whose cilia generate water currents that draw food particles towards the mouth, and both the mouth and anus lie inside the "crown". The superficially similar Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) have the anus outside a "crown" of hollow tentacles. Most families of entoprocts are colonial, and all but 2 of the 150 species are marine. A few solitary species can move slowly.
Some species eject unfertilized ova into the water, while others keep their ova in brood chambers until they hatch, and some of these species use placenta-like organs to nourish the developing eggs. After hatching, the larvae swim for a short time and then settle on a surface. There they metamorphose, and the larval gut rotates by up to 180°, so that the mouth and anus face upwards. Both colonial and solitary species also reproduce by cloning — solitary species grow clones in the space between the tentacles and then release them when developed, while colonial ones produce new members from the stalks or from corridor-like stolons.
Fossils of entoprocts are very rare, and the earliest specimens that have been identified with confidence date from the Late Jurassic. Most studies from 1996 onwards have regarded entoprocts as members of the Trochozoa, which also includes molluscs and annelids. However, a study in 2008 concluded that entoprocts are closely related to bryozoans.
Names
"Entoprocta", coined in 1870, means "anus inside". The alternative name "Kamptozoa", meaning "bent" or "curved" animals, was assigned in 1929. Some authors use "Entoprocta", while others prefer "Kamptozoa".
Description
Most species are colonial, and their members are known as "zooids", since they are not fully independent animals. Zooids are typically long but range from long.
Distinguishing features
Entoprocts are superficially like bryozoans (ectoprocts), as both groups have a "crown" of tentacles whose cilia generate water currents that draw food particles towards the mouth. However, they have different feeding mechanisms and internal anatomy, and ectoprocts undergo a metamorphosis from larva to adult that destroys most of the larval tissues; their colonies also have a founder zooid which is different from its "daughters".
Zooids
The body of a mature entoproct zooid has a goblet-like structure with a calyx mounted on a relatively long stalk that attaches to a surface. The rim of the calyx bears a "crown" of 8 to 30 solid tentacles, which are extensions of the body wall. The base of the "crown" of tentacles is surrounded by a membrane that partially covers the tentacles when they retract. The mouth and anus lie on opposite sides of the atrium (space enclosed by the "crown" of tentacles), and both can be closed by sphincter muscles. The gut is U-shaped, curving down towards the base of the calyx, where it broadens to form the stomach. This is lined with a membrane consisting of a single layer of cells, each of which has multiple cilia.
The stalks of colonial species arise from shared attachment plates or from a network of stolons, tubes that run across a surface. In solitary species, the stalk ends in a muscular sucker, or a flexible foot, or is cemented to a surface. The stalk is muscular and produces a characteristic nodding motion. In some species it is segmented. Some solitary species can move, either by creeping on the muscular foot or by somersaulting.
The body wall consists of the epidermis and an external cuticle, which consists mainly of criss-cross collagen fibers. The epidermis contains only a single layer of cells, each of which bears multiple cilia ("hairs") and microvilli (tiny "pleats") that penetrate through the cuticle. The stolons and stalks of colonial species have thicker cuticles, stiffened with chitin.
There is no coelom (internal fluid-filled cavity lined with peritoneum) and the other internal organs are embedded in connective tissue that lies between the stomach and the base of the "crown" of tentacles. The nervous system runs through the connective tissue and just below the epidermis, and is controlled by a pair of ganglia. Nerves run from these to the calyx, tentacles and stalk, and to sense organs in all these areas.
Feeding, digestion, excretion, circulation and respiration
A band of cells, each with multiple cilia, runs along the sides of the tentacles, connecting each tentacle to its neighbors, except that there is a gap in the band nearest the anus. A separate band of cilia grows along a groove that runs close to the inner side of the base of the "crown", with a narrow extension up the inner surface of each tentacle. The cilia on the sides of the tentacles create a current that flows into the "crown" at the bases of the tentacles and exits above the center of the "crown". These cilia pass food particles to the cilia on the inner surface of the tentacles, and the inner cilia produce a downward current that drives particles into and around the groove, and then to the mouth.
Entoprocts generally use one or both of: ciliary sieving, in which one band of cilia creates the feeding current and another traps food particles (the "sieve"); and downstream collecting, in which food particles are trapped as they are about to exit past them. In entoprocts, downstream collecting is carried out by the same bands of cilia that generate the current; trochozoan larvae also use downstream collecting, but use a separate set of cilia to trap food particles.
In addition, glands in the tentacles secrete sticky threads that capture large particles. A non-colonial species reported from around the Antarctic Peninsula in 1993 has cells that superficially resemble the cnidocytes of cnidaria, and fire sticky threads. These unusual cells lie around the mouth, and may provide an additional means of capturing prey.
The stomach and intestine are lined with microvilli, which are thought to absorb nutrients. The anus, which opens inside the "crown", ejects solid wastes into the outgoing current after the tentacles have filtered food out of the water; in some families it is raised on a cone above the level of the groove that conducts food to the mouth. Most species have a pair of protonephridia which extract soluble wastes from the internal fluids and eliminate them through pores near the mouth. However, the freshwater species Urnatella gracilis has multiple nephridia in the calyx and stalk.
The zooids absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide by diffusion, which works well for small animals.
Reproduction and life cycle
Most species are simultaneous hermaphrodites, but some switch from male to female as they mature, while individuals of some species remain of the same sex all their lives. Individuals have one or two pairs of gonads, placed between the atrium and stomach, and opening into a single gonopore in the atrium. The eggs are thought to be fertilized in the ovaries. Most species release eggs that hatch into planktonic larvae, but a few brood their eggs in the gonopore. Those that brood small eggs nourish them by a placenta-like organ, while larvae of species with larger eggs live on stored yolk. The development of the fertilized egg into a larva follows a typical spiralian pattern: the cells divide by spiral cleavage, and mesoderm develops from a specific cell labelled "4d" in the early embryo. There is no coelom at any stage.
In some species the larva is a trochophore which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia round its "equator" to sweep food into the mouth, which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach, which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus. In some species of the genera Loxosomella and Loxosoma, the larva produces one or two buds that separate and form new individuals, while the trochophore disintegrates. However, most produce a larva with sensory tufts at the top and front, a pair of pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), a pair of protonephridia, and a large, cilia-bearing foot at the bottom. After settling, the foot and frontal tuft attach to the surface. Larvae of most species undergo a complex metamorphosis, and the internal organs may rotate by up to 180°, so that the mouth and anus both point upwards.
All species can produce clones by budding. Colonial species produce new zooids from the stolon or from the stalks, and can form large colonies in this way. In solitary species, clones form on the floor of the atrium, and are released when their organs are developed.
Taxonomy
The phylum consists of about 150 recognized species, grouped into 4 families:
Evolutionary history
Fossil record
Since entoprocts are small and soft-bodied, fossils have been extremely rare. In 1977, Simon Conway Morris provided the first description of Dinomischus, a sessile animal with calyx, stalk and holdfast, found in Canada's Burgess Shale, which was formed about . Morris regarded this animal as the earliest known entoproct, since its mouth and anus lay inside a ring of structures above the calyx, but noted that these structures were flat and rather stiff, while the tentacles of modern entoprocts are flexible and have a round cross-section.
In 1992 J.A. Todd and P.D. Taylor concluded that Dinomischus was not an entoproct, because it did not have the typical rounded, flexible tentacles, and the fossils showed no other features that clearly resembled those of entoprocts. In their opinion, the earliest fossil entoprocts were specimens they found from Late Jurassic rocks in England. These resemble the modern colonial genus Barentsia in many ways, including: upright zooids linked by a network of stolons encrusting the surface to which the colony is attached; straight stalks joined to the stolons by bulky sockets with transverse bands of wrinkles; overall size and proportions similar to that of modern species of Barentsia.
Another species, Cotyledion tylodes, first described in 1999, was larger than extant entoprocts, reaching 8–56 mm in height, and unlike modern species, was "armored" with sclerites, scale-like structures. C. tylodes did have a similar sessile lifestyle to modern entoprocts. The identified fossils of C. tylodes were found in 520-million-year-old rocks from southern China. This places early entoprocts in the period of the Cambrian explosion.
The Maotianshan Shales fossil, Cotyledion tylodes, has been reevaluated as being an ancient, sclerite-bearing entoproct (originally having been identified as a putative carpoid echinoderm). This entoproct interpretation of Cotyledion, however, has been questioned by Mark McMenamin, who considers it best interpreted as a stem group echinoderm based on the morphology of its stem sclerites.
Family tree
When entoprocts were discovered in the nineteenth century, they and bryozoans (ectoprocts) were regarded as classes within the phylum Bryozoa, because both groups were sessile animals that filter-fed by means of a "crown" of tentacles that bore cilia. However, from 1869 onwards, increasing awareness of differences, including the position of the entoproct anus inside the feeding structure and the difference in the early pattern of division of cells in their embryos, caused scientists to regard the two groups as separate phyla. "Bryozoa" then became just an alternative name for ectoprocts, in which the anus is outside the feeding organ. However, studies by one team in 2007 and 2008 argue for sinking Entoprocta into Bryozoa as a class, and resurrecting Ectoprocta as a name for the currently identified bryozoans.
The consensus of studies from 1996 onwards has been that entoprocts are part of the Trochozoa, a protostome "superphylum" whose members are united in having as their most basic larval form the trochophore type. The trochozoa also include molluscs, annelids, flatworms, nemertines and others. However, scientists disagree about which phylum is mostly closely related to enctoprocts within the trochozoans. An analysis in 2008 re-introduced the pre-1869 meaning of the term "Bryozoa", for a group in which entoprocts and ectoprocts are each other's closest relatives.
Ecology
Distribution and habitats
All species are sessile. While the great majority are marine, two species live in freshwater: Loxosomatoides sirindhornae, reported in 2004 in central Thailand, and Urnatella gracilis, found in all the continents except Antarctica. Colonial species are found in all the oceans, living on rocks, shells, algae and underwater buildings. The solitary species, which are marine, live on other animals that feed by producing water currents, such as sponges, ectoprocts and sessile annelids. The majority of species live no deeper than 50 meters, but a few species are found in the deep ocean.
Interaction with other organisms
Some species of nudibranchs ("sea slugs"), particularly those of the genus Trapania, as well as turbellarian flatworms, prey on entoprocts.
Small colonies of the freshwater entoproct Urnatella gracilis have been found living on the aquatic larvae of the dobsonfly Corydalus cornutus. The ectoprocts gain a means of dispersal, protection from predators and possibly a source of water that is rich in oxygen and nutrients, as colonies often live next to the gills of the larval flies. In the White Sea, the non-colonial entoproct Loxosomella nordgaardi prefers to live attached to bryozoan (ectoproct) colonies, mainly on the edges of colonies or in the "chimneys", gaps by which large bryozoan colonies expel water from which they have sieved food. Observation suggests that both the entoprocts and the bryozoans benefit from the association: each enhances the water flow that the other needs for feeding; and the longer cilia of the entoprocts may help them to capture different food from that caught by the bryozoans, so that the animals do not compete for the same food.
Entoprocts are small and have been little studied by zoologists. Hence it is difficult to determine whether a specimen belongs to a species that already occurs in the same area or is an invader, possibly as a result of human activities.
References
Further reading
External links
Information on Entoprocta from earthlife.net
Animal phyla
Extant Cambrian first appearances | [
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|
237055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed%20web%20crawling | Distributed web crawling | Distributed web crawling is a distributed computing technique whereby Internet search engines employ many computers to index the Internet via web crawling. Such systems may allow for users to voluntarily offer their own computing and bandwidth resources towards crawling web pages. By spreading the load of these tasks across many computers, costs that would otherwise be spent on maintaining large computing clusters are avoided.
Types
Cho and Garcia-Molina studied two types of policies:
Dynamic assignment
With this type of policy, a central server assigns new URLs to different crawlers dynamically. This allows the central server to, for instance, dynamically balance the load of each crawler.
With dynamic assignment, typically the systems can also add or remove downloader processes. The central server may become the bottleneck, so most of the workload must be transferred to the distributed crawling processes for large crawls.
There are two configurations of crawling architectures with dynamic assignments that have been described by Shkapenyuk and Suel:
A small crawler configuration, in which there is a central DNS resolver and central queues per Web site, and distributed downloaders.
A large crawler configuration, in which the DNS resolver and the queues are also distributed.
Static assignment
With this type of policy, there is a fixed rule stated from the beginning of the crawl that defines how to assign new URLs to the crawlers.
For static assignment, a hashing function can be used to transform URLs (or, even better, complete website names) into a number that corresponds to the index of the corresponding crawling process. As there are external links that will go from a Web site assigned to one crawling process to a website assigned to a different crawling process, some exchange of URLs must occur.
To reduce the overhead due to the exchange of URLs between crawling processes, the exchange should be done in batch, several URLs at a time, and the most cited URLs in the collection should be known by all crawling processes before the crawl (e.g.: using data from a previous crawl).
Implementations
As of 2003, most modern commercial search engines use this technique. Google and Yahoo use thousands of individual computers to crawl the Web.
Newer projects are attempting to use a less structured, more ad hoc form of collaboration by enlisting volunteers to join the effort using, in many cases, their home or personal computers. LookSmart is the largest search engine to use this technique, which powers its Grub distributed web-crawling project.
This solution uses computers that are connected to the Internet to crawl Internet addresses in the background. Upon downloading crawled web pages, they are compressed and sent back together with a status flag (e.g. changed, new, down, redirected) to the powerful central servers. The servers, which manage a large database, send out new URLs to clients for testing.
Drawbacks
According to the FAQ about Nutch, an open-source search engine website, the savings in bandwidth by distributed web crawling are not significant, since "A successful search engine requires more bandwidth to upload query result pages than its crawler needs to download pages...".
See also
Distributed computing
Web crawler
YaCy - P2P web search engine with distributed crawling
Seeks - Open-Source P2P Web Search
Sources
External links
Majestic-12 Distributed Search Engine
Replaz Distributed Search Engine
Applications of distributed computing
Internet search algorithms | [
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|
237076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Tinchebray | Battle of Tinchebray | The Battle of Tinchebray (alternative spellings: Tinchebrai or Tenchebrai) took place on 28 September 1106, in Tinchebray (today in the Orne département of France), Normandy, between an invading force led by King Henry I of England, and the Norman army of his elder brother Robert Curthose, the Duke of Normandy. Henry's knights won a decisive victory: they captured Robert, and Henry imprisoned him in England (in Devizes Castle) and then in Wales until Robert's death (in Cardiff Castle) in 1134.
Prelude
Henry invaded Normandy in 1105 in the course of an ongoing dynastic dispute with his brother. He took Bayeux and Caen, but broke off his campaign because of political problems arising from an investiture controversy. With these settled, he returned to Normandy in the spring of 1106. After quickly taking the fortified abbey of Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives (near Falaise), Henry turned south and besieged Tinchebray Castle, on a hill above the town. Tinchebray is on the border of the county of Mortain, in the southwest of Normandy, and was held by William, Count of Mortain, who was one of the few important Norman barons still loyal to Robert. Duke Robert then brought up his forces to break the siege. After some unsuccessful negotiations, Duke Robert decided that a battle in the open was his best option.
The battle
Henry's army was organized into three groups. Ranulf of Bayeux, Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester, and William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey, commanded the two primary forces. A reserve, commanded by Elias I of Maine, remained out of sight on the flank. Alan IV, Duke of Brittany, William, Count of Évreux, Ralph of Tosny, Robert of Montfort, and Robert of Grandmesnil also fought alongside Henry. William, Count of Mortain, and Robert of Bellême, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, supported Robert Curthose.
The battle lasted an hour. Henry dismounted and ordered most of his knights to dismount. This was unusual given Norman battle tactics, and meant the infantry played a decisive role. William, Count of Évreux, charged the front line, with men from Bayeux, Avranches and the Cotentin. Henry's reserve proved decisive.
