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237534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacius | Acacius | Acacius is a masculine given name which may refer to:
Saints
Acathius of Melitene (died c. 251), Bishop of Melitene, venerated by the Eastern Orthodox Church
Agathius, also known as Acacius of Byzantium (died 303), martyred Cappadocian Greek centurion of the imperial army
An early Church of St Acacius existed at Constantinople, possibly connected with this martyr.
Acacius of Sebaste (died c. 304), Armenian priest
Acacius (died 320), Roman soldier and one of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste
Acacius of Amida, Bishop of Amida, Mesopotamia (400–425)
Acacius of Constantinople (died 489), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, Oriental Orthodox saint engaged in the Christological controversy
Saint Acacius, leader of the Ten thousand martyrs (Roman soldiers who converted to Christianity and were crucified in Armenia), according to medieval legend
Other uses
Acacius the grammarian from Caesarea; friend of Libanius (314–394)
Acacius of Caesarea (d. 366), aka "the One-Eyed", bishop in Caesarea, opponent of St. Cyril of Jerusalem
Acacius of Beroea (d. 437), Syrian bishop
Acacius of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (d. 496), Patriarch of the Church of the East
Acacius, father of Theodora (6th century) (500–548), empress of the Byzantine Empire
Acacius (proconsul), Byzantine proconsul of Armenia Prima (First Armenia), c. 536-539
Acacius (Alexandria), Byzantine military officer in Alexandria, c. 539-540
Acacius (curator), Byzantine imperial curator in the 560s
Acacius (son of Archelaus), Byzantine imperial representative, active c. 573
See also
Acacia (disambiguation)
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237535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikantaza | Shikantaza | is a Japanese translation of a Chinese term for zazen introduced by Rujing, a monk of the Caodong school of Zen Buddhism, to refer to a practice called "Silent Illumination" (), or "Serene Reflection", by previous Caodong masters. In Japan, it is associated with the Soto school. Unlike many other forms of meditation, shikantaza does not require focused attention on a specific object (such as the breath); instead, practitioners "just sit" in a state of conscious awareness.
Etymology
The term shikantaza is attributed to Dōgen's teacher Tiantong Rujing (1162-1228), and it literally means, "nothing but sitting." In other words, Dōgen means, "doing only zazen whole-heartedly" or "single-minded sitting."
Shikantaza is the Sino-Japanese reading of the Chinese words zhǐguǎn 只管 "by all means; merely, simply; only concerned with" and dǎzuò 打坐 "[Buddhism/Daoism] sit in meditation". The Digital Dictionary of Buddhism translates shikan or zhǐguǎn 只管 as "to focus exclusively on", taza or dǎzuò 打坐 as "to squat, sit down cross-legged", which corresponds with Sanskrit utkuṭuka-stha, and translates shikan taza from zhǐguǎn dǎzuò 只管打坐 (or 祇管打坐, here 祇 [zhǐ] serves as a variant of 只 [zhǐ]) as "meditation of just sitting", explained as the "Zen form of meditation chiefly associated with the Sōtō school, which places emphasis on emptying the mind, in contrast to the kōan method".
James Ishmael Ford says some authors hypothetically trace the root of shikantaza "just sitting" to vipassana meditation, but "this is far from certain." Japanese has many homophones pronounced shikan, and this etymological mix-up about shikan 只管 "only; just" stems from a more commonly used word that translates the Sanskrit "śamatha and vipaśyanā," names for the two basic forms of Buddhist meditation: Japanese shikan 止観 "concentration and observation" (as practiced by the Tendai sect), from Chinese zhǐguān 止觀 "[Buddhism] keep mental calm while observing the universe" (cf. the Mohe Zhiguan), which compounds shi or zhǐ 止 "stop; stabilize; śamatha" and kan or guān 觀 "observe; contemplate; vipaśyanā". An instance of the confusion of 止観 for 只管 is Steve Hagen's claim that "shi [Hagen is referring to Dōgen's '只'] means tranquility [= '止'], kan [Hagen is referring to Dōgen's '管'] means awareness [= '観'], ta means hitting exactly the right spot (not one atom off), and za means to sit."
Origins and development
Silent illumination
"Just sitting" is the term that Rujing used for "silent illumination" or "silent reflection" (Chinese mòzhào 默照; Japanese mokushō) which may be understood as the integrated practice of shamatha (calming the mind) and vipashyana (insightful contemplation), and was the hallmark of the Chinese Caodong school of Chan.
It is not merely just the union of calming and insight, which had already been developed within the Tiantai Buddhist tradition in medieval China. Rather, it is a description of the natural essence and function of the mind. In this sense, it can be traced back to the earliest Chan teachings of Bodhidharma.
The first Chan teacher to articulate silent illumination was the Caodong master Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091—1157), who wrote an inscription entitled "silent illumination meditation" (Mokushō zen 默照禅 or Mòzhào chán 默照禪). According to Taigen Dan Leighton, this practice is a "nondual objectless meditation" which:
...involves withdrawal from exclusive focus on a particular sensory or mental object to allow intent apprehension of all phenomena as a unified totality. This objectless meditation aims at a radical, refined nondualism that does not grasp at any of the highly subtle distinctions to which our familiar mental workings are prone and which estranges us from our experience. Such subject-object dichotomization is understood as artificial, a fabrication.
Silent illumination is also objectless in the sense of not seeking after specific limited goals. The ultimate purpose of spiritual practice, universally awakened heart/mind, cannot be set apart from our own inherent being and our immediate, moment-to-moment awareness.
A. Charles Muller explains that this method, which involved seeking enlightened wisdom through complete stillness of the mind, became "the main practice of the Sōtō Zen school, where Dōgen characterized it by such terms of as 'just sitting' 只管打坐.".
Shikantaza's origins can also be traced back to silent illumination. However, some teachers see it as different from the teachings of Hongzhi Zhengjue in terms of practice and theory.
Dogen
In the thirteenth century, Dōgen Zenji who introduced the Soto School in Japan, used much of Hongzhi's writings on silent illumination to help shed light on what he termed "shikantaza". From then on the practice of shikantaza has been primarily associated with the Soto school. While silent illumination is in theory a "methodless method", it is important to realize that, the Dogen practice of shikantaza "took a somewhat different approach."
The Chinese Chán Master Shengyen has stated, that shikantaza is similar to silent illumination.
Modern interpretations
Master Shengyen explains the meaning of the term in this way:
According to Merv Fowler, shikantaza is described best as,
Shikantaza is often termed a goalless meditation in quiet awareness,
Practice
Soto
In his work Fukan zazengi, Dogen writes of,
Fred Reinhard Dallmayr writes,
According to Master Shengyen,
Sanbo Kyodan
The modern Japanese Zen master, Haku'un Ryōko Yasutani says:
In contrast to this opinion, some of the Zen masters in Loori's book The Art of Just Sitting deride Yasutani's description, giving their own version as the right or correct way to do shikantaza.
Concerning the Rinzai school, John Daido Loori writes,
Haku'un Yasutani agrees, stating,
Complementary practices
In Japan, vipassana and shamatha are sometimes used in addition to shikantaza as complementary practices.
See also
Abhāvanā
Dzogchen
Turiya
Padārtha abhāvana
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Buddhist meditation
Zen
Nondualism
Zazen
Silence | [
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237536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20privacy | Information privacy | Information privacy is the relationship between the collection and dissemination of data, technology, the public expectation of privacy, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. It is also known as data privacy or data protection.
Data privacy is challenging since it attempts to use data while protecting an individual's privacy preferences and personally identifiable information. The fields of computer security, data security, and information security all design and use software, hardware, and human resources to address this issue.
Authorities
Laws
Authorities by country
Information types
Various types of personal information often come under privacy concerns.
Cable television
This describes the ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over cable television, and who can access that information. For example, third parties can track IP TV programs someone has watched at any given time. "The addition of any information in a broadcasting stream is not required for an audience rating survey, additional devices are not requested to be installed in the houses of viewers or listeners, and without the necessity of their cooperations, audience ratings can be automatically performed in real-time."
Educational
In the United Kingdom in 2012, the Education Secretary Michael Gove described the National Pupil Database as a "rich dataset" whose value could be "maximised" by making it more openly accessible, including to private companies. Kelly Fiveash of The Register said that this could mean "a child's school life including exam results, attendance, teacher assessments and even characteristics" could be available, with third-party organizations being responsible for anonymizing any publications themselves, rather than the data being anonymized by the government before being handed over. An example of a data request that Gove indicated had been rejected in the past, but might be possible under an improved version of privacy regulations, was for "analysis on sexual exploitation".
Financial
Information about a person's financial transactions, including the amount of assets, positions held in stocks or funds, outstanding debts, and purchases can be sensitive. If criminals gain access to information such as a person's accounts or credit card numbers, that person could become the victim of fraud or identity theft. Information about a person's purchases can reveal a great deal about that person's history, such as places he/she has visited, whom he/she has contacted with, products he/she has used, his/her activities and habits, or medications he/she has used. In some cases, corporations may use this information to target individuals with marketing customized towards those individual's personal preferences, which that person may or may not approve.
Internet
The ability to control the information one reveals about oneself over the internet, and who can access that information, has become a growing concern. These concerns include whether email can be stored or read by third parties without consent, or whether third parties can continue to track the websites that someone visited. Another concern is if websites one visited can collect, store, and possibly share personally identifiable information about users.
The advent of various search engines and the use of data mining created a capability for data about individuals to be collected and combined from a wide variety of sources very easily. The FTC has provided a set of guidelines that represent widely accepted concepts concerning fair information practices in an electronic marketplace called the Fair Information Practice Principles.
To avoid giving away too much personal information, emails should be encrypted. Browsing of web pages as well as other online activities should be done trace-less via "anonymizers", in case those are not trusted, by open-source distributed anonymizers, so called mix nets, such as I2P or Tor – The Onion Router. VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) are another "anonymizer" that can be used to give someone more protection while online. This includes obfuscating and encrypting web traffic so that other groups cannot see or mine it.
Email isn't the only internet content with privacy concerns. In an age where increasing amounts of information is online, social networking sites pose additional privacy challenges. People may be tagged in photos or have valuable information exposed about themselves either by choice or unexpectedly by others, referred to as participatory surveillance. Data about location can also be accidentally published, for example, when someone posts a picture with a store as a background. Caution should be exercised when posting information online, social networks vary in what they allow users to make private and what remains publicly accessible. Without strong security settings in place and careful attention to what remains public, a person can be profiled by searching for and collecting disparate pieces of information, worst case leading to cases of cyberstalking or reputation damage.
Cookies are used in websites that users may allow the website to retrieve some information from user's internet which it usually does not mention what the data being retrieved is. It is a common method used to monitor and track users' internet activity. In 2018, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) passed regulation that forces websites to visibly disclose to consumers their information privacy practices, referred to as cookie notices. This was issued to give consumers the choice of what information about their behavior they consent to letting websites track, however its effectiveness is controversial. Some websites may engage in deceptive practices such as placing the cookie notices in places on the page that are not visible, or only giving consumers notice that their information is being tracked, but not allowing them to change their privacy settings.
Locational
As location tracking capabilities of mobile devices are advancing (location-based services), problems related to user privacy arise. Location data is among the most sensitive data currently being collected. A list of potentially sensitive professional and personal information that could be inferred about an individual knowing only his mobility trace was published recently by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. These include the movements of a competitor sales force, attendance of a particular church or an individual's presence in a motel, or at an abortion clinic. A recent MIT study by de Montjoye et al. showed that four spatio-temporal points, approximate places and times, are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5 million people in a mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets provide little anonymity.
Medical
People may not wish for their medical records to be revealed to others due to the confidentiality and sensitivity of what the information could reveal about their health. For example, they might be concerned that it might affect their insurance coverage or employment. Or, it may be because they would not wish for others to know about any medical or psychological conditions or treatments that would bring embarrassment upon themselves. Revealing medical data could also reveal other details about one's personal life. There are three major categories of medical privacy: informational (the degree of control over personal information), physical (the degree of physical inaccessibility to others), and psychological (the extent to which the doctor respects patients’ cultural beliefs, inner thoughts, values, feelings, and religious practices and allows them to make personal decisions).
Physicians and psychiatrists in many cultures and countries have standards for doctor–patient relationships, which include maintaining confidentiality. In some cases, the physician–patient privilege is legally protected. These practices are in place to protect the dignity of patients, and to ensure that patients feel free to reveal complete and accurate information required for them to receive the correct treatment.
To view the United States' laws on governing privacy of private health information, see HIPAA and the HITECH Act. The Australian law is the Privacy Act 1988 Australia as well as state-based health records legislation.
Political
Political privacy has been a concern since voting systems emerged in ancient times. The secret ballot is the simplest and most widespread measure to ensure that political views are not known to anyone other than the voters themselves—it is nearly universal in modern democracy, and considered to be a basic right of citizenship. In fact, even where other rights of privacy do not exist, this type of privacy very often does. Unfortunately, there are several forms of voting fraud or privacy violations possible with the use of digital voting machines.
Legality
The legal protection of the right to privacy in general – and of data privacy in particular – varies greatly around the world.
Laws and regulations related to Privacy and Data Protection are constantly changing, it is seen as important to keep abreast of any changes in the law and to continually reassess compliance with data privacy and security regulations. Within academia, Institutional Review Boards function to assure that adequate measures are taken to ensure both the privacy and confidentiality of human subjects in research.
Privacy concerns exist wherever personally identifiable information or other sensitive information is collected, stored, used, and finally destroyed or deleted – in digital form or otherwise. Improper or non-existent disclosure control can be the root cause for privacy issues. Informed consent mechanisms including dynamic consent are important in communicating to data subjects the different uses of their personally identifiable information. Data privacy issues may arise in response to information from a wide range of sources, such as:
Healthcare records
Criminal justice investigations and proceedings
Financial institutions and transactions
Biological traits, such as genetic material
Residence and geographic records
Privacy breach
Location-based service and geolocation
Web surfing behavior or user preferences using persistent cookies
Academic research
Protection of privacy in information systems
As heterogeneous information systems with differing privacy rules are interconnected and information is shared, policy appliances will be required to reconcile, enforce, and monitor an increasing amount of privacy policy rules (and laws). There are two categories of technology to address privacy protection in commercial IT systems: communication and enforcement.
Policy communication
P3P – The Platform for Privacy Preferences. P3P is a standard for communicating privacy practices and comparing them to the preferences of individuals.
Policy enforcement
XACML – The Extensible Access Control Markup Language together with its Privacy Profile is a standard for expressing privacy policies in a machine-readable language which a software system can use to enforce the policy in enterprise IT systems.
EPAL – The Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language is very similar to XACML, but is not yet a standard.
WS-Privacy - "Web Service Privacy" will be a specification for communicating privacy policy in web services. For example, it may specify how privacy policy information can be embedded in the SOAP envelope of a web service message.
Protecting privacy on the internet
On the internet many users give away a lot of information about themselves: unencrypted e-mails can be read by the administrators of an e-mail server, if the connection is not encrypted (no HTTPS), and also the internet service provider and other parties sniffing the network traffic of that connection are able to know the contents.
The same applies to any kind of traffic generated on the Internet, including web browsing, instant messaging, and others.
In order not to give away too much personal information, e-mails can be encrypted and browsing of webpages as well as other online activities can be done traceless via anonymizers, or by open source distributed anonymizers, so-called mix networks.
Well-known open-source mix nets include I2P – The Anonymous Network and Tor.
Improving privacy through individualization
Computer privacy can be improved through individualization. Currently security messages are designed for the "average user", i.e. the same message for everyone. Researchers have posited that individualized messages and security "nudges", crafted based on users' individual differences and personality traits, can be used for further improvements for each person's compliance with computer security and privacy.
United States Safe Harbor program and passenger name record issues
The United States Department of Commerce created the International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles certification program in response to the 1995 Directive on Data Protection (Directive 95/46/EC) of the European Commission. Both the United States and the European Union officially state that they are committed to upholding information privacy of individuals, but the former has caused friction between the two by failing to meet the standards of the EU's stricter laws on personal data. The negotiation of the Safe Harbor program was, in part, to address this long-running issue. Directive 95/46/EC declares in Chapter IV Article 25 that personal data may only be transferred from the countries in the European Economic Area to countries which provide adequate privacy protection. Historically, establishing adequacy required the creation of national laws broadly equivalent to those implemented by Directive 95/46/EU. Although there are exceptions to this blanket prohibition – for example where the disclosure to a country outside the EEA is made with the consent of the relevant individual (Article 26(1)(a)) – they are limited in practical scope. As a result, Article 25 created a legal risk to organisations which transfer personal data from Europe to the United States.
The program regulates the exchange of passenger name record information between the EU and the US. According to the EU directive, personal data may only be transferred to third countries if that country provides an adequate level of protection. Some exceptions to this rule are provided, for instance when the controller himself can guarantee that the recipient will comply with the data protection rules.
The European Commission has set up the "Working party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data," commonly known as the "Article 29 Working Party". The Working Party gives advice about the level of protection in the European Union and third countries.
The Working Party negotiated with U.S. representatives about the protection of personal data, the Safe Harbor Principles were the result. Notwithstanding that approval, the self-assessment approach of the Safe Harbor remains controversial with a number of European privacy regulators and commentators.
The Safe Harbor program addresses this issue in the following way: rather than a blanket law imposed on all organisations in the United States, a voluntary program is enforced by the Federal Trade Commission. U.S. organisations which register with this program, having self-assessed their compliance with a number of standards, are "deemed adequate" for the purposes of Article 25. Personal information can be sent to such organisations from the EEA without the sender being in breach of Article 25 or its EU national equivalents. The Safe Harbor was approved as providing adequate protection for personal data, for the purposes of Article 25(6), by the European Commission on 26 July 2000.
Under the Safe Harbor, adoptee organisations need to carefully consider their compliance with the onward transfer obligations, where personal data originating in the EU is transferred to the US Safe Harbor, and then onward to a third country. The alternative compliance approach of "binding corporate rules", recommended by many EU privacy regulators, resolves this issue. In addition, any dispute arising in relation to the transfer of HR data to the US Safe Harbor must be heard by a panel of EU privacy regulators.
In July 2007, a new, controversial, Passenger Name Record agreement between the US and the EU was made. A short time afterwards, the Bush administration gave exemption for the Department of Homeland Security, for the Arrival and Departure Information System (ADIS) and for the Automated Target System from the 1974 Privacy Act.
In February 2008, Jonathan Faull, the head of the EU's Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the US bilateral policy concerning PNR. The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Czech Republic in exchange of a visa waiver scheme, without concerting before with Brussels. The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by a lesser level of data protection in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US Privacy Act of 1974. Other countries approached for bilateral MOU included the United Kingdom, Estonia, Germany and Greece.
See also
Computer science specific
Organisations
Scholars working in the field
References
Further reading
External links
International
Factsheet on ECtHR case law on data protection
International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners
Biometrics Institute Privacy Charter
Europe
EU data protection page
UNESCO Chair in Data Privacy
European Data Protection Supervisor
Latin America
Latin American Data Protection Law Review
North America
Privacy and Access Council of Canada
Laboratory for International Data Privacy at Carnegie Mellon University.
Privacy Laws by State
Journals
IEEE Security & Privacy magazine
Transactions on Data Privacy
Data laws
Data protection
Privacy | [
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237537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20white%20ibis | Australian white ibis | The Australian white ibis (Threskiornis molucca) is a wading bird of the ibis family, Threskiornithidae. It is widespread across much of Australia. It has a predominantly white plumage with a bare, black head, long downcurved bill and black legs. While it is closely related to the African sacred ibis, the Australian white ibis is a native Australian bird - contrary to urban myth, it is not a feral species introduced to Australia by people, and it does not come from Egypt.
Historically rare in urban areas, the Australian white ibis has established in urban areas of the east coast in increasing numbers since the late 1970s; it is now commonly seen in Wollongong, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Darwin, the Gold Coast, Brisbane and Townsville. In recent years, the bird has also become increasingly common in Perth, Western Australia, and surrounding towns in south-western Australia. Populations have disappeared from natural breeding areas such as the Macquarie Marshes in northern New South Wales. Management plans have been introduced to control problematic urban populations in Sydney.
Due to its increasing presence in the urban environment and its habit of rummaging in garbage, the species has acquired a variety of colloquial names such as "tip turkey" and "bin chicken", and in recent years has become an icon of Australia's popular culture, regarded with glee by some and passionate revulsion by others.
Taxonomy
It was initially described by Georges Cuvier in 1829 as Ibis molucca. It is considered part of a superspecies complex with the sacred ibis (T. aethiopicus) of Africa, and the black-headed ibis (T. melanocephalus) of Asia. Its status in the complex has vacillated over the years. Many older guidebooks referred to the bird as a species, T. molucca, until a comprehensive review of plumage patterns by Holyoak in 1970. Holyoak noted the three species' similarities and that the Australian taxon resembled T. aethiopicus in adult plumage and T. melanocephalus in juvenile plumage. He proposed that they all be considered part of a single species, T. aethiopicus. This was generally accepted by the scientific community until Lowe and Richards's assessment of plumage in 1991. They again recommended the recognition of molucca at species level. This was followed by a chromosome study, which highlighted each of the three species having a different karyotype. The Australian white ibis has been considered a full species by most authorities since then.
Subspecies
Two subspecies are recognised:
T. m. molucca of eastern Malesia and Australia, is the nominate subspecies.
T. m. pygmaeus (Solomons white ibis) is a dwarf form found on the Solomon Islands that has been considered a separate species at times.
Description
The Australian white ibis is a fairly large ibis species, around long and has a bald black head and neck and a long black downcurved beak, measuring over in the male, and under in the female. There is some sexual dimorphism in size, as the slightly heavier male weighs compared to the female. As a comparison, the American white ibis generally attains in weight. The body plumage is white, although it may become brown-stained. Inner secondary plumes are displayed as lacy black "tail" feathers. The upper tail becomes yellow when the bird is breeding. The legs and feet are dark and red skin is visible on the underside of the wing. Immature birds have shorter bills. The head and neck are feathered in juveniles.
The call is a long croak.
The Australian white ibis reaches sexual maturity in three years, and can reach twenty-eight years of age.
Distribution
The Australian white ibis is widespread in eastern, northern and south-western Australia. It occurs in marshy wetlands, often near open grasslands and has become common in Australian east-coast city parks and rubbish dumps in the urban areas of Wollongong, Sydney, Perth, the Gold Coast, Brisbane and Townsville. Historically, it was rare in urban areas - the first visits were noted after drought drove birds eastwards in the late 1970s, and there were no breeding records in Sydney until the 1980s.
The Macquarie Marshes in north-western New South Wales used to be one of the main breeding areas of the bird, with 11,000 nests reported in 1998. However, since 2000, none have been reported breeding there. The species is absent from Tasmania.
Urban population
The species has been able to colonise urban areas by reducing its fear response when in close proximity to humans, and by significantly widening its suite of food items to include human refuse - strategies that other closely-related species such as the straw-necked ibis and the spoonbills have not replicated.
Questions surrounding the origins of recent highly urbanised and closely human-habituated populations of the species are complicated by the establishment of free flying exhibit flocks of formerly captive birds at a number of zoos and wildlife parks, including Sydney's Taronga Zoo, which first acquired birds for this purpose around 1971. A 1973 ABC TV report noted Taronga's by then well-established "liberty flock" was breeding locally, unlike natural populations, which at that time were only known to fleetingly visit the urban area and not breed there.
The resident Taronga flock nested in exotic Canary Island date palms, and was notably very closely habituated to people; approaching them at close quarters, feeding from rubbish bins and scavenging food from outdoor dining areas. These previously undocumented behaviours became closely associated with the urban Sydney flocks that emerged from around 1980 onwards, directly across the harbour in the Royal Botanic Gardens and the Sydney CBD, and further afield in the Centennial Parklands.
The relationship between birds originating from the Taronga flock and any influx of inland birds into Sydney is poorly known, but it is speculated that human-habituated flocks originating from the zoo may have encouraged some visiting flocks to stay in Sydney, with the two populations likely merging to some degree. Resident Sydney birds may have influenced newcomers fleeing from inland drought to adapt to new food sources in the city and to accept close proximity to humans.
Other free-flying exhibit populations were similarly established at Healesville Sanctuary in Victoria and at Tidbinbilla in the ACT, both of which mirrored the Taronga example by appearing to serve as population nucleation points. Healesville birds also seeded a free-flying population at Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary in Queensland.
The urban population further increased after a further period of inland drought in 1998. The first big colony set up in the Sydney suburb of Bankstown and started to cause anxiety in the local community. It is estimated the colony was the largest outside the Macquarie Marshes, their natural breeding wetland in inland NSW.
Invasiveness
There has been debate in recent years over whether to consider them a pest or a possibly endangered species. Birds in tourist areas of Sydney, such as Darling Harbour, the Royal Botanic Gardens, and Centennial Park, have been a problem due to their strong smell. Populations in the latter two areas have been culled.
The birds have also come to be regarded as a problem species in Victoria as a result of their scavenging activities, scattering rubbish from tips and bins in the process. They are even known to snatch sandwiches from picnickers. Such behaviour, together with their propensity to build nests in "inappropriate" places, and competition with captive animals, led to surplus birds being relocated from Healesville Sanctuary to Sale. However, the birds returned in a few days.
Behaviour
Feeding
The Australian white ibis' range of food includes both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates and human scraps. The most favoured foods are crayfish and mussels, which the bird obtains by digging with its long bill.
Breeding
Breeding season varies with the location within Australia, generally August to November in the south, and February to May, after the wet season, in the north. The nest is a shallow dish-shaped platform of sticks, grasses or reeds, located in trees, generally near a body of water such as a river, swamp or lake. Ibises commonly nest near other waterbirds such as egrets, herons, spoonbills or cormorants. Two to three dull white eggs are laid measuring 65 mm × 44 mm. The clutch is then incubated for 21–23 days. Hatchlings are altricial, that is, they are naked and helpless at birth, and take 48 days to fledge.
References
https://barrythebinchicken.com.au/
External links
Australian white ibis
Australian white ibis
Birds of the Maluku Islands
Birds of Western New Guinea
Australian white ibis
Australian white ibis
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237540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood%20Bowl | Hollywood Bowl | The Hollywood Bowl is an amphitheatre in the Hollywood Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. It was named one of the 10 best live music venues in America by Rolling Stone magazine in 2018.
The Hollywood Bowl is known for its distinctive band shell, originally a set of concentric arches that graced the site from 1929 through 2003, before being replaced with a larger one to begin the 2004 season. The shell is set against the backdrop of the Hollywood Hills and the famous Hollywood Sign to the northeast.
The "bowl" refers to the shape of the concave hillside the amphitheater is carved into. The Bowl is owned by the County of Los Angeles and is the home of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, the summer home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and the host venue to hundreds of musical events each year.
It is located at 2301 North Highland Avenue, west of the (former) French Village. It is north of Hollywood Boulevard and approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) from the Hollywood/Highland Metro Rail station. It is adjacent to U.S. Route 101.
History
Siting and opening
The site of the Hollywood Bowl was chosen in 1919 by William Reed and his son H. Ellis Reed, who were dispatched to find a suitable location for outdoor performances by the members of the newly formed Theatre Arts Alliance headed by Christine Wetherill Stevenson. The Reeds selected a natural amphitheater, a shaded canyon and popular picnic spot known as 'Daisy Dell' in Bolton Canyon which was chosen for its natural acoustics and its proximity to downtown Hollywood. The Community Park and Art Association, then headed by F. W. Blanchard, was the first organization to begin the building the Bowl.
One of the earliest performances at the Bowl was Hollywood High School's Performance of Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. The Women's World Peace Concert was held on November 11, 1921. On November 11, 1921 the first Sunrise Service took place at the bowl, in one of its first major events. With the building of the first actual stage, consisting of little more than wooden platforms and canvas, The Bowl officially opened on July 11, 1922.
Community Function
The Bowl began as a community space rather than a privately owned establishment. Proceeds from the early events at the Bowl went to financing the construction of new elements of the bowl such as a stage and seating in 1922 and 1923 respectively. In 1924, a backdrop to the stage was added.
During the early years of the Bowl's existence, concert tickets were kept at the lowest available price of 25 cents using the slogan popular prices will prevail, coined by F.W. Blanchard. While serving as the venue for concerts by the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the Bowl also served as a community space, being used for Easter services, the Hollywood Community Chorus, as well as Young Artists Nights where younger musicians could perform well known classical music. Children were also invited to perform at community events with the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Hollywood Community Chorus, beginning with Sibelius’ Finlandia in 1921.
The Bowl was home to much more than western music, hosting a variety of Native American tribal events, as well as international music ensembles.
In 1924, the land was deeded to the County of Los Angeles.
Women in the Bowl
Many of the key influential figures in the founding of the Hollywood Bowl were women, most notably the pianist Artie Mason Carter, whose connections with the Los Angeles arts patrons were vital in the early days of the Bowls existence. Christine Wetherill Stevenson and Marie Rankin Clarke, who both donated $21,000 to purchase the land on which the bowl was built. E.J. Wakeman, Leiland Atherton Irish, Harriet Clay Penman, and composers Gertrude Ross and Carrie Jacobs Bond all contributed to the Bowl through fundraising drives.
Band shells
Frank Lloyd Wright, Jr. (commonly known as Lloyd Wright) designed the second and third band shells. The original 1926 shell, designed by the Allied Architects group, was considered unacceptable both visually and acoustically. Wright's 1927 shell had a pyramidal shape and a design reminiscent of southwest American Indian architecture. Its acoustics generally were regarded as the best of any shell in Bowl history. But its appearance was considered too avant-garde, or perhaps only ugly, and it was demolished at the end of the season. His 1928 wooden shell had the now-familiar concentric ring motif, covered a 120-degree arc, and was designed to be easily dismantled. Unfortunately it was neglected and ruined by water damage.
For the 1929 season, the Allied Architects built the shell that stood until 2003, using a transite skin over a metal frame. Its acoustics, though not nearly as good as those of the Lloyd Wright shells, were deemed satisfactory at first, and its clean lines and white, semicircular arches were copied for music shells elsewhere. As the acoustics deteriorated, various measures were used to mitigate the problems, starting in the 1970s with an inner shell made from large cardboard tubes (of the sort used as forms for round concrete pillars), which were replaced in the early 1980s by large fiberglass spheres (both designed by Frank Gehry) that remained until 2003. These dampened out the unfavorable acoustics, but required massive use of electronic amplification to reach the full audience, particularly since the background noise level had risen sharply since the 1920s. The appearance underwent other, purely visual, changes as well, including the addition of a broad outer arch (forming a proscenium) where it had once had only a narrow rim, and a reflecting pool in front of the stage that lasted from 1953 till 1972. Sculptor George Stanley, designer of the Oscar statuette, designed the Muse Fountain which has stood outside the Hollywood Bowl's main entrance since 1940.
Shortly after the end of the 2003 summer season the 1929 shell was replaced with a new, somewhat larger, acoustically improved shell, which had its debut in the 2004 summer season. Preservationists fiercely opposed the demolition for many years, citing the shell's storied history. However, even when it was built, the 1929 shell was (at least acoustically) only the third-best shell in the Bowl's history, behind its two immediate predecessors. By the late 1970s, the Hollywood Bowl became an acoustic liability because of continued hardening of its transite skin. The new shell incorporates design elements of not only the 1929 shell, but of both the Lloyd Wright shells. During the 2004 summer season, the sound steadily improved, as engineers learned to work with its live acoustics.
The current sound reinforcement system is a line-array configuration of multiple loudspeaker enclosures hung vertically in a curved manner, with the lower enclosures facing the front sections, and the upper enclosures angled towards the rear sections. It is manufactured by L'Acoustics, and includes state-of-the-art audio processing allowing each individual loudspeaker enclosure to be "tuned" and directed towards the near-precise location of the listener, regardless of where in the venue they are sitting. This results in the audience in the rear sections hearing the same audio, at the same level, as in the front sections. This electronic processing includes sound level, frequency equalization, occasional special effects, and time delay (sound passes through wire much faster than through air, therefore the sound coming from the speakers must be delayed, allowing the actual sound from the stage to "catch up" so both sources reach the listeners' ears simultaneously). The system is maintained by Rat Sound Systems, the same company that has provided audio for the Coachella Festival, since its inception.
The 2004 shell incorporates the prominent front arch of the 1926 shell, the broad profile of the 1928 shell, and the unadorned white finish (and most of the general lines) of the 1929 shell. In addition, the ring-shaped structure hung within the shell, supporting lights and acoustic clouds, echoes a somewhat similar structure hung within the 1927 shell. During the 2004 season, because the back wall was not yet finished, a white curtain was hung at the back; beginning with the 2005 season, the curtain was removed to reveal a finished back wall. The architectural design for the shell was developed by the Los Angeles-based architectural practice Hodgetts and Fung, with the structural concept developed by the local office of Arup.
At the same time the new shell was being constructed the bowl received four new video screens and towers. During most concerts, three remotely operated cameras in the shell, and a fourth, manually operated camera among the box seats, provide the audience with close-up views of the musicians.
Hollywood Bowl Orchestra(s)
The Hollywood Bowl has had several house orchestras. A "Bowl Orchestra" performed in 1925, and a "Hollywood Bowl Orchestra" made a live recording in 1928. Later, the "Hollywood Bowl Symphony Orchestra" recorded made several classical recordings under music director Leopold Stokowski from 1945 to 1946, and released a number of recordings on the Capitol Records label in the 1950s and 1960s.
The Hollywood Bowl Orchestra was re-launched by the Los Angeles Philharmonic Association in 1991 under principal conductor John Mauceri, who finished his tenure in 2006.
From among the Orchestra's more than 300 concerts, Kathleen Battle, Plácido Domingo, Jane Eaglen, Marilyn Horne, Alexander Frey, Jennifer Larmore, Sylvia McNair, Andrea Bocelli, Gil Shaham, Stephen Hough, Luciano Pavarotti and the San Francisco Ballet represent the illustrious talent from the worlds of opera, ballet and classical music that has graced the stage with the Orchestra. Trisha Yearwood, Garth Brooks (in his only performance with an orchestra) and the late John Denver brought to their performances the irrepressible optimism of Country-Western. Jason Alexander, Carol Burnett, Kristin Chenoweth, Kirk Douglas, Patti LuPone, Reba McEntire, Lynn Redgrave, Peabo Bryson, Harry Connick Jr., Alan Cumming, Davis Gaines, Savion Glover, Joel Grey, Garrison Keillor, Leonard Nimoy, Brian Stokes Mitchell and Patrick Stewart have brought their inimitable gifts to the Bowl stage. Hosting Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, Chicago, Cheap Trick, The Chieftains, Sergio Mendes, The Moody Blues, Pink Martini, Tito Puente and the Latin Jazz Ensemble, Royal Crown Revue, and Rufus Wainwright, the Orchestra has proven itself in the world of pop and rock. Rosemary Clooney, Natalie Cole, Ann Miller, Della Reese, Sir George Martin, and Peter, Paul & Mary are among artists with whom the Orchestra has been privileged to work. And, in the 1999 season, John Mauceri stepped aside to allow the mayor of Los Angeles, the Honorable Richard J. Riordan, to make his conducting debut at the Bowl with the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra.
Early conductors
The first appointed conductor of the Bowl ensemble was Emil Oberhoffer, who served for one year. Oberhoffer was proceeded by Alfred Hertz for two years. In 1925 Fritz Reiner migrated to the orchestra from the Cincinnati Symphony. Reiner was supplanted by Sir Henry Wood several years later.. German-born Frederick Stark who would later become a music librarian at the Walt Disney Studios occasionally served as the conductor.
Early ballet and opera
Ballet dancer Maud Allen performed during the production of symphony Pathetique by Tschaikowsky under the direction of Alfred Hertz in 1926. Ernest Belcher arranged a ballet scene for Bowl Dedication Night, and dancers from the Belcher Ballet School performed the Beautiful Galatea, Enchanted Hour, and Venesive Festival. In 1932, the Belcher's ballet was performed in Greek Costumes as a dedication to the Olympic-Games Athletes. Alexis and Theodore Kosloff performed the ballet Scheherazade with dancers from Hollywood and the Klosloff Dancing School between 1930s. In 1932, Theodore Klosloff performed the Flower.Also in 1932, the ballet Chopiniana was performed. Ballet Dancers Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn performed solo dances under direction of Hertz in 1927. Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn raised there arms to point at the California Stars during the Russian Ballet sur le point at the Hollywood Bowl. In 1928, Andreas Pavley, a tenor, and Serge Oukrainsky, a ballet dancer, performed at the Hollywood Bowl. Oukrainsky performed in the ballet La Fete a Robinson alone after Pavley's death. In 1929, Norma Gould brought her Los Angeles dancers to the bowl to perform during Schubert's Unfinished Symphony and Tschaikowsky's Nut-Cracker Suite. In August, 1930, Michio Ito brought five dancers to the Hollywood Bowl to perform in the Russian Ballet Prince Igor. In 1931, Adolph Bolm performed at the Bowl for Debussy's Les Nuages. He also performed The Spirt factory. This was later called the Mechanical Ballet composed by Alaxander Mosolov. Dancers Elise Reiman and Robert Bell also performed in the Mechanical Ballet.
In 1931, Los Angeles Grand Opera performed segments of Marouf. Early Hollywood Bowl appearances of opera include: Carmen, Aida, and Shanewis. In 1929, a concertized form of the opera Carmen was performed by Alice Genytle, Paul Althouse and Alexander Kisselburgh. The same cast later performed moments from the opera Tannhäuser. In 1932, Samson and Delilah was performed by Paul Althouse, local singers, the Belcher Ballet and the Civic Chorus in concert style. In 1927, Elsa Alsen performed Santuzza in Cavalleria. In 1934, Nina Koshetz performed Carmen and Nelson Eddy sang Escamillo in the opera Carmen. Koshetz also sang the lead in Tschaikowsky's Eugene Onegin. In the 1930s, Verdi's Aida was performed by Dan Gridley, Clemence Gifford, Eleanor Woodforde and Richard Bonelli with the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1935, Lohengrin was performed by Jeanette Vreeland performing Elsa and Dan Gridley performing Lonhengrin.
Performances
The first season at the Hollywood Bowl began on July 11, 1922, with conductor Alfred Hertz and the Los Angeles Philharmonic.
In 1945, Leopold Stokowski formed the Hollywood Bowl Symphony Orchestra, drawing its players from among members of the Los Angeles Philharmonic and various film studios orchestras. He made a number of 78 rpm recordings with them for RCA Victor during his two seasons there (1945–46) before returning to New York. The Hollywood Bowl Symphony's name was retained for a series of Capitol LPs made in the 1950s under such conductors as Felix Slatkin and Carmen Dragon.
In 1951, a financial crisis closed the Hollywood Bowl during its summer season. Dorothy Chandler chaired a committee that organized a series of fundraising concerts that was able to reopen it.
The film-and-orchestra concert Bugs Bunny on Broadway, subsequently called "Bugs Bunny at the Symphony," has played the Hollywood Bowl a record 21 times—19 times with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and twice with the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, all conducted by George Daugherty. In September 2003, "Bugs Bunny On Broadway" was the final Los Angeles Philharmonic concert to be performed in the 1929 shell before its demolition started the following day, making way for the new shell.
Public Figures – include President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Mickey Rooney and Edward G. Robinson, Fonteyn and Nureyev, Nelson Eddy and Jeanette MacDonald, Simon and Garfunkel, and Abbott and Costello.
Dancers – Mikhail Baryshnikov has danced there, as did Fred Astaire.
Musicians – Al Jolson, Judy Garland, Billie Holiday, Louis Armstrong, Art Tatum, Buddy Rich, Harry "Sweets" Edison, Nat "King" Cole, Oscar Peterson, Christina Aguilera, Ella Fitzgerald, Carrie Underwood, The Beatles, The Doors, Van Halen, Rod Stewart, José José, Kylie Minogue, Elton John, Alicia Keys, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Heart and Sting.
1920s
Tsianina Redfeather Blackstone sang the role of Shanewis in the opera "Shanewis" in 1926.
Rafaela Díaz performed in 1926 as Lionel in Charles Wakefields Cadman's Indian-themed opera "Shanewis."
1930s
August 7, 1936: The Hollywood Bowl's set an attendance record of 26,410 at a performance by French opera star Lily Pons
1940s
Bass baritone George London made his opera début In 1941 singing Dr. Grenvil in La Traviata.
American soprano Florence Quartararo made her début as Leonora in a concert performance of Il trovatore in 1945.
Marian Anderson
1950s
September 1950: California's official state centennial show, The California Story, ran for five performances. The production, directed by Vladimir Rosing, was immense. A chorus of 200 and hundreds of actors were employed. The shell of the bowl was removed, the stage was enlarged, and the action was expanded to include the surrounding hillsides. Lionel Barrymore provided the show's dramatic narration.
August 15, 1956: A Jazz at the Philharmonic program featuring Louis Armstrong and His All Stars, Ella Fitzgerald, Art Tatum, and Oscar Peterson became the best-attended event of the venue's history.
American Baritone Mack Harrell performed in the US première of "David" in 1956.
Mary Costa substituted for Elisabeth Schwarzkopf at a 1958 gala concert.
1960s
The Beatles performed in 1964 and 1965, which resulted in the live album The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl that was released in 1977. This recording was re-released in 2016 with the screams of the fans significantly reduced and sound improved with new technology by Giles Martin.
July 22, 1966: The Rolling Stones
July 5, 1968: L.A. rock band The Doors performed at the Hollywood Bowl, with Steppenwolf and The Chambers Brothers as their opening acts. Recordings from this show were released in 1987 as the live album Live at the Hollywood Bowl.
August 16, 1968: Eric Burdon & The Animals performed at the Hollywood Bowl. A live tape of rather poor quality of their performance exists.
September 14, 1968: The Jimi Hendrix Experience appeared at the Hollywood Bowl. This concert was recorded and eventually released as part of the 50th anniversary box set of Electric Ladyland.
1970s
June 17, 1972: Ron "Pigpen" McKernan played his last show with the Grateful Dead.
José Carreras sang the duke of Mantua in "Rigoletto" and Rodolfo in "La Bohème" with the San Francisco Opera at the Hollywood Bowl in 1973.
July 23, 1972 Alice Cooper (w/ Captain Beyond, Jo Jo Gunne, Wolfman Jack)
September 22, 1972 Pink Floyd performs The Dark Side of the Moon before its release under the title of Eclipse. Performance ends with fireworks display.
July 29, 1973: The World of Sid & Marty Krofft, a one performance only live show was filmed here and aired as a television special The World of Sid & Marty Krofft at the Hollywood Bowl. The show featured performances by Johnny Whitaker, Jack Wild with H.R. Pufnstuf characters and The Brady Bunch Kids.
September 7, 1973: Elton John played a concert here that was filmed for inclusion in the Bryan Forbes documentary film Elton John and Bernie Taupin Say Goodbye Norma Jean and Other Things.
1979: the inaugural Playboy Jazz Festival was held. It has taken place at the Hollywood Bowl ever since.
1980s
1980: The Monty Python comedy troupe performs. A filmed performance is released as Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl. (see below)
1990s
July 2–4, 1991: The newly formed Hollywood Bowl Orchestra made their debut performance with Independence Day concerts on conducted by John Mauceri. The program included works by Aaron Copland, Leonard Bernstein, John Williams, George Gershwin & Jerome Kern, among others.
October 2, 1991: Sting performed a special live performance for his 40th Birthday.
October 11, 1997: Prince performed at The Hollywood Bowl.
July 12, 1998: American pop group Hanson performed at The Hollywood Bowl.
2000s
August 14, 2000: The Who performed a concert on their North American tour.
July 1, 2002: The Who performed their first concert after the death of John Entwistle.
April 29–30, 2005: Cher performed the final two concerts of her Living Proof: The Farewell Tour.
October 1, 2005: Nine Inch Nails Live with Teeth
November 6 and 8, 2005: The Rolling Stones A Bigger Bang Tour concert.
August 28, 2006: Dave Matthews Band performed their first show at the Hollywood Bowl
October 1 and 2, 2007: Dave Matthews Band performs #34 with lyrics for the first time since 1993, in honor of frontman Dave Matthews' wife's 34th birthday.
November 4 & 5, 2006: The Who Endless Wire Tour
October 12 and 13, 2007: Genesis performed the last two concerts of their Turn It On Again: The Tour. These were the last concerts the band performed until 2021. At the last of the two concerts, lead singer Phil Collins said, "there was nothing else planned for Genesis after this show." Phil Collins would retire from the music industry in 2011 only to return in 2015.
August 16–17, 2009: Depeche Mode performed at the amphitheatre as part of their Tour of the Universe, in front of a crowd of 34,919 people.
October 4, 2009: Kylie Minogue performed at the amphitheatre during her For You, for Me tour.
2010s
James Taylor has performed several times at the Hollywood Bowl. he performed with Carole King in 2010 during the Troubadour World Reunion Tour. He has also performed with his band several times.
July 31, 2011: Kid Rock and Sheryl Crow part of the Born Free Tour.
August 2011: Phish made their Hollywood Bowl debut.
June 2, 2012: The Beach Boys played a concert here as part of their The 50th Reunion Tour.
November 8, 2013: Avicii performed at the Hollywood Bowl, becoming the first EDM artist to headline the venue.
May 30–31, 2015: Lady Gaga and Tony Bennett performed together as part of their Cheek to Cheek Tour.
September 20, 2015: Empire of the Sun performed for the first time during their Ice on the Dune tour.
September 25–26, 2015: Kanye West performed his 4th solo album 808s & Heartbreak in full for the first time ever.
March 25 and 26 2016: David Gilmour performed at the venue for the first time as a solo artist on his Rattle That Lock Tour. He last played there in 1972 with Pink Floyd.
July 1, 2016: Garrison Keillor recorded his final episode of A Prairie Home Companion from the Hollywood Bowl which was later released as a Live CD.
July 22–23, 2016: "Weird Al" Yankovic performed during his Mandatory World Tour
September 18, 2016: Kraftwerk makes their debut performance during their 3D US Tour.
October 14,15 2016: Kygo performed during his Cloud Nine Tour. The concerts were filmed in the documentary: "Kygo: Live at the Hollywood Bowl" available at iTunes.
June 2-3-4, 2017: Pentatonix makes their debut performance during their Tour.
June 17, 2017: The Moody Blues performed during the Days of Future Passed 50th anniversary tour.
June 23, 2017: Jason Mraz's 40th Birthday party and concert.
June 26, 27, 2017: Queen + Adam Lambert performed during their Queen + Adam Lambert Tour 2017-2018
July 9, 2017: Blondie and Garbage performed to a sold-out crowd during their first-ever and only joint tour with Sky Ferreira serving as the opening act on the Rage and Rapture Tour.
September 8, 9, 10: The Muppets performed
September 17, 2017: Mon Laferte performed during her Amarrame Tour alongside La Santa Cecilia and Cafe Tacvba
September 21, 22, 25: Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers completed their 40th Anniversary World Tour; final shows of Petty's career before his death on October 2.
October 5, 2017: Lauryn Hill and Nas performed during their Powernomics Tour
October 12, 2017, Depeche Mode played the first of 4 consecutive sold out nights at the Hollywood Bowl. The first band to ever sell out 4 consecutive nights at the venue.
October 27, 2017: Linkin Park held a tribute concert for Chester Bennington
April, 2018: International Superstar Gloria Trevi along with Rock & Roll Queen Alejandra Guzman performed the last show of their highly successful, multi year Versus World Tour.
May 12, 2018: The Iranian music legend Googoosh along with iconic singers and songwriters Hassan Shamaizadeh and Martik Kanian performed their Memory Makers Tour. Googoosh became the first Iranian artist to headline at the Hollywood Bowl.
2020s
May 13, 2020: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the entire season of film screenings and concerts was cancelled for the first time.
2021: Billie Eilish held a no-audience concert in support of her second album, Happier Than Ever, for a special concert film titled Happier Than Ever: A Love Letter from Los Angeles and released on Disney+ on September 3.
July 16-17,2021: Christina Aguilera, alongside the Los Angeles Philharmonic and directed by maestro Gustavo Dudamel held two consecutive concerts.
October 9, 2021: The Neighbourhood performed at the bowl for the first time.
October 23, 2021: Audacy's 8th annual We Can Survive charity concert featuring (in order of performance) Young in a Million, Saweetie, The Kid Laroi, Shawn Mendes, Black Eyed Peas, Maroon 5, Doja Cat, and Coldplay.
Musicals at the Hollywood Bowl
For years The Hollywood Bowl produced popular musicals that are in the mainstream and are sometimes accessible for families, such as:
Chicago starring Samantha Barks and Ashlee Simpson, A Chorus Line starring Ross Lynch and George Lopez, Annie starring Lea Salonga and Ana Gasteyer, Les Misérables starring Lea Michele and Rosie O'Donnell, Hair starring Kristen Bell and Hunter Parrish, West Side Story starring Jeremy Jordan and Karen Olivo, Into The Woods starring Sutton Foster and Skylar Astin, My Fair Lady starring John Lithgow and Melissa Erico, Rent starring Vanessa Hudgens and Aaron Tveit and more.
The next was about to be School Of Rock starring Cynthia Erivo but that was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Hollywood Bowl Museum
The Hollywood Bowl Museum is located at the bottom of Peppertree Lane. It was formally known as the Tea Room which opened in 1984. In 1996, it was rebuilt as the Edmund D. Edelman Hollywood Bowl Museum. It features many historical exhibits including: Summer Nights: Jazz at the Bowl, Hollywood Bowl: Music For Everyone, Postcards from the Bowl, Beatles at the Bowl, Concert Programs and Live from the Bowl. These exhibits feature vintage photographs, vintage sound equipment, newspaper clippings, postcards, live video recordings, and live audio recordings. The Hollywood Bowl Museum also features memorabilia and artifacts about the history of the Hollywood Bowl and performances. The museum includes the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame, whose honorees include John Williams, Reba McEntire, Garth Brooks, Stevie Wonder, Brian Wilson, Henry Mancini, Sarah Chang, Bernadette Peters, George Harrison, Frank Sinatra and more. The Hollywood Bowl Museum offers free admission, free self guided tour options, free guided tour options and educational programs. The educational program, Music Mobile, is a volunteer program and offers musical instrument lessons to students twice a year. If the Hollywood Bowl Museum is closed visitors can walk through "The Bowl Walk" which features historical photographs of the Hollywood Bowl.
In popular culture
Films
Moonlight Murder (1936), in which police detective Chester Morris solves a murder during a performance of Il Trovatore at the Bowl.
A Star Is Born (1937)
Hollywood Hotel (1937) in which Rosemary Lane sings to Dick Powell.
Double Indemnity (1944)
Anchors Aweigh (1945) with Gene Kelly, Frank Sinatra and Jose Iturbi.
Nobody Lives Forever (1946) starring John Garfield
Long-Haired Hare (1948); Bugs Bunny short film
It's a Great Feeling (1949)
Tom and Jerry in the Hollywood Bowl (1950); Tom and Jerry short film
Champagne for Caesar (1950); Ronald Colman, Celeste Holm, Vincent Price.
Rabbit of Seville (1950); Bugs Bunny short film
Dixieland Droopy (1954) MGM short film with Droopy
Hollywood or Bust (1956)
Baton Bunny (1959); Bugs Bunny short film
Two on a Guillotine (1965); with Cesar Romero, Connie Stevens and Dean Jones – directed by William Conrad.
A Perfect Couple (1979)
Xanadu (1980)
Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl (1982)
Some Kind of Wonderful (1987)
Beaches (1988), where Bette Midler's character CC Bloom is rehearsing for her concert at the Bowl, and where she performs at the end of the film.
Hanna-Barbera's 50th: A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration (1989)
Jimmy Hollywood (1994)
Pink, Plunk, Plink (1966) Pink Panther prefers the orchestra performing at the Hollywood Bowl to play The Pink Panther theme than their scheduled program to an audience consisting of the composer Henry Mancini.
Escape from L.A. (1996)
Lost & Found (1999)
Shrek 2 (2004), in the animated Far Far Away Idol DVD extra
Yes Man (2008)
Zombieland (2009) Bill Murray mentions that he saw Eddie Van Halen at the Hollywood Bowl.
Television
The Beverly Hillbillies (1963) in season 1 episode 23 "Jed Buys the Freeway," a conman attempts to sell the Clampetts the Hollywood Bowl, Griffith Park Zoo, and the freeway connecting the two.
Mannix (1968) in the last episode of the first season “The Girl in the Frame”. The fountain that used to be in front of the stage is visible.
Gomer Pyle USMC (1968) in episode 6 "All You Need Is One Good Break" in season 5. Gomer, Sgt. Carter, and their new actress friend take various photos there.
Sleeper Cell (2006) in episode 7 "Fitna" in season 2. The Hollywood Bowl is the target of a dirty nuclear bomb.
Californication (2008) in episode 9 "La Ronde" in season 2. Ashby steals Karen away on a date and surprises her with a private Lili Haydn concert at the Hollywood Bowl.
CSI: Miami (2010) in episode 16 "L.A." in season 8. Horatio Caine meets Captain Sutter at the Hollywood Bowl at the end of the episode.
Columbo (1972) Étude in Black starring Peter Falk and John Cassavetes. Most of the episode takes place at the Hollywood Bowl.
The New Adventures Of Old Christine (2008) Season 3 Episode #6 "The New Adventures Of Old Christine" Originally aired May 3, 2008. Christine tags along with her ex and her brother to the Hollywood Bowl.
Freakazoid (1997) The final scene of the last episode of the 1997 animated superhero comedy Freakazoid features the cast singing We'll Meet Again at the Hollywood Bowl
90210
NCIS: Los Angeles (2010) Season 2, episode 9, "Absolution". Hetty has a rendezvous with Mattias, a rival operative from the cold war.
Burke's Law (1964) in the episode "Who Killed Vaudeville?", the final scene is set on the Bowl's stage.
Lucifer (2018) In the episode "Let Pinhead Sing" a singer was the intended target during a performance but her double was killed instead.
This Is Us (2020) In the episode "Light and Shadows" Kevin takes a woman on a first date.
The Amazing Race 32 (2020) In the episode "One Million Miles", the Hollywood Bowl serves as the Starting Line.
Video Games
Grand Theft Auto V
Hollywood Bowl Green Initiatives
"The Hollywood Bowl is the first amphitheater in California to be certified as an Audubon Society Cooperative Sanctuary." Los Angeles Philharmonic Association and Los Angeles County are partners with the Hollywood Bowl and encourage recycling. The Hollywood Bowl has many recycling bins located throughout the venue. The Hollywood Bowl has also partnered with Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (formerly Southern California Rapid Transit District) since 1953 and provides the public with green alternatives to driving, including shuttle buses. Know Before You Go is provided as a detailed guide offering public transport information and free bike parking options. The Hollywood Bowl has waterless urinals and flush reducing toilets to preserve water as well as a satellite-based irrigation system to control water use. This irrigation system also provides water based on the needs of animal life. The Hollywood Bowl has stainless steel grates and water filters to keep its irrigation system clean.
See also
Live at the Hollywood Bowl (disambiguation)
List of contemporary amphitheatres
List of Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments in Hollywood
National Bowl
Waikiki Shell
Sidney Myer Music Bowl
Tom and Jerry in the Hollywood Bowl
Long-Haired Hare
CNE Bandshell
Korean Music Festival
References
Further reading
External links
The Story of a Hollywood Bowl Soundman
"A Day in the Life" brief podcast about music at the venue.
Amphitheaters in California
Band shells
Concrete shell structures
Hollywood history and culture
Landmarks in Los Angeles
Music venues in Los Angeles
Event venues established in 1922
Hollywood Hills
Museums in Los Angeles
Media museums in California
Santa Monica Mountains | [
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237554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obaku | Obaku | Ōbaku (黄檗 Japanese Ōbaku, pinyin Huángbò) is the Amur Corktree. It may refer to:
Mount Huangbo (), a mountain in China's Fujian province, noted for its Buddhist temples
Mount Ōbaku (, Ōbaku-san), a mountain in the city of Uji in Japan
Huangbo Xiyun (黄檗希運), a Chinese Chan Buddhist master
The Japanese Ōbaku School (黄檗宗) of Zen Buddhism
Obaku may also refer to:
Obaku, Nigeria, a village | [
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237564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megawati%20Sukarnoputri | Megawati Sukarnoputri | Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Sukarnoputri (; born 23 January 1947) is an Indonesian politician who served as the fifth president of Indonesia from 2001 to 2004. She previously served as the eighth vice president from 1999 to 2001.
Megawati is Indonesia's first female president and the sixth woman to lead a Muslim-majority country. Megawati was the first Indonesian president to be born after Indonesia proclaimed its independence. After serving as vice president to Abdurrahman Wahid, Megawati became president when Wahid was removed from office in 2001. She ran for re-election in the 2004 presidential election, but was defeated by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. She ran again in the 2009 presidential election, but Yudhoyono defeated her for a second time.
She is the first and current (as of 2020) leader of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), one of Indonesia's largest political parties. She is the eldest daughter of Indonesia's first president, Sukarno.
Name
Her name, Sukarnoputri (meaning 'daughter of Sukarno'), is a patronym, not a family name; Javanese often do not have family names. She is often referred to as simply Megawati or Mega, derived from Sanskrit meaning 'cloud goddess'. In a speech to the students of the Sri Sathya Sai Primary School, she mentioned that Indian politician Biju Patnaik named her at Sukarno's request.
Early life and education (1947-1987)
Early life
Megawati was born in Yogyakarta to Sukarno, who had declared Indonesia's independence from the Netherlands in 1945 and Fatmawati, one of his nine wives. Megawati was Sukarno's second child and first daughter. She grew up in her father's Merdeka Palace. She danced for her father's guests and developed a gardening hobby. Megawati was 19 when her father relinquished power in 1966 and was succeeded by a government which eventually came to be led by President Suharto.
Education
Megawati attended Padjadjaran University in Bandung to study agriculture but dropped out in 1967 to be with her father following his fall. In 1970, the year her father died, Megawati went to the University of Indonesia to study psychology but dropped out after two years.
Early political career (1987-1999)
Member of the People's Representative Council
Tenure
In 1986, Suharto gave the status of Proclamation Hero to Sukarno in a ceremony attended by Megawati. Suharto's acknowledgment enabled the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a government-sanctioned party, to campaign on Sukarno nostalgia in the lead-up to the 1987 legislative elections. Up to that time, Megawati had seen herself as a housewife, but in 1987 she joined PDI and ran for a People's Representative Council (DPR) seat. The PDI accepted Megawati to boost their own image. Megawati quickly became popular, her status as Sukarno's daughter offsetting her lack of oratorical skills. Although PDI came last in the elections, Megawati was elected to the DPR. Like all members of the DPR she also became a member of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR).
Indonesian Democratic Party chair
Election as chair
Megawati was not reelected, but continued as a PDI member. In December 1993, the PDI held a national congress. As was always the case when New Order opposition parties held their congresses, the government actively interfered. As the Congress approached, three individuals contended for the PDI chair. The incumbent, Suryadi, had become critical of the government. The second was Budi Harjono a government-friendly figure whom the government backed. The third was Megawati. Her candidacy received such overwhelming support that her election at the Congress became a formality.
When the congress assembled, the government stalled and delayed attempts to hold the election. The congress faced a deadline when their permit to assemble would run out. As the hours ticked down to the end of the congress, troops began gathering. With only two hours remaining, Megawati called a press conference, stating that because she enjoyed the support of a majority of PDI members, she was now the de facto chair. Despite her relative lack of political experience, she was popular in part for her status as Sukarno's daughter and because she was seen as free of corruption with admirable personal qualities. Under her leadership, PDI gained a large following among the urban poor and both urban and rural middle classes.
Party split
The government was outraged at its failure to prevent Megawati's rise. They never acknowledged Megawati although her self-appointment was ratified in 1994. In 1996, the government convened a special national congress in Medan that reelected Suryadi as chair. Megawati and her camp refused to acknowledge the results and the PDI divided into pro-Megawati and anti-Megawati camps.
27 July 1996 Incident
Suryadi began threatening to take back PDI's Headquarters in Jakarta. This threat was carried on the morning of 27 July 1996. Suryadi's supporters (reportedly with the Government's backing) attacked PDI Headquarters and faced resistance from Megawati supporters stationed there. In the ensuing fight, Megawati's supporters held on to the headquarters. A riot ensued, followed by a government crackdown. The Government later blamed the riots on the People's Democratic Party (PRD), and continued to recognize Suryadi's faction as the official party.
1997 legislative election
Despite what seemed to be a political defeat, Megawati scored a moral victory and her popularity grew. When the time came for the 1997 legislative election, Megawati and her supporters threw their support behind the United Development Party (PPP), the other approved opposition party.
Reformasi
1999 Legislative election
In mid-1997, Indonesia began to be affected by the Asian Financial Crisis and showed severe economic distress. By late January 1998 the rupiah fell to nearly 15,000 against the US dollar, compared to only 4,000 in early December. Increasing public anger at pervasive corruption culminated with Suharto's resignation and the assumption of the presidency by Vice President B. J. Habibie in May 1998, starting the Reform era (Reformasi). The restrictions on Megawati were removed and she began to consolidate her political position. In October 1998, her supporters held a National Congress whereby Megawati's PDI faction would now be known as the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P). Megawati was elected Chair and was nominated as PDI-P's presidential candidate.
PDI-P, together with Abdurrahman Wahid's National Awakening Party (PKB) and Amien Rais' National Mandate Party (PAN), became the leading reform forces. Despite their popularity, Megawati, Wahid and Rais adopted a moderate stance, preferring to wait until the 1999 legislative election to begin major changes. In November 1998, Megawati, together with Wahid, Rais and Hamengkubuwono X reiterated their commitment to reform through the Ciganjur Statement.
Result
As the elections approached, Megawati, Wahid and Amien considered forming a political coalition against President Habibie and Golkar. In May, Alwi Shihab held a press conference at his house during which Megawati, Wahid and Amien were to announce that they would work together. At the last minute, Megawati chose not to attend, because she decided that she could not trust Amien. In June, the elections were held and PDI-P came first with 33% of the votes.
With the victory, Megawati's presidential prospects solidified. She was opposed by PPP who did not want a female president. In preparation for the 1999 MPR General Session, PDI-P formed a loose coalition with PKB. As the MPR General Session approached, it seemed as if the presidential election would be contested between Megawati and Habibie, but by late June Amien had drawn the Islamic parties into a coalition called the Central Axis. The presidential election became a three-way race when Amien floated the idea of nominating Wahid for president; but Wahid did not provide a clear response to the proposal.
1999 Indirect presidential election
Election of Wahid as president
Megawati's PDI-P and PKB coalition faced its first test when the MPR assembled to choose its Chair. Megawati threw her support behind Matori Abdul Djalil, the Chair of PKB. He was overwhelmingly defeated by Amien, who in addition to enjoying Central Axis support was backed by Golkar. The Golkar and Central Axis coalition struck again when they secured Akbar Tanjung's election as Head of DPR. At this stage, people became wary that Megawati, who best represented reform, was going to be obstructed by the political process and that the status quo was going to be preserved. PDI-P supporters began to gather in Jakarta.
Habibie made a poorly received speech on political accountability that led him to withdraw. The presidential election held on 20 October 1999 came down to Megawati and Wahid. Megawati took an early lead, but was overtaken and lost with 313 votes compared to Wahid's 373. Megawati's loss provoked her supporters to revolt. Riots raged in Java and Bali. In the city of Solo, PDI-P masses attacked Amien's house.