Aftermath
Most of Robert's army was captured or killed. Those captured included Robert, Edgar Ætheling (uncle of Henry's wife), and William, Count of Mortain. Robert de Bellême, commanding the Duke's rear guard, led the retreat, saving himself from capture or death. Most of the prisoners were released, but Robert Curthose and William of Mortain spent the rest of their lives in captivity. Robert Curthose had a legitimate son, William Clito (1102–1128), whose claims to the duchy of Normandy led to several rebellions which continued through the rest of Henry's reign.
Henry ruled England and Normandy until his death in 1135.
In fiction
Rosemary Sutcliff's 1960 historical-fiction novel Knight's Fee depicts the battle.
The video-game Age of Empires IV has a scenario that depicts the battle, with the player controlling King Henry's army.
References
1106 in Europe
1100s in France
Tinchebray
Orne
Tinchebray
Tinchebray
Henry I of England
Tinchebray | [
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|
237077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latchford%2C%20Cheshire | Latchford, Cheshire | Latchford is a suburb and electoral ward of Warrington, Cheshire, England. It is around one mile south-east of Warrington town centre and has a total resident population of 7,856.
Latchford is a predominantly residential area, Latchford lies between the River Mersey and the Manchester Ship Canal, and broadly consists of 19th-century terraced housing and some open space. The canal is crossed here by a swing bridge, a high-level road bridge and the now disused Latchford railway viaduct.
Its name came from Anglo-Saxon Læccford meaning "boggy-stream ford".
History
Latchford was originally a township in the ancient parish of Grappenhall, in Cheshire. It was also part of Bucklow Hundred, and was close to the border with Lancashire.
Between 1894 and 1974, part of Latchford was placed within the County Borough of Warrington, and the registration county of Lancashire, whilst the rest of Latchford became a civil parish named "Latchford Without" and was transferred to Lancashire.
With the local government reforms of 1974, as part of the newly formed Cheshire borough of Warrington, Latchford was transferred back to Cheshire.
Latchford Railway Viaduct
Latchford viaduct was opened on 8 July 1893 to carry the London and North Western Railway's Stockport to Warrington line over the Manchester Ship Canal. The wrought iron viaduct, with a span of , weighed more than 1,200 tonnes. The last passengers service ran in 1962, but the line continued to carry freight. It finally closed to all traffic in July 1985, when it was deemed too expensive to make extensive repairs to keep Latchford viaduct operational.
Latchford Locks
Latchford was chosen as the location of intermediate locks on the Manchester Ship Canal. These comprise a larger lock for ocean-going vessels and a smaller lock to its south for coasters, tugs and barges. A ship mooring area was provided on the canal's south bank and enabled two large vessels to pass each other at this point. The locks are still used, but less often than before, as hardly any ships now go to the terminal docks at Manchester and Salford.
Geography
Latchford is bounded to the south by the Manchester Ship Canal and Stockton Heath and to the north by the River Mersey and Howley.
Communal facilities
Victoria Park
Victoria Park is an open space beside the Mersey, with a modern sports stadium and a skateboard park. It contains a large Georgian manor house, previously the Old Warps maternity hospital, subsequently converted into flats. Nearby is a narrow Victorian suspension bridge, Howley Bridge, which provides pedestrian access between Howley and Latchford.
Victoria Park is on the site of the Old Warps Estate. In 1897 the local council bought the estate from the owners and converted it into a park to provide an amenity for the local working-class people of the terraced housing of industrial Latchford. To mark the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria the park was named "Victoria Park". The Georgian manor house "Old Warps" still stands and has been converted to a restaurant.
Before work on the Mersey commenced, Victoria Park was under the River Mersey, in an area that was considered dangerous by even the most experienced seamen. In 1724 various new weirs were built along the course of the River Mersey due to its often treacherous nature. The course of the Mersey was then altered and the land was converted into the Old Warps Estate. A weir was built and is still monitored 24 hours a day by a "weir man" from a wooden building situated about the weir, which is the tidal limit of the Mersey. The Mersey is so improved now that salmon and trout are often seen, as are herons, kingfishers and cormorants, especially in the wide pool on the river bend below the weir.
Access to Howley is provided by a suspension bridge for pedestrians, recently renovated by Warrington Borough Council.
Victoria Park has a large running track which is the home of Warrington Athletic Club, and has bowling greens, a skate-park and various other leisure facilities. A 5 km run against the clock is organised by the group Parkrun most Saturday mornings. Old Manor Lock marks the northern end of the park.
Victoria Park has also been used for the past 2 years for a new festival called Neighbourhood Weekender, which is an extended, larger version of the Neighbourhood inner-city festival in Manchester, and has taken place on May bank holiday, in 2018 and 2019.
Black Bear Park
Black Bear Canal, now infilled and used as Black Bear Park, once ran from docks on the Manchester Ship Canal near Wilderspool Causeway (to the west of Latchford) to the Mersey at Manor Lock in Howley, providing a shortcut for shipping, avoiding a large river bend and weir.
In 1804, an eight-mile long canal was built between Latchford and Runcorn. It was named the Old Quay Canal. Once the Manchester Ship Canal was dug, in the 1890s, it was shortened to one mile, from Stockton Heath to the River Mersey, at Manor Lock. It was renamed the Black Bear Canal. The Black Bear Canal remained in use for the transport of South American hides to tanneries, until the 1960s, when it fell into disuse.
Warrington Borough Council bought the land. After a local boy drowned in the late 1960s, it was converted in 1981 into a parkland forming a line from Victoria Park and the banks of the River Mersey, through to Stockton Heath. The park also forms a part of the Trans Pennine Trail.
References
External links
Latchford History Group
Villages in Cheshire
Warrington | [
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237080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystique%20%28character%29 | Mystique (character) | Mystique (Raven Darkhölme) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, commonly in association with the X-Men. Created by artist David Cockrum and writer Chris Claremont, she first appeared in the comic book Ms. Marvel #16 (April 1978).
A member of a subspecies of humanity known as mutants who are born with superhuman abilities, she is a shapeshifter who can mimic the appearance and voice of any person with exquisite precision; her natural appearance includes blue skin, red hair and yellow eyes. Typically portrayed as a foe of the X-Men, Mystique has been both a supervillain and an antiheroine, founding her own Brotherhood of Mutants and assassinating several important people involved in mutant affairs; she has been stated to be over 100 years old. Mystique is the mother of the X-Men hero Nightcrawler and the villain Graydon Creed, and the adoptive mother of the X-Men heroine Rogue.
In 2009, Mystique was ranked as IGN's 18th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time. Mystique appears in seven of the X-Men films: the character was portrayed by Rebecca Romijn in X-Men (2000), X2 (2003) and X-Men: The Last Stand (2006), while Jennifer Lawrence portrayed a younger version in X-Men: First Class (2011), X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), X-Men: Apocalypse (2016) and Dark Phoenix (2019).
Publication history
Mystique was created by David Cockrum. Chris Claremont saw Cockrum's design, dubbed the character "Mystique", and, with Cockrum's permission, set her in Ms. Marvel #16 (May 1978). The character's true appearance was revealed in Ms. Marvel #18 (June 1978) and first cover appearance in The Avengers Annual #10 (1981).
Claremont, a former X-Men writer, has said that he originally intended Mystique and Destiny to be Nightcrawler's biological parents (with Mystique having morphed into a male body for the act of conception), but Marvel didn't agree, because at that time the Comics Code Authority prohibited the explicit portrayal of gay or bisexual characters.
Fictional character biography
Mystique's exact age remains unknown. Her earliest meeting with her lover, Destiny (Irene Adler), occurred around "the dawn of the 20th century".
Sabretooth
While in her Raven persona, Mystique adopts the identity of deceased German secret agent Leni Zauber. Both Leni and Victor Creed, a.k.a. Sabretooth, had been assigned with the assassination of a scientist in East Berlin. Mystique completes the mission in place of Leni, and then she and Victor have to hide in a safe location for a while. They become lovers, but she soon fakes her death in order to leave him.
The result of this short-lived affair is reportedly the birth of Graydon Creed. A number of stories report that soon after his birth, Mystique gives him up for adoption. Others depict Mystique making arrangements for him from a distance. Raven keeps track of his activities until he reaches adolescence. Despite being the child of two mutants, Graydon is not a mutant himself. Mystique is disappointed and soon abandons him. Graydon grows to hate his parents, and eventually extends his hatred to all mutants. He becomes leader of the mutant-hating organization Friends of Humanity, and then a politician. At the height of his political ascension, Graydon is assassinated by an unknown shooter. The shooter is later revealed to be a time traveling version of Mystique as part of a convoluted time paradox involving Jean Grey, Iceman, Toad, and Juggernaut.
Nightcrawler
Still masquerading as Raven, Mystique is married to Baron Christian Wagner; older sources give his name as Count Eric Wagner, an affluent member of the German nobility. He proves to be a loving husband, but disappointing as a lover. His infertility adds to their marital problems. Mystique starts using her shapeshifting powers in order to secretly have sexual encounters with others. She is eventually seduced by fellow mutant Azazel. Azazel states that he is ruler of "an island nation off the coast of Bermuda: La Isla des Demonas", The Island of Demons. He is later revealed to also have the power of immortality and to be the father of an ancient race of mutants known as the Neyaphem, active since at least 2000 BC.
Mystique becomes pregnant, but her husband becomes suspicious and his own father suggests a blood test to verify whether the child is his. Mystique uses a dagger to murder him and then buries him. She gives birth to a baby with black hair, yellow eyes, blue skin, and a pointed tail. The locals consider the mother and child to be demons and attempt to kill them. Mystique escapes but abandons her son. He is found and raised by Gypsy sorceress Margali Szardos and named Kurt Wagner.
Rogue
Mystique becomes the adoptive mother of the fourteen-year-old girl Rogue. Rogue had run away from her home in rural Caldecott County, Mississippi. The girl was living alone in a wooded area, brandishing a shotgun and trusting no one, when Mystique found her. Destiny foresees that Rogue will be important to them and Mystique seeks her out, gains her trust, and takes her in. She and Destiny raise the girl, and Mystique grows to be very protective of her.
Mystique, as Raven Darkhölme, rises rapidly through the United States Civil Service to the trusted position of Deputy Director of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the United States Department of Defense. This position gives her access to military secrets and advanced weaponry, both of which she uses for her own criminal and subversive purposes. In this position, she attempts the theft of the Centurion weaponry from S.H.I.E.L.D. As Destiny had predicted that Ms. Marvel was a danger to Rogue, she spied on Carol Danvers and Ms. Marvel for some time prior to beating her lover Michael Barnett to death, and sought to kill Ms. Marvel.
To help her in her criminal activities, Mystique organizes her own incarnation of the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants, consisting of herself, Avalanche, the Blob, Destiny, and Pyro. The Brotherhood attempts to assassinate Senator Robert Kelly, a notoriously anti-mutant politician. The X-Men thwart the assassination attempt, and all of the Brotherhood except Mystique herself are incarcerated.
Rogue is trained by Mystique and eventually joins the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants. Her mutant power is the ability to absorb the memories, personality, and skills or powers of whomever she touches. To free the other members of the Brotherhood, Mystique concocts a plan involving Rogue absorbing the powers of Ms. Marvel and the Avengers. Though the plan is successful, the Avengers ultimately defeat the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants, capturing all of them except Rogue and Mystique. Moreover, Rogue finds that she has absorbed Ms. Marvel's memories, personality, and powers permanently. In a further humiliation, a confrontation at the Pentagon ends with Mystique being defeated and turned over to the authorities by a powerless Ms. Marvel.
The Brotherhood of Evil Mutants eventually escape, and battle against Dazzler. In an act of revenge against Mystique, Mastermind unbalances Rogue's psyche with the one she absorbed from Ms. Marvel, which prompts her to defect to the X-Men. Because Rogue left without a word, Mystique assumes that Professor X, the X-Men's mentor, brainwashed her. The Brotherhood of Evil Mutants accordingly launches an attempt to kill Professor X. Rogue stops Mystique, and explains that she joined the X-Men because Professor X, as the world's most powerful telepath, is her best hope of healing for her fragmented psyche. Mystique reluctantly relinquishes her guardianship of Rogue.
Freedom Force
Anti-mutant sentiment rises and the federal government launches its own covert anti-mutant program, Project Wideawake. Believing that the times have become too dangerous for the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants to continue, Mystique goes to Doctor Valerie Cooper, special assistant to the head of the National Security Council, and offers the Brotherhood's services to the government. In return for entering government service, Mystique and her team receive a presidential pardon for all criminal charges, to be revoked if any member of Freedom Force is found committing a crime. Cooper agrees to convey the offer to the President on the condition that the Brotherhood arrests their founder, Magneto. The Brotherhood, now reincarnated as Freedom Force, are defeated by Magneto and the X-Men. When Magneto learns that Freedom Force are official federal agents, he voluntarily surrenders to them.
Mystique leads Freedom Force in capturing the Avengers on behalf of the federal government. She clashes with X-Factor in seeking to arrest Rusty Collins. With Freedom Force, she fights the X-Men in Dallas, and witnesses her foster daughter's apparent demise. With Freedom Force, she battles Cyclops and Marvel Girl. With Freedom Force she seeks to arrest Rusty Collins again, and battles the New Mutants. She finally succeeds in capturing Collins as well as Skids. She leads Freedom Force against the Reavers on Muir Island. On this particularly disastrous mission, Freedom Force loses two of its members, Stonewall and Mystique's lover Destiny. The death of her lover leaves Mystique psychologically scarred.
Mystique is later nearly killed by Dr. Valerie Cooper, who is under the Shadow King's mental control. She then impersonates Dr. Valerie Cooper. Mystique is eventually discovered impersonating Dr. Cooper, and saves Xavier's life by killing the Shadow King's human host, Jacob Reisz. She finally reconciles with Rogue. In time, she comes to terms with Destiny's death. She teams with Spiral and Wolverine in thwarting Mojo's near-destruction of the universe. Mystique later briefly stays as a guest at Xavier's mansion. She begins going insane, and leaves the mansion under the care of Forge.
X-Factor
Mystique resurfaces several months later, in a failed attempt to kill Legion for his murdering of Destiny. Mystique has an implant put in her skull by Forge in order for the government to be able to keep track of her. She is then forced to become a member of the government-sponsored team X-Factor after being arrested for trying to blow up a dam. In truth, Mystique had been trying to save the dam, which the U.S. Government wanted to destroy so that they could blame it on mutants. Her membership leads to tension with her teammates when Sabretooth is added to the team months later as a sleeper agent, for the main purpose of killing Mystique before she can uncover the truth about the conspiracy. She slowly develops a romantic relationship with team-leader Forge (though he later thought that she was just using him).
Part of the conspiracy involves Mystique's son Graydon Creed running for President, under an anti-mutant platform.
At the same time, both Graydon and Mystique learn that Destiny married and had children during one of the couple's separations. Destiny/Irene's children are now adults with their own children, one of which is a mutant. Graydon has the mutant teen savagely beaten by members of the Friends of Humanity, as a warning towards his mother. Mystique is furious and wants to kill her son, but stops when she is given a message that Graydon's backers want her to kill him and turn her son into a martyr.
Mystique then seeks to save her son from being betrayed by his backers, but fails. Graydon's death ushers in a new wave of anti-mutant violence. Sabretooth acts on his orders to kill the members of X-Factor as "Operation Zero Tolerance" is activated. Mystique distracts Sabretooth long enough to keep him from finishing off the team. Mystique then flees the scene after arranging for X-Factor to receive medical treatment for the wounds Sabretooth inflicted.
Mystique goes into hiding, taking the identity of the senator's wife Mallory Brickman, using her husband's influence to set the FBI on Sabretooth. She prevents Rogue from giving up her mutant powers and continues her investigation of the U.S. Government over her son's death, leading to her aiding Toad and his most recent incarnation of the Brotherhood of Mutants on a mission to raid a government base. The mission fails thanks to Machine Man, who fights the Brotherhood and forces the team to flee. Mystique flees to Europe. While taking the form of a blonde haired woman, Mystique is confronted by a famous photographer who proposes to make her a big fashion model.