Selection as vice president
The next day, the MPR assembled to elect the vice president. PDI-P had considered nominating Megawati, but were concerned that the Central Axis and Golkar coalition would again thwart her. Instead, PKB nominated Megawati. She faced stiff competition from Hamzah Haz, Akbar Tanjung and General Wiranto. Well aware of the riots, Akbar and Wiranto withdrew. Hamzah stayed in the race, but Megawati defeated him 396 to 284. In her inauguration speech, she called for calm.
Vice president (1999-2001)
Tenure
As vice president, Megawati had considerable authority by virtue of her commanding many seats in the DPR. Wahid delegated to her the problems in Ambon, although she was not successful. By the time the MPR Annual Session assembled in August 2000, many considered Wahid to be ineffective as president or as an administrator. Wahid responded to this by issuing a presidential decree, giving Megawati day-to-day control of the government.
2000 PDI-P National Congress
The First PDI-P Congress was held in Semarang, Central Java, in April 2000, at which Megawati was re-elected as Chair for a second term.
Megawati consolidated her position within PDI-P by taking harsh measures to remove potential rivals. During the election for the Chair, two other candidates emerged; Eros Djarot and Dimyati Hartono. They ran because they did not want Megawati to serve concurrently as both chair and vice president. Eros' nomination from the South Jakarta branch was voided by membership problems. Eros was not allowed to participate in the Congress. Disillusioned with what he perceived to be a cult of personality developing around Megawati, Eros left PDI-P. In July 2002, he formed the Freedom Bull National Party. Although Dimyati's candidacy was not opposed as harshly as Eros, he was removed as Head of PDI-P's Central Branch. He kept his position as a People's Representative Council (DPR) member, but left the party to become a university lecturer. In April 2002, Dimyati formed the Our Homeland of Indonesia Party (PITA).
Relationship with Wahid and rise to the presidency
Megawati had an ambivalent relationship with Wahid. During the Cabinet reshuffle of August 2000 for example, Megawati was not present for the announcement of the new line-up. At another occasion, when the political tide began to turn against Wahid, Megawati defended him and lashed out against critics. In 2001, Megawati began to distance herself from Wahid as a Special Session of the MPR approached and her prospects of becoming president improved. Although she refused to make any specific comments, she showed signs of preparing herself, holding a meeting with party leaders a day before the Special Session was to start.
Presidency (2001-2004)
Tenure
On 23 July 2001, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) removed Wahid from office and subsequently swore in Megawati as the new president. She thus became the sixth woman to lead a Muslim-majority country. On 9 August 2001, she announced her Mutual Assistance Cabinet.
The rise of an icon of opposition against the Suharto regime to the presidency was initially widely welcomed, however it soon became apparent that her presidency was marked with indecisiveness, lack of clear ideological direction, and "a reputation for inaction on important policy issues". The good side of slow progress of reforms and avoiding confrontations was that she stabilized the overall democratization process and relationship between legislative, executive, and military.
She ran for re-election in the country's first direct presidential election in 2004, hoping to become the first woman elected in her own right as head of state in a Muslim-majority country. However, she was decisively defeated by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in the second round, by 61 percent to 39 percent, on 20 September 2004. She did not attend the new president's inauguration, and never had congratulated him.
Post-presidency (2004-Present)
Leader of the PDI-P
2009 general elections
On 11 September 2007 Megawati announced her candidacy in the 2009 presidential election
at a PDI-P gathering. Soetardjo Soerjoguritno confirmed her willingness to be nominated as her party's presidential candidate. Her nomination for president was announced on 15 May 2009, with Gerindra Party leader Prabowo Subianto as her running mate.
Megawati's 2009 race was overshadowed by her calls to change Indonesia's voter registration procedure, obliquely suggesting that Yudhoyono's supporters were trying to manipulate the vote. Megawati and Prabowo lost the election to Yudhoyono, coming in second with 26.79% of the vote.
2014 general elections
On 24 February 2012, Megawati distanced herself from polls that placed her as a top contender for the 2014 presidential election. Megawati, still Chair of PDI-P, appealed to her party at a gathering in Yogyakarta to focus on PDI-P's current priorities. Nonetheless, a domain name appeared to have been registered in her name. On 27 December 2012, the daily edition of the Jakarta Post hinted at a possible reconciliation in the 2014 general election between the families of Megawati and President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and their political parties, her Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) and his Democratic Party respectively.
For 2014 general election, Megawati's party and their coalition partners nominated Joko Widodo as their candidate for president. Widodo defeated his opponent Prabowo Subianto in a hotly contested election. Later, the relationship between Megawati and Widodo became strained as she pushed for Police Commissary General Budi Gunawan, for the post of the Indonesian Police Chief, despite him being investigated for corruption by the Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK). Budi Gunawan was Megawati's Adjutant during her tenure as Indonesian president.
At the 4th of PDI-P National Congress on 20 September 2014, Megawati was reappointed as Chair of PDI-P for the year of 2015–2020.
Post-Presidency Appointments
So far, only Megawati is a former Indonesian president which somehow retained her influence to a ruling government and even appointed to strategic positions with advisory capabilities. On 22 March 2018, she was appointed as Head of Steering Committee of Pancasila Ideology Development Agency. She also gained position as Head of National Research and Innovation Agency Steering Committee since 5 May 2021. For the latter, despite sitting on the position since 5 May 2021, she appointed formally on 13 September 2021.
Personal life
Megawati's first husband was First Lieutenant Surindro Supjarso, whom she married on 1 June 1968. He perished in a plane crash in Biak, West Irian, on 22 January 1970. On 27 June 1972, she married Hassan Gamal Ahmad Hassan, an Egyptian diplomat. The marriage was annulled by the Religious Court less than 3 months later. She then married Taufiq Kiemas on 25 March 1973. He died on 8 June 2013. She had three children, Mohammad Rizki Pratama, Muhammad Prananda Prabowo, and Puan Maharani. The sons are from her marriage with Surindro, while Puan is the only child from Megawati's marriage to Taufiq.
Awards
National honours
Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 1st Class () (8 August 2001)
Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 2nd Class () (3 February 2001)
Star of Mahaputera, 1st Class () (3 February 2001)
Star of Merit, 1st Class () (8 August 2001)
Star of Culture Parama Dharma () (8 August 2001)
Star of Yudha Dharma, 1st Class () (8 August 2001)
Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 1st Class () (8 August 2001)
Star of Jalasena, 1st Class () (8 August 2001)
Star of Swa Bhuwana Paksa, 1st Class () (8 August 2001)
References
Further reading
Gerlach, Ricarda (2013): 'Mega' Expectations: Indonesia's Democratic Transition and First Female President. In: Derichs, Claudia/Mark R. Thompson (eds.): Dynasties and Female Political Leaders in Asia. Berlin et al.: LIT, p. 247–290.
Skard, Torild (2014) "Megawati" in Women of power – half a century of female presidents and prime ministers worldwide. Bristol: Policy Press, .
Wichelen, Sonja van (University of Amsterdam). "Contesting Megawati: The Mediation of Islam and Nation in Times of Political Transition." () Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture. 2006 (University of Westminster, London), Vol. 3(2): 41–59. ISSN 1744-6708 (Print); 1744–6716 (Online). p. 41–59.
External links
." (Archive) Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture. 2006 (University of Westminster, London), Vol. 3(2): 41–59. ISSN 1744-6708 (Print); 1744–6716 (Online). p. 41–59.
Gerlach, Ricarda (2013): 'Mega' Expectations: Indonesia's Democratic Transition and First Female President. In: Derichs, Claudia/Mark R. Thompson (eds.): Dynasties and Female Political Leaders in Asia. Berlin et al.: LIT, p. 247–290.
Skard, Torild (2014) "Megawati" in Women of power – half a century of female presidents and prime ministers worldwide. Bristol: Policy Press, .
. Forbes.
Karon, Tony. "The Princess Who Settled for the Presidency." TIME Magazine. Friday 27 July 2001.
Biography of Megawati Soekarnoputri at SekolahVirtual
|-
1947 births
21st-century Indonesian politicians
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Articles containing video clips
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Children of national leaders
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Indonesian Muslims
20th-century Indonesian women politicians
Javanese people
Living people
Politicians from Yogyakarta
Presidents of Indonesia
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Sukarno
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Members of the People's Representative Council, 1987
Women members of the People's Representative Council | [
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237565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chan | Chan | Chan may refer to:
Places
Chan (commune), Cambodia
Chan Lake, by Chan Lake Territorial Park in Northwest Territories, Canada
People
Chan (surname), romanization of various Chinese surnames (including 陳, 曾, 詹, 戰, and 田)
Chan Caldwell (1920-2000), Canadian football coach
Chan Gailey (born 1952), American football coach
Chan Romero (born 1941), American rock and roll singer, songwriter, and musicians
Chan Santokhi (born 1959), President of Suriname and former chief of police
Bang Chan (born 1997), member of the South Korean boy band Stray Kids
Heo Chan (born 1995), member of the South Korean boy band Victon
Computing and media
chan-, an abbreviation for channels in Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
chan, a common suffix for the title of an imageboard
CHAN
African Nations Championship or Championnat d'Afrique des Nations (CHAN), an African football tournament
CHAN-DT, a TV station in Vancouver, Canada
Other uses
Chan Buddhism (禅), a school of Mahayana Buddhism
-chan, a Japanese suffix which expresses endearment
Chan (), a form of Thai poetry
"Chans" (Kent song)
Chan, the plant Hyptis suaveolens, a relative of mint also known as "pignut"
See also
Chen (surname), pronounced in Cantonese as Chan (陳) | [
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237566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balaenicipitidae | Balaenicipitidae | Balaenicipitidae is a family of birds in the order Pelecaniformes, although it was traditionally placed in Ciconiiformes. The shoebill is the sole extant species and its closest relative is the hamerkop (Scopus umbretta), which belongs to another family.
It has the following genera:
Balaeniceps
†Goliathia (might belong in Balaeniceps)
†Paludiavis
Common characteristics
A sharp hooked tip to the upper beak
A furrow in the upper beak below the nasal openings
An ossified septum
Vestigial or absent expansor secundariorum muscle
References
Bird families
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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] |
237571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coping%20%28disambiguation%29 | Coping (disambiguation) | Coping is the process of managing stressful circumstances.
Coping may also refer to:
Coping (architecture), consists of the capping or covering of a wall
Coping (joinery), a woodworking technique
A coping is the part of a Crown, that contacts the prepared tooth
fr:Stress chez l'humain#Les stratégies de coping et stratégies d’ajustement | [
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237574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications%20policy%20of%20the%20United%20States | Telecommunications policy of the United States | The Telecommunications policy in the US is a framework of law directed by government and the Regulatory Commissions, most notably the Federal Communications Commission. Two landmark acts prevail today, the Communications Act of 1934 and the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The latter was intended to revise the first act and specifically to foster competition in the telecommunications industry.
Aims
In the name of public interest, a large proportion of Telecommunications policy is concerned with the economic regulation of interstate as well as international communication. This includes all communication by radio, telephone, wire, cable and satellite. Telecommunications policy outlines antitrust laws as is common for industries with large barriers to entry. Other features of the policies addressed include common carrier laws which controls access to networks. While the telephone providers are required to be common carriers, there is an ongoing net neutrality debate about the obligations of ISP's.
Telecommunication policy addresses the management of Government owned resources such as the spectrum which facilitates all wireless communications. There is a naturally limited quantity of usable spectrum that exists, therefore the market demand is immense, especially as use of mobile technology, which uses the electromagnetic spectrum, expands. One of the goals of the FCC is to best utilize this limited resource in such a way will bring about the "highest and best use". License to use spectrum was originally determined by committee, however, since 1993 it has been determined by an auction to assure that the licensee is both qualified and motivated to make best use of this commodity.
For example, an FM station in Iowa was recently auctioned for $4,397,250.
The famous American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T) empire was once based on the concept that they had the duty and honor of serving the public people in return for their monopoly on the telecommunication industry.
National Security: With the recent events of our world, such as 9-11, Hurricane Katrina, and others it has been deemed essential that we have in place a dedicated network with ample spectrum for crisis communication. The National Telecommunication and Information Administration (NTIA) manages spectrum used by the Federal government such as air traffic control and national defense. The FCC is responsible for spectrum used by others, including individuals and public safety and health officials like police and emergency medical technicians.
Institutional framework in the U.S.
Independent Regulatory Commissions
FCC, state PUCs (Public Utility Commissions)
Delegation Doctrine: statutory authority
quasi-legislative, executive and judicial functions
Legislative role (delegation, oversight, budget)
Executive role (appointment, budget)
Judicial role (review commission decisions)
The hallmark event in the history of the US Telecommunication industry would be the breakup of the Bell Telephone company into regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) or "Baby Bells" in the early 1980s.
The challenge since remains preserving competition and no longer allowing monopolies.
There are a number of agencies concerned with telecommunication policy:
The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA)
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Broadband deployment policy objectives
The FCC derives its jurisdiction to facilitate the deployment of broadband to Americans in Section 706 in the Telecommunications act of 1996. In this section the code states that the FCC is to “encourage the deployment on a reasonable and timely basis of advanced telecommunications capability to all Americans.”
They currently want to advocate the following objectives:
Broaden the deployment of broadband technologies
Define broadband to include any platform capable of transmitting high-bandwidth intensive services
Ensure harmonized regulatory treatment of competing broadband services
Encourage and facilitate an environment that stimulates investment and innovation in broadband technologies and services
Some of the current challenges
Regulation of IP Transport
Is UNE competition viable?
Is there really room for multiple Fiber To The Home (FTTH) networks?
Interconnection and "Open Access"
Content/Conduit bundling
FCC Spectrum Policy: Evolution of Flexibility of Use
How to regulate the bottleneck using the LoopCo regulatory regime.
How should municipal broadband networks be regulated?
Cyber Warfare and electronic Privacy Rights
fighting the duopoly battle- Unfortunately many users in the United States are presented with only two service provider options, cable modem or DSL. In some cases, they may not even have that choice.
Wire line and wireless telecommunication policy
Currently the policy being set forth by the FCC has two different levels of regulation. One for fixed line, wire line communications and the other for wireless communications. Their current tenets strictly regulate network neutrality on wire line networks. However the commission is placing as many mandates on wireless communications. This means that wireless telecommunications providers are not permitted to block any website, but they may block applications and services unless they are direct competitors to the provider's content or services. This difference between the two technologies creates a major loophole in telecommunications policy, as most providers have already begun the shift from wired to wireless network infrastructures.
See also
Telecommunication
Open access to Broadband
Communications Act of 1934 (USA)
Telecommunications Act of 1996 (USA)
Common carrier
Federal Standard 1037C
Layered Model of Regulation
Network neutrality in the United States
Public broadcasting in the United States
References
United States federal policy
United States telecommunications policy | [
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237576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Carville | James Carville | Chester James Carville Jr. (born October 25, 1944) is an American political consultant and author who has strategized for candidates for public office in the United States, and in 23 nations abroad. A Democrat, he is also a media personality with expertise in U.S. elections who appears frequently on cable news programs, in podcasts, and in his public speeches.
Nicknamed the "Ragin' Cajun", Carville gained national attention for his work as the lead strategist of the successful presidential campaign of then-Arkansas governor Bill Clinton.
Early life and education
James Carville, the oldest of eight children, was born on October 25, 1944, at a U.S. Army hospital at Georgia's Fort Benning, where his father was stationed during World War II. His mother, Lucille (née Normand), stayed behind in Carville, Louisiana, where James was raised, but went to Ft. Benning long enough to have her firstborn son. Carville would later note: "We were availing ourselves to free government health services."
Lucille Carville, a former school teacher, spoke French at home, and sold the World Book Encyclopedia door-to-door, and his father, Chester James Carville, was a postmaster as well as owner of a general store. Carville, Louisiana, a neighborhood in the city of St. Gabriel, in Iberville Parish, located sixteen miles south of the capital city of Baton Rouge on the Mississippi River, was named after his paternal grandfather, Louis Arthur Carville, who was once the postmaster. Louis Arthur's mother, Octavia Dehon was of Belgian parentage and had married John Madison Carville, described in a biography as "Irish-born" and a "carpetbagger," both of whom established the general store operated by the family in Carville, in 1882.
Among Carville's earliest political campaign work was ripping down the campaign signs of a candidate for public office during his high school years. Carville graduated from Ascension Catholic High School in Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in 1962.
He attended Louisiana State University (LSU) from 1962 to 1966, but didn't graduate at that time. In a 1994 feature in Newsweek, Carville characterized himself as "something less than an attentive scholar. I had fifty-six hours' worth of F's before LSU finally threw me out."
Carville served a two year enlistment in the United States Marine Corps, from 1966 to 1968, where he was stationed stateside, at Camp Pendleton in San Diego. He achieved the rank of Corporal.
Following the conclusion of his military enlistment, Carville finished his studies at LSU at night, where he earned his Bachelor of Science degree in General Studies in 1970 and his Juris Doctor degree in 1973. Carville is a member of the Sigma Nu fraternity. He later worked as a junior high school science teacher. Before entering politics, Carville worked as an attorney at McKernnan, Beychok, Screen and Pierson, a Baton Rouge law firm, from 1973 to 1979.
Political consulting in the United States 1970s to 1990s
Carville was trained in consulting by Gus Weill, who in 1958 had opened the first advertising firm that specialized in political campaigns in the state capital in Baton Rouge.
East Baton Rouge Parish, 1970s and 1980s
In a 2012 piece he wrote for Foreign Affairs, Carville described one of his earliest political jobs distributing 'hate sheets' with negative literature on a political opponent at grocery stores on behalf of Ossie Bluege Brown, during Brown's 1972 campaign for district attorney of East Baton Rouge Parish. Two years earlier, Brown had defended Staff Sergeant David Mitchell, the first of 17 soldiers charged in connection with the deaths of villagers during the Mỹ Lai massacre. Brown's tenure as D.A. was marked by his crusades against narcotics and pornography. In 1973, Brown prevented Baton Rouge theaters from showing Bernardo Bertolucci's X-rated film, Last Tango in Paris, In 1979, Brown blocked the showing of the comedy, Monty Python's Life of Brian. Brown asked Baton Rouge magazine distributors not to offer the March 1977 issue of Hustler, which a state court judge in Ohio ruled obscene.
In addition to his work as an attorney, in the late 1970s, Carville also worked for Gus Weill & Ray Strother's Weill-Strother, a Baton-Rouge-based political consulting firm that, over the years, had assisted with electoral campaigns and political messaging for Louisiana governors Jimmie Davis, John McKeithen, Edwin Edwards, and U.S. Representative Otto Passman.
In the early 1980s, Carville served as executive assistant to East Baton Rouge Parish mayor-president Pat Screen.
In early 1985, Carville consulted to help Cathy Long win a special election to central Louisiana's now defunct 8th congressional district, following the death of her husband, Gillis William Long, of Louisiana's Long family political dynasty.
Texas senate race, 1984
In 1984, Carville became acquainted with his consulting partner Paul Begala when Carville managed then Texas state legislator Lloyd Doggett's unsuccessful campaign for the open Texas Senate seat. Carville helped Doggett, an unabashed liberal and committed enemy of special interests, secure the Democratic nomination in a primary that included conservative U.S. Representative Kent Hance, and centrist former congressman Bob Krueger. During the primary, Carville borrowed a rubber vertebrae exhibit from a friend who was a personal injury attorney, and coached Doggett on using it as a prop on the stump to attack Krueger as a political flip flopper who lacked resolve and 'backbone.'
During the general election, Doggett's opponent, Phil Gramm, leveraged vicious identity-based attacks on Doggett. On one occasion, Doggett ended up returning small dollar fundraising he received from a gay rights group. Gramm emphasized themes of "family values," including his insistence at a June 1984 prayer breakfast on "having people who believe in Christianity in charge of government," and Carville counter-punched that theme as anti-semitic. Doggett was defeated in the general election, polling 2,207,557 votes (41.5 percent), to Gramm's 3,116,348 votes (58.5 percent).
Finding himself out of work after the November 1984 defeat, Carville recalled, "I was scared to death, I was 40 years old, and didn't have any health insurance, I didn't have any money, I was mortified."
Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, 1986
During the 1986 general election, Carville helped Bob Casey Sr. win election as the 42nd Governor of Pennsylvania by defeating his democratic primary opponent, Ed Rendell, in early 1986, and general election opponent Dick Thornburgh's lieutenant governor, Bill Scranton, who had taken the lead in the polls after announcing that his campaign was pulling all negative ads, and challenged Mr. Casey to do the same. However, the Scranton campaign misstepped by sending a mailer to 600,000 Republican voters that featured a letter from Scranton's father. An additional brochure harshly attacking Casey's ethics was also included. Carville began counterpunching. He contacted journalists and characterized the mailer as outrageous. Scranton claimed that he didn't know about the mailing. So Carville ordered 600,000 blank envelopes, loaded them up on a truck – mountains of envelopes – and dumped them on a street corner near Mr. Scranton's campaign headquarters. T.V. cameras captured the campaign asking: "How could you send out this many envelopes and not know about it?" Three weeks before the election, a poster appeared statewide, depicting Scranton as a "long-haired, dope smoking hippie." The race was virtually tied until five days before the election when Carville launched the "guru," TV commercial that portrayed Scranton as having been a regular drug user during the 1960s and mocked Scranton's interest in transcendental meditation and his ties to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. The image of Scranton as a meditating, long haired, dope-smoking hippie, with a background of sitar music, was credited with tipping the scales against Scranton in the socially conservative rural sections of Pennsylvania where Carville selectively decided to run the "guru" TV commercial. Casey went on to win the election by a narrow margin of 79,216 out of 3.3 million total votes cast.
Kentucky gubernatorial contest, 1987
In 1987, Carville worked as a campaign manager to cast Kentucky businessman Wallace Wilkinson as a self-made millionaire anti-establishment gubernatorial candidate. Wilkinson, who had made his fortune in retail, and real estate development, and who was sued for not paying overtime to his employees, and refused to release his tax returns to the public, charged his Democratic primary opponents with wanting to raise taxes, and continually campaigned on creating a state lottery to raise public revenue. During the general election portion of the campaign, on September 25th, 1987, Carville appeared on WLEX-TV's 'Your Government' public affairs program, and implored reporters to look into the background of Wilkinson's opponent John Harper's family, noting: "there might be problems with some of Harper's children." After the incident, Harper confirmed that his son had been shot and killed by Franklin County, Ohio police during a 1978 pharmacy robbery. Wilkinson won the general election polling 504,674 votes (64.5%) to Harper's 273,141 (34.91%),, and as Kentucky's 57th governor, secured passage of a state constitutional amendment to allow a lottery.
Georgia gubernatorial contest, 1990
In 1989 and 1990, Carville assisted conservative Democrat and four term lieutenant governor Zell Miller in winning the state party's gubernatorial nomination in a five candidate contest that included Atlanta Mayor Andrew Young, then-state senator Roy Barnes, and former governor Lester Maddox.
Miller campaigned on a platform of shock incarceration boot camps for first time drug offenders, blasted Young for "an explosion of crime" in Atlanta, and painted Young with wanting to "run away from" the issue of drugs. At Carville's counseling, Miller made a state lottery in lieu of state tax increases a central theme of his campaign. Carville attributed Miller's eleven point primary victory over Young to the attraction of the lottery issue and its capacity to turn out white suburban voters. "Zell Miller was able to set the agenda, and the agenda was the lottery," Carville noted at the time.
Miller won the nominating contest in the August, 1990 runoff against Young, and later defeated Johnny Isakson in the November, 1990 general election. Miller was later a keynote speaker at the 1992 Democratic National Convention and 2004 Republican National Conventions.
Texas gubernatorial election, 1990
Carville consulted in 1990 for former Texas Congressman and sitting state state Attorney General Jim Mattox, a bare-knuckled political brawler who routinely traveled to Huntsville to attend state executions in Texas, the most active state in carrying out the death penalty. On advice from Carville, Mattox who was seeking the Democratic gubernatorial nomination that year, based his campaign on the claim that a state lottery would solve Texas' revenue needs without additional state taxes.
With no facts to support the charge, Mattox also ran a television advertisement accusing his primary opponent, State Treasurer Ann Richards a recovering alcoholic, as a cannabis and cocaine user who might falter in fulfilling the responsibilities of being governor. In losing the nominating contest to Richards, Mattox gained a reputation as a combative campaigner.
Pennsylvania special senatorial election, 1991
In 1991, Carville consulted for Harris Wofford in his run for the open U.S. Senate seat left vacant when Senator John Heinz was killed in an April, 1991 plane crash. Following the crash, Carville, who was by then a close political confidant of Governor Casey, hatched a plan to offer his appointment of the Senate seat to Chrysler chairman Lee Iacocca, an Allentown native who declined the offer within 24 hours. Attorney and later Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney II was also considered, but Casey ultimately decided to appoint Wofford, then his state Secretary of Labor, to fill the seat, and Wofford faced a special election in November of that year.
Against the national backdrop of the first Gulf War, and a dour economy, Wofford's general election opponent, George H.W. Bush's sitting U.S. Attorney General, Dick Thornburgh, was widely seen as a surrogate of the Bush political machine, and the contest was widely viewed as an early referendum on Bush's reelection prospects the following year.
Wofford was one of the first whites to graduate from Howard University school of law, travelled to India and wrote a book on Gandhi, co-founded the Peace Corps, and was arrested at the 1968 Democratic National Convention for disorderly conduct, and was an opponent of apartheid. A philosophical progressive, and college president, he had served as an aide to both John F. Kennedy, and a friend and adviser to Martin Luther King, Jr. Wofford had the air of an "anti-politician," rumpled in appearance, and uncomfortable with small talk who ran a campaign with themes of economic populism.
Though the issue polled a distant 5th in voter concerns, Wofford himself eschewed guidance from his consultants in demanding national health insurance be the centerpiece of his campaign. With the assistance of a guild of Philadelphia ophthalmologists, Wofford crafted an impactful slogan: "If criminals have access to a lawyer, working Americans should have a right to a doctor."
During the race, Carville helped Wofford craft an aggressive campaign,
with television advertisements attacking Thornburgh for taking expensive flights at public expense in government jets to junkets in places such as Hawaii. Another Wofford campaign commercial evoked an anti-establishmentarian air, linking Thornburgh to "the mess in Washington."
In the months leading into the election, Wofford overcame Thornburgh's 44 point lead in the polls and defeated him in November, garnering 1,860,760 votes (55 percent), to Thornburgh's 1,521,986 (45 percent).
Carville again consulted for Wofford's re-election campaign in 1994 when he was narrowly defeated by Republican Rick Santorum.
Los Angeles mayoral election, 1992–1993
In late 1992, and early 1993, Carville consulted for San Fernando Valley state assemblyman Richard Katz in his run for the open 1993 Los Angeles mayoral election, which was the first time in 63 years that an incumbent mayor didn't appear on the ballot. Katz ran on a tough-on-crime platform that included gun control, including new sales taxes on firearms and ammunition, and selling-off city-owned infrastructure, such as the Ontario International Airport, to pay police overtime, while promising not to raise property taxes. Despite retaining Carville, and spending a million dollars on campaign television commercials, Katz finished behind three other candidates, garnering 46,173 votes, or 9.73% of 474,366 total votes cast in the nonpartisan blanket mayoral primary, and didn't advance to the general election.
Bill Clinton's 1992 presidential campaign
In 1992, Carville helped lead Bill Clinton to a win against George H. W. Bush in the presidential election. In crafting an economic strategy for Clinton, Carville reprised the populist rhetoric his client, Pennsylvania Senator Harris Wofford, successfully wielded the prior year, which was distilled into a series of articles Donald L. Barlett and James B. Steele wrote for the Philadelphia Inquirer. The articles were re-printed into book form: America: What Went Wrong? which became a prop Clinton brandished effectively from the stump during a time of economic recession. In bringing in the series of articles from the Wofford campaign, Carville imported an angry left-wing populism as a campaign theme.
One of the formulations he used in that campaign has entered common usage, derived from a list he posted in the campaign war room to help focus himself and his staff, with these three points:
Change vs. more of the same.
The economy, stupid.
Don't forget health care.
Carville sought to shield Clinton from Gennifer Flowers' allegations of her extramarital sexual affair which emerged shortly before the 1992 New Hampshire Democratic primary. Carville alleged that Flowers was paid $175,000 by a supermarket tabloid for sharing her story, and that "the mainstream media got sucker-punched" by her allegations. Carville set out to shame the press, berating reporters with charges of "cash for trash" journalism, and noted: "I'm a lot more expensive than Gennifer Flowers.". Flowers later brought a civil suit against Carville in 1999 (see below).
In June 1992, trailing George H.W. Bush and Ross Perot in the polls, Clinton limped toward the national convention, while the Los Angeles riots crowded him out of news coverage. Carville knew he needed to bring Clinton back into the news limelight. He did so by orchestrating Clinton's splashy criticism of hip hop artist Sister Souljah in a prepared speech Clinton delivered at the Rainbow Coalition's June 1992 "Rebuild America" conference in Washington, DC. Clinton rebuked Sister Souljah's remarks: "If black people kill black people every day, why not have a week and kill white people?" With Clinton responding in his speech: "If you took the words, 'white' and 'black' and you reversed them, you might think David Duke was giving that speech." Clinton refuted the suggestion that his speech was a calculated attempt to appeal to moderate and conservative swing voters by standing up to a core Democratic constituency. The speech had the effect of opening up a public war between Clinton and Jesse Jackson.
In 1993, Carville was honored as Campaign District Manager of the Year by the American Association of Political Consultants. His role in the Clinton campaign was documented in the feature-length Academy Award-nominated film The War Room.
American politics during the 1990s
Carville continued to serve the Democratic National Committee in a political capacity during the 1990s, and had an ongoing need to regularly visit the White House to speak with then President Bill Clinton on political matters. Accordingly, Carville was once one of only twenty individuals at the time who was granted a permanent "Non-Government Service" security badge, which were used for non-government employees, such as contractors, who needed regular access to the White House grounds. In consideration for the privilege of the permanent pass, the Clinton Administration asked Carville to submit to a full security clearance style FBI background check.
In response to the 1997 civil lawsuit then Arkansas state employee Paula Jones filed against Bill Clinton over her claims of sexual harassment while attending a conference on official business, Carville infamously remarked: "Drag a hundred dollars through a trailer park and there's no telling what you'll find." South Carolina U.S. Senator Lindsey Graham later made reference to Carville's trailer park line during the 2018 Brett Kavanaugh SCOTUS confirmation hearings in reference to Dr. Christine Blasey Ford. During an October, 2018 interview with Michael Smerconish on CNN, on the topic of Graham alluding to Carville's "drag $100", Carville remarked that, at the time, "I was making a joke", and added "I'm always complimented when people use my lines; you always like to leave a little legacy out there."
In 1999, Gennifer Flowers, who had previously alleged an affair with Carville's 1992 client Bill Clinton, sued Carville and his colleague George Stephanopoulos for defamation of character. In 2000, Flowers additionally named Hillary Clinton as a defendant in the suit. Attorney Larry Klayman of Judicial Watch, a conservative advocacy organization, represented her in the suit. Flowers contended that Carville and Stephanopoulos ignored obvious warning signs that news media reporting did not conclusively determine that tapes of her recorded telephone conversations with Clinton were "doctored." In 2004, a federal district court dismissed the case with summary judgment. Klayman then appealed the case on Flowers' behalf. In 2006, 14 years after the allegations of the affair became an issue for Bill Clinton's first presidential campaign, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit affirmed the lower court's dismissal.
International elections 1990s to 2010s
Beginning in the mid 1990s, Carville worked on a number of election campaigns abroad, including those of Tony Blair, then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, during the 2001 general election, and with the Liberal Party of Canada.
Carville viewed working campaigns abroad as more commercially lucrative, and with less reputational risk than campaigns in the United States noting in 2009: "If you help elect a president and then you get involved in a governor's race and you lose, it's going to be a little bit damaging to your reputation. But if you go to Peru and you run a presidential race and you lose, no one knows or cares. So why go to New Jersey and lose for 100 grand when you can go to Peru and lose for a million?"
Carville has been less forthcoming to the news media about his work abroad and remarked to a Los Angeles Times reporter in 1999, "I won't comment on anything I do outside the U.S."
Work with U.S. State Department
In 2002, on behalf of the U.S. State Department, Carville, and his wife, political consultant Mary Matalin, met with a group of 55 Arab women political leaders during the 2002 United States midterm elections. The programming, "Women as Political Leaders" International Visitor (IV) Program, was the first program implemented under the auspices of the Middle East Partnership Initiative, a collection of 40 programs headed by then deputy assistant secretary for Near East Affairs Liz Cheney. In addition to events with Carville and Matalin, the group met with congressional, state and local campaign staff, and observed campaign work during their visits to Concord, New Hampshire, Dallas, Texas, Detroit, Michigan, Toledo, Ohio, Raleigh, North Carolina, and Tallahassee and Tampa, Florida.
That year, Carville also proposed visiting Arab and Muslim nations on behalf of the US government to do "some kind of propaganda," adding "I'd love to use my experience and skills to tell people about my country and what's available to them beyond hopelessness and terrorism." "What the terrorists are after is the younger and increasingly poor population. What they are offering is not that much, but we are not doing a good job telling those young people the other side of the story. It's time we told them about choices they have without imposing American values."
Brazil, 1994
In 1994, Carville consulted for Fernando Henrique Cardoso in his successful 1994 campaign for the Brazilian presidency. Cardoso, a professor and Fulbright Fellow lectured in the United States during the 1980s at Columbia University on issues of democracy in Brazil. Cardoso, often nicknamed "FHC", was elected with the support of a heterodox alliance of his own Social Democratic Party, the PSDB, and two right-wing parties, the Liberal Front Party (PFL) and the Brazilian Labour Party (PTB). During his tenure in office, Cardoso's administration liquidated public assets and deepened the privatization of government-owned enterprises in steel milling, telecommunications and mining, along with making reforms to Brazil's social security income program and tax systems.
Honduras, 1997
In 1997, Carville consulted for then leader of the National Congress of Honduras, Carlos Flores Facussé in his presidential campaign. Flores attended the American School of Tegucigalpa, studied international finance at Louisiana State University in the early 1970s, and married a U.S. citizen from Tennessee.
He later became the publisher of his family's La Tribuna, a leading Honduran newspaper, and served on various corporate boards of directors, including the Central Bank of Honduras, and became involved in politics. Flores was aligned with former president Roberto Suazo Cordova's Rodista faction, the more conservative wing of the liberal party. Vowing to move Honduras past its image of being primarily a banana and coffee exporter, Flores campaigned on his "New Agenda" platform, that included a ten point plan to stabilize the economy. Flores distanced himself from the outgoing Reina administration, while successfully portraying himself as an opposition candidate from the same party.
In the November, 1997 general election, Flores faced National party candidate Nora Gúnera de Melgar, the wife of General Juan Alberto Melgar Castro, who seized power in a 1975 coup which removed then president Oswaldo López Arellano after his bananagate bribery scandal with United Fruit Company.
Flores defeated his opponent by a 10% margin of 195,418 votes out of a total of 1,885,388 votes cast. Gúnera de Melgar's campaign was aided by the assistance Dick Morris, rival political consultant and also a political adviser to Bill Clinton. Morris claimed he had no knowledge of Carville's involvement with his opponent until after the election.
In October, 1998, Hurricane Mitch devastated Honduras, and post hurricane reconstruction efforts resulted in international development banks renegotiating much of Honduras' external debt in exchange for structural adjustment policies. After selling state-owned airports and energy companies, Flores unsuccessfully attempted to privatize Hondutel, the state-owned telephone utility, and when that effort failed, the International Monetary Fund froze the distribution of loans and demanded that the government further accelerate its privatization programs.
Ecuador, 1998
In 1998, Carville help craft a successful strategy to elect Jamil Mahuad Witt as President of Ecuador. Mahuad, an Ecuadorian-born attorney, earned a Master of Public Administration from Harvard University Kennedy School of Government, where he was Mason Fellow. He was also a US State Department-sponsored Fulbright Fellow, who lectured in ethics and politics at several universities.
Mahuad was elected Mayor of Quito in the 1990s before retaining the services of Carville to help him win the Ecuadorian presidency, in a campaign in which Mahuad touted his educational background at Harvard.
In the wake of an economic crisis from falling oil prices and stagnant economic growth, Mahuad decreed a state of emergency, and embarked on austerity measures to stifle rampant inflation, including sales tax and gasoline tax increases, freezing bank account withdrawals, and the dollarization of the economy which included the sudden voiding and invalidation of the Sucre, Ecuador's currency since 1884. In January 2000, Mahuad was forced from office in a military coup following demonstrations by Ecuadorians. Mahuad fled to exile in the United States. In 2014, an Ecuadorian court convicted Mahuad, in absentia, of embezzlement during his time in office, and sentenced him to twelve years in prison. Interpol also issued a warrant for his arrest.
Panama, 1998
In 1998, the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) party in Panama retained Carville as their main adviser to help re-elect then term-limited President Ernesto Pérez Balladares during an election where opposition figures suggested that Perez Balladares was hoping to convey the impression that the Clinton Administration in the United States secretly favored a second term for him. Pérez Balladares, who attended college in the United States at the University of Notre Dame before attaining his Master's at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, reformed Panama's Labor Code, privatized Panama's telephone and electrical utilities, and ushered Panama into the World Trade Organization during his tenure. Despite massive spending by the PRD, including the hiring of Carville to craft an effective political strategy, the proposal to lift his term limitation was defeated by a margin of almost 2 to 1.
Israel, 1998–1999
At the suggestion of President Clinton, who had grown frustrated with Benjamin Netanyahu's intransigence in the peace process, Carville, along with colleagues Bob Shrum, a speechwriter for President Clinton, and Stanley Greenberg, consulted in late 1998 and early 1999 for Labor Party candidate Ehud Barak to help him prepare for the 1999 prime ministerial election.
Carville and colleagues endeavored to help Barak seize control of the daily debate, and boost his struggling challenge to incumbent head-of-state Binyamin Netanyahu. Short declarative sentences, sound bites, rapid response, repetition, wedge issues, ethnic exploitation, nightly polling, negative research, searing attack advertisements on television, all familiar tools of American politics, arrived on the Israeli political scene during the election, as a part of what Netanyahu's director of communications, David Bar-Illan characterized as an Americanization of the election, and Netanyahu advisers implying White House meddling in an Israeli election. Barak won election by a double digit margin and served for over two years before calling a special prime ministerial election in 2001.
Argentina, 1999
Carville consulted for Buenos Aires Province Governor Eduardo Duhalde in his 1999 run for president of Argentina as the Justicialist Party nominee. Carville remarked in May, 1999 that U.S. Ambassador to Argentina James Cheek introduced him to Duhalde in January, 1998. Carville's consulting fee ran $30,000 per month, in 1999 US dollars, added to a percentage of campaign advertisements, plus first class airfare and hotel expenses.
Duhalde spent much of the campaign embroiled in a power struggle with his own party and incumbent President Carlos Menem who was barely dissuaded from running for a third term despite constitutional term limits, and a series of court rulings against him. The contest of campaigns was rather flat; there were no presidential debates, nor large campaign rallies, nor were any major changes in course promised by the frontrunner candidates. Duhalde emphasized his law and order credentials as a campaign theme. One television advertisement for Duhalde’s campaign depicted him walking in the woods alone, talking to himself, and bemoaning all the political enemies plotting against him. Carville clashed with Duhalde’s public relations team leading up to the election, which lead to his departure.
Against an economic backdrop of the Argentine Great Depression, Duhalde lost the October 1999 general election to Radical Civic Union party candidate Fernando de la Rúa who enjoyed the strategy and advice of U.S. American political consult Dick Morris. De la Rúa would later resign during the December 2001 riots, and the Argentine Congress appointed the governor of San Luis Province Adolfo Rodríguez Saá as president. When Rodríguez Saá also resigned, Congress appointed Duhalde, who would serve as president of Argentina from January, 2002 through May, 2003.
Bolivia, 2002
In 2002, through his firm Greenberg Carville Shrum (GCS), Carville strategized in Bolivia on behalf of Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) party presidential candidate Gonzalo "Goni" Sánchez de Lozada. The son of a political exile, Sánchez de Lozada spent his early years in Iowa, studied at the University of Chicago, and spoke Spanish with a midwestern American accent. Sanchez de Lozada served as Bolivian president in the mid 1990s, and had a record of using shock therapy, economic liberalization, and privatization. In his 2002 election campaign, he faced the first serious challenge to the hegemony of the established Bolivian political parties in the form of Evo Morales and his left-wing populist and indigenist Movement for Socialism (MAS) party.
Carville helped Sanchez de Lozada run a campaign playbook with a slick media campaign under the
slogan "Bolivia sí puede" ("Yes, Bolivia can") that featured negative attack ads on his opponents, particularly against Cochabamba mayor Manfred Reyes Villa. In one campaign advertisement, Reyes Villa was blamed for rampant diarrhea in the city's poor children.
Sanchez de Lozada garnered a plurality of votes, 22.46%, against Evo Morales second place finish at 20.94%, before coming to power in August 2002 in a coalition government formed with two other political parties. Lozada resigned in October, 2003 and fled to exile in the United States following the 2003 Bolivian Gas Conflict. Carville's work for Lozada in Bolivia was portrayed in the 2005 documentary film Our Brand Is Crisis, which inspired the 2015 narrative form film Our Brand is Crisis.
Venezuela, 2003
In early 2003, Carville worked in Venezuela as an advisor to Venezuelan business interests that previously led an economically devastating strike in the spring of 2002 by managers of the national oil company, Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA), in an effort to destabilize the government of leftist president Hugo Chávez. In the aftermath of an unsuccessful coup attempt in April 2002, the group sought Carville's assistance in displacing Chávez from office. In a September, 2006 interview that touched on the topic, Carville remarked: “I’ve worked in Venezuela and I would be very reluctant to call Chávez a democrat.”
Afghanistan 2009
Afghan presidential candidate Ashraf Ghani hired Carville as a campaign advisor in July 2009. Ghani, who renounced his US Citizenship in order to run for Presidency in Afghanistan, attended high school in the United States in Lake Oswego, Oregon during the late 1960s, earned his master's degree from Columbia University in 1977, was a Fulbright Fellow in the United States who taught at UC Berkeley, and Johns Hopkins University in the 1980s, and worked as an economist at the Washington, DC-based World Bank in the 1990s.
Ghani and Carville met in Washington in the spring of 2009 through mutual friends. Carville wouldn't say whether he was paid to advise Ghani, whereas Ghani claimed Carville volunteered his time. Carville remarked at the time that the 2009 Afghan presidential election is "probably the most important election held in the world in a long time," and he called his new job "probably the most interesting project I have ever worked in my life." When asked about similarities between politics in Afghanistan and politics in Louisiana, Carville responded: "Yeah, I felt a little bit at home, to be honest with you." Carville's objective was to help prevent one of Ghani's opponents, Hamid Karzai from garnering a majority of votes, to force the election into a second round. Ghani garnered just 2.94% of the vote, with Kazai finishing just shy of a 50% majority. After a cancelled run-off election Karzai became president.
Colombia 2010
In 2010, Carville worked as senior advisor to elect presidential candidate Juan Manuel Santos in Colombia. The Colombian-born Santos attended the University of Kansas for undergraduate studies from 1969 to 1973, graduating with a degree in economics and business. He returned to the U.S. as Fulbright visiting fellow at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University in 1981, and also earned a master's degree from Harvard's Kennedy School of Government in 1981, and lectured as a Nieman Fellow at Harvard University in 1988.
Santos later joined the Washington, DC-based think tank, the Inter-American Dialogue, and served as Colombia's Minister of Trade, and Minister of Finance and Public Credit of Colombia during the 1990s and early 2000s. In 2006, then President Alvaro Uribe appointed Santos as Colombia's Minister of Defence. Santos supervised the military during a period of political tension and military action targeted at the FARC guerrilla group, including a controversial military raid on Ecuador's border, and extrajudicial assassinations during the "False positives" scandal.
Carville played a crucial role for Santos, helping him to analyze voter polls, and crafted a winning strategy, that included the night-time distribution of pamphlets under the doors of voters' homes predicting the end of popular social welfare initiatives if Santos wasn't elected.
On June 20, 2010, after two rounds of voting, Santos was elected as President of Colombia and was inaugurated on 7 August 2010 in the midst of a diplomatic crisis with Venezuela. The U.S. State Department remarked in official communications that it was "pleased" with the election of Santos, and praised the "spirited debate" before the runoff and Colombia's "longstanding commitment to democratic principles". In 2017, Santos acknowledged that his 2010 campaign received illegal payments from Brazilian conglomerate Odebrecht.
Argentina 2015
Carville acted as advisor for Daniel Scioli's 2007 and 2011's campaigns for the governor of Buenos Aires. He also consulted for his unsuccessful presidential campaign in 2015. The election featured allegations of vote-buying when Scioli's Front for Victory party was alleged to have distributed sacks with bottles of cooking oil, pasta and flour to Buenos Aires voters in exchange for their votes. Scioli was defeated in a November, 2015 runoff election.
John Kerry's 2004 presidential campaign
In September, 2004, after conversations with Bill Clinton, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry engaged the assistance of Carville as an informal adviser to his 2004 presidential campaign. Rival political consultant Dick Morris speculated at the time that Carville and Greenberg, instrumental participants in the Clinton's political machine, infiltrated Kerry's campaign as a way to engineer his defeat and clear a path for Hillary Clinton to run in 2008. In the aftermath of Kerry's loss, Carville and colleagues Stanley Greenberg, and Bob Shrum sought to place blame on external events, including news media coverage of the Iraq War, the October, 2004 Osama bin Laden video, as well as Bush's focus on cultural issues.
2000s
Carville co-hosted CNN's Crossfire along with associate Paul Begala from 2002 until the show's cancellation in 2005. Carville was a CNN contributor until parting ways with the network in 2013. The following year, Carville joined Fox News Channel as a contributor.
In 2005, Carville taught a semester of the course "Topics in American Politics" at Northern Virginia Community College. Among the guests he had come speak to the class were Al Hunt, Mark Halperin, Senator George Allen, George Stephanopoulos, Karl Strubel, Stan Greenberg, Tony Blankley, representatives from the Motion Picture Association of America, and James Fallows.
In 2006, Carville switched gears from politics to sports and became a host on a sports show called 60/20 Sports on XM Satellite Radio with Luke Russert, son of NBC journalist Tim Russert. The show was an in-depth look at the culture of sports based on the ages of the two hosts (60 and 20).
After the Democrats' victory in the 2006 midterm election, Carville criticized Howard Dean as Democratic National Committee Chair, calling for his ouster, as he believed Dean had not spent enough money. In late November 2006, Carville proposed a truce of sorts.
Carville was the executive producer of the 2006 film All the King's Men, starring Sean Penn and Anthony Hopkins, which is loosely based on the life of Louisiana Governor Huey Long.
On March 4, 2009, Politico reported that Carville, Paul Begala, and Rahm Emanuel were the architects of the Democratic Party's strategy to cast conservative talk radio host Rush Limbaugh as the face of the Republican Party. Carville was particularly critical of Limbaugh for saying he wanted Barack Obama to "fail".
He was a regular contributor with Stan Greenberg to the weekly Carville-Greenberg Memo at The National Memo.
Hillary Clinton's 2008 presidential campaign
Carville advised Hillary Clinton during her 2008 presidential campaign. In remarks on then rival candidate, Senator Barack Obama, Carville declared in 2007 that Barack Obama was the Democratic candidate "most likely to explode or implode."
On March 22, 2008, Carville compared New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson, who had just endorsed Barack Obama for the nomination, to Judas Iscariot. It was "an act of betrayal." "Mr. Richardson's endorsement came right around the anniversary of the day when Judas sold out for 30 pieces of silver, so I think the timing is appropriate, if ironic," Carville remarked, referring to Holy week. Richardson had served President Bill Clinton as his Energy Secretary, and Ambassador to the United Nations and Carville believed Richardson owed an endorsement to Senator Clinton. Carville also claimed Richardson assured many in the Clinton campaign that he would at least remain neutral and abstain from taking sides. Richardson denied Carville's account, arguing that he had not made any promises to remain neutral. Richardson claims that his decision to endorse Obama was "clinched" by his speech on race relations following the swirl of controversy surrounding Obama's former pastor Jeremiah Wright. Carville went on to note,"I doubt if Governor Richardson and I will be terribly close in the future," Carville said, but "I've had my say...I got one in the wheelhouse and I tagged it."
Even as Clinton's campaign began to lose steam, Carville remained both loyal and positive in his public positions, rarely veering off message and stoutly defending the candidate. But on May 13, 2008, a few hours before the primary in West Virginia, Carville remarked to an audience at Furman University in South Carolina, "I'm for Senator Clinton, but I think the great likelihood is that Obama will be the nominee." The moment marked a shift from his previous and often determinedly optimistic comments about the state of Clinton's campaign.
After Barack Obama's clear lead for victory in the Democratic presidential campaign on June 3, James Carville said he was ready to open up his wallet to help Obama build a political war chest to take on John McCain in November.
2010s
Carville was retained by Palantir Technologies as a paid adviser in 2011, and was instrumental in bringing about Palantir's collaboration with the New Orleans Police Department to quietly deploy predictive policing software in New Orleans.
Carville has criticized Obama's political style and demeanor over the years. On November 18th, 2010, Carville spoke to an audience at a Christian Science Monitor breakfast and remarked: "If Hillary gave up one of her balls and gave it to Obama, he'd have two." Carville made a similar remark to political journalist Eleanor Clift during the midst of the primaries in May, 2008, insinuating that Hillary Clinton was a tougher candidate, remarking: "If she gave him one of her cojones, they'd both have two."
In November 2013, in light of President Barack Obama's declining approval poll numbers, Carville commented "I think the best thing he can do is take a toke on the mayor of Toronto's crack pipe, because his numbers are about 48."
On October 21, 2018 Carville participated with Fox News pundit Tucker Carlson at the 2018 PoltiCon in Los Angeles in, "A conversation with Eddie Izzard."
Carville joined the faculty of Louisiana State University's Manship School of Mass Communication in January 2018. His work at the Manship School was supported by philanthropic gifts. He has also lectured in political science at Tulane University.
In 2019, political pundit Mark Halperin consulted with Carville for his upcoming book: "How to Beat Trump: America's Top Political Strategists on What It Will Take." Carville was asked what he would tell Halperin's sexual assault victims who have expressed disappointment and outrage that so many top Democrats were willing to talk with someone accused of such serious allegations, and remarked: "I know he's been accused by a lot of people and lost his job. The guy called me and asked me to speak to him on a topic that I obviously care about. And I spoke to him."
Michael Bennet's 2020 presidential campaign
In January 2020, Carville endorsed Colorado Senator Michael Bennet's ultimately unsuccessful campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination. Carville appeared on stage with Bennet leading up to the 2020 New Hampshire Democratic presidential primary at his political events in the state. Carville remarked of Bennet during the campaign season: "This is John Kennedy recloned, you can't get any better than this guy!" Bennet, who leaned hard on Carville's endorsement, garnered 963 votes in New Hampshire, or 0.3% of 300,022 total Democratic ballots cast in a year of record-shattering turnout.
2020 election cycle
Carville has also entered the podcast business, and, along with Al Hunt hosts 2020 Politics War Room which purports to offer "a backstage pass to impeachment and the 2020 Election." He continues to make frequent appearances with Brian Williams in MSNBC cable news programming to comment on the 2020 Democratic debates, caucuses and primaries, and the trajectory of the 2020 Democratic nomination and general election.
In February 2020, Carville suggested jettisoning the Democratic presidential primaries and caucuses, letting House Speaker Nancy Pelosi select the Democratic Party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates, and suggested Mitt Romney should "resign from the Senate to save the Democratic Party's ass, and run our convention." Carville further added he might cast a write in vote for Nancy Pelosi when he votes in Louisiana.
In February 2020 media appearances and interviews, against a backdrop of presidential candidate Bernie Sanders' rise in the polls, Carville expressed his displeasure at the prospect of Sanders being nominated, branded Sanders as a "communist" and pejoratively labeled Sanders' base of support as a "cult", warning of the "end of days" if Sanders were to win the Democratic nomination. Carville used his media appearances surrounding the dustup to rail against the ascendance of progressive populist Democratic policy positions such as student loan debt forgiveness and "people voting from jail cells." Carville also decried banning hydraulic fracking for shale gas.
In November 2020 Carville predicted that the result of the presidential election would be known by 10p.m. on election day. After the Associated Press took an additional four days to declare the winner, Politico named Carville's prediction among "the most audacious, confident and spectacularly incorrect prognostications about the year".
Public speaking
In 2004, the New York Times noted Carville was making more than 100 speeches per year, to various audiences, including business groups, colleges and universities, and Democratic Party fundraising events. Charles Lewis, executive director at the Center for Public Integrity, a Washington research group remarked that "No political consultant has carved a space as unique as his." Fred Wertheimer, president of Democracy 21, said at the time: "He's become a commodity of himself by design. He's a walking conglomerate." Joe Lockhart, a former press secretary to Bill Clinton characterized Carville as "a multimedia corporation, and he's been smart about it. He is a model of the future. This could not have happened pre-1992 when campaign consultants were viewed by a small audience. Now they are public celebrities." Carville was noted to have been represented exclusively by the Washington Speakers Bureau, with a speaker's fee of $20,500 in 2004 to get him to the podium for an hour, plus first-class expenses and top accommodations.
Commercial endorsements and advertisements
Carville had an array of commercial endorsements, and starred in print media and television advertisements for leading consumer brands including Coca-Cola, Little Debbie snacks, Maker’s Mark bourbon, Heineken beer, Alka-Seltzer antacid, American Express credit cards, Nike shoes, the Cotton Council, Ariba software.
In 2000, through Bob Chlopak’s and Peter Schechter's Chlopak, Leonard, Schechter & Associates (CLS), a Washington, DC-based public relations firm, Carville enjoyed a sponsorship with Playboy media, and Captain Morgan rum that included a trip to Hugh Hefner's Playboy mansion.
Personal life
Carville is married to political consultant Mary Matalin, who worked for George H. W. Bush on his 1992 presidential reelection campaign. Carville and Matalin were married in New Orleans in October 1993. They have two daughters. In 2008, Carville and Matalin relocated their family from Virginia to New Orleans. Carville has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and has spoken publicly about ADHD for organizations like Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.
Books
Politics
All's Fair: Love, War and Running for President (1995), with Mary Matalin and Peter Knobler
We're Right, They're Wrong: A Handbook for Spirited Progressives (1996)
...And The Horse He Rode In On: The People vs. Kenneth Starr (1998)
Stickin: The Case for Loyalty (2000) with Paul Begala
Suck Up, Buck Up... and Come Back When You Foul Up (2001)
Had Enough? (2004)
Take It Back: Our Party, Our Country, Our Future (2006) with Paul Begala
40 More Years: How the Democrats Will Rule the Next Generation (2009)
It's the Middle Class, Stupid! (2012) with Stan Greenberg
Love & War: Twenty Years, Three Presidents, Two Daughters and One Louisiana Home, (2014) with Mary Matalin
We're Still Right, They're Still Wrong: The Democrats' Case for 2016, (2016)
Children's fiction
Lu and the Swamp Ghost (2004) with co-author Patricia McKissack and illustrator David Catrow
Film and television appearances
Carville takes a lead role in The War Room, a documentary about Bill Clinton's 1992 presidential campaign, together with George Stephanopoulos.
He appeared in the 1996 film The People vs. Larry Flynt as Hamilton County Prosecuting Attorney Simon Leis.
He appeared in three episodes of the sitcom Mad About You playing himself, as head of a political consulting firm that hires Jamie Buchman, played by Helen Hunt.
He has a guest role on the sitcom Spin City, where he is interviewed for a job as campaign manager.
Carville reportedly accepted the role of Crazy Ray in the cancelled animated Walt Disney Animation Studios film My Peoples, which was later re-titled A Few Good Ghosts.
In the films Old School and Wedding Crashers, Carville makes cameo appearances as himself.
He appeared as himself in Our Brand Is Crisis, a documentary about the Bolivian presidential election.
Carville appears as the Governor of Missouri, Thomas Crittenden, in the 2007 movie The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford.
He appeared as himself in NBC's comedy 30 Rock, season 2 episode 8 "Secrets and Lies".
He appeared in cartoon form in the Family Guy episode "Running Mates."
He starred in Steven Soderbergh's HBO series K Street along with his wife.
Carville is a regular guest on The Tony Kornheiser Show where he picks both NFL and college football games against the USA Today spreads.
He voiced Judge Roland McFarlane in the King of the Hill episode "Jumpin' Crack Bass".
He made a cameo appearance in The Muppets.
Beginning in 2012, Carville and Matalin appeared in "Cocktail Party" commercials for Maker's Mark Kentucky Straight Bourbon.
Carville appears as himself in the film G.I. Joe: Retaliation, introducing the President at a fundraising event.
He was portrayed on Saturday Night Live, mostly by Bill Hader.
He was portrayed by Bill Hader in "The Bunker," and episode of the "mockumentary" series Documentary Now which parodies his appearance in The War Room.
He and his wife perform the epilogue to Hayes Carll's political comedy song "Another Like You".
He and his wife appeared about their participation in the Clinton and Bush campaigns of the 1992 presidential election in the documentary series Race for the White House.
References
Further reading
Clinton, Bill (2004). My Life. Vintage. .
Bridges, Tyler, and Jeremy Alford (2016). Long Shot: A Soldier, a Senator, a Serious Sin, an Epic Louisiana Election. .
External links
1944 births
American campaign managers
American people of Belgian descent
American political consultants
American political commentators
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
Cajun people
Clinton administration personnel
Living people
Louisiana Democrats
Louisiana lawyers
Louisiana State University alumni
Louisiana State University Law Center alumni
People from Iberville Parish, Louisiana
Tulane University faculty
United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers
United States presidential advisors
Writers from New Orleans | [
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237577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron | Heron | The herons are long-legged, long-necked, freshwater and coastal birds in the family Ardeidae, with 64 recognised species, some of which are referred to as egrets or bitterns rather than herons. Members of the genera Botaurus and Ixobrychus are referred to as bitterns, and, together with the zigzag heron, or zigzag bittern, in the monotypic genus Zebrilus, form a monophyletic group within the Ardeidae. Egrets do not form a biologically distinct group from herons, and tend to be named differently because they are mainly white or have decorative plumes in breeding plumage. Herons, by evolutionary adaptation, have long beaks.
The classification of the individual heron/egret species is fraught with difficulty, and no clear consensus exists about the correct placement of many species into either of the two major genera, Ardea and Egretta. Similarly, the relationships of the genera in the family are not completely resolved. However, one species formerly considered to constitute a separate monotypic family, the Cochlearidae or the boat-billed heron, is now regarded as a member of the Ardeidae.
Although herons resemble birds in some other families, such as the storks, ibises, spoonbills, and cranes, they differ from these in flying with their necks retracted, not outstretched. They are also one of the bird groups that have powder down. Some members of this group nest colonially in trees, while others, notably the bitterns, use reed beds. A group of them is called a "siege."
Description
The herons are medium- to large-sized birds with long legs and necks. They exhibit very little sexual dimorphism in size. The smallest species is usually considered the dwarf bittern, which measures in length, although all the species in the genus Ixobrychus are small and many broadly overlap in size. The largest species of heron is the goliath heron, which stands up to tall. The necks are able to kink in an S-shape, due to the modified shape of the cervical vertebrae, of which they have 20–21. The neck can retract and extend and is retracted during flight, unlike most other long-necked birds. The neck is longer in the day herons than the night herons and bitterns. The legs are long and strong and in almost every species are unfeathered from the lower part of the tibia (the exception is the zigzag heron). In flight, the legs and feet are held backwards. The feet of herons have long, thin toes, with three forward pointing ones and one pointing backwards.
The bill is generally long and harpoon-like. It can vary from extremely fine, as in the agami heron, to thick as in the grey heron. The most atypical bill is owned by the boat-billed heron, which has a broad, thick bill. The bill and other bare parts of the body are usually yellow, black, or brown in colour, although this can vary during the breeding season. The wings are broad and long, exhibiting 10 or 11 primary feathers (the boat-billed heron has only nine), 15–20 secondaries, and 12 rectrices (10 in the bitterns). The feathers of the herons are soft and the plumage is usually blue, black, brown, grey, or white, and can often be strikingly complex. Amongst the day herons, little sexual dimorphism in plumage is seen (except in the pond-herons); differences between the sexes are the rule for the night herons and smaller bitterns. Many species also have different colour morphs. In the Pacific reef heron, both dark and light colour morphs exist, and the percentage of each morph varies geographically. White morphs only occur in areas with coral beaches.
Distribution and habitat
The herons are a widespread family with a cosmopolitan distribution. They exist on all continents except Antarctica and are present in most habitats except the coldest extremes of the Arctic, extremely high mountains, and the driest deserts. Almost all species are associated with water; they are essentially non-swimming waterbirds that feed on the margins of lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds, and the sea. They are predominantly found in lowland areas, although some species live in alpine areas, and the majority of species occur in the tropics.
The herons are a highly mobile family, with most species being at least partially migratory; for example, the grey heron is mostly sedentary in Britain, but mostly migratory in Scandinavia. Birds are particularly inclined to disperse widely after breeding, but before the annual migration, where the species is colonial, searching out new feeding areas and reducing the pressures on feeding grounds near the colony. The migration typically occurs at night, usually as individuals or in small groups.
Behaviour and ecology
Diet
The herons and bitterns are carnivorous. The members of this family are mostly associated with wetlands and water and feed on a variety of live aquatic prey. Their diet includes a wide variety of aquatic animals, including fish, reptiles, amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, and aquatic insects. Individual species may be generalists or specialize in certain prey types, such as the yellow-crowned night heron, which specializes in crustaceans, particularly crabs. Many species also opportunistically take larger prey, including birds and bird eggs, rodents, and more rarely carrion. Even more rarely, herons eating acorns, peas, and grains have been reported, but most vegetable matter consumed is accidental.
The most common hunting technique is for the bird to sit motionless on the edge of or standing in shallow water and to wait until prey comes within range. Birds may either do this from an upright posture, giving them a wider field of view for seeing prey or from a crouched position, which is more cryptic and means the bill is closer to the prey when it is located. Having seen prey, the head is moved from side to side, so that the heron can calculate the position of the prey in the water and compensate for refraction, and then the bill is used to spear the prey.
In addition to sitting and waiting, herons may feed more actively. They may walk slowly, around or less than 60 paces a minute, snatching prey when it is observed. Other active feeding behaviours include foot stirring and probing, where the feet are used to flush out hidden prey. The wings may be used to frighten prey (or possibly attract it to shade) or to reduce glare; the most extreme example of this is exhibited by the black heron, which forms a full canopy with its wings over its body.
Some species of heron, such as the little egret and grey heron, have been documented using bait to lure prey to within striking distance. Herons may use items already in place, or actively add items to the water to attract fish such as the banded killifish. Items used may be man-made, such as bread; alternatively, striated herons in the Amazon have been watched repeatedly dropping seeds, insects, flowers, and leaves into the water to catch fish.
Three species, the black-headed heron, whistling heron, and especially the cattle egret, are less tied to watery environments and may feed far away from water. Cattle egrets improve their foraging success by following large grazing animals, catching insects flushed by their movement. One study found that the success rate of prey capture increased 3.6 times over solitary foraging.
Breeding
While the family exhibits a range of breeding strategies, overall, the herons are monogamous and mostly colonial. Most day herons and night herons are colonial, or partly colonial depending on circumstances, whereas the bitterns and tiger herons are mostly solitary nesters. Colonies may contain several species, as well as other species of waterbirds. In a study of little egrets and cattle egrets in India, the majority of the colonies surveyed contained both species. Nesting is seasonal in temperate species; in tropical species, it may be seasonal (often coinciding with the rainy season) or year-round. Even in year-round breeders, nesting intensity varies throughout the year. Tropical herons typically have only one breeding season per year, unlike some other tropical birds which may raise up to three broods a year.