Amused, Mystique accepts and quickly becomes the fashion industry's newest top model. Using her money, Mystique moves back to New York and into an expensive penthouse apartment. There, Skrulls staying in a nearby building frame Mystique for the murder of a Japanese diplomat. With help from Shadowcat and Rogue, Mystique is cleared and leaves town. Before she leaves, Shadowcat finds one of Destiny's diaries, left there by Destiny herself before she died.
Breakdown
While gaining critical intelligence on the identity of those who were involved in her son's death and the attempt to kill her using Sabretooth, Mystique suddenly loses her powers while pretending to be a man in a busy office workplace.
Mystique is arrested. The U.S. Government acts on their intelligence regarding Mystique, and destroys all of the alternate identities that she established over the years and confiscate the money she and Destiny had hidden away. The loss of her powers and her freedom causes her to lash out at everyone around her. Rogue has no sympathy for Mystique's plight. The relationship sours when Rogue refuses to tell Mystique that the X-Men are going to fight the High Evolutionary, who was responsible for depowering all mutants, in order to restore everyone's powers. The X-Men defeat the High Evolutionary and restore everyone's powers, allowing Mystique to escape jail.
Mystique is sent back in time by the original X-Factor's sentient ship. Raven finds that she is destined to be part of a great time paradox, where she finds herself with a time delay weapon, which she is about to program to kill Graydon. After some deliberation, she decides to activate the weapon to kill Graydon. Mystique's sanity is further damaged by the revelation that Destiny was one of the founding members of the anti-mutant conspiracy Mystique had dedicated countless years to fighting, and had willfully withheld medical treatment to mutant children that would have resulted in them not growing up deformed due to their mutations.
This leads to Raven again going mad. She reforms the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants for another assassination attempt on Senator Kelly, and kidnaps Moira MacTaggert and impersonates her in order to access her research on the Legacy Virus. Mystique uses samples of the Legacy Virus to create a biological weapon that would infect humans and not mutants, and develops a cure for the Legacy Virus.
The assassination attempt on Kelly ends in failure when Pyro betrays his teammates. Mystique blows up MacTaggert's research facility, fatally injuring the doctor. Mystique then shoots Moira's foster daughter Wolfsbane with a prototype of Forge's neutralizer gun, depowering her. The X-Men confront Mystique and she is seriously wounded. She tells the X-Men that Destiny had predicted a dark future for mutant-kind, and that the future Destiny foretold kept on unfolding despite all that Mystique had done to prevent it. She believes that the only way to save them is to eradicate all humans.
Mystique is sent to prison, but quickly escapes. She allies herself with Martinique Jason in an attempt to wrest control of the X-Corps from its founder, Banshee. Outfitted with a device that gives her the ability to generate an electrical charge, Mystique creates the identity of a supervillain named Surge and joins the X-Corps. While Jason mind-controls the other members of the organization, Mystique brings Banshee's organization down and slits his throat, leaving him in critical condition.
Double agent
Professor X is forced to make Mystique his secret agent, as his previous one, Prudence Leighton, has died and Mystique is the only one suitable to complete the missions. Xavier poses as Magneto to rescue Mystique from the Department of Homeland Security and from execution at the hands of Johny Kitano, Special Magistrate for Homo Superior crimes against humanity, and a mutant himself. At this time, Mystique claims that there is an imposter out to frame her, taking control over the Brotherhood and sending them on their recent missions (the assassination of Moira and the infiltration of X-Corps). As long as Mystique completes the missions without killing anybody, Xavier, working with Forge, keeps her safe from the authorities, who are out to execute her.
One of Xavier's enemies, the Quiet Man, who is actually Prudence Leighton inhabiting the body of her assassin, contacts Mystique and offers to give her an interference transmitter which would keep her safe from the authorities if she kills Xavier. Creating a plan that would free her from both men, Mystique pretends to try killing Xavier while secretly working with the mutant thief Fantomex, after alerting Forge to stop her at the last moment. Her plan is to have the Quiet Man see this and believe that she really has attempted to kill Xavier and is still working for him. The other X-Men believe that Mystique has tried killing Xavier and seek her out.
Rogue tracks her down. Distraught with rage, she attacks her foster mother. Mystique escapes by blowing up the house and going through the window, changing her form to shield her fall.
Mystique goes to the Quiet Man, who is planning on having her killed. After a battle, Mystique kills the Quiet Man, saves her former field-handler Shortpack, and discovers the Quiet Man's interference transmitter was a fake. She tries to steal Forge's interference transmitter but is caught. After some angry words, he smashes it and tells her he never wants to see her again. The two share a sad goodbye kiss and Mystique leaves. After Mystique is gone, Forge realizes that she had already switched his transmitter for the fake one.
Joining the X-Men
Mystique later infiltrates the X-Men, posing as a young girl named Foxx and joining Gambit's training squad, the Chevaliers. She attempts to seduce Rogue's boyfriend Gambit to break them up so she can set her daughter up with a young mutant named Augustus, but Gambit resists. Mystique ultimately reveals herself to him, telling him that she is trying to relieve the tension between him and Rogue (because of the two being unable to touch due to her ability to absorb someone's essence upon skin-to-skin contact). Mystique then metamorphoses into Rogue and tells Gambit that he would not be cheating on Rogue if he had sex with her in Rogue's form.
When the telepath Emma Frost discovers who Foxx really is, the X-Men confront Mystique. Mystique tells them that she had been lonely and wants to join the X-Men. Mystique uses Rogue's doubts about what happened between her and Gambit to sow further discord in Rogue's relationship with Gambit, but he still refuses. The X-Men vote and decide to have Mystique join them on a probationary status (though Rogue is one of the ones who vote against her joining). Nightcrawler asks her to leave for a while regardless of the vote, saying that he needs more time adjusting to the idea of her being a member. Mystique agrees and leaves. After M-Day, she joins the X-Men and brings Augustus (Pulse) along with her. Both have been crucial in the downfall of Apocalypse.
Marauders
After the Hecatomb battle on Providence, Rogue's team returns to Rogue's childhood home in Caldecott County, Mississippi, which Mystique owns, for some downtime. Mystique alerts the X-Men, who come to treat Rogue's illness, that there are intruders in the area. Only after Lady Mastermind drops her illusions do the X-Men realize that it is an all-out attack, and that both Lady Mastermind and Omega Sentinel (the latter being possessed by Malice) have defected sides. During the Marauders' initial ambush, Mystique prevents Scalphunter from shooting Rogue. She then reveals herself as a traitor as well, shoots her adopted daughter, and orders the remaining Marauders to kill the X-Men.
Mystique remains with the Marauders during the hunt for the first new mutant baby, but is revealed to have murdered Mister Sinister in a plot involving the baby and Rogue's killing touch. She also appears to be working with Gambit, who, like her, has ulterior motives to want to betray Mister Sinister. When Sinister approaches Mystique as she is with the comatose Rogue, Mystique shoves Sinister onto Rogue, killing him through fatal skin-to-skin contact. Then, in keeping with the words of the Destiny Diaries, she touches the baby's face to Rogue's. The baby's touch purges her of the Strain 88 virus and all the residual psyches she had absorbed over her life, including Hecatomb. Rogue is sickened by Mystique's manipulations, and leaves.
Wolverine tracks Mystique to the Middle East and then into Afghanistan. It is hinted at that Mystique's recent betrayal is not the only reason Logan is out to kill her, as they have a common history of friendship, love, and ultimately, betrayal. After a heated fight, Wolverine wounds Mystique, but denies her the Coup de grâce.
Manifest Destiny
Mystique shows up again, posing as Bobby Drake's ex-girlfriend Opal Tanaka. She sets off a bomb inside of Bobby's Blackbird before shooting him and kicking him out of the plane. Later, she follows Iceman to the hospital and injects him with a fatal dose of a toxin created by Mister Sinister. Hospital staff try to get to Iceman, but they are held back by Mystique while Iceman expels the toxin from his system. Afterward, Mystique attacks Iceman in a truck and sets the truck ablaze with Iceman in it. Iceman steps out of the fire unharmed and disarms and immobilizes Mystique, but she escapes after turning her body into her child form. Mystique impersonates Iceman and stands on top of the Golden Gate bridge threatening to blow it up. Iceman arrives and discovers the reason for Mystique doing this is Wolverine telling her that she will die alone. After a heated conversation, Iceman freezes the bomb. Mystique jumps off the bridge into the water. Iceman tells Cyclops and Hank McCoy that he knows that she is not dead and thanks her for what she did for him.
Dark X-Men
Mystique joins Norman Osborn's Dark X-Men, posing as Professor Charles Xavier for P.R. purposes. Osborn has her injected with nanites and kept on a short leash; should she try anything, Osborn would turn her into a human bomb. After the defection of Emma Frost, Namor, and Cloak and Dagger, Mystique leads the remaining members of the team under the public guise of Jean Grey, as no one could prove Jean had actually died, but mainly to hurt those who had caused her great harm.
Wolverine, having returned from hell and retrieved his possessed body from a demonic force, targets Mystique after finding out she was responsible for sending his soul there at the behest of The Red Right Hand. Mystique is shot by a hit-man named Lord Deathstrike. Badly wounded, Mystique patches herself and escapes on a motorcycle. Wolverine and Lord Deathstrike are in hot pursuit of Mystique throughout the San Francisco streets simultaneously. Mystique ultimately confronts Wolverine, who stabs her with his claws, killing her. Lord Deathstrike collects Mystique's body and auctions it off. Her corpse is sold for 5 million to group of ninjas. It is implied these are agents of The Hand.
Revival
Mystique is seen alive again posing as Sabretooth at Los Angeles International Airport. In the form of Sabretooth she has agreed to assist the Hellfire Club in their destruction of the Jean Grey School. Mystique, as Sabretooth, was a faculty member of The Hellfire Academy. When the Hand revived Mystique, her powers were enhanced and she is now capable of changing her scent to match the forms she takes.
Receiving word that the original X-Men are in the present day, Mystique seeks out young Scott Summers to manipulate him into thinking she has his and mutantkind's best interests at heart. She uses Lady Mastermind and Sabretooth to commit robberies and frame the X-Men. Viper shows up. Mystique explains to her that she wants to buy Madripoor from HYDRA and control the crime in the area. Before this transaction is completed, the X-Men raid the place. Lady Mastermind and Mystique are captured, but Mystique escapes in a S.H.I.E.L.D. helicopter.
Mystique is attacked by Iceman, who is possessed by the Apocalypse fragment. After Iceman is shattered into pieces by Thor, Mystique takes the Apocalypse fragment and swallows it to inherit its powers.
In order to help move her plans along, Mystique drugs and replaces Dazzler, who's now became SHIELD's mutant liaison, allowing her to set up her New Brotherhood under Maria Hill's nose. She sets up operations in Madripoor, allowing her to regularly visit to 'investigate' the mutant uprising there, while secretly being the one in charge of it. She offers Magneto a place in her New Brotherhood after he leaves the Uncanny X-Men team, but he rejects it on the grounds of her financing her operation via drug money from Mutant Growth Hormone sales, attacking and defeating her Brotherhood and stealing her chopper in order to find his own place in the new world.
Uncanny Avengers
Mystique appears as a member of Magneto's unnamed supervillain group during the fight against Red Skull's Red Onslaught form. When the heroes and villains present undergo a moral inversion due to a flawed spell cast by the Scarlet Witch and Doctor Doom, Mystique joins the other inverted villains in the 'Astonishing Avengers' as they go up against the inverted X-Men and Avengers, also working to prevent the inverted Nightcrawler from killing those who were involved in the riot that nearly killed him before his first meeting with Professor X. During the final fight, Mystique briefly poses as Professor X to try to get through to the 'reborn' Apocalypse (Actually the now-adult clone of Apocalypse known as Evan Sabahnur that the X-Men had been trying to raise away from his template's influence), but is converted back to her usual villainous attitude at the conclusion of the storyline.
Age of X
Mystique is sent in with a team of X-Men to stop the launch by the anti-mutant Orchis organization to activate Mother Mold, an incredibly powerful Master Mold made to make other Master Molds that will lead to the Nimrod generation. While they succeed, the whole team is killed in the raid, to then be resurrected on Krakoa.
Mystique is sent on a last-ditch mission to detonate a singularity bomb inside the Orchis base before Orchis leader Dr. Alia Gregor completes her own Nimrod prototype, in exchange for moving the resurrection of Destiny to the front. The mission ends in failure, with only the Nimrod containing Alia's husband's mind being destroyed. A back-up Nimrod is nevertheless still functioning. This leads to Magneto and Professor X forbidding Destiny's resurrection--it is heavily implied they had no intention of ever doing this due to her being a threat to Moira McTaggert--and Mystique remembering a promise Destiny made to burn down Krakoa if such an event occurred.
Powers and abilities
Mystique is a mutant shapeshifter with the ability to psionically shift the formation of her biological cells at will to change her appearance and thereby assume the form of other humans and animals. She can also alter her voice to duplicate exactly that of another person. Originally, it was clearly stated that Mystique's powers were limited to appearances only; she could not assume the powers of the people she morphed into or alter her body to adapt to different situations. Additionally she could not change her overall body mass when taking on the appearance of a person larger or smaller, but due to subsequent enhancements she has stated that her body mass is not fixed and can change when she does.
Her body is not limited to purely organic appearances: She also has the ability to create the appearance of clothes and other materials out of her own body, including items such as glasses, zippers, identity cards, handbags and even test tubes. Mystique is shown in at least one instance transforming a metallic part of her costume into a functioning blaster pistol. Whether this is a function of her powers or the costume piece itself, is unclear.
As a shape-shifter, Mystique is able to constantly alter and rejuvenate her body's cells and thereby retain her youthful appearance despite having lived for over one hundred years.
Mystique received her first power enhancement in the X-Men Forever miniseries, in which she was exposed to dangerous levels of radiation in order to save the life of Toad. The process boosted her powers so that she can now morph her body into taking certain desired physical traits depending on her situation at the time. Examples of these new abilities include night vision, wings on her back, talons in her fingers, and natural body armor. She can compress into nearly two-dimensions (like a sheet of paper) to glide on air currents in a fashion similar to that of Mister Fantastic. She has moved her vital organs out of place in order to survive gunshots to her torso and head,<ref>Wolverine vol. 2 #304</ref> and can make herself virtually invisible via camouflage. She has even, with strain, given herself two heads and four arms to facilitate a gun fight on two fronts, as well as shapeshifted into herself as a small child. She is also now able to hold a shape when knocked unconscious and can conceal items in shapeshifted pouches under her skin.
Following her death and resurrection by the Hand, her powers have been further enhanced. She can now alter and conceal her scent from those with enhanced senses, and is capable of changing her shape to a greater degree, including altering her limbs to form tentacles and bladed weapons, and compressing herself into a dog.
Damage to her biological tissue is known to heal at a relatively fast rate and she can form a resistance to poisons upon contacting them. Her enhancements have allowed her to rapidly regrow severed limbs, and rapidly recover from near fatal injury. Her powers grant her immunity to diseases, enhanced agility and strength, and agelessness.
Mystique is a cunning strategist in terrorist and commando operations, and adept at martial arts and information technology. She has a talent for finding, stealing, and understanding cutting edge weaponry. She is a talented actress and a polyglot, being fluent in over fourteen languages. Her mind is naturally unreadable owing to changing grey matter and she wears devices to prevent telepathic intrusion. Furthermore, with over a century's experience in posing as other people she has picked up the unusual skill of being able to identify people posing as others based on body language and changes in behavioral cues.
Having lived for at least a century, Mystique has built up considerable resources, one of her aliases being the billionaire B Byron Biggs who owns a number of safehouses around the world which are often protected by sophisticated security systems. She also controls a variety of weaponry and gadgets, including the Changeling, a highly advanced stealth ship capable of cloaking and flying at very high speed. The ship had sophisticated weapons and surveillance systems, with an on-board analysis computer and power-suppressing containment cells.
Other versions
Absorbed by Rogue
A copy of Mystique's mind, including her memories and personality, exists within the mind of Rogue ever since the events of "X-Men: Messiah Complex". She converses with Rogue. She also requests that Rogue turn over control of their body. Eventually she is erased by Professor Xavier.
Age of Apocalypse
In the Age of Apocalypse timeline, she gave up her adopted daughter Rogue to Magneto and his X-Men. Years later, Mystique is the ferrywoman to Avalon. It is her task to meet the refugees and make sure they meet the guide to Avalon, Cain. Though she works against Apocalypse, she is not much of a hero. She charges a heavy tariff to ferry the refugees to Avalon, taking all of their valuables. This plagues her conscience and she is reluctant to go to Avalon, as she feels that she is not fit to enter. Ultimately, she gets past her guilt to guide her son, Nightcrawler, to Avalon and find Destiny. She and her son form X-Calibre to defeat Apocalypse's agents, the Pale Riders and the Shadow King.
Battle of the Atom
Mystique's future is shown, where she is revealed to be the mother of Charlie Xavier II, the son of Charles Xavier, possessing his father's powers and appearance. While disguised as Moira MacTaggert she gives birth to Charlie, but upon birth she tearfully abandons her child. Later she raised her son Raze (conceived by Wolverine, with his mother's shape-shifting skills and his father's healing ability), who eventually killed her and took her appearance to rule Madripoor.
Cable's Future
Mystique inquires of Cable "How does [history] judge the part we play here and now in protecting the remnants of mutant-kind?" He says "History is short on specifics" and that it only remembers broad movements, not individuals. She hints at wanting to know how she is remembered, and he comments that her name did survive in a database of his time. Her name is synonymous with traitor, comparing her name to Judas Iscariot. He adds that the information from his time is part of his history, as it was 2,000 years old.
Exiles
In the Earth-797 reality, Mystique is apparently a man and goes by the name of Raphael-Raven Darkhölme (and his alias is Mystiq). Much like the main Mystique, he has a relationship with Destiny but due to his gender has a child with her (Claremont's original plan for Nightcrawler's origin). They are both killed in unknown circumstances and Raphael often goes to their grave sites. On such an occasion, he is about to be attacked by soldiers when the Exiles' Sabretooth, who had been stranded on this Earth, saves his life. Saying he is in his debt, he joins the Exiles when they come to pick up their teammate.
House of M
In the House of M, Mystique is an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. and a member of its elite unit, the Red Guard, alongside Jessica Drew, Toad, and her children Rogue and Nightcrawler. She's also involved in an affair with Wolverine, the Red Guard's leader. When this unit, in pursuit of their former leader, attacks the heroes 'awakened' by Layla Miller, the entire squad is restored. With all of reality against them, any personal history is set aside, and Mystique fights alongside the rest of the 'awakened' without incident.
Marvel Mangaverse
In X-Men Mangaverse, Mystique teams up with Nightcrawler and other Brotherhood members. Storm later kills her with a lightning bolt.
Marvel Zombies
Mystique appears as a zombie twice in the Marvel Zombies universe. She is first shown disguised as Scarlet Witch, in order to get close to and bite Quicksilver, thus becoming directly responsible for the fast spread of the zombie virus throughout the world. She is also shown fighting alongside zombie versions of Avalanche, Blob, and Pyro taking a direct blast from Cyclops right to the face.
Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel Universe, Mystique is the former lover of Charles Xavier. During their stay in the Savage Land with Magneto, the young Emma Frost comes under the tutelage of Xavier, and shortly thereafter he dumps Mystique for Frost. Ever since then, Mystique has held great resentment toward Xavier, which in turn makes her loyal to Magneto. She teams up with Forge and helps Magneto escape the Triskelion by taking his place in the prison cell, before she is replaced by Mastermind and Stacy X and given a new assignment. She is hinted to be one of the few who actually knows how Xavier's darker side operates, stating "We all bought into Xavier's dream until we got a look at the sick brain behind it." It is later revealed that Emma Frost named Xavier's cat after Mystique, after the feline partially destroyed the decor of his office. She briefly appears in Ultimates 3, impersonating the Black Widow to distract Tony Stark until knocked out by the Wasp. She is later seen with the few surviving Brotherhood members still stationed in Wundagore.
X-Men: The End
In the trilogy book series X-Men: The End Mystique is posing as Dark Beast and pretending to work with Mister Sinister. When Sinister murders Rogue she kills him. Gambit later asks her to look after his and Rogue's children when he goes off into space.
X-Men Fairy Tales
Mystique appears briefly in the X-Men Fairy Tales limited series' first issue. She is leading a group of thieves who attack the old monk/Professor X. They are scared away by Hitome/Cyclops. The other thieves are Avalanche and Pyro. In the fourth issue, she appears as Anna/Rogue's mother, a voodoo priestess.
Infinity Wars
During the Infinity Wars storyline where the universe was folded in half, Mystique was fused with Lady Deathstrike creating Deathstrique. She was hired by Dragon King (fusion between Shadow King and Dragoness) to assassinate Diamond Patch (fusion between Wolverine and Emma Frost), but was instead slashed and thrown from the roof by Diamond Patch.
She was then hired by Red Dormmamu (fusion of Red Skull and Dormammu) to masquerade as Madame Hel (fusion between Madame Masque and Hela) and start a conflict between Soldier Supreme (fusion between Captain America and Doctor Strange) and Iron Hammer (fusion between Thor and Iron Man).
In other media
Television
Mystique was a recurring character in the 1990s X-Men animated series, voiced by Randall Carpenter (seasons one and two), and by Jennifer Dale (subsequent appearances). This version was the Brotherhood of Mutants' leader and a close ally of Apocalypse (who in this version gave her powers and adopted the identity of a mutant cure doctor to lure into servitude), Mister Sinister and Magneto. She is also the birth mother of Graydon Creed Jr., Nightcrawler (Kurt Wagner) and the adoptive mother of Rogue, whom she's been trying to return her to her villainous ways.
Mystique plays a prominent role in X-Men: Evolution, primarily voiced by Colleen Wheeler. The birth mother of Nightcrawler (Kurt Wagner) and the adoptive mother of Rogue, this version is an initial follower of Magneto throughout season one as she was disguised as Principal of Bayville. She is featured sparingly in subsequent seasons while disguising herself as Risty Wilde (voiced by Nicole Oliver) for a majority of this time before being turned into a Horseman of Apocalypse in the series finale.
Mystique appears in the Wolverine and the X-Men animated series, voiced by Tamara Bernier. This version is an Acolyte of Magneto and has a romantic history with Wolverine. She is seen in the episodes "Greetings from Genosha", "Battle Lines", "Stolen Lives" and "Foresight" [Parts 1 & 2].
Mystique is featured in The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Lena Headey in a British accent. In the episode "Deadly is the Black Widow's Bite", she poses as Black Widow in order to gain the Super Hero Squad's trust.
Mystique appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers voiced by Masumi Asano.
X-Men film franchise
Rebecca Romijn played Mystique in the 2000 film X-Men. She is a member of Magneto's Brotherhood of Mutants alongside Sabretooth and Toad.
Romijn reprises the role in the 2003 sequel X2; Bruce Davison played an impersonation of Senator Robert Kelly. She frees Magneto from the plastic cell in which Magneto was being held, and together the two help the X-Men infiltrate William Stryker's base at Alkali Lake to stop Stryker's plan of Professor X brainwashed in a duplicate Cerebro to kill all mutants.
Romijn reprises her role in 2006's X-Men: The Last Stand. Magneto and Pyro free her along with Juggernaut and the Multiple Man from a moving prison van. When she dives in front of a series of shots meant for Magneto, the mutant cure within the ammunition turns her into a normal human, and Magneto abandons her as she's no longer a mutant. Traumatized and betrayed by the experience, Mystique goes to the FBI and gives the location of Magneto's base of operations.
Jennifer Lawrence portrays a younger version of the character in the 2011 prequel X-Men: First Class; Morgan Lily briefly plays a child depiction while Romijn makes a cameo as a transformation of seduction. She is raised as Charles Xavier's foster sister, and helps found the X-Men, but eventually defects to Erik Lensherr's side as she's dissatisfied with Xavier's constant attempts to ask her to hide where Magneto encouraged her not to fear her true appearance.
Lawrence reprises her role in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past. It was her assassination of Bolivar Trask that leads to the latter's martyrdom, resulting in the Sentinel program's fruition. Mystique was subsequently captured and experimented upon, leading to the Sentinels' unstoppable shapeshifting abilities and a dystopian future. The film revolves around Wolverine's attempts to stop her assassination of Trask and avert the dark future after being sent back in time by Kitty Pryde projecting Wolverine into a younger self. The group stops Mystique's attempt to kill Trask, but the altercation exposes mutants to the world for the first time earlier than in the previous timeline, prompting President Richard Nixon to approve the Sentinel program while Trask studies a blood sample Mystique left behind during the attack. When Trask Industries uses the Sentinels to Washington, D.C. for a national presentation which Magneto secretly surrounded in steel to control and subsequently commandeers the Sentinels to attack the crowd, Mystique (disguised as Nixon) was in the middle of the confusion. When Hank McCoy's mutation gets suppressed with a serum to which a Sentinel turns on Magneto, the distraction allows Mystique to shoot with a plastic gun, wounding Magneto and releasing the Sentinels' control. After Xavier convinces Mystique to let Trask live, the world sees that a mutant saved the President and the Sentinel program is shut down. Trask is arrested for selling military secrets to foreign powers, erasing the dystopian future seen earlier in the film. Mystique remains rogue, but disguises herself as William Stryker in order to save Wolverine from drowning in the Potomac River.
Lawrence reprised her role in the 2016 film X-Men: Apocalypse. The film is set in the 1980s, with Mystique now the 'public face' of the idea of heroic mutants, and not aligned with Magneto as she did in the original timeline after the last film's events. Despite being idolized by other mutants as a hero, she rejects the notion while focusing simply on getting the oppressed to safety. Younger mutants like Ororo Munroe, Scott Summers, and Jean Grey see her as an inspiration, and some have begun trying to use their powers for heroics or vigilantism based on her examples. After she sees a news report about the death of Magneto's family while she is trying to help Nightcrawler, she has Nightcrawler take her back to Xavier's mansion so that Xavier can help her find Magneto. In the process, she unintentionally alerts the powerful new foe Apocalypse to their existence, prompting Xavier's abduction. After briefly being held captive by Stryker, Raven and the other adults are rescued by Scott, Jean, and Nightcrawler, prompting Raven to accompany them on the mission to rescue Xavier from Apocalypse and convincing Erik, who joined Apocalypse to get revenge on humanity after his wife and daughter were killed by cops, she and Quicksilver, Erik's unknown son, succeeds to make realize Erik that he still has a family and he, repented for his actions, helps them to defeat Apocalypse and becomes a true hero despite kindly refusing a place in the X-Mansion as a teacher. At the film's conclusion, Mystique returns to the X-Men as one of Xavier's lieutenants (along with Beast) and field commander while Quicksilver choice to tell Erik about their relationship at the opportune moment.
Lawrence reprised her role for the final time in the 2019 film Dark Phoenix. In the film, Raven begins to voice her frustrations to Xavier for sending the X-Men on increasingly dangerous missions and leaving her to save them, and even suggests that the name of the team be changed to the "X-Women", a line that was widely criticized by fans and critics alike. During a confrontation with Jean as the Phoenix, Mystique attempts to talk her down, only to have her friend lose control and accidentally impale her on a broken piece of wood. Mystique's death profoundly affects both Beast and Magneto, who briefly work together to try to kill Jean in retaliation.
Video games
In the X-Men arcade game, she appears, first disguised as Professor X between stages 5 and 6. She is the boss of stage 7, Asteroid M, where she takes Magneto's form; she attacks players with punches and kicks curiously more quickly than the real Magneto.
Mystique appears in the 2000 fighting game, X-Men: Mutant Academy, and its 2001 sequel, X-Men: Mutant Academy 2, as a playable character.
Mystique is a playable character in X-Men: Next Dimension, voiced by Julianne Grossman. In the game she does not utilize her shapeshifting abilities, relying instead on her martial arts skills and weaponry.
Mystique appears as a boss in X-Men Legends, voiced by Grey DeLisle.
Mystique appears as an NPC X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, voiced again by Grey DeLisle. In a mission that takes place in the Savage Land where the players look for Destiny, Mystique helps the players fight Garokk. She has special dialogue with Rogue.
Mystique appears in 2009's movie tie-in X-Men Origins: Wolverine, voiced by Anna Graves. She masquerades as a CIA operative working with Major William Stryker's Team X.
Mystique appears in the Nintendo DS version of the Marvel Super Hero Squad video game.
Mystique appears as a villain character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online.
Mystique appears in X-Men: Destiny, voiced by Sumalee Montano.
Mystique is available as downloadable content for the game LittleBigPlanet, as part of "Marvel Costume Kit 1".
Mystique appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Laura Bailey.
Mystique is playable in the mobile game Marvel Strike Force.
Mystique appears as an NPC in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Sumalee Montano. She accompanies Magneto and Juggernaut in attacking the X-Mansion in order to claim the Infinity Gem that Beast stole from the Hellfire Club. Following Juggernaut's rampage in the X-Mansion, Mystique trapped the heroes in the Danger Room while posing as Cyclops. She got briefly incapacitated when the Danger Room overloaded. During Corvus Glaive and Proxima Midnight's attack on the heroes and Magneto, Mystique assumed the form of Proxima Midnight to stab Corvus Glaive only to be knocked out afterwards by the real Proxima Midnight.
Mystique is available as a playable character in Fortnite Battle Royale Chapter 2, Season 4, which has been titled "Nexus War".
Collected editions
Essential Ms. Marvel Vol.1 (Ms. Marvel Vol.1 #1-23; The Avengers Vol.1 Annual #10; Marvel Super-Heroes #10-11; 512 pages, February 2007, )
Mystique Vol.1: Dead Drop Gorgeous (Mystique #1-6; 160 pages, August 2004, )
Mystique Vol.2: Tinker, Tailor, Mutant, Spy (Mystique #7-13; 170 pages, November 2004, )
Mystique Vol.3: Unnatural (Mystique #14-18; 120 pages, January 2005, )
Mystique Vol.4: Quiet (Mystique #19-24; 150 pages, April 2005, )
Mystique By Brian K. Vaughan Ultimate Collection (Mystique #1-13; 312 pages, May 2011, )
Mystique By Sean McKeever Ultimate Collection (Mystique #14-24; 256 pages, June 2011, )
Wolverine: Get Mystique'' (Wolverine Vol.3 #62-65; 96 pages, August 2008, )
References
External links
Mystique at Marvel.com
Mystique at UncannyXMen.net
Animated series villains
Characters created by Chris Claremont
Characters created by Dave Cockrum
Comics about women
Comics characters introduced in 1978
Female characters in animation
Female characters in film
Female characters in television
Female film villains
Fictional actors
Fictional bisexual females
Fictional female assassins
Fictional impostors
Fictional mercenaries
Fictional models
Fictional murderers
Fictional private investigators
Fictional secret agents and spies
Fictional women soldiers and warriors
Marvel Comics characters who are shapeshifters
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics female superheroes
Marvel Comics female supervillains
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics LGBT superheroes
Marvel Comics LGBT supervillains
Marvel Comics martial artists
Marvel Comics mutants
Supervillains with their own comic book titles
X-Factor (comics)
X-Men supporting characters | [
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|
237081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alum%20Bay | Alum Bay | Alum Bay is a bay near the westernmost point of the Isle of Wight, England, within close sight of the Needles rock formation. Of geological interest and a tourist attraction, the bay is noted for its multi-coloured sand cliffs. The waters and adjoining seabed form part of the Needles Marine Conservation Zone and the shore and heath above are part of the Headon Warren and West High Down Site of Special Scientific Interest.