Courtship usually takes part on the nest. Males arrive first and begin the building of the nest, where they display to attract females. During courtship, the male employs a stretch display and uses erectile neck feathers; the neck area may swell. The female risks an aggressive attack if she approaches too soon and may have to wait up to four days. In colonial species, displays involve visual cues, which can include adopting postures or ritual displays, whereas in solitary species, auditory cues, such as the deep booming of the bitterns, are important. The exception to this is the boat-billed heron, which pairs up away from the nesting site. Having paired, they continue to build the nest in almost all species, although in the little bittern and least bittern, only the male works on the nest.
Some ornithologists have reported observing female herons attaching themselves to impotent mates, then seeking sexual gratification elsewhere.
The nests of herons are usually found near or above water. Although the nests of a few species have been found on the ground where suitable trees or shrubs are unavailable, they are typically placed in vegetation. Trees are used by many species, and here they may be placed high up from the ground, whereas species living in reed beds may nest very close to the ground.
Generally, herons lay between three and seven eggs. Larger clutches are reported in the smaller bitterns and more rarely some of the larger day herons, and single-egg clutches are reported for some of the tiger herons. Clutch size varies by latitude within species, with individuals in temperate climates laying more eggs than tropical ones. On the whole, the eggs are glossy blue or white, with the exception being the large bitterns, which lay olive-brown eggs.
Name
The word heron first appeared in the English language around 1300, originating from Old French hairon, eron (12th century), earlier hairo (11th century), from Frankish haigiro or from Proto-Germanic *haigrô, *hraigrô.
Herons are also known as shitepokes , or euphemistically as shikepokes or shypokes. Webster's Dictionary suggests that herons were given this name because of their habit of defecating when flushed.
The 1971 Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary describes the use of shitepoke for the small green heron of North America (Butorides virescens) as originating in the United States, citing a published example from 1853. The OED also observes that shiterow or shederow are terms used for herons, and also applied as derogatory terms meaning a thin, weakly person. This name for a heron is found in a list of game birds in a royal decree of James VI (1566–1625) of Scotland. The OED speculates that shiterow is a corruption of shiteheron.
Another former name was heronshaw or hernshaw, derived from Old French heronçeau. Corrupted to handsaw, this name appears in Shakespeare's Hamlet. A possible further corruption took place in the Norfolk Broads, where the heron is often referred to as a harnser.
Taxonomy and systematics
Analyses of the skeleton, mainly the skull, suggested that the Ardeidae could be split into a diurnal and a crepuscular/nocturnal group which included the bitterns. From DNA studies and skeletal analyses focusing more on bones of body and limbs, this grouping has been revealed as incorrect. Rather, the similarities in skull morphology reflect convergent evolution to cope with the different challenges of daytime and nighttime feeding. Today, it is believed that three major groups can be distinguished, which are (from the most primitive to the most advanced):
tiger herons and the boatbill
bitterns
day herons and egrets, and night herons
The night herons could warrant separation as subfamily Nycticoracinae, as it was traditionally done. However, the position of some genera (e.g. Butorides or Syrigma) is unclear at the moment, and molecular studies have until now suffered from a small number of studied taxa. Especially, the relationships among the subfamily Ardeinae are very badly resolved. The arrangement presented here should be considered provisional.
A 2008 study suggests that this family belongs to the Pelecaniformes. In response to these findings, the International Ornithological Congress recently reclassified Ardeidae and their sister taxa Threskiornithidae under the order Pelecaniformes instead of the previous order of Ciconiiformes.
Subfamily Tigriornithinae
Genus Cochlearius – boat-billed heron
Genus Taphophoyx (fossil, Late Miocene of Levy County, Florida)
Genus Tigrisoma – typical tiger herons (three species)
Genus Tigriornis – white-crested tiger heron
Genus Zonerodius – forest bittern
Subfamily Botaurinae
Genus Zebrilus – zigzag heron
Genus Ixobrychus – small bitterns (eight living species, one recently extinct)
Genus Botaurus – large bitterns (four species)
Genus Pikaihao - Saint Bathan's bittern (fossil, Early Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)
Subfamily Ardeinae
Genus Zeltornis (fossil, Early Miocene of Djebel Zelten, Libya)
Genus Nycticorax – typical night herons (two living species, four recently extinct; includes Nyctanassa)
Genus Nyctanassa – American night herons (one living species, one recently extinct)
Genus Gorsachius – Asian and African night herons (four species)
Genus Butorides – green-backed herons (three species; sometimes included in Ardea)
Genus Agamia – Agami heron
Genus Pilherodius – capped heron
Genus Ardeola – pond herons (six species)
Genus Bubulcus – cattle egrets (one or two species, sometimes included in Ardea)
Genus Proardea (fossil)
Genus Ardea – typical herons (11–17 species)
Genus Syrigma – whistling heron
Genus Egretta – typical egrets (7–13 species)
Genus undetermined
Easter Island heron, Ardeidae gen. et sp. indet. (prehistoric)
Fossil herons of unresolved affiliations
"Anas" basaltica (Late Oligocene of Varnsdorf, Czech Republic)
Ardeagradis
Proardeola – possibly same as Proardea
Matuku (Early Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)
Other prehistoric and fossil species are included in the respective genus accounts. In addition, Proherodius is a disputed fossil which was variously considered a heron or one of the extinct long-legged waterfowl, the Presbyornithidae. It is only known from a sternum; a tarsometatarsus assigned to it actually belongs to the paleognath Lithornis vulturinus.
References
Further reading
Hancock, James & Elliott, Hugh (1978) The Herons of the World; with paintings by Robert Gillmor and Peter Hayman, and drawings by Robert Gillmor. London: London Editions ; New York: Harper & Row
External links
HeronConservation Heron Specialist Group of IUCN
Heron videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Extant Paleocene first appearances
Taxa named by William Elford Leach | [
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237578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruttia%20gens | Bruttia gens | The gens Bruttia was an ancient Roman family during the late Republic and into imperial times. None of the gens obtained any important magistracies until the latter half of the first century AD, when Lucius Bruttius Maximus was proconsul in Cyprus.
Origin
The Bruttius probably indicates that the ancestors of the gens were from Bruttium, the southernmost region of Italia. The Bruttii were an Oscan people descended from the Lucani, from whom they asserted their independence during the fourth century BC. The name of Bruttii, which they adopted for themselves, may be a pre-Sabellic name meaning "runaways".
Praenomina
The praenomina used by the Bruttii are Lucius, Gaius, and Quintus.
Branches and cognomina
No distinct families of the Bruttii appear under the Republic, during which the only cognomen is Sura. A number of surnames occur in imperial times, of which all but Balbus appear to belong to the same family. The others were Maximus, Praesens, and Crispinus. This family came from Volceii, in Lucania, and seems to have made a habit of adopting names from the female line. The combination of Quinctius or Quintius Crispinus probably asserts the family's descent from the ancient patrician house of the Quinctii Crispini.
Members
Quintus Bruttius Sura, legate of Gaius Sentius Saturninus, governor of Macedonia in 88 BC.
Gaius Bruttius C. f., proquaestor in an unspecified year, and aedile in 57 BC.
Bruttius, an eques, for whom Cicero wrote a letter of introduction to Manius Acilius Caninus, proconsul in Sicilia in 46 BC.
Bruttius, a philologer, with whom the younger Marcus Tullius Cicero studied at Athens in 44 BC.
Quintus Bruttius Balbus, a candidate for duumvir at Pompeii, mentioned in a political graffito.
Lucius Bruttius Maximus, proconsul of Cyprus in AD 80.
Gaius Bruttius L. f. Praesens Lucius Fulvius Rusticus, consul in AD 139.
Lucius Fulvius Gaius Bruttius C. f. L. n. Praesens Laberius Maximus, consul in AD 153 and 180.
Bruttia C. f. C. n. Crispina, Roman empress, the wife of Commodus.
Lucius Bruttius C. f. C. n. Quinctius Crispinus, consul in AD 187.
Gaius Bruttius Praesens, consul in AD 217.
Lucius Bruttius Quintius Crispinus, consul in AD 224, and afterwards persuaded the city of Aquileia to resist Maximinus Thrax.
Gaius Bruttius Praesens, consul in AD 246.
Bruttius or "Brittius" Praesens, corrector of Lucania and Bruttium, and a pontifex major, around the early fourth century.
See also
List of Roman gentes
Brutus (disambiguation)
References
Roman gentes | [
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237582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%20Games%20%28John%20Lennon%20album%29 | Mind Games (John Lennon album) | Mind Games is the fourth studio album by English musician John Lennon. It was recorded at Record Plant Studios in New York in summer 1973. The album was released in the US on 29 October 1973 and in the UK on 16 November 1973. It was Lennon's first self-produced recording without help from Phil Spector. Like his previous album, the politically topical and somewhat abrasive Some Time in New York City, Mind Games received mixed reviews upon release. It reached number 13 in the UK and number 9 in the US, where it was certified gold.
The album was recorded while Lennon was having difficulties with US immigration and at the beginning of his 18-month separation from Yoko Ono. The title track was released as a single at the same time as the album. The album itself was later reissued several times throughout the 1970s and 1980s.
Background
By the start of 1973, John Lennon began distancing himself from the political and social issues he had embraced in the previous 18 months. It was also around this time that he and his wife, Yoko Ono, were going through marital problems. As Ono was completing her fourth album, Feeling the Space, Lennon decided he also wanted to record a new album, and liked the studio musicians that their assistant and production coordinator May Pang had assembled for Ono's album. Shortly thereafter, he asked Pang to book them for his sessions. Wanting to produce an album that would be more accepted than his previous politically charged commercial flop Some Time in New York City, Lennon began writing and demoing a few songs for Mind Games in his Greenwich Village apartment. He began composing after a period of almost a year of not writing any material.
Amid frequent court appearances battling to stay in the United States, Lennon became stressed, a situation that was only worsened by constant surveillance by the FBI, due to his political activism. Lennon said, "I just couldn't function, you know? I was so paranoid from them tappin' the phone and followin' me." All this combined made Lennon begin to feel emotionally withdrawn. Lennon put his suffering aside to write the songs for Mind Games, writing all the songs for it in a week.
Under the moniker of "The Plastic U.F.Ono Band", Lennon engaged the services of session drummer Jim Keltner, guitarist David Spinozza, Gordon Edwards on bass, Arthur Jenkins on percussion, Michael Brecker on saxophone, Ken Ascher on piano and organ, and the vocal backing of a group called Something Different. Difficulties between Lennon and Ono became more and more noticeable around this time. Just as the sessions were to get under way in June at New York's Record Plant Studios, John and Yoko separated. At Ono's urging, Pang became Lennon's companion and lover in what would become an 18-month relationship later renowned as Lennon's "lost weekend".
Recording and content
Mind Games was recorded between July and August 1973 in Lennon's characteristic quick fashion, and was mixed over a two-week period. Lennon produced the album by himself, following his previous three-year partnership with Phil Spector. When the album was remixed in 2002, many audio anomalies hidden in the original mixing were uncovered. Some rough mixes appear on bootlegs and on 1997's John Lennon Anthology.
The album continued Lennon's previous attempts to chronicle his life through his songs, the tone of which displays a range of mixed feelings. Among the sombre and melodic songs directed to Ono, "Aisumasen (I'm Sorry)" was originally titled "Call My Name", a song in which Lennon was offering to comfort someone, whereas the final version sees him asking for forgiveness. In "One Day (At a Time)", Lennon sings about his devotion to Ono. "Out the Blue" also reflects Lennon's devotion to his wife, and reflects its author's self-doubt as a result of their separation. "Out the Blue" incorporates several musical genres, starting with a gentle, melancholy acoustic guitar and moving through gospel, country and choral music portions. Another love song, "You Are Here" took its title from Lennon's one-off art exhibition at the Robert Frazer Gallery. By the time of the Mind Games sessions, the composition had gone through several different themes, before Lennon settled on the theme of love and peace. The original master take of "You Are Here" featured an extra verse, that was about Japan and England.
Other songs on the album are more light-hearted and optimistic, marking the return of Lennon's humour and wit after the uncompromising doctrine espoused on Some Time in New York City. These tracks include "Intuition", in which Lennon relates how life experience has honed his instincts and how it's good to have gotten through it. While demoing the song on piano in early 1973, with the lyrics still incomplete, he added a few lines from two previously released tracks – "How?", from Imagine (1971), and "God", from John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band (1970). "Only People" reflects his and Ono's personal philosophy. Lennon later said that it failed as a song, however; in an interview with Playboy, he remarked: "It was a good lick, but I couldn't get the words to make sense."
Also appearing on Mind Games are songs that indulged Lennon's affinity for pure rock 'n' roll, such as "Tight A$", the title of which was a pun on the expressions "tight as" and "tight ass". The track is in the rockabilly style with a 1950s sound, along the lines of songs that inspired Lennon in his youth. Another rock track, "Meat City" contains lyrics more in keeping with Lennon's earlier penchant for obscure imagery over the personal. The song was a boogie piece until late in 1971, when it began to take its final form, although with improvised lyrics. By late 1972, Lennon had rewritten the words and finished developing the melody.
The song "Mind Games", with its "love is the answer" refrain and call to "make love not war", recalls Lennon's work with the Beatles in 1967. He started writing the track during the band's Get Back sessions, in early 1969, with the title "Make Love, Not War". Lennon finished it after reading the book Mind Games: The Guide to Inner Space. Lennon had recorded demos of the retitled "Mind Games" on 28 and 29 December 1970, at his home studio, Ascot Sound Studios.
"Bring on the Lucie (Freeda Peeple)" dated from late 1971, having started out as little more than a chorus, after Lennon acquired a National guitar. Once he had worked on the lyrics, the song went from a simple political slogan to a full-blown statement that hints at his earlier work, such as "Imagine" and "Power to the People". "Only People" and the three-second silent "Nutopian International Anthem" were the only political tracks on the album. The latter referred to "Nutopia: The Country of Peace", a conceptual country which the Lennons had announced at a press conference in New York City on April Fool's Day 1973. "I Know (I Know)" features lyrics in which Lennon apologises for his thoughtlessness and discusses the causes of his insecurity. On some of the rough mixes available on bootlegs, the time-consuming overdubbing on the song is apparent, as Lennon gradually refined the arrangement. The final track on Mind Games, "Meat City" contains a Lennon curse, "Fuck a pig!", sped up and backwards, while the mix used as the B-side to the "Mind Games" single gave the same treatment to the phrase "Check the album!"
"Rock and Roll People" was also recorded during the album's sessions and given to Johnny Winter for his John Dawson Winter III album. Lennon's version remained unreleased until 1986's posthumous Menlove Ave. album.
Release and promotion
Tony King, vice-president of Apple Records in Los Angeles at the time, convinced Lennon to promote Mind Games, arranging interviews for Lennon with Billboard and Record World. He also persuaded Lennon to do a television commercial in which King dressed up as the Queen of the United Kingdom and waltzed with Lennon (the commercial session can be seen in the 1988 film Imagine: John Lennon). King reprised his role as the Queen for two radio spots promoting the album.
Lennon created the Mind Games album cover himself, hand-cutting the photos. The front and back covers are similar; on the back sleeve Lennon is more toward the foreground, representing his symbolic walking away from Ono and her apparent mountainous influence on him.
Mind Games was released on 29 October in America and 16 November in Britain, around the same time as Ono's Feeling the Space. Apple Records issued the title track as a single, with the release dates matching those of the album in the US and UK. The single reached number 26 in the UK, and peaked at number 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US. The album charted at number 13 in the UK and peaked at number 9 on Billboards Top LP's listings. Although Mind Games sold better than Some Time in New York City, its release "came and went with barely a ripple", according to Beatles biographer Chris Ingham. Author Peter Doggett similarly writes that the album "did nothing to alter [Lennon's] status as the least commercially successful Beatle".
Critical reception
Jon Landau of Rolling Stone magazine assessed the songs on Mind Games as "his worst writing yet" and considered that Lennon was "helplessly trying to impose his own gargantuan ego upon an audience ... [that] is waiting hopefully for him to chart a new course". While finding the music "listenable", Landau identified the album's lyrics as "misguided in so underrating his audience's intelligence" and added: "But then, perhaps Lennon's didacticism, preaching and banality are part of the mind game of the album's title..." More impressed, Melody Makers Ray Coleman found that "The raw nerves of a Lennon battered by America's curious logic and sheer hard-heartedness seem to have spurred him to write incisively..." Coleman concluded of Mind Games: "Musically or melodically this may not be a stand-out album, but if you warm to the rasping voice of Lennon and, like me, regard him as the true fulcrum of much of what came from his old group, then like any new Lennon album, it will be enjoyable and even important." In Creem magazine, Robert Christgau described the album as "a step in the right direction... but only a step. It sounds like out-takes from Imagine, which may not seem so bad but means that Lennon is falling back on ideas (intellectual and musical) that have lost their freshness for him: Still, the single works, and let's hope he keeps right on stepping."
Writing in their 1975 book The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, NME journalists Roy Carr and Tony Tyler opined that Mind Games "bears all the hallmarks of being made without any definite objective in mind – other than to redeem the unpleasantness of Some Time In New York City". While noting the singer's attempts to re-create "the lyricism and melodic inventiveness" of Imagine, Carr and Tyler continued: "The reason the total album is not more effective can be laid at the door of Lennon's personal situation, and on his tendency to react to events, instead of initiating them." In The Beatles Apart (1981), Bob Woffinden considered that, aside from the "excellent" title track and "Bring on the Lucie", Mind Games "consisted of so-so songs that hardly lodged in the memory", and that "The best one can say of the album is that it's exceptionally well produced."
In a more recent review, for AllMusic, critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine writes that "confusion... lies at the heart of the album. Lennon doesn't know which way to go, so he tries everything." Erlewine adds: "While the best numbers are among Lennon's finest, there's only a handful of them, and the remainder of the record is simply pleasant."
Lennon himself later said: "The Mind Games single is fine, but there's just no energy to sustain through the album and there's no clarity of vision. That cover says more than the record to me."
Reissues
The album was reissued in the US on Capitol Records in 1978 and 1980, with the latter being a budget reissue. In the UK, the album was reissued on EMI's budget label, Music for Pleasure (MFP), on 28 November 1980, featuring a different album cover. After Lennon's death in December 1980, the album, along with seven other Lennon albums, was reissued by EMI as part of a box set, which was released in the UK on 15 June 1981. It was first issued on CD on 3 August 1987, this time on the Parlophone label, and several months later on 22 March 1988 in the US on the Capitol label.
In 2002, a remixing of Mind Games for its remastered reissue, containing three previously unreleased demo recordings, was overseen by Allan Rouse, which was released on 21 October 2002 in the UK, and almost a month later in the US, on 5 November 2002. It was reissued again by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab in 2004 on CD and LP. In 2010, the original mix was remastered as part of the re-release of Lennon's entire catalogue, the album was available separately or as part of the John Lennon Signature Box.
Track listing
All songs written by John Lennon.
Original release
Side one
"Mind Games" – 4:13
"Tight A$" – 3:37
"Aisumasen (I'm Sorry)" – 4:44
"One Day (At a Time)" – 3:09
"Bring on the Lucie (Freda Peeple)" – 4:12
"Nutopian International Anthem" – 0:03
Side two
"Intuition" – 3:08
"Out the Blue" – 3:23
"Only People" – 3:23
"I Know (I Know)" – 3:49
"You Are Here" – 4:08
"Meat City" – 2:45
2002 reissue bonus tracks
"Aisumasen (I'm Sorry)" (home version) – 3:35
"Bring on the Lucie (Freda Peeple)" (home version) – 1:02
"Meat City" (home version) – 2:36
Personnel
Personnel per album sleeve and Bruce Spizer.
John Lennon – lead, harmony and backing vocals, rhythm guitar, slide guitar, acoustic guitar, clavichord, percussion
Ken Ascher – piano, Hammond organ, Mellotron
David Spinozza – lead guitar
Gordon Edwards – bass guitar
Jim Keltner – drums
Rick Marotta – drums on "Bring on the Lucie" and "Meat City" (with Keltner)
Michael Brecker – saxophone
Sneaky Pete Kleinow – pedal steel guitar
Something Different – backing vocals
Roy Cicala, Dan Barbiero – engineers
Tom Rabstanek – mastering
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
Footnotes
Citations
External links
John Lennon albums
1973 albums
Apple Records albums
Albums arranged by John Lennon
Albums produced by John Lennon
EMI Records albums
Plastic Ono Band albums | [
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237583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossfire%20%28American%20TV%20program%29 | Crossfire (American TV program) | Crossfire is an American nightly current events debate television program that aired on CNN from 1982 to 2005 and again from 2013 to 2014. The format was designed to present and challenge the opinions of a politically liberal pundit and a conservative pundit.
In 2013, after eight years off the air, a new version of Crossfire re-launched on September 9. The panelists for the new edition of Crossfire were former House Speaker Newt Gingrich and political commentator S. E. Cupp representing the right with political consultant Stephanie Cutter and advocate Van Jones representing the left. The program was last broadcast in July 2014 and officially cancelled later that year.
Format
The show was hosted by two pundits, one of whom was presented as being "on the left" and one "on the right," to provide two sides of the political spectrum. The show usually featured two additional "left and right" guests on each topic of discussion. On some occasions only one guest was featured. Occasionally, when the co-hosts agreed on the featured topic, two guests of the opposing view would appear. More rarely, when hosts disagreed with the prevailing view of their side, they would debate someone from their own camp who agreed with it.
History
Braden–Buchanan years
The concept began in 1978 when Tom Braden and Pat Buchanan co-hosted a radio show on then-NBC-owned WRC radio in Washington. The program, on which the two men debated political issues, was highly praised, but its ratings were low and, in 1982, it was cancelled. At the time, Reese Schonfeld, then President and CEO of CNN, was searching for a replacement for his 10pm program. The program put the day's most important newsmaker in the spotlight, caught between a conservative and a liberal journalist. Their ratings, which were low by radio standards, were better than CNN's. Schonfeld signed the pair to a CNN contract for $75,000 each.
CNN's owner, Ted Turner, objected to their hiring but Braden and Buchanan, with a signed contract, threatened a lawsuit. Turner backed down and agreed to give them a half hour at 11:30pm.
The program's original producer was Randy Douthit. It was executive produced by CNN's leading female executive, Gail Evans. The show soon gained ratings and was elevated to a 7:30pm time slot. In 1985, Buchanan left the show for a job as communications director in the Reagan White House. His replacement was conservative columnist Robert Novak, who already had a talk show on CNN and was at the time also a regular on The McLaughlin Group. In 1987, Buchanan returned to the show, replacing Novak. In 1989, Braden was replaced by Michael Kinsley, a liberal columnist for Time magazine, and editor of The New Republic.
Later years
In late 1991, Buchanan left the program to pursue the 1992 Republican Party nomination for the presidency, and was replaced by John Sununu in the conservative seat. Buchanan returned in 1993 and alternated with Sununu. In 1995, Buchanan again left the show to pursue an unsuccessful bid for the 1996 Republican nomination for president. Novak returned to the show alternating with Sununu on the right. At about the same time, CNN began a weekend edition of the show, Crossfire Sunday. The initial hosts were Bob Beckel on the left and Tony Snow on the right. After a few months Snow left for the newly formed Fox News Channel, to be replaced by Lynne Cheney.
Kinsley left the show at the end of 1995 and in early 1996, CNN selected two hosts to alternate on the left: Geraldine Ferraro and Bill Press. In 1997, Buchanan again returned to the program, replacing Novak on the right. At the end of the year Ferraro left the program and Press became the full-time representative of the left. A month later Sununu left the show, and Novak returned alternating with Buchanan. In February 1998, Crossfire Sunday was cancelled.
In 1999, Buchanan left the show for the last time and Mary Matalin was his replacement, alternating with Novak on the right. However, the show began to lose its audience, with the increasing popularity of alternatives like Hannity and Colmes on the Fox News Channel and Hardball on MSNBC. In 2001, Matalin left the program to join the White House staff and she was replaced by Tucker Carlson.
In 2002, the length of the program was increased to an hour. The show was presented live from George Washington University in Washington, D.C. and featured a live studio audience. Novak and Carlson retained their slots as alternating hosts on the right. Paul Begala and James Carville replaced Press on the left. The new style did not rate well, and in April 2003, Crossfire was reduced back to just half an hour and moved from prime-time to an afternoon slot.
Jon Stewart's appearance
On October 15, 2004, Jon Stewart, then host of The Daily Show, appeared on the program to promote his book America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction. He used his appearance on the show to raise criticisms of the format of Crossfire and the style of arguments presented on the show. He said the program failed its responsibility to the public discourse and indulged in partisan hackery, reducing news coverage of important issues to a series of talking points from both extremes of the political spectrum: "It's hurting America. Here is what I wanted to tell you guys: Stop. You have a responsibility to the public discourse, and you fail miserably."
Carlson countered Stewart's criticisms by reading examples of questions Stewart had asked of then-presidential candidate John Kerry during his recent interview on The Daily Show, such as, "How are you holding up?" and "Have you ever flip-flopped?" Stewart argued that unlike Carlson and Begala he was a comedian, not a journalist, and therefore it was not his role to conduct hard-hitting interviews. Begala defended the show on the basis that it was intended as a forum for debate, to which Stewart responded that calling Crossfire a debate show was "like saying pro wrestling is a show about athletic competition." During the exchange, Carlson told Stewart, "I do think you're more fun on your show. Just my opinion," to which Stewart replied, "You know what's interesting, though? You're as big a dick on your show as you are on any show."
Following his appearance, transcripts and live stream footage were released on the Internet and widely watched and discussed. At a time when the average number of viewers of the show was about 615,000, the episode drew 867,000 viewers. Stewart later stated "It really was not my intent to be disruptive. I truly thought we'd have a goof about how terrible the program is at the top, and move on, but... the combination of their obstinance and my low blood sugar led to no bueno."
Cancellation
In January 2005, the new president and CEO of CNN Jonathan Klein announced the cancellation of Crossfire. Klein also announced that they would not be renewing Carlson's contract. Carlson claimed it was he who had chosen to leave, to take a job at MSNBC. In the news release containing the announcement, Klein indicated that he wanted to change the tone of shows on the network, and in interviews said he sympathized with Jon Stewart's criticisms of Crossfire. Klein claimed he "wanted to move CNN away from what he called 'head-butting debate shows'." The last episode aired on June 3, 2005 and the Crossfire pundits began appearing on Inside Politics the following Monday before relocating to that show's successor, The Situation Room. However, the GWU Crossfire set remained in use for the CNN weekend program On The Story, which had an audience interaction format.
Revival
A revival of Crossfire was announced on June 26, 2013, for a premiere in late 2013, with panelists Newt Gingrich, S. E. Cupp, Stephanie Cutter, and Van Jones. CNN announced a launch of September 9, at the end of the Congressional recess and probable proposal by the White House to take some action against Syria.
The new version differed from the original version in that the final segment, called "Cease Fire," will offer "an opportunity for hosts to look for common ground at the end of the program." There is also no audience, putting aside the format in the first version's iteration in the last few years to prevent the panelists from "playing for the audience".
Due to CNN's coverage of the Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappearance, Crossfire was placed on "temporary hiatus" on March 11, 2014; an additional half-hour of The Situation Room was aired in its place. Crossfire returned to CNN's lineup on May 1, 2014. Following the Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 incident in mid-July 2014, Crossfire was placed on hiatus again. On October 15, 2014 — the ten-year anniversary of Stewart’s appearance — the show was officially cancelled for the second time.
See also
Crossballs
Firing Line
The McLaughlin Group
References
David Bauder (January 5, 2005). CNN Lets 'Crossfire' Host Carlson Go. Associated Press. Retrieved December 29, 2007 from USA Today.
External links
Transcript of Jon Stewart's Interview from Crossfire on About.com
1982 American television series debuts
2005 American television series endings
2013 American television series debuts
2014 American television series endings
1990s American political television series
2000s American political television series
2010s American political television series
CNN original programming
Current affairs shows
English-language television shows
American television series revived after cancellation
Debate television series | [
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237585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatocellular%20carcinoma | Hepatocellular carcinoma | Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer in adults and is currently the most common cause of death in people with cirrhosis. HCC is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide.
It occurs in the setting of chronic liver inflammation, and is most closely linked to chronic viral hepatitis infection (hepatitis B or C) or exposure to toxins such as alcohol, aflatoxin, or pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Certain diseases, such as hemochromatosis and alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, markedly increase the risk of developing HCC. Metabolic syndrome and NASH are also increasingly recognized as risk factors for HCC.
As with any cancer, the treatment and prognosis of HCC vary depending on the specifics of tumor histology, size, how far the cancer has spread, and overall health.
The vast majority of HCC and lowest survival rate after treatment occurs in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, in countries where hepatitis B infection is endemic and many are infected from birth. The incidence of HCC in the United States and other developing countries is increasing due to an increase in hepatitis C virus infections. It is more than four times as common in males as in females, for unknown reasons.
Signs and symptoms
Most cases of HCC occur in people who already have signs and symptoms of chronic liver disease. They may present either with worsening of symptoms or may be without symptoms at the time of cancer detection. HCC may present with non-specific symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, or feeling tired. Some symptoms that are more associated with liver disease include yellow skin (also called jaundice), abdominal swelling due to fluid in the abdominal cavity, easy bruising from blood clotting abnormalities, loss of appetite, unintentional weight loss, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, or feeling tired.
Risk factors
Because HCC mostly occurs in people with cirrhosis of the liver, risk factors generally include factors which cause chronic liver disease that may lead to cirrhosis. Still, certain risk factors are much more highly associated with HCC than others. For example, while heavy alcohol consumption is estimated to cause 60–70% of cirrhosis, the vast majority of HCC occurs in cirrhosis attributed to viral hepatitis (although there may be overlap). Recognized risk factors include:
Chronic viral hepatitis (estimated cause of 80% cases globally)
Chronic hepatitis B (about 50% cases)
Chronic hepatitis C (about 25% cases)
Toxins:
Alcohol use disorder: the most common cause of cirrhosis
Aflatoxin
Iron overload state (hemochromatosis)
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Metabolic:
Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: up to 20% progress to cirrhosis
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
Type 2 diabetes (probably aided by obesity)
Congenital disorders:
Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency
Wilson's disease (controversial; while some theorise the risk increases, case studies are rare and suggest the opposite where Wilson's disease actually may confer protection)
Hemophilia, although statistically associated with higher risk of HCC, this is due to coincident chronic viral hepatitis infection related to repeated blood transfusions over lifetime.
The significance of these risk factors varies globally. In regions where hepatitis B infection is endemic, such as southeast China, this is the predominant cause. In populations largely protected by hepatitis B vaccination, such as the United States, HCC is most often linked to causes of cirrhosis such as chronic hepatitis C, obesity, and excessive alcohol use.
Certain benign liver tumors, such as hepatocellular adenoma, may sometimes be associated with coexisting malignant HCC. Evidence is limited for the true incidence of malignancy associated with benign adenomas; however, the size of hepatic adenoma is considered to correspond to risk of malignancy and so larger tumors may be surgically removed. Certain subtypes of adenoma, particularly those with β-catenin activation mutation, are particularly associated with increased risk of HCC.
Chronic liver disease is rare in children and adolescents; however, congenital liver disorders are associated with an increased the chance of developing HCC. Specifically, children with biliary atresia, infantile cholestasis, glycogen-storage diseases, and other cirrhotic diseases of the liver are predisposed to developing HCC in childhood.
Young adults afflicted by the rare fibrolamellar variant of hepatocellular carcinoma may have none of the typical risk factors, i.e. cirrhosis and hepatitis.
Diabetes mellitus
The risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in type 2 diabetics is greater (from 2.5 to 7.1 times the nondiabetic risk) depending on the duration of diabetes and treatment protocol. A suspected contributor to this increased risk is circulating insulin concentration such that diabetics with poor insulin control or on treatments that elevate their insulin output (both states that contribute to a higher circulating insulin concentration) show far greater risk of hepatocellular carcinoma than diabetics on treatments that reduce circulating insulin concentration. On this note, some diabetics who engage in tight insulin control (by keeping it from being elevated) show risk levels low enough to be indistinguishable from the general population. This phenomenon is thus not isolated to diabetes mellitus type 2, since poor insulin regulation is also found in other conditions such as metabolic syndrome (specifically, when evidence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or NAFLD is present) and again evidence of greater risk exists here, too. While there are claims that anabolic steroid abusers are at greater risk (theorized to be due to insulin and IGF exacerbation), the only evidence that has been confirmed is that anabolic steroid users are more likely to have the benign hepatocellular adenomas transform into the more dangerous hepatocellular carcinoma.
Pathogenesis
Hepatocellular carcinoma, like any other cancer, develops when epigenetic alterations and mutations affecting the cellular machinery cause the cell to replicate at a higher rate and/or result in the cell avoiding apoptosis.
In particular, chronic infections of hepatitis B and/or C can aid the development of hepatocellular carcinoma by repeatedly causing the body's own immune system to attack the liver cells, some of which are infected by the virus, others merely bystanders. Activated immune-system inflammatory cells release free radicals, such as reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide reactive species, which in turn can cause DNA damage and lead to carcinogenic gene mutations. Reactive oxygen species also cause epigenetic alterations at the sites of DNA repair.
While this constant cycle of damage followed by repair can lead to mistakes during repair, which in turn lead to carcinogenesis, this hypothesis is more applicable, at present, to hepatitis C. Chronic hepatitis C causes HCC through the stage of cirrhosis. In chronic hepatitis B, however, the integration of the viral genome into infected cells can directly induce a noncirrhotic liver to develop HCC. Alternatively, repeated consumption of large amounts of ethanol can have a similar effect. The toxin aflatoxin from certain Aspergillus species of fungi is a carcinogen and aids carcinogenesis of hepatocellular cancer by building up in the liver. The combined high prevalence of rates of aflatoxin and hepatitis B in settings such as China and West Africa has led to relatively high rates of hepatocellular carcinoma in these regions. Other viral hepatitides such as hepatitis A have no potential to become a chronic infection, thus are not related to HCC.
Diagnosis
Methods of diagnosis in HCC have evolved with the improvement in medical imaging. The evaluation of both asymptomatic patients and those with symptoms of liver disease involves blood testing and imaging evaluation. Although historically a biopsy of the tumor was required to prove the diagnosis, imaging (especially MRI) findings may be conclusive enough to obviate histopathologic confirmation.
Screening
HCC remains associated with a high mortality rate, in part related to initial diagnosis commonly at an advanced stage of disease. As with other cancers, outcomes are significantly improved if treatment is initiated earlier in the disease process. Because the vast majority of HCC occurs in people with certain chronic liver diseases, especially those with cirrhosis, liver screening is commonly advocated in this population. Specific screening guidelines continue to evolve over time as evidence of its clinical impact becomes available. In the United States, the most commonly observed guidelines are those published by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, which recommends screening people with cirrhosis with ultrasound every 6 months, with or without measurement of blood levels of tumor marker alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). Elevated levels of AFP are associated with active HCC disease, although inconsistently reliable. At levels >20 sensitivity is 41–65% and specificity is 80–94%. However, at levels >200 sensitivity is 31, specificity is 99%.
On ultrasound, HCC often appears as a small hypoechoic lesion with poorly defined margins and coarse, irregular internal echoes. When the tumor grows, it can sometimes appear heterogeneous with fibrosis, fatty change, and calcifications. This heterogeneity can look similar to cirrhosis and the surrounding liver parenchyma. A systematic review found that the sensitivity was 60% (95% CI 44–76%) and specificity was 97% (95% CI 95–98%) compared with pathologic examination of an explanted or resected liver as the reference standard. The sensitivity increases to 79% with AFP correlation.
Controversy remains as to the most effective screening protocols. For example, while some data support decreased mortality related to screening in people with hepatitis B infection, the AASLD notes. “there are no randomized trials [for screening] in Western populations with cirrhosis secondary to chronic hepatitis C or fatty liver disease, and thus there is some controversy surrounding whether surveillance truly leads to a reduction in mortality in this population of patients with cirrhosis.”
Higher risk people
In a person where a higher suspicion of HCC exists, such as a person with symptoms or abnormal blood tests (i.e. alpha-fetoprotein and des-gamma carboxyprothrombin levels), evaluation requires imaging of the liver by CT or MRI scans. Optimally, these scans are performed with intravenous contrast in multiple phases of hepatic perfusion to improve detection and accurate classification of any liver lesions by the interpreting radiologist. Due to the characteristic blood flow pattern of HCC tumors, a specific perfusion pattern of any detected liver lesion may conclusively detect an HCC tumor. Alternatively, the scan may detect an indeterminate lesion and further evaluation may be performed by obtaining a physical sample of the lesion.
Imaging
Ultrasound, CT scan, and MRI may be used to evaluate the liver for HCC. On CT and MRI, HCC can have three distinct patterns of growth:
A single large tumor
Multiple tumors
Poorly defined tumor with an infiltrative growth pattern
A systematic review of CT diagnosis found that the sensitivity was 68% (95% CI 55–80%) and specificity was 93% (95% CI 89–96%) compared with pathologic examination of an explanted or resected liver as the reference standard. With triple-phase helical CT, the sensitivity was 90% or higher, but these data have not been confirmed with autopsy studies.
However, MRI has the advantage of delivering high-resolution images of the liver without ionizing radiation. HCC appears as a high-intensity pattern on T2-weighted images and a low-intensity pattern on T1-weighted images. The advantage of MRI is that it has improved sensitivity and specificity when compared to ultrasound and CT in cirrhotic patients with whom it can be difficult to differentiate HCC from regenerative nodules. A systematic review found that the sensitivity was 81% (95% CI 70–91%) and specificity was 85% (95% CI 77–93%) compared with pathologic examination of an explanted or resected liver as the reference standard. The sensitivity is further increased if gadolinium contrast-enhanced and diffusion-weighted imaging are combined.
MRI is more sensitive and specific than CT.
Liver image reporting and data system (LI-RADS) is a classification system for the reporting of liver lesions detected on CT and MRI. Radiologists use this standardized system to report on suspicious lesions and to provide an estimated likelihood of malignancy. Categories range from LI-RADS (LR) 1 to 5, in order of concern for cancer. A biopsy is not needed to confirm the diagnosis of HCC if certain imaging criteria are met.
Pathology
Macroscopically, liver cancer appears as a nodular or infiltrative tumor. The nodular type may be solitary (large mass) or multiple (when developed as a complication of cirrhosis). Tumor nodules are round to oval, gray or green (if the tumor produces bile), well circumscribed but not encapsulated. The diffuse type is poorly circumscribed and infiltrates the portal veins, or the hepatic veins (rarely).
Microscopically, the four architectural and cytological types (patterns) of hepatocellular carcinoma are: fibrolamellar, pseudoglandular (adenoid), pleomorphic (giant cell), and clear cell. In well-differentiated forms, tumor cells resemble hepatocytes, form trabeculae, cords, and nests, and may contain bile pigment in the cytoplasm. In poorly differentiated forms, malignant epithelial cells are discohesive, pleomorphic, anaplastic, and giant. The tumor has a scant stroma and central necrosis because of the poor vascularization. A fifth form – lymphoepithelioma like hepatocellular carcinoma – has also been described.
Staging
BCLC Staging System
The prognosis of HCC is affected by the staging of the tumor and the liver's function due to the effects of liver cirrhosis.
A number of staging classifications for HCC are available; however, due to the unique nature of the carcinoma to fully encompass all the features that affect the categorization of the HCC, a classification system should incorporate tumor size and number, presence of vascular invasion and extrahepatic spread, liver function (levels of serum bilirubin and albumin, presence of ascites, and portal hypertension) and general health status of the patient (defined by the ECOG classification and the presence of symptoms).
Of all the staging classification systems available the Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer staging classification encompasses all of the above characteristics. This staging classification can be used to select people for treatment.
Important features that guide treatment include:
size
spread (stage)
involvement of liver vessels
presence of a tumor capsule
presence of extrahepatic metastases
presence of daughter nodules
vascularity of the tumor
MRI is the best imaging method to detect the presence of a tumor capsule.
The most common sites of metastasis are the lung, abdominal lymph nodes, and bone.
Prevention
Since hepatitis B and C are some of the main causes of hepatocellular carcinoma, prevention of infection is key to then prevent HCC. Thus, childhood vaccination against hepatitis B may reduce the risk of liver cancer in the future. In the case of patients with cirrhosis, alcohol consumption is to be avoided. Also, screening for hemochromatosis may be beneficial for some patients.
Whether screening those with chronic liver disease for HCC improves outcomes is unclear.
Treatment
Treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma varies by the stage of disease, a person's likelihood to tolerate surgery, and availability of liver transplant:
Curative intention: for limited disease, when the cancer is limited to one or more areas of within the liver, surgically removing the malignant cells may be curative. This may be accomplished by resection the affected portion of the liver (partial hepatectomy) or in some cases by orthotopic liver transplantation of the entire organ.
"Bridging" intention: for limited disease which qualifies for potential liver transplantation, the person may undergo targeted treatment of some or all of the known tumor while waiting for a donor organ to become available.
"Downstaging" intention: for moderately advanced disease which has not spread beyond the liver, but is too advanced to qualify for curative treatment. The person may be treated by targeted therapies in order to reduce the size or number of active tumors, with the goal of once again qualifying for liver transplant after this treatment.
Palliative intention: for more advanced disease, including spread of cancer beyond the liver or in persons who may not tolerate surgery, treatment intended to decrease symptoms of disease and maximize duration of survival.
Loco-regional therapy (also referred to as liver-directed therapy) refers to any one of several minimally-invasive treatment techniques to focally target HCC within the liver. These procedures are alternatives to surgery, and may be considered in combination with other strategies, such as a later liver transplantation. Generally, these treatment procedures are performed by interventional radiologists or surgeons, in coordination with a medical oncologist. Loco-regional therapy may refer to either percutaneous therapies (e.g. cryoablation), or arterial catheter-based therapies (chemoembolization or radioembolization).
Surgical resection
Surgical removal of the tumor is associated with better cancer prognosis, but only 5–15% of patients are suitable for surgical resection due to the extent of disease or poor liver function. Surgery is only considered if the entire tumor can be safely removed while preserving sufficient functional liver to maintain normal physiology. Thus, preoperative imaging assessment is critical to determine both the extent of HCC and to estimate the amount of residual liver remaining after surgery. To maintain liver function, residual liver volume should exceed 25% of total liver volume in a noncirrhotic liver, greater than 40% in a cirrhotic liver. Surgery on diseased or cirrhotic livers is generally associated with higher morbidity and mortality. The overall recurrence rate after resection is 50–60%. The Singapore Liver Cancer Recurrence score can be used to estimate risk of recurrence after surgery.
Liver transplantation
Liver transplantation, replacing the diseased liver with a cadaveric or a living donor liver, plays an increasing role in treatment of HCC. Although outcomes following liver transplant were initially poor (20%–36% survival rate), outcomes have significantly improved with improvement in surgical techniques and adoption of the Milan criteria at US transplantation centers. Expanded Shanghai criteria in China have resulted in overall survival and disease-free survival rates similar to those achieved using the Milan criteria. Studies from the late 2000s obtained higher survival rates ranging from 67% to 91%.
The risks of liver transplantation extend beyond risk of the procedure itself. The immunosuppressive medication required after surgery to prevent rejection of the donor liver also impairs the body's natural ability to combat dysfunctional cells. If the tumor has spread undetected outside the liver before the transplant, the medication effectively increases the rate of disease progression and decreases survival. With this in mind, liver transplant "can be a curative approach for patients with advanced HCC without extrahepatic metastasis". In fact, among patients with compensated cirrhosis, transplantation is not associated with improved survival compared to hepatectomy, but instead is significantly more expensive. Patient selection is considered a major key for success.
Ablation
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) uses high-frequency radio waves to destroy tumor by local heating. The electrodes are inserted into the liver tumor under ultrasound image guidance using percutaneous, laparoscopic or open surgical approach. It is suitable for small tumors (<5 cm). RFA has the best outcomes in patients with a solitary tumor less than 4 cm. Since it is a local treatment and has minimal effect on normal healthy tissue, it can be repeated multiple times. Survival is better for those with smaller tumors. In one study, In one series of 302 patients, the three-year survival rates for lesions >5 cm, 2.1 to 5 cm, and ≤2 cm were 59, 74, and 91%, respectively. A large randomized trial comparing surgical resection and RFA for small HCC showed similar four-year survival and less morbidities for patients treated with RFA.
Cryoablation is a technique used to destroy tissue using cold temperature. The tumor is not removed and the destroyed cancer is left to be reabsorbed by the body. Initial results in properly selected patients with unresectable liver tumors are equivalent to those of resection. Cryosurgery involves the placement of a stainless steel probe into the center of the tumor. Liquid nitrogen is circulated through the end of this device. The tumor and a half inch margin of normal liver are frozen to −190 °C for 15 minutes, which is lethal to all tissues. The area is thawed for 10 minutes and then refrozen to −190 °C for another 15 minutes. After the tumor has thawed, the probe is removed, bleeding is controlled, and the procedure is complete. The patient spends the first postoperative night in the intensive care unit and typically is discharged in 3–5 days. Proper selection of patients and attention to detail in performing the cryosurgical procedure are mandatory to achieve good results and outcomes. Frequently, cryosurgery is used in conjunction with liver resection, as some of the tumors are removed while others are treated with cryosurgery.
Percutaneous ethanol injection is well tolerated, with high RR in small (<3 cm) solitary tumors; as of 2005, no randomized trial has comparing resection to percutaneous treatments; recurrence rates are similar to those for postresection. However, a comparative study found that local therapy can achieve a 5-year survival rate around 60% for patients with small HCC.
Arterial catheter-based treatment
Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) is performed for unresectable tumors or as a temporary treatment while waiting for liver transplant ("bridge to transplant"). TACE is done by injecting an antineoplastic drug (e.g. cisplatin) mixed with a radio-opaque contrast (e.g. Lipiodol) and an embolic agent (e.g. Gelfoam) into the right or left hepatic artery via the groin artery. The goal of the procedure is to restrict the tumor's vascular supply while supplying a targeted chemotherapeutic agent. TACE has been shown to increase survival and to downstage HCC in patients who exceed the Milan criteria for liver transplant. Patients who undergo the procedure are followed with CT scans and may need additional TACE procedures if the tumor persists. As of 2005, multiple trials show objective tumor responses and slowed tumor progression, but questionable survival benefit compared to supportive care; greatest benefit is seen in people with preserved liver function, absence of vascular invasion, and smallest tumors. TACE is not suitable for big tumors (>8 cm), the presence of portal vein thrombus, tumors with a portal-systemic shunt, and patients with poor liver function.
Selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) can be used to destroy the tumor from within (thus minimizing exposure to healthy tissue). Similar to TACE, this is a procedure in which an interventional radiologist selectively injects the artery or arteries supplying the tumor with a chemotherapeutic agent. The agent is typically Yttrium-90 (Y-90) incorporated into embolic microspheres that lodge in the tumor vasculature, causing ischemia and delivering their radiation dose directly to the lesion. This technique allows for a higher, local dose of radiation to be delivered directly to the tumor while sparing normal healthy tissue. While not curative, patients have increased survival. No studies have been done to compare whether SIRT is superior to TACE in terms of survival outcomes, although retrospective studies suggest similar efficacy. Two products are available, SIR-Spheres and TheraSphere. The latter is an FDA-approved treatment for primary liver cancer (HCC) which has been shown in clinical trials to increase the survival rate of low-risk patients. SIR-Spheres are FDA-approved for the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer, but outside the US, SIR-Spheres are approved for the treatment of any nonresectable liver cancer including primary liver cancer.
External beam therapy
The role of radiotherapy in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma has evolved as technological advancements in treatment delivery and imaging have provided a means for safe and effective radiotherapy delivery in a wide spectrum of HCC patients. In metastatic cases, radiotherapy can be used for palliative care.
Proton therapy for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma was associated with improved survival relative to photon-based radiation therapy which may be driven by decreased incidence of post-treatment liver decompensation and a number of randomized controlled trials are currently ongoing.
Systemic
In disease which has spread beyond the liver, systemic therapy may be a consideration. In 2007, Sorafenib, an oral multikinase inhibitor, was the first systemic agent approved for first-line treatment of advanced HCC. Trials have found modest improvement in overall survival: 10.7 months vs 7.9 months and 6.5 months vs 4.2 months.
The most common side effects of Sorafenib include a hand-foot skin reaction and diarrhea. Sorafenib is thought to work by blocking growth of both tumor cells and new blood vessels. Numerous other molecular targeted drugs are being tested as alternative first- and second-line treatments for advanced HCC.
Other
Portal vein embolization (PVE): This technique is sometimes used to increase the volume of healthy liver, in order to improve chances of survival following surgical removal of diseased liver. For example, embolization of the right main portal vein would result in compensatory hypertrophy of the left lobe, which may qualify the patient for a partial hepatectomy. Embolization is performed by an interventional radiologist using a percutaneous transhepatic approach. This procedure can also serve as a bridge to transplant.
High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) (as opposed to diagnostic ultrasound) is an experimental technique which uses high-powered ultrasound waves to destroy tumor tissue.
A systematic review assessed 12 articles involving a total of 318 patients with hepatocellular carcinoma treated with Yttrium-90 radioembolization. Excluding a study of only one patient, post-treatment CT evaluation of the tumor showed a response ranging from 29 to 100% of patients evaluated, with all but two studies showing a response of 71% or greater.
Prognosis
The usual outcome is poor because only 10–20% of hepatocellular carcinomas can be removed completely using surgery. If the cancer cannot be completely removed, the disease is usually deadly within 3 to 6 months. This is partially due to late presentation with tumors, but also the lack of medical expertise and facilities in the regions with high HCC prevalence. However, survival can vary, and occasionally people survive much longer than 6 months. The prognosis for metastatic or unresectable HCC has improved due to the approval of Sorafenib (Nexavar®) for advanced HCC.
Epidemiology
HCC is one of the most common tumors worldwide. The epidemiology of HCC exhibits two main patterns, one in North America and Western Europe and another in non-Western countries, such as those in sub-Saharan Africa, Central and Southeast Asia, and the Amazon basin. Males are affected more than females usually, and it is most common between the ages of 30 and 50, Hepatocellular carcinoma causes 662,000 deaths worldwide per year about half of them in China.
Africa and Asia
In some parts of the world, such as sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, HCC is the most common cancer, generally affecting men more than women, and with an age of onset between the late teens and 30s. This variability is in part due to the different patterns of hepatitis B and hepatitis C transmission in different populations – infection at or around birth predispose to earlier cancers than if people are infected later. The time between hepatitis B infection and development into HCC can be years, even decades, but from diagnosis of HCC to death, the average survival period is only 5.9 months according to one Chinese study during the 1970-80s, or 3 months (median survival time) in sub-Saharan Africa according to Manson's textbook of tropical diseases. HCC is one of the deadliest cancers in China, where chronic hepatitis B is found in 90% of cases. In Japan, chronic hepatitis C is associated with 90% of HCC cases. Foods infected with Aspergillus flavus (especially peanuts and corns stored during prolonged wet seasons) which produces aflatoxins pose another risk factor for HCC.
North America and Western Europe
The most common malignant tumors in the liver represent metastases (spread) from tumors which originate elsewhere in the body. Among cancers that originate from liver tissue, HCC is the most common primary liver cancer. In the United States, the US surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database program, shows that HCC accounts for 65% of all cases of liver cancers. As screening programs are in place for high-risk persons with chronic liver disease, HCC is often discovered much earlier in Western countries than in developing regions such as sub-Saharan Africa.
Acute and chronic hepatic porphyrias (acute intermittent porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, hereditary coproporphyria, variegate porphyria) and tyrosinemia type I are risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma. The diagnosis of an acute hepatic porphyria (AIP, HCP, VP) should be sought in patients with HCC without typical risk factors of hepatitis B or C, alcoholic liver cirrhosis, or hemochromatosis. Both active and latent genetic carriers of acute hepatic porphyrias
are at risk for this cancer, although latent genetic carriers have developed the cancer at a later age than those with classic symptoms. Patients with acute hepatic porphyrias should be monitored for HCC.
The incidence of HCC is relatively lower in the Western Hemisphere than in Eastern Asia. However, despite the statistics being low, the diagnosis of HCC has increased since the 1980s and it is continuing to increase, making it one of the rising causes of death due to cancer. The common risk factor for HCC is hepatitis C, along with other health issues.
Research
Preclinical
Mipsagargin (G-202), has orphan drug designation as a treatment during chemotherapy for HCC. It is a thapsigargin-based prodrug with cytotoxic activity used to reduce blood flow to the tumor during treatment. Results from Phase 2 trial recommended G-202 as a first-in-class PSMA-targeted prodrug and that it move to clinical trials.
Current research includes the search for the genes that are disregulated in HCC, antiheparanase antibodies, protein markers, non-coding RNAs (such as TUC338) and other predictive biomarkers. As similar research is yielding results in various other malignant diseases, it is hoped that identifying the aberrant genes and the resultant proteins could lead to the identification of pharmacological interventions for HCC.
The development of three-dimensional culture methods provides a new approach for preclinical studies of cancer therapy using patient-derived organoids. These miniaturized organoid 'avatars' of a patient's tumor recapitulate several features of the original tumor, rendering them an attractive model for drug-sensitivity testing and precision medicine for HCC and other types of primary liver cancer.
Furthermore, HCC occurs in patients with liver disease. A biomarker named six-miRNA signature allows effective treatment of patients with HCC and is able to predict its recurrence in the liver.
Clinical
JX-594, an oncolytic virus, has orphan drug designation for this condition and is undergoing clinical trials. Hepcortespenlisimut-L (Hepko-V5), an oral cancer vaccine, also has US FDA orphan drug designation for HCC. Immunitor Inc. completed a Phase II trial, published in 2017.A randomized trial of people with advanced HCC showed no benefit for the combination of everolimus and pasireotide.
See also
Hemihypertrophy
Oncovirus
Portal hypertension
References
Further reading
Liu, Chi-leung, M.D., "Hepatic Resection for Hepatocellular Carcinoma", The Hong Kong Medical Diary, Vol.10 No.12, December 2005 Medical Bulletin
External links
NCI Liver Cancer Homepage
Digestive system neoplasia
Hepatology
Infectious causes of cancer
Hepatitis C virus-associated diseases | [
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237586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen%20Rowell | Galen Rowell | Galen Avery Rowell (August 23, 1940 – August 11, 2002) was a wilderness photographer, adventure photojournalist and mountaineer. Born in Oakland, California, he became a full-time photographer in 1972.
Early life and education
Rowell was introduced to the wilderness at a very young age and began climbing mountains at the age of ten. For the next 52 years, he climbed mountains and explored landscapes. He began taking pictures on excursions into the wild so he could share his experiences with friends and family. After graduating from Berkeley High School in 1958, he stayed in Berkeley to study physics at the University of California but dropped out after four years to pursue his love of climbing. He was never formally trained as a photographer.
“Galen Rowell was a man who went into the mountains, into the desert, to the edge of the sea, to the last great wild places in the world to be absorbed by their grace and grandeur. That is what he did for himself. For the rest of us, he shared his vision with—click—the release of a shutter, creating photographs as timeless, as stunning, and as powerful as nature itself.”
–Tom Brokaw, from the foreword of
Galen Rowell: A Retrospective
Career
In 1972 Rowell sold his small automotive business and became a full-time photographer. Within a year, he had completed his first major assignment, a cover story for National Geographic. The story originated from an invitation by fellow photographer Dewitt Jones to help him on an assignment, when Jones was called away and Rowell suggested an ascent of Yosemite National Park's Half Dome that he documented by himself. When National Geographic received the pictures, they decided to do a story separate from Jones's, thus Rowell got his start. He pioneered a new kind of photography in which he was not merely an observer, but considered himself a participant in the scenes that he photographed – he considered the landscape part of the adventure, and the adventure part of the landscape.
Rowell won the Ansel Adams Award for Conservation Photography in 1984. He had numerous photographic assignments for Life, National Geographic, Outdoor Photographer, and various other publications. Rowell was also a highly regarded writer on subjects ranging from photography, humanitarian and environmental issues, human visual cognition, and mountaineering, publishing numerous magazine articles and eighteen books in his lifetime. His In the Throne Room of the Mountain Gods about the history of mountaineering on K2 (1977) is considered a classic of mountaineering literature, and his 1986 book Mountain Light: In Search of the Dynamic Landscape is one of the best selling how-to photo books. As an energetic advocate for the causes in which he believed, Rowell served on multiple advisory and directors' boards for organizations ranging from the Committee of 100 for Tibet to the World Wildlife Fund.
Rowell was particularly keen on seeking out and photographing optical phenomena in the natural world. He referred to his landscape photographs as "dynamic landscapes," due to both the fast-changing nature of light and conditions and his energetic pursuit of the best camera position at the optimal moment. Rowell wrote about the quest for such images in Mountain Light, and also Galen Rowell's Vision (1993) and Inner Game of Outdoor Photography (2001).
A retrospective book on his life, career, and impact on the various worlds he touched was published by Sierra Club Books.
Photography techniques and equipment
From 1968, he used 35mm Nikon cameras and lenses almost exclusively for their reliability and portability. His primary medium was color slide film, beginning with Kodachrome in the 1970s and 1980s and Fuji Velvia following its introduction in 1990.
Rowell conceived a technical approach of extending the dynamic range captured on film. He developed a set of graduated neutral density filters produced by filter manufacturer Singh-Ray. They were sold under his name and became a standard for dealing with high contrast scenes.
Galen Rowell mastered the technique of using balanced fill flash, allowing him to subtly lighten the deepest shadows to match the relatively narrow dynamic range of color reversal film.
Death
Rowell, his wife – photographer, author and pilot Barbara Cushman Rowell – pilot Tom Reid, and Reid's friend Carol McAffee were all killed in a plane crash in Inyo County near Eastern Sierra Regional Airport in Bishop, California, at 01:23 am on August 11, 2002. The Rowells were returning from a photography workshop in the Bering Sea area of Alaska on a flight that had originated in Oakland, California. The National Transportation Safety Board determined (NTSB report LAX02FA251) that Reid had only 52 hours in the Aero Commander 690 and only 1.6 hours at night. He was not currently certified for carrying passengers at night at the time of the accident. The aircraft crashed during the turn from base to final for runway 30, within a quarter mile of the runway threshold.
Mountaineering achievements
More than 100 first ascents of technical climbs in the Sierra Nevada
First one-day ascent of Denali (during which his camera froze)
First ski circumnavigation of Denali
First one-day ascent of Kilimanjaro
First ascent of Great Trango Tower in Pakistan's Karakoram Himalaya
Second ascent of the Amne Machin peak in 1981 with Harold Knutsen and Kim Schmitz, reporting its true altitude at 20,610 feet.
First ascent of Cholatse, the final major peak climbed in the Everest region
First ascents of numerous lesser-known but challenging peaks around the world, including the Andes, Alaska, Pakistan's Karakoram Himalaya, Tibet, Nepal, China, Greenland, etc.
Oldest person to climb Yosemite's El Capitan in one day at age 57
Awards
Rowell was the winner of the Sierra Club's Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award for 1977.
In 1984, the Sierra Club honored Rowell with the Ansel Adams Award for Conservation Photography. https://www.sierraclub.org/library/collections/fine-art/ansel-adams-award
Rowell was posthumously inducted in the fellowship of the International League of Conservation Photographers as an Honorary Fellow in 2009.
See also
Nature photography
Wildlife photography
References
External links
Galen Rowell's Sierra Nevada – slideshow by Life magazine
Mountain Light Photography
Galen Rowell's Books
The Rowell Award
Galen A. Rowell, On and Around Anyemaqen
50 for Tibet
The Rowell Fund for Tibet
Retrospective Show from the Royal Alberta Museum
1940 births
2002 deaths
Accidental deaths in California
Nature photographers
American mountain climbers
20th-century American photographers
Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California) alumni
Artists from Oakland, California
Artists from Berkeley, California
People from Inyo County, California
Sierra Club awardees
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 2002 | [
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237587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissipative%20system | Dissipative system | A dissipative system is a thermodynamically open system which is operating out of, and often far from, thermodynamic equilibrium in an environment with which it exchanges energy and matter. A tornado may be thought of as a dissipative system. Dissipative systems stand in contrast to conservative systems.
A dissipative structure is a dissipative system that has a dynamical regime that is in some sense in a reproducible steady state. This reproducible steady state may be reached by natural evolution of the system, by artifice, or by a combination of these two.
Overview
A dissipative structure is characterized by the spontaneous appearance of symmetry breaking (anisotropy) and the formation of complex, sometimes chaotic, structures where interacting particles exhibit long range correlations. Examples in everyday life include convection, turbulent flow, cyclones, hurricanes and living organisms. Less common examples include lasers, Bénard cells, droplet cluster, and the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction.
One way of mathematically modeling a dissipative system is given in the article on wandering sets: it involves the action of a group on a measurable set.
Dissipative systems can also be used as a tool to study economic systems and complex systems. For example, a dissipative system involving self-assembly of nanowires has been used as a model to understand the relationship between entropy generation and the robustness of biological systems.
The Hopf decomposition states that dynamical systems can be decomposed into a conservative and a dissipative part; more precisely, it states that every measure space with a non-singular transformation can be decomposed into an invariant conservative set and an invariant dissipative set.
Dissipative structures in thermodynamics
Russian-Belgian physical chemist Ilya Prigogine, who coined the term dissipative structure, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977 for his pioneering work on these structures, which have dynamical regimes that can be regarded as thermodynamic steady states, and sometimes at least can be described by suitable extremal principles in non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
In his Nobel lecture, Prigogine explains how thermodynamic systems far from equilibrium can have drastically different behavior from systems close to equilibrium. Near equilibrium, the local equilibrium hypothesis applies and typical thermodynamic quantities such as free energy and entropy can be defined locally. One can assume linear relations between the (generalized) flux and forces of the system. Two celebrated results from linear thermodynamics are the Onsager reciprocal relations and the principle of minimum entropy production. After efforts to extend such results to systems far from equilibrium, it was found that they do not hold in this regime and opposite results were obtained.
One way to rigorously analyze such systems is by studying the stability of the system far from equilibrium. Close to equilibrium, one can show the existence of a Lyapunov function which ensures that the entropy tends to a stable maximum. Fluctuations are damped in the neighborhood of the fixed point and a macroscopic description suffices. However, far from equilibrium stability is no longer a universal property and can be broken. In chemical systems, this occurs with the presence of autocatalytic reactions, such as in the example of the Brusselator. If the system is driven beyond a certain threshold, oscillations are no longer damped out, but may be amplified. Mathematically, this corresponds to a Hopf bifurcation where increasing one of the parameters beyond a certain value leads to limit cycle behavior. If spatial effects are taken into account through a reaction–diffusion equation, long-range correlations and spatially ordered patterns arise, such as in the case of the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction. Systems with such dynamic states of matter that arise as the result of irreversible processes are dissipative structures.
Recent research has seen reconsideration of Prigogine's ideas of dissipative structures in relation to biological systems.
Dissipative systems in control theory
Willems first introduced the concept of dissipativity in systems theory to describe dynamical systems by input-output properties. Considering a dynamical system described by its state , its input and its output , the input-output correlation is given a supply rate . A system is said to be dissipative with respect to a supply rate if there exists a continuously differentiable storage function such that , and
.
As a special case of dissipativity, a system is said to be passive if the above dissipativity inequality holds with respect to the passivity supply rate .
The physical interpretation is that is the energy stored in the system, whereas is the energy that is supplied to the system.