Geology
Alum Bay is the location of a classic sequence of upper Paleocene and Eocene beds of soft sands and clays, separated by an unconformity from the underlying Cretaceous Chalk Formation that forms the adjoining headland of West High Down. Due to geological folding of the Alpine orogeny, the strata in the main section of the bay are near vertical, with younger rocks with progressively lower dips to the west. The sands are coloured due to oxidised iron compounds formed under different conditions.
Alum Bay Chine begins as a small wooded valley descending eastward from the junction of the B3322 and the road to Headon Hall. It soon broadens into the clay ravine through which the path and chairlift from Needles Park descend to the beach.
Tourism
On the clifftop there is an amusement park with fairground rides, souvenir shops and a cafe. During the summer season a chair lift takes tourists to and from the pebble beach below. Alternatively, a footpath leads to the beach via Alum Bay Chine. From the beach boat trips frequently leave to tour the Needles...
Alum Bay sands
A traditional product of Alum Bay, and a fixture of Isle of Wight tourist shops, was the creation of ornaments using the coloured sands layered in vials and jars. The sands were also used for sand painting pictures, a popular craft in Victorian times known as marmotinto.
In the past, visitors to the bay could climb the foot of the cliffs and dig out the sand themselves. The removal of minerals from the site is now prohibited by law under provisions laid out in notices attached to the Headon Warren and West High Down SSSI designation.
The Needles Park has a facility where people could make bottles of sand, using sand gathered from the frequent rockfalls. In the past it was possible to buy Alum Bay coloured sand by mail order and make one's own sand pictures and bottles at home.
Transport
Southern Vectis run bus services from Alum Bay, including two summer-only open top services – the Needles Breezer and the Island Coaster.
History
On a map of the area produced around 1590, the bay is named Whytfylde Chine. It is possible that Alum Bay was once fed by a Chine by this name, which has long since eroded away.
Alum Bay sand includes extremely pure white silica, which was once extracted for glass and pottery manufacture.
Guglielmo Marconi moved to Alum Bay in 1897 to experiment with radio. He installed a 40-metre radio antenna outside the Needles Hotel in Alum Bay. Initially establishing communication with ships offshore, by early 1898 he had successfully communicated with stations at Madeira House, Bournemouth and the Haven Hotel, Poole 20 miles away.
See also
Whitecliff Bay
References
External links
Needles Park official website
Grimkie, Jacob Abbott, Sheldon, 1860 - novel with description of Alumn Bay ornaments and sand pictures.
Geology of the Isle of Wight
Bays of the Isle of Wight
Chines of the Isle of Wight
Tourist attractions on the Isle of Wight | [
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|
237084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Needles | The Needles | The Needles is a row of three stacks of chalk that rise about 30m out of the sea off the western extremity of the Isle of Wight in the English Channel, United Kingdom, close to Alum Bay, and part of Totland, the westernmost civil parish of the Isle of Wight. The Needles Lighthouse stands at the outer, western end of the formation. Built in 1859, it has been automated since 1994. The waters and adjoining seabed form part of the Needles Marine Conservation Zone and the Needles along with the shore and heath above are part of the Headon Warren and West High Down Site of Special Scientific Interest.
The formation takes its name from a fourth needle-shaped pillar called Lot's Wife, which collapsed in a storm in 1764. The remaining rocks are not at all needle-like, but the name has stuck.
The Needles were featured on the BBC Two TV programme Seven Natural Wonders (2005) as one of the wonders of Southern England.
During Storm Eunice on 18 February 2022, the highest recorded wind gust in England was provisionally recorded at The Needles, at .
Tourism
The Needles lie just to the southwest of Alum Bay, and are a tourist draw. Scenic boat trips operate from Alum Bay that offer close-up views of the Needles. The rocks and lighthouse have become icons of the Isle of Wight, often photographed by visitors, and are featured on many of the souvenirs sold throughout the island.
The main tourist attractions of the headland itself are the two gun batteries, the experimental rocket testing station, and the four coastguard cottages owned by the National Trust. A branch of the National Coastwatch Institution is also based at the Needles, sited near the New Battery and Rocket Testing Site on High Down. The Needles – Landmark Attraction (previously known as The Needles Pleasure Park) situated at the top of the cliff at Alum Bay is a small amusement park. A chairlift operates between the park and the beach.
Military use
The Needles were a site of a long-standing artillery battery, from the 1860s to 1954, which was eventually decommissioned.
A nearby site on High Down was employed in the testing of rockets for the British ICBM programme. The headland at High Down was used for Black Knight and Black Arrow rocket engine tests from 1956 to 1971. During the peak of activity in the early 1960s some 240 people worked at the complex, while the rockets were built in nearby East Cowes. These rockets were later used to launch the Prospero X-3 satellite. The site is now owned by the National Trust, and is open to the public. Concrete installations remain, but the buildings that were less durable have either been demolished or were torn down by the elements.
In 1982, Prince Charles officially opened the restored Needles Old Battery facility. Underground rocket testing rooms are currently being restored for exhibition. The first phase of restoration was completed in 2004.
Access
The batteries are accessible by car, foot, bicycle, and bus. Though there is a paved road up to The Old and The New batteries, access is on foot, from a car park. The battery site becomes dangerous in high winds and is closed to the public in winds above force 8.
In the spring and summer, the Southern Vectis bus company sends open-top buses along a route called The Needles Breezer. This route approaches the Battery along the cliff edge, using a road reserved for bus traffic. The Needles Breezer also has stops in Alum Bay, Totland, Colwell Bay, Fort Victoria, Yarmouth, and Freshwater Bay. Breezer buses are the only vehicles allowed on the road from Alum Bay, apart from those owned by National Trust staff or, by prior appointment, vehicles transporting disabled visitors. This is because the single track road's position close to the cliff edge is considered dangerous for multiple car use.
The Isle of Wight Coast Path has its westernmost point at the Coastguard Cottages.
Geology
The Needles' pointed shape is a result of their unusual geology. The strata have been so heavily folded during the Alpine Orogeny that the chalk is near vertical. This chalk outcrop runs through the centre of the Island from Culver Cliff in the east to the Needles in the west, and then continues under the sea to the Isle of Purbeck, forming Ballard Cliff (near Swanage), Lulworth Cove and Durdle Door. At Old Harry Rocks (east of Studland and north of Swanage) these strata lines moving from horizontal to near vertical can be seen from the sea.
The shape of the lost Lot's Wife stone column, recorded as collapsing in 1764, is subject to some speculation. A drawing of The Needles by Dutch landscape artist Lambert Doomer (1624–1700), made in 1646, depicts a rock formation with much stouter shape than that shown in Isaac Taylor's 1759 "one inch" map of Hampshire. The Doomer etching is contained in Atlas Blaeu-Van der Hem (published ca. 1662), which is in the Austrian National Library in Vienna. It is not clear from this drawings what transpired and whether Doomer was exercising artistic license. Doomer's painting shows three stacks when there should have been four, prior to the collapse of Lot's Wife.
Just off the end of The Needles formation is the Shingles, a shifting shoal of pebbles just beneath the waves. The Shingles is approximately three miles in length. Many ships have been wrecked on the Shingles and three notable vessels on The Needles themselves: HMS Assurance in the 18th century, HMS Pomone in the 19th, and SS Varvassi in 1947.
See also
Palmerston Forts
Palmerston Forts, Isle of Wight
References
External links
General information
Needles Battery tourist website
National Trust on The Needles Old Battery
Pictures and video
Page 1- The Needles, Steve Shafleet, pictures of the Needles, from "Alum Bay and the Needles", Isle of Wight Historic Postcards, 24 June 2007.
Pictures of the Needles Rocket Test Site
Video of Microlight flight over the needles
Landforms of the Isle of Wight
National Trust properties on the Isle of Wight
Stacks of England
Space programme of the United Kingdom
Headlands of the Isle of Wight
Nature Conservation Review sites
Marine reserves of England
Shipwrecks of the Needles | [
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|
237088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogart%20%28disambiguation%29 | Bogart (disambiguation) | Humphrey Bogart (1899–1957) was an American actor.
Bogart or Boggart may also refer to:
People
Bogart (surname), lists people with surname Bogart
Bogart Rogers (1897–1966), American motion picture writer and producer and World War I flying ace
"Bogart", nickname of American Idol contestant Bo Bice
Places
Bogart, Georgia, a town
Bogart, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Bogart, Ontario, Canada, a settlement
Bogart's, a Cincinnati, Ohio, music venue
Bogart's (Long Beach, California), a former music venue.
Magical creature
Boggart or bogart, a creature in Celtic mythology
Boggart, a magical creature in the Harry Potter universe
Boggart (Dungeons & Dragons) a magical creature in the Dungeons and Dragons universe.
Other uses
A variant of the fedora (hat)
"Bogart", a song by Nik Kershaw | [
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|
237106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Lynx | Minnesota Lynx | The Minnesota Lynx are an American professional basketball team based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, playing in the Western Conference in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The team won the WNBA title in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2017.
Founded prior to the 1999 season, the team is owned by Glen Taylor, who is also the majority owner of the Lynx' NBA counterpart, the Minnesota Timberwolves. The franchise has been home to many high-quality players such as Katie Smith, explosive small forward Seimone Augustus, native Minnesotan Lindsay Whalen, UConn standout Maya Moore, forward Rebekkah Brunson, and center Sylvia Fowles.
The Lynx have qualified for the WNBA playoffs in twelve of their twenty-one years. With four championships, the Lynx are tied with the Houston Comets and the Seattle Storm for the most titles in WNBA history, and they have won more Western Conference championships than any other franchise. They currently hold a WNBA record ten consecutive playoff appearances.
Franchise history
Joining the league (1998–2004)
On April 22, 1998, the WNBA announced they would add two expansion teams (Minnesota and the Orlando Miracle) for the 1999 season. The team was officially named the Minnesota Lynx on December 5, 1998. The Lynx started their inaugural season in 1999 with 12,122 fans in attendance to watch the first regular-season game against the Detroit Shock at Target Center. The Lynx defeated Detroit 68–51 in the franchise's first game. They finished their first season 15–17 overall and held the same record in 2000.
In 2001, the Lynx took a turn for the worse as they posted a 12–20 record.
The Lynx' first head coach, Brian Agler, was released during the 2002 season after compiling a 47–67 record in three-plus seasons. Heidi VanDerveer became the interim head coach for the remainder of the season. The team finished the 2002 season with a 10–22 record, worst in franchise history (until 2006).
In 2003, the Lynx hired Suzie McConnell-Serio as head coach. She led the team to finish with a franchise-best 18–16 record and advanced to the WNBA Playoffs for the first time. They matched both of these feats in the 2004 season.
Seimone Augustus joins the team (2005–2007)
The 2005 season was one of transition for the franchise. Leading scorer Katie Smith was dealt to Detroit in July and the team stumbled down the stretch, missing the playoffs for the first time in three years. The poor finish did pay off however, as the team won the draft lottery and selected All-American guard Seimone Augustus of Louisiana State University with the first overall pick in the 2006 WNBA Draft.
The Lynx began the 2006 season as the youngest team in the WNBA. On May 31, the team set the WNBA single-game scoring record (at the time), routing the Los Angeles Sparks by a score of 114–71. Despite this victory and with her team floundering to an 8–15 record, head coach McConnell-Serio resigned on July 23. She was replaced by assistant Carolyn Jenkins, who piloted the squad to a 2–9 finish. The team's 24 losses set a franchise record.
Following the season, Augustus was named the 2006 WNBA Rookie of the Year. Her 21.9 points per game is still a WNBA rookie record. The 22-year-old was the second player in team history to win the award.
On December 13, 2006, the Lynx named veteran NBA assistant Don Zierden their fifth head coach.
In the 2007 WNBA Draft, the Lynx traded center Tangela Smith, whom they acquired in the dispersal draft from the Charlotte Sting, to the Phoenix Mercury for point guard Lindsey Harding, who had been selected first overall.
The Lynx began the 2007 season 0–7, lost ten straight in July and failed to get into the playoff race. They finished tying a league-worst 10–24 record. On November 1, 2007, assistant coach and former head coach Carolyn Jenkins was named Director of Player Personnel of the WNBA.
Hot starts without results (2008–2009)
The 2008 season started out much different for the Lynx than in previous years. They came flying out of the gates, going 7–1 in the first five weeks of the season. The Lynx then cooled off. They managed to play competitive basketball all season, but lost many key games down the stretch. The Lynx finished with a 16–18 record in a tough Western Conference where every team was in the playoff chase until the final week of the season. The Lynx however, did not qualify. After two consecutive 10–24 seasons, the 2008 Lynx was a step in the right direction.
In 2009, Zierden resigned just days before the start of the season. Jennifer Gillom who replaced Teresa Edwards as an assistant coach the previous year, was promoted to head coach. Another Zierden Lynx assistant, former NBA player Jim Petersen stayed with Gillom during the season, working with post players Charde Houston and Nicky Anosike. The Lynx saw similar results in 2008. They started with a good run (7–3), but lost many key games, including a six-game losing streak, and finished 14–20, out from the playoffs for the fifth straight season.
A new team and the first championship (2010–2011)
After five disappointing seasons, the off-season brought much more impact to the franchise. The team hired former Detroit Shock assistant coach Cheryl Reeve as their new head coach, parting ways with Jennifer Gillom, who took the head coaching job of the Los Angeles Sparks. The Lynx also made some moves in the off-season by selecting Rebekkah Brunson in the Sacramento Monarchs dispersal draft, and trading their first overall pick of the 2010 WNBA Draft and Renee Montgomery to the Connecticut Sun for former Minnesota Gopher Lindsay Whalen and the second overall pick. They added free agent Hamchétou Maïga to the lineup, and selected University of Virginia guard Monica Wright with the second pick in the 2010 Draft. With these off-season transactions, the Lynx looked forward to a much improved 2010 season, which was echoed by the eighth annual WNBA general manager poll – 45% of the general managers declared the Lynx the most-improved team as the 2010 season began.
The selection of Maya Moore during the 2011 WNBA Draft led many people to believe the Lynx to be championship contenders for the 2011 season. The team finally lived up to expectations in 2011, behind stellar play from Seimone Augustus, Rebekkah Brunson, Moore, and Whalen, all of whom were named to the 2011 Western Conference All-Star Team. The Lynx went into the All-Star break with a 10–4 record, good for first place in the conference. After losing to Phoenix in a 112–105 contest at Target Center on July 13, the Lynx went on a nine-game winning streak, at the time a franchise record and the longest in the league for 2011. The team finished with a 27–7 record, best in the WNBA and in team history.
The Lynx earned the top overall seed in the 2011 WNBA Playoffs. In the first round, they defeated the San Antonio Silver Stars two-games-to-one in the best of three series. The Lynx then swept the Phoenix Mercury in two games to win their first conference championship. In the Finals, the Lynx trailed at halftime in each game, but rallied each time to sweep the Atlanta Dream in three games, securing their first WNBA title, and the first professional championship for the state of Minnesota since the Minnesota Twins won the World Series in 1991. Seimone Augustus was named Finals MVP.
Road to more championships (2012–2017)
In 2012, the team began the season 10–0, a franchise and league record. They clinched a playoff berth on August 19, 2012, just 21 games into the season. The team fell to the Indiana Fever in the 2012 WNBA Finals.
The Lynx used both the loss in the Finals and prognosticators' pre-season focus on the Phoenix Mercury's new phenom, Brittney Griner, to motivate themselves for the 2013 season. The Lynx once again had the best record in the West. They completed their comeback, sweeping through the playoffs en route to their second championship in three years, once again defeating the Atlanta Dream. Maya Moore, showing why she's now a superstar in the WNBA, won the 2013 WNBA Finals MVP. In doing so, the Lynx became the second WNBA team and fifth major professional sports franchise to sweep through the postseason.