This notion has a strong connection with Lyapunov stability, where the storage functions may play, under certain conditions of controllability and observability of the dynamical system, the role of Lyapunov functions.
Roughly speaking, dissipativity theory is useful for the design of feedback control laws for linear and nonlinear systems. Dissipative systems theory has been discussed by V.M. Popov, J.C. Willems, D.J. Hill, and P. Moylan. In the case of linear invariant systems, this is known as positive real transfer functions, and a fundamental tool is the so-called Kalman–Yakubovich–Popov lemma which relates the state space and the frequency domain properties of positive real systems. Dissipative systems are still an active field of research in systems and control, due to their important applications.
Quantum dissipative systems
As quantum mechanics, and any classical dynamical system, relies heavily on Hamiltonian mechanics for which time is reversible, these approximations are not intrinsically able to describe dissipative systems. It has been proposed that in principle, one can couple weakly the system – say, an oscillator – to a bath, i.e., an assembly of many oscillators in thermal equilibrium with a broad band spectrum, and trace (average) over the bath. This yields a master equation which is a special case of a more general setting called the Lindblad equation that is the quantum equivalent of the classical Liouville equation. The well-known form of this equation and its quantum counterpart takes time as a reversible variable over which to integrate, but the very foundations of dissipative structures imposes an irreversible and constructive role for time.
Recent research has seen the quantum extension of Jeremy England's theory of dissipative adaptation (which generalizes Prigogine's ideas of dissipative structures to far-from-equilibrium statistical mechanics, as stated above).
Applications on dissipative systems of dissipative structure concept
The framework of dissipative structures as a mechanism to understand the behavior of systems in constant interexchange of energy has been successfully applied on different science fields and applications, as in optics, population dynamics and growth and chemomechanical structures
See also
Conservation equation
Complex system
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Extremal principles in non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Autowave
Self-organization
Information metabolism
Autocatalytic reactions and order creation
Dynamical system
Autopoiesis
Relational order theories
Loschmidt's paradox
Viable system theory
Notes
References
B. Brogliato, R. Lozano, B. Maschke, O. Egeland, Dissipative Systems Analysis and Control. Theory and Applications. Springer Verlag, London, 2nd Ed., 2007.
Davies, Paul The Cosmic Blueprint Simon & Schuster, New York 1989 (abridged— 1500 words) (abstract— 170 words) — self-organized structures.
Philipson, Schuster, Modeling by Nonlinear Differential Equations: Dissipative and Conservative Processes, World Scientific Publishing Company 2009.
Prigogine, Ilya, Time, structure and fluctuations. Nobel Lecture, 8 December 1977.
J.C. Willems. Dissipative dynamical systems, part I: General theory; part II: Linear systems with quadratic supply rates. Archive for Rationale mechanics Analysis, vol.45, pp. 321–393, 1972.
External links
The dissipative systems model The Australian National University
Thermodynamic systems
Systems theory
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics | [
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237601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yip%20Harburg | Yip Harburg | Edgar Yipsel Harburg (born Isidore Hochberg; April 8, 1896 – March 5, 1981) was an American popular song lyricist and librettist who worked with many well-known composers. He wrote the lyrics to the standards "Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?" (with Jay Gorney), "April in Paris", and "It's Only a Paper Moon", as well as all of the songs for the film The Wizard of Oz, including "Over the Rainbow". He was known for the social commentary of his lyrics, as well as his liberal sensibilities. He championed racial and gender equality and union politics. He also was an ardent critic of religion.
Early life and career
Harburg, the youngest of four surviving children (out of ten), was born Isidore Hochberg on the Lower East Side of New York City on April 8, 1896. His parents, Lewis Hochberg and Mary Ricing, were Yiddish-speaking Orthodox Jews who had emigrated from Russia.
He later adopted the name Edgar Harburg, and came to be best known as Edgar "Yip" Harburg. He attended Townsend Harris High School, where he and Ira Gershwin, who bonded over a shared fondness for Gilbert and Sullivan, worked on the school paper and became lifelong friends. According to his son Ernie Harburg, Gilbert and Irish dramatist George Bernard Shaw taught his father, a "democratic socialist, [and] sworn challenger of all tyranny against the people, that 'humor is an act of courage' and dissent".
After World War I, Harburg returned to New York and graduated from City College (later part of the City University of New York), which Ira Gershwin had initially attended with him, in 1921. After Harburg married and had two children, he started writing light verse for local newspapers. He became a co-owner of Consolidated Electrical Appliance Company, but the company went bankrupt following the crash of 1929, leaving Harburg "anywhere from $50,000 – $70,000 in debt," which he insisted on paying back over the course of the next few decades. At this point, Harburg and Ira Gershwin agreed that Harburg should start writing song lyrics.
Gershwin introduced Harburg to Jay Gorney, who collaborated with him on songs for an Earl Carroll Broadway review (Earl Carroll's Sketchbook): the show was successful and Harburg was engaged as lyricist for a series of successful revues, including Americana in 1932, for which he wrote the lyrics of "Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?" to the tune of a lullaby Gorney had learned as a child in Russia. This song swept the nation, becoming an anthem of the Great Depression.
Harburg was a staunch critic of religion. He wrote a poem entitled "Atheist" that summarized his views on God.
Hollywood and Broadway
Harburg and Gorney were offered a contract with Paramount: in Hollywood, Harburg worked with composers Harold Arlen, Vernon Duke, Jerome Kern, Jule Styne, and Burton Lane, and later wrote the lyrics for The Wizard of Oz, one of the earliest known "integrated musicals," for which he won the Academy Award for Best Music, Original Song for "Over the Rainbow."
Of his work on The Wizard of Oz, his son (and biographer) Ernie Harburg has said:
Working in Hollywood did not stop Harburg's career on Broadway. In the 1940s, he wrote a series of "book" musicals with social messages, including the successful Bloomer Girl (1944), set during the Civil War, which was about temperance and women's rights activist Amelia Bloomer, and which celebrated equality for women, Abolitionism, and the Underground Railroad. Harburg's best known Broadway show, Finian's Rainbow (1947) was, in its original production, possibly the first Broadway musical with a racially integrated chorus line, and features his "When the Idle Poor Become the Idle Rich." Its plot satirized American financial practices and criticized reactionist politicians, mistreatment of the working classes as well as racism and the Jim Crow laws. It was made into a film in 1968 starring Fred Astaire and Petula Clark, directed by Francis Ford Coppola.
Blacklisting
Although never a member of the Communist Party (he was a member of the Socialist Party, and joked that "Yip" referred to the Young People's Socialist League, nicknamed the "Yipsels") he had been involved in radical groups, and he was blacklisted.
Harburg was named in a pamphlet Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television; his involvement with the Hollywood Democratic Committee, and his refusal to identify reputed communists, led to him being blocked from working in Hollywood films, television, and radio for twelve full years, from 1950 to 1962. "As the writer of the lyric of the song 'God's Country', I am outraged by the suggestion that somehow I am connected with, believe in, or am sympathetic with Communist or totalitarian philosophy", he wrote to the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1950. He was unable to travel abroad during this period, as his passport had been revoked. With a score by Sammy Fain and Harburg's lyrics, the musical Flahooley (1951) satirized the country's anti-communist sentiment, but it closed after forty performances at the Broadhurst Theatre on Broadway. The New York critics were dismissive of the show, although it had been a success during its earlier pre-Broadway run in Philadelphia.
Later career
In 1966, songwriter Earl Robinson sought Harburg's help for the song "Hurry Sundown"; the two collaborated on the song and are credited as co-writers. The song was intended for the film Hurry Sundown, but was not used in the film. It was, however, recorded by Peter, Paul and Mary for their 1966 album The Peter, Paul and Mary Album. The song was released as a single in 1967, and reached No. 37 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart. It was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Folk Recording.
Death
Harburg died while driving on Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles, California, on March 5, 1981. While he was initially reported to have been killed in a traffic accident, it was later determined that he suffered a heart attack while stopped at a red light.
Awards and recognition
In 1940 Harburg won an Oscar, shared with Harold Arlen, for Best Music, Original Song
for The Wizard of Oz (1939). In addition, he was nominated for an Oscar for Best Music, Original Song, along with Arlen,
for Cabin in the Sky, (1943) and Best Music, Original Song
for Can't Help Singing, shared with Jerome Kern in (1944).
Harburg was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1972.
On March 7, 2001, the results of a poll conducted by the Recording Industry Association of America and the National Endowment for the Humanities ranked Judy Garland's rendition of "Over the Rainbow" as the Number One recording of the 20th century.
On June 22, 2004, the American Film Institute broadcast AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Songs, a TV special announcing the 100 greatest film songs. "Over the Rainbow" was Number One, and "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" was Number 82.
In April 2005, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp recognizing Harburg's accomplishments. The stamp was drawn from a portrait taken by photographer Barbara Bordnick in 1978 along with a rainbow and lyric from "Over the Rainbow". The first day ceremony was held at the 92nd Street Y in New York.
Songs
"Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?" with composer Jay Gorney (1932)
"Riddle Me This" with composer Lewis Gensler (from the revue, "Ballyhoo of 1932", 1932)
"How Do You Do It? with composer Lewis Gensler (as above, 1932)
"April in Paris" with Vernon Duke (1932)
"It's Only a Paper Moon" with Harold Arlen (1933)
"Then I'll Be Tired of You" with Arthur Schwartz (1934)
"Last Night When We Were Young" with composer Harold Arlen (1935)
"Down with Love" with Harold Arlen (1937)
"Over the Rainbow" with Harold Arlen (1939)
"We're Off to See the Wizard" with Harold Arlen (1939)
"Lydia the Tattooed Lady" with Harold Arlen (1939)
"Happiness Is a Thing Called Joe" with Harold Arlen (1943)
"Salome" with Roger Edens (1943) (for the movie Du Barry Was a Lady)
"The Eagle and Me" with Harold Arlen (1944)
"How Are Things in Glocca Morra?" with Burton Lane (1946)
"Old Devil Moon" with Burton Lane (1947)
"When the Idle Poor Become the Idle Rich" with Burton Lane (1947)
"Free and Equal Blues" performed by Josh White
"And Russia Was Her Name" with Jerome Kern (1943)
Broadway revues
Earl Carroll's Sketchbook of 1929 (1929) - co-composer and co-lyricist with Jay Gorney
Garrick Gaieties (1930) - contributing lyricist
Earl Carroll's Vanities of 1930 (1930) - contributing songwriter
The Vanderbilt Revue (1930) - contributing lyricist
Ziegfeld Follies of 1931 (1931) - featured lyricist for "Mailu"
Shoot the Works (1931) - contributing composer and lyricist
Ballyhoo of 1932 (1932) - lyricist
Americana (1932) - lyricist. The Revue include "Brother Can You Spare a Dime?"
Walk A Little Faster (1932) - lyricist
Ziegfeld Follies of 1934 (1934) - primary lyricist (for about half of the numbers)
Life Begins at 8:40 (1934) - co-lyricist with Ira Gershwin
The Show is On (1936) - featured lyricist
Blue Holiday (1945) - all-Black cast - contributing composer and lyricist
At Home With Ethel Waters (1953) - featured lyricist for "Happiness is a Thing Called Joe"
Post-retirement or posthumous credits:
A Day in Hollywood / A Night in the Ukraine (1980) - featured lyricist for Over the Rainbow
Jerome Kern Goes to Hollywood (1986) - featured lyricist to music by Jerome Kern
Mostly Sondheim (2002) - featured lyricist
Broadway musicals
Hooray for What! (1937) - lyricist and originator
Hold On to Your Hats (1940) - lyricist
Bloomer Girl (1944) - lyricist, originator and director for musical numbers
Finian's Rainbow (1947) - lyricist, originator and co-bookwriter
Revived in 1955, 1960, 2009
Flahooley (1951) - lyricist, originator and co-bookwriter
Jamaica (1957) - lyricist, originator and co-bookwriter - Tony Nomination for Best Musical
The Happiest Girl in the World (1961) - originator and lyricist to music by Jacques Offenbach and originator of the story, based on Lysistrata by Aristophanes
Darling of the Day (1968) - lyricist
Films
Moonlight and Pretzels (1933)
The Singing Kid (1936)
Gold Diggers of 1937 (1936)
The Wizard of Oz (1939)
At the Circus (1939)
Babes on Broadway (1941)
Ship Ahoy (1942)
Cabin in the Sky (1943) (Harburg's song "Aint It The Truth", expressing religious skepticism, was removed)
Can't Help Singing (1944)
Gay Purr-ee (1962)
Finian's Rainbow (1968)
Books
Rhymes for the Irreverent (1965)
At This Point in Rhyme (1976)
References
Further reading
Meyerson, Harold and Ernie Harburg. Who Put the Rainbow in the Wizard of Oz: Yip Harburg, Lyricist, University of Michigan Press, (1993).
Alonso, Harriet. "Yip Harburg: Legendary Lyricist and Human Rights Activist," Wesleyan University Press (2012).
External links
The Yip Harburg Foundation website
Biography of Harburg from USPS
"A Tribute to Yip Harburg: The Man Who Put the Rainbow in The Wizard of Oz", a Democracy Now! special, including audio/video clips of Yip Harburg, and an extended interview with his son and biographer, Ernie Harburg (video, audio, and print transcript)
E. Y. Harburg papers (first installment) and E. Y. Harburg papers (second installment) held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
E. Y. Harburg scores (his personal collection), held in the Music Division of the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
Celebrated Lyricist Yip Harburg's Rhymes For The Irreverent Released February 2, 2006, article on The Freedom From Religion Foundation's website
April 29, 2006 - Somewhere Over the Rainbow . . . Rhymes for the Irreverent Freedom From Religion Foundation's Podcast
Over The Rainbow With Yip Harburg (BBC Radio 4 programme)
The Man Who Put the Rainbow in The Wizard of Oz by Amy Goodman
1920 passport photo of Yip Harburg(courtesy of the puzzlemaster, flickr.com)
Yip Harburg - Over The Rainbow
Yip Harburg - Brother, Can You Spare A Dime?
E. Y. Harburg recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1896 births
1981 deaths
American musical theatre lyricists
Broadway composers and lyricists
Jewish American songwriters
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
20th-century American musicians
Jewish American writers
Hollywood blacklist
American socialists
Jewish socialists
Jewish American atheists
City College of New York alumni
Townsend Harris High School alumni
People from the Lower East Side
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Accidental deaths in California
Road incident deaths in California
Burials at sea | [
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237605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalitta%20Air | Kalitta Air | Kalitta Air is an American cargo airline headquartered at Willow Run Airport, Ypsilanti Township, Michigan. The company operates international scheduled and cargo charter services. Its call sign "Connie" is from its founder Connie Kalitta.
History
In 1967, Conrad "Connie" Kalitta started the airline as Connie Kalitta Services, a business carrying car parts using a twin engine Cessna 310 that he piloted. The airline's name would later become American International Airways in 1984. At this point, the fleet consisted of Boeing 747, Lockheed L-1011, Douglas DC-8, Twin Beech, and Learjet aircraft, for air freight, air ambulance, and charter passenger operations.
During the late 1980s, the Kalitta brand name continued to appear on many of the company's cargo aircraft. In 1990 and 1991, AIA flew 600 missions in support of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.
In 1997, AIA merged with Kitty Hawk Inc., and Conrad Kalitta resigned to start Kalitta Leasing for buying, selling, and leasing large aircraft. In April 2000, Kitty Hawk International (the former AIA) ceased operations. Kalitta decided to rescue it and the new airline, Kalitta Air, began operations in November 2000, using the operating certificate and assets of the former airline.
On April 21, 2017, Kalitta Air retired its final Boeing 747-200F from service. This was one of the relatively few then remaining in service. Twenty-six other Boeing 747 aircraft are still active in Kalitta's fleet.
Kalitta Maintenance operates a maintenance, repair, and overhaul facility at Oscoda–Wurtsmith Airport in Iosco County, Michigan.
American International Airways
The American International Airways name was also used by a charter and scheduled passenger airline which in 1981 was operating a hub located at the Philadelphia International Airport with nonstop service to Atlantic City, Boston, Chicago Midway, Cleveland, Detroit, Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Norfolk, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Tampa, and West Palm Beach flown with McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 and MD-80 jets. The airline declared bankruptcy on July 19, 1984, and ceased operations in September.
Destinations
The airline provides domestic and international scheduled or on-demand cargo service and support for the requirements of the Department of Defense Air Mobility Command.
In January 2003, Kalitta Air announced the start of scheduled cargo flights from the United States to Europe. The freighters on this service operated from JFK (John F. Kennedy Airport, New York, USA) EWR (Newark Liberty International Airport, New Jersey, USA) and ORD (O’Hare, Chicago, USA) to AMS (Schiphol, Amsterdam, the Netherlands) and EMA (East Midlands Airport, England). The airline flies scheduled cargo operations between the U.S. and Hong Kong, U.S. and Germany (Leipzig/Halle Airport), U.S. and Korea (for Asiana), Los Angeles and Honolulu. Liège Airport was also used as a regular refueling stop on New York City – Middle East routes and in the Caribbean, Norman Manley International Airport.
As of February 2020, Kalitta Air serves the following destinations with cargo flights on a regular, scheduled basis:
Fleet
Current fleet
The Kalitta Air fleet consists of the following aircraft (as of December 2020):
Historical fleet
Boeing 727-100F
Boeing 727-200F
Boeing 747-100
Boeing 747-100F
Boeing 747-200F
Boeing 747-400
Douglas DC-8-50F
Douglas DC-8-61F
Douglas DC-8-62F
Douglas DC-8-63F
Douglas DC-9-10F
Lockheed L-1011-200 TriStar
Lockheed L-1011-200F TriStar
Incidents and accidents
On August 18, 1993, American International Airways Flight 808, a Douglas DC-8-61 (N814CK) with three crew members on board struck level terrain 1,400 feet west of the approach end of the runway while landing at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The aircraft approached from the south and was making a right turn for runway 10 with an increasing angle of bank in order to align with the runway. At 200–300 feet AGL the wings started to rock towards wings level and the nose pitched up. The right wing appeared to stall, the aircraft rolled to a 90-degree angle of bank and the nose pitched down. All three crew members survived with serious injuries, though the aircraft was completely destroyed by the impact and post-crash fire. Probable cause of the accident was attributed primarily to the impaired judgment, decision-making, and flying abilities of the captain and flight crew due to the effects of fatigue resulting from extended flight/duty hours. This accident was also featured in the 19th season of Mayday/Air Crash Investigation in the episode titled "Borderline Tactics".
On October 20, 2004, a Kalitta Air Boeing 747 (N709CK) with five crew members on board experienced mechanical difficulties with one of the four engines and diverted to land safely at Detroit Metropolitan Airport. No one was injured. It was discovered after landing that the number 1 engine had separated from the airplane as it climbed through 16,000 feet over Lake Michigan. The engine was later recovered for inspection.
During the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict (2nd Lebanon war) Kalitta Air made weapon supply flights from the United States to Israel, via Prestwick Airport in Scotland for refueling, without authority from the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. Scotland's Crown Office considered, but eventually decided against, prosecuting Kalitta Air for two July 2006 flights carrying laser-guided bombs.
On May 25, 2008, a Boeing 747-209F/SCD (N704CK), operating as Flight 207 overran runway 20 at Brussels Airport. The aircraft broke in three and came to a complete stop in a field bordering the runway. There were four crew members and one passenger on board, and no injuries were reported. The aircraft destined for Bahrain International Airport was loaded with 76 tons of goods, half of which was diplomatic mail. Belgian investigators announced that the accident was caused by the decision to reject the take-off 12 knots after passing V1 speed following a bird strike. The Air Accident Investigation Unit (AAIU) of the Federal Public Service Mobility and Transport had investigated the accident.
On July 7, 2008, a Boeing 747-209B (N714CK), operating for Centurion Air Cargo as Flight 164 crashed shortly after departing from El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá at 3:55 a.m. The aircraft was en route to Miami, Florida, with a shipment of flowers. After reporting a fire in the number 4 engine, the crew attempted the return to the airport. However, after engine number 1 failed as well, the aircraft could not maintain altitude and crashed near the village of Madrid, Colombia. The aircraft's empennage hit a ranch house, killing a 50-year-old man and his 13-year-old son who lived there. The flight deck separated from the remainder of the aircraft, and the crew of eight survived with light to serious injuries while the rest of the airframe was consumed by fire.
On May 14, 2020, a Boeing 747-400 was hit by a pallet box in the belly due to a heavy storm, in Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport.
On August 21, 2020, a Boeing 747-481(F)(N402KZ) operated as Flight 816 returned to ICN/RKSI due to a problem in engine 1.
On September 30, 2021, a Boeing 747-400 (N741CK) operated as Flight K4330 from Leipzig (Germany) to East Midlands, EN (UK), landed on East Midlands' runway 27 when shortly after touchdown and after engaging spoilers and reverse thrust the #3 engine suffered a compressor stall and emitted a loud bang with flames.
Media appearances
For the 1997 film Air Force One, the producers rented one of Kalitta's Boeing 747-212B aircraft N703CK and repainted it to replicate the iconic Air Force One livery.
The TV program MythBusters featured one of Kalitta's Boeing 747s (tail number N700CK) in Episode 90: "Supersized Myths”, that originally aired on November 14, 2007. In this myth the build team revisited the myth of "Jet Taxi", the story of a taxi that got stuck behind a jet taking off resulting in the taxi flipping over due to the jet blast. This myth was found to be confirmed, in that a jet could flip a taxi as well as a school bus and a light aircraft. MythBusters featured another Kalitta Air 747 (tail number N709CK) in the episode "Storm Chasing Myths" that originally aired on October 13, 2010.
Global News in Canada carried a story about a Kalitta Air 747 that carried Canadians who were stranded in quarantine on the Grand Princess cruise ship off the coast of California. It landed at CFB Trenton in Ontario on March 10, 2020, where the passengers were quarantined for 14 days due to the COVID-19 outbreak.
Kalitta's Boeing 747-400F (N716CK) can be seen in the documentary The Last Cruise evacuating U.S. citizens stranded aboard Diamond Princess cruise ship during COVID-19 outbreak.
N707CK, a former Kuwait Airways 747-269B was used for the filming of the movie “Executive Decision”. The aircraft was painted into the fictitious “Oceanic Airlines” paint scheme.
See also
List of airlines of the United States
Kalitta Charters
References
External links
Official website
Airlines established in 2000
Airlines based in Michigan
Cargo airlines of the United States
Companies based in Washtenaw County, Michigan
American companies established in 2000
2000 establishments in Michigan | [
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237612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adams%20George%20Archibald | Adams George Archibald | Sir Adams George Archibald (May 3, 1814 – December 14, 1892) was a Canadian lawyer and politician, and a Father of Confederation. He was based in Nova Scotia for most of his career, though he also served as first Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba from 1870 to 1872.
Archibald was born in Truro to a prominent family in Nova Scotian politics. He was the son of Samuel Archibald, and grandson of James Archibald, judge of the court of common pleas, Nova Scotia. He was also related to Samuel G. W. Archibald, who had served as the province's Attorney General from 1830 to 1841. Sir Adams Archibald studied science and medicine for a few years, subsequently articled in law, and was called to the Nova Scotia bar in January 1839. He held a number of local offices over the next decade, and was appointed a probate judge in 1848.
Political career
Archibald was elected to the Nova Scotia legislature in 1851 as a supporter of Joseph Howe's governing Reformers, topping the poll in the two-member riding of Colchester County. Once in the legislature, Archibald frequently took positions that were opposed by other members of the Liberal caucus. He supported elected municipal governments, for instance, and was a vociferous proponent of taxation for a state-run school system (regarded by many Nova Scotia Liberals as an unnecessary expense). Archibald also supported reciprocity with the United States, and opposed any efforts to expand the province's electoral franchise.
Archibald was re-elected in 1855, and was appointed Solicitor General of Nova Scotia on August 14, 1856. His term in office was cut short by a sectarian quarrel in the legislature, which occurred after the President of the Charitable Irish Society was dismissed from his government job and charged with treason. The Liberal government had previously been supported by a majority of the province's Catholic population, but in early 1857 eight Catholic Liberals and two Protestant Liberals from Catholic ridings defected to the Conservative opposition, which was then able to form government. Archibald was forced to resign his position on February 21, 1857.
In the provincial election of 1859, Howe's Liberals were returned to office on a platform of defending Protestant interests. This was essentially a cynical appeal to popular prejudice, and no significant actions were taken against the province's Catholics following the election. Archibald did not run, but was nevertheless appointed Attorney General in Howe's government on February 10, 1860. He returned to parliament following a by-election victory on March 8, 1860. In his new capacity, Archibald was a leading proponent of provincial railway development, even following the economic downturn of 1862.
In December 1862, Premier Howe was appointed Imperial Fisheries Commissioner by the British government. Archibald succeeded him as Liberal leader, although Howe continued to serve as Premier until the next election was called.
In early 1863, Howe's outgoing ministry passed a bill which re-introduced property qualifications for voters. The bill did not become law before the provincial election of May 1863, however, and it was largely due to the bill's unpopularity that Archibald's Liberals were dealt a crushing defeat. The party won only 14 seats out of 55, though Archibald was personally re-elected in Colchester South.
Despite serving as leader of the opposition from 1863 to 1867, Archibald frequently sided with the Conservative ministry against his own caucus on important legislative initiatives. He supported the education tax plan put forward by Charles Tupper's government, although it was opposed by most members of his own party. Archibald was later the Nova Scotia Liberal Party's representative to the first conference on Canadian Confederation, held at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island in 1864. Following the conference, he was the only member of the Liberal caucus to support Nova Scotia's entry into confederation.
Archibald faced a leadership challenge from anti-confederate William Annand in 1866, but emerged victorious. When Nova Scotia joined the new nation of Canada on July 1, 1867, Archibald was appointed Secretary of State for the Provinces in the cabinet of John A. Macdonald.
Nova Scotia's political system was transformed by the debate on Confederation, and its concurrent provincial and federal elections in September 1867 were fought by Confederation and anti-Confederation parties, rather than by Liberals and Conservatives. The Confederation Party suffered a massive defeat, and Archibald (despite spending a very large sum of money) was defeated by Archibald McLelan in the riding of Colchester. He resigned his cabinet post on April 30, 1868.
Popular opinion in Nova Scotia subsequently shifted in favour of Confederation, particularly after one-time anti-confederate Joseph Howe joined Macdonald's government in 1869. McLelan followed Howe to the Confederation side, and was appointed to the Senate in August 1869. This allowed Archibald to run for the riding in a by-election, in which he defeated Liberal Frederick Pearson, 1585 votes to 1230. Archibald was by this time a Liberal-Conservative, and continued to support the Macdonald government in parliament (though he was not re-appointed to cabinet).
In 1870, Archibald gave a speech in favour of conciliation towards the leaders of the Red River Rebellion in Manitoba. This was noticed by George-Étienne Cartier, who was the de facto leader of the Canadian government while Macdonald was recovering from a serious illness. Cartier asked Archibald to become the first Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. Although he had little interest in the region, he agreed on condition that he be appointed to the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia after serving a single term.
Archibald was sworn into office in August 1870, in Niagara Falls, Ontario. He then travelled to Manitoba, and began piecing together the province's first government. There was considerable antagonism between the province's Métis population and recently arrived soldiers from Ontario, and Archibald had difficulties finding suitable candidates to work with him. Until January 1871, the only members of his cabinet were local merchant Alfred Boyd and Marc-Amable Girard, a recent arrival from Quebec. Archibald himself was the province's de facto Premier, and often determined policy without consulting his ministers.
Despite opposition from many of the province's Anglophones, Archibald was able to settle the province's electoral boundaries by December 1870. Archibald himself was the leader of the government side in the election which followed; the francophone population was mostly united in support of him, while John Christian Schultz led a group of ultra-loyalist Anglophones who opposed the conciliation policy. Archibald was successful, as Schultz's opposition won only five seats and Schultz was personally defeated in Winnipeg and St. John.
Archibald put together a five-member cabinet in January 1871, which included Boyd, Girard, Henry Joseph Clarke, James Mackay and Thomas Howard — a group which balanced the province's ethnic, religious and linguistic divisions. Archibald himself remained the real Premier.
Archibald continued to pursue a policy of conciliation with the province's Métis population, encouraging them to register their lands and even meeting with Louis Riel after an armed Métis band had defended the government against Fenian invaders from America. His real intentions were to prevent another Métis uprising in the short-term, and to allow for the gradual hegemony of new Canadian settlers in the region. Nevertheless, the specifics of his conciliation policy were opposed by Macdonald and Howe alike (Howe was by this time Macdonald's Indian Affairs minister). In the face of this opposition, Archibald submitted his resignation in late 1871. Macdonald initially had difficulty finding a replacement and asked Archibald to reconsider. The federal government chose Francis Godschall Johnson as his replacement on April 9, 1872, but this commission was revoked before Johnson was sworn in. It was not until October 1872 that Archibald returned to Ontario.
Archibald was not immediately appointed to the Nova Scotia court, and was instead made a director of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company in February 1873. He was finally appointed to the bench in June, but withdrew days later to be appointed Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (former Conservative Premier James W. Johnston initially received this appointment, but withdrew due to ill health). This position required less intervention than Archibald had exercised in Manitoba, although he attended cabinet meetings in 1873 and 1874. After 1876, he came to regard the position as primarily ceremonial, and above partisan concerns.
Archibald served as the 4th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia until June 1883. In 1886, he became President of the Nova Scotia Historical Society, which he had helped to found six years earlier. He courted controversy by a public defence of the 18th-century Acadian expulsion later in the year. Archibald was also the first historian of Government House (Nova Scotia) and wrote an extensive monograph on the subject.
In 1888, Archibald McLelan was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia. McLelan had resigned his Senate seat in 1881 and subsequently returned to the House of Commons. His appointment meant that the riding of Colchester again became vacant, and, ironically, Archibald was again prevailed upon to stand for the riding as a Liberal-Conservative candidate. He was re-elected to the Commons on August 15, 1888, 18 years after his previous departure. Archibald was little involved in the activities of the House following his return, and did not make any speeches. Due to ill health, he did not run again in 1891.
Family
Hon. Sir Adams George Archibald, K.C.M.G., Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia married Elizabeth A. Burnyeat, daughter of Rev. John Burnyeat. Their daughter Elizabeth Alice Archibald was born and educated in Nova Scotia. She lived in Ottawa, Ontario, with her parents, while her father was a Minister of the Crown for the three years succeeding Confederation. She went with her parents, on her father's appointment as Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba. In December, 1881, Elizabeth Alice married the Right Reverend Dr. Llewellyn Jones, Bishop of Newfoundland. After the couple's marriage, they lived at Bishopscourt in St. John's, Newfoundland.
Death
Archibald died on December 14, 1892, at the age of 78 of an unknown illness most likely derived from his old age.
Awards and decorations
Electoral record
References
External link
1814 births
1892 deaths
19th-century British North American people
Canadian people of Ulster-Scottish descent
Canadian Presbyterians
Fathers of Confederation
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Canadian Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Lieutenant Governors of Manitoba
Lieutenant Governors of the Northwest Territories
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Nova Scotia
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs
People from Truro, Nova Scotia
Colony of Nova Scotia judges
Nova Scotia pre-Confederation MLAs
Nova Scotia political party leaders | [
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237616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Campbell%20%28Canadian%20senator%29 | Alexander Campbell (Canadian senator) | Sir Alexander Campbell (March 9, 1822 – May 24, 1892) was an English-born, Upper Canadian statesman and a father of Canadian Confederation.
Life
Born in Hedon, Yorkshire, he was brought to Canada by his father, who was a doctor, when he was one year old. He was educated in French at St. Hyacinthe in Quebec and in the grammar school at Kingston, Ontario. Campbell studied law and was called to the bar in 1843. He became a partner in John A. Macdonald's law office.
Campbell was a Freemason of St. John's Lodge, No. 3 (Ontario) of Kingston (now The Ancient St. John's No. 3). When the government was moved to Quebec in 1858, Campbell resigned.
He was elected to the Legislative Council in 1858 and 1864, and served as the last Commissioner of Crown Lands 30 March 1864 – 30 June 1867. He attended the Charlottetown Conference and the Quebec City Conference in 1864, and at Confederation was appointed to the Senate of Canada. He later held a number of ministerial posts in the Cabinet of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and was the sixth Lieutenant Governor of Ontario from 1887 to 1892.
In 1883, he built his home on Metcalfe Street, Ottawa, now known as "Campbell House".
He died in office in Toronto in 1892, and was buried at Cataraqui Cemetery in Kingston, Ontario.
Campbell Crescent in Kingston, a street in the Portsmouth municipal district, is named in his honour.
Family
In 1855, Campbell married Georgina Frederica Locke, daughter of Thomas Sandwith of Beverley, Yorkshire, and a niece of Humphrey Sandwith III (1792–1874) of Bridlington. He left two sons (the eldest was Charles Sandwith Campbell) and three daughters
References
External links
Humphrey Sandwith
Alexander Campbell fonds, Archives of Ontario
1822 births
1892 deaths
Anglo-Scots
Canadian senators from Ontario
Canadian people of Scottish descent
English emigrants to pre-Confederation Ontario
English Anglicans
Fathers of Confederation
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) senators
Canadian Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Lieutenant Governors of Ontario
Members of the Legislative Council of the Province of Canada
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
People from Hedon
People from Kingston, Ontario
Postmasters General of Canada
Anglophone Quebec people
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Immigrants to Upper Canada
Canadian Freemasons | [
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237617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical%20snuffbox | Anatomical snuffbox | The anatomical snuff box or snuffbox or foveola radialis is a triangular deepening on the radial, dorsal aspect of the hand—at the level of the carpal bones, specifically, the scaphoid and trapezium bones forming the floor. The name originates from the use of this surface for placing and then sniffing powdered tobacco, or "snuff." It is sometimes referred to by its French name tabatière.
Structure
Boundaries
The medial border (ulnar side) of the snuffbox is the tendon of the extensor pollicis longus.
The lateral border (radial side) is a pair of parallel and intimate tendons, of the extensor pollicis brevis and the abductor pollicis longus. (Accordingly, the anatomical snuffbox is most visible, having a more pronounced concavity, during thumb extension.)
The proximal border is formed by the styloid process of the radius
The distal border is formed by the approximate apex of the schematic snuffbox isosceles triangle.
The floor of the snuffbox varies depending on the position of the wrist, but both the trapezium and primarily the scaphoid can be palpated.
Neurovascular anatomy
Deep to the tendons which form the borders of the anatomical snuff box lies the radial artery, which passes through the anatomical snuffbox on its course from the normal radial pulse detecting area, to the proximal space in between the first and second metacarpals to contribute to the superficial and deep palmar arches. In the anatomical snuffbox, the radial artery is closely related (<2 mm) with the superficial branch of radial nerve near the styloid process of radius in 48%, while in 24% the radial artery is closely related to the lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm. The cephalic vein arises within the anatomical snuffbox, while the dorsal cutaneous branch of the radial nerve can be palpated by stroking along the extensor pollicis longus with the dorsal aspect of a fingernail.
Clinical significance
The radius and scaphoid articulate deep to the snuffbox to form the basis of the wrist joint. In the event of a fall onto an outstretched hand (FOOSH), this is the area through which the brunt of the force will focus. This results in these two bones being the most often fractured of the wrist. In a case where there is localized tenderness within the snuffbox, knowledge of wrist anatomy leads to the speedy conclusion that the fracture is likely to be of the scaphoid. This is understandable as the scaphoid is a small, oddly shaped bone whose purpose is to facilitate mobility rather than confer stability to the wrist joint . In the event of inordinate application of force over the wrist, this small scaphoid is likely to be the weak link . Scaphoid fracture is one of the most frequent causes of medico-legal issues.
An anatomical anomaly in the vascular supply to the scaphoid is the area to which the blood supply is first delivered. Blood enters the scaphoid distally. Consequently, in the event of a fracture the proximal segment of the scaphoid will be devoid of a vascular supply, and will—if action is not taken—avascularly necrose within a sufferer's snuffbox. Due to the small size of the scaphoid and its shape, it is difficult to determine, early on, whether or not the scaphoid is indeed fractured with an x-ray. Further complications include; carpal instability (ligament disruption) and fracture-dislocations.
Additional images
See also
Anatomical terminology
Anatomical terms of bone
References
External links
"Instant Anatomy"
Hand
Anatomy | [
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237624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Charles%20Chapais | Jean-Charles Chapais | Jean-Charles Chapais, (December 2, 1811 – July 17, 1885) was a Canadian Conservative politician, and considered a Father of Canadian Confederation for his participation in the Quebec Conference to determine the form of Canada's government.
Chapais was born in Rivière-Ouelle, a small town in Kamouraska, Quebec, and was educated in Nicolet. Following his success as a farmer and merchant, in 1845 he became the first mayor of Saint-Denis-de-la-Bouteillerie, the town he had lived in from 1833. The following year, he married Georgina Dionne; they had six children together.
Political career
At the prompting of his father-in-law, Chapais entered regional politics. In 1851, he was elected for the first time to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada; he was eventually to serve a total of five terms representing Kamouraska. A "bleu", he was a supporter of Augustin-Norbert Morin, Étienne-Paschal Taché and George-Étienne Cartier. He worked to abolish the system of seigneurial tenure in Quebec and reform agricultural legislation.
Following the Charlottetown Conference in September 1864, Chapais attended the Quebec Conference to negotiate on behalf of Canada East for provincial governments to have greater power in the Canadian federal system.
Chapais was Commissioner of Public Works in the Great Coalition of 1864–1867, and is credited with establishing the Intercolonial Railway and expanding the Grand Trunk Railway. In 1867 the British North America Act was passed, creating the Dominion of Canada, and Chapais became the first Minister of Agriculture. At this time, he also switched to representing Champlain in the Quebec legislature, due to a scandal over electoral irregularities in Kamouraska. On 30 January 1868, Jean-Charles Chapais entered the Senate of Canada, and sat in the body until his death.
As Minister, Chapais was in charge of more than simply agriculture: the department was also responsible for the import and export of animals, immigration, the census, patent administration and trademarks, public health, manufacturing, and the arts. After less than three years, he was replaced by Christopher Dunkin, which he greatly resented. His new position of Receiver General for Canada was significantly less prestigious and powerful, requiring little more than making and accepting payments on behalf of the government. (Today, the portfolio has passed to the Minister of Public Works.) Chapais resigned in 1873, saying that he wanted to spend more time with his family and business. He is buried in Saint-Denis-De La Bouteillerie, Quebec.
Chapais' house in Saint-Denis-De La Bouteillerie was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1962.
References
Sources
Biography Libraries and Collections Canada
Biography from the Ministry of Agriculture
1811 births
1885 deaths
Businesspeople from Quebec
Canadian farmers
Canadian senators from Quebec
Fathers of Confederation
French Quebecers
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) senators
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada East
Conservative Party of Quebec MNAs
People from Bas-Saint-Laurent
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) | [
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237626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIS | MIS | MIS or mis may refer to:
Science and technology
Management information system
Marine isotope stage, stages of the Earth's climate
Maximal independent set, in graph theory
Metal-insulator-semiconductor, e.g., in MIS capacitor
Minimally invasive surgery, surgical techniques with limited incision sizes
Müllerian inhibiting substance or Anti-Müllerian hormone, a developmental glycoprotein
Multi Interface Shoe, a Sony camera hotshoe
Multisystem inflammatory syndrome, a class of medical conditions
Organizations
Maritime Internet Services Inc.
Military Intelligence Service (United States), WWII Japanese translation unit
Movement for the Independence of Sicily
Schools
The Mother's International School, New Delhi, India
Manado Independent School, Indonesia
Melaka International School, Malaysia
Myanmar International School, Myanmar
Munich International School, Starnberg
Speedways
Madison International Speedway, Wisconsin, US
Michigan International Speedway, Michigan, US
Other uses
Master of International Studies
Teddy Bear (1980 film), a 1980 Polish film directed by Stanisław Bareja, Polish title Miś
mis, ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 three-letter language code for uncoded languages
Mexican Institute of Sound, a musical group in Mexico City
Misima Island Airport (IATA code) | [
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237627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Brown%20%28Canadian%20politician%29 | George Brown (Canadian politician) | George Brown (November 29, 1818 – May 9, 1880) was a British-Canadian journalist, politician and one of the Fathers of Confederation; attended the Charlottetown (September 1864) and Quebec (October 1864) conferences. A noted Reform politician, he is best known as the founder and editor of the Toronto Globe, Canada's most influential newspaper at the time, and his leadership in the founding of the Liberal Party in 1867. He was an articulate champion of the grievances and anger of Upper Canada (Ontario). He played a major role in securing national unity. His career in active politics faltered after 1865, but he remained a powerful spokesman for the Liberal Party. He promoted westward expansion and opposed the policies of Conservative Prime Minister John A. Macdonald.
Early life
Scotland
George Brown was born in Alloa, Clackmannanshire, Scotland, United Kingdom, on November 29, 1818. His father, Peter Brown, ran a wholesale business in Edinburgh and managed a glassworks in Alloa. His mother was Marianne ( Mackenzie). George was their eldest son; he had two older sisters, two younger sisters and four younger brothers, although three of the brothers died in infancy. He was baptised in St. Cuthbert's Chapel of Ease. He lived in Alloa until he moved to Edinburgh before he turned eight. He attended Royal High School, then transferred to the Southern Academy of Edinburgh.
Upon graduation his father wanted George to attend university but George convinced his father to let him work in the family's business. He briefly lived in London to be taught by agents of the business before returning to Edinburgh. He joined the Philo-Lectic Society of Edinburgh, where young men would meet and discuss topics in a parliamentary debate. Brown's father also worked as a collector of assessments. Some of the funds he collected for the municipality were mixed with his business bank accounts, and in 1836 some of the funds in these accounts were lost in business speculations. Peter was not accused of corruption, but he sought to repair his reputation and recoup the lost funds. He attempted to collect from people he lent money to but was unable to after the onset of the economic depression in 1837. Peter decided to emigrate to New York City to seek business opportunities and rebuild his reputation. George accompanied his father to North America, and they left Europe in May 1837.
New York City
The Browns landed in New York in June 1837. Peter opened a dry goods store on Broadway and George worked as his assistant. The following year, Brown's mother and sisters immigrated to New York and the family lived in a rented home on Varick Street. When the store grew larger, George traveled to New England, upstate New York, and Canada to continue growing their business. In July 1842 Peter published the first edition of a newspaper called the British Chronicle, which advocated a Whig-Liberal political ideology and published articles on British news and politics. As circulation increased in Canada, the paper devoted articles to the political news in the Province of Canada. George became the paper's publisher in March 1843 and traveled to New England, upstate New York, and Canada to promote the paper. While in Canada, Brown spoke with politicians and editors in Toronto, Kingston, and Montreal. Brown might have also been writing articles for the paper; J.M.S. Careless, a historian, notes that a series of articles called "A Tour of Canada" were published in the same writing style of Brown's later articles while Brown was in Canada.
Peter Brown supported the evangelical faction during the Disruption of 1843 within the Church of Scotland. These members separated from the Church of Scotland in May 1843 and formed the Free Church of Scotland. While George was touring Canada, they asked him to present an offer to his father: to move publication of the British Chronicle to Upper Canada in exchange for a bond of $2500. George supported the proposal, as he felt there were more opportunities to succeed in Canada. He thought that there was hostility towards the paper in New York because of the paper's focus on Britain. Upon meeting Reform politicians in his travels through Canada, George felt that they would support his paper should it relocate to the province. George convinced his father to move to Canada and they published the last issue of the British Chronicle on July 22, 1843.
Canada
George and Peter rented a storefront in Toronto and on August 18, 1943, they published the first edition a new paper called Banner. George managed the secular department of the newspaper, commenting on non-religious issues. Banner initially did not commit to any political causes, although it supported many policies advocated by Reformers. This changed when the governor-general of the province, Charles Metcalfe, prorogued the Reform-dominated Canadian assembly when several Reform politicians resigned from the government. George published an editorial on December 15 that was critical of the governor-general's actions. In the subsequent weeks, Banner published editorials that disputed political accusations against Reformers and called for unity behind Liberal candidates in future elections.
In 1844, Reformers were concerned that Tories, in the upcoming election for the legislature of the Province of Canada, would appeal to the citizen's sense of loyalty to the British monarch and thus not vote for Reformers. They wanted to establish newspapers that would publish their ideas and offered Brown £250 () to begin a new paper. In March, Brown published the first issue of The Globe as its editor and publisher. Two months later, Brown bought a rotary press, the first press of this type used in Upper Canada. This purchase increased his printer's efficiency and allowed Brown to create a book publishing and printing office business. Although George was focused on politics, he still wrote articles for the Banner and traveled in July to Kingston to report on the Canadian Synod for the Church of Scotland. After the meeting, Brown sat on the committee of Free Kirks in Kingston who wanted to secede from the Church of Scotland. In the fall, Brown campaigned for Reform candidates in communities surrounding Toronto. In Halton, Reformers asked Brown to convince one of the three Reform candidates to end their campaign as the county would only elect two candidates and Reformers did not want to split the vote; Brown convinced Caleb Hopkins to end his campaign. Brown declined to run as a candidate because he wanted to help his father pay off his financial debts and focus on improving his newspapers. Reformers were mostly unsuccessful in the election, with many prominent members not returning to the legislature.
In the summer of 1845, Brown put his father in charge of The Globe and traveled to Southwestern Ontario to increase subscriptions to his paper. He discovered that a rival Reform newspaper called Pilot was selling copies at a lower rate and people did not want to subscribe to more than one paper. Brown appealed to Reform leaders, who convinced Francis Hincks, the editor of Pilot, to raise the cost of his paper. In October, Brown published the first edition of Western Globe in London, Canada West, which combined editorials from The Globe with local stories from the southwestern region. In 1846, Brown began publishing the Globe semi-weekly, proclaiming that he was the first Reform-newspaper in Toronto to do so.
During the 1848 Province of Canada legislative election, Hincks was in Montreal attending to business concerns and did not go to Oxford county to campaign for his re-election as the constituency's representative. Brown spoke at the nomination meeting on Hincks's behalf and Hincks was successfully reelected. Reformers won the majority of seats in the election to form an administration led by Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine. In July 1848 Brown and his father closed the Banner to focus on expanding The Globe and their publishing business.
In the summer of 1848, Brown was appointed by the administration to lead a Royal Commission to examine accusations of official misconduct in the Provincial Penitentiary in Portsmouth, Canada West. The commission's report, drafted by Brown in early 1849, documented abuse within the penitentiary perpetrated by its staff members. He recommended changes in the jail's structure such as separating juvenile, first-time, and long-term prisoners and hiring prison inspectors. While the commission was conducting its investigation, the prison's Board of Inspectors resigned and Brown, along with Adam Fergusson and William Bristow. Although initially volunteers, Brown and Bristow were later paid for their work, becoming the first government inspectors to be employed in this role. In October 1853 The Globe started printing new issues daily and claimed that the paper had the largest circulation in British North America.
Early political career
Election win and opposition member
In 1848, Reformers won the majority of seats in the Province of Canada legislature and an administration was formed with Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine serving as co-premiers. By the following year, two factions formed among the Reformers over disagreements among secularising clergy reserves, whether the Province of Canada should be annexed by the United States, and how much influence should be given to Reformers who participated in the Upper Canada Rebellion. Brown remained aligned with the Reform party while others split off to form the Clear Grit movement. He joined the Toronto Anti-Clergy Reserves Association in May 1950 to advocate for the abolition of clergy reserves; he did not think French-Canadian reformers would support these measures, but thought that promoting this policy would prevent further Reform defections to the Clear Grits.
In April 1851, Brown ran in a byelection to represent Haldimand County in the Canadian parliament but lost to William Lyon Mackenzie. In the following session of parliament, Baldwin and Lafontaine announced their retirement from politics, and Hincks assumed leadership of the western Reform movement. Hincks renewed his rivalry with Brown, critising the Globe for opposing state support for religious institutions. Brown distanced himself from the Reform party, becoming politically independent.
In the fall of 1851, Brown bought agricultural land in Kent county, Upper Canada, to begin work as a farmer. In the 1851 general election for the Parliament of Canada, Brown was elected to represent the constituency of Kent as an independent candidate aligned with the Reform movement. He supported an administration led by Hincks and Augustin-Norbert Morin as successors to the Baldin-Lafontaine government. Brown worked to end state support for religious institutions, opposed government funding for a religious separate school system and endorsed representation by population in the legislature. For the 1854 general election, Brown was elected in the constituency of Lambton, formed after the Kent constituency was divided. At the election's conclusion, Hincks formed a new Liberal-Conservative administration with Allan MacNab, causing Brown to become a member of the opposition.
He assumed an unofficial leadership position with the Clear Grits and worked with the Parti Rouge to oppose provisions in legislation and investigate government corruption. Later that year the Canadian legislature passed a bill creating a separate school board in Upper Canada without the support of the majority of Upper Canadian legislators. Although Upper Canadians called for the dissolution of the Province of Canada, Brown used the event to campaign for representation by population, in which electoral districts would be divided so that each one contained a roughly equal number of electors. Brown's pursuit of that goal of correcting what he perceived to be a great wrong to Canada West was accompanied at times by stridently critical remarks against French Canadians and the power exerted by the Catholic population of Canada East over the affairs of a predominately anglophone and Protestant Canada West. He referred to the position of Canada West as "a base vassalage to French-Canadian Priestcraft."
In 1856, Liberals in the Hincks-MacNab administration defected to the opposition, and MacNab was replaced by John A. Macdonald to become the new joint-premier of the province with Hincks. Macdonald accused Brown of falsifying evidence and coercing witnesses in the Royal Commission on the Kingston Provincial Penitentiary in 1848. A committee of inquiry was formed that heard evidence exonerating Brown, but the inquiry produced a report that was non-committal and damaged Brown's political reputation. This caused the political rivalry between Brown and Macdonald to deepen.
1857 election and subsequent legislature
Brown organized a political convention on January 8, 1857, to unite his followers with Liberals who left the Hincks administration and Clear Grits. This convention marked the Reform party's transition away from a radicalism and towards a political ideology more closely aligned with the liberal ideology in Britain. An election for the Parliament of the Province of Canada was held in November 1857. Brown was elected in two constituencies: Toronto and North Oxford. Although Brown's reformers won the majority of seats in Canada West, their allies in the Parti Rouge were unsuccessful in Canada East and Brown returned as an opposition member.
On July 28, 1858, the cabinet of the Macdonald-Cartier administration resigned when the legislature rejected Ottawa as the new permanent capital of the province. Edmund Walker Head, the governor-general of Canada, asked Brown to form a new administration. Although Brown did not have a majority of support in the legislature, he nevertheless proposed a cabinet under a co-premiership with Antoine-Aimé Dorion. The Brown-Dorion administration was rejected by the legislature on August 2. Brown resigned on August 4 when Head refused to call a general election, and Macdonald and Cartier were able to form a new ministry with Alexander Tilloch Galt.
In 1859 the Globe, influenced by Brown's encouragement, published articles in favour of a new federal government. This would allow Canada East and Canada West to govern their own affairs in their own provincial legislatures and the federal legislature would pass bills concerning mutual concerns. The newspaper also supported representation by population within this proposed federal government. He organized a Reform convention in November at St. Lawrence Hall in Toronto and obtained support for federalism and begin a process of uniting all the colonies of British North America into one federal government. On April 30, 1860, Brown proposed a bill in the Province of Canada's legislature to form a convention that would discuss federalism. The bill was defeated, but the Reform party's support for federalism was documented in the vote.
Election defeat and marriage
Brown's health deteriorated and in the winter of 1861, he stayed in his bed for two months to recover. He did not attend the 1861 parliamentary session and lost his re-election campaign in the constituency of Toronto in the June 1861 general election. His newspaper supported the union in the American Civil War and opposed the influence of the Grand Trunk Railway in Canadian politics.
In 1862 Brown's illness was still affecting him and he decided to recover in Great Britain. He spent a month in London before moving to Edinburgh. He met Anne Nelson, the sister of his friends from the High School, and they wed on November 27 at the Nelson's home. The couple returned to Toronto the following month.
Return to legislature
With his health recovered, Brown won a by-election for the constituency of South Oxford in March 1863 and returned to a leadership position within the Reform party. He won re-election during the July 1863 general election, and Reformers won the majority of seats in Canada West while Conservatives won the majority of seats in Canada East. This created a deadlock in the legislature that made governing the province difficult.
Brown proposed a select committee to investigate the sectional problems in Canada and try to find a solution, and the bill for this committee's creation passed in spring 1864. Under his chairmanship, the committee reported on June 14 a strong preference for a new federal system of government. That same day, the MacDonald-Taché administration was dissolved. Brown stated that he would support any administration that committed to solving the deadlock in the legislature. Brown, MacDonald, Taché, and George-Étienne Cartier agreed to form an administration later called the Great Coalition to seek a federal union with the Atlantic provinces. Brown became the president of the council, a cabinet-level position, under the premiership of Taché.
Confederation
Brown attended the Charlottetown Conference where Canadian delegates outlined their proposal for Canadian Confederation with the Atlantic provinces. On September 5, 1864, Brown outlined the proposed constitutional structure for the union. The conference accepted the proposal in principle and Brown attended subsequent meetings in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Saint John, New Brunswick to determine the details of the union.
During the Quebec Conference, Brown argued for separate provincial and federal governments. He hoped the provincial government would remove local concerns from the federal government, which he thought were more politically divisive. He also argued for an appointed Senate because he saw upper houses as inherently conservative and believed they protected the interests of the rich. He wished to deny the Senate the legitimacy and power that naturally follow with an electoral mandate. He was also concerned that two elected legislative bodies could create a political deadlock, especially if different parties held a majority of seats in each body. The result of the Quebec Conference was the Quebec Resolutions. Brown presented the Quebec Resolutions in a speech in Toronto on November 3. Later that month, he traveled to England to begin discussions with British officials about Candian confederation, the integration of the North West Territories into Canada, and the defense of British North America from possible American invasion.
Brown realized that satisfaction for Canada West could only be achieved with the support of the French-speaking majority of Canada East. In his speech in support of Confederation in the Legislature of the Province of Canada on February 8, 1865, he spoke glowingly of the prospects for Canada's future, and he insisted that "whether we ask for parliamentary reform for Canada alone or in union with the Maritime Provinces, the views of French Canadians must be consulted as well as ours. This scheme can be carried, and no scheme can be that has not the support of both sections of the province." Although he supported the idea of a legislative union at the Quebec Conference, Brown was eventually persuaded to favour the federal view of Confederation, which was closer to that supported by Cartier and the Bleus of Canada East, as it was the structure that would ensure that the provinces retained sufficient control over local matters to satisfy the need of the French-speaking population in Canada East for jurisdiction over matters that it considered to be essential to its survival. Brown remained a proponent of a stronger central government, with weaker constituent provincial governments.
In May and June, Brown was part of a delegation sent to London to continue discussions about confederation with British officials. The British government agreed to support Canadian confederation, defend Canada if attacked by the US, and help with establishing a new trade agreement with the US. In September, Galt and Brown represented the Province of Canada at the Confederate Trade Council, a meeting of Canadian colonies to negotiate common trade policies after the colonies' reciprocity trade agreement with the United States was terminated. During the meeting, Brown spoke with Maritime delegates to gather support for the Canadian confederation, as support for the project was decreasing in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. He supported the council's resolution to pursue trade policies that reduced tariffs with the US. The administration for the Province of Canada disagreed and sought to increase tariffs on American goods. Brown, frustrated with his cabinet colleagues over this issue, resigned from the Great Coalition on December 19.
Brown renewed relationships with Rouge colleagues to strengthen the Reform party's political prospects in Canada West. He lost an election in Southern Ontario for a seat in the new legislature. He determined that too many Reformers joined Macdonald and the Conservatives during the Great Coalition, and the public supported this non-partisan administration. He declined to run in safer constituencies and went on a holiday to Scotland.
Post-parliamentary career and death
In 1866, Brown bought an estate near Brantford, Upper Canada, and herded shorthorn cattle. He continued writing and editing the Globe and was consulted by Grit officials in issues concerning provincial and Canadian politics. Brown fought numerous battles with the typographical union from 1843 to 1872. He was forced to pay union wages after tense negotiations and strikes.
In 1874, Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie asked Brown to negotiate a new reciprocity treaty with the US. He negotiated with the United States Secretary of State Hamilton Fish from February until June 18, when a draft of their treaty was proposed in the US Congress. The Congress did not pass the bill into law and it was set aside when Congress adjourned four days after the treaty was proposed.
Brown was appointed to the Canadian senate in 1874 and attended his first session the following year. He supported Mackenzie when Edward Blake and the Canada First movement expressed their frustrations with Mackenzie's leadership. His attendance in the senate was sporadic as he focused on the business affairs at his ranch. He traveled to England in February 1876 to raise capital to create a new company based on raising cattle, and obtained a charter for the new company upon his return to Canada in May. His company struggled to be financially successful and two fires in December 1879 destroyed many of the buildings on the property.
In 1880 the Globe was also struggling financially as Brown paid for updating the newspaper's printing press in order to produce multi-page and machine-folded papers. On March 25, 1880, a former Globe employee, George Bennett, burst into Brown's office; he was recently fired by a foreman and wanted a certificate that showed he had worked for the paper for five years. Brown did not recognise the man, so asked him to speak with the foreman. The two men argued and Bennett pulled out a gun. Brown grabbed for the gun, but it fired a bullet into Brown's thigh. Bennett was secured by other men and the wound was deemed minor. Brown left the office and stayed in his Toronto home to recover. His leg became infected and he obtained a fever and delirium. On May 9, 1880, Brown died in his Toronto home. Brown was buried at Toronto Necropolis.
His wife, Anne Nelson, returned to Scotland thereafter where she died in 1906. She is buried on the southern terrace of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. The grave also commemorates George Brown. In 1885 his daughters Margaret and Catherine were two of the first women to graduate from the University of Toronto.
Political philosophy and views
Brown was raised as a member of the Church of Scotland. Canadian historian J. M. S. Careless described the family's faith as further from the Calvinist interpretation of the bible and more closely followed the tenants of the evangelical movement of the 1800s. Brown advocated for a Puritan separation between politics and religion; he believed that political liberty could only be achieved if religious institutions were not involved in politics, and while he believed everyone should be Christian, he thought religion should not be influenced by political institutions. In 1850, although he was against giving state money to religions in clergy reserves, he was willing to tolerate it in order to maintain an allegiance between the Upper Canadian Reformers and French Canadian Catholic Reformers.
Brown was against slavery and believed that the largest fault of the United States was the enslavement of people in American southern states. He was part of the Elgin Association, a group of mostly Free Kirk people that purchased land in Kent county for escaped slaves to live on. He also wrote editorials in The Globe defending a settlement of escaped slaves in Buxton from hostile white inhabitants in Kent. He was also an executive member of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada.
Legacy
Brown's residence, formerly called Lambton Lodge and now called George Brown House, at 186 Beverley Street, Toronto, was named a National Historic Site of Canada in 1974. It is now operated by the Ontario Heritage Trust as a conference centre and offices.
Brown also maintained an estate, Bow Park, near Brantford, Ontario. Bought in 1826, it was a cattle farm during Brown's time and is currently a seed farm.
Toronto's George Brown College (founded 1967) is named after him. A statue of Brown can be found on the front west lawn of Queen's Park and another on Parliament Hill in Ottawa (sculpted by George William Hill in 1913).
He was portrayed by Peter Outerbridge in the 2011 CBC Television film John A.: Birth of a Country.
George Brown appears on a Canadian postage stamp issued on August 21, 1968.
References
Citations
Works Cited
Further reading
Bélanger, Claude. "George Brown", in L’Encyclopédie de l’histoire du Québec / The Quebec History Encyclopedia. (Marianopolis College, March 2006) online
Careless, J.M.C. Brown of the Globe: Volume Two: Statesman of Confederation 1860-1880. (Vol. 2. Dundurn, 1996) excerpt
Careless, J.M.C. "George Brown and Confederation," Manitoba Historical Society Transactions, Series 3, Number 26, 1969-70 online
Caron, Jean-François. George Brown: la Confédération et la dualité nationale, Québec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval, 2017.
Creighton, Donald G. "George Brown, Sir John Macdonald, and the "Workingman"." Canadian Historical Review (1943) 24#4 pp: 362-376.
Gauvreau, Michael. "Reluctant Voluntaries: Peter and George Brown: The Scottish Disruption and the Politics of Church and State in Canada." Journal of religious history 25.2 (2001): 134–157.
Mackenzie, Alexander. The life and speeches of Hon. George Brown (Toronto, Globe, 1882)
External links
Meet the Browns: A Confederation Family, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website
George Brown family fonds, Archives of Ontario
A website for an upcoming documentary film on George Brown
(Biography by John Lewis)
Photograph: Hon. George Brown in 1865. McCord Museum
Photograph: Hon. George Brown in 1865. McCord Museum
1818 births
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Deaths from gangrene
Burials at Toronto Necropolis | [
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237629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed%20artificial%20intelligence | Distributed artificial intelligence | Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI) also called Decentralized Artificial Intelligence is a subfield of artificial intelligence research dedicated to the development of distributed solutions for problems. DAI is closely related to and a predecessor of the field of multi-agent systems.
Definition
Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI) is an approach to solving complex learning, planning, and decision making problems. It is embarrassingly parallel, thus able to exploit large scale computation and spatial distribution of computing resources. These properties allow it to solve problems that require the processing of very large data sets. DAI systems consist of autonomous learning processing nodes (agents), that are distributed, often at a very large scale. DAI nodes can act independently and partial solutions are integrated by communication between nodes, often asynchronously. By virtue of their scale, DAI systems are robust and elastic, and by necessity, loosely coupled. Furthermore, DAI systems are built to be adaptive to changes in the problem definition or underlying data sets due to the scale and difficulty in redeployment.
DAI systems do not require all the relevant data to be aggregated in a single location, in contrast to monolithic or centralized Artificial Intelligence systems which have tightly coupled and geographically close processing nodes. Therefore, DAI systems often operate on sub-samples or hashed impressions of very large datasets. In addition, the source dataset may change or be updated during the course of the execution of a DAI system.
Goals
The objectives of Distributed Artificial Intelligence are to solve the reasoning, planning, learning and perception problems of artificial intelligence, especially if they require large data, by distributing the problem to autonomous processing nodes (agents). To reach the objective, DAI requires:
A distributed system with robust and elastic computation on unreliable and failing resources that are loosely coupled
Coordination of the actions and communication of the nodes
Subsamples of large data sets and online machine learning
There are many reasons for wanting to distribute intelligence or cope with multi-agent systems. Mainstream problems in DAI research include the following:
Parallel problem solving: mainly deals with how classic artificial intelligence concepts can be modified, so that multiprocessor systems and clusters of computers can be used to speed up calculation.
Distributed problem solving (DPS): the concept of agent, autonomous entities that can communicate with each other, was developed to serve as an abstraction for developing DPS systems. See below for further details.
Multi-Agent Based Simulation (MABS): a branch of DAI that builds the foundation for simulations that need to analyze not only phenomena at macro level but also at micro level, as it is in many social simulation scenarios.
History
In 1975 distributed artificial intelligence emerged as a subfield of artificial intelligence that dealt with interactions of intelligent agents[2]. Distributed artificial intelligence systems were conceived as a group of intelligent entities, called agents, that interacted by cooperation, by coexistence or by competition. DAI is categorized into Multi-agent systems and distributed problem solving [1]. In Multi-agent systems the main focus is how agents coordinate their knowledge and activities. For distributed problem solving the major focus is how the problem is decomposed and the solutions are synthesized.
Examples
Multi-agent systems and distributed problem solving are the two main DAI approaches. There are numerous applications and tools.