In 2014, the Lynx again had a successful regular season, claiming the second best record in the league, second only to Griner and the Mercury. However, in the playoffs, the Mercury bested them 2–1 in a three-game series, and the Lynx failed to make the finals for the first time since the 2010 season.
In 2015, two-time Defensive Player of the Year Sylvia Fowles of the Chicago Sky held out of her contract until her wish was granted in July to play for Minnesota. The Lynx would go on to win their third franchise title, all three of them in a five-year span dating back to 2011. Fowles proved herself to be a crucial addition, earning finals MVP honors.
After winning the WNBA title in 2015, the Lynx qualified to the 2016 WNBA Playoffs as the top seed with a franchise record 28–6 finish, only entering in the semifinals to face the Phoenix Mercury. Due to the Target Center entering a renovation, the team moved to the Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul, where the Lynx played the 2017 regular season. A sweep of the Mercury qualified the Lynx for their fifth finals in six years, with the adversary being the Los Angeles Sparks. The Lynx would not repeat their title, as the Sparks edged out the Lynx in a five-game series, eventually winning game 5 by 1 point.
On August 12, 2017, the Lynx set two WNBA records in their 111–52 defeat of the Indiana Fever: largest margin of victory (59 points) and longest unanswered scoring run (37 consecutive points). The Lynx finished as the top seed in the league, finishing 27–7. In the semi-finals, the Lynx defeated the Washington Mystics in a three-game sweep to advance to the WNBA Finals for the sixth time in seven years. The Lynx avenged 2016's Finals loss to the Sparks by defeating them in five games to win their fourth championship in seven seasons and tying the now-defunct Houston Comets for most WNBA championship titles.
End of a dynasty (2018-present)
In 2018, with back-up point guard Renee Montgomery leaving in free agency to sign with the Atlanta Dream and a now aging roster intact, the Lynx would start falling way short of championship contention. Although Moore, Fowles, Augustus and Brunson made All-Star appearances, the Lynx finished as the number 7 seed in the league with an 18–16 record. This was the first time in 8 years where the Lynx did not finish as a top 2 seed. Lindsay Whalen also announced her retirement prior to the playoffs. The Lynx started off their playoff run against the rival Los Angeles Sparks in the first round elimination game. They lost 75–68, ending their run of three consecutive Finals appearances, and it was Whalen's final career game.
In 2019 and 2020, however, the Lynx would continue to produce players who would win WNBA Rookie of the Year.
Uniforms
The home uniforms are white with blue and silver trim. The team jerseys bear the logo of the team's jersey sponsor, the Mayo Clinic, in blue. The road uniforms are blue with silver and white trim and the sponsor logo written in silver. The Lynx previously used an Adidas uniform that was standard throughout the league, but the WNBA partnered with Nike, Inc. for eight years beginning in 2018. The Lynx are also one of 11 WNBA teams sponsored by Verizon, whose logo is also prominently featured on their uniforms.
During the 2016 season, the white uniforms were temporarily replaced by a new silver uniform. This was part of a league-wide initiative for its 20th season, in which all games featured all-color uniform matchups.
Lynx Foundation
The Minnesota Lynx Foundation holds an annual "Catwalk for a Cure" event at the Mall of America during the WNBA's Breast Health Awareness Week to raise funds for breast cancer related charities. The 2011 event was held Aug. 5 and raised $5,000 for Susan G. Komen for the Cure.
In 2012, the Lynx hosted the Catwalk for a Cure at the Mall of America rotunda for the first time, occupying the largest staging area inside the country's biggest mall. In addition to displaying outfits, Lynx players ended the show with a dance based on the song "Background" by Lecrae and Andy Mineo. The Lynx Foundation donated a $5,000 grant to the SAGE program, run by the Minnesota Department of Health.
During the WNBA's 2013 Breast Health Awareness Week and in partnership with the Edith Sanford Breast Cancer Foundation, the Lynx game against the Indiana Fever on August 25 was a "Pink Out" game at Target Center and on August 29, the 5th annual "Catwalk for a Cure" event was held at the Mall of America. The Lynx donated a $10,000 grant to the Edith Sanford Breast Cancer Foundation.
Season-by-season records
Players
Roster
Other rights owned
FIBA Hall of Fame
Retired numbers
Team officials
Owners
Glen Taylor, owner of the Minnesota Timberwolves (1999–present)
Head coaches
General managers
Brian Agler (1999–2002)
Roger Griffith (2003–2017)
Cheryl Reeve (2018–present)
Assistant coaches
Heidi VanDerveer (1999–2001)
Kelly Kramer (1999–2002)
Nancy Darsch (2003–2005)
Carolyn Jenkins (2003–2005, 2007)
Jim Lewis (2006)
Susan Yow (2006)
Teresa Edwards (2007)
Ed Prohofsky (2007–2008)
Jennifer Gillom (2008)
Julie Plank (2008)
Jim Davis (2009)
Jim Petersen (2009–2016)
Shelley Patterson (2010–2019)
James Wade (2017–2018)
Walt Hopkins (2017–2019)
Plenette Pierson (2019–present)
Katie Smith (2020–present)
Rebekkah Brunson (2020–present)
Statistics
|-
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|APG
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|FG%
|-
| 1999
| B. Reed (16.4)
| B. Reed (6.0)
| Sonja Tate|S. Tate (3.1)
| 63.6 vs 66.0
| 28.3 vs 32.1
| .389 vs .425
|-
|-
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|APG
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|FG%
|-
| 2000
| K. Smith (20.2)
| B. Lennox (5.6)
| K. Smith (2.8)
| 68.5 vs 68.4
| 27.2 vs 30.5
| .421 vs .429
|-
| 2001
| K. Smith (23.1)
| S. Abrosimova (6.7)
| K. Paye (3.0)
| 64.9 vs 67.4
| 31.3 vs 31.8
| .371 vs .390
|-
| 2002
| K. Smith (16.5)
| T. Williams (7.4)
| T. Moore (3.0)
| 62.6 vs 65.8
| 30.0 vs 28.6
| .410 vs .413
|-
| 2003
| K. Smith (18.2)
| T. Williams (6.1)
| T. Edwards (4.4)
| 70.0 vs 69.7
| 31.7 vs 29.1
| .442 vs .425
|-
| 2004
| K. Smith (18.8)
| T. Williams (6.0)
| H. Darling (3.5)
| 63.7 vs 64.4
| 31.1 vs 30.5
| .404 vs .408
|-
| 2005
| N. Ohlde (11.2)
| N. Ohlde (5.7)
| K. Harrower (2.8)
| 65.0 vs 67.3
| 30.1 vs 31.0
| .412 vs .427
|-
| 2006
| S. Augustus (21.9)
| T. Williams (5.6)
| A. Jacobs (3.4)
| 74.2 vs 80.4
| 33.6 vs 35.4
| .427 vs .434
|-
| 2007
| S. Augustus (22.6)
| N. Ohlde (6.1)
| N. Quinn (4.4)
| 77.5 vs 80.9
| 34.8 vs 32.9
| .412 vs .450
|-
| 2008
| S. Augustus (19.1)
| N. Anosike (6.8)
| L. Harding (3.2)
| 81.4 vs 80.0
| 33.7 vs 35.6
| .430 vs .439
|-
| 2009
| N. Anosike (13.2)
| N. Anosike (7.4)
| N. Anosike (2.7)
| 80.3 vs 83.1
| 32.0 vs 34.3
| .420 vs .461
|-
|-
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|APG
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|FG%
|-
| 2010
| S. Augustus (16.9)
| R. Brunson (10.3)
| L. Whalen (5.6)
| 78.7 vs 82.1
| 35.2 vs 34.9
| .397 vs .446
|-
| 2011
| S. Augustus (16.2)
| R. Brunson (8.9)
| L. Whalen (5.9)
| 81.5 vs 73.6
| 36.5 vs 30.1
| .461 vs .413
|-
| 2012
| S. Augustus (16.6)
| R. Brunson (8.9)
| L. Whalen (5.4)
| 86.0 vs 76.2
| 37.8 vs 30.9
| .473 vs .407
|-
| 2013
| M. Moore (18.5)
| R. Brunson (8.9)
| L. Whalen (5.8)
| 82.9 vs 73.5
| 36.9 vs 32.2
| .474 vs .405
|-
| 2014
| M. Moore (23.9)
| R. Brunson (8.2)
| L. Whalen (5.5)
| 81.6 vs 77.2
| 35.2 vs 32.6
| .467 vs .423
|-
| 2015
| M. Moore (20.6)
| S. Fowles (8.3)
| L. Whalen (4.2)
| 75.5 vs 71.7
| 35.3 vs 33.1
| .441 vs .414
|-
| 2016
| M. Moore (19.3)
| S. Fowles (8.5)
| M. Moore (4.2)
| 85.8 vs 77.0
| 35.8 vs 30.7
| .471 vs .417
|-
|2017
| S. Fowles (18.9)
| S. Fowles (10.4)
| L. Whalen (4.1)
| 85.4 vs 74.2
| 35.2 vs 30.2
| .478 vs .424
|-
|2018
| M. Moore (18.0)
| S. Fowles (11.9)
| D. Robinson (3.3)
| 78.9 vs 78.3
| 35.3 vs 31.1
| .451 vs .445
|-
|2019
| O. Sims (14.5)
| S. Fowles (8.9)
| O. Sims (5.4)
| 78.4 vs 75.9
| 34.0 vs 31.1
| .451 vs .434
|-
|-
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|APG
! style="width:8%;"|PPG
! style="width:8%;"|RPG
! style="width:8%;"|FG%
|-
| 2020
| C. Dangerfield (16.2)
| S. Fowles (9.7)
| C. Dangerfield (3.6)
| 84.4 vs 80.6
| 34.4 vs 30.9
| .456 vs .447
|-
| 2021
| N. Collier (16.2)
| S. Fowles (10.1)
| L. Clarendon (5.7)
| 82.7 vs 78.7
| 34.9 vs 32.5
| .458 vs .424
Media coverage
Currently, some Lynx games are broadcast on Bally Sports North (formerly known as Fox Sports North), which is a local television station for the states of Minnesota and Wisconsin, and parts of Iowa, Michigan, North Dakota and South Dakota. More often than not, NBA TV will pick up the feed from the local broadcast, which is shown nationally. Broadcasters for the Lynx television games are Marney Gellner and Lea B. Olsen. Lynx games are carried on Bob 106.1 FM; John Focke broadcasts radio games (and LiveAccess feeds).
All games (excluding blackout games, which are available on ESPN3.com) are broadcast to the WNBA LiveAccess game feeds on the league website. Furthermore, some Lynx games are broadcast nationally on ESPN, ESPN2 and ABC. The WNBA has reached an eight-year agreement with ESPN, which will pay right fees to the Lynx, as well as other teams in the league.
All-time notes
Regular season attendance
A sellout for a basketball game at Target Center is 18,798.
A sellout for a basketball game at Xcel Energy Center is 17,954.
Arenas
Target Center 1999–2016, 2018–present
Williams Arena 2007 one regular season game, 2017 playoffs
Xcel Energy Center 2016 Semi Final playoffs, 2017 regular season
Draft picks
1999 Expansion Draft: Brandy Reed (1), Kim Williams (3), Octavia Blue (5), Adia Barnes (7)
1999: Tonya Edwards (7), Trisha Fallon (19), Andrea Lloyd (31), Sonja Tate (43), Angie Potthoff (49)
2000: Grace Daley (5), Betty Lennox (6), Maylana Martin (10), Marla Brumfield (22), Keitha Dickerson (24), Phylesha Whaley (38), Jana Lichnerova (54), Shanele Stires (56)
2001: Svetlana Abrosimova (7), Erin Buescher (23), Tombi Bell (39), Megan Taylor (55)
2002: Tamika Williams (6), Lindsey Meder (38), Shárron Francis (54)
2003 Miami/Portland Dispersal Draft: Sheri Sam (2)
2003: Teresa Edwards (14), Carla Bennett (29)
2004 Cleveland Dispersal Draft: Helen Darling (7)
2004: Nicole Ohlde (6), Vanessa Hayden (7), Tasha Butts (20), Amber Jacobs (33)
2005: Kristen Mann (11), Jacqueline Batteast (17), Monique Bivins (37)
2006: Seimone Augustus (1), Shona Thorburn (7), Megan Duffy (31)
2007 Charlotte Dispersal Draft: Tangela Smith (2)
2007: Noelle Quinn (4), Eshaya Murphy (15), Brooke Smith (23), Kathrin Ress (24)
2008: Candice Wiggins (3), Nicky Anosike (16), Charde Houston (30)
2009 Houston Dispersal Draft: Roneeka Hodges (4)
2009: Renee Montgomery (4), Quanitra Hollingsworth (9), Rashanda McCants (15), Emily Fox (30)
2010 Sacramento Dispersal Draft: Rebekkah Brunson (2)
2010: Monica Wright (2), Kelsey Griffin (3), Gabriela Marginean (26)
2011: Maya Moore (1), Amber Harris (4), Jessica Breland (13), Kachine Alexander (26)
2012: Devereaux Peters (3), Damiris Dantas (12), Julie Wojta (18), Kayla Standish (19), Nika Baric (20), Jacki Gemelos (31)
2013: Lindsey Moore (12), Sugar Rodgers (14), Chucky Jeffery (24), Waltiea Rolle (36)
2014: Tricia Liston (12), Asya Bussie (15), Christina Foggie (24), Asia Taylor (36)
2015: Reshanda Gray (16), Shae Kelley (35)
2016: Jazmon Gwathmey (14), Bashaara Graves (22), Temi Fagbenle (35)
2017: Alexis Jones (12), Lisa Berkani (24), Tahlia Tupaea (36)
2018: Ji-Su Park (17), Kahlia Lawrence (24), Carlie Wagner (36)
2019: Napheesa Collier (6), Jessica Shepard (16), Natisha Hiedeman (18), Cierra Dillard (20), Kenisha Bell (30)
2020: Mikiah Herbert Harrigan (6), Crystal Dangerfield (16)
2021: Rennia Davis (9)
All-Stars
1999: Tonya Edwards
2000: Betty Lennox, Katie Smith
2001: Katie Smith
2002: Katie Smith
2003: Katie Smith
2004: Katie Smith
2005: Katie Smith
2006: Seimone Augustus
2007: Seimone Augustus
2008: No All-Star Game
2009: Nicky Anosike, Charde Houston
2010: Rebekkah Brunson, Lindsay Whalen
2011: Seimone Augustus, Rebekkah Brunson, Maya Moore, Lindsay Whalen
2012: No All-Star Game
2013: Seimone Augustus, Rebekkah Brunson, Maya Moore, Lindsay Whalen
2014: Seimone Augustus, Maya Moore, Lindsay Whalen
2015: Seimone Augustus, Maya Moore, Lindsay Whalen
2016: No All-Star Game
2017: Seimone Augustus, Rebekkah Brunson, Sylvia Fowles, Maya Moore
2018: Seimone Augustus, Rebekkah Brunson, Sylvia Fowles, Maya Moore
2019: Napheesa Collier, Sylvia Fowles, Odyssey Sims
2020: No All-Star Game
2021: Napheesa Collier, Sylvia Fowles
Olympians
2000: Katie Smith, Kristi Harrower (AUS), Annie La Fleur (AUS)
2004: Katie Smith, Kristi Harrower (AUS), Nuria Martinez (ESP)
2008: Seimone Augustus, Nuria Martinez (ESP)
2012: Seimone Augustus, Maya Moore, Lindsay Whalen, Rachel Jarry (AUS), Damiris Dantas (BRA)
2016: Anna Cruz (ESP), Seimone Augustus, Sylvia Fowles, Maya Moore, Lindsay Whalen, Rachel Jarry (AUS)
2020: Napheesa Collier, Sylvia Fowles, Bridget Carleton (CAN), Natalie Achonwa (CAN)
Honors and awards
2000 Rookie of the Year: Betty Lennox
2000 All-WNBA Second Team: Katie Smith
2000 All-WNBA Second Team: Betty Lennox
2001 All-WNBA First Team: Katie Smith
2002 All-WNBA Second Team: Katie Smith
2003 All-WNBA First Team: Katie Smith
2004 Coach of the Year: Suzie McConnell Serio
2004 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Teresa Edwards
2006 Rookie of the Year: Seimone Augustus
2006 All-WNBA Second Team: Seimone Augustus
2006 All-Rookie Team: Seimone Augustus
2007 All-WNBA Second Team: Seimone Augustus
2008 Sixth Woman of the Year: Candice Wiggins
2008 All-Rookie Team: Nicky Anosike
2008 All-Rookie Team: Candice Wiggins
2009 All-Defensive First Team: Nicky Anosike
2009 All-Rookie Team: Renee Montgomery
2010 All-Defensive Second Team: Rebekkah Brunson
2010 All-Rookie Team: Monica Wright
2011 WNBA Finals Most Valuable Player: Seimone Augustus
2011 Rookie of the Year: Maya Moore
2011 Coach of the Year: Cheryl Reeve
2011 All-WNBA First Team: Lindsay Whalen
2011 All-WNBA Second Team: Seimone Augustus
2011 Peak Performer (Assists): Lindsay Whalen
2011 All-Defensive First Team: Rebekkah Brunson
2011 All-Rookie Team: Maya Moore
2012 Peak Performer (Assists): Lindsay Whalen
2012 All-WNBA First Team: Seimone Augustus
2012 All-WNBA Second Team: Lindsay Whalen
2012 All-WNBA Second Team: Maya Moore
2013 WNBA Finals Most Valuable Player: Maya Moore
2013 All-WNBA First Team: Maya Moore
2013 All-WNBA First Team: Lindsay Whalen
2013 All-WNBA Second Team: Seimone Augustus
2013 All-Defensive Second Team: Rebekkah Brunson
2014 Most Valuable Player: Maya Moore
2014 Peak Performer (Points): Maya Moore
2014 All-WNBA First Team: Maya Moore
2014 All-WNBA Second Team: Seimone Augustus
2014 All-WNBA Second Team: Lindsay Whalen
2014 All-Defensive Second Team: Maya Moore
2015 WNBA Finals Most Valuable Player: Sylvia Fowles
2015 All-WNBA First Team: Maya Moore
2016 Defensive Player of the Year: Sylvia Fowles
2016 Coach of the Year: Cheryl Reeve
2016 All-WNBA First Team: Maya Moore
2016 All-WNBA Second Team: Sylvia Fowles
2016 All-Defensive First Team: Sylvia Fowles
2017 Most Valuable Player: Sylvia Fowles
2017 All-WNBA First Team: Sylvia Fowles
2017 All-WNBA First Team: Maya Moore
2017 All-Defensive First Team: Sylvia Fowles
2017 All-Defensive Second Team: Rebekkah Brunson
2017 All-Defensive Second Team: Maya Moore
2017 WNBA Finals Most Valuable Player: Sylvia Fowles
2018 All-WNBA Second Team: Maya Moore
2018 All-Defensive Second Team: Rebekkah Brunson
2018 All-Defensive Second Team: Sylvia Fowles
2018 Peak Performer (Rebounds): Sylvia Fowles
2019 Rookie of the Year: Napheesa Collier
2019 All-WNBA First Team: Odyssey Sims
2019 All-Rookie Team: Napheesa Collier
2019 Executive of the Year: Cheryl Reeve
2020 Rookie of the Year: Crystal Dangerfield
2020 Coach of the Year: Cheryl Reeve
2020 All-Rookie Team: Crystal Dangerfield
2020 All-WNBA Second Team: Napheesa Collier
2020 All-Defensive Second Team: Napheesa Collier
2021 Defensive Player of the Year: Sylvia Fowles
2021 All-Defensive First Team: Sylvia Fowles
2021 All-WNBA Second Team: Sylvia Fowles
References
External links
Women's National Basketball Association teams
Basketball teams established in 1998
Basketball teams in Minnesota
Sports in Minneapolis
1998 establishments in Minnesota | [
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|
237108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusan | Dusan | Dusan may refer to:
Dušan, a Slavic given name
Dusan, a son of Ra's al Ghul
Stefan Dušan (1308–1355), emperor of Serbia
See also
Doosan Group, a South Korean multinational conglomerate
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237109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crispus | Crispus | Flavius Julius Crispus (; c. 303 – 326) was the eldest son of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great and his junior emperor (caesar) from March 317 until his execution by his father in 326. The grandson of the augustus Constantius I, Crispus was the elder half-brother of the future augustus Constantine II and became co-caesar with him and with his cousin Licinius II at Serdica, part of the settlement ending the Cibalensean War between Constantine and his father's rival Licinius I. Crispus ruled from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in Roman Gaul between 318 and 323 and defeated the navy of Licinius I at the Battle of the Hellespont in 324, which with the land Battle of Chrysopolis won by Constantine forced the resignation of Licinius and his son, leaving Constantine the sole augustus and the Constantinian dynasty in control of the entire empire. It is unclear what was legal status of the relationship Crispus's mother Minervina had with Constantine; Crispus may have been an illegitimate son.
Crispus's tutor in rhetoric was the Late Latin historian of Early Christianity, Lactantius. Crispus may be the young prince depicted on the Gemma Constantiniana, a great cameo depicting Constantine and his wife Fausta, though the depiction may instead be of Fausta's own son, the future augustus Constantius II. While at Augusta Treverorum, Crispus's praetorian prefect for the prefecture of Gaul was the great Junius Annius Bassus. After his elevation to imperial rank, at which point he was also entitled princeps iuventutis ("Prince of Youth"), the Latin rhetorician Nazarius composed a panegyric preserved in the Panegyrici Latini, which honoured Crispus's military victories over the Franks in . Crispus was three times Roman consul, for the years 318, 321, and 324.
Within two years of the defeat and surrender of Licinius, Constantine had not only put his brother-in-law and former co-augustus to death, but also executed his nephew Licinius II, the son of his sister Flavia Julia Constantia. According to the Latin histories of Ammianus Marcellinus and Aurelius Victor, after a trial whose real circumstances are mysterious, Constantine executed Crispus at Pola (Pula) in 326. Fausta, whose son Constantius II became caesar in November 324, was also put to death, and the Late Greek historian Zosimus and the Byzantine Greek writer Joannes Zonaras wrote that Constantine had accused Crispus of incest with his stepmother. After his death, Crispus was subjected to damnatio memoriae.
Early life
Crispus's year and place of birth are uncertain. He is considered likely to have been born between 299 and 305, possibly as early as 295, somewhere in the eastern Roman Empire. The earliest date is most likely, since he was being tutored in 309–310 by Lactantius. His mother Minervina was either a concubine or a first wife to Constantine. Nothing else is known about Minervina. His father served as a hostage in the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia, thus securing the loyalty of Constantine's father, Constantius Chlorus, who was caesar to Maximian in the west at this time.
In 307, Constantine allied to the Italian augusti, and this alliance was sealed with the marriage of Constantine to Maximian's daughter Fausta. This marriage has caused modern historians to question his relationship to Minervina and Crispus. If Minervina were his legitimate wife, Constantine would have needed to secure a divorce before marrying Fausta, which would have required an official written order signed by Constantine himself, but no such order is mentioned by contemporary sources. This silence in the sources has led many historians to conclude that the relationship between Constantine and Minervina was informal and to assume her to have been an unofficial lover. However, Minervina might have already been dead by 307. A widowed Constantine would need no divorce.
Neither the true nature of the relationship between Constantine and Minervina nor the reason Crispus came under the protection of his father will probably ever be known. The offspring of an illegitimate affair could have caused dynastic problems and would likely be dismissed, but Crispus was raised by his father in Gaul. This can be seen as evidence of a loving and public relationship between Constantine and Minervina which gave him a reason to protect her son.
The story of Minervina is quite similar to that of Constantine's mother Helena. Constantine's father later had to divorce her for political reasons—specifically, to marry Flavia Maximiana Theodora, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius did not, however, dismiss Constantine as his son, and perhaps Constantine chose to follow the example of his father here as well.
Whatever the reason, Constantine kept Crispus at his side. Surviving sources are unanimous in declaring him a loving, trusting and protective father to his first son. Constantine even entrusted his education to Lactantius, among the most important Christian teachers of that time, who probably started teaching Crispus before 317.
Career
By 313, there were two remaining augusti in control of the Roman Empire—Constantine in the west and his brother-in-law Licinius in the east.
On 1 March 317, the two co-reigning augusti jointly proclaimed three new caesares: Crispus, alongside his younger half-brother Constantine II, and his first cousin Licinius Iunior. Constantine II was the older son of Fausta but was probably about a month old at the time of his proclamation. Thus only Crispus assumed actual duties.
Constantine apparently believed in the abilities of his son and appointed Crispus as Commander of Gaul. The new caesar soon held residence in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), regional capital of Germania.
In January 322, Crispus was married to a young woman called Helena. Helena bore him a son in October of that year. There is no surviving account of the name or later fate of the son. Eusebius of Caesarea reported that Constantine was proud of his son and very pleased to become a grandfather.
Crispus was leader in victorious military operations against the Franks and the Alamanni in 318, 320 and 323. Thus he secured the continued Roman presence in the areas of Gaul and Germania. The soldiers adored him thanks to his strategic abilities and the victories to which he had led the Roman legions.
Crispus spent the following years assisting Constantine in the war against by then hostile Licinius. In 324, Constantine appointed Crispus as the commander of his fleet which left the port of Piraeus to confront Licinius' fleet. The subsequent Battle of the Hellespont was fought at the straits of Bosporus. The 200 ships under the command of Crispus managed to decisively defeat the enemy forces, which were at least double in number. Thus Crispus achieved his most important and difficult victory which further established his reputation as a brilliant general.
Following his navy activities, Crispus was assigned part of the legions loyal to his father. The other part was commanded by Constantine himself. Crispus led the legions assigned to him in another victorious battle outside Chrysopolis against the armies of Licinius.
The two victories were his contribution to the final triumph of his father over Licinius. Constantine was the only augustus left in the Empire. He honoured his son for his support and success by depicting his face in imperial coins, statues, mosaics, cameos, etc. Eusebius of Caesaria wrote for Crispus that he is "an Imperator most dear to God and in all regards comparable to his father."
Crispus was the most likely choice for an heir to the throne at the time. His siblings Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans were far too young and knew very little about the tasks of an emperor. However, Crispus would never assume the throne.
Execution
In 326, Crispus' life came to a sudden end. On his father's orders he was executed, apparently without trial, at Pola, Istria, in the Augustan regio of Venetia et Histria. According to Sidonius Apollinaris, Crispus was killed by "cold poison". Soon afterwards, Constantine had his wife Fausta killed also, according to several sources in a hot bath or bathroom. Both Crispus and Fausta suffered damnatio memoriae, their names being erased from inscriptions.
The reason for these deaths remains unclear. The most common explanation given by scholars is based on the accounts of Zosimus and Zonaras: that Crispus was executed due to suspicions that he was involved in an illicit relationship with Fausta. Recent scholars have been skeptical of this explanation. For instance, T. D. Barnes argues that as Crispus was based at Trier, and Fausta at Constantinople, they would not have had the opportunity to have an affair, while Hans Pohlsander suggests that the similarity of Zosimus' story to the myth of Phaedra and Hippolytus makes its veracity doubtful. However, David Woods accepts the ancient evidence that Crispus and Fausta were believed to have had a relationship, suggesting that Fausta fell pregnant, and Crispus was implicated. According to Woods' theory, Fausta's death was caused by an attempted abortion, while Crispus committed suicide by poison in Pola, having been exiled there as punishment for his adultery.
Other explanations put forward for Crispus' death include that he was executed in order to ensure the succession of his half-brothers, Constantine's sons by Fausta, and that it was unrelated to the death of Fausta; that it was due to Crispus suggesting that Constantine should retire; or that it was due to Crispus plotting against Constantine, possibly with Fausta and Licinius. J. W. Drijvers concludes that the true explanation for the deaths of Crispus and Fausta will never be known.
Consequences
It is said that Constantine looked to pagan priests who were friends of his, such as Sopater of Apamea, for the purification of his soul, but they refused, considering the act committed by Constantine as unforgivable, including the fact that he previously believed in a Christian woman who in her own son, who had shown her love and loyalty so many times.
In literature
Crispus became a popular tragic hero after the success of Bernardino Stefonio's neo-Latin tragedy Crispus, which was performed at the Jesuit Collegio Romano in 1597. Closely modelled on Seneca's Phaedra, this became a model of Jesuit tragedy and one of the main bases for Alessandro Donati's 1631 Ars Poetic and Tarquinio Galluzzi's 1633 Defense of Crispus. The play was adapted for the French stage by François de Grenaille as L'Innocent malhereux (1639) and by Tristan l'Hermite as La Morte de Chrispe ou les maleurs du grand Constantine (1645). It was performed as an opera in Rome (1720) and London (1721), where it was entitled, Crispo: drama, not to mention Donizetti's 1832 opera Fausta. The story is also retold and embellished in chapter 31 of Sir Walter Scott's novel Count Robert of Paris. When Evelyn Waugh reworks the story in his novel Helena (1950), Crispus is innocent.
References
Citations
Sources
External links
290s births
326 deaths
4th-century executions
4th-century Romans
Ancient Roman generals
Caesars (heirs apparent)
Constantine the Great
Constantinian dynasty
Damnatio memoriae
Executed ancient Roman people
Flavii
Generals of Constantine the Great
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Imperial Roman consuls
People executed by hanging
People executed by the Roman Empire
People from Pula
Sons of Roman emperors
Tetrarchy
Year of birth unknown | [
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237111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%20Shock | Detroit Shock | The Detroit Shock were a Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) team based in Auburn Hills, Michigan. They were the 2003, 2006, and 2008 WNBA champions.
Debuting in 1998, the Shock were one of the league's first expansion franchises. They were also the first WNBA expansion franchise to win a WNBA Championship. The team was the sister team of the Detroit Pistons and from 2002 to the 2009 season was coached by Pistons legend Bill Laimbeer.
On October 20, 2009, it was announced that the Shock would be moving to Tulsa, Oklahoma to play in the new downtown arena, the BOK Center. Former men's college coach Nolan Richardson was named the team's new head coach. The Shock roster and history was retained along with the Shock name, but the team colors were changed to black, red, and gold. The franchise is currently known as Dallas Wings.
Franchise history
The early years (1998–2002)
The Detroit Shock were one of the first WNBA expansion teams and began play in 1998. The Shock quickly brought in a blend of rookies and veterans. The Shock's first coach was Hall of Famer Nancy Lieberman. The Shock would start out their inaugural season 0–4, but would put together an amazing expansion season, and finish 17–13, missing out on the postseason by one game.
In 1999, the Shock finished 15–17, in a three-way tie for the playoffs with the Orlando Miracle and the Charlotte Sting. The Shock and Sting played a one-game playoff, which the Shock would lose 60–54.
In 2000, the Shock would finish with a 14–18 record and end tied for the last seed. This time, the Shock would lose the tiebreaker and not qualify, losing to the Washington Mystics. Lieberman was fired after the season and replaced by Greg Williams.
In the 2001 WNBA Draft, the Shock would select Deanna Nolan with the sixth overall pick. She would later develop into a star. The 2001 Shock would finish the season with a 10–22 record, this time tying three teams for last place in the Eastern Conference.