Approaches
Two types of DAI has emerged:
In Multi-agent systems agents coordinate their knowledge and activities and reason about the processes of coordination. Agents are physical or virtual entities that can act, perceive its environment and communicate with other agents. The agent is autonomous and has skills to achieve goals. The agents change the state of their environment by their actions. There are a number of different coordination techniques[3].
In distributed problem solving the work is divided among nodes and the knowledge is shared. The main concerns are task decomposition and synthesis of the knowledge and solutions.
DAI can apply a bottom-up approach to AI, similar to the subsumption architecture as well as the traditional top-down
approach of AI. In addition, DAI can also be a vehicle for emergence.
Applications
Areas where DAI have been applied are:
Electronic commerce, e.g. for trading strategies the DAI system learns financial trading rules from subsamples of very large samples of financial data
Networks, e.g. in telecommunications the DAI system controls the cooperative resources in a WLAN network http://dair.uncc.edu/projects/past-projects/wlan-resource
Routing, e.g. model vehicle flow in transport networks
Scheduling, e.g. flow shop scheduling where the resource management entity ensures local optimization and cooperation for global and local consistency
Multi-Agent systems, e.g. artificial life, the study of simulated life
Electric power systems, e.g. COndition Monitoring Multi-Agent System (COMMAS) applied to transformer condition monitoring, and IntelliTEAM II Automatic Restoration System
Tools
ECStar, a distributed rule-based learning system
Agents and Multi-agent systems
Notion of Agents: Agents can be described as distinct entities with standard boundaries and interfaces designed for problem solving.
Notion of Multi-Agents:Multi-Agent system is defined as a network of agents which are loosely coupled working as a single entity like society for problem solving that an individual agent cannot solve.
Software agents
The key concept used in DPS and MABS is the abstraction called software agents. An agent is a virtual (or physical) autonomous entity that has an understanding of its environment and acts upon it. An agent is usually able to communicate with other agents in the same system to achieve a common goal, that one agent alone could not achieve. This communication system uses an agent communication language.
A first classification that is useful is to divide agents into:
reactive agent – A reactive agent is not much more than an automaton that receives input, processes it and produces an output.
deliberative agent – A deliberative agent in contrast should have an internal view of its environment and is able to follow its own plans.
hybrid agent – A hybrid agent is a mixture of reactive and deliberative, that follows its own plans, but also sometimes directly reacts to external events without deliberation.
Well-recognized agent architectures that describe how an agent is internally structured are:
ASMO (emergence of distributed modules)
BDI (Believe Desire Intention, a general architecture that describes how plans are made)
InterRAP (A three-layer architecture, with a reactive, a deliberative and a social layer)
PECS (Physics, Emotion, Cognition, Social, describes how those four parts influences the agents behavior).
Soar (a rule-based approach)
Challenges
The challenges in Distributed AI are:
1.How to carry out communication and interaction of agents and which communication language or protocols should be used.
2.How to ensure the coherency of agents.
3.How to synthesise the results among 'intelligent agents' group by formulation, description, decomposition and allocation.
See also
Collective intelligence
Federated learning
Simulated reality
Swarm Intelligence
References
A. Bond and L. Gasser. Readings in Distributed Artificial Intelligence. Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA, 1988.
Brahim Chaib-Draa, Bernard Moulin, René Mandiau, and P Millot. Trends in distributed artificial intelligence.
Artificial Intelligence Review, 6(1):35-66, 1992.
Nick R Jennings. Coordination techniques for distributed artificial intelligence. Foundations of distributed artificial
intelligence, pages 187-210, 1996.
Damien Trentesaux, Philippe Pesin, and Christian Tahon. Distributed artificial intelligence for fms scheduling, control
and design support. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 11(6):573-589, 2000.
Catterson, V. M., Davidson, E. M., & McArthur, S. D. J. Practical applications of multi-agent systems in electric power systems. European Transactions on Electrical Power, 22(2), 235–252. 2012
Further reading
Hewitt, Carl; and Jeff Inman (November/December 1991). "DAI Betwixt and Between: From 'Intelligent Agents' to Open Systems Science" IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. Volume: 21 Issue: 6, pps. 1409–1419. ISSN 0018-9472
Sun, Ron, (2005). Cognition and Multi-Agent Interaction. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Grace, David; Zhang, Honggang (August 2012). Cognitive Communications: Distributed Artificial Intelligence(DAI), Regulatory Policy and Economics, Implementation. John Wiley & Sons Press.
Multi-agent systems
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237630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron%20density | Electron density | In quantum chemistry, electron density or electronic density is the measure of the probability of an electron being present at an infinitesimal element of space surrounding any given point. It is a scalar quantity depending upon three spatial variables and is typically denoted as either or . The density is determined, through definition, by the normalised -electron wavefunction which itself depends upon variables ( spatial and spin coordinates). Conversely, the density determines the wave function modulo up to a phase factor, providing the formal foundation of density functional theory.
According to quantum mechanics, due to the uncertainty principle on an atomic scale the exact location of an electron cannot be predicted, only the probability of its being at a given position; therefore electrons in atoms and molecules act as if they are "smeared out" in space. For one-electron systems, the electron density at any point is proportional to the square magnitude of the wavefunction.
Definition
The electronic density corresponding to a normalised -electron wavefunction (with and denoting spatial and spin variables respectively) is defined as
where the operator corresponding to the density observable is
Computing as defined above we can simplify the expression as follows.
In words: holding a single electron still in position we sum over all possible arrangements of the other electrons. The factor N arises since all electrons are indistinguishable, and hence all the integrals evaluate to the same value.
In Hartree–Fock and density functional theories, the wave function is typically represented as a single Slater determinant constructed from orbitals, , with corresponding occupations . In these situations, the density simplifies to
General properties
From its definition, the electron density is a non-negative function integrating to the total number of electrons. Further, for a system with kinetic energy T, the density satisfies the inequalities
For finite kinetic energies, the first (stronger) inequality places the square root of the density in the Sobolev space . Together with the normalization and non-negativity this defines a space containing physically acceptable densities as
The second inequality places the density in the L3 space. Together with the normalization property places acceptable densities within the intersection of L1 and L3 – a superset of .
Topology
The ground state electronic density of an atom is conjectured to be a monotonically decaying function of the distance from the nucleus.
Nuclear cusp condition
The electronic density displays cusps at each nucleus in a molecule as a result of the unbounded electron-nucleus Coulomb potential. This behaviour is quantified by the Kato cusp condition formulated in terms of the spherically averaged density, , about any given nucleus as
That is, the radial derivative of the spherically averaged density, evaluated at any nucleus, is equal to twice the density at that nucleus multiplied by the negative of the atomic number ().
Asymptotic behaviour
The nuclear cusp condition provides the near-nuclear (small ) density behaviour as
The long-range (large ) behaviour of the density is also known, taking the form
where I is the ionisation energy of the system.
Response density
Another more-general definition of a density is the "linear-response density". This is the density that when contracted
with any spin-free, one-electron operator yields the associated property defined as the derivative of the energy.
For example, a dipole moment is the derivative of the energy with respect to an external magnetic field and
is not the expectation value of the operator over the wavefunction. For some theories they are the same when
the wavefunction is converged. The occupation numbers are not limited to the range of zero to two, and therefore
sometimes even the response density can be negative in certain regions of space.
Overview
In molecules, regions of large electron density are usually found around the atom, and its bonds. In de-localised or conjugated systems, such as phenol, benzene and compounds such as hemoglobin and chlorophyll, the electron density is significant in an entire region, i.e., in benzene they are found above and below the planar ring. This is sometimes shown diagrammatically as a series of alternating single and double bonds. In the case of phenol and benzene, a circle inside a hexagon shows the delocalised nature of the compound. This is shown below:
In compounds with multiple ring systems which are interconnected, this is no longer accurate, so alternating single and double bonds are used. In compounds such as chlorophyll and phenol, some diagrams show a dotted or dashed line to represent the delocalization of areas where the electron density is higher next to the single bonds. Conjugated systems can sometimes represent regions where electromagnetic radiation is absorbed at different wavelengths resulting in compounds appearing coloured. In polymers, these areas are known as chromophores.
In quantum chemical calculations, the electron density, ρ(r), is a function of the coordinates r, defined so ρ(r)dr is the number of electrons in a small volume dr. For closed-shell molecules, can be written in terms of a sum of products of basis functions, φ:
where P is the density matrix. Electron densities are often rendered in terms of an isosurface (an isodensity surface) with the size and shape of the surface determined by the value of the density chosen, or in terms of a percentage of total electrons enclosed.
Molecular modeling software often provides graphical images of electron density. For example, in aniline (see image at right). Graphical models, including electron density are a commonly employed tool in chemistry education. Note in the left-most image of aniline, high electron densities are associated with the carbons and nitrogen, but the hydrogens with only one proton in their nuclei, are not visible. This is the reason that X-ray diffraction has a difficult time locating hydrogen positions.
Most molecular modeling software packages allow the user to choose a value for the electron density, often called the isovalue. Some software also allows for specification of the electron density in terms of percentage of total electrons enclosed. Depending on the isovalue (typical units are electrons per cubic bohr), or the percentage of total electrons enclosed, the electron density surface can be used to locate atoms, emphasize electron densities associated with chemical bonds , or to indicate overall molecular size and shape.
Graphically, the electron density surface also serves as a canvas upon which other electronic properties can be displayed. The electrostatic potential map (the property of electrostatic potential mapped upon the electron density) provides an indicator for charge distribution in a molecule. The local ionisation potential map (the property of local ionisation potential mapped upon the electron density) provides an indicator of electrophilicity. And the LUMO map (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital mapped upon the electron density) can provide an indicatory for nucleophilicity.
Experiments
Many experimental techniques can measure electron density. For example, quantum crystallography through X-ray diffraction scanning, where X-rays of a suitable wavelength are targeted towards a sample and measurements are made over time, gives a probabilistic representation of the locations of electrons. From these positions, molecular structures, as well as accurate charge density distributions, can often be determined for crystallised systems. Quantum electrodynamics and some branches of quantum theory also study and analyse electron superposition and other related phenomena, such as the NCI index which permits the study of non-covalent interactions using electron density. Mulliken population analysis is based on electron densities in molecules and is a way of dividing the density between atoms to give an estimate of atomic charges.
In transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and deep inelastic scattering, as well as other high energy particle experiments, high energy electrons interacts with the electron cloud to give a direct representation of the electron density. TEM, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) can be used to probe the electron density of specific individual atoms.
Spin density
Spin density is electron density applied to free radicals. It is defined as the total electron density of electrons of one spin minus the total electron density of the electrons of the other spin. One of the ways to measure it experimentally is by electron spin resonance, neutron diffraction allows direct mapping of the spin density in 3D-space.
See also
Difference density map
Electron cloud
Electron configuration
Resolution (electron density)
Charge density
Density functional theory
Probability current
References
Electron
Atomic physics
Quantum chemistry
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237636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated%20system | Conjugated system | In chemistry, a conjugated system is a system of connected p orbitals with delocalized electrons in a molecule, which in general lowers the overall energy of the molecule and increases stability. It is conventionally represented as having alternating single and multiple bonds. Lone pairs, radicals or carbenium ions may be part of the system, which may be cyclic, acyclic, linear or mixed. The term "conjugated" was coined in 1899 by the German chemist Johannes Thiele.
Conjugation is the overlap of one p orbital with another across an adjacent
σ bond (in transition metals d orbitals can be involved).
A conjugated system has a region of overlapping p orbitals, bridging the interjacent locations that simple diagrams illustrate as not having a π bond. They allow a delocalization of π electrons across all the adjacent aligned p orbitals.
The π electrons do not belong to a single bond or atom, but rather to a group of atoms.
The largest conjugated systems are found in graphene, graphite, conductive polymers and carbon nanotubes.
Chemical bonding in conjugated systems
Conjugation is possible by means of alternating single and double bonds in which each atom supplies a p orbital perpendicular to the plane of the molecule. However, that is not the only way for conjugation to take place. As long as each contiguous atom in a chain has an available p orbital, the system can be considered conjugated. For example, furan is a five-membered ring with two alternating double bonds flanking an oxygen. The oxygen has two lone pairs, one of which occupies a p orbital perpendicular to the ring on that position, thereby maintaining the conjugation of that five-membered ring by overlap with the perpendicular p orbital on each of the adjacent carbon atoms. The other lone pair remains in plane and does not participate in conjugation.
In general, any sp2 or sp-hybridized carbon or heteroatom, including ones bearing an empty orbital or lone pair orbital, can participate in conjugated systems, though lone pairs do not always participate in a conjugated system. For example, in pyridine, the nitrogen atom already participates in the conjugated system through a formal double bond with an adjacent carbon, so the lone pair remains in the plane of the ring in an sp2 hybrid orbital and does not participate in the conjugation. A requirement for conjugation is orbital overlap; thus, the conjugated system must be planar (or nearly so). As a consequence, lone pairs which do participate in conjugated systems will occupy orbitals of pure p character instead of spn hybrid orbitals typical for nonconjugated lone pairs.
A common model for the treatment of conjugated molecules is a composite valence bond / Hückel molecular orbital theory (VB/HMOT) treatment, in which the σ framework of the molecule is separated from the π system (or systems) of the molecule (see the article on the sigma-pi and equivalent-orbital models for this model and an alternative treatment). Although σ bonding can be treated using a delocalized approach as well, it is generally the π bonding that is being considered when delocalized bonding is invoked in the context of simple organic molecules.
Sigma (σ) framework: The σ framework is described by a strictly localized bonding scheme and consists of σ bonds formed from the interactions between sp3-, sp2-, and sp-hybridized atomic orbitals on the main group elements (and 1s atomic orbitals on hydrogen), together with localized lone pairs derived from filled, nonbonding hybrid orbitals. The interaction that results in σ bonding takes the form of head-to-head overlap of the larger lobe of each hybrid orbital (or the single spherical lobe of a hydrogen 1s orbital). Each atomic orbital contributes one electron when the orbitals overlap pairwise to form two-electron σ bonds, or two electrons when the orbital constitutes a lone pair. These localized orbitals (bonding and non-bonding) are all located in the plane of the molecule, with σ bonds mainly localized between nuclei along the internuclear axis.
Pi (π) system or systems: Orthogonal to the σ framework described above, π bonding occurs above and below the plane of the molecule where σ bonding takes place. The π system(s) of the molecule are formed by the interaction of unhybridized p atomic orbitals on atoms employing sp2- and sp-hybridization. The interaction that results in π bonding takes place between p orbitals that are adjacent by virtue of a σ bond joining the atoms and takes the form of side-to-side overlap of the two equally large lobes that make up each p orbital. Atoms that are sp3-hybridized do not have an unhybridized p orbital available for participation in π bonding and their presence necessarily terminates a π system or separates two π systems. A basis p orbital that takes part in a π system can contribute one electron (which corresponds to half of a formal "double bond"), two electrons (which corresponds to a delocalized "lone pair"), or zero electrons (which corresponds to a formally "empty" orbital). Bonding for π systems formed from the overlap of more than two p orbitals is handled using the Hückel approach to obtain a zeroth order (qualitative) approximation of the π symmetry molecular orbitals that result from delocalized π bonding.
This simple model for chemical bonding is successful for the description of most normal-valence molecules consisting of only s- and p-block elements, although systems that involve electron-deficient bonding, including nonclassical carbocations, lithium and boron clusters, and hypervalent centers require significant modifications in which σ bonds are also allowed to delocalize and are perhaps better treated with canonical molecular orbitals that are delocalized over the entire molecule. Likewise, d- and f-block organometallics are also inadequately described by this simple model. Bonds in strained small rings (such as cyclopropane or epoxide) are not well-described by strict σ/π separation, as bonding between atoms in the ring consists of "bent bonds" or "banana bonds" that are bowed outward and are intermediate in nature between σ and π bonds. Nevertheless, organic chemists frequently use the language of this model to rationalize the structure and reactivity of typical organic compounds.
Electrons in conjugated π systems are shared by all adjacent sp2- and sp-hybridized atoms that contribute overlapping, parallel p atomic orbitals. As such, the atoms and π-electrons involved behave as one large bonded system. These systems are often referred to 'n-center k-electron π-bonds,' compactly denoted by the symbol Π, to emphasize this behavior. For example, the delocalized π electrons in acetate anion and benzene are said to be involved in Π and Π systems, respectively (see the article on three-center four-electron bonding). It is important to recognize that, generally speaking, these multi-center bonds correspond to the occupation of several molecular orbitals (MOs) with varying degrees of bonding or non-bonding character (filling of orbitals with antibonding character is uncommon). Each one is occupied by one or two electrons in accordance with the aufbau principle and Hund's rule. Cartoons showing overlapping p orbitals, like the one for benzene below, show the basis p atomic orbitals before they are combined to form molecular orbitals. In compliance with the Pauli exclusion principle, overlapping p orbitals do not result in the formation of one large MO containing more than two electrons.
Hückel MO theory is commonly used approach to obtain a zeroth order picture of delocalized π molecular orbitals, including the mathematical sign of the wavefunction at various parts of the molecule and the locations of nodal planes. It is particularly easy to apply for conjugated hydrocarbons and provides a reasonable approximation as long as the molecule is assumed to be planar with good overlap of p orbitals.
Stabilization energy
The quantitative estimation of stabilization from conjugation is notoriously contentious and depends on the implicit assumptions that are made when comparing reference systems or reactions. The energy of stabilization is known as the resonance energy when formally defined as the difference in energy between the real chemical species and the hypothetical species featuring localized π bonding that corresponds to the most stable resonance form. This energy cannot be measured, and a precise definition accepted by most chemists will probably remain elusive. Nevertheless, some broad statements can be made. In general, stabilization is more significant for cationic systems than neutral ones. For buta-1,3-diene, a crude measure of stabilization is the activation energy for rotation of the C2-C3 bond. This places the resonance stabilization at around 6 kcal/mol. Comparison of heats of hydrogenation of 1,4-pentadiene and 1,3-pentadiene estimates a slightly more modest value of 3.5 kcal/mol. For comparison, allyl cation has a gas-phase rotation barrier of around 38 kcal/mol, a much greater penalty for loss of conjugation. Comparison of hydride ion affinities of propyl cation and allyl cation, corrected for inductive effects, results in a considerably lower estimate of the resonance energy at 20–22 kcal/mol. Nevertheless, it is clear that conjugation stabilizes allyl cation to a much greater extent than buta-1,3-diene. In contrast to the usually minor effect of neutral conjugation, aromatic stabilization can be considerable. Estimates for the resonance energy of benzene range from around 36–73 kcal/mol.
Generalizations and related concepts
There are also other types of interactions that generalize the idea of interacting p orbitals in a conjugated system. The concept of hyperconjugation holds that certain σ bonds can also delocalize into a low-lying unoccupied orbital of a π system or an unoccupied p orbital. Hyperconjugation is commonly invoked to explain the stability of alkyl substituted radicals and carbocations. Hyperconjugation is less important for species in which all atoms satisfy the octet rule, but a recent computational study supports hyperconjugation as the origin of the increased stability of alkenes with a higher degree of substitution (Zaitsev's rule).
Homoconjugation is an overlap of two π-systems separated by a non-conjugating group, such as CH2. Unambiguous examples are comparatively rare in neutral systems, due to a comparatively minor energetic benefit that is easily overridden by a variety of other factors; however, they are common in cationic systems in which a large energetic benefit can be derived from delocalization of positive charge (see the article on homoaromaticity for details.). Neutral systems generally require constrained geometries favoring interaction to produce significant degrees of homoconjugation. In the example below, the carbonyl stretching frequencies of the IR spectra of the respective compounds demonstrate homoconjugation, or lack thereof, in the neutral ground state molecules.
Due to the partial π character of formally σ bonds in a cyclopropane ring, evidence for transmission of "conjugation" through cyclopropanes has also been obtained.
Two appropriately aligned π systems whose ends meet at right angles can engage in spiroconjugation.
Conjugated cyclic compounds
Cyclic compounds can be partly or completely conjugated. Annulenes, completely conjugated monocyclic hydrocarbons, may be aromatic, nonaromatic or antiaromatic.
Aromatic compounds
Compounds that have a monocyclic, planar conjugated system containing (4n + 2) π-electrons for whole numbers n are aromatic and exhibit an unusual stability. The classic example benzene has a system of six π electrons, which, together with the planar ring of C–C σ bonds containing 12 electrons and radial C–H σ bonds containing six electrons, forms the thermodynamically and kinetically stable benzene ring, the common core of the benzenoid aromatic compounds. For benzene itself, there are two equivalent conjugated contributing Lewis structures (the so-called Kekulé structures) that predominate. The true electronic structure is therefore a quantum-mechanical combination (resonance hybrid) of these contributors, which results in the experimentally observed C–C bonds which are intermediate between single and double bonds and of equal strength and length. In the molecular orbital picture, the six p atomic orbitals of benzene combine to give six molecular orbitals. Three of these orbitals, which lie at lower energies than the isolated p orbital and are therefore net bonding in character (one molecular orbital is strongly bonding, while the other two are equal in energy but bonding to a lesser extent) are occupied by six electrons, while three destabilized orbitals of overall antibonding character remain unoccupied. The result is strong thermodynamic and kinetic aromatic stabilization. Both models describe rings of π electron density above and below the framework of C–C σ bonds.
Nonaromatic and antiaromatic compounds
Not all compounds with alternating double and single bonds are aromatic. Cyclooctatetraene, for example, possesses alternating single and double bonds. The molecule typically adopts a "tub" conformation. Because the p orbitals of the molecule do not align themselves well in this non-planar molecule, the π bonds are essentially isolated and not conjugated. The lack of conjugation allows the 8 π electron molecule to avoid antiaromaticity, a destabilizing effect associated with cyclic, conjugated systems containing 4n π (n = 0, 1, 2, ...) electrons. This effect is due to the placement of two electrons into two degenerate nonbonding (or nearly nonbonding) orbitals of the molecule, which, in addition to drastically reducing the thermodynamic stabilization of delocalization, would either force the molecule to take on triplet diradical character, or cause it to undergo Jahn-Teller distortion to relieve the degeneracy. This has the effect of greatly increasing the kinetic reactivity of the molecule. Because the effect is so unfavorable, cyclooctatetraene takes on a nonplanar conformation and is nonaromatic in character, behaving as a typical alkene. In contrast, derivatives of the cyclooctatetraene dication and dianion have been found to be planar experimentally, in accord with the prediction that they are stabilized aromatic systems with 6 and 10 π electrons, respectively. Because antiaromaticity is a property that molecules try to avoid whenever possible, only a few experimentally observed species are believed to be antiaromatic. Cyclobutadiene and cyclopentadienyl cation are commonly cited as examples of antiaromatic systems.
In pigments
In a conjugated pi-system, electrons are able to capture certain photons as the electrons resonate along a certain distance of p-orbitals - similar to how a radio antenna detects photons along its length. Typically, the more conjugated (longer) the pi-system is, the longer the wavelength of photon can be captured. In other words, with every added adjacent double bond we see in a molecule diagram, we can predict the system will be less likely to absorb yellow light (appear more red to our eyes) and more likely to absorb red light (appear more yellow to our eyes).
Many dyes make use of conjugated electron systems to absorb visible light, giving rise to strong colors. For example, the long conjugated hydrocarbon chain in beta-carotene leads to its strong orange color. When an electron in the system absorbs a photon of light of the right wavelength, it can be promoted to a higher energy level. A simple model of the energy levels is provided by the quantum-mechanical problem of a one-dimensional particle in a box of length L, representing the movement of a π electron along a long conjugated chain of carbon atoms. In this model the lowest possible absorption energy corresponds to the energy difference between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). For a chain of n C=C bonds or 2n carbon atoms in the molecular ground state, there are 2n π electrons occupying n molecular orbitals, so that the energy gap is
Since the box length L increases approximately linearly with the number of C=C bonds n, this means that the energy ΔE of a photon absorbed in the HOMO–LUMO transition is approximately proportional to 1/n. The photon wavelength λ = hc/ΔE is then approximately proportional to n. Although this model is very approximate, λ does in general increase with n (or L) for similar molecules. For example, the HOMO–LUMO absorption wavelengths for conjugated butadiene, hexatriene and octatetraene are 217 nm, 252 nm and 304 nm respectively. However, for good numerical agreement of the particle in a box model with experiment, the single-bond/double-bond bond length alternations of the polyenes must be taken into account. Alternatively, one can use the Hückel method which is also designed to model the electronic structure of conjugated systems.
Many electronic transitions in conjugated π-systems are from a predominantly bonding molecular orbital (MO) to a predominantly antibonding MO (π to π*), but electrons from non-bonding lone pairs can also be promoted to a π-system MO (n to π*) as often happens in charge-transfer complexes. A HOMO to LUMO transition is made by an electron if it is allowed by the selection rules for electromagnetic transitions. Conjugated systems of fewer than eight conjugated double bonds absorb only in the ultraviolet region and are colorless to the human eye. With every double bond added, the system absorbs photons of longer wavelength (and lower energy), and the compound ranges from yellow to red in color. Compounds that are blue or green typically do not rely on conjugated double bonds alone.
This absorption of light in the ultraviolet to visible spectrum can be quantified using ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, and forms the basis for the entire field of photochemistry.
Conjugated systems that are widely used for synthetic pigments and dyes are diazo and azo compounds and phthalocyanine compounds.
Phthalocyanine compounds
Conjugated systems not only have low energy excitations in the visible spectral region but they also accept or donate electrons easily. Phthalocyanines, which, like Phthalocyanine Blue BN and Phthalocyanine Green G, often contain a transition metal ion, exchange an electron with the complexed transition metal ion that easily changes its oxidation state. Pigments and dyes like these are charge-transfer complexes.
Porphyrins and similar compounds
Porphyrins have conjugated molecular ring systems (macrocycles) that appear in many enzymes of biological systems. As a ligand, porphyrin forms numerous complexes with metallic ions like iron in hemoglobin that colors blood red. Hemoglobin transports oxygen to the cells of our bodies. Porphyrin–metal complexes often have strong colors. A similar molecular structural ring unit called chlorin is similarly complexed with magnesium instead of iron when forming part of the most common forms of chlorophyll molecules, giving them a green color. Another similar macrocycle unit is corrin, which complexes with cobalt when forming part of cobalamin molecules, constituting Vitamin B12, which is intensely red. The corrin unit has six conjugated double bonds but is not conjugated all the way around its macrocycle ring.
Chromophores
Conjugated systems form the basis of chromophores, which are light-absorbing parts of a molecule that can cause a compound to be colored. Such chromophores are often present in various organic compounds and sometimes present in polymers that are colored or glow in the dark. Chromophores often consist of a series of conjugated bonds and/or ring systems, commonly aromatic, which can include C–C, C=C, C=O, or N=N bonds.
Conjugated chromophores are found in many organic compounds including azo dyes (also artificial food additives), compounds in fruits and vegetables (lycopene and anthocyanidins), photoreceptors of the eye, and some pharmaceutical compounds such as the following:
See also
Resonance
Hyperconjugation
Cross-conjugation
Polyene
Conjugated microporous polymer
List of conjugated polymers
Metallic bond
References and notes
Physical organic chemistry | [
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237641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Institute%20of%20Neurological%20Disorders%20and%20Stroke | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke | The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is a part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH). It conducts and funds research on brain and nervous system disorders and has a budget of just over US$2.03 billion. The mission of NINDS is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". NINDS has established two major branches for research: an extramural branch that funds studies outside the NIH, and an intramural branch that funds research inside the NIH. Most of NINDS' budget goes to fund extramural research. NINDS' basic science research focuses on studies of the fundamental biology of the brain and nervous system, genetics, neurodegeneration, learning and memory, motor control, brain repair, and synapses. NINDS also funds clinical research related to diseases and disorders of the brain and nervous system, e.g. AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, stroke, and traumatic brain injury.
Established in 1950 by the U. S. Congress as the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness to help handle the casualties of World War II, NINDS grew along with the NIH. During the 1950s and 1960s, NINDS and the NIH had strong Congressional support and received significant appropriations. However, this funding declined in 1968.
History
Impetus for creation
The NINDS was created in 1950 to study and treat the neurological and psychiatric casualties of World War II. Many service people had returned with serious brain injuries, nerve damage, and psychic trauma. According to one estimate, "neurologically disabled veterans in the postwar years accounted for about 25 percent of the patients in general hospitals and 10 percent of those in psychiatric hospitals". In addition, 1.7 million American men had been rejected for military service due to a neuropsychiatric condition or learning disorder.
NINDS was also created as part of an effort to "revive the almost extinct neurological field". At the time, psychiatry and its focus on "emotional tensions due to interpersonal, social, and cultural maladjustments" held sway in US medicine, while neurology, with its focus on the inner workings of the brain, had fallen out of favor. During WWII, all of the administrative positions of the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology held by the US armed services were filled by psychiatrists. After the war, a survey by the Veteran's Administration of the members of the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology found that 48 were neurologists and 456 were psychiatrists.
In 1948, Abe B. Baker, chair of neurology and psychiatry at the University of Minnesota, formed the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) to give young neurologists a national organization to join. However, sustained research in neurology was not possible without a national institute. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, vocal American Neurological Association (ANA) members testified before Congress, arguing that there needed to be such an institute. They articulated the arguments which had already been made on a smaller scale by citizens' groups for diseases such as multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, epilepsy, and blindness.
Members of the research grants committee of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), which had been founded in 1949, contend that they also helped provide an impetus for the new institute, as when reviewing grant applications they saw a significant number of neurological projects and proposed a separate institute for them.
Creation
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Blindness (NINDB), the original name for the NINDS, was officially established on November 22, 1950, three months after President Harry Truman signed the Omnibus Medical Research Act (Public Law 81-692) on August 15, 1950. The legislation had been passed with the efforts of Senator Claude Pepper, who was responsible for helping the majority of the NIH institutes get their start, wealthy New York entrepreneur Mary Lasker, and Fight for Sight founder Mildred Weisenfeld, who had retinitis pigmentosa.
NINDB was not conceived of entirely coherently at the beginning. For example, blindness was added because some concerned citizens raised the issue with Lasker who, in turn asked Congressman Andrew Biemiller to do so in Congress. He simply added it to the bill, being sympathetic with the cause since his mother was blind.
NINDB was "responsible for conducting and supporting research and training in the 200 neurological and sensory disorders that affected 20 million individuals in the United States and were 'the first cause of permanent crippling and the third cause of death.'" Because the etiology of the most common neurological diseases was poorly understood, NINDB undertook both clinical and basic research on the disorders themselves and on treatments; intramural research on the structure of the brain and the nervous system itself; and, finally, extramural research on the entire field of neurology and blindness.
In the beginning, the NINDB had an Advisory Council made of six medical professional and lay people, all appointed by the U. S. Surgeon General. They formulated the path taken by the institute and granted its funds. The NINDB's first annual budget was US$1.23 million. This came from the existing NIH budget, as Congress had not appropriated any new funds for the institute when it was created. Although the NINDB's budget was increased to $1.99 million in 1952, there was still no money for new research programs. Moreover, the institute had neither a clinic nor a lab. As Ingrid Farreras writes in her history, "The research conducted by the institute was still supported by the NIMH [National Institute of Mental Health] and the institute's survival was unclear."
The NINDB's first director, Pearce Bailey, was appointed on October 3, 1951, and came with experience from the Neuropsychiatry Division at Philadelphia Naval Hospital. He appointed a representative from the AAN to meet with citizens' groups and they met together to generate a unified set of demands. As a result, the National Committee for Research in Neurological Disorders (NCRND) was formed. The NCRND presented a coherent research proposal to Congress and in 1953 the NINDB received a separate line item budget of $4.5 million. The institute was now able to fund its research. However, until 1961, the NINDB and NIMH shared research facilities and scientists, often collaborating on projects.
1951–1968: Strong political alliances and adding stroke
Bailey established the extramural grants and field investigations into retrolental fibroplasia, geographic distribution of multiple sclerosis, and projects related to mental retardation and cerebral palsy. In 1955, then U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy announced, to the organization United Cerebral Palsy, that the institute was "planning to launch an all-out attack against the dread spectre of cerebral palsy". By 1959, a study to look at how gestation affected cerebral palsy had been started.
During the 1950s, Mary Lasker, Senator Lister Hill and Representative John E. Fogarty ensured continued financial support for NINDB. Together, the two Congressmen held hearings to establish the NIH budget and lobbied hard for more funds. They were assisted by Lasker, who had extensive Washington connections and was aided by Mike Gorman, a journalist and promoter of mental health. The new director of the NIH, James Shannon, a politically astute man who also had an ability to pick talented scientists, helped solidify what became "the golden years of science at NIH". With Shannon, Fogarty, Hill, and Lasker working together, the NIH's budget as a whole increased more than tenfold between 1955 and 1965. This directly benefited NINDB, as its budget rose and fell along with general budget.
Throughout the 1960s, under the directorship of Richard L. Masland, the NINDB sponsored the ground-breaking research of Carleton Gajdusek and Joseph Gibbs. Gajdusek eventually won a Nobel Prize for his work on kuru in New Guinea. The NINDB also set up clinical research centers at several universities as well as targeted research programs, such as the head injury program and the epilepsy initiative.
Stroke was added to the institute's mandate in the 1960s and in October 1968 the institute became the "National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke". Lasker was prompted to address the disease when Joseph P. Kennedy, father of then-President John F. Kennedy had one. She convinced him that a stroke commission would be a good idea and they agreed that Michael E. DeBakey would be a good director. After Kennedy was assassinated, she approached President Lyndon Johnson, who established the President's Commission on Heart Disease, Cancer and Stroke in 1964 with DeBakey at its head. The commission produced a report that resulted in a bill being passed in 1965 that established centers for the diseases across the country. In his history of the NINDS, Rowland explains that "authorities later doubted that they had much lasting impact on stroke theory or therapy." This example, he notes, "illustrates the tension between advocates of basic research and those who wanted immediate application". Johnson and Lasker wanted to see people benefit right away while the director of the NIH, Shannon, and other scientists were more cautious about using knowledge they did not fully understand and skeptical of the "disease-of-the-month approach". They had a "bedrock belief in the importance of basic science".
The political alliance that between Shannon, Lasker, Fogarty, and Hill began to splinter at the end of the 1960s. In 1967 when he wrote a 20-year history of the NIH, Shannon did not mention Lasker's contributions. By 1968, Fogarty had died and Hill and Johnson had declined to run for reelection. With the election of Richard Nixon, the tone of research funding changed.
In general, according to Rowland, "there was a feeling that vision research was not being adequately at NINDB". In 1967, a bill to create a separate eye institute was drafted, and in August 1968, federal legislation created the National Eye Institute, to build an enlarged program based on the blindness research that had been conducted by NINDB.
1968–1980
Starting in the late 1960s, the budget of the NIH as a whole was reduced, which affected NINDS. Training programs were cut. President Richard Nixon's administration directed the institutes to work more aggressively on applied research and projects that would directly affect patients. Natalie Spingarn argues in her book about the politics of health research that the Nixon administration resisted scientists who did were not politically sympathetic to the president. Shannon has described the years between 1967 and 1970 as a time of "progressive constraints": the budgetary process was "chaotic", with "Presidential vetoes, overrides by Congress, proposed recission of funds allocated, acceptance or rejection of these recissions by Congress, impoundment of appropriations, and their later release by court action". In general, increases in the NIH budget during the 1970s and 1980s often did not exceed inflation. Edward F. MacNichol, who was director of NINDS between 1968 and 1973 described his tenure as the end of a "long period of NIH prosperity". Rowland writes that "these years of financial insecurity may have been the most difficult time in the history of NINDS". However, he notes the achievements they made as well. For example, King Engel and his team discovered that prednisone could effectively treat myasthenia gravis and acetazolamide was shown to prevent periodic paralysis.
In March 1975 the institute was again renamed, becoming the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke (NINCDS).
1980s
In November 1988, some of NINCDS's research was moved to the newly created National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, and NINCDS was renamed the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, its current name.
1990s
During the 1990s, Senators Arlen Specter and Tom Harkin were responsible for pushing a large increase in the NIH budget as a whole. They doubled it in five years and subsequent years saw annual increases of 15 percent.
2000s
The NINDS budget passed $1 billion for the first time in fiscal 2000; the bulk of the budget is dedicated to extramural research and investigator-initiated grants (intramural research accounts for about 10 percent of the total).
Mission
The mission of the NINDS, as stated on their website, is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". The NINDS notes that there are over 600 such disorders, with some of the common being stroke, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and autism. In an effort to achieve their goal, the NINDS "supports and conducts research, both basic and clinical, on the normal and diseased nervous system, fosters the training of investigators in the basic and clinical neurosciences, and seeks better understanding, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of neurological disorders."
Research
General
"Some important areas of NINDS basic research include: biology of the cells of the nervous system, brain and nervous system development, genetics of the brain, cognition and behavior, neurodegeneration, brain plasticity and repair, neural signaling, learning and memory, motor control and integration, sensory function, and neural channels, synapses, and circuits."
"Some key areas of NINDS clinical research include: neurological consequences of AIDS, Alzheimer disease, brain tumors, developmental disorders, epilepsy, motor neuron diseases, muscular dystrophies, multiple sclerosis, neurogenetic disorders, pain, Parkinson disease and other neurodegenerative disorders, sleep disorders, spinal cord injury, stroke, and traumatic brain injury."
"Most NINDS-funded research is conducted by extramural scientists in public and private institutions, such as universities, medical schools, and hospitals. NINDS intramural scientists, working in the Institute’s laboratories, branches, and clinics, also conduct research in most of the major areas of neuroscience and on many of the most important and challenging neurological disorders. The Institute’s interests, however, are not limited to NINDS programs. The Institute collaborates with other NIH components, as well as with other federal agencies, and with voluntary, professional and commercial organizations."
Specific
Javits Neuroscience Investigator Award
The Javits Neuroscience Investigator Award (R37) was established in October 1983 to honor the late U. S. Senator Jacob K. Javits, "a strong advocate for support of research in a wide variety of disorders of the brain and nervous system" who "was himself afflicted with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)."
Douglas G. Stuart was an early awardee among the over 600 of these up-to-seven-year awards granted from 1984 to date
Landis Award for Outstanding Mentorship
The Landis Award for Outstanding Mentorship is named after former NINDS Director Dr. Story Landis.
Structure
Director
Walter J. Koroshetz, M.D. was selected Director of NINDS on June 11, 2015. He began working at NINDS in 2007 as Deputy Director, and he served as Acting Director from October 2014 through June 2015.
Koroshetz received his undergraduate degree from Georgetown University and his medical degree from the University of Chicago. He trained in neurology at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), after which he did post-doctoral studies in cellular neurophysiology at MGH and at Harvard Medical School, studying mechanisms of excitoxicity and neuroprotection. Before joining NINDS, Koroshetz served as Vice Chair of the neurology service and Director of stroke and neurointensive care services at MGH. He was a professor of Neurology at Harvard and led neurology resident training at MGH between 1990 and 2007.
Koroshetz has been granted many honors in his distinguished career and is an elected fellow of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Neurological Association.
Division of Extramural Research
The Division of Extramural Research funds programs outside of the NIH which "support research, research training, and career development". The Division itself is broken down into "program clusters" that are "organized around critical, cross-cutting scientific topics that hold great promise for advancing knowledge and reducing the burden of neurological disease". They are: Repair and Plasticity; Systems and Cognitive Neuroscience; Channels, Synapses, and Circuits; Neurogenetics; Neural Environment; and Neurodegeneration. Other working groups include: the Clinical Trials group, the Office of Minority Health and Research, the Technology Development group; and the Office of International Activities, and the Office of Training and Career Development. Within these areas, the Division tracks research and development and determines the necessity and areas for further research, analyzing and reporting on its findings to the NIH and the nation. It pursues research with other NIH institutes. Finally, it consults with and outside scientists, health organizations, and medical associational to help identify research needs and develops necessary programs to meet them.
Division of Intramural Research
The Division of Intramural Research is "one of the largest neuroscience research centers in the world". Scientists here do research in the "basic, translational, and clinical neurosciences", covering a wide range of topics, including "molecular biophysics, synapses and circuits, neuronal development, integrative neuroscience, brain imaging and neurological disorders".
List of directors
Notes
References
Farreras, Ingrid G. "Establishment of the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness." Mind, Brain, Body, and Behavior: Foundations of Neuroscience and Behavioral Research at the National Institutes of Health. Eds. Ingrid G. Farreras, Caroline Hannaway, and Victoria A. Harden. Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2004. .
Rowland, Lewis P. NINDS at 50: an incomplete history celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. New York: Demos Medical Pub, 2003.
External links
Official website
NINDS account on USAspending.gov
Medical research institutes
Neurological Disorders and Stroke
Neuroscience research centers in the United States
Government agencies established in 1950
Stroke organizations | [
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237647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forearm | Forearm | The forearm is the region of the upper limb between the elbow and the wrist. The term forearm is used in anatomy to distinguish it from the arm, a word which is most often used to describe the entire appendage of the upper limb, but which in anatomy, technically, means only the region of the upper arm, whereas the lower "arm" is called the forearm. It is homologous to the region of the leg that lies between the knee and the ankle joints, the crus.
The forearm contains two long bones, the radius and the ulna, forming the two radioulnar joints. The interosseous membrane connects these bones. Ultimately, the forearm is covered by skin, the anterior surface usually being less hairy than the posterior surface.
The forearm contains many muscles, including the, flexors and extensors of the wrist, flexors and extensors of the digits, a flexor of the elbow (brachioradialis), and pronators and supinators that turn the hand to face down or upwards, respectively. In cross-section, the forearm can be divided into two fascial compartments. The posterior compartment contains the extensors of the hands, which are supplied by the radial nerve. The anterior compartment contains the flexors and is mainly supplied by the median nerve. The flexor muscles are more massive than the extensors because they work against gravity and act as anti-gravity muscles. The ulnar nerve also runs the length of the forearm.
The radial and ulnar arteries and their branches supply the blood to the forearm. These usually run on the anterior face of the radius and ulna down the whole forearm. The main superficial veins of the forearm are the cephalic, median antebrachial and the basilic vein. These veins can be used for cannularisation or venipuncture, although the cubital fossa is a preferred site for getting blood.
Structure
Bones and joints
The bones of the forearm are the radius (located on the lateral side) and the ulna (located on the medial side)
Radius
Proximally, the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna at the elbow. The articulation between the radius and the ulna at the elbow is known as the proximal radioulnar joint.
Distally, it articulates with the ulna again at the distal radioulnar joint. It forms part of the wrist joint by articulating with the scaphoid at its lateral aspect and with the lunate at its medial aspect.
Ulna
Proximally, the trochlear notch of the ulna articulates with the trochlea of the humerus and the radial notch articulates with the head of the radius at the elbow.
Distally it forms part of the distal radioulnar joint and also articulates with the wrist.
Muscles
"E/I" refers to "extrinsic" or "intrinsic". The intrinsic muscles of the forearm act on the forearm, meaning, across the elbow joint and the proximal and distal radioulnar joints (resulting in pronation or supination, whereas the extrinsic muscles act upon the hand and wrist. In most cases, the extrinsic anterior muscles are flexors, while the extrinsic posterior muscles are extensors.
The brachioradialis, flexor of the forearm, is unusual in that it is located in the posterior compartment, but it is actually in the anterior portion of the forearm.
The anconeus is considered by some as a part of the posterior compartment of the arm.
Nerves
See separate nerve articles for details on divisions proximal to the elbow and distal to the wrist; see Brachial plexus for the origins of the median, radial and ulnar nerves.
Median nerve – interior nerve of the anterior compartment (PT, FCR, PL, FDS).
anterior interosseous nerve (supplies FPL, lat. 1/2 of FDP, PQ).
Radial nerve – supplies muscles of the posterior compartment (ECRL, ECRB).
Superficial branch of radial nerve
Deep branch of radial nerve, becomes Posterior interosseus nerve and supplies muscles of the posterior compartment (ED, EDM, ECU, APL, EPB, EPL, EI).
Ulnar nerve – supplies some medial muscles (FCU, med. 1/2 of FDP).
Vessels
Brachial artery
Radial artery
Radial recurrent artery
dorsal metacarpal artery
Princeps pollicis artery
Ulnar artery
Anterior ulnar recurrent artery and posterior ulnar recurrent artery
Common interosseous artery
Posterior interosseous artery
Anterior interosseous artery
Other structures
Interosseous membrane of forearm
Annular ligament of ulna
Function
The forearm can be brought closer to the upper arm (flexed) and brought away from the upper arm (extended) due to movement at the elbow. The forearm can also be rotated so that the palm of the hand rotates inwards (pronated) and rotated back so that the palm rotates outwards (supinated) due to movement at the elbow and the distal radioulnar joint.
Clinical significance
A fracture of the forearm can be classified as to whether it involves only the ulna (ulnar fracture), only the radius (radius fracture), or both radioulnar fracture.
For treatment of children with torus fractures of the forearm splinting appears to work better than casting.
Genetically determined disorders like hereditary multiple exostoses can lead to hand and forearm deformities. Hereditary multiple exostoses is due growth disturbance of the epiphyses of the radius and ulna, the two bones of the forearm.
Additional images
See also
Forearm flexors
References
Upper limb anatomy | [
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237649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myotomy | Myotomy | Myotomy is a surgical procedure in which muscle is cut.A common example of a myotomy is the Heller myotomy.
See also
List of surgeries by type
References
Surgical procedures and techniques | [
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237656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheb | Cheb | Cheb (; ) is a town in the Karlovy Vary Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 32,000 inhabitants. It lies on the river Ohře.
Before the 1945 expulsion of the German-speaking population, the town was the centre of the German-speaking region known as Egerland, part of the Northern Austro-Bavarian dialect area. The town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation.
Administrative parts
Cheb is divided into the following parts:
Bříza
Cetnov
Dolní Dvory
Dřenice
Háje
Horní Dvory
Hradiště
Hrozňatov
Cheb
Chvoječná
Jindřichov
Klest
Loužek
Pelhřimov
Podhoří
Podhrad
Skalka
Střížov
Tršnice
Name and etymology
The name of the town was in 1061 recorded as Egire; in 1179 it was known as Egra; from 1322 as Eger and the surrounding territory as Regio Egere and Provincia Egrensis; after the 14th century also as Cheb or Chba. From 1850 it was given the twin official names of Eger and Cheb.
The name of Cheb is derived from the old-Czech word heb (modern-Czech oheb, ohyb), which means "bend". It is related to bends of the river Ohře.
Geography
Cheb is located about southwest of Karlovy Vary on the border with Germany. The town lies on the river Ohře at the foot of the Fichtel Mountains.
There are two large reservoirs in the municipal territory: Skalka (north-east of the town and fed by the Ohře) and Jesenice (south-east of the town and fed by the Wondreb).
Climate
History
The earliest settlement in the area was a Slavic stronghold at what is now known as the Cheb Castle complex, north of the town-centre. In 807 the district of today's Cheb was included in the new margraviate of East Franconia, which belonged at first to the Babenbergs, but from 906 to the margraves (marquis) of Vohburg. Depold II of Vohburg built the castle about which the town then grew. In 1179 town status was achieved. In 1149, by the marriage of Adelheid of Vohburg to the emperor Frederick I, Eger (Cheb) came into the possession of the House of Swabia, and remained in the hands of the emperors until the early 13th century, during which time it became an Imperial Free City.
In 1265, it was taken by the king Ottokar II of Bohemia, who retained it for eleven years. After being repeatedly transferred from one power to the other, according to the preponderance of Bohemia or the empire, the town and territory were finally incorporated into Bohemia in 1322, under John of Bohemia. Several imperial privileges, however, continued to be enjoyed by the town until 1849.
On 5 May 1389, during a Reichstag between King Wenceslaus IV and a group of Imperial Free Cities of south-west Germany, the Peace of Eger was agreed upon, after Wenceslaus had failed to secure his interests in the town.
It suffered severely during the Hussite Wars, during the Swedish invasion in 1631 and 1647, and in the War of the Austrian Succession in 1742. In 1634, during the Thirty Years' War, Albrecht von Wallenstein was killed here. George of Poděbrady gave away his daughter in marriage and fathered two sons in the town. From the Middle Ages until 1945, the lands around the town were known by the German name Egerland.
In 1723, Cheb became a free royal town. The northern quarter of the town was devastated by a large fire in 1809, and many middle-age buildings were irreplaceably destroyed. Until 1851, the renowned spa-town of Františkovy Lázně belonged to the Magistrate of Cheb. The carbonated mineral water coming from these springs was delivered to spa visitors residing in Cheb.
Geographers of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy proclaimed the nearby 939m high Tillen (Dileň in Czech) as the geographical centre of Europe. This claim was documented on a copper plaque mounted at the summit.
Austrian National Socialism and hence German National Socialism can trace its origins to Cheb when Franko Stein transferred a small newspaper (Der Hammer) from Vienna to Cheb in 1897. There he organized a German workers congress called the Deutschvölkischer Arbeitertag, which published the 25-point program.
The terms of the 1919 Treaty of St. Germain triggered civil unrest between the Sudeten German population and the new Czechoslovak administration, just as in the rest of the Sudetenland. As elsewhere, protests in the town – now officially named Cheb – were eventually suppressed by force.
On 3 October 1938, the town was visited by Adolf Hitler; shortly afterward German troops marched into the Sudetenland and seized control. From 1938 until 1945, the town was annexed to Germany and it was one of the municipalities in Sudetenland. On 1 May 1939, the town split away from the surrounding district to form its own municipal district together with the settlement of Matzelbach, and gave its name to the most westerly of the three administrative regions of the Sudetenland. The administrative seat of the Regierungspräsident lay in Karlsbad, however.
Cheb was liberated by the 97th Infantry Division of the US Army on 25 April 1945.
After the end of World War II the region was returned to Czechoslovakia. Under the Beneš decrees of the same year, the German-speaking majority of the town was dispossessed of their homes and property, and was forcibly expelled from the country. In 1954, the town of Amberg in Germany adopted the expelled Sudeten German population from Cheb and the surrounding districts.
Demography
In 15th century, Cheb was one of the larger towns of Bohemia with inhabitants 7,300 and about 400 houses, plus 200 in suburbs. In 1910, only 0.5% of the population were Czech.
In 1930, 11% were Czech. After World War II, due to the expulsion of ethnic Germans and resettlement of Czechs, the population significantly dropped.
The current population includes a large group of Vietnamese, whose families were invited to the country as guest workers during the Communist era, and Romani, who were resettled after World War II.
Economy
After the Velvet Revolution many goods were cheaper in Cheb than in nearby Germany, and it became common for Germans to shop and spend time in Cheb. Because of this the town developed bilingual signage and currency exchange points.
Transport
Cheb Airport is located east of the town centre. It is the second-oldest airport in the country and the oldest still existing.
Education
Cheb is known for its Cheb Violin Making School.
Sights
On the rock to the north-west lies Cheb castle, built in the 12th century and now mostly in ruins.
The main attractions are the Chapel of Saints Erhard and Ursula, the Black Tower and the ruins of a palace; all from around 1180. The chapel has two storeys; the lower storey is in Romanesque style, while the upper storey is Gothic. An eight-cornered opening connects the two storeys. The upper-storey contains a ribbed vault supported on four polygonal columns with statues depicting sins, including a statue of a prostitute and Onan. In the banquet room of this castle, Wallenstein's officers Terzky, Kinsky, Illo and Neumann were assassinated on 25 February 1634. Wallenstein himself was murdered few hours later by Captain Devereux in the burgomaster's house at the main square. The house, a 15th-century gothic town hall (Pachelbel House), was transformed in 1872, it contains many historical relics and antiquities of the town of Cheb.
On the Market Place dating from the 13th century are a group of houses originating from the late-Gothic period known as Špalíček. This distinctive feature of the market place is a bizarre complex of eleven houses. The outline of the two blocks can still be seen on the oldest existing records of 1472.
The Green House on the market place belonged to the well-known Wrendl dynasty, whose family crest lies above the entrance. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe frequently spent time here.
The Church of St. Nicholas was established in the 13th century as a three-naved basilica, of which the western portal and the lower part of the tower remain in place. The three-part nave, presbytery and sacristy stem from the Gothic era. After the fire of 1742, the tower was rebuilt with a baroque cupola, after the design of the indigenous architect Balthasar Neumann. The top of the twin steeples were destroyed by German artillery fire during World War II and restored in summer 2008.
The Franciscan Church is located in the town centre. The Church of St. Clara was built according to a design of Christoph Dientzenhofer between 1708 and 1711.
The early-baroque pilgrimage complex Maria Loreto is located in a local part of Starý Hrozňatov. The annex, which had lain in ruins since 1990 has since been renovated through the initiative of an inhabitant of the neighbouring town Waldsassen.
In popular culture
In Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes story "A Scandal in Bohemia", it is referred to by Holmes as 'Egria'.
Notable people
Johannes Widmann (c. 1460 – after 1498), German mathematician
Johann Habermann (1516–1590), German Lutheran theologian
Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634), military leader and statesman; died here
Johann Georg Macasius (1617–1653), German physician
Pavel Klein (1652–1717), Jesuit missionary, botanist, writer
Johann Balthasar Neumann (1687–1753), German architect and military artillery engineer
Hugo Zuckermann (1881–1914), Jewish-Austrian poet
Rudolf Serkin (1903–1991), Czech-American pianist
Erich Riedl (1933–2018), German politician
Neda Al-Hilali (born 1938), American fiber artist and weaver
Peter Glotz (1939–2005), German politician and social scientist
Norbert Singer (born 1939), German automotive engineer
Pavel Nedvěd (born 1972), footballer, 2004 Ballon d'Or winner
Twin towns – sister cities
Cheb is twinned with:
Bắc Ninh, Vietnam
Hof, Germany
Nizhny Tagil, Russia
Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, Cheb has also had cordial relationships with the neighbouring German towns of Waldsassen and Marktredwitz.
Gallery
References
External links
Cheb Castle site
Church of Maria Loreto
Hardeck Castle
Euregio Egrensis
Populated places in Cheb District
Cities and towns in the Czech Republic | [
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237658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20de%20Gu%C3%A9rin | Maurice de Guérin | Georges-Maurice de Guérin (4 August 181019 July 1839) was a French poet. His works were imbued with a passion for nature whose intensity reached almost to worship and was enriched by pagan elements. According to Sainte-Beuve, no French poet or painter rendered "the feeling for nature, the feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign principle of life" as well as Guérin.
Biography
Descended from nobility, Maurice de Guérin was born at the château of Le Cayla in Andillac, Tarn. He was raised in a strict Roman Catholic family and educated at a religious seminary in Toulouse before attending the Collège Stanislas de Paris, where he met Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly—who became his lifelong friend.
After graduating from Collége Stanislas in 1831, Guérin decided against a traditional religious life and instead went to Brittany to enter a radical Christian socialist society founded by Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais. However, Lamennais came into conflict with the Holy See in 1833 and the society was disbanded, with Lamennais and Guérin severing their ties altogether with Christianity. Guérin then moved to Paris, where he composed his two major works, La Bacchante and Le Centaure, but became sick in 1837. He partially recovered from his illness in 1838 and in November of that year agreed to an arranged marriage with Caroline de Gervain, a noble lady of some fortune. However, he soon fell ill again and died of consumption in July 1839 at the young age of 28. None of his works had been published. He destroyed many of his poems before his death.
Dissemination
Guérin's remaining works were spread between family and acquaintances all over France. His journal went with one of his friends to Louisiana and Alabama and came back to Caen, where it survived the bombings of 1944.
In 1840, a memorial of Maurice de Guérin was published in the Revue des deux Mondes by George Sand, to which she added two fragments of his writings—one a composition in prose, and the other a short poem. Reliquiae, a work which included Guérin's Le Centaure in addition to his journal and a number of his letters and several poems, was edited by G. S. Trébutien, accompanied with a biographical and critical notice by Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve and published in 1861. A new edition, titled Journal, lettres et poèmes, followed in 1862, and an English translation of the latter was published by Leypoldt and Holt in 1867. Guérin's sister, Eugénie, also published some of his works after his death.
References
Further reading
Royde-Smith, Naomi. The Idol and the Shrine: Being the Story of Maurice de Guérin (1949)
External links
1810 births
1839 deaths
19th-century French male writers
19th-century poets
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni
French male poets
French untitled nobility
People from Tarn (department)
Tuberculosis deaths in France | [
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237661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owlet-nightjar | Owlet-nightjar | Owlet-nightjars are small crepuscular birds related to the nightjars and frogmouths. Most are native to New Guinea, but some species extend to Australia, the Moluccas, and New Caledonia. A flightless species from New Zealand is extinct. There is a single monotypic family Aegothelidae with the genus Aegotheles.
Owlet-nightjars are insectivores which hunt mostly in the air but sometimes on the ground; their soft plumage is a cryptic mixture of browns and paler shades, they have fairly small, weak feet (but larger and stronger than those of a frogmouth or a nightjar), a tiny bill that opens extraordinarily wide, surrounded by prominent whiskers. The wings are short, with 10 primaries and about 11 secondaries; the tail long and rounded.
Systematics
A comprehensive 2003 study analyzing mtDNA sequences Cytochrome b and ATPase subunit 8 suggests that 11 living species of owlet-nightjar should be recognized, as well as another that became extinct early in the second millennium AD.
The relationship between the owlet-nightjars and the (traditional) Caprimulgiformes has long been controversial and obscure and remains so today: in the 19th century they were regarded as a subfamily of the frogmouths, and they are still generally considered to be related to the frogmouths and/or the nightjars. It appears though that they are not as closely related to either as previously thought, and that the owlet-nightjars share a more recent common ancestor with the Apodiformes. As has been suggested on occasion since morphological studies of the cranium in the 1960s, they are thus considered a distinct order, Aegotheliformes. This, the caprimulgiform lineage(s), and the Apodiformes, are postulated to form a clade called Cypselomorphae, with the owlet-nightjars and the Apodiformes forming the clade Daedalornithes.
In form and habits, however, they are very similar to both caprimulgiform group – or, at first glance, to small owls with huge eyes. The ancestors of the swifts and hummingbirds, two groups of birds which are morphologically very specialized, seem to have looked very similar to a small owlet-nightjar, possessing strong legs and a wide gape, while the legs and feet are very reduced in today's swifts and hummingbirds, and the bill is narrow in the latter.
Owlet-nightjars are an exclusively Australasian group, but close relatives apparently thrived all over Eurasia in the late Paleogene.
Taxonomy
Family Aegothelidae
Genus Quipollornis Rich & McEvey 1977 (Early/Middle Miocene of New South Wales)
†Quipollornis koniberi Rich & McEvey 1977
Genus Aegotheles
†New Zealand owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles novaezealandiae (Scarlett 1968) (prehistoric; formerly Megaegotheles)
New Caledonian owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles savesi Layard & Layard 1881
Feline owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles insignis Salvadori 1876
Starry owlet-nightjar or spangled owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles tatei Rand 1941
Moluccan owlet-nightjar or long-whiskered owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles crinifrons (Bonaparte 1850)
Australian owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles cristatus (Shaw 1790)
A. c. cristatus (Shaw 1790)
A. c. tasmanicus Mathews 1918
Vogelkop owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles affinis Salvadori 1876
Barred owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles bennettii Salvadori & Albertis 1875
A. b. bennettii Salvadori & Albertis 1875
A. b. plumifer Ramsay 1883
A. b. terborghi Diamond 1967
A. b. wiedenfeldi Laubmann 1914
Wallace's owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles wallacii Gray 1859
A. w. gigas Rothschild 1931
A. w. manni Diamond 1969
A. w. wallacii Gray 1859
Archbold's owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles archboldi Rand 1941
Mountain owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles albertisi Sclater 1874
A. a. albertisi Sclater 1874 (Arfak owlet-nightjar)
A. a. wondiwoi Mayr & Rand 1936
A. a. salvadorii (Hartert 1892) (Salvadori's owlet-nightjar)
A fossil proximal right tarsometatarsus (MNZ S42800) was found at the Bannockburn Formation of the Manuherikia Group near the Manuherikia River in Otago, New Zealand. Dating from the Early to Middle Miocene (Altonian, 19-16 million years ago), it seems to be of an owlet-nightjar ancestral to A. novaezealandiae.
Footnotes
References
Dumbacher, John P. ; Pratt, Thane K. & Fleischer, Robert C. (2003): Phylogeny of the owlet-nightjars (Aves: Aegothelidae) based on mitochondrial DNA sequence. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 29(3): 540–549. PDF fulltext
Mayr, Gerald (2002): Osteological evidence for paraphyly of the avian order Caprimulgiformes (nightjars and allies). J. Ornithol. 143(1): 82–97. PDF fulltext
Simonetta, A.M. (1967): Cinesi e morfologia del cranio negli Uccelli non passeriformi. Studio su varie tendenze evolutive. Part II – Striges, Caprimulgiformes ed Apodiformes ["Cranial kinesis and morphology of non-passerine birds. Study of various evolutionary tendencies. Part II – Striges, Caprimulgiformes and Apodiformes"]. [In Italian] Archivio Zoologico Italiano 52: 1–35.
Worthy, Trevor H.; Tennyson, A.J.D.; Jones, C.; McNamara, J.A. & Douglas, B.J. (2007): Miocene waterfowl and other birds from central Otago, New Zealand. J. Syst. Palaeontol. 5(1): 1–39. (HTML abstract)
Aegotheliformes
Nightjars
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors | [
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237662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A9nie%20de%20Gu%C3%A9rin | Eugénie de Guérin | Eugénie de Guérin (29 January 1805 – 31 May 1848) was a French writer and the sister of the poet Maurice de Guérin.
Her Journals (1861, Eng. trans., 1865) and her Lettres (1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the possession of gifts of as rare an order as those of her brother, though of a somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a form more strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her brother's loss of his early Catholic faith. Five years older than he, she cherished a love for him which was blended with a somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death she began the collection and publication of the scattered fragments of his writings. She died, however, before her task was completed.
See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. xii.) and Nouveaux Lundis (vol. iii.); G Merlet, Causeries sur les femmes et les hIres (Paris, 1865); Selden, L'Esprit des femmes de notre temps (Paris, 1864); Marelle, Eugénie et Maurice de Guérin (Berlin, 1869); Harriet Parr, M. and E. de Guérin, a monograph (London, 1870); and Matthew Arnold's essays on Maurice and Eugénie de Guérin, in his Essays in Criticism.
References
Suggested reading
Guérin, Eugénie de. Journal of Eugénie de Guérin. 1865. Ed. G.S. Trébutien. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2005.
Raoul, Valerie. "Women's Diaries as Life-Savings: Who Decides Whose Life is Saved? The Journals of Eugénie de Guérin and Elisabeth Leseur." Biography 24:1 (Winter 2001): 140–151.
Summers, Mary. Eugénie de Guérin: A Life of Reaction. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1997.
1805 births
1848 deaths
French diarists
French religious writers
Women diarists
Women religious writers
19th-century French women writers
19th-century diarists | [
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237663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20list | Civil list | A civil list is a list of individuals to whom money is paid by the government, typically for service to the state or as honorary pensions. It is a term especially associated with the United Kingdom and its former colonies of Canada, India, New Zealand, Singapore and many more. It was originally defined as expenses supporting the monarch.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the Civil List was, until 2011, the annual grant that covered some expenses associated with the Sovereign performing their official duties, including those for staff salaries, state visits, public engagements, ceremonial functions and the upkeep of the Royal Households. The cost of transport and security for the Royal Family, together with property maintenance and other sundry expenses, were covered by separate grants from individual government departments. The Civil List was abolished under the Sovereign Grant Act 2011.
History
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the expenses relating to the support of the monarch were largely separated from the ordinary expenses of the state managed by the Exchequer. This was a reaction to the reigns of Charles II of England and James II of England (also known as James VII of Scotland), whose large revenues had made them independent of Parliament.
In 1697, Parliament under William III fixed the Crown's peacetime revenue at £1,200,000 per year; of this about £700,000 was appropriated towards the Civil List. The sovereigns were expected to use this to defray some of the costs of running the civil government (such as the Civil Service, judges' and ambassadors' salaries) and the payment of pensions, as well as the expenses of the Royal Household and the sovereign's personal expenses. It was from this that the term "Civil List" arose, to distinguish it from the statement of military and naval expenses which were funded through special taxation.
The accession of George III in 1760 marked a significant change in royal finances. As his predecessor, George II, had failed to meet all of the specific costs of the civil government in accordance with the previous arrangement, it was decided by the Civil List Act 1760 that George III would surrender the hereditary revenues from the Crown Estate to Parliament for the duration of his reign, and in return Parliament would assume responsibility for most of the costs of the civil government. Parliament would continue to pay the Civil List, which would defray the expenses of the Royal Household and some of the costs of the civil government. George III, however, retained the income from the Duchy of Lancaster.
On the accession of William IV in 1830, the sum voted for the Civil List was restricted to the expenses of the Royal Household, removing any residual responsibilities associated with the cost of the civil government. This finally removed any links between the Sovereign and the cost of the civil government. On the accession of Queen Victoria, the Civil List Act 1837—which reiterated the principles of the civil list system and specified all prior Acts as in force—was passed. Upon the accession of subsequent monarchs down to Queen Elizabeth II, this constitutional arrangement was confirmed, but the historical term "Civil List" remained even though the grant had nothing to do with the expenses of the civil government.
In 1931 George V decided to eschew the £50,000 due to him from the Civil List as a result of the Great Depression. As Keeper of the Privy Purse, Sir Frederick Ponsonby wrote to Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald to say that George had felt it was possible to reject the grant by "exercise of the most rigid economy" and that Queen Mary and other royal family members were "desirous that reductions in these grants should be made during this time of national crisis".
Elizabeth II
The last British monarch to receive Civil List payments was Elizabeth II. The Civil List for her reign lasted from her accession in 1952 until its abolition in 2012. During this period the Queen, as head of state, used the Civil List to defray some of the official expenditure of the monarchy.
Only the Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh and the Queen Mother ever received direct funding from the Civil List. The Prince of Wales and his immediate family (the Duchess of Cornwall, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, and Prince Harry) received their income from the Duchy of Cornwall. The state duties and staff of other members of the Royal Family were funded from a parliamentary annuity, the amount of which was fully refunded by the Queen to the Treasury. The Queen's consort (Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh) received £359,000 per year. The Queen was permitted to claim these amounts as a deduction against her gross income from personal investments and other sources—the net amount, after deductions, was subject to normal income tax.
The last two decades of the Civil List were marked by surpluses and deficits. Surpluses in the 1991–2000 Civil List caused by low inflation and the efforts of the Queen and her staff to make the Royal Household more efficient led to the accrual of a £35.3 million reserve by late 2000. Consequently, the Civil List was fixed at £7.9 million annually in 2001, the same amount as in 1991, and remained at that level until its abolition. The reserve was then used to make up the shortfall in the Civil List during the subsequent decade. The Civil List Act 1972 allowed the Treasury to review the level of the payment every ten years, but only allowed for increases and not reductions.
The abolition of the Civil List was announced in the spending review statement to the House of Commons on 20 October 2010 by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne. In its place, he said, "the Royal Household will receive a new Sovereign Support Grant linked to a portion of the revenue of the Crown Estate". The Crown Estate is a statutory corporation, run on commercial lines by the Crown Estate Commissioners and generates revenue for HM Treasury every year (an income surplus of £210.7 million for the year ended 31 March 2010). This income is received by the Crown and given to the state as a result of the agreement reached in 1760 that has been renewed at the beginning of each subsequent reign. The Sovereign Grant Act 2011 received royal assent on 18 October 2011. Under this Act, the Sovereign Grant now funds all of the official expenditure of the monarchy, not just the expenditure previously borne by the Civil List.
Civil List pensions
These are pensions traditionally granted by the Sovereign from the Civil List upon the recommendation of the First Lord of the Treasury. The Civil List Act 1837 applied the condition that any new pensions should be "granted to such persons only as have just claims on the royal beneficence or who by their personal services to the Crown, or by the performance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science and attainments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country." Famous recipients include William Wordsworth, William Barnes, Geraldine Jewsbury, Margaret Oliphant, Christopher Logue, and Molly Parkin. (Lord Byron is often said to have received a civil list pension, but his mother was the actual recipient.) As of 1911, a sum of £1,200 was allotted each year from the Civil List, in addition to the pensions already in force. From a Return issued in 1908, the total of Civil List pensions payable in that year amounted to £24,665. In the financial year 2012-13 the annual cost of Civil List pensions paid to 53 people was £126,293. New Civil List pensions continue to be awarded occasionally.
Canada
In Canada the civil list was a common term during the pre-confederation period; it referred to the payment for all officials on the government payroll. There was much controversy as to whether the list would be controlled by the governor or by the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly demanded control of all money matters, while the governors worried that if the Assembly was given this power, then certain positions would be delisted. Eventually under the Baldwin-Lafontaine government, a compromise was reached with Lord Elgin.
The term civil list is no longer commonly used to describe the payment of civil servants in Canada, who are covered in the budgets of executive agencies.
India
Civil Services of India civil servant bureaucrats, in a personal capacity, are paid from the Civil List. Senior civil servants may be called to account by Parliament. The civil service system in India is rank-based and does not follow the tenets of the position-based civil services.
Morocco
Article 45 of the 2011 Amended Moroccan Constitution states that the King shall have a civil list. A similar provision was contained in Article 22 of the 1996 Amended Moroccan Constitution.
New Zealand
The Civil List Act 1979 describes the funds provided for the Governor-General, Prime Minister, Cabinet Ministers and Members of Parliament.
Singapore
The Civil List and Gratuity Act provides a civil list and gratuity for the maintenance of the President of Singapore.
See also
Privy Purse
Privy Purse in India
References
Citations
Further reading
President of Singapore's Salary and Entitlements President of Singapore#Salary and entitlements
External links
BBC Royal Accounts 2002
The price of monarchy: two pints of milk (Stephen Bates, Guardian, 25 June 2004)
Royal financial reports 2003/2004 (royal.gov.uk)
Civil List (royal.gov.uk)
British monarchy
Government finances
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237665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation%20%28music%29 | Modulation (music) | In music, modulation is the change from one tonality (tonic, or tonal center) to another. This may or may not be accompanied by a change in key signature. Modulations articulate or create the structure or form of many pieces, as well as add interest. Treatment of a chord as the tonic for less than a phrase is considered tonicization.
Requirements
Harmonic: quasi-tonic, modulating dominant, pivot chord
Melodic: recognizable segment of the scale of the quasi-tonic or strategically placed leading-tone
Metric and rhythmic: quasi-tonic and modulating dominant on metrically accented beats, prominent pivot chord
The quasi-tonic is the tonic of the new key established by the modulation. The modulating dominant is the dominant of the quasi-tonic. The pivot chord is a predominant to the modulating dominant and a chord common to both the keys of the tonic and the quasi-tonic. For example, in a modulation to the dominant, ii/V–V/V–V could be a pivot chord, modulating dominant, and quasi-tonic.
Types
Common-chord modulation
Common-chord modulation (also known as diatonic-pivot-chord modulation) moves from the original key to the destination key (usually a closely related key) by way of a chord both keys share: "Most modulations are made smoother by using one or more chords that are common to both keys." For example, G major and D major have four triad chords in common: G major, B minor, D major and E minor. This can be easily determined by a chart similar to the one below, which compares triad qualities. The I chord in G major—a G major chord—is also the IV chord in D major, so I in G major and IV in D major are aligned on the chart.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!G major
|bgcolor=#ffff99|IG
|iiAm
|bgcolor=#ffff99|iiiBm
|IVC
|bgcolor=#ffff99|VD
|bgcolor=#ffff99|viEm
|viiF
|-
!D major
|bgcolor=#ffff99|IVG
|VA
|bgcolor=#ffff99|viBm
|viiC
|bgcolor=#ffff99|ID
|bgcolor=#ffff99|iiEm
|iiiFm
|}
Any chord with the same root note and chord quality (major, minor, diminished) can be used as the pivot chord. Therefore, chords that are not generally found in the style of the piece (for example, major VII chords in a J. S. Bach-style chorale) are also not likely to be chosen as the pivot chord. The most common pivot chords are the predominant chords (ii and IV) in the new key. In analysis of a piece that uses this style of modulation, the common chord is labeled with its function in both the original and the destination keys, as it can be heard either way.
Where an altered chord is used as a pivot chord in either the old or new key (or both), this would be referred to as altered common chord modulation, in order to distinguish the chromaticism that would be introduced from the otherwise, diatonic method.
Enharmonic modulation
An enharmonic modulation takes place when one treats a chord as if it were spelled enharmonically as a functional chord in the destination key, and then proceeds in the destination key. There are two main types of enharmonic modulations: dominant seventh/augmented sixth, and (fully) diminished seventh. Any dominant seventh or German sixth can be reinterpreted as the other by respelling the m7 or A6 chord tone (respectively) in order to modulate to a key a half-step away (descending or ascending); if the fifth-from-root chord tone of a German sixth is omitted, the result is an Italian sixth. A diminished seventh chord meanwhile, can be respelled in multiple other ways to form a diminished seventh chord in a key a minor third (m3 as root), tritone (d5 as root) or major sixth (d7 as root) away. Where the dominant seventh is found in all diatonic scales, the diminished seventh is found only in the harmonic scale naturally; an augmented sixth is itself an altered chord, relying on the raised fourth scale degree.
By combining the diminished seventh with a dominant seventh and/or augmented sixth, altering only one pivot note (by a half tone), it is possible to modulate quite smoothly from any key to any other in at most three chords, no matter how distant the starting and ending keys (be aware that, only when modulating between key signatures featuring double-sharps/flats, may the need to respell natural notes enharmonically arise); however, this may or may not require the use of altered chords (operating in the harmonic minor without augmented sixth would not) where the effect can be less subtle than other modulations. The following are examples used to describe this in chord progressions starting from the key of D minor (these chords may instead be used in other keys as borrowed chords, such as the parallel major, or other forms of the minor):
C–E–G–B (dim. 7th), C–E–G–B (lowering the root a semitone to a modulating dom. 7th), F–A–C (quasi-tonic) takes us to F major—a relative major modulation (though not enharmonic); but exactly the same progression enharmonically C–E–G–B, C–E–G–A (Ger. aug. 6th), E–G–B–E (quasi-tonic) takes us somewhat unexpectedly to E natural/harmonic minor—a half-step modulation (ascending).
C–E–G–B (dim. 7th), A–C–E–G (lowering the 7th a semitone and respelling as a modulating dom. 7th), D–F–A (quasi-tonic) takes us to the key of D major—a parallel modulation (though not enharmonic). Enharmonically: C–E–G–B, A–C–E–F (Ger. aug. 6th), C–E–G (quasi-tonic) modulates to C minor—a major seventh modulation/half-step descending.
C–E–G–B (dim. 7th), C–E–G–B ≡ E–G–B–D (lowering the major third a half tone and respelling as a modulating dom. 7th), A–C–E (quasi-tonic) leads to A major—a minor third and relative modulation (or tritone modulation if starting in D Major).
Note that in standard voice leading practice, any type of augmented sixth chord favors a resolution to the dominant chord (see: augmented sixth chord), with the exception of the German sixth, where it is difficult to avoid incurring parallel fifths; to prevent this, a cadential six four is commonly introduced before the dominant chord (which would then typically resolve to the tonic to establish tonality in the new key), or an Italian/French sixth is used instead.
In short, lowering any note of a diminished seventh chord a half tone leads to a dominant seventh chord (or German sixth enharmonically), the lowered note being the root of the new chord. Raising any note of a diminished seventh chord a half tone leads to a half-diminished seventh chord, the root of which is a whole step above the raised note. This means that any diminished chord can be modulated to eight different chords by simply lowering or raising any of its notes. If also employing enharmonic respelling of the diminished seventh chord, such as that beginning the modulation in the above examples (allowing for three other possible diminished seventh chords in other keys), it quickly becomes apparent the versatility of this combination technique and the wide range of available options in key modulation.
This type of modulation is particularly common in Romantic music, in which chromaticism rose to prominence.
Other types of enharmonic modulation include the augmented triad (III+) and French sixth (Fr+6). Augmented triad modulation occurs in the same fashion as the diminished seventh, that is, to modulate to another augmented triad in a key: a major third (M3 as root) or minor sixth (A5 as root) away. French augmented sixth (Fr+6) modulation is achieved similarly but by respelling both notes of either the top or bottom major third (i.e. root and major third or diminished fifth and augmented sixth) enharmonically and inverting with the other major third (i.e. diminished fifth and augmented sixth becomes root and major third of the new Fr+6); either choice results in the same chord and key modulation (a tritone away), as the diminished fifth always becomes the new root.
Common-tone modulation
Common-tone modulation uses a sustained or repeated pitch from the old key as a bridge between it and the new key (common tone). Usually, this pitch will be held alone before the music continues in the new key. For example, a held F from a section in B major could be used to transition to F major. This is used, for example, in Schubert's Unfinished Symphony. "If all of the notes in the chord are common to both scales (major or minor), then we call it a common chord modulation. If only one or two of the notes are common, then we call it common tone modulation."
Starting from a major chord, for example G major (G–B–D), there are twelve potential goals using a common-tone modulation: G minor, G minor, B major, B major, B minor, C major, C minor, D minor, D major, E major, E major, E minor. Thus common-tone modulations are convenient for modulation by diatonic or chromatic third.
Chromatic modulation
A chromatic modulation is so named because it occurs at the point of a chromatic progression, one which involves the chromatic inflection of one or more notes whose letter name, thus, remains the same though altered through an accidental. Chromatic modulations are often between keys which are not closely related. A secondary dominant or other chromatically altered chord may be used to lead one voice chromatically up or down on the way to the new key. (In standard four-part chorale-style writing, this chromatic line will most often be in one voice.) For example, a chromatic modulation from C major to D minor:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!C major
|IVF
|V/iiA
|iiDm
|
|-
!D minor
|
|
|iDm
|(...)
|}
In this case, the IV chord in C major (F major) would be spelled F–A–C, the V/ii chord in C major (A major) spelled A–C–E, and the ii chord in C major (D minor), D–F–A. Thus the chromaticism, C–C–D, along the three chords; this could easily be part-written so those notes all occurred in one voice. Despite the common chord (ii in C major or i in D minor), this modulation is chromatic due to this inflection.
The consonant triads for chromatic modulation are III, VI, II, iv, vii, and VII in major, and iii, vi, II, iv, ii, and vii in minor.
In the example pictured, a chromatic modulation from F major to D minor:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!F major
|IF
|VC
|
|
|
|
|-
!D minor
|
|
|VA
|iDm
|ivGm
|VA
|}
In this case, the V chord in F major (C major) would be spelled C–E–G, the V in D minor (A major) would be spelled A–C–E. Thus the chromaticism, C–C–D, which is here split between voices but may often easily be part-written so that all three notes occur in one voice.
The combination of chromatic modulation with enharmonic modulation in late Romantic music led to extremely complex progressions in the music of such composers as César Franck, in which two or three key shifts may occur in the space of a single bar, each phrase ends in a key harmonically remote from its beginning, and great dramatic tension is built while all sense of underlying tonality is temporarily in abeyance. Good examples are to be found in the opening of his Symphony in D minor, of which he himself said (see Wikiquote) "I dared much, but the next time, you will see, I will dare even more..."; and his Trois Chorals for organ, especially the first and third of these, indeed fulfill that promise.
Phrase modulation
Phrase (also called direct, static, or abrupt) modulation is a modulation in which one phrase ends with a cadence in the original key, and the next phrase begins in the destination key without any transition material linking the two keys. This type of modulation is frequently done to a closely related key—particularly the dominant or the relative major/minor key.
An unprepared modulation is a modulation "without any harmonic bridge", characteristic of impressionism.
For example:
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!
|A
|E
|A
|F
|B
|F
|-
!A major
|I
|V
|I
|
|
|
|-
!F major
|
|
|
|I
|IV
|I
|}
Sequential modulation
"A passage in a given key ending in a cadence might be followed by the same passage transposed (up or down) to another key," this being known as sequential modulation. Although a sequence does not have to modulate, it is also possible to modulate by way of a sequence. A sequential modulation is also called rosalia. The sequential passage will begin in the home key, and may move either diatonically or chromatically. Harmonic function is generally disregarded in a sequence, or, at least, it is far less important than the sequential motion. For this reason, a sequence may end at a point that suggests a different tonality than the home key, and the composition may continue naturally in that key.
Chain modulation
Distant keys may be reached sequentially through closely related keys by chain modulation, for example C to G to D or C to C minor to E major. A common technique is the addition of the minor seventh after each tonic is reached, thus turning it into a dominant seventh chord:
{|style="text-align:center"
| D || → || D7
| G || → || G7
| C || → || C7
| F
|-
| I || → || V7
| I || → || V7
| I || → || V7
| I
|}
Changes between parallel keys
Since modulation is defined as a change of tonic (tonality or tonal center), the change between minor and its parallel major or the reverse is technically not a modulation but a change in mode. Major tonic harmony that concludes music in minor contains what is known as a Picardy third. Any harmony associated with the minor mode in the context of major musical passages is often referred to as a borrowed chord, which creates mode mixture.
Common modulations
The most common modulations are to closely related keys (I, V, IV, vi, iii, ii). V (dominant) is the most frequent goal and, in minor, III (relative key) is also a common goal. Modulation to the dominant or the subdominant is relatively simple as they are adjacent steps on the circle of fifths. Modulations to the relative major or minor are also simple, as these keys share all pitches in common. Modulation to distantly related keys is often done smoothly through using chords in successive related keys, such as through the circle of fifths, the entirety of which may be used in either direction:
D – A – E – B/C – F/G – C/D – G/A – D/E – A/B – F – C – G – D
If a given key were G major, the following chart could be used:
{|style="text-align:center"
| C
| —
|bgcolor=#ffff99| G
| —
| D
|}
From G (which is the given key), a musician would go P5 (a perfect fifth) above G (which is D) and also P5 below G (which is C).
From this, the musician would go to G major's relative minor which is E minor, and potentially to C major and D major's related minor as well (a musician who does not know the related minor for C and D major may also go P5 below or above E minor).
{|style="text-align:center"
| C
| —
|bgcolor=#ffff99| G
| —
| D
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Am
|
| Em
|
| Bm
|}
By using the relative minor keys one can find the specific key that the key can modulate into.
Many musicians use the circle of fifths to find these keys and make similar charts to help with the modulation.
Significance
In certain classical music forms, a modulation can have structural significance. In sonata form, for example, a modulation separates the first subject from the second subject. Frequent changes of key characterize the development section of sonatas. Moving to the subdominant is a standard practice in the trio section of a march in a major key, while a minor march will typically move to the relative major.
Changes of key may also represent changes in mood. In many genres of music, moving from a lower key to a higher often indicates an increase in energy.
Change of key is not possible in the full chromatic or the twelve tone technique, as the modulatory space is completely filled; i.e., if every pitch is equal and ubiquitous there is nowhere else to go. Thus other differentiating methods are used, most importantly ordering and permutation. However, certain pitch formations may be used as a "tonic" or home area.
Other types
Though modulation generally refers to changes of key, any parameter may be modulated, particularly in music of the 20th and 21st century. Metric modulation (known also as tempo modulation) is the most common, while timbral modulation (gradual changes in tone color), and spatial modulation (changing the location from which sound occurs) are also used.
Modulation may also occur from a single tonality to a polytonality, often by beginning with a duplicated tonic chord and modulating the chords in contrary motion until the desired polytonality is reached.
See also
Level (music)
Modulating subject
Polytonality
Progressive tonality
Graha bhedam
References
Further reading
Vincent Persichetti, Twentieth-Century Harmony. W.W. Norton and Company, 1961. .
External links
Theory on the Web: Modulation
Modulation Types for Musical Analysis
A generalized system for musical modulation
Common-tone Modulation
Harmony
Musical keys
Musical scales
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237667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Blanc | Louis Blanc | Louis Jean Joseph Charles Blanc (; ; 29 October 1811 – 6 December 1882) was a French politician and historian. A socialist who favored reforms, he called for the creation of cooperatives in order to guarantee employment for the urban poor. Although Blanc's ideas of the workers' cooperatives were never realized, his political and social ideas greatly contributed to the development of socialism in France. He wanted the government to encourage co-operatives and replace capitalist enterprises. These co-operatives were to be associations of people who produced together and divided the profit accordingly.
Following the Revolution of 1848, Blanc became a member of the provisional government and began advocating for cooperatives which would be initially aided by the government but ultimately controlled by the workers themselves. Blanc's advocacy failed and, caught between radical worker tendencies and the National Guard, he was forced into exile. Blanc returned to France in 1870, shortly before the conclusion of the Franco-Prussian war and served as a member of the National Assembly. While he did not support the Paris Commune, Blanc successfully proposed amnesty to the Communards.
Biography
Early years
Blanc was born in Madrid. His father held the post of inspector-general of finance under Joseph Bonaparte. His younger brother was Charles Blanc, who later became an influential art critic. Failing to receive aid from Pozzo di Borgo, his mother's uncle, Louis Blanc studied law in Paris, living in poverty, and became a contributor to various journals. In the Revue du progres, which he founded, he published in 1839 his study on L'Organisation du travail. The principles laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis Blanc's whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are driven to the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and the merging of personal interests in the common good—"De chacun selon ses facultés, à chacun selon ses besoins", which is often translated as "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." This was to be affected by the establishment of "social workshops", a sort of combined co-operative society and trade-union, where the workmen in each trade were to unite their efforts for their common benefit. In 1841 he published his Histoire de dix ans 1830-1840, an attack upon the monarchy of July. It ran through four editions in four years.
Revolution of 1848
In 1847, Blanc published the two first volumes of his Histoire de la Revolution Française. Its publication was interrupted by the Revolution of 1848, when he became a member of the provisional government. It was on his motion that, on 25 February, the government undertook "to guarantee the existence of the workmen by work"; and though his demand for the establishment of a ministry of labour was refused—as beyond the competence of a provisional government—he was appointed to preside over the government labour commission (Commission du Gouvernement pour les travailleurs) established at the Palais du Luxembourg to inquire into and report on the labour question.
The revolution of 1848 was the real chance for Louis Blanc's ideas to be implemented. His theory of using the established government to enact change was different from those of other socialist theorists of his time. Blanc believed that workers could control their own livelihoods, but knew that unless they were given help to get started the cooperative workshops would never work. To assist this process along Blanc lobbied for national funding of these workshops until the workers could assume control. To fund this ambitious project, Blanc saw a ready revenue source in the rail system. Under government control the railway system would provide the bulk of the funding needed for this and other projects Blanc saw in the future.
When the workshop program was ratified in the National Assembly, Blanc's chief rival was put in control of the project.
The National Assembly was not ready for this type of social program and treated the workshops as a method of buying time until the assembly could gather enough support to stabilize themselves against another worker rebellion. Thomas's deliberate failure in organizing the workshops into a success only seemed to anger the public more. The people had been promised a job and a working environment in which the workers were in charge, from these government funded programs. What they had received was hand outs and government funded work parties to dig ditches and hard manual labor for meager wages or paid to remain idle. When the workshops were closed the workers rebelled again but were put down by force by the National Guard. The National Assembly was also able to blame Blanc for the failure of the workshops. His ideas were questioned and he lost much of the respect which had given him influence with the public.
Between the sans-culottes, who tried to force him to place himself at their head, and the National Guards, who mistreated him, he was nearly killed. Rescued with difficulty, he escaped with a false passport to Belgium, and then to London. He was condemned to deportation in absentia by a special tribunal at Bourges. Against trial and sentence he alike protested, developing his protest in a series of articles in the Nouveau Monde, a review published in Paris under his direction. These he afterwards collected and published as Pages de l'histoire de la révolution de 1848 (Brussels, 1850).
Exile
During his stay in Britain he made use of the unique collection of materials for the revolutionary period preserved at the British Museum to complete his Histoire de la Revolution Française 12 vols. (1847–1862). In 1858 he published a reply to Lord Normanby's A Year of Revolution in Paris (1858), which he developed later into his Histoire de la révolution de 1848 (2 vols., 1870–1880). He was also active in the masonic organisation, the Conseil Suprême de l'Ordre Maçonnique de Memphis. His membership in the London-based La Grand Loge des Philadelphes is unconfirmed.
Return to France
As far back as 1839, Louis Blanc had vehemently opposed the idea of a Napoleonic restoration, predicting that it would be "despotism without glory", "the Empire without the Emperor." He therefore remained in exile until the fall of the Second Empire in September 1870, after which he returned to Paris and served as a private in the National Guard. On 8 February 1871 he was elected a member of the National Assembly, in which he maintained that the Republic was "the necessary form of national sovereignty", and voted for the continuation of the war; yet, though a leftist, he did not sympathize with the Paris Commune, and exerted his influence in vain on the side of moderation. In 1878 he advocated the abolition of the presidency and the Senate. In January 1879 he introduced into the chamber a proposal for the amnesty of the Communards, which was carried. This was his last important act. His declining years were darkened by ill-health and by the death, in 1876, of his wife Christina Groh, whom he had married in 1865. He died at Cannes, and on 12 December received a state funeral in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
Legacy
Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and considerable power of research; but the fervour with which he expressed his convictions, while placing him in the first rank of orators, tended to turn his historical writings into political pamphlets. His political and social ideas have had a great influence on the development of socialism in France. His Discours politiques (1847–1881) was published in 1882. his most important works, besides those already mentioned, are Lettres sur l'Angleterre (1866–1867), Dix années de l'Histoire de l'Angleterre (1879–1881), and Questions d'aujourd'hui et de demain (1873–1884).
The Paris Metro Station Louis Blanc is named after him.
Capitalism
Blanc is sometime cited as the first person to use the word capitalism in something like its modern form. While he did not mean the economic system described by Karl Marx in Das Kapital, Blanc sowed the seeds of that usage, coining the word to mean the holding of capital away from others:
Thought
Reformist socialism
Blanc was unusual in advocating for socialism without revolution first.
Right to work
Blanc invented the right to work with his Le Droit au Travail.
Religion
Blanc resisted what he perceived as the atheism implicit in Hegel, claiming that it corresponded to anarchism in politics and was not an adequate basis for democracy. Engels claimed that "Parisiann reformers of the Louis Blanc trend" could only imagine atheists as monsters.
Instead, Blanc claimed that religion was foundational for revolution to take place, in keeping with the romantic tradition. He regarded liberalism and Protestantism as part of the same historical and ideological movement and accordingly considered the French Revolution of 1789 as a political outgrowth of the individualistic rejection of authority inherent in Protestantism and heretical movements. Blanc thought the best of the revolution was the Jacobin dictatorship in the communitarian spirit of Catholicism. Blanc himself sought to combine Catholicism and Protestantism in order to synthesize the values of authority, community, and individualism that he both affirmed as necessary for community. He was unusual in combining Catholicism and socialism.
Along with Etienne Cabet, Blanc advocated for what he understood as true Christianity while simultaneously critiquing the religion of Catholic clergy. He was hopeful about the religious innovation taking place in early revolutionary France. His belief in God was shaped by romanticism and was similar to Rousseau, Philippe Buchez and François-Vincent Raspail.
Works
In 1834, he moved to Paris and soon began working there at the newspaper "Common Sense."
L'Organization du Travail (1839) (The Organization of Work)
Histoire de Dix Ans, 1830-1840 (1841) (The History of Ten Years, 1830-1840)
Histoire de la Revolution Francaise (1847-1862) (The History of the French Revolution)
Lettres sur L'Angleterre (1865) (Letters on England)
See also
French demonstration of 15 May 1848
References
Sources
Leo A. Loubère, (1961) Louis Blanc: His Life and His Contribution to the Rise of French Jacobin-Socialism
G.D.H Cole, Socialist Thought, The Forerunners 1789-1850 (1959)
Harry W. Laidler, A History of Socialist Thought (1927)
G.R.S. Taylor, Leaders of Socialism (1968)
Attribution
This work in turn cites, in addition to Blanc's own works:
L. Fiaux, Louis Blanc (1883)
Further reading
External links
1811 births
1882 deaths
19th-century French essayists
19th-century French historians
19th-century French male writers
19th-century Roman Catholics
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Catholic socialists
Cooperative organizers
Forty-Eighters
French anti-capitalists
French Freemasons
French historians
French male essayists
French Roman Catholics
French socialists
Government ministers of France
Historians of the French Revolution
Members of the 1st Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic
Members of the 2nd Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic
Members of the 3rd Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic
Members of the 1848 Constituent Assembly
Members of the National Assembly (1871)
People deported from France
Politicians from Madrid
Republican Union (France) politicians | [
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237670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shpongle | Shpongle | Shpongle is a psychedelic electronic music project from England that formed in 1996. The group includes Simon Posford (a.k.a. Hallucinogen) and Raja Ram (one of three in The Infinity Project). The duo are considered to be one of the progenitors of the psybient genre - a genre combining world music with psychedelic trance and ambient. Their musical style combines traditional music from all over the globe and vocals with contemporary western synthesizer-based psychedelic music. When asked to describe Shpongle's music, Posford has responded that it is "like nothing you've ever heard before."
Shpongle's first track, "Vapour Rumours", was released on TIP Records' Infinite Excursions compilation in 1996. Their debut album, Are You Shpongled?, was released in 1998 on Twisted Records. On 9 September 2014, Posford confirmed beginning work on a sixth album, which was released as Codex VI on October 23rd 2017. On 3 October, even before the release of Codex VI, the duo announced via a Facebook video that they have begun working on their seventh studio album.
Since June 30th, the duo have also been releasing remasters of their previous albums, focussing on releasing special edition vinyl records.
Posford is generally responsible for the synthesizers, studio work, and live instrumentation, while Raja Ram contributes broad musical concepts and flute arrangements. Raja Ram stated in an interview that "Shpongle" is an umbrella term for feeling positive and euphoric emotions. Shpongle's music is heavily influenced by psychedelic experiences and frequently makes use of sonic textures that approximate psychedelic states as well as vocal samples relating to consciousness expansion, hallucinations, and altered states of awareness. For example, the track "A New Way to Say 'Hooray'", contains a vocal sample of Terence McKenna describing the effects of DMT.
Shpongle live
Shpongle has played several live concerts, and Simon Posford tours frequently, performing live DJ sets. Raja Ram has occasionally accompanied these sets with live flute performances. Shpongle's first live performance was at the Solstice Music Festival at Motosu Highland in Japan in July 2001. They returned to Japan on New Year's Eve 2003 to play the New Maps of Hyperspace event at Tokyo Bay NK Hall together with 1200 Micrograms (featuring Raja Ram) and Hallucinogen.
Prior to the release of their fourth album Shpongle played a sold out live concert at The Roundhouse venue in Chalk Farm, North London on 31 October 2008. The band featured Andy Gangadeen (drums), Nogera (percussion), Chris Taylor (bass), Pete Callard (guitar), Harry Escott (cello) and Dick Trevor (keyboards and programming); Michele Adamson and Hari Om (voices), three dancers, and for one song only ("Nothing is Something Worth Doing") Manu Delago on hang drum.
This was followed on 20 December 2008 by a concert in Moscow featuring the same lineup. Shows were also planned for 7 and 9 March 2009 in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia, but these were cancelled due to non-payment of the deposit by the promoters.
In 2009, Shpongle played a headlining date at the Ozora Festival held near Ozora, Hungary on 15 August; Shpongle also played a latenight DJ set at Rothbury Festival in Rothbury, Michigan over Fourth of July weekend and two album launch shows at the Roundhouse on 30 and 31 October. The duo returned to Moscow to play at Milk on 12 December 2009.
On 3 August 2010, they opened the Ozora festival in Hungary. This was their tenth documented live performance.
In January 2011, Shpongle toured Australia playing dates at the Forum Theatre in Melbourne, the Enmore Theatre in Sydney and headlined the Rainbow Serpent Festival in Victoria, Australia.
In June 2011 Shpongle played at the Electric Forest Festival with the Shpongletron.
New unreleased material from the forthcoming album was incorporated in the 2011 tour, the Shpongletron Experience. The tour featured the Shpongletron, designed by visual artist Zebbler. The Shpongletron included a DJ booth, and multiple custom-made, video-mapped projection surfaces.
"Shpongle Live" performed at Camp Bisco X on 8 July 2011 in Mariaville, New York. This was Shpongle's first ever performance as a full ensemble in the United States and was greatly received by fans and newcomers alike. The band also performed two sold-out American shows on Halloween weekend in 2011, playing at the Hammerstein Ballroom in
New York City on 28 October, and at the Fox Oakland Theater in Oakland, California on 29 October. They debuted the first track from Museum of Consciousness, called "Brain in a Fish Tank," on 28 October 2011.
For 2012, Shpongle toured the United States performing DJ sets entitled "Shpongle presents The Masquerade". The last set of this tour was performed on 31 October 2012, at Terminal West in Atlanta, Georgia. On 3 November, they performed with Younger Brother, Hallucinogen, and other Twisted Records artists. Their set included live keyboards and flute, and debuted many new tracks from their most recent album.
After the ceremony in 2010, on 6 August 2013 Shpongle is once again opening O.Z.O.R.A. Festival with a world premier concert for their new material called Museum of Consciousness (2013).
Oct. 2013 full band live in London at the Troxy. The show was filmed and is available on DVD, released in 2015.
Shpongle played live with a full 12 piece band at Red Rocks Amphitheater in Morrison, Colorado, on 10 May 2014. The concert was filmed, and released on 23 October 2015 as Shpongle - Live at Red Rocks.
On 19 November 2014, it was announced via social media that Shpongle would once again begin touring in the United States throughout early 2015, featuring Phutureprimitive as special guest, the return of "Shpongletron 3.1," and with visuals by Zebbler.
On 21 September 2018, Shpongle announced their last full public concerts, two consecutive nights at Red Rocks Amphitheatre on 3/4 May 2019:
Although this is their last full public concert, Shpongle will continue to enchant and delight with future studio recordings and album releases, with some Shpongle 7 productions receiving their world premieres at this performance.
Discography
Studio albums
Are You Shpongled? (1998)
Tales of the Inexpressible (2001)
Nothing Lasts... But Nothing Is Lost (2005)
Ineffable Mysteries from Shpongleland (2009)
Museum of Consciousness (2013)
Codex VI (2017)
EP albums
Divine Moments of Truth (2000)
Dorset Perception (2004)
The God Particle (2010)
Carnival of Peculiarities (2021)
Remix albums
Remixed (2003)
Remixed volume 2 (2005)
Unreleased Remixes (2008) (download only)
Shpongle & Mad Tribe – Stoned Remixes (2016-05-09, Tip Records, download)
Other songs
"The Sixth Revelation" on The Mystery of the Thirteen Crystal Skulls (2001)
"The Seventh Revelation" on The Secret of the Thirteen Crystal Skulls (2003)
DVD releases
Live in Concert at the Roundhouse London 2008 (2009)
Live in London 2014 (2015)
Live at Red Rocks Amphitheater (2015)
References
External links
Official Shpongle website
Shpongle at discogs.com
Simon Posford's myspace.com profile
Twisted Records
Shpongle at reddit
British electronic music groups
Psychedelic trance musical groups
British musical trios | [
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237671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo%20Andrea%20Pozzo%20di%20Borgo | Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo | Count Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo (, , Karl Osipovich Potso di Borgo; 8 March 1764 – 15 February 1842) was a Corsican politician, who later became a Russian diplomat.
He was an official representative of his homeland in Paris before entering the Russian diplomatic service. His life was dominated by opposition to Napoleon Bonaparte, driven by a life-long hatred of him from an early age, considering him a traitor.
Biography
Early life and politics
He was born at Alata, near Ajaccio, of a noble Corsican family, four years before the island became a French possession. He was educated at Pisa, and in early life was closely associated with Napoleon and Joseph Bonaparte, the two families at that time being close political allies. Pozzo was one of two delegates sent to the National Assembly in Paris to demand the political incorporation of Corsica into France, and was subsequently one of the Corsican deputies to the Legislative Assembly, where he sat on the benches of the right until the events of August 1792.
Chief Minister of Corsica
On his safe return to Corsica he was warmly received by Pasquale Paoli, but found himself in opposition to the Bonaparte brothers who belonged to a different Corsican clan (and one he detested) who were now veering towards the Jacobin party. Under the new constitution Pozzo was elected procureur-general-syndic, that is, chief of the civil government, while Paoli commanded the army. Along with Paoli, he refused to obey a summons to the bar of the convention, and the final breach with the Bonapartes, who actively supported the revolutionary authorities, dates from this time. Eventually Paoli and Pozzo accepted foreign help, and from 1794 to 1796, during the British protectorate of Corsica, Pozzo was president of the council of state under Sir Gilbert Eliott.
When Napoleon sent troops to occupy the island Pozzo was excepted from the general amnesty, and took refuge in Rome, but the French authorities demanded his expulsion, and gave orders for his arrest in northern Italy. After a short stay in London he accompanied in 1798 Sir Gilbert (now Gilbert Eliott, 1st Earl of Minto) on an embassy to Vienna, where he lived for six years and was well received in political circles. His hatred of Napoleon dominated his life, and even as an exile of no official standing he was recognized as a dangerous enemy.
Serving the Russian Empire
In 1804 through the influence of Prince Adam Czartoryski he entered the Russian diplomatic service, and was employed in 1805 as Russian commissioner with the Anglo-Neapolitan, and in 1806 with the Prussian army. He was entrusted with an important mission to Constantinople in 1807, but the conclusion of the alliance between Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon at Tilsit in July interrupted his career, necessitating a temporary retirement after the completion of his business with the Porte.
He returned to Vienna, but on the demand of Napoleon for his extradition Metternich asked him to leave the capital. In London, where he found safety from Napoleon. He renewed many old ties, and had an affair with the noted society beauty Emily Lamb, Countess Cowper, and may have fathered one or more of her children. He remained in England until 1812, when he was recalled by Alexander. He diligently sought to sow dissension in the Bonaparte household, and in a mission to Sweden he secured the co-operation of Bernadotte against Napoleon. On the entry of the allies into Paris he became commissary general to the provisional government. At the Bourbon restoration General Pozzo di Borgo became Russian ambassador at the Tuileries, and sought to secure a marriage between Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, and the Russian grandduchess Anna, Alexander's sister.
Diplomat during Restoration
Pozzo assisted at the Congress of Vienna, and during the Hundred Days he joined Louis XVIII in Belgium, where he was also instructed to discuss the situation with the Duke of Wellington. He was present at Waterloo and was singled out by The Duke of Wellington in his post battle dispatch. The Tsar dreamed of allowing an appeal to the people of France on the subject of the government of France in accordance with his vague liberalizing tendencies, but Pozzo's suggestions in this direction were met by violent opposition, the Duke refusing to make any concessions to what he regarded as rebellion; but in St. Petersburg, on the other hand, his attachment to the Bourbon dynasty was considered excessive.
During the early years of his residence in Paris Pozzo laboured tirelessly to lessen the burdens laid on France by the allies and to shorten the period of foreign occupation. That his French sympathies were recognized in Paris is shown by the strange suggestion that he should enter the French ministry with the portfolio of foreign affairs. He consistently supported the moderate party at court, and stood by the ministry of the Duc de Richelieu, thus earning the distrust and dislike of Metternich, who held him responsible for the revival of Liberal agitation in France. His influence at the Tuileries declined with the accession of Charles X, whose reactionary tendencies had always been distasteful to him; but at the revolution of 1830, when the Tsar Nicholas was reluctant to acknowledge Louis Philippe, he did good service in preventing difficulties with Russia.
Later life and death
In 1832 he visited St Petersburg; the next year he was in London renewing its relations with Wellington, and early in 1835 he was suddenly transferred to the London embassy in succession to Prince Lieven. Although he did not lose in official standing, Pozzo was aware that this change was due to suspicions long harboured in various quarters in St Petersburg that his diplomacy was too favourable to French interests. He complained that the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, treated him with appalling rudeness, once keeping him waiting for two hours; the fact that he had once been the lover of Lady Cowper, Palmerston's mistress, cannot have made for friendly relations between the two men. In London his health suffered, and he retired from the service in 1839 to spend the rest of his days in Paris. He had been made a count and peer of France in 1818.
Honours and awards
Knight of the Order of St. Andrew, with diamonds
Knight Grand Cross of the 1st class of the Order of St. Vladimir
Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky
Knight Grand Cross of the 1st class of the Order of St. Anna
Knight 4th class of the Order of St. George
A mark of distinction for "XXXV years irreproachable service"
Knight Grand Cross of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George (Naples)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Ferdinand and of Merit (Naples)
Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle (Prussia)
Knight 1st class of the Order of the Red Eagle (Prussia)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stephen (Austria)
Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order (Hanover)
Knight Commander of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Sardinia)
Knight Commander of the Order of Saint Louis (France)
Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (Spain)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (Spain)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword (Portugal)
In popular culture
He was played by Norman Shelley in the British historical drama The Iron Duke (1934). He was also the subject of a semi-documentary US film in 1942 called Vendetta, part of The Passing Parade series. The film served as wartime propaganda which equated di Borgo's service in the defeat of Napoleon to that necessary for the defeat of Adolf Hitler.
Ancestry
Further reading
Carrington, Dorothy. "Charles-Andre Pozzo Di Borgo, Napoleon's Arch-Enemy. History Today (Feb 1967), Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp 73–80.
Egon Larsen, Carlo-Andrea Pozzo Di Borgo: One Man Against Napoleon (1968)
Prof. J. McErlean of McLaughlin College, York University, Toronto has written several articles on Pozzo and as recently as 2009 was preparing a biography using previously unknown di Borgo archival material.
References
1764 births
1842 deaths
Corsican politicians
People from Corse-du-Sud
Diplomats of the Russian Empire
Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 1st class
Peers of France
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Grand Officers of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Knights of the Order of Saint Louis
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Ambassadors of the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom
Ambassadors of the Russian Empire to France | [
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237677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omoikane | Omoikane | Omoikane may refer to:
Omoikane (Shinto) is the god of knowledge in Shinto
Omoikane (Nadesico) is the main computer of the Nadesico starship from the series Martian Successor Nadesico | [
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237680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrazzo | Terrazzo | Terrazzo is a composite material, poured in place or precast, which is used for floor and wall treatments. It consists of chips of marble, quartz, granite, glass, or other suitable material, poured with a cementitious binder (for chemical binding), polymeric (for physical binding), or a combination of both. Metal strips often divide sections, or changes in color or material in a pattern. Additional chips may be sprinkled atop the mix before it sets. After it is cured it is ground and polished smooth or otherwise finished to produce a uniformly textured surface. "Terrazzo" is also often used to describe any pattern similar to the original terrazzo floors.
History
Terrazzo proper
Although the history of terrazzo can be traced back to the ancient mosaics of Egypt, its more recent predecessors come from Italy. The form of terrazzo used today derives partly from the 18th century pavimento alla Veneziana (Venetian pavement) and the cheaper seminato. Pavimento alla Veneziana had workers place marble fragments next to each other in a mortar base. Terrazzo is also related to the technique seminato for which workers tossed larger marble chips into the cement that was then ground and polished. Together, these methods create the generic form of terrazzo that involves pieces of stone that are bonded to a cement bed. Terrazzo was first introduced in the United States in the late 1890s, but did not achieve popularity until the 1920s. Until then it was hand polished with a long handled tool called a galera. Due to its likelihood of cracking, terrazzo was used at a small scale in comparison to the large expanses we see today. Two inventions resulted in its rise in popularity: divider strips and the electric grinding machine. The invention of divider strips by L. Del Turco and Bros. in 1924 contained the cracking of terrazzo by allowing the material greater space to expand and shrink after installation. This invention made terrazzo a durable and reliable material in addition to allowing for further design work within the floor. Installers use the dividing strips as guides when they work with different colored terrazzo. The electric grinding machine and mechanization of the production process cut down on costs and time making terrazzo an affordable flooring option.
Art Deco and Moderne styles from the 1920s to 1940s favored terrazzo with the dividers allowing for straight or curved lines that increased the decorative potential. The popularity of terrazzo led to an increase in installers in the 1920s. The National Terrazzo and Mosaic Organization was formed in 1931 to further professionalize the practice of terrazzo installation. One of the most well known examples of terrazzo is the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Created in 1958, the walk honors celebrities in the form of a terrazzo star that displays their name.
Archaeological use of the term
Archaeologists have adopted the term terrazzo to describe the floors of early Neolithic buildings (PPNA and PPNB, ca. 9,000–8,000 BC) in Western Asia constructed of burnt lime and clay, colored red with ochre and polished. The embedded crushed limestone gives it a slightly mottled appearance. The use of fire to produce burnt lime, which was also used for the hafting of implements, predates production of fired pottery by almost a thousand years. In the early Neolithic settlement of Çayönü in eastern Turkey about of terrazzo floors have been uncovered. The floors of the PPN B settlement of Nevalı Çori measure about . They are thick, and contain about 10–15% lime.
These floors are almost impenetrable to moisture and very durable, but their construction involved a high input of energy. Gourdin and Kingery (1975) estimate that the production of any given amount of lime requires about five times that amount of wood. Recent experiments by Affonso and Pernicka have shown that only twice the amount is needed, but that would still amount to 4.5 metric tonnes of dry wood for the floors in Çayönü. Other sites with terrazzo floors include Nevalı Çori, Göbekli Tepe, Jericho, and Kastros (Cyprus).
Production
Terrazzo artisans create walls, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete or epoxy-resin. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of cement masons. Marble-chip, cementitious terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, cement masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers add a layer of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal divider strips in the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place into each of the panels a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-pigmented. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a weighted roller () over the entire surface.
In the 1970s, polymer-based terrazzo was introduced and is called thin-set terrazzo. Initially polyester and vinyl ester resins were used as the binder resin. Today, most of the terrazzo installed is epoxy terrazzo. The advantages of this material over cementitious terrazzo include a wider selection of colors, installation thickness, lighter weight, faster installation, impermeable finish, higher strength, and less susceptibility to cracking. The disadvantage of epoxy resin–based terrazzo is that it can only be used for interior, not exterior, applications. Epoxy-based terrazzo will lose its color and slightly peel when used outdoors, whereas cement-based terrazzo will not. In addition to marble aggregate blends, other aggregates have been used, such as mother of pearl and abalone shell. Recycled aggregates include: glass, porcelain, concrete, and metal. Shapes and medallions can be fabricated on site by bending divider strips, or off site by water-jet cutting.
When the terrazzo is thoroughly cured, helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder, which is somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier. Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand-troweled for a smooth, uniform surface; it is then cleaned, polished, and sealed.
Types and systems
Terrazzo installation includes both bonded and unbonded methods. Bonded systems include: bonded underbed, monolithic, chemically bonded, and the most recent, thin set method (epoxy resin). Bonded terrazzo is applied over a sand-cement mortar underbed which sits on top of a concrete slab. The sand-cement layer allows for variations in the finished concrete slab that it sits on. Monolithic terrazzo is applied directly over an extremely flat and high quality concrete sub-floor. Thin-set terrazzo does not require a concrete sub-floor. Instead, a flexible membrane can be installed so that cracks do not appear on the surface. Unbonded includes the sand cushion method which uses wire reinforcing, an isolation sheet, and sand dusting that absorbs any movement from the concrete slab.
Relation to mosaics
Although terrazzo derives from the mosaic artform, it does not place individual pieces in a decorative pattern. Instead, small pieces are thrown into the mortar base creating a more uniform surface appearance. Decorative patterns are created by using dividers which creates lines between different colored terrazzo mixtures.
Deterioration
Cracking is the most common form of failure and is typically caused by the structural system that supports the terrazzo topping rather than the material itself. Contact with alkalis or acids can deteriorate the bonding agents used in terrazzo. As the aggregates are often marble dust which is calcium carbonate, strong acid can also cause deterioration to the aggregates. When partial replacement is necessary, a "bracketing" system mixing and matching different chips is used to create potential matches. Aged terrazzo can be resurfaced to restore its original look by re-polishing.
See also
Engineered stone
Mosaic
Polished concrete
Portuguese pavement
References
External links
Decorative arts
Floors
Pre-Pottery Neolithic | [
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237685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitsune | Kitsune | In Japanese folklore, are foxes that possess paranormal abilities that increase as they get older and wiser. According to yōkai folklore, all foxes have the ability to shapeshift into human form. While some folktales speak of employing this ability to trick others—as foxes in folklore often do—other stories portray them as faithful guardians, friends, and lovers.
Foxes and humans lived close together in ancient Japan; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto or spirit, and serve as its messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance. The more tails a has—they may have as many as nine—the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make sacrifices to them as to a deity.
Conversely foxes were often seen as "witch animals", especially during the superstitious Edo period (1603–1867), and were thought of as goblins who could not be trusted (similar to some badgers and cats).
Origins
Folktales from China tell of fox spirits called () that may have up to nine tails. These fox spirits were adopted to Japanese culture through merchants as . Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the , an 11th-century Japanese collection of Japanese, Chinese, and Indian literary narratives.
Smyers (1999) notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.
Etymology
The full etymology is unknown. The oldest known usage of the word is in text Shin'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki, dating to 794. Other old sources include Nihon Ryōiki (810–824) and Wamyō Ruijushō (c. 934). These old sources are written in Man'yōgana, which clearly identifies the historical form of the word (when rendered into a Latin-alphabet transliteration) as . Following several diachronic phonological changes, this became .
Many etymological suggestions have been made, though there is no general agreement:
Myōgoki (1268) suggests that it is so called because it is "always () yellow ()".
The early Kamakura-period indicates that it means "came () [perfective aspect particle tsu] to bedroom ()", from a legend that a could take a human woman form, marry a man, and bear children.
Arai Hakuseki in (1717) suggests that means 'stench', is a possessive particle, and is related to , the word for 'dog'.
Tanikawa Kotosuga in (1777–1887) suggests that means 'yellow', is a possessive particle, and is related to , the word for 'cat'.
Ōtsuki Fumihiko in (1932–1935) proposes that the word comes from , which is an onomatopoeia for the bark of a fox, and , which may be an honorific referring to a servant of an Inari shrine.
Nozaki also suggests that the word was originally onomatopoetic: represented a fox's yelp and came to be the general word for 'fox'; signified an affectionate mood.
is now archaic; in modern Japanese, a fox's cry is transcribed as or .
A widely known folk etymology of the word relates to sleeping and returning home: in classical Japanese, means 'come and sleep', and means 'always comes'. This appears to be tied to a specific story; it is one of the oldest surviving tales, and unlike most of those in which a takes the form of a human woman and marries men, this one does not end tragically. From Hamel's translation:
The folk etymology would have it that because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox she is called .
Characteristics
are believed to possess superior intelligence, long life, and magical powers. They are a type of . The word is sometimes translated as 'fox spirit', which is actually a broader folkloric category. This does not mean that are ghosts, nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes. Because the word spirit is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment, all long-lived foxes were believed to gain supernatural abilities.
There are two common classifications of :
The are benevolent, celestial foxes associated with Inari; they are sometimes simply called Inari foxes in English.
On the other hand, the tend to be mischievous or even malicious.
Local traditions add further types. For example, a is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them.
have as many as nine tails. Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful ; in fact, some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 100 years. (In the wild, the typical lifespan of a real fox is one to three years, although individuals may live up to ten years in captivity.) One, five, seven, and nine tails are the most common numbers in folktales. These gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world. Other tales credit them with infinite wisdom (omniscience). After reaching 1,000 years of age and gaining its ninth tail, a kitsune turns a white or golden color, becoming a , the most powerful form of the , and then ascends to the heavens.
Shapeshifting
A may take on human form, an ability learned when it reaches a certain age—usually 100 years, although some tales say 50. As a common prerequisite for the transformation, the fox must place reeds, a leaf, or a skull over its head. Common forms assumed by include beautiful women, young girls, elderly men, and less often young boys. These shapes are not limited by the fox's own age or gender, and a can duplicate the appearance of a specific person. are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women. Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a . ('fox-faced') refers to human females who have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones. Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive, and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form. Variants on the theme have the retain other foxy traits, such as a coating of fine hair, a fox-shaped shadow, or a reflection that shows its true form.
In some stories, retain—and have difficulty hiding—their tails when they take human form; looking for the tail, perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless, is a common method of discerning the creature's true nature. A particularly devout individual may even be able to see through a fox's disguise merely by perceiving them. can also be exposed while in human form by their fear and hatred of dogs, and some become so rattled by their presence that they revert to the form of a fox and flee.
One folktale illustrating these imperfections in the 's human shape concerns Koan, a historical person later credited with legendary wisdom and magical powers of divination. According to the story, he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot. Then, "in his pain, he ran out of the bathroom naked. When the people of the household saw him, they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body, along with a fox's tail. Then Koan transformed in front of them, becoming an elderly fox and running away."
Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to include possession, generating fire or lightning, willful manifestation in the dreams of others, flight, invisibility, and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality. Some tales speak of with even greater powers, able to bend time and space, drive people mad, or take fantastic shapes such as an incredibly tall tree or a second moon in the sky. Other have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi, and feed on the life or spirit of human beings, generally through sexual contact.
Kitsunetsuki
, also written , literally means 'the state of being possessed by a fox'. The victim is usually said to be a young woman, whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts. In some cases, the victims' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox. Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read. Though foxes in folklore can possess a person of their own will, is often attributed to the malign intents of hereditary fox employers.
Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition in Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan:
He goes on to note that, once freed from the possession, the victim would never again be able to eat tofu, , or other foods favored by foxes.
Attempting to rid someone of a fox spirit was done via an exorcism, often at an Inari shrine. If a priest was not available or if the exorcism failed, alleged victims of might be badly burned or beaten in hopes of driving out the fox spirits. The whole family of someone thought to be possessed might be ostracized by their community.
In Japan, was described as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century. Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals. In the late 19th century, Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered . The superstition has lost favor, but stories of fox possession still occur, such as allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed.
In modern psychiatry, the term refers to a culture-bound syndrome unique to Japanese culture. Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox. Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet adzuki beans, listlessness, restlessness, and aversion to eye contact. This sense of is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy.
Folk beliefs
In folk religion, stories of fox possession can be found in all lands of Japan. Those possessed by a fox are thought to suffer from a mental illness or similar condition.
There are families that tell of protective fox spirits, and in certain regions, possession by a , , , and hito-gitsune are also called . These families are said to have been able to use their fox to gain fortune, but marriage into such a family was considered forbidden as it would enlarge the family. They are also said to be able to bring about illness and curse the possessions, crops, and livestock of ones that they hate, and as a result of being considered taboo by the other families, it has led to societal problems.
The great amount of faith given to foxes can be seen in how, as a result of the Inari belief where foxes were believed to be Inari no Kami or its servant, they were employed in practices of by and practitioners and in the oracles of ; the customs related to can be seen as having developed in such a religious background.
Depictions of or people possessed by them may feature round white balls known as . Tales describe these as glowing with . Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls. When not in human form or possessing a human, a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail. Jewels are a common symbol of Inari and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare.
One belief is that when a changes shape, its holds a portion of its magical power. Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune's soul; the kitsune will die if separated from it for too long. Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the to help them in exchange for its return. For example, a 12th-century tale describes a man using a fox's to secure a favor;
The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed robbers.
Portrayal
Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are, kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works. Noh, kyogen, bunraku, and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them, as do contemporary works such as native animations, comic books and video games. Japanese metal idol band Babymetal refer to the kitsune myth in their lyrics and include the use of fox masks, hand signs, and animation interludes during live shows. Western authors of fiction have also made use of the kitsune legends although not in extensive detail.
Servants of Inari
Kitsune are associated with Inari, the Shinto deity of rice. This association has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance. Originally, kitsune were Inari's messengers, but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari Ōkami may be depicted as a fox. Likewise, entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune, where devotees can leave offerings. Fox spirits are said to be particularly fond of a fried slice of tofu called abura-age, which is accordingly found in the noodle-based dishes kitsune udon and kitsune soba. Similarly, Inari-zushi is a type of sushi named for Inari Ōkami that consists of rice-filled pouches of fried tofu. There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past. Foxes have long been worshipped as kami.
Inari's kitsune are white, a color of a good omen. They possess the power to ward off evil, and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune, those spirit foxes who do not serve Inari. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens.
According to beliefs derived from fusui (feng shui), the fox's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil kimon, or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines, such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto, feature such statues, sometimes large numbers of them.
Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect. Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.
Tricksters
Kitsune are often presented as tricksters, with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence. Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai, greedy merchants, and boastful commoners, while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks. Their victims are usually men; women are possessed instead. For example, kitsune are thought to employ their kitsunebi to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will-o'-the-wisp. Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions. Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction, theft of food, humiliation of the prideful, or vengeance for a perceived slight.
A traditional game called kitsune-ken ('fox-fist') references the kitsune's powers over human beings. The game is similar to rock paper scissors, but the three hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats the hunter, whom he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, whom he shoots; the fox beats the headman, whom he bewitches.
This ambiguous portrayal, coupled with their reputation for vengefulness, leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox's motives. In one case, the 16th-century leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi wrote a letter to the kami Inari:
Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor. Occasionally a kitsune attaches itself to a person or household, where they can cause all sorts of mischief. In one story from the 12th century, only the homeowner's threat to exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave. The kitsune patriarch appears in the man's dreams:
Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the humans treat them with respect. As yōkai, however, kitsune do not share human morality, and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this manner may, for example, bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors. Accordingly, common households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion. Oddly, samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune, but these foxes were considered zenko and the use of their magic a sign of prestige. Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune. One 12th-century story tells of a minister moving into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there. They first try to scare him away, then claim that the house "has been ours for many years, and … we wish to register a vigorous protest." The man refuses, and the foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby.
Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments. If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth, part or all of the sum will consist of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items under a magical illusion. True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.
Wives and lovers
Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman. The kitsune may be a seductress, but these stories are more often romantic in nature. Typically, the young man unknowingly marries the fox, who proves a devoted wife. The man eventually discovers the fox's true nature, and the fox-wife is forced to leave him. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a dream, filthy, disoriented, and far from home. He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame.
Many stories tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny are human, they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own children. The astrologer-magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited such extraordinary powers.
Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another. Rain falling from a clear sky—a sunshower—is called kitsune no yomeiri or the kitsune's wedding, in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions. The event is considered a good omen, but the kitsune will seek revenge on any uninvited guests, as is depicted in the 1990 Akira Kurosawa film Dreams.
Stephen Turnbull, in Nagashino 1575, relates the tale of the Takeda clan's involvement with a fox-woman. The warlord Takeda Shingen, in 1544, defeated in battle a lesser local warlord named Suwa Yorishige and drove him to suicide after a "humiliating and spurious" peace conference, after which Shingen forced marriage on Suwa Yorishige's beautiful 14-year-old daughter Lady Koi—Shingen's own niece. Shingen, Turnbull writes, "was so obsessed with the girl that his superstitious followers became alarmed and believed her to be an incarnation of the white fox-spirit of the Suwa Shrine, who had bewitched him in order to gain revenge." When their son Takeda Katsuyori proved to be a disastrous leader and led the clan to their devastating defeat at the battle of Nagashino, Turnbull writes, "wise old heads nodded, remembering the unhappy circumstances of his birth and his magical mother".
See also
Fox spirit, a general overview about this being in East Asian folklore adopted from Japan
– a Chinese fox spirit
– a Korean fox spirit
– a Vietnamese fox spirit
The Sacred Book of the Werewolf
The Sandman: The Dream Hunters
Wild fox koan
Notes
References
Further reading
External links | [
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] |
237687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oni%20%28disambiguation%29 | Oni (disambiguation) | are demons or ghosts of Japanese folklore.
Oni may also refer to:
Oni Gozen. a Japanese female warrior (onna bugeisha) from 16th-century.
Oni, India, a small village in Western India
Oni, Georgia, a town in Georgia
ONI (Oxford Nanoimaging), a super-resolution microscope company
Oni (band), a Canadian progressive metal band
Oni (letter), the 16th letter of the three Georgian scripts
Oni (video game), a 2001 third-person shooter video game made by Bungie
Oni Press, an independent comic book publisher
Onimusha (series), a series of action video games made by Capcom
Oni Aliens, foes in the Gantz manga
Oni the title of a linked video game and film project based on an unfinished Akira Kurosawa script, that was later renamed Ni-Oh
Oni, a race of aliens from the manga and anime Urusei Yatsura
Oni or ooni, ancient kings of Nigeria's Yoruba people
Oni, a primary antagonist in seasons 8-10 of Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu
Oni, an alternate form of Akuma that appears in the Super Street Fighter IV: Arcade Edition video game
Oni, an antagonist character on the Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks video game
Miye Oni (born 1997), American basketball player
ONI may refer to:
Office of Naval Intelligence, the United States Navy's intelligence agency
Office of National Intelligence, an Australian government intelligence agency
OpenNet Initiative, a project for tracking the use of internet filtering and surveillance
ONI Systems Corporation, an optical networking company acquired by Ciena Corporation in 2002
Oxygen Not Included, a simulation video game by Klei Entertainment
OASIS Neural Interface, a VR technology system used in Ready Player Two | [
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] |
237696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converge | Converge | Converge may refer to:
Converge (band), American hardcore punk band
Converge (Baptist denomination), American national evangelical Baptist body
Limit (mathematics)
Converge ICT, internet service provider in the Philippines
CONVERGE CFD software, created by Convergent Science
See also
Comverge, a company that provides software, hardware, and services to electric utilities
Convergence (disambiguation)
Convergent (disambiguation) | [
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237700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amor%20De%20Cosmos | Amor De Cosmos | Amor De Cosmos (born William Alexander Smith; August 20, 1825 – July 4, 1897) was a Canadian journalist, publisher and politician. He served as the second premier of British Columbia.
Early life
Amor De Cosmos was born William Alexander Smith in Windsor, Nova Scotia, to United Empire Loyalist parents. His education included a stint at King's College in Windsor, following which, around 1840, he became a mercantile clerk in Halifax, Nova Scotia. There he joined the Dalhousie University debating club and came under the influence of the Nova Scotia politician and reformer, Joseph Howe. In 1845, at the age of 20 he joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In 1852, he left for New York on a steam ship stopping first in Boston. He settled in Kanesville, known as Council Bluffs, Iowa, for two months where he established a daguerreotype gallery. But the following year the lure of the California Gold Rush beckoned, and Smith continued west, heading overland to Placerville, California. Here he set up a new studio and prospered taking pictures of the miners and their operations. Joined by his brother, the pair moved northwest to Oroville, California, where they engaged in various unspecified entrepreneurial ventures. In 1854, Smith successfully petitioned the California State Assembly to have his name changed to "Amor De Cosmos", a fancifully loose translation (using Latin and Greek roots) of "Lover of the Universe", although in Portuguese and Spanish, it literally means Love of Cosmos.
The name paid tribute, De Cosmos said, "to what I love most ... Love of order, beauty, the world, the universe."
Reformer and journalist
In 1858, De Cosmos and his brother moved on again, this time heading north to British North America as they wished to live under the British flag once again. They also sensed an opportunity in the booming city of Victoria, capital of the Colony of Vancouver Island. The city, since 1843 a quiet village of about 300 until the spring of that year, was just entering an economic boom as it became a jumping-off point for miners headed to the New Caledonia (now mainland British Columbia) to participate in the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. De Cosmos founded a newspaper, The Daily British Colonist, which survives today in its current incarnation as the Victoria Times-Colonist.
De Cosmos was the editor of the Colonist through 1863, and quickly established himself as an opponent of the administration of Sir James Douglas, governor of the colony and the former Chief Factor of the Hudson's Bay Company for Vancouver Island. De Cosmos decried the "family-company compact" of Hudson's Bay men and Douglas associates who controlled the political and social affairs of the colony, even after Douglas's retirement in 1864.
De Cosmos was a liberal reformer cast in the mold of John Locke and John Stuart Mill. He argued passionately for unrestricted free enterprise, public education, an end to economic and political privileges, and — above all — the institution of responsible government through an elected assembly. However, true to the Victorian spirit of the age, De Cosmos was also a proponent of social progress through economic and population growth. He was a tireless advocate for economic diversification, being one of the first British Columbians to argue for a policy of encouraging development of the "three F's" — farming, forestry, and fisheries — that would underpin the region's economy for the next century.
Political career
As the child of American refugees and having lived six years in the United States, De Cosmos developed a sharpened sense of nationalism. This was expressed in a growing protectionist economic sentiment, and the belief that the colonies of British North America needed to be self-supporting, develop a distinct identity, and form a political and economic union. From such policies, emerged the two great causes of his later career: the union of Vancouver Island and British Columbia, and the merged Colony of British Columbia's entry into Confederation. To advance the first cause, De Cosmos left journalism and entered politics, becoming a member of the Legislative Assembly of Vancouver Island from 1863 until its union with the Colony of British Columbia in 1866. He advanced the second cause through his position as a member of the assembly of the merged, larger British Columbia from 1867–68 and 1870–71, and as the leading force (with Robert Beaven and John Robson) behind the colony's Confederation League. Through the instrumental role De Cosmos played in realizing these two goals, he earned for himself his reputation as British Columbia's Father of Confederation.
At the time of British Columbia's entry into Confederation on July 20, 1871, De Cosmos was the leading pro-Confederation figure in the new province. That year, he was elected to represent Victoria in both the provincial legislature and the House of Commons. Despite his prominence — or perhaps because of it — Lieutenant Governor Sir Joseph Trutch passed over De Cosmos for the job of Premier, instead asking John Foster McCreight to assume the position.
Iconoclastic reputation
Undoubtedly, De Cosmos' reputation as an iconoclast and his infamously volatile temperament did not endear him to the establishment .
Premier of British Columbia
McCreight resigned in 1872 on a motion of non-confidence, and on December 23, 1872, Trutch asked De Cosmos to form a new government as Premier. De Cosmos populated his cabinet with reformers, mostly born in North America, many of whom would come to dominate provincial politics for the generation. His government pursued an agenda of political reform, economic expansion, and the development of public institutions—especially schools.
De Cosmos was a member of a group of entrepreneurs that saw an opportunity for a steel industry in B.C. using the newly discovered iron deposits on Texada Island, coal from Vancouver Island with a smelter and rolling mill in Vancouver. Rails for the transcontinental railway proposed western construction starting in Vancouver to meet the push from the east would provide the immediate market for the product. Involving himself in this venture in his position as Premier was considered a conflict of interest and precipitated the Texada Scandal and the second B.C. Royal Commission of Inquiry. He resigned as Premier. The Commission however found him not guilty.
Member of Parliament
Despite having resigned as Premier, De Cosmos continued to be re-elected as a Liberal Member of Parliament for Victoria City. Consistent with federal promises to place the terminus of the transcontinental railway in Victoria, De Cosmos, in Ottawa, pushed for completion, especially of the Vancouver Island portion. De Cosmos also became an opponent of land concessions to First Nations in the province, seeing it as a hindrance to British Columbia's economic growth and settlement by those of European descent. It is generally conceded that De Cosmos's tenure as a member of the dominion parliament was undistinguished .
Retirement and death
De Cosmos lost the 1882 federal election and retired to Victoria. Although widely regarded as a stirring orator, a master debater, and a man of great intellectual depth, De Cosmos had always been considered eccentric. Contemporaries paint a portrait of an isolated person (he never married and had few intimate friends; some claimed he had a daughter from a friend he met) with grandiose manners, prone to public outbursts of tears, and a fierce temper that sometimes degenerated into fist-fights. He had unusual phobias — including a fear of electricity. As he grew older, his eccentricities intensified; he became increasingly incoherent.
Declared insane
By 1895 he was declared insane. One of his more notable eccentricities was the founding of a hot food delivery company to prospectors in the Klondike Gold Fields. The difficult logistics of this service scared away investors and ultimately proved its downfall. He died on July 4, 1897 in Victoria at the age of 71.
References
External links
Biography at Library and Archives Canada
The British Colonist newspaper on-line archive
Amor de Cosmos in Kalama, Wash., 1873
1825 births
1897 deaths
Fathers of Confederation
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
People of United Empire Loyalist descent
Colony of Nova Scotia people
Premiers of British Columbia
Canadian Latter Day Saints
People from Windsor, Nova Scotia
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Politicians from Victoria, British Columbia
Members of the Legislative Council of British Columbia
Pre-Confederation Canadian expatriates in the United States | [
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237703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Douglas%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20Selkirk | Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk | Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk FRS FRSE (20 June 1771 – 8 April 1820) was a Scottish peer. He was noteworthy as a Scottish philanthropist who sponsored immigrant settlements in Canada at the Red River Colony.
Early background
He was born at St Mary's Isle, Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, the seventh son of Dunbar Douglas, 4th Earl of Selkirk, and his wife Helen Hamilton (1738–1802), granddaughter of Thomas Hamilton, 6th Earl of Haddington. His brother was Basil William Douglas, Lord Daer.
His early education was at the Palgrave Academy, Suffolk. As he had not expected to inherit the family estate, he went to the University of Edinburgh to study to become a lawyer. While there, he noticed poor Scottish crofters who were being displaced by their landlords. Seeing their plight, he investigated ways he could help them find new land in the then British colonies. In 1794, on the death of his brother Basil, Thomas became Lord Daer. After his father's death in 1799, Douglas, the last surviving son (two brothers died in infancy, two died of tuberculosis and two died of yellow fever), became the 5th Earl of Selkirk.
In 1798 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh his proposers being Dugald Stewart, Andrew Coventry, and John Playfair.
Involvement in Canada
When Thomas unexpectedly inherited the Selkirk title and estates in 1799, he used his money and political connections to purchase land and settle poor Scottish farmers in Belfast, Prince Edward Island, in 1803 and Baldoon, Upper Canada in 1804. (See Highland Clearances for more on the emigration of poor Scots.) In 1804, he was in Halifax and became a member of the North British Society. He travelled extensively in North America, and his approach and work gained him some fame; in 1807 he was named Lord-Lieutenant of Kirkcudbright, Scotland, and in 1808 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London.
In order to continue his work re-settling Scottish farmers, Selkirk asked the British government for a land grant in the Red River Valley, a part of Rupert's Land. The government refused, as the Hudson's Bay Company (H.B.C.) had been granted a fur trading monopoly on that land. However, Selkirk was very determined, and together with Sir Alexander Mackenzie bought enough shares in H.B.C. to let them gain control of the land. This position of power, along with his marriage connections (his wife Jean was the sister of Andrew Wedderburn, a member of the H.B.C. governing committee) allowed him to acquire a land grant called Assiniboia to serve as an agricultural settlement for the company. As part of the agreement for the land grant, Selkirk agreed to supply the Hudson's Bay Company with 200 men each year. He also agreed that the settlers would not be allowed to participate in the fur trade.
As part owner of H.B.C., Selkirk also wanted to stop the North West Company (N.W.C.) from competing with H.B.C. for furs in the region. By placing the Red River Colony astride the trade routes used by the N.W.C. coureurs des bois, Selkirk could cut off the easy flow of furs. However, the local Métis people who already inhabited the area had long-standing ties with the N.W.C. and refused to accept Selkirk's control over the area, which was contrary to the Royal Proclamation of 1763.
The first colonization attempt started in 1812, consisting of 128 men led by the new governor, Miles Macdonell. Arriving late in the season they had just arrived and built homes when the winter cut off any hope of planting, and the colony became reliant on the support of the Métis. Even with a full growing season the next year, the colony never thrived. Because of a shortage of food in 1814, Macdonell issued the Pemmican Proclamation, prohibiting the export of food from the entire area. The Métis, who made a living selling pemmican to the N.W.C. traders, responded by arresting Macdonell and burning the settlement.
Robert Semple was appointed as governor of the Red River Colony. By 1816, the violence intensified between the Métis and the newcomers, which resulted in the Battle of Seven Oaks, causing the deaths of 21 of Lord Selkirk's men, including the newly appointed governor, and one Métis. N.W.C. partners were accused of having aided the Métis attackers. All were exonerated at trial, and again when re-tried under Selkirk's instigation, which back-fired when they successfully counter-sued Selkirk.
Selkirk and his men responded to the Battle of Seven Oaks by seizing the trading post at Fort William that belonged to the North West Company. In the aftermath, Selkirk was ordered to appear in court in Montreal and was charged with four separate offences, all of which related to the alleged unlawful occupation of Fort William. Selkirk reportedly spent most of his acquired fortune defending himself (unsuccessfully) in court, shortly before his death in 1820 at Pau, France. The two companies were merged in 1821.
Legacy
Selkirk's colonizing ambitions have been memorialized in the names of the City of Selkirk and the Village of East Selkirk, as well as the Winnipeg neighborhood of Point Douglas, the city's Fort Douglas Park on Waterfront Drive (where Fort Douglas once stood) and Winnipeg's Selkirk Avenue. The City of Selkirk is served by the Lord Selkirk Regional Comprehensive Secondary School, which is administered by the Lord Selkirk School Division. The Lord Selkirk Highway runs from the international boundary between Manitoba and North Dakota, where it connects with Interstate Highway 29 in the United States, to the city of Winnipeg. Mount Selkirk and the Selkirk Mountains were also named in his honor.
The Métis peoples cite Lord Selkirk's intrusion as the period of time their identity as a people came into existence. The Métis existed prior to the confrontations with Lord Selkirk's men but their armed resistance to foreign encroachment became a rallying point for their shared identity. A flag and a national anthem were born during this period in time. A Manitoba Historical Plaque was erected in Winnipeg, Manitoba by the province to commemorate Lord Selkirk's role in Manitoba's heritage.
Selkirk and John Paul Jones
At the age of seven, Thomas was almost kidnapped by John Paul Jones, commander of an American ship. Peter C. Newman tells the story as follows in his history The Empire of the Bay.
In 1778, John Paul Jones, in the sloop Ranger, was cruising between Scotland and Ireland looking for prizes. Benjamin Franklin had suggested that he might capture a British nobleman to exchange for American prisoners. Having been born near the Selkirk estates, Jones selected the elder Lord Selkirk.
At the last moment, Jones decided not to go himself, but to assign the duty to two lieutenants and a boatload of sailors. As the Americans approached the Selkirk mansion, a governess saw them coming and removed young Thomas to safety. The Americans knocked on the front door and were greeted by the butler. Lady Selkirk came from the breakfast room to see what the fuss was about. She invited the American officers into the drawing room, told the butler to make tea and to find some whisky for the sailors who were waiting outside. When they explained that they had come to kidnap her husband, Lady Selkirk replied that unfortunately Lord Selkirk was not at home. When Lieutenant Wallingford suggested that instead, they might take the young gentleman they saw on the way to the house, Lady Selkirk replied that they would have to kill her first. After more discussion, Lady Selkirk suggested that, so that their mission would not be a complete failure, they might steal the family silver. The officers allowed as how that might be the best solution, so Lady Selkirk ordered the butler to provide the American gentlemen with what they needed. He filled a sack half full of coal, filled the top half with silverware and presented it to the officers. After drinking a toast to Lady Selkirk, they returned to their ship and presented their captain with his sack full of coal and silverware.
Jones wrote Lady Selkirk a flowery letter of apology, proposing himself to buy back the booty from the Navy and return it to the Selkirks. Lord Selkirk wrote back that he could not possibly countenance the return of his silver without the consent of the Continental Congress. The objects, which became the subject of protracted legal negotiations, were returned seven years later.
Marriage and family
Lord Selkirk married Jean Wedderburn-Colville, sister to James Wedderburn and Andrew Colville, in 1807, and fathered:
Dunbar Douglas, 6th Earl of Selkirk (1809–1885)
Lady Isabella Helen Douglas (1811–1893), married Charles Hope
Lady Katherine Jean Douglas (1816–1863), married Loftus Wigram
Death
On his death, his heir and successor Dunbar was only 10 years old and thus Selkirk's estates were put into a trust and managed by four executors named in his will. The Board of Trustees consisted of Andrew Colville (Colvile) of Achiltrie and Crommie, John Hallbrith (Halkett) of Waring, Adam Maitland of Dundrennan, and Sir James Montgomery, 2nd Baronet.
Works
Sketch of the British Fur Trade in North America (1816)
See also
James Douglas (governor) (1803–1877), a high-ranking Hudson's Bay Company officer and later governor of Vancouver Island
References
Phyllis A. Arnold Canada Revisited 8, Arnold Publishing Ltd.
Further reading
White, Patrick (1958). Lord Selkirk's Diary, 1803–1804: A Journal of His Travels in British North American and the Northeastern United States. Toronto: Champlain Society Publications.
scholarly biography
External links
Detailed biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
, by George Bryce 1909
Peerage of Thomas Douglas
1771 births
1820 deaths
People from Dumfries and Galloway
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Earls of Selkirk
Lord-Lieutenants of Kirkcudbright
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society
Red River Colony
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Scottish philanthropists
Scottish emigrants to pre-Confederation Canada
Scottish political writers
Scottish representative peers
Pemmican War | [
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237704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces%20cerevisiae | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Saccharomyces cerevisiae () is a species of yeast (single-celled fungus microorganisms). The species has been instrumental in winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times. It is believed to have been originally isolated from the skin of grapes. It is one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biology, much like Escherichia coli as the model bacterium. It is the microorganism behind the most common type of fermentation. S. cerevisiae cells are round to ovoid, 5–10 μm in diameter. It reproduces by budding.
Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologs in yeast; these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins, and protein-processing enzymes. S. cerevisiae is currently the only yeast cell known to have Berkeley bodies present, which are involved in particular secretory pathways. Antibodies against S. cerevisiae are found in 60–70% of patients with Crohn's disease and 10–15% of patients with ulcerative colitis (and 8% of healthy controls). S. cerevisiae has been found to contribute to the smell of bread; the proline and ornithine present in yeast are precursors of the 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline, a roast‐smelling odorant, in the bread crust.
Etymology
"Saccharomyces" derives from Latinized Greek and means "sugar-mould" or "sugar-fungus", saccharon (σάκχαρον) being the combining form "sugar" and myces (μύκης) being "fungus". cerevisiae comes from Latin and means "of beer". Other names for the organism are:
Brewer's yeast, though other species are also used in brewing
Ale yeast
Top-fermenting yeast
Baker's yeast
Ragi yeast, in connection to making tapai
Budding yeastThis species is also the main source of nutritional yeast and yeast extract.
History
In the 19th century, bread bakers obtained their yeast from beer brewers, and this led to sweet-fermented breads such as the Imperial "Kaisersemmel" roll,
which in general lacked the sourness created by the acidification typical of Lactobacillus. However, beer brewers slowly switched from top-fermenting (S. cerevisiae) to bottom-fermenting (S. pastorianus) yeast. The Vienna Process was developed in 1846.
While the innovation is often popularly credited for using steam in baking ovens, leading to a different crust characteristic, it is notable for including procedures for high milling of grains (see Vienna grits),
cracking them incrementally instead of mashing them with one pass; as well as better processes for growing and harvesting top-fermenting yeasts, known as press-yeast.
Refinements in microbiology following the work of Louis Pasteur led to more advanced methods of culturing pure strains. In 1879, Great Britain introduced specialized growing vats for the production of S. cerevisiae, and in the United States around the turn of the century centrifuges were used for concentrating the yeast,
making modern commercial yeast possible, and turning yeast production into a major industrial endeavour. The slurry yeast made by small bakers and grocery shops became cream yeast, a suspension of live yeast cells in growth medium, and then compressed yeast, the fresh cake yeast that became the standard leaven for bread bakers in much of the Westernized world during the early 20th century.
During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast for the United States armed forces, which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelf-life and better temperature tolerance than fresh yeast; it is still the standard yeast for US military recipes. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Lesaffre would later create instant yeast in the 1970s, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications.
Biology
Ecology
In nature, yeast cells are found primarily on ripe fruits such as grapes (before maturation, grapes are almost free of yeasts). S. cerevisiae can also be found year-round in the bark of oak trees. Since S. cerevisiae is not airborne, it requires a vector to move.
Queens of social wasps overwintering as adults (Vespa crabro and Polistes spp.) can harbor yeast cells from autumn to spring and transmit them to their progeny. The intestine of Polistes dominula, a social wasp, hosts S. cerevisiae strains as well as S. cerevisiae × S. paradoxus hybrids. Stefanini et al. (2016) showed that the intestine of Polistes dominula favors the mating of S. cerevisiae strains, both among themselves and with S. paradoxus cells by providing environmental conditions prompting cell sporulation and spores germination.
The optimum temperature for growth of S. cerevisiae is .
Life cycle
Two forms of yeast cells can survive and grow: haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth, and under conditions of high stress will, in general, die. This is the asexual form of the fungus. The diploid cells (the preferential 'form' of yeast) similarly undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth. The rate at which the mitotic cell cycle progresses often differs substantially between haploid and diploid cells. Under conditions of stress, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering meiosis and producing four haploid spores, which can subsequently mate. This is the sexual form of the fungus. Under optimal conditions, yeast cells can double their population every 100 minutes. However, growth rates vary enormously both between strains and between environments. Mean replicative lifespan is about 26 cell divisions.
In the wild, recessive deleterious mutations accumulate during long periods of asexual reproduction of diploids, and are purged during selfing: this purging has been termed "genome renewal".
Nutritional requirements
All strains of S. cerevisiae can grow aerobically on glucose, maltose, and trehalose and fail to grow on lactose and cellobiose. However, growth on other sugars is variable. Galactose and fructose are shown to be two of the best fermenting sugars. The ability of yeasts to use different sugars can differ depending on whether they are grown aerobically or anaerobically. Some strains cannot grow anaerobically on sucrose and trehalose.
All strains can use ammonia and urea as the sole nitrogen source, but cannot use nitrate, since they lack the ability to reduce them to ammonium ions. They can also use most amino acids, small peptides, and nitrogen bases as nitrogen sources. Histidine, glycine, cystine, and lysine are, however, not readily used. S. cerevisiae does not excrete proteases, so extracellular protein cannot be metabolized.
Yeasts also have a requirement for phosphorus, which is assimilated as a dihydrogen phosphate ion, and sulfur, which can be assimilated as a sulfate ion or as organic sulfur compounds such as the amino acids methionine and cysteine. Some metals, like magnesium, iron, calcium, and zinc, are also required for good growth of the yeast.
Concerning organic requirements, most strains of S. cerevisiae require biotin. Indeed, a S. cerevisiae-based growth assay laid the foundation for the isolation, crystallisation, and later structural determination of biotin. Most strains also require pantothenate for full growth. In general, S. cerevisiae is prototrophic for vitamins.
Mating
Yeast has two mating types, a and α (alpha), which show primitive aspects of sex differentiation. As in many other eukaryotes, mating leads to genetic recombination, i.e. production of novel combinations of chromosomes. Two haploid yeast cells of opposite mating type can mate to form diploid cells that can either sporulate to form another generation of haploid cells or continue to exist as diploid cells. Mating has been exploited by biologists as a tool to combine genes, plasmids, or proteins at will.
The mating pathway employs a G protein-coupled receptor, G protein, RGS protein, and three-tiered MAPK signaling cascade that is homologous to those found in humans. This feature has been exploited by biologists to investigate basic mechanisms of signal transduction and desensitization.
Cell cycle
Growth in yeast is synchronised with the growth of the bud, which reaches the size of the mature cell by the time it separates from the parent cell. In well nourished, rapidly growing yeast cultures, all the cells have buds, since bud formation occupies the whole cell cycle. Both mother and daughter cells can initiate bud formation before cell separation has occurred. In yeast cultures growing more slowly, cells lacking buds can be seen, and bud formation only occupies a part of the cell cycle.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis enables budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to divide into two daughter cells. S. cerevisiae forms a bud which can grow throughout its cell cycle and later leaves its mother cell when mitosis has completed.
S. cerevisiae is relevant to cell cycle studies because it divides asymmetrically by using a polarized cell to make two daughters with different fates and sizes. Similarly, stem cells use asymmetric division for self-renewal and differentiation.
Timing
For many cells, M phase does not happen until S phase is complete. However, for entry into mitosis in S. cerevisiae this is not true. Cytokinesis begins with the budding process in late G1 and is not completed until about halfway through the next cycle. The assembly of the spindle can happen before S phase has finished duplicating the chromosomes. Additionally, there is a lack of clearly defined G2 in between M and S. Thus, there is a lack of extensive regulation present in higher eukaryotes.
When the daughter emerges, the daughter is two-thirds the size of the mother. Throughout the process, the mother displays little to no change in size. The RAM pathway is activated in the daughter cell immediately after cytokinesis is complete. This pathway makes sure that the daughter has separated properly.
Actomyosin ring and primary septum formation
Two interdependent events drive cytokinesis in S. cerevisiae. The first event is contractile actomyosin ring (AMR) constriction and the second event is formation of the primary septum (PS), a chitinous cell wall structure that can only be formed during cytokinesis. The PS resembles in animals the process of extracellular matrix remodeling. When the AMR constricts, the PS begins to grow. Disrupting AMR misorients the PS, suggesting that both have a dependent role. Additionally, disrupting the PS also leads to disruptions in the AMR, suggesting both the actomyosin ring and primary septum have an interdependent relationship.
The AMR, which is attached to the cell membrane facing the cytosol, consists of actin and myosin II molecules that coordinate the cells to split. The ring is thought to play an important role in ingression of the plasma membrane as a contractile force.
Proper coordination and correct positional assembly of the contractile ring depends on septins, which is the precursor to the septum ring. These GTPases assemble complexes with other proteins. The septins form a ring at the site where the bud will be created during late G1. They help promote the formation of the actin-myosin ring, although this mechanism is unknown. It is suggested they help provide structural support for other necessary cytokinesis processes. After a bud emerges, the septin ring forms an hourglass. The septin hourglass and the myosin ring together are the beginning of the future division site.
The septin and AMR complex progress to form the primary septum consisting of glucans and other chitinous molecules sent by vesicles from the Golgi body. After AMR constriction is complete, two secondary septums are formed by glucans. How the AMR ring dissembles remains poorly unknown.
Microtubules do not play as significant a role in cytokinesis compared to the AMR and septum. Disruption of microtubules did not significantly impair polarized growth. Thus, the AMR and septum formation are the major drivers of cytokinesis.
Differences from fission yeast
Budding yeast form a bud from the mother cell. This bud grows during the cell cycle and detaches; fission yeast divide by forming a cell wall
Cytokinesis begins at G1 for budding yeast, while cytokinesis begins at G2 for fission yeast. Fission yeast "select" the midpoint, whereas budding yeast "select" a bud site
During early anaphase the actomyosin ring and septum continues to develop in budding yeast, in fission yeast during metaphase-anaphase the actomyosin ring begins to develop
In biological research
Model organism
When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size, generation time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. The yeast species S. pombe and S. cerevisiae are both well studied; these two species diverged approximately , and are significant tools in the study of DNA damage and repair mechanisms.
S. cerevisiae has developed as a model organism because it scores favorably on a number of these criteria.
As a single-cell organism, S. cerevisiae is small with a short generation time (doubling time 1.25–2 hours at ) and can be easily cultured. These are all positive characteristics in that they allow for the swift production and maintenance of multiple specimen lines at low cost.
S. cerevisiae divides with meiosis, allowing it to be a candidate for sexual genetics research.
S. cerevisiae can be transformed allowing for either the addition of new genes or deletion through homologous recombination. Furthermore, the ability to grow S. cerevisiae as a haploid simplifies the creation of gene knockout strains.
As a eukaryote, S. cerevisiae shares the complex internal cell structure of plants and animals without the high percentage of non-coding DNA that can confound research in higher eukaryotes.
S. cerevisiae research is a strong economic driver, at least initially, as a result of its established use in industry.
In the study of aging
For more than five decades S. cerevisiae has been studied as a model organism to better understand aging and has contributed to the identification of more mammalian genes affecting aging than any other model organism. Some of the topics studied using yeast are calorie restriction, as well as in genes and cellular pathways involved in senescence. The two most common methods of measuring aging in yeast are Replicative Life Span (RLS), which measures the number of times a cell divides, and Chronological Life Span (CLS), which measures how long a cell can survive in a non-dividing stasis state. Limiting the amount of glucose or amino acids in the growth medium has been shown to increase RLS and CLS in yeast as well as other organisms. At first, this was thought to increase RLS by up-regulating the sir2 enzyme, however it was later discovered that this effect is independent of sir2. Over-expression of the genes sir2 and fob1 has been shown to increase RLS by preventing the accumulation of extrachromosomal rDNA circles, which are thought to be one of the causes of senescence in yeast. The effects of dietary restriction may be the result of a decreased signaling in the TOR cellular pathway. This pathway modulates the cell's response to nutrients, and mutations that decrease TOR activity were found to increase CLS and RLS. This has also been shown to be the case in other animals. A yeast mutant lacking the genes sch9 and ras2 has recently been shown to have a tenfold increase in chronological lifespan under conditions of calorie restriction and is the largest increase achieved in any organism.
Mother cells give rise to progeny buds by mitotic divisions, but undergo replicative aging over successive generations and ultimately die. However, when a mother cell undergoes meiosis and gametogenesis, lifespan is reset. The replicative potential of gametes (spores) formed by aged cells is the same as gametes formed by young cells, indicating that age-associated damage is removed by meiosis from aged mother cells. This observation suggests that during meiosis removal of age-associated damages leads to rejuvenation. However, the nature of these damages remains to be established.
During starvation of non-replicating S. cerevisiae cells, reactive oxygen species increase leading to the accumulation of DNA damages such as apurinic/apyrimidinic sites and double-strand breaks. Also in non-replicating cells the ability to repair endogenous double-strand breaks declines during chronological aging.
Meiosis, recombination and DNA repair
S. cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant. However, when starved, these cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores.
Evidence from studies of S. cerevisiae bear on the adaptive function of meiosis and recombination. Mutations defective in genes essential for meiotic and mitotic recombination in S. cerevisiae cause increased sensitivity to radiation or DNA damaging chemicals. For instance, gene rad52 is required for both meiotic recombination and mitotic recombination. Rad52 mutants have increased sensitivity to killing by X-rays, Methyl methanesulfonate and the DNA cross-linking agent 8-methoxypsoralen-plus-UVA, and show reduced meiotic recombination. These findings suggest that recombination repair during meiosis and mitosis is needed for repair of the different damages caused by these agents.
Ruderfer et al. (2006) analyzed the ancestry of natural S. cerevisiae strains and concluded that outcrossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions. Thus, it appears that in nature, mating is likely most often between closely related yeast cells. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type MATa and MATα come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same ascus, the sac that contains the cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating type, upon cell division, often produce cells of the opposite mating type with which they can mate. The relative rarity in nature of meiotic events that result from outcrossing is inconsistent with the idea that production of genetic variation is the main selective force maintaining meiosis in this organism. However, this finding is consistent with the alternative idea that the main selective force maintaining meiosis is enhanced recombinational repair of DNA damage, since this benefit is realized during each meiosis, whether or not out-crossing occurs.
Genome sequencing
S. cerevisiae was the first eukaryotic genome to be completely sequenced. The genome sequence was released to the public domain on April 24, 1996. Since then, regular updates have been maintained at the Saccharomyces Genome Database. This database is a highly annotated and cross-referenced database for yeast researchers. Another important S. cerevisiae database is maintained by the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS). The S. cerevisiae genome is composed of about 12,156,677 base pairs and 6,275 genes, compactly organized on 16 chromosomes. Only about 5,800 of these genes are believed to be functional. It is estimated at least 31% of yeast genes have homologs in the human genome. Yeast genes are classified using gene symbols (such as sch9) or systematic names. In the latter case the 16 chromosomes of yeast are represented by the letters A to P, then the gene is further classified by a sequence number on the left or right arm of the chromosome, and a letter showing which of the two DNA strands contains its coding sequence.Examples: YBR134C (aka SUP45 encoding eRF1, a translation termination factor) is located on the right arm of chromosome 2 and is the 134th open reading frame (ORF) on that arm, starting from the centromere. The coding sequence is on the Crick strand of the DNA.
YDL102W (aka POL3 encoding a subunit of DNA polymerase delta) is located on the left arm of chromosome 4; it is the 102nd ORF from the centromere and codes from the Watson strand of the DNA.
Gene function and interactions
The availability of the S. cerevisiae genome sequence and a set of deletion mutants covering 90% of the yeast genome has further enhanced the power of S. cerevisiae as a model for understanding the regulation of eukaryotic cells. A project underway to analyze the genetic interactions of all double-deletion mutants through synthetic genetic array analysis will take this research one step further. The goal is to form a functional map of the cell's processes.
a model of genetic interactions is most comprehensive yet to be constructed, containing "the interaction profiles for ~75% of all genes in the Budding yeast". This model was made from 5.4 million two-gene comparisons in which a double gene knockout for each combination of the genes studied was performed. The effect of the double knockout on the fitness of the cell was compared to the expected fitness. Expected fitness is determined from the sum of the results on fitness of single-gene knockouts for each compared gene. When there is a change in fitness from what is expected, the genes are presumed to interact with each other. This was tested by comparing the results to what was previously known. For example, the genes Par32, Ecm30, and Ubp15 had similar interaction profiles to genes involved in the Gap1-sorting module cellular process. Consistent with the results, these genes, when knocked out, disrupted that process, confirming that they are part of it.
From this, 170,000 gene interactions were found and genes with similar interaction patterns were grouped together. Genes with similar genetic interaction profiles tend to be part of the same pathway or biological process. This information was used to construct a global network of gene interactions organized by function. This network can be used to predict the function of uncharacterized genes based on the functions of genes they are grouped with.
Other tools in yeast research
Approaches that can be applied in many different fields of biological and medicinal science have been developed by yeast scientists. These include yeast two-hybrid for studying protein interactions and tetrad analysis. Other resources, include a gene deletion library including ~4,700 viable haploid single gene deletion strains. A GFP fusion strain library used to study protein localisation and a TAP tag library used to purify protein from yeast cell extracts.
Stanford University's yeast deletion project created knockout mutations of every gene in the S. cerevisiae genome to determine their function.
Synthetic yeast chromosomes and genomes
The yeast genome is highly accessible to manipulation, hence it is an excellent model for genome engineering.
The international Synthetic Yeast Genome Project (Sc2.0 or Saccharomyces cerevisiae version 2.0) aims to build an entirely designer, customizable, synthetic S. cerevisiae genome from scratch that is more stable than the wild type. In the synthetic genome all transposons, repetitive elements and many introns are removed, all UAG stop codons are replaced with UAA, and transfer RNA genes are moved to a novel neochromosome. , 6 of the 16 chromosomes have been synthesized and tested. No significant fitness defects have been found.
All 16 chromosomes can be fused into one single chromosome by successive end-to-end chromosome fusions and centromere deletions. The single-chromosome and wild-type yeast cells have nearly identical transcriptomes and similar phenotypes. The giant single chromosome can support cell life, although this strain shows reduced growth across environments, competitiveness, gamete production and viability.
Astrobiology
Among other microorganisms, a sample of living S. cerevisiae was included in the Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment, which would have completed a three-year interplanetary round-trip in a small capsule aboard the Russian Fobos-Grunt spacecraft, launched in late 2011. The goal was to test whether selected organisms could survive a few years in deep space by flying them through interplanetary space. The experiment would have tested one aspect of transpermia, the hypothesis that life could survive space travel, if protected inside rocks blasted by impact off one planet to land on another. Fobos-Grunt's mission ended unsuccessfully, however, when it failed to escape low Earth orbit. The spacecraft along with its instruments fell into the Pacific Ocean in an uncontrolled re-entry on January 15, 2012. The next planned exposure mission in deep space using S. cerevisiae is BioSentinel. (see: List of microorganisms tested in outer space)
In commercial applications
Brewing
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in brewing beer, when it is sometimes called a top-fermenting or top-cropping yeast. It is so called because during the fermentation process its hydrophobic surface causes the flocs to adhere to CO2 and rise to the top of the fermentation vessel. Top-fermenting yeasts are fermented at higher temperatures than the lager yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus, and the resulting beers have a different flavor from the same beverage fermented with a lager yeast. "Fruity esters" may be formed if the yeast undergoes temperatures near , or if the fermentation temperature of the beverage fluctuates during the process. Lager yeast normally ferments at a temperature of approximately , where Saccharomyces cerevisiae becomes dormant. A variant yeast known as Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. diastaticus is a beer spoiler which can cause secondary fermentations in packaged products.
In May 2013, the Oregon legislature made S. cerevisiae the official state microbe in recognition of the impact craft beer brewing has had on the state economy and the state's identity.
Baking
S. cerevisiae is used in baking; the carbon dioxide generated by the fermentation is used as a leavening agent in bread and other baked goods. Historically, this use was closely linked to the brewing industry's use of yeast, as bakers took or bought the barm or yeast-filled foam from brewing ale from the brewers (producing the barm cake); today, brewing and baking yeast strains are somewhat different.
Nutritional yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the main source of nutritional yeast, which is sold commercially as a food product. It is popular with vegans and vegetarians as an ingredient in cheese substitutes, or as a general food additive as a source of vitamins and minerals, especially amino acids and B-complex vitamins.
Uses in aquaria
Owing to the high cost of commercial CO2 cylinder systems, CO2 injection by yeast is one of the most popular DIY approaches followed by aquaculturists for providing CO2 to underwater aquatic plants. The yeast culture is, in general, maintained in plastic bottles, and typical systems provide one bubble every 3–7 seconds. Various approaches have been devised to allow proper absorption of the gas into the water.
Direct use in medicine
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used as a probiotic in humans and animals. Especially, a strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii is industrially manufactured and clinically used as a medication.
Several clinical and experimental studies have shown that Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii is, to lesser or greater extent, useful for prevention or treatment of several gastrointestinal diseases. Moderate quality evidence shown Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii to reduce risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhea both in adults and in children and to reduce risk of adverse effects of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy. Also some limited evidence support efficacy of Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii in prevention (but not treatment) of traveler's diarrhea and, at least as an adjunct medication, in treatment of acute diarrhea in adults and children and of persistent diarrhea in children. It may also reduce symptoms of allergic rhinitis.
Administration of S. cerevisiae var. boulardii is considered generally safe. In clinical trials it was well tolerated by patients, and adverse effects rate was similar to that in control groups (i. e. groups with placebo or no treatment). No case of S. cerevisiae var. boulardii fungemia has been reported during clinical trials.
In clinical practice, however, cases of fungemia, caused by Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii are reported. Patients with compromised immunity or those with central vascular catheters are at special risk. Some researchers have recommended not to use Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii for treatment of such patients. Others suggest only that caution must be exercised with its use in risk group patients.
A human pathogen
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is proven to be an opportunistic human pathogen, though of relatively low virulence. Despite widespread use of this microorganism at home and in industry, contact with it very rarely leads to infection.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae was found in the skin, oral cavity, oropharinx, duodenal mucosa, digestive tract, and vagina of healthy humans (one review found it to be reported for 6% of samples from human intestine). Some specialists consider S. cerevisiae to be a part of the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, and the vagina of humans, while others believe that the species cannot be called a true commensal because it originates in food. Presence of S. cerevisiae in the human digestive system may be rather transient; for example, experiments show that in the case of oral administration to healthy individuals it is eliminated from the intestine within 5 days after the end of administration.
Under certain circumstances, such as degraded immunity, Saccharomyces cerevisiae can cause infection in humans. Studies show that it causes 0.45–1.06% of the cases of yeast-induced vaginitis. In some cases, women suffering from S. cerevisiae-induced vaginal infection were intimate partners of bakers, and the strain was found to be the same that their partners used for baking. As of 1999, no cases of S. cerevisiae-induced vaginitis in women, who worked in bakeries themselves, were reported in scientific literature. Some cases were linked by researchers to the use of the yeast in home baking. Cases of infection of oral cavity and pharynx caused by S. cerevisiae are also known.
Invasive and systemic infections
Occasionally Saccharomyces cerevisiae causes invasive infections (i. e. gets into the bloodstream or other normally sterile body fluid or into a deep site tissue, such as lungs, liver or spleen) that can go systemic (involve multiple organs). Such conditions are life-threatening. More than 30% cases of S. cerevisiae invasive infections lead to death even if treated. S. cerevisiae invasive infections, however, are much rarer than invasive infections caused by Candida albicans even in patients weakened by cancer. S. cerevisiae causes 1% to 3.6% nosocomial cases of fungemia. A comprehensive review of S. cerevisiae invasive infection cases found all patients to have at least one predisposing condition.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae may enter the bloodstream or get to other deep sites of the body by translocation from oral or enteral mucosa or through contamination of intravascular catheters (e. g. central venous catheters). Intravascular catheters, antibiotic therapy and compromised immunity are major predisposing factors for S. cerevisiae invasive infection.
A number of cases of fungemia were caused by intentional ingestion of living S. cerevisiae cultures for dietary or therapeutic reasons, including use of Saccharomyces boulardii (a strain of S. cerevisiae which is used as a probiotic for treatment of certain forms of diarrhea). Saccharomyces boulardii causes about 40% cases of invasive Saccharomyces infections and is more likely (in comparison to other S. cerevisiae strains) to cause invasive infection in humans without general problems with immunity, though such adverse effect is very rare relative to Saccharomyces boulardii therapeutic administration.
S. boulardii may contaminate intravascular catheters through hands of medical personnel involved in administering probiotic preparations of S. boulardii to patients.
Systemic infection usually occurs in patients who have their immunity compromised due to severe illness (HIV/AIDS, leukemia, other forms of cancer) or certain medical procedures (bone marrow transplantation, abdominal surgery).
A case was reported when a nodule was surgically excised from a lung of a man employed in baking business, and examination of the tissue revealed presence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Inhalation of dry baking yeast powder is supposed to be the source of infection in this case.
Virulence of different strains
Not all strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are equally virulent towards humans. Most environmental strains are not capable of growing at temperatures above 35 °C (i. e. at temperatures of living body of humans and other mammalian). Virulent strains, however, are capable of growing at least above 37 °C and often up to 39 °C (rarely up to 42 °C). Some industrial strains are also capable of growing above 37 °C. European Food Safety Authority (as of 2017) requires that all S. cerevisiae strains capable of growth above 37 °C that are added to the food or feed chain in viable form must, as to be qualified presumably safe, show no resistance to antimycotic drugs used for treatment of yeast infections.
The ability to grow at elevated temperatures is an important factor for strain's virulence but not the sole one.
Other traits that are usually believed to be associated with virulence are: ability to produce certain enzymes such as proteinase and phospholipase, invasive growth (i.e. growth with intrusion into the nutrient medium), ability to adhere to mammalian cells, ability to survive in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (that is used by macrophages to kill foreign microorganisms in the body) and other abilities allowing the yeast to resist or influence immune response of the host body. Ability to form branching chains of cells, known as pseudohyphae is also sometimes said to be associated with virulence, though some research suggests that this trait may be common to both virulent and non-virulent strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
See also
Saccharomyces cerevisiae extracts: Vegemite, Marmite, Cenovis, Guinness Yeast Extract, mannan oligosaccharides, pgg-glucan, zymosan
Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardii (Saccharomyces boulardii)
Flora of Door County, Wisconsin § Hybrid yeast
Category:Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes
Auto-brewery syndrome
Biosprint
Yeast promoter atlas (2010)
References FootnotesCitations'''
Further reading
External links
Saccharomyces Genome Database
Yeast Resource Center Public Data Repository
Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences
UniProt – Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Fungal models
Digestive system
Probiotics
Osmophiles
Baking
Yeasts used in brewing
Leavening agents
Oenology
Fungi described in 1883
Edible fungi | [
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237707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Tilloch%20Galt | Alexander Tilloch Galt | Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt, (September 6, 1817 – September 19, 1893) was a politician and a father of the Canadian Confederation.
Early life
Galt was born in Chelsea, England on September 6, 1817. He was the son of John Galt, a Scottish novelist and colonizer, and Elizabeth (née Tilloch) Galt. His mother was the only daughter of Alexander Tilloch, the journalist and inventor who founded Philosophical Magazine. He was a first cousin of Sir Hugh Allan of Montreal, the owner of the Allan Shipping Line which was the largest privately owned shipping empire in the world in 1882. He was educated at Reading School.
Career
He was a member of the Great Coalition government in the Province of Canada that secured Confederation between 1864 and 1867. He became a leading figure in the creation of the Coalition when he was asked to become premier of the Province of Canada by then Governor General Sir Edmund Walker Head. Doubting his own ability to demand the loyalty of the majority of members of the Legislative Assembly, he turned down the position, but recommended that George-Étienne Cartier and John A. Macdonald be asked to become co-leaders of the new government.
In return, Cartier and Macdonald asked him to become Inspector-General of Canada. He accepted the post on the condition that Macdonald and Cartier made Confederation a key platform in their new government. In 1858, Alexander Tilloch Galt made a motion in the Legislature at Kingston recommending that the Province of Canada ask the British Government to create a federal union of British North America (Canada East and West, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia) and Rupert's Land (owned by the Hudson's Bay Company). The motion succeeded, and Alexander Galt, John Ross, and Sir George-Étienne Cartier went to London to begin the long process of convincing the British to make British North America into the first sovereign Dominion within the British Empire.
As Inspector General, Galt reformed the Province of Canada's banking system trade policies. He was the main architect of the Cayley-Galt Tariff, which protected colonial businesses and caused consternation in both Britain and the United States.
July 1, 1867, Canada East and West, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became the first provinces in British North America to form the Dominion of Canada. Galt served as the first Minister of Finance in the new confederation. As minister of Finance, he reversed many of his earlier policies, promoting trade within the British Empire. Following a strong disagreement with Macdonald and Cartier concerning the fate of the Commercial Bank of Canada, Galt resigned from government. He continued to sit as an MP until 1872.
Nevertheless, Galt remained an important figure in Canadian business and politics. In 1877, The British appointed him as their representative in the Halifax Fisheries Commission concerning American fishing rights in Canadian waters. Following a rapprochement with the re-elected Macdonald, Galt was sent to London to be Canada's informal representative there. As this was the only important office of the Canadian government overseas at the time, he also travelled to France and Spain to negotiate trade deals with those nations. The British government knew of these trips and was not pleased that Canada had developed a foreign policy separate from the Empire. The British demanded that Galt's position be formalized, and in late 1880, he became the first Canadian High Commissioner in London. He left his post on 1 June 1883.
Business ventures
Sir Alexander Galt and his son Elliott Torrance Galt used his personal connections in Ottawa to arrange for his son Elliot to be appointed as the Assistant Indian Commissioner in southern Alberta. Alexander was certainly aware of the work done by Dr. George Dawson to map the coal deposits in southern Alberta, on behalf of the Geological Survey of Canada. Knowing a railroad was soon to be built in the region, Alexander likely saw the economic potential in southern Alberta's coal. This knowledge and planning may have been part of the reason why he secured Elliot a post as Assistant Indian Commissioner.
North Western Coal and Navigation Company.
Alexander Galt sent Nicholas Bryant and William Stafford to decide on the best location for a mine in southern Alberta. The men took samples at five locations across the region. Stafford decided upon the west side of the Oldman River. On October 13, 1882, William Stafford and a group of miners from Nova Scotia opened Drift Mine No. 1 near the community of Coalbanks. Alexander created the North Western Coal and Navigation Company to grow his industry with the participation of English investors, the largest shareholder being William Lethbridge. William Lethbridge was named the president of the company and the growing community called Coalbanks was officially renamed Lethbridge in his honour in 1885.
Alexander and Elliot Galt established the Alberta Railway and Coal Company, to build two narrow-gauge rail lines, with the hope that the infrastructure would attract other businesses and settlers to the region. One rail line would go east to Dunmore, near Medicine Hat, and the second line would go south to Montana. Canada's Governor-General, the Marquess of Landsdowne, demonstrated the Dominion government's support of the Galt enterprises, by opening the Galts' railway in September 1885 in Lethbridge.
The Federal Government granted large tracts of land in southern Alberta to the Galt's companies in return for building those two rail lines. The Galts wanted to sell that land to colonists and settlers, but the community and the region did not attract new European settlers to move here in the numbers they had expected.
Charles Ora Card was sent to establish a colony of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) in Canada in 1886. He selected a spot “3 miles up Lee’s Creek,” the current site of the Town of Cardston. A small group of Mormon colonists arrived to establish the community in June 1887.
Card encouraged the Galts to undertake a significant irrigation project because the area around Cardston was so dry. Even though he was unable to secure financing for the project at a time of nationwide recession, the Galts nevertheless formed the Alberta Irrigation Company to purchase the Alberta Railway and Coal Company land for future irrigation projects. Galt, Charles A. Magrath, the Company Land Commissioner, and the Lethbridge News lobbied the government for almost ten years for additional funding for irrigation projects.
In 1896, the Dominion Government and the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) agreed to fund their irrigation plan by supplying cash, by constructing a rail line to the Crowsnest Pass and by writing off the debt of surveying fees on previous land grants.
The leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Utah entered into a contract with Galt and Magrath in 1898 to construct an irrigation system in southern Alberta. The agreement required the Church to provide skilled labourers to build fifty miles of irrigation canals from Kimball to Stirling. They were also required to populate two settlements along the planned irrigation line with at least 250 colonists each. These two communities would become the Village of Stirling and the Town of Magrath.
Voluntary immigration of LDS colonists to southern Alberta was slow, despite propaganda put out by the Church. LDS Church leaders eventually resorted to calling members on “missions” to build the irrigation canal or to move to southern Alberta with their families to meet the Church's contractual obligations for populating colonies.
By 1900, over 95 miles of canals had been completed, including the main canal from the St. Mary River starting from the hamlet of Kimball near the United States border and branch canal to Lethbridge.
The immigration boom to southern Alberta began in earnest in 1905. The government, the CPR and Galt and Magrath all heavily promoted the region. People lined up for homesteads every year until the outbreak of the First World War. Galt's sugar beet farms and factory at Raymond and his model farm near Lethbridge demonstrated that agriculture could prosper in southern Alberta.
Galt's company, the North Western Coal and Navigation Company went through a variety of name changes as it moved into railways, and irrigation enterprises. Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier dedicated the 1910 Galt Hospital addition Since the construction of the new hospital Lethbridge Municipal Hospital in 1955, The 1910 Galt Hospital has served as a senior citizen's home, a rehabilitation centre, and as the Health Unit at different times. In 1966, the Sir Alexander Galt Museum moved from the Bowman Arts Centre into the Galt Hospital and occupied the top and bottom floors. In 1979, the Galt Museum & Archives took over the rest of building. The museum has built two expansions to the original building, one in 1985 and the most recent in 2006.
Alexander Galt was also the founding president of The Guarantee Company of North America in 1872, providing fidelity bonds to guarantee the surety of employees of railroads and government. The company still exists today as the largest provider of surety bonds in all of Canada in public works and government services.
Personal life
On February 9, 1848, Galt married Elliot Torrance (1828–1850), the daughter of merchant and entrepreneur John Torrance, of Saint-Antoine Hall, Montreal. Among Elliot's sibling was Daniel Torrance, who married Sophia Johnson Vanderbilt, a daughter of Cornelius Vanderbilt, and Jane Torrance, who married David Torrance, president of the Bank of Montreal. Galt's wife died on May 25, 1850, shortly after giving birth to their only son:
Elliott Torrance Galt (1850–1928), the businessman and developer who died unmarried.
Later he married her younger sister, Amy Gordon Torrance (1834–1911). Amy gave birth to seven daughters and two more sons. They lived in Montreal at their house within the Golden Square Mile, which Galt built in about 1860. Galt appears to have had a very non-sectarian approach to religious faith and although the grandson of a Calvinist theologian, Alexander Galt supported both the Methodist and Anglican churches while his wife, Amy, was a lifelong Presbyterian.
Galt was reported to be a Freemason of Victoria Lodge, No. 16 (Quebec) of Sherbrooke.
Galt died in Montreal, Quebec on September 19, 1893. He is interred in the Mount Royal Cemetery in Montreal.
Legacy
He has a street named after him: Avenue Galt in the borough of Verdun, Quebec, in the city of Montreal where he had lands.
In Sherbrooke, Quebec, he has two streets named after him: rue Galt Est/Ouest and rue Alexandre. The Quartier Alexandre, located downtown, is also named after Galt. There is also a high school in Sherbrooke (Lennoxville) - Alexander Galt Regional High School (http://alexandergalt.etsb.qc.ca/) located close to Bishop's University which is home to approximately 1000 students from grades 7 to 11.
The Galt Gardens public park and Galt Museum (formerly a hospital) in Lethbridge, Alberta, are named after him.
Galt was portrayed by Patrick McKenna in the 2011 CBC Television film John A.: Birth of a Country.
Archives
There is an Alexander Tilloch Galt fonds at Library and Archives Canada.
Notes
References
1817 births
1893 deaths
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian Ministers of Finance
High Commissioners of Canada to the United Kingdom
English emigrants to pre-Confederation Quebec
Fathers of Confederation
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Canadian Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada East
History of Lethbridge
People from Chelsea, London
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Anglophone Quebec people
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
People educated at Reading School
Canadian Companions of the Order of the Bath
Canadian Freemasons
Burials at Mount Royal Cemetery | [
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237708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rydberg%20formula | Rydberg formula | In atomic physics, the Rydberg formula calculates the wavelengths of a spectral line in many chemical elements. The formula was primarily presented as a generalization of the Balmer series for all atomic electron transitions of hydrogen. It was first empirically stated in 1888 by the Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg, then theoretically by Niels Bohr in 1913, who used a primitive form of quantum mechanics. The formula directly generalizes the equations used to calculate the wavelengths of the hydrogen spectral series.
History
In 1880, Rydberg worked on a formula describing the relation between the wavelengths in spectral lines of alkali metals. He noticed that lines came in series and he found that he could simplify his calculations using the wavenumber (the number of waves occupying the unit length, equal to 1/λ, the inverse of the wavelength) as his unit of measurement. He plotted the wavenumbers (n) of successive lines in each series against consecutive integers which represented the order of the lines in that particular series. Finding that the resulting curves were similarly shaped, he sought a single function which could generate all of them, when appropriate constants were inserted.
First he tried the formula: , where n is the line's wavenumber, n0 is the series limit, m is the line's ordinal number in the series, m is a constant different for different series and C0 is a universal constant. This did not work very well.
Rydberg was trying: when he became aware of Balmer's formula for the hydrogen spectrum In this equation, m is an integer and h is a constant (not to be confused with the later Planck constant).
Rydberg therefore rewrote Balmer's formula in terms of wavenumbers, as .
This suggested that the Balmer formula for hydrogen might be a special case with and , where , the reciprocal of Balmer's constant (this constant h is written B''' in the Balmer equation article, again to avoid confusion with Planck's constant).
The term was found to be a universal constant common to all elements, equal to 4/h. This constant is now known as the Rydberg constant, and m′ is known as the quantum defect.
As stressed by Niels Bohr, expressing results in terms of wavenumber, not wavelength, was the key to Rydberg's discovery. The fundamental role of wavenumbers was also emphasized by the Rydberg-Ritz combination principle of 1908. The fundamental reason for this lies in quantum mechanics. Light's wavenumber is proportional to frequency , and therefore also proportional to light's quantum energy E. Thus, (in this formula the h represents Planck's constant). Modern understanding is that Rydberg's findings were a reflection of the underlying simplicity of the behavior of spectral lines, in terms of fixed (quantized) energy differences between electron orbitals in atoms. Rydberg's 1888 classical expression for the form of the spectral series was not accompanied by a physical explanation. Walther Ritz's pre-quantum 1908 explanation for the mechanism underlying the spectral series was that atomic electrons behaved like magnets and that the magnets could vibrate with respect to the atomic nucleus (at least temporarily) to produce electromagnetic radiation, but this theory was superseded in 1913 by Niels Bohr's model of the atom.
In Bohr's conception of the atom, the integer Rydberg (and Balmer) n numbers represent electron orbitals at different integral distances from the atom. A frequency (or spectral energy) emitted in a transition from n1 to n2 therefore represents the photon energy emitted or absorbed when an electron makes a jump from orbital 1 to orbital 2.
Later models found that the values for n1 and n2 corresponded to the principal quantum numbers of the two orbitals.
For hydrogen
where
is the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted in vacuum,
is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen, approximately ,
is the principal quantum number of an energy level, and
is the principal quantum number of an energy level for the atomic electron transition.
Note: Here,
By setting to 1 and letting run from 2 to infinity, the spectral lines known as the Lyman series converging to 91 nm are obtained, in the same manner:
For any hydrogen-like element
The formula above can be extended for use with any hydrogen-like chemical elements with
where
is the wavelength (in vacuum) of the light emitted,
is the Rydberg constant for this element,
is the atomic number, i.e. the number of protons in the atomic nucleus of this element,
is the principal quantum number of the lower energy level, and
is the principal quantum number of the higher energy level for the atomic electron transition.
This formula can be directly applied only to hydrogen-like, also called hydrogenic atoms of chemical elements, i.e. atoms with only one electron being affected by an effective nuclear charge (which is easily estimated). Examples would include He+, Li2+, Be3+ etc., where no other electrons exist in the atom.
But the Rydberg formula also provides correct wavelengths for distant electrons, where the effective nuclear charge can be estimated as the same as that for hydrogen, since all but one of the nuclear charges have been screened by other electrons, and the core of the atom has an effective positive charge of +1.
Finally, with certain modifications (replacement of Z by Z − 1, and use of the integers 1 and 2 for the ns to give a numerical value of for the difference of their inverse squares), the Rydberg formula provides correct values in the special case of K-alpha lines, since the transition in question is the K-alpha transition of the electron from the 1s orbital to the 2p orbital. This is analogous to the Lyman-alpha line transition for hydrogen, and has the same frequency factor. Because the 2p electron is not screened by any other electrons in the atom from the nucleus, the nuclear charge is diminished only by the single remaining 1s electron, causing the system to be effectively a hydrogenic atom, but with a diminished nuclear charge Z − 1. Its frequency is thus the Lyman-alpha hydrogen frequency, increased by a factor of (Z − 1)2. This formula of f = c/λ = (Lyman-alpha frequency)⋅(Z − 1)2 is historically known as Moseley's law (having added a factor c to convert wavelength to frequency), and can be used to predict wavelengths of the Kα (K-alpha) X-ray spectral emission lines of chemical elements from aluminum to gold. See the biography of Henry Moseley for the historical importance of this law, which was derived empirically at about the same time it was explained by the Bohr model of the atom.
For other spectral transitions in multi-electron atoms, the Rydberg formula generally provides incorrect'' results, since the magnitude of the screening of inner electrons for outer-electron transitions is variable and not possible to compensate for in the simple manner above. The correction to the Rydberg formula for these atoms is known as the quantum defect.
See also
Balmer series
Hydrogen line
Rydberg–Ritz combination principle
References
Atomic physics
Foundational quantum physics
Hydrogen physics
History of physics | [
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] |
237710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hamilton%20Gray | John Hamilton Gray | John Hamilton Gray may refer to two 19th-century Canadian politicians:
John Hamilton Gray (Prince Edward Island politician) (1811–1887), Premier of Prince Edward Island
John Hamilton Gray (New Brunswick politician) (1814–1889), Premier of New Brunswick
See also
John Gray (disambiguation) | [
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237711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Dittemore | Ron Dittemore | Ron D. Dittemore (born April 13, 1952 Cooperstown, New York) is a former Space Shuttle program manager for NASA.
Education
Ron Dittemore graduated from Medical Lake High School in Medical Lake, Washington in 1970. He received a bachelor's degree in aeronautical and astronautical engineering from the University of Washington in 1974, and a master's degree in the same subjects one year later.
Career
Before joining NASA at Johnson Space Center (JSC) in 1977, Dittemore worked as a turboprop/turbofan engine development engineer in Arizona. While at JSC, Dittemore held several positions, including flight director on 11 shuttle missions, deputy assistant director of the Space Station Program, and manager of Space Shuttle Program Integration. He assumed the position of manager of the Space Shuttle Program in 1999.
Dittemore was the Shuttle Program Manager for NASA at the time of the disastrous loss of Space Shuttle Columbia in February 2003. Dittemore announced his resignation from NASA in April 2003.
Current Occupation
Dittemore is currently retired. Previously, he was the president of ATK Launch Systems Group, formerly known as ATK Thiokol Propulsion, of Brigham City, Utah. ATK (Alliant Techsystems) was selected in December 2005 as the prime contractor for the first stage of NASA's Ares I.
Personal
Ron Dittemore is married to Shirley Ann Seibolts. They have two children. Dittemore is a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
References
1952 births
Living people
Latter Day Saints from New York (state)
Dittemore, Ron
University of Washington College of Engineering alumni
People from Cooperstown, New York
People from Medical Lake, Washington
Latter Day Saints from Washington (state) | [
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237714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Alexander%20Henry | William Alexander Henry | William Alexander Henry (December 30, 1816 – May 3, 1888) was a Canadian lawyer, politician, and judge. He was one of the Fathers of Confederation and one of the first judges of the Supreme Court of Canada.
Henry was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Shortly afterward, his family moved to Antigonish. He attended Halifax High School then studied law and was admitted to the bar. He was married twice (1840 and 1850). His two sons were William Alexander Henry Jr., a successful Halifax lawyer and Hugh MacD Henry. The elder W. A. Henry served as a cabinet minister in Nova Scotia in governments led by both the Liberals and the Conservatives. He represented the Antigonish region almost continuously from 1840 to 1867 and was appointed attorney general in 1864.
Henry was a strong believer in the benefits that could be derived from a British American union such as free trade and the construction of the Intercontinental Railway. Henry was a delegate to all three Confederation Conferences, and upon approval by the union in the Spring of 1866, he travelled to the London Conference as part of the delegation mandated to compose the legislation. The Nova Scotia delegates voted to accept the Québec Resolutions into the British North America Act, 1867 but Henry objected to the limitation on the number of Senate seats. He also supported the unsuccessful efforts to have the existence of Roman Catholic separate schools entrenched in the Act. He was one of the attorneys general who helped frame the language. However, it is an unproved tradition that he drafted the BNA Act.
After Confederation, Henry suffered defeat in his own district for the first time in 24 years. He returned to private practice in Halifax and was elected mayor of the city in 1870. Although he was denied a judgeship in Nova Scotia, Henry was one of the first appointed to the newly created Supreme Court of Canada in 1875. He died in Ottawa, Ontario.
Henry was a Freemason of St. John’s Lodge, No. 161 (England) in Halifax, and affiliated with Civil Service Lodge No. 148 (Ontario) of Ottawa on March 13, 1883.
Henry House in Halifax, which served as Henry's residence from 1854 to 1864, was designated a National Historic Site in 1969 due in part to its association with Henry.
Election results
Footnotes
External links
Supreme Court of Canada Biography
1816 births
1888 deaths
Canadian Presbyterians
Canadian people of Ulster-Scottish descent
Fathers of Confederation
Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada
Mayors of Halifax, Nova Scotia
Attorneys General of the Colony of Nova Scotia
People from Antigonish County, Nova Scotia
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Nova Scotia pre-Confederation MLAs
Canadian Freemasons | [
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237715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendoza%20Province | Mendoza Province | Mendoza, officially Province of Mendoza, is a province of Argentina, in the western central part of the country in the Cuyo region. It borders San Juan to the north, La Pampa and Neuquén to the south, San Luis to the east, and the republic of Chile to the west; the international limit is marked by the Andes mountain range. Its capital city is the homonymous city of Mendoza.
Covering an area of 148,827 km2, it is the seventh biggest province of Argentina with 5.35% of the country's total area. The population for 2010 is 1,741,610 inhabitants, which makes it the fourth most populated province of the country, or 4.35% of the total national population.
History
Pre-Columbian times
Archeological studies have determined that the first inhabitants in the area date from the Holocene, but there are few remains of those people to know their habits. The earliest sites of human occupation in Mendoza Province, Agua de la Cueva and Gruta del Indio, are 12,000–13,000 years old. In the basins of the Atuel River, in 300 BC, lived a group of people that lived via hunting and the cultivation of maize, pumpkins and beans. Those valleys saw the rise of the Agrelo culture, ancestor of the Huarpes. They were later influenced greatly by the Inca empire during the 15th century. Oral tradition sets the arrival of the Inca Túpac Yupanqui to Coquimbo in 1470.
Puelches and other groups received a strong influence of the Mapuches.
Spanish colony (1550–1810)
The first Spanish conquerors came around 1550, from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1561, Mendoza was founded by the conquistador Pedro del Castillo. Until the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776, the area of what is now Mendoza Province belonged to the Captaincy General of Chile.
Independence
With the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, its 30,000 inhabitants became part of the intendency of Cuyo de Córdoba del Tucumán, but in 1813, the intendency was separated and the Province of Cuyo created, with José de San Martín as its first Governor. He received important support from Mendoza when he led his Army of the Andes from Plumerillo to the 1817 crossing of the Andes, in his campaign to end Spanish rule in Chile.
19th century
The Province of Cuyo was ultimately divided in 1820, and Mendoza parted ways with San Luis and San Juan Provinces.
The 1861 earthquake nearly destroyed the city of Mendoza, which had to be almost entirely reconstructed. In 1885, railways were built to the province, allowing for easy transport of the region's wines to the country's trade hub of Buenos Aires.
Following the development of the wine industry in the province around 1900, Mendoza began to grow quickly, attracting tens of thousands of European immigrants, particularly Spaniards. In 1939, the National University of Cuyo, one of the more important universities of the country, was founded in the province.
20th century
Partly in reaction to President Juan Perón's populist policies, some of which taxed agriculture heavily to finance urban development and public works, Mendoza landowners formed the conservative Democratic Party, which secured the Vice Governor's post in 1958. Increasing their presence in the Mendoza Legislature, the Democrats became an obstacle to progressive Governor Ernesto Ueltschi, an ally of president Arturo Frondizi's. With majorities in both houses by 1961, they had Gov. Ueltschi removed and Democrat Vice-governor Francisco Gabrielli appointed in his stead. Elected governor in his own right in 1963, Gov. Gabrielli was deposed following the June 1966 coup against President Arturo Illia; but still benefiting from conservative credentials, he was appointed de facto governor by the same military regime in 1970.
In contrast to the pragmatism that had distinguished his 1963–66 term, Gabrielli governed with a hard line, freezing state salaries and ordering large utility rate increases, used the Mendoza police to repress dissent and took foreign policy prerogatives like collaborating with Chilean saboteurs opposed to their country's new Marxist president, Salvador Allende. These events came to a head in April 1972, however, when violent protests forced the newly unpopular Gabrielli to resign.
Upon the return to democracy in March 1973, Mendoza voters turned to a left-leaning Peronist, Alberto Martínez Baca. Quickly enacting needed labor and land reforms, Martínez Baca, however, made the mistake of appointing affiliates of the extreme-left Montoneros movement, an organization whose armed wing had perpetrated a string of violent crimes since 1970 (and would continue to do so). Alarmed by this move from the otherwise pragmatic Martínez Baca, President Perón had him removed in June 1974.
Becoming more politically independent-minded following these two disappointments, Mendoza voters elected centrist Radical Civic Union as well as populist Justicialist Party lawmakers since Argentina's return to democracy in 1983. Though Mendoza has generally prospered since then, its critical wine industry was left reeling from the 1983 collapse of state-owned vintner Bodegas GIOL, whose dictatorship-era receivers had run the wine conglomerate (then the world's largest outside Europe), and accumulated over US$6 billion of debt; GIOL closed in 1991.
Elected in 2003, Radical Civic Union Governor Julio Cobos highlighted this independent sentiment by parting ways with many in his party and endorsing newly elected Peronist President Néstor Kirchner's policies in 2004. Over the opposition of his party, Julio Cobos accepted the post of running mate to first lady Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of the ruling Front for Victory, in the presidential elections of October 2007. Fernández and Cobos won in the first round, and Cobos became Vice President of Argentina; he was replaced by pro-Kirchner Justicialist candidate Celso Jaque as governor. The province is represented by three senators in the Argentine Senate, currently María Perceval, Ernesto Sanz and Mónica Troadello. Mendoza is represented by 10 deputies in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies.
On July 16, 2008, Vice President Cobos stunned observers by casting the tie-breaking vote against a presidentially-sponsored measure in the Senate that would have raised export taxes on an array of agricultural goods. His faction of the UCR won a significant victory in the 2009 mid-term elections in Mendoza.
Geography and climate
The geography of the province descends from at the summit of Aconcagua to the semi-flat lands of the east. A series of longitudinal valles, such as the Uspallata, separate the Andes from the Precordillera lower mountains. To the east, the Cuyean plains are crossed by tributaries of the Desaguadero River. Other important rivers include Mendoza River, Tunuyán River, Diamante River and Atuel River.
The climate is continental, sunny and dry in the entire territory of the province, with warm summers and relatively cold winters. The arid soil due to the scant precipitation and the great temperature difference between day and night allows mainly xerophytes and few trees to grow. The annual precipitation lies between 150 and 350mm, and hail is a significant, and not uncommon, problem in the regional viticulture. There are fertile lands surrounding the basins of the many rivers born in the glaciers of the Cordillera.
The lowlands have very hot summers (30 °C to 33 °C during the day, or 86 °F to 91 °F) with warm nights in the north (18 °C, or 64 °F) and cooler evenings in the south (15 °C, 59 °F). Precipitation falls mainly as very scarce, but often severe thunderstorms that bring hail and high winds. Falls are pleasant and dry, and winters are cool with daytime highs around 14 °C (57 °F) and nighttime lows of 2 °C (35F). When Zonda winds blow downslope from the Andes, temperatures may soar to 30 °C (86 °F); however, Pampero winds can keep day temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F) and nighttime lows of −8 °C (18 °F) can be recorded. Snow is uncommon in the north, and occasional in the south.
The area around Malargue is located at higher elevation (1400 meters) and thus the weather is significantly colder: summers average 28 °C (82 °F) during the day, but only 11 °C (53F) at night, and winters range from 10 °C (50 °F) to −2 °C (28 °F). Here, precipitation is somewhat higher (350 mm) and winter is stormier than the summer, with 45 mm (1.8 in) falling in July. Snow is much more common, and falls several times every year: on occasion, it can be heavy. Temperatures often fall to −12 °C (10 °F) and up to −23 °C (-9 °F) have been recorded.
The first slopes of the Andes are dry and sunny; however, precipitation increases as one approaches the border with Chile, especially toward the south, where some areas receive over 600 mm (24 in), falling exclusively in the winter, and mostly as snow. Altitudes over 2,600 m in the north and over 2,000 m in the far south usually have ample snow cover. Summer days may be warm and sunny, but nights are always cold, whereas winter temperatures tend to be moderate, with long stretches of sunny (but very windy) weather alternating with very intense snowstorms where several meters of snow may pile up, providing excellent skiing conditions in resorts like Las Lenas, Penitentes and Vallecitos. Mountains often surpass 5,000 meters, and Aconcagua reaches 6,959 meters: at these altitudes, the climate is extremely cold and windy year round, with temperatures down to −40 °C.
Different wind fronts affect the landscape, mainly the Zonda wind, but also the mild Pampero, the warm Viento Norte and, in winter, the very rare Sudestada from the Southeast. The latter wind mostly affects the pampas.
Economy
Famed worldwide for its viticulture (with 70% of the 1.5 billion liters in Argentine wine production), the Mendoza economy (Argentina's fifth largest) is, however, quite diversified. Its 2013 output was estimated at US$18.8 billion, or, US$10,758 per capita
below the national average, at a level similar to Turkey and above Mexico
,. Agriculture, to be sure (though 7% of the total economy), has long accounted for much of Mendoza's foreign exchange earnings (followed closely by tourism, mainly from Chile). Besides wine, other important crops (mainly for the Argentine market) are apples, pears, tomatoes, onions, plums, olives, cherries, peaches and quince. Apiculture, with 30,000 beehives, is another growing activity favoured by Mendoza's dry weather.
Mining is important to the Mendoza economy and has grown sharply in recent years, now accounting for 22% of output in 2005 (nearly 5 times the national average). Fourteen percent of the national reserves of petroleum are in Mendoza, also home to large-scale mining of lime and uranium. Manufacturing has long contributed to the province's prosperity and still accounts for 16% of the economy. Mendoza's main industries are, of course, wine production with 1,200 wineries turning out 1.1 billion liters in 2005, followed by canned fruits, a large petroleum refinery (in Luján de Cuyo), cement and others.
Mendoza's services sector is somewhat less developed and diversified than the national average. Tourism, long active in the scenic province, has, since the 2002 devaluation of the Argentine peso, become one of its most important sources of income, with around 700,000 visitors per year. The main attractions are the Las Leñas ski centre, the Aconcagua mountain, and the provincial parks of the Atuel Canyon, Puente del Inca and others. With the recent developments in Argentine wine production, enotourism has also become very popular, with numerous wine-tourism oriented hotels appearing throughout the province. Wineries along the wine route generally offer free tours of the premises with wine-tastings at the conclusion of the tour. In the wine-producing region, the Fiesta de la Vendimia (grape harvest festival) receives many visitors in late February or early March. The Christ the Redeemer of the Andes statue in the mountains on the Chilean border is a destination for many excursions.
Government
The provincial government is divided into the usual three branches: the executive, headed by a popularly elected governor, who appoints the cabinet; the legislative; and the judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court. The legislative branch is a bicameral body composed of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Legislature is charged with introducing and passing local laws.
The Constitution of Mendoza Province forms the formal law of the province.
In Argentina, the most important law enforcement organization is the Argentine Federal Police but the additional work is carried out by the Mendoza Provincial Police.
Political division
The province is divided into 18 local government areas called departments (Spanish: departamentos). Each is divided into one or more districts, and has an Executive Department (led by a mayor or intendente) and a Deliberative Department (legislature) to run local services. The mayor is elected by a simple majority of the popular vote every four years, while half of the Deliberative body is renewed every two years (re-election is allowed in both cases). The departments can make regulations in accordance with the provincial constitution and the Organic Law of Municipalities, but financially cannot levy taxes, but only charge for services. The most populous cities within a department may have citizens' committees appointed by the municipal government to perform certain functions.
Capital Department (Mendoza) - Capital
General Alvear Department (General Alvear)
Godoy Cruz Department (Godoy Cruz)
Guaymallén Department (Villa Nueva)
Junín Department (Junín)
La Paz Department (La Paz)
Las Heras Department (Las Heras)
Lavalle Department (Villa Tulumaya)
Luján de Cuyo Department (Luján de Cuyo)
Maipú Department (Maipú)
Malargüe Department (Malargüe)
Rivadavia Department (Rivadavia)
San Carlos Department (San Carlos)
San Martín Department (San Martín)
San Rafael Department (San Rafael)
Santa Rosa Department (Santa Rosa)
Tunuyán Department (Tunuyán)
Tupungato Department (Tupungato)
See also
Cuyo Spanish
El Challao
List of earthquakes in Mendoza Province
Universidad Nacional de Cuyo
References
External links
Mendoza Ministry of Tourism and Culture (in Spanish)
Mendoza guide of Tourism and Culture (in Spanish)
Discover Mendoza - Tourism in Mendoza (in Spanish)
Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (in Spanish)
Map of Mendoza
Wines of Mendoza on Vinismo
1812 establishments in Argentina
Provinces of Argentina
States and territories established in 1812
Wine regions of Argentina | [
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237718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archie%20Cochrane | Archie Cochrane | Archibald Leman Cochrane CBE (12 January 1909 – 18 June 1988) was a Scottish doctor noted for his book Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services. This book advocated the use of randomized control trials to make medicine more effective and efficient.
His advocacy of randomized controlled trials eventually led to the development of the Cochrane Library database of systematic reviews, the establishment of the UK Cochrane Centre in Oxford and the international organisation Cochrane. He is known as one of the fathers of modern clinical epidemiology and evidence-based medicine and is considered to be the originator of the idea of evidence-based medicine in the current era.
Biography
Cochrane was born in Kirklands, Galashiels, Scotland, into a family he described as "industrial upper middle class". His father was killed whilst serving with the King's Own Scottish Borderers during World War I. He won a scholarship to Uppingham School, and obtained another scholarship to King's College, Cambridge, achieving first class honours in Parts I and II of the Natural Sciences Tripos and completing 2nd MB studies in physiology and anatomy in 1930. He qualified in 1938 at University College Hospital, London, at University College London.
Cochrane was born with porphyria. This caused health problems throughout his life. He tried treatment using psychoanalysis under Theodor Reik, following Reik to Berlin, then Vienna and the Hague as the influence of the Nazis increased, combining his treatment with undertaking medical studies in Vienna and Leiden. He became dissatisfied with psychoanalysis. However, he became fluent in German which was useful later on in life. His travels also convinced him of the importance of the anti-fascist cause.
During the Spanish Civil War, Cochrane served as a member of a British Ambulance Unit within the Spanish Medical Aid Committee. In World War II he joined the British Army and was captured during the Battle of Crete and subsequently worked as a Medical Officer at Salonika (Greece) and Hildburghausen, Elsterhorst and Wittenberg an der Elbe (Germany) prisoner of war camps. His experience in the camp led him to believe that much of medicine did not have sufficient evidence to justify its use.
He said, "I knew that there was no real evidence that anything we had to offer had any effect on tuberculosis, and I was afraid that I shortened the lives of some of my friends by unnecessary intervention." As a result, he spent his career urging the medical community to adopt the scientific method.
After the war he studied for a Diploma in Public Health at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine and spent a year at the Henry Phipps Institute in Philadelphia on a Rockefeller Fellowship. Cochrane joined the Medical Research Council's Pneumoconiosis Unit at Llandough Hospital, a part of Welsh National School of Medicine, now Cardiff University School of Medicine in 1948. Here he began a series of studies on the health of the population of Rhondda Fach — studies which pioneered the use of randomised controlled trials (RCTs).
Cardiff University has released an online video of the Rhondda Fach studies. The video shows some archive footage of the community study. Cochrane describes what he was looking for in the surveys.
In 1956 Cochrane underwent a radical mastectomy to remove what was thought to be cancerous tissue in his right pectoralis minor and axilla.
Academic life
In 1960 he was appointed David Davies Professor of Tuberculosis and Chest Diseases at the Welsh National School of Medicine, now Cardiff University School of Medicine, and nine years later became Director of the new Medical Research Council's Epidemiology Research Unit at 4 Richmond Road, Cardiff. His groundbreaking paper on validation of medical screening procedures, published jointly with fellow epidemiologist Walter W. Holland in 1971, became a classic in the field.
His 1971 Rock Carling Fellowship monograph Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services, first published in 1972 by the Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust – now known as the Nuffield Trust, was very influential. To quote from the book's summary : "An investigation into the workings of the clinical sector of the NHS strongly suggests that the simplest explanation of the findings is that this sector is subject to severe inflation with the output rising much less than would be expected from the input". According to a review in the British Medical Journal, "the hero of the book is the randomized control trial, and the villains are the clinicians in the "care" part of the National Health Service (NHS) who either fail to carry out such trials or succeed in ignoring the results if they do not fit in with their own preconceived ideas". Maintaining this challenge to the medical care system as he saw it, in 1978, with colleagues, he published a study of 18 developed countries in which he made the following observations: "the indices of health care are not negatively associated with mortality, and there is a marked positive association between the prevalence of doctors and mortality in the younger age groups. No explanation of this doctor anomaly has so far been found. Gross national product per head is the principal variable which shows a consistently strong negative association with mortality." This work was selected for inclusion in a compendium of influential papers, from historically important epidemiologists, published by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/WHO) in 1988.
Cochrane promoted the randomised trial and is a co-author with Professor Peter Elwood on a report on the first randomised trial of aspirin in the prevention of vascular disease. He also promoted the cohort study and was a key adviser in a highly detailed cohort study, the Caerphilly Heart Disease Study.
Honours
For his "gallant and distinguished" services in prisoner of war camps he was awarded an MBE by the British Government; for his contributions to epidemiology as a science he was later appointed a CBE.
Autobiography and archive
One Man's Medicine: An Autobiography of Professor Archie Cochrane was published in 1989 and co-authored by Max Blythe. The book was out of print for a number of years but a paperback edition was published by Cardiff University in April 2009 to celebrate the centenary of Cochrane's birth.
The Archie Cochrane Archive is held at the Archie Cochrane Library, Cardiff University.
See also
Evidence-based medicine
References
Bibliography
External links
The Cochrane Library
The Archie Cochrane archive is part of the Archie Cochrane Library at University Hospital Llandough, Cardiff University
Effectiveness and efficiency: Random reflections on health services
1909 births
1988 deaths
British epidemiologists
People from Galashiels
People in evidence-based medicine
International Brigades personnel
20th-century Scottish medical doctors
British public health doctors
People educated at Uppingham School
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Alumni of the UCL Medical School
Alumni of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
Cochrane Collaboration people
Rockefeller Fellows
British Army personnel of World War II
British Army officers
British World War II prisoners of war
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany | [
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237719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine%20Intervention%20%28Slayer%20album%29 | Divine Intervention (Slayer album) | Divine Intervention is the sixth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer, released on September 27, 1994 by American Recordings. The album's production posed a challenge to the label, as its marketing situation drew arguments over its explicitness; to give them time to decide over its style, the band released the live album Decade of Aggression. Since it was released nearly four years after its predecessor Seasons in the Abyss (1990), vocalist Tom Araya said there was more time spent on its production compared to the band's previous albums.
Divine Intervention was the band's first album to feature Paul Bostaph, replacing original drummer Dave Lombardo. Its songs' origins came not only from television shows, but were also inspired by various other subjects including Rush Limbaugh, Holocaust architect Reinhard Heydrich, and serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer. Its cover artwork was painted and designed by Wes Benscoter as a re-imaging of the band's early "Slayergram" graphic. Although so much time was spent on its production, Kerry King has expressed his disapproval over the album's final mix, saying it should have had more attention.
Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics, Divine Intervention peaked at number eight on the US Billboard 200 and number 15 on the UK Albums Chart, selling over 93,000 copies in its first week of sales. It was later certified gold in the United States and Canada, and was followed by the EP Serenity in Murder.
Writing and production
Tom Araya said that "when we did Divine Intervention, this was the last conference we ever had with a record label where they sat us down and sold us the idea of how they wanted to do "Divine", and how they were going to do this with the cover... and all these different ideas for the album. Then one guy looked at us and said, 'But we need a hit song.' And we said, 'But you've got eleven songs, and if you can't find a hit in one of them then you're shit out of luck because that's what we're giving you.' So we're like saying to them, 'Right, you write the fucking hit song and we'll record it.' That shut the guy up and that was the last time we had any kind of meetings like that!"
Araya described "For this one, I just kind of got inspired by watching TV. That gave me a whole lot of ideas. The whole idea about the dude with Slayer in his arms was brought about because reality is scarier than anything you can make up." The production of the album posed as a challenge to the record company, "how to market a group whose gore-soaked, extreme music is anathema to radio programmers." It is the company's first attempt to "hit the thrash band's core-audience of rabid enthusiasts with a fan-orientated marketing assault." Araya related: "We decided to take more time to bring this one together. We actually went into the studio with more written material than the past. We completed three out of seven songs outside the studio. We all sort of felt it was important to do it slowly. After the last tour, we had the intention to take the break."
Composition
The College Music Journal said that "the band deals almost exclusively with realism" in the album, and noted that it "shocks and splatters like a severed artery, painting crimson pictures of murders, necrophiliacs, and the ravaged, chaotic world they inhabit". Both the mixing and mastering were criticized, with guitarist Kerry King saying that the band should have "paid more attention to the mix", and Araya saying that it "is the one (if any) that he would not mind re-mastering".
Neil Strauss from The New York Times explained many of the album's origins. "213" was described as a "love song" by Araya, which was something they had never done before. The song was named after serial killer and sex offender Jeffrey Dahmer's old apartment number. "Dittohead" begins by criticizing the legal system for "being too lenient on killers". The song "ended up not denouncing the system but advocating its permissiveness". "Sex, Murder, Art" was said by TheState.com to feature "roars about a maddening relationship and his 'pleasure in inflicting pain.'"
King said that the album contained origins relating to "war stories" and "explorations of madness". It is Paul Bostaph's first studio album with Slayer, resulting in Alex Henderson of AllMusic saying that it is a "positive, energizing influence on Slayer, which sounds better than ever on such dark triumphs as 'Killing Fields,' 'Serenity in Murder,' and 'Circle of Beliefs.'" Henderson also said that they "focus[ed] on the violently repressive nature of governments and the lengths to which they will go to wield power".
Artwork and packaging
The album was issued in a clear jewel box with a die-cut cardboard O-card. It included sixteen pages, which fold out to be a poster, which displays the cover art. Both the disc and the disc tray feature — as described by Chris Morris — an "image reflective of the mania displayed by the group's fans, and exemplary of American frequently deployed shock tactics: a kid carving the band's name into his arms with a scalpel." Mike Bone from American Recordings said that "we captured this not only by photography, but with video — him actually doing it." The front cover was painted and designed by Wes Benscoter, an American artist who would later paint the covers for the other Slayer releases Undisputed Attitude and Live Intrusion. The album sleeve features for the second time the backronym Satan Laughs As You Eternally Rot. This phrase was first used on the vinyl edition of the album Show No Mercy where it was carved into the runout groove of the record.
Reception
AllMusic said that "instead of doing something calculated like emulating Nirvana or Pearl Jam—or for that matter, Nine Inch Nails or Ministry—Slayer wisely refused to sound like anyone but Slayer. Tom Araya and co. responded to the new environment simply by striving to be the heaviest metal band they possibly could." By the album's release date, vocalist Tom Araya considered it to be their best album.
Divine Intervention sold 93,000 copies in its first week, and by 2009, it sold over 496,000 copies in the US . It was reported that in the same year of its release, Kevin Kirk from the Heavy Metal Shop "ordered 1,000 copies of Slayer's Divine Intervention and sold every last album in a matter of weeks". Although it is less accessible than its predecessor Seasons in the Abyss, Rolling Stone considered it to be their most successful album as of 2001.
Track listing
Serenity in Murder EP
Personnel
Personnel information can be verified at AllMusic.
Slayer
Tom Araya – bass, vocals
Kerry King – guitars
Jeff Hanneman – guitars
Paul Bostaph – drums
Production
Annalisa – artwork
Wes Benscoter – artwork, cover illustration
Dave Brock – assistant engineer
Sylvia Massy - engineer
Jim Champagne – engineer
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Brian Pollack – assistant engineer
Rick Rubin – executive producer
Jim Scott – engineer
Jeff Sheehan – assistant engineer
Stephen Stickler – photography
Dick Walter – art direction, design
Toby Wright – producer, engineer, mixing
Neil Zlozower – photography
Chart positions and certifications
References
Slayer albums
Albums produced by Rick Rubin
1994 albums
Albums with cover art by Wes Benscoter
Albums produced by Toby Wright
American Recordings (record label) albums
1995 EPs
American Recordings (record label) EPs
Obscenity controversies in music
Albums recorded at Sound City Studios | [
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237720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malbolge | Malbolge | Malbolge () is a public domain esoteric programming language invented by Ben Olmstead in 1998, named after the eighth circle of hell in Dante's Inferno, the Malebolge. It was specifically designed to be almost impossible to use, via a counter-intuitive 'crazy operation', base-three arithmetic, and self-altering code. It builds on the difficulty of earlier, challenging esoteric languages (such as Brainfuck and Befunge), but takes this aspect to the extreme, playing on the entangled histories of computer science and encryption. Despite this design, it is possible to write useful Malbolge programs.
Programming in Malbolge
Malbolge was very difficult to understand when it arrived. It took two years for the first Malbolge program to appear. The author himself has never written a Malbolge program. The first program was not written by a human being; it was generated by a beam search algorithm designed by Andrew Cooke and implemented in Lisp.
Later, Lou Scheffer posted a cryptanalysis of Malbolge and provided a program to copy its input to its output. He also saved the original interpreter and specification after the original site stopped functioning, and offered a general strategy of writing programs in Malbolge as well as some thoughts on its Turing completeness.
Olmstead believed Malbolge to be a linear bounded automaton. There is a discussion about whether one can implement sensible loops in Malbolge—it took many years before the first non-terminating one was introduced. A correct 99 Bottles of Beer program, which deals with non-trivial loops and conditions, was not announced for seven years; the first correct one was by Hisashi Iizawa in 2005. Hisashi Iizawa et al. also proposed a guide for programming in Malbolge for the purpose of obfuscation for software protection.
In 2020, GitHub user kspalaiologos made a working Lisp interpreter in Malbolge Unshackled.
Example programs
Hello, World!
This program displays "Hello, World.".
(=<`#9]~6ZY327Uv4-QsqpMn&+Ij"'E%e{Ab~w=_:]Kw%o44Uqp0/Q?xNvL:`H%c#DD2^WV>gY;dts76qKJImZkj
echo program
This program reads a string from a user and prints that string, similar to Unix echo.(=BA#9"=<;:3y7x54-21q/p-,+*)"!h%B0/.
~P<
<:(8&
66#"!~}|{zyxwvu
gJk
Design
Malbolge is machine language for a ternary virtual machine, the Malbolge interpreter.
The standard interpreter and the official specification do not match perfectly. One difference is that the compiler stops execution with data outside the 33–126 range. Although this was initially considered a bug in the compiler, Ben Olmstead stated that it was intended and there was in fact "a bug in the specification".
Registers
Malbolge has three registers, a, c, and d. When a program starts, the value of all three registers is zero.
a stands for 'accumulator', set to the value written by all write operations on memory and used for standard I/O. c, the code pointer, is special: it points to the current instruction. d is the data pointer. It is automatically incremented after each instruction, but the location it points to is used for the data manipulation commands.
Pointer notation
d can hold a memory address; [d] is register indirect; the value stored at that address. [c] is similar.
Memory
The virtual machine has 59,049 (310) memory locations that can each hold a ten-trit ternary number. Each memory location has an address from 0 to 59048 and can hold a value from 0 to 59048. Incrementing past this limit wraps back to zero.
The language uses the same memory space for both data and instructions. This was influenced by how hardware such as x86 architecture worked.
Before a Malbolge program starts, the first part of memory is filled with the program. All whitespace in the program is ignored and, to make programming more difficult, everything else in the program must start out as one of the instructions below.
The rest of memory is filled by using the crazy operation (see below) on the previous two addresses ([m] = crz [m - 2], [m - 1]). Memory filled this way will repeat every twelve addresses (the individual ternary digits will repeat every three or four addresses, so a group of ternary digits is guaranteed to repeat every twelve).
In 2007, Ørjan Johansen created Malbolge Unshackled, a version of Malbolge which does not have the arbitrary memory limit. The hope was to create a Turing-complete language while keeping as much in the spirit of Malbolge as possible. No other rules are changed, and all Malbolge programs that do not reach the memory limit are completely functional.
Instructions
Malbolge has eight instructions. Malbolge figures out which instruction to execute by taking the value [c], adding the value of c to it, and taking the remainder when this is divided by 94. The final result tells the interpreter what to do:
After each instruction is executed, the guilty instruction gets encrypted (see below) so that it will not do the same thing next time, unless a jump just happened. Right after a jump, Malbolge will encrypt the innocent instruction just prior to the one it jumped to instead. Then, the values of both c and d are increased by one and the next instruction is executed.
Crazy operation
For each ternary digit of both inputs, use the following table to get a ternary digit of the result. For example, crz 0001112220, 0120120120 gives 1001022211.
Encipherment
After an instruction is executed, the value at [c] (without anything added to it) will be replaced with itself mod 94. Then, the result is enciphered with one of the following two equivalent methods.
Method 1 Find the result below. Store the ASCII code of the character below it at [c].
0000000000111111111122222222223333333333444444444455555555556666666666777777777788888888889999
0123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9m<.TVac`uY*MK'X~xDl}REokN:#?G"i@5z]&gqtyfr$(we4{WP)H-Zn,[%\3dL+Q;>U!pJS72FhOA1CB6v^=I_0/8|jsb
Method 2 Find the result below. Store the encrypted version at [c].
Lou Scheffer's cryptanalysis of Malbolge mentions six different cycles in the permutation. They are listed here:
33 ⇒ 53 ⇒ 45 ⇒ 119 ⇒ 78 ⇒ 49 ⇒ 87 ⇒ 48 ⇒ 123 ⇒ 71 ⇒ 83 ⇒ 94 ⇒ 57 ⇒ 91 ⇒ 106 ⇒ 77 ⇒ 65 ⇒ 59 ⇒ 92 ⇒ 115 ⇒ 82 ⇒ 118 ⇒ 107 ⇒ 75 ⇒ 104 ⇒ 89 ⇒ 56 ⇒ 44 ⇒ 40 ⇒ 121 ⇒ 35 ⇒ 93 ⇒ 98 ⇒ 84 ⇒ 61 ⇒ 100 ⇒ 97 ⇒ 46 ⇒ 101 ⇒ 99 ⇒ 86 ⇒ 95 ⇒ 109 ⇒ 88 ⇒ 47 ⇒ 52 ⇒ 72 ⇒ 55 ⇒ 110 ⇒ 126 ⇒ 64 ⇒ 81 ⇒ 54 ⇒ 90 ⇒ 124 ⇒ 34 ⇒ 122 ⇒ 63 ⇒ 43 ⇒ 36 ⇒ 38 ⇒ 113 ⇒ 108 ⇒ 39 ⇒ 116 ⇒ 69 ⇒ 112 ⇒ 68 ⇒ 33 ...
37 ⇒ 103 ⇒ 117 ⇒ 111 ⇒ 120 ⇒ 58 ⇒ 37 ...
41 ⇒ 102 ⇒ 96 ⇒ 60 ⇒ 51 ⇒ 41 ...
42 ⇒ 114 ⇒ 125 ⇒ 105 ⇒ 42 ...
50 ⇒ 80 ⇒ 66 ⇒ 62 ⇒ 76 ⇒ 79 ⇒ 67 ⇒ 85 ⇒ 73 ⇒ 50 ...
70 ⇒ 74 ⇒ 70 ...
These cycles can be used to create loops that do different things each time and that eventually become repetitive. Lou Scheffer used this idea to create a Malbolge program (included in his cryptanalysis linked below) that repeats anything the user inputs.
Variants
Malbolge is not Turing-complete, due to its memory limits. However, it otherwise has sequential execution, repetition, and conditional-execution. Several attempts have been made to create Turing-complete versions of Malbolge:
Malbolge-T is a theoretical version of Malbolge that resets the input/output stream upon reaching the end, allowing for unbounded programs. Malbolge-T would be backward compatible with Malbolge.
Malbolge Unshackled is a hopefully Turing-complete variation, allowing for programs of any length. However, due to command variations to allow for values above 257, valid Malbolge programs will not necessarily run correctly in Malbolge Unshackled.
Popular culture
In the television series Elementary, during the episode "The Leviathan" (season 1, episode 10), a clue written on a coffee order is described as having been written in Malbolge. It appears to be a small modification of the more verbose "Hello World" example shown above.
In the Leverage: Redemption episode "The Golf Job" (season 1, episode 12), an SMS auto-reply reads "Breanna is unavailable Thursday through Sunday or until she masters Malbolge code."
In the Billions episode "The Limitless Shit" (season 5, episode 7), a programmer analysist at Axe Capital explains that he "... used to dick around with Malbolge, but just for fun."
See also
INTERCAL
Obfuscated code
References
External links
Malbolge interpreter (C source code)
Malbolge interpreter, debugger, assembler and example Malbolge Assembly code (Java source code)
Treatise on writing Malbolge programs; takes Scheffer's analysis a bit further
A project devoted to present programs written in Malbolge
Esoteric programming languages
Non-English-based programming languages
Programming languages created in 1998 | [
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237721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane%20%28organisation%29 | Cochrane (organisation) | Cochrane (previously known as the Cochrane Collaboration) is a British international charitable organisation formed to organise medical research findings to facilitate evidence-based choices about health interventions involving health professionals, patients and policy makers. It includes 53 review groups that are based at research institutions worldwide. Cochrane has approximately 30,000 volunteer experts from around the world.
The group conducts systematic reviews of health-care interventions and diagnostic tests and publishes them in the Cochrane Library. According to the Library, articles are available via one-click access, but some require paid subscription or registration before reading. A few reviews, in occupational health for example, incorporate results from non-randomised observational studies as well as controlled before–after (CBA) studies and interrupted time-series studies.
History
Cochrane, previously known as the Cochrane Collaboration, was founded in 1993 under the leadership of Iain Chalmers. It was developed in response to Archie Cochrane's call for up-to-date, systematic reviews of all relevant randomised controlled trials in the field of healthcare.
In 1998, the Cochrane Economics Methods Group (CEMG) was established to facilitate the basing of decisions on health economics, evidence-based medicine, and systematic reviews.
Cochrane's suggestion that methods used to prepare and maintain reviews of controlled trials in pregnancy and childbirth be applied more widely was taken up by the Research and Development Programme, initiated to support the National Health Service. Through the NHS research and development programme, led by Michael Peckham, funds were provided to establish a "Cochrane Centre", to collaborate with others, in the UK and elsewhere, to facilitate systematic reviews of randomised controlled trials across all areas of healthcare.
In 2004, the Campbell Collaboration joined with the CEMG to form the Campbell & Cochrane Economics Methods Group (CCEMG).
In 2013 the organization published an editorial describing its efforts to train people in developing nations to perform Cochrane reviews. A 2017 editorial briefly discussed the history of Cochrane methodological approaches, such as including studies that use methodologies in lieu of randomised control trials and the challenge of having evidence adopted in practice.
During its 2018 annual meeting, the Cochrane board expelled Peter C. Gøtzsche, board member and director of Cochrane's Nordic center, from the organization, telling Nature that it had received "numerous complaints" about Gøtzsche after he co-authored an article in BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine alleging bias in Cochrane's May 2018 review of HPV vaccines. Gøtzsche's expulsion led four elected board members to resign in protest, which in turn led the board to cut two appointed members in order to comply with the ratio of elected to appointed members required by the organization's charter. Gøtzsche announced that this had happened via an open letter, in which he said there is a "growing top-down authoritarian culture and an increasingly commercial business model" taking root at Cochrane that "threaten the scientific, moral and social objectives of the organization". Gøtzsche remains an outspoken critic of Cochrane's relationship with the pharmaceutical industry. The Cochrane board stated that Gøtzsche was expelled for his behavior, which had been reviewed by an independent counsel hired by Cochrane.
Reception
A 2004 editorial in the Canadian Medical Association Journal noted that Cochrane reviews appear to be more up to date and of better quality than other reviews, describing them as "the best single resource for methodologic research and for developing the science of meta-epidemiology" and crediting them with leading to methodological improvements in the medical literature.
Studies comparing the quality of Cochrane meta-analyses in the fields of infertility, physiotherapy, and orthodontics to those published by other sources have concluded that Cochrane reviews incorporate superior methodological rigor. A broader analysis across multiple therapeutic areas reached similar conclusions but was performed by Cochrane authors.
Compared to non-Cochrane reviews, those from Cochrane are less likely to reach a positive conclusion about the utility of medical interventions.
Key criticisms that have been directed at Cochrane's studies include a failure to include a sufficiently large number of unpublished studies, failure to pre-specify or failure to abide by pre-specified rules for endpoint or trial inclusion, insufficiently frequent updating of reviews, an excessively high percentage of inconclusive reviews, and a high incidence of ghostwriting and honorary authorship. In some cases Cochrane's internal structure may make it difficult to publish studies that run against the preconceived opinions of internal subject matter experts.
Partnerships
World Health Organization
Cochrane maintains an official relationship with the World Health Organization that affords Cochrane the right to appoint nonvoting representatives to WHO meetings, including sessions of the World Health Assembly, and make statements on WHO resolutions.
Wikipedia
Wikipedia and Cochrane collaborate to increase the incorporation of Cochrane research into Wikipedia articles and provide Wikipedia editors with resources for interpreting medical data. Cochrane and John Wiley and Sons, publisher of Cochrane reviews, make one hundred free Cochrane accounts available to Wikipedia medical editors—the financial value of which has been estimated by Cochrane at between thirty thousand and eighty thousand US dollars per annum—and pay a nominal stipend and travel expenses to support a Wikipedian in Residence at Cochrane.
In 2014, the Cochrane blog hosted a rebuttal, written by four Wikipedia medical editors, of an article published in the Journal of the American Osteopathic Association that was critical of the accuracy of Wikipedia medical content.
Public involvement
Cochrane involves the public via community curation, to produce systematic reviews and other outputs. Tasks can be organised as 'entry level' or higher. Tasks include:
Joining a collaborative volunteer effort to help categorise and summarise healthcare evidence
Data extraction and risk of bias assessment
translation of reviews into other languages
A recent systematic review of how people were involved in systematic reviews aimed to document the evidence-base relating to stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews and to use this evidence to describe how stakeholders have been involved in systematic reviews. Thirty percent involved patients and/or carers.
While there has been some criticism of how Cochrane prioritises systematic reviews, a recent project involved people in helping identify research priorities to inform future Cochrane Reviews.
In 2014, the Cochrane-Wikipedia partnership was formalised. This supports the inclusion of relevant evidence within all Wikipedia medical articles, as well as processes to help ensure that medical information included in Wikipedia is of the highest quality and accuracy.
The representation of women as editors in Cochrane was found to be better than that of other organizations.
See also
Campbell Collaboration
Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy
Evidence-based practice
References
External links
Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group
Cochrane Neonatal Group
Evidence-based medicine
Evidence-based practices
Health care quality
Health economics
Health in the City of Westminster
International scientific organizations
Medical research institutes in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the City of Westminster
Systematic review | [
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237726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Minto | Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto | Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto, (; 23 April 175121 June 1814), known as Sir Gilbert Elliott, 4th Baronet until 1797, and The Lord Minto from 1797 to 1814, was a British diplomat and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1776 and 1795. He was viceroy of the short-lived Anglo-Corsican Kingdom from 1793 to 1796 and went on to become Governor-General of India between July 1807 and 1813.
Background and education
Minto was born in Edinburgh, the eldest son of Sir Gilbert Elliot, 3rd Baronet, and Agnes, daughter of Hugh Dalrymple-Murray-Kynynmound. He was the nephew of John Elliott, Governor of Newfoundland, Andrew Elliot the 41st Colonial Governor of New York, and of Jean Elliot the poet.
Hugh Elliot was his younger brother and Sir Charles Elliot his nephew. About 1763 Elliot and his brother Hugh were sent to Paris, where their studies were supervised by the Scottish philosopher David Hume, and where they became intimate with Honoré Mirabeau. Having passed the winters of 1766 and 1767 at the University of Edinburgh, Minto entered Christ Church, Oxford, and on quitting the university he was called to the Bar.
Career
In 1776 Minto entered Parliament as an independent Whig MP for Morpeth. He became very friendly with Edmund Burke, whom he helped in the attack on Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey, and was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the office of Speaker, in the elections of January 1789 and June 1789.
In 1793 he was appointed Civil Commissioner for Dunkirk which was then under Siege of Dunkirk (1793) by Coalition forces. However, the siege proved unsuccessful and the appointment perforce remained only on paper. Later he was given a similar appointment for Toulon, which proved similarly abortive.
He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1793 and in 1794 he was appointed as viceroy of the short-lived Anglo-Corsican Kingdom. In 1797 he assumed the additional names of Murray and Kynynmound and was created Baron Minto, of Minto in the County of Roxburgh. From 1799 to 1801 he was Envoy-Extraordinary to Austria, and having been for a few months President of the Board of Control he was appointed Governor-General of India at the end of 1806, with his term starting on 31 July 1807. The district of Minto in New South Wales, Australia, (now a suburb of Sydney) was named after him in 1809. In 1810 he successfully requested the release of the British navigator, Matthew Flinders, from his six-year imprisonment on Isle of France (Mauritius). He governed until 1813, during which he expanded the British presence in the area to the Moluccas, Java, and other Dutch possessions in the East Indies during the Napoleonic Wars. He was then created Viscount Melgund, of Melgund in the County of Forfar, and Earl of Minto, of Minto in the County of Roxburgh.
Family
Minto married Anna Maria Amyand (26 March 1752 – 8 March 1829), daughter of Sir George Amyand, 1st Baronet and sister of Lord Malmesbury, in 1777. She was known as Lady Elliot, her formal title being Countess of Minto. The ship Lady Elliot, built in Bengal, India, in 1815, inspired its captain to name an island off the Queensland coast Lady Elliot Island. The ship was probably later wrecked on Lady Elliot Reef.
Their children were:
Anna Maria (d. 18 Oct. 1855) married Lt.-Gen. Sir Rufane Shawe Donkin. No issue.
Harry Mary Frances (d. July 1825). Died young.
Gilbert, 2nd Earl Minto
Admiral the Hon. Sir George Elliot
Hon. John Elliot (b. 1788, d. 1862) was a politician.
Catherine Sarah (circa 1798-25 June 1862), who married John Boileau, 1st Baronet. Had issue.
Lord Minto died at Stevenage, Hertfordshire, on 21 June 1814, aged 63, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, along with his brother Hugh. The inscription reads:
He was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son, Gilbert.
References
Further reading
Das, Amita; Das, Aditya. Defending British India against Napoleon: The Foreign Policy of Governor-General Lord Minto, 1807-13 ( Rochester: Boydell Press, 2016) . online review
Attribution:
External links
1751 births
1814 deaths
Politicians from Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Governors-General of India
Elliot, Gilbert
Elliot, Gilbert
Elliot, Gilbert
Elliot, Gilbert
Elliot, Gilbert
Elliot, Gilbert
British rule in Indonesia
Fellows of the Royal Society
Burials at Westminster Abbey
19th-century Dutch East Indies people
Ambassadors of Great Britain to the Holy Roman Emperor | [
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237731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijah%20Impey | Elijah Impey | Sir Elijah Impey (13 June 17321 October 1809) was a British judge, the first chief justice of the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal, Chief Justice of the Sadr Diwani Adalat and MP for New Romney.
Life
He was born the youngest son of Elijah Impey and his wife Martha, daughter of James Fraser and was educated at Westminster School with Warren Hastings, who was his intimate friend throughout life. He proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1752, graduating in 1756 as the second Chancellor's classical medallist.
Having been called to the bar in 1756, he was appointed the first chief justice of the new supreme court at Calcutta in March 1774 and knighted later that month.
En route to India he learned Bengali and Urdu, and once there studied Persian. with his wife Mary (née Reade), from 1777, he hired local artists to paint the various birds, animals and native plants, life-sized where possible, and in natural surrounds. The collection is often known as the Impey Album.
In 1775 he presided at the trial of Maharaja Nandakumar, who was accused of forging a bond in an attempt to deprive a widow of more than half her inheritance. As a result of the trial he went down in history, because in 1787 he was subjected to impeachment, along with Warren Hastings, for their conduct of the case. He was accused by Macaulay of conspiring with Hastings to commit a judicial murder by having unjustly hanged Nandakumar; but the whole question of the trial of Nandakumar was examined in detail by Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, who stated that "no man ever had, or could have, a fairer trial than Nuncomar, and Impey in particular behaved with absolute fairness and as much indulgence as was compatible with his duty." According to Macaulay, Impey later applied English law so aggressively as to "throw a great country into the most dreadful confusion", until in effect bribed by Hastings to desist.
In 1790 Impey was returned to Parliament as the member for New Romney constituency and spent the next seven years as an MP before retiring to Newick Park near Brighton. He died there in 1809 and was buried in the family vault at St Paul's, Hammersmith, London. With his wife he is commemorated in the church with a wall monument by Peter Rouw. He had married on 18 January 1768 Mary, daughter of Sir John Reade, 5th Baronet, of Shipton Court, Oxfordshire; they had five sons.
In 1795 his application for a fellowship of the Royal Society was rejected.
Legacy
A portrait of Impey, by Johan Zoffany hangs in Kolkata High Court. Thomas Lawrence also painted him.
His wife, Mary Impey, is commemorated in the name of the Impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus).
Further reading
James Fitzjames Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar and the Impeachment of Sir Elijah Impey (1885).
Memoirs of Sir Elijah Impey, Knt ... with anecdotes of Warren Hastings, Sir Philip Francis, Nathaniel Brassey Hallhed, Esq., and other contemporaries; (1846)
Sources
The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (includes photo)
References
External links
The story of Nuncomar and the impeachment of Sir Elijah Impey Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. {Reprinted by} Cornell University Library Digital Collections
Exhibition of "Lady Impey’s Indian Bird Paintings" at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (until 14 Apr 2013)
"Memoirs of Sir Elijah Impey: Knt., First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Judicature, at Fort William, Bengal; with Anecdotes of Warren Hastings, Sir Philip Francis, Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, Esq., and Other Contemporaries; Comp. from Authentic Documents, in Refutation of the Calumnies of the Right Hon. Thomas Babington Macaulay" (Google eBook), Simpkin, Marshall, and Company, 1846
1732 births
1809 deaths
British India judges
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British MPs 1790–1796
18th-century British judges
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge | [
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237734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharaja%20Nandakumar | Maharaja Nandakumar | Maharaja Nandakumar (also known as Nuncomar) (1705 – died 5 August 1775), was an Indian tax collector for various regions in what is modern-day West Bengal. Nanda Kumar was born at Bhadrapur, which is now in Birbhum. He was the first Indian to be executed by hanging. Nandakumar was appointed by the East India Company to be the dewan (tax collector) for Burdwan, Nadia and Hoogly in 1764, following the removal of Warren Hastings from the post.
In 1773, when Hastings was reinstated as governor-general of Bengal, Nandakumar brought accusations against him of accepting or giving bribes that were entertained by Sir Philip Francis and the other members of the Supreme Council of Bengal. However, Hastings overruled the council's charges. Thereafter, in 1775, he brought charges of document forgery against Nandakumar. The Maharaja was tried under Elijah Impey, India's first Chief Justice, and friend of Warren Hastings, was found guilty, and hanged in Kolkata on 5 August 1775.
Later Hastings, along with Sir Elijah Impey, the chief justice, was impeached by the British Parliament. They were accused by Burke (and later by Macaulay) of committing judicial murder.
Early life
Nandkumar was born in a Brahmin family. He held posts under Nawab of Murshidabad. After the Battle of Plassey, he was recommended to Robert Clive for appointment as their agent to collect revenues of Burdwan, Nadia district and Hooghly. The title "Maharaja" was conferred on Nandakumar by Shah Alam II in 1764. He was appointed Collector of Burdwan, Nadia, and Hugli by the East India Company in 1764, in place of Warren Hastings. He learnt Vaishnavism from Radhamohana Thakura.
Charges against Hastings
Maharaja Nandakumar accused Hastings of bribing him with more than one-third of a million rupees and claimed that he had proof against Hastings in the form of a letter.
Hanging
Warren Hastings was then with the East India Company and happened to be a school friend of Sir Elijah Impey. Some historians are of the opinion that Maharaja Nandakumar was falsely charged with forgery and Sir Elijah Impey, the first Chief Justice of Supreme Court in Calcutta, gave a false judgement to hang Nandakumar. Nandakumar's hanging has been termed a judicial murder by certain historians. Macaulay also accused both men of conspiring to commit a judicial murder. Maharaja Nandakumar was hanged at Calcutta, near present-day Vidyasagar Setu, on 5 August 1775. During that period the punishment for forgery was hanging (as mandated by the Forgery Act 1728 passed by the British parliament), although some legal scholars have said that the law was only applicable in Britain and not British territories in India.
Books
Sir James Stephen, The story of Nuncomar and the impeachment of Sir Elijah Impey (2 vols., 1885)
Legacy
A school in his honor, Bhadrapur Maharaja Nanda Kumar High School, was established on his birthplace at Bhadrapur village on Birbhum District.
A temple was established by him on Akalipur Village near Bhadrapur village. The temple was built for Hindu deity Ma Kaali.This is a very popular temple and thousands of visitors came by. It is situated near the banks of the Brahmani River.
A college in his honor, Maharaja Nandakumar Vidyalaya, was established in purba medinipur in 2007, and the college is affiliated with Vidyasagar University.
A road in Baranagar, Kolkata is named Maharaja Nandakumar Road.
Nandakumar is also the name of a locality in the West Bengal district of East Midnapur.
was established in Tamluk–Digha branch line of Kharagpur railway division.
In popular culture
Films and television
In 1988 Doordarshan Serial Bharat Ek Khoj produced and directed by Shyam Benegal also Picturised a Full One Episode on Company Bahadur. In that titular role of Maharaja Nandakumar was played by Noted TV actor Rajendra.
External links
The story of Nuncomar and the impeachment of Sir Elijah Impey Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. {Reprinted by} Cornell University Library Digital Collections
Charges against Sir Elijah Impey
References
People executed for forgery
Executed Indian people
People executed by British India by hanging
1775 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Year of birth uncertain | [
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237735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anya%20Gallaccio | Anya Gallaccio | Anya Gallaccio (born 1963) is a British artist, who creates site-specific, minimalist installations and often works with organic matter (including chocolate, sugar, flowers and ice).
Her use of organic materials results in natural processes of transformation and decay, meaning that Gallaccio is unable to predict the end result of her installations. Something which at the start of an exhibition may be pleasurable, such as the scent of flowers or chocolate, would inevitably become increasingly unpleasant over time. The timely and site-specific nature of her work make it notoriously difficult to document. Her work therefore challenges the traditional notion that an art object or sculpture should essentially be a monument within a museum or gallery. Instead her work often lives through the memory of those that saw and experienced it - or the concept of the artwork itself.
Other works by Gallaccio include Stroke (1993) in which benches in the gallery and cardboard panels attached to the walls were covered in chocolate,
"Two Hundred Kilos of Apples Tied to a Barren Apple Tree", Atelier Amden, Amden, Switzerland (1999) and Because Nothing has Changed (2000), a bronze sculpture of a tree adorned with porcelain apples. Because I Could Not Stop (2002) is a similar bronze tree but with real apples which are left to rot.
At Houghton Hall in Norfolk, the Marquess of Cholmondeley commissioned a folly to the east of the great house. "The Sybil Hedge" is an "artlandish" folly. It is based on the signature of the marquis' grandmother, Sybil Sassoon. Gallaccio has created a sarcophagus-like marble structure which is sited at the end of a path; and nearby is a copper-beech hedge which is planted in lines mirroring Sybil's signature.
2005 saw the publication of Anya Gallaccio: Silver Seed by Ridinghouse, which accompanied the artist's exhibition commissioned by the Mount Stuart Trust for an installation at Mount Stuart on the Isle of Bute, Scotland, UK .
Awards and acknowledgements
In 2006, she was listed on the Pink Power list of 100 most influential gay and lesbian people of 2006.
In 2003, Gallaccio was shortlisted for the Turner Prize alongside Grayson Perry, Jake and Dinos Chapman and Willie Doherty. One of her pieces for the show was preserve "beauty", 1991–2003, which was made from glass, fixings and 2,000 red gerberas.
Solo exhibitions
2015
Anya Gallaccio, Silas Marder Gallery, Bridgehampton, NY
Anya Gallaccio, MCA San Diego, California, USA
Anya Gallaccio, Lehmann Maupin, New York, USA
2014
Blum & Poe, Los Angeles, California
STROKE, Jupiter Artland, Edinburgh, UK
SNAP, Aldeburgh Festival, Snape Malting and Orford Ness, Suffolk, UK
2013
This Much is True, Hudson (Show)Room, Artpace, San Antonio, Texas
2012
The Light Pours Out of Me, Jupiter Artland, Edinburgh, UK
Arthur's Seat, Ingleby Gallery, Edinburgh, UK
2011
highway, Annet Gelink Gallery, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Where is Where it's at, Thomas Dane Gallery, London, UK
Surf's Up, La Jolla, San Diego, California
2009
Four Galleries, Four Exhibitions, One Venue, Anya Gallaccio, 4x4, The Bluecoat, Liverpool, UK
2008
Anya Gallaccio: that open space within, Camden Arts Centre, London, UK
Anya Gallaccio: Comfort and Conversation, Annet Gelink Gallery, Amsterdam, Netherlands
2007
Three Sheets To The Wind, Thomas Dane Gallery, London, UK
Sybil, Houghton Hall, King's Lynn, UK
2006
Anya Gallaccio, Galeria Leme, São Paulo, Brazil
One Art, Sculpture Center, New York
2005
Shadow on the Things You Know, Blum & Poe, Los Angeles, California
Silver Seed, Mount Stuart, Isle of Bute, UK
After the Gold Rush, collaboration with winemaker Zelma Long, initiated by New Langton Arts, San Francisco, California
The Look of Things, Palazzo delle Papesse Centro Arte Contemporanea, Siena, Italy
2004
Love is only a feeling, Lehmann Maupin Gallery, New York
2003
Turner Prize Exhibition, Tate Britain, London, UK
Anya Gallaccio, Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, UK
Cast, limited edition sculpture commissioned by the Multiple Store, London UK
Sometimes with one I love, Annet Gelink Gallery, Amsterdam, Netherlands
2002
beat, Duveen Sculpture Commission, Tate Britain, London, UK
2001
blessed, Lehmann Maupin Gallery, New York
Absolut Gallacio, an event for Absolut Vodka, Butler's Wharf, London, UK
2000
now the leaves are falling fast, fig-1, London, UK
Falling from grace, Annet Gelink Gallery, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Falling from grace, Projektraum, Kunsthalle Bern, Berne, Switzerland
1999
All the rest is silence, Sadler's Wells, London, UK
Glaschu, Tramway, Glasgow, UK
1998
Chasing Rainbows, Bloom Gallery, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Two Sisters, Minerva Basin, Hull, UK
Chasing Rainbows, Delfina, London, UK
1997
Anya Gallaccio, Blum & Poe, Los Angeles, California
Keep off the grass, Serpentine Gallery Lawn, London, UK
Anya Gallaccio, Artpace, San Antonio, Texas
1996
A Multiple, Ridinghouse Editions, London, UK
Anya Gallaccio, Galerie Rodolphe Janssen, Brussels, Belgium
Harvest of the winter months, Galerie im Künstlerhaus, Bremen, Germany
Anya Gallaccio, Ars Futura Galerie, Zurich, Switzerland
Intensities and Surfaces, Wapping Pumping Station, London, UK; commissioned by Women's Playhouse Trust
1995
Towards the Rainbow, Angel Row Gallery, Nottingham, UK
Anya Gallaccio, Stephen Friedman Gallery, London, UK
Anya Gallaccio, Francesca Sorace, Florence, Italy
1994
Anya Gallaccio, Blum & Poe, Los Angeles, California
Anya Gallaccio, Filiale, Basel, Switzerland
Anya Gallaccio, Karsten Schubert, London, UK
La Dolce Vita, Stephania Miscetti, Rome, Italy
1993
Anya Gallaccio, Galerie Krinzinger, Vienna, Austria
Anya Gallaccio, Ars Futura Galerie, Zurich, Switzerland
Anya Gallaccio, Kim Light Gallery, Los Angeles, California
1992
Anya Gallaccio, Institute of Contemporary Art, London, UK
1991
Anya Gallaccio, Karsten Schubert, London, UK
Group exhibitions
2016
Terrain: Land Into Art, Hestercombe Gallery, Somerset UK
Nature Morte, Bohuslans Museum, Uddevalla, Sweden
2015
About Trees, Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Switzerland
Beyond Limits. Sotheby's at Chatsworth: A Selling Exhibition, Chatsworth, Derbyshire, UK
Then For Now, Delfina Foundation, London, UK
Future Seasons Past, Lehmann Maupin, New York, NY
2014
inSite: Cuatro ensayos de lo público, sobre otro escenario (Four rehearsals on that which is public, on another scenario), Cuernavaca, Mexico
Phantoms in the Dirt, Museum of Contemporary Photography, Chicago, Illinois
2013
Creation / Destruction: Anya Gallaccio, Mark Lewis, Rut Blees Luxenburg, The Holden Gallery, Manchester, UK
Tipping Point, Wolverhampton Art Gallery, Wolverhampton, UK
Chasing Rainbows, Annet Gelink Gallery, Amsterdam, Netherlands
The House of the Seven Gables, University Galleries, Illinois State University College of Fine Arts, Illinois
2012
Dissecting Nature, Quint Contemporary Art, La Jolla, California
Green Acres: Artists Farming Fields, Greenhouses and Abandoned Lots, Contemporary Art Center, Richard & Lois Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art, Cincinnati, Ohio; American University Museum, Washington DC (2013) and Arlington Art Center, Arlington, Virginia (2013)
THIS THIS MONSTER THIS THINGS, Focal Point Gallery, Southend-on-Sea, UK
2010
On and On, La Casa Encendida, Madrid, Spain
Alpha &, On Stellar Rays, New York
Enel Contemporanea Award 2010, Macro Museum, Rome, Italy
Eating the Universe: Food in Art, Kunsthalle Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany; Kunstmuseum Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany and Galerie im Taxispalais, Innsbruck, Austria
2009
Pot Luck: Food and Art, The New Art Gallery, Walsall, UK
15th Anniversary Inaugural Exhibition, Blum & Poe, Los Angeles, California
Radical Nature, Art and Architecture for a Changing Planet, The Barbican Centre, London, UK; Dick Institute, Kilmarnock, UK, the Baird Institute, Cumnock, UK, and The Doon Valley Museum, Cathcartson, UK
Remote Proximity: Nature in Contemporary Art, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Flower Power, Villa Giulia, Centro Ricerca Arte Attuale, Verbania, Italy
2008
Living Flowers: Ikebana and Contemporary Art, Japanese American National Museum, Los Angeles, California
Nature Interrupted, Chelsea Art Museum, New York
Nina in Position, Artists Space, New York
Martian Museum of Terrestrial Art, Barbican Centre, London, UK
2007
Apres la pluie, Musée départemental d'art contemporain de Rochechouart, Rochechouart, France
Sparkle then Fade, Tacoma Art Museum, Tacoma, Washington
2006
Core, Illuminate Productions, Union Works, London, UK
If it didn't exist you'd have to invent it... a partial Showroom history, The Showroom, London, UK
Toutes Compositions Florales, Counter Gallery, London, UK
2005
Sad Songs, University Galleries, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois
Monuments for the USA, CCA Wattis Institute for Contemporary Arts, San Francisco, California and White Columns Gallery, New York
2004
Flowers observed, flowers transformed, Andy Warhol Museum, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Von Pop bis Heute, Das Grosse Fressen, Kunsthalle Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
Lustwarande 04: Disorientation by Beauty, Tilburg, The Netherlands
Rose c'est la vie: On Flowers in Contemporary Art, Tel Aviv Museum of Art, Tel Aviv, Israel
2003
Micro/Macro: British Art 1996-2002, Mucsarnok Kunsthalle, Budapest, Hungary
Purloined Nature, Kawamura Memorial Museum of Art, Sakura, Japan
Look & Feel: Art Landscape Nature, De Verbeelding, Zeewolde, Netherlands
2002
Imagine, You Are Standing Here in Front of Me: Caldic Collection, Boijmans Van Beuningen Museum, Rotterdam, Netherlands
Blast to Freeze: British Art in the 20th Century, Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg, Wolfsburg, Germany
2001
EGOFUGAL: Fugue from Ego for the Next Emergence, 7th International Istanbul Biennial, Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts, Istanbul, Turkey
Pawel Althamer, Anya Gallaccio, Amden, Switzerland
Arte y Naturaleza, Montenmedio Arte Contemporáneo, Cádiz, Spain
Artline 5 (Interaktionen - Natur & Architektur), Borken, Germany
2000
Art in the Park, Compton Verney, Warwickshire, UK
The Greenhouse Effect, Serpentine Gallery, London, UK
The Invisible Touch, The Kunstraum Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
1999
Releasing Senses, Opera City Art Gallery, Tokyo, Japan
Viereck und Kosmos: Amdenener Rundang, Amden, Switzerland
Do Paintings Dream of Veronese Green?, Elga Wimmer, New York, US
1998
Organic, Les Abattoirs, Toulouse, France
Thinking Aloud, National Touring Exhibitions, Kettle's Yard, Cambridge, UK; Cornerhouse, Manchester, UK and Camden Arts Centre, London, UK
Real/Life: New British Art, Tochigi Prefectural Museum, Tochigi, Japan; Fukuoka Art Museum, Fukuoka, Japan; Hiroshima City Museum, Hiroshima, Japan; Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo, Japan and Ashiya City Museum, Ashiya, Japan
1997
Der Verlorene Garten, Kunsthalle Palazzo, Liestral, Switzerland
Material Culture: The Object in British Art of the 1980s and '90s, Hayward Gallery, London, UK
Screen: 12 Artists from London, print portfolio published by Paragon Press, London, UK
Habitat Print Portfolio Prints, published by Habitat, UK
1996
The Pleasure of Aesthetic Life, The Showroom, London, UK
From Figure to Object: A Century of Sculptors' Drawings, Frith Street Gallery, London, UK, and Karsten Schubert, London, UK
Private View: Contemporary British and German Artists, A New Collection for John and Josephine Bowes, The Bowes Museum, Barnard Castle, UK
Time Wise, Swiss Institute, New York
Be Me, Giorgio Sadotti at Interim Art, London, UK
1995
The British Art Show 4, National Touring Exhibitions, Castlefield Gallery, Manchester, UK and Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, UK
Brilliant! New Art from London, Walker Arts Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota and Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston, Texas
On Beauty, Regina Gallery, Moscow, Russia
Where you were even now, Kunsthalle Winterthur, Winterthur, Switzerland
Forest Floor, Chiltern Sculpture Trail, Oxford, UK
1994
Art Unlimited: Multiples of the 1960s and 1990s, National Touring Exhibitions, Centre for Contemporary Arts, Glasgow, UK and Southbank Centre, London, UK
Le Shuttle, Künstlerhaus Bethanien, Berlin, Germany
Sarah Staton Supastore Boutique, Laure Genillard Gallery, London, UK
InSITE 94, Aqua Caliente, Tijuana, Mexico and Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego, California
Domestic Violence, Gio Marconi, Milan, Italy
Shiny Nylon: Anya Gallacio, Deborah Levy and Kristina Page, King George v Dock, London, UK; commissioned by Women's Playhouse Trust
1993
Sarah Staton Supastore, Poster Studio, London, UK
Le Jardin de la Vierge, Musée Instrumental, Brussels, Belgium
Home Alone, Karsten Schubert, London, UK
Le Principle de Réalité, Villa Arson, Nice, France
Into the Blue, Bournemouth Festival, Bournemouth, UK
A Dance Collaboration with Rosemary Butcher, Third Eye Centre, Glasgow, UK
1992
With Attitude, Galerie Rodolphe Janssen, Brussels, Belgium
20 Fragile Pieces, Galerie Barbara et Luigi Polla, Geneva, Switzerland
A Group Show, Barbara Gladstone Gallery, New York and Stein Gladstone Gallery, New York
Life Size, small medium large, Centro per l'Arte Contemporanea Luigi Pecci, Prato, Italy
15/1, Malania Basarab Gallery, London, UK
1991
Confrontaciones, Palacio de Velázquez, Madrid, Spain
Rachel Evans, Anya Gallaccio, Bridget Smith, The Clove Building, London, UK
Broken English, Serpentine Gallery, London, UK
Museum of Installation Site Three, Surrey Docks, London, UK
The Times: London's Young Artists, Art '91, Olympia, London, UK
The Archive Project, Centre d'art Contemporain, Nevers, France
1990
Next Phase, Wapping Pumping Station, London, UK
East Country Yard Show, Surrey Docks, London, UK
1989
The Drum Show, Broadgate Arena, London, UK
New Year New Talent, Anderson O'Day, London, UK
The Return of Ulysses, floor for the set of English National Opera, Coliseum, London UK
1988
Freeze, Surrey Docks, London, UK
References
External links
Biography from Grove Art at the Tate Gallery
images of Gallaccio's work at Lehmann Maupin
1963 births
Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
Alumni of Kingston University
Artists from Paisley, Renfrewshire
British contemporary artists
Lesbian artists
Living people
Young British Artists
LGBT artists from the United Kingdom
British women artists
Scottish people of Italian descent
21st-century LGBT people | [
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237736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling%20bee | Spelling bee | A spelling bee is a competition in which contestants are asked to spell a broad selection of words, usually with a varying degree of difficulty. To compete, contestants must memorize the spellings of words as written in dictionaries, and recite them accordingly.
The concept is thought to have originated in the United States, and spelling bee events, along with variants, are now also held in some other countries around the world. Spelling bees are common only in countries where English is spoken, because other languages have a more predictable spelling system.
Etymology
Historically the word bee has been used to describe a get-together for communal work, like a husking bee, a quilting bee, or an apple bee. According to etymological research recorded in dictionaries, the word bee probably comes from dialectal been or bean (meaning "help given by neighbors"), which came from Middle English bene (meaning "prayer", "boon" and "extra service by a tenant to his lord").
History
The earliest known evidence of the phrase spelling bee in print dates back to 1850, although an earlier name, spelling match, has been traced back to 1808. A key impetus for the contests was Noah Webster's spelling books. First published in 1786 and known colloquially as "The Blue-backed Speller," Webster's spelling books were an essential part of the curriculum of all elementary school children in the United States for five generations. Now the key reference for the contests is Webster's Third New International Dictionary.
Spelling bees became widespread across the United States during the 1800s, as a way to motivate students to learn standardized spelling. These spelling bees were usually held within individual schools and towns, and were not nationally organized. In 1908, the NEA held what it called the "first national spelling bee" at its convention in Cleveland. Marie Bolden, a black girl from Cleveland, was named champion.
The annual United States National Spelling Bee was started in 1925 by The Courier-Journal, the newspaper of Louisville, Kentucky. The winner was Frank Neuhauser, who won the 1st National Spelling Bee in Washington, D.C. in 1925 at the age of eleven.
In 1941, the Scripps Howard News Service acquired sponsorship of the program, and the name changed to the Scripps Howard National Spelling Bee. Later, the name was shortened to the Scripps National Spelling Bee. Besides competitors from the 50 U.S. states, several come from Canada, the Bahamas, New Zealand and European countries.
In the United States, spelling bees are annually held from local levels up to the level of the Scripps National Spelling Bee which awards a cash prize to the winner. The National Spelling Bee is sponsored by English-language newspapers and educational foundations; it is also broadcast on ESPN. Since 2006, the National Spelling Bee's championship rounds have been broadcast on ABC live. In 2005, contestants came from the Bahamas, Jamaica, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Canada, New Zealand, Puerto Rico and a German military base, as well as the United States. This was the first year that spellers from Canada and New Zealand attended the competition. The final authority for words is the Webster's Third New International Dictionary. The annual study list is available from Scripps, either online or in print.
The National Senior