The 2002 Shock started the season 0–10, at which point Williams was fired and replaced by former Detroit Pistons legend Bill Laimbeer. The team finished the season 9–23, but Laimbeer's ideas influenced the team's front office, who agreed with the new coach's ideas, including bringing over some new players that he felt were necessary for the Shock to become a contender.
From worst to champions (2003)
After massive changes to the roster, Bill Laimbeer predicted before the 2003 season that the Shock would be league champions. The Shock would dominate the East in the regular season, posting a 25–9 record and winning the #1 seed by seven games. In the playoffs, the Shock would defeat the Cleveland Rockers 2–1 for their first playoff series win in franchise history. In the Conference Finals, the Shock swept the Connecticut Sun 2–0 to reach the WNBA Finals. Despite the achievements, the Shock were viewed as huge underdogs to the two-time defending champion Los Angeles Sparks, who were looking for a three-peat. The Shock would emerge victorious in the series, winning a thrilling Game 3 83–78. That game would draw the largest crowd in WNBA history. Ruth Riley was named WNBA Finals MVP. With the win, the Shock became the first American pro sports team to go from having the worst overall record in the league to being champions in the following season.
Return to mediocrity (2004–2005)
The Shock would stumble after their championship season and play mediocre basketball in the 2004 season. The Shock would post a 17–17 record, qualifying for the playoffs as the #3 seed. The Shock would take the series against the New York Liberty the full three games, but would fall in the end 2–1.
In the offseason, former Pistons star Rick Mahorn was hired as an assistant coach. Much like the previous season, the Shock played mediocre basketball, posting a 16–18 record, which was good enough to secure the #4 seed. In the playoffs, the Shock would get swept by the Connecticut Sun.
Back to the top (2006–2008)
The Shock performed well during the regular season, posting a 23–11 record to secure the #2 seed in the playoffs. The Shock went on to make quick work of the Indiana Fever, sweeping them in the first round. In the Conference Finals, the Shock would be matched up against the Connecticut Sun. This time, the Shock emerged victorious from the hard-fought series, winning it 2–1. In the WNBA Finals, which were now best-of-five, the Shock faced the defending champion Sacramento Monarchs. The Shock lost Game 1, getting handily defeated 95–71 at home. The Shock rallied in Game 2 to even up the series 1–1. Going to Sacramento, the Shock were defeated in Game 3 89–69. With their backs against the wall, the Shock dominated the Monarchs in Game 4, 72–52, setting up the crucial Game 5 in Detroit. Due to a scheduling conflict, Game 5 was played at Joe Louis Arena. At halftime in Game 5, the Shock would find themselves down 44–36. However, in the third quarter, the Shock would outscore the Monarchs 22–9, gaining a 58–53 lead going into the final quarter. The Shock held off the Monarchs in the last quarter to win the game 80–75, and the championship 3–2. Deanna Nolan was named WNBA Finals MVP.
In 2007, the Shock sought to defend their title. The Shock would finish with a WNBA-best 24–10 regular season record, and capture the #1 seed in the playoffs for the first time in franchise history. In the first round, the Shock were heavily favored against a New York Liberty team that was not predicted to make the postseason. However in Game 1, the Shock came out flat and were defeated 73–51. In Game 2, the Shock won 76–73 to force a Game 3. Game 3 was a battle, as the game went into overtime. In the end, the Shock would emerge the victors by the score of 71–70. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Shock would face the Indiana Fever, with whom the Shock were bitter rivals. In Game 1, the Shock lost by the score of 75–65. The Shock rallied to win Games 2 and 3 by the scores of 77–63 and 81–65, respectively. In the WNBA Finals, the Shock faced the Phoenix Mercury, who had dominated the Western Conference all year long. The Shock won Game 1 108–100 at home. The Mercury evened the series up in Game 2, defeating the Shock 98–70. The series shifted to Phoenix for Games 3 and 4. The Shock won a rough Game 3 88–83. With a chance to win the championship in Game 4, the Shock and Mercury battled back and forth all game. When the dust cleared, the Mercury won 77–76, forcing a decisive Game 5 in Detroit. In Game 5, the Shock were dominated as they lost 108–92. With the loss, the Shock became the first team to lose the championship at home in WNBA history.
The following season, the Shock went 22–12, which was the best record in the East. In the first round against the Indiana Fever, the Shock defeated the Fever in three games. Due to the scheduling of other events at the Palace, the Shock had to play their remaining home games at Eastern Michigan University's Convocation Center in Ypsilanti. In the Conference Finals against the New York Liberty, the Shock would defeat the Liberty in three games to move on to the WNBA Finals against the league best San Antonio Silver Stars. Although the Silver Stars had the best record in the league in 2008, the Shock swept them to capture their third championship in franchise history. Katie Smith was named WNBA Finals MVP.
The final season in Detroit (2009)
Three games into the 2009 season, Bill Laimbeer announced his resignation as head coach. Rick Mahorn would take over as head coach. The Shock struggled in the first half of the season. However, in the second half, they would bounce back to ultimately finish with a 18–16 record, which was good enough to clinch a playoff berth for the seventh straight year. In the first round, the Shock swept the Atlanta Dream to advance to their fourth straight Eastern Conference Finals against the Indiana Fever. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Shock were defeated by the Indiana Fever in three games, missing the WNBA Finals for the first time since 2005.
The end of the Detroit era
On October 19, 2009, the Associated Press reported that a Shock official stated that the team would be relocating to Tulsa. The following day, the decision was officially announced at a press conference in Tulsa.
Team identity
Logo and uniforms
From 2002 to 2009, the Shock's home uniforms were white with the stylized Shock name in red on the front, while road jerseys were blue with the word "Detroit" across the front in red and white. From 1998 to 2001, a more complex color scheme of teal, yellow and red was used.
Season-by-season records
Players
Final roster
Basketball Hall of Fame members
Notes:
1 Lieberman signed a seven-day contract in 2008.
FIBA Hall of Famers
Notable players
Jennifer Azzi
Carla Boyd
Kara Braxton
Sandy Brondello
Cindy Brown
Dominique Canty
Swin Cash
Barbara Farris
Cheryl Ford
Korie Hlede
Kedra Holland-Corn
Alexis Hornbuckle
Tasha Humphrey
Shannon Johnson
Ivory Latta
Nancy Lieberman
Taj McWilliams-Franklin
Razija Mujanović
Astou Ndiaye-Diatta
Deanna Nolan
Wendy Palmer
Plenette Pierson
Elaine Powell
Ruth Riley
Sheri Sam
Katie Smith
Nikki Teasley
Lynette Woodard
Coaches and others
Head coaches:
Nancy Lieberman (1998–2000)
Greg Williams (2001–2002)
Bill Laimbeer (2002–2009)
Rick Mahorn (2009)
General managers:
Nancy Lieberman (1998–2000)
Greg Williams (2001–2002)
Bill Laimbeer (2002–2009)
Cheryl Reeve (2009)
Assistant coaches
Laurie Byrd (2003–2005)
Earl Cureton (2009)
Korie Hlede (2003–2004)
Rick Mahorn (2005–2009)
Cheryl Reeve (2006–2009)
Individual records and awards
Individual awards
WNBA Finals MVP
Ruth Riley – 2003
Deanna Nolan – 2006
Katie Smith – 2008
WNBA Rookie of the Year
Cheryl Ford – 2003
WNBA Sixth Woman of the Year
Plenette Pierson – 2007
WNBA Coach of the Year
Bill Laimbeer – 2003
All-WNBA First Team
Deanna Nolan – 2005, 2007
All-WNBA Second Team
Cindy Brown – 1998
Swin Cash – 2003, 2004
Cheryl Ford – 2003, 2006
Deanna Nolan – 2003, 2008, 2009
WNBA All-Defensive First Team
Deanna Nolan – 2007
WNBA All-Defensive Second Team
Cheryl Ford – 2006
Deanna Nolan – 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009
Katie Smith – 2008
WNBA All-Rookie Team
Kara Braxton – 2005
Shavonte Zellous – 2009
WNBA Peak Performers
Sandy Brondello – 1998
Cheryl Ford – 2005, 2006
WNBA All-Star Game
All-Stars
1999: Sandy Brondello
2000: Wendy Palmer
2001: None
2002: None
2003: Swin Cash, Cheryl Ford, Deanna Nolan
2004: Cheryl Ford, Deanna Nolan
2005: Swin Cash, Cheryl Ford, Deanna Nolan, Ruth Riley
2006: Cheryl Ford, Deanna Nolan, Katie Smith
2007: Cheryl Ford, Deanna Nolan, Kara Braxton
2008: No All-Star Game
2009: Katie Smith
Head coach
Bill Laimbeer – 2004, 2007
WNBA All-Star Game MVP
Cheryl Ford – 2007
References
Relocated Women's National Basketball Association teams
Basketball teams in Michigan
Basketball teams established in 1998
Basketball teams disestablished in 2009
Sports in Auburn Hills, Michigan | [
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|
237119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne%20Carlson | Arne Carlson | Arne Helge Carlson (born September 24, 1934) is an American politician who served as the 37th Governor of Minnesota from 1991 to 1999.
Early years, education and family
Born in New York City, Carlson is the son of Swedish immigrants from Gothenburg and Visby. Carlson attended New York City public schools P.S. 36 and DeWitt Clinton High School in the Bronx before gaining a scholarship to attend The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Williams College in 1957 before taking graduate courses at the University of Minnesota.
Career
Early career
Carlson served one term on the Minneapolis City Council from 1965 to 1967, and was the Republican candidate for mayor in 1967, losing to Democratic-Farmer-Labor incumbent Arthur Naftalin. He was a member of the Minnesota House of Representatives from January 1971 to January 4, 1979. In 1978, he ran for and was elected state auditor. He was reelected in 1982 and 1986, serving in that position from January 4, 1979, to January 7, 1991. As State Auditor, Carlson worked to create uniform accounting for cities, counties, townships, and special districts, making Minnesota a leader in uniform accounting. He also overhauled the State's multi-billion dollar pension investment portfolio to allow private sector management, which significantly improved the rate of return.
Minnesota Governor
Carlson was elected the 37th governor of Minnesota in the November 1990 general election, and served from January 7, 1991, to January 4, 1999. He won as a member of the Independent-Republican Party. In September 1995, the party changed its name to, simply, the "Republican Party."
A scandal arose in the 1990 election after the initial Republican nominee, businessman Jon Grunseth, beat Carlson in the primary. On October 15, it was revealed that, in 1981, Grunseth had invited three then-teenaged friends of his stepdaughter, as well as his stepdaughter herself, to go skinny-dipping in the pool at his home.
A bipartisan group, Minnesotans for the ''WRITE'' Choice, launched a statewide write-in media campaign six weeks before the general election, when the allegations of impropriety first surfaced. The campaign group focused media attention on Carlson's candidacy and Grunseth's problems.
Carlson had come in second in the primary to the more conservative Grunseth, and thus became the Republican nominee when Grunseth dropped out. Five days before the election, the state Supreme Court ruled that Carlson was eligible to appear on the ballot.
Generally considered a moderate, Carlson presented himself as a less polarizing leader than the incumbent governor, Rudy Perpich. He won the general election by 3 percentage points.
During his administration, Carlson worked to solve an inherited $2 billion state budget deficit. By the end of his term, the state had surpluses of $2.3 billion in FY1997 and $1.9 billion in FY1998. His administration restored the AAA bond rating from all three Wall Street major bond houses and was the first such state to receive the upgrade in 25 years.
Carlson increased funding for elementary and secondary education by nine percent, created a top level Children's Cabinet to develop a single integrated agenda and budget for all state children's programs and initiatives, laid the groundwork for the first light rail in Minneapolis with state and federal funding of $160 million and was successful in getting school choice funded which was hailed by the "Wall Street Journal" as a model for the rest of the country.
In 1993, Carlson served as Chairman of the Midwestern Governors Association. That same year he signed into law the Minnesota Human Rights Act, which banned LGBT discrimination in housing, employment, and education.
In 1994, the delegates to the Minnesota Republican Party State Convention viewed Carlson as too liberal, and endorsed instead Allen Quist and Doug McFarland. Carlson and running mate Joanne Benson nevertheless won the September state primary, and won the November general election by a large margin, 63% to 34%, over Democratic candidate John Marty.
As governor, Carlson was known as a fan of the University of Minnesota and its sports teams; his official portrait in the Minnesota State Capitol shows him wearing a letter jacket from the school. Carlson also worked closely with the President of the University of Minnesota, Mark Yudof, in improving the University's physical plant and in 1998, proposed and secured passage of an historic capital improvement package for all higher education with $206 million earmarked for the University of Minnesota. That led to projects ranging from building a molecular and cellular Biology Center to major renovations and upgrades to Walter Library.
Retirement
Carlson has remained politically active in retirement. Since 2011, he has written an independent blog. In a speech at the Minnesota State Capitol on October 23, 2008, he endorsed Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama. In 2010, he announced that he would embark on a "Paul Revere" tour of Minnesota to bring attention to fiscal problems facing the state. In 2010, he again broke with his party to endorse Independence Party candidate Tom Horner in Minnesota's gubernatorial race and Tim Walz for Congress. In a narrow vote by the state Republican central committee, Carlson and 17 others were banned for two years from participating in party events, described by Politico as a "stunning purge."
Following the July 1, 2011, shutdown of the state government after Governor Mark Dayton and state legislative leaders could not agree on a budget, Carlson collaborated with Walter Mondale and several other prominent political and business leaders to propose a nonpartisan budget commission.
Carlson and Mondale also teamed to oppose a voter identification amendment to the state constitution in the 2012 election. The amendment was defeated.
Carlson is a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One. In a June 2016 interview with City Pages, Carlson endorsed Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton. In 2018, he also endorsed Dean Phillips, the DFL candidate for Minnesota's 3rd congressional district over GOP incumbent Erik Paulsen.
Personal life
Carlson was married to Barbara Carlson (née Duffy) from 1965 to 1977. After their divorce she became known in her own right as a Minneapolis City Councilwoman and a talk show personality. Together, they had a son, Tucker (no relation to the media personality), and two daughters, Kristin (deceased) and Anne, who has two children, Drew and Allie Davis. Carlson's second wife was Joanne Chabot. They had no children. After their divorce, he married Susan Shepard, with whom he has a daughter, Jessica. Susan served as First Lady of Minnesota from 1991 to 1999.
Electoral history
1994 race for Governor
Arne Carlson (I-R) (inc.), 63%
John Marty (DFL), 34%
1990 race for Governor
Arne Carlson (I-R), 50%
Rudy Perpich (DFL) (inc.), 47%
1986 race for State Auditor
Arne Carlson (I-R) (inc.)
John Dooley (DFL)
1982 race for State Auditor
Arne Carlson (I-R) (inc.), 55%
Paul Wellstone (DFL), 45%
1978 race for State Auditor
Arne Carlson (I-R), 52%
Robert W. Mattson Jr. (DFL) (inc.), 47%
References
External links
Minnesota Historical Society
Governor Arne Carlson Blog
|-
|-
|-
|-
1934 births
American people of Swedish descent
American Protestants
Choate Rosemary Hall alumni
Governors of Minnesota
Living people
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Minneapolis City Council members
Minnesota Republicans
Politicians from Minneapolis
Politicians from New York City
Republican Party state governors of the United States
State Auditors of Minnesota
Williams College alumni | [
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|
237120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%20%28disambiguation%29 | Atatürk (disambiguation) | Atatürk is an honorific surname given to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey.
Atatürk may also refer to:
Atatürk Airport, the airport in Istanbul, named after him
Atatürk Centennial
Atatürk Cultural Center, Istanbul
Atatürk Cup, a former football competition
Atatürk Dam, southeastern Turkey
Atatürk Forest, Israel
Atatürk High School of Science, Istanbul
Atatürk International Airport, Istanbul
Atatürk Museum (disambiguation)
Atatürk Olympic Stadium, Istanbul
Atatürk Square, Ashgabat
Atatürk Square, Nicosia
Atatürk University, Erzurum | [
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|
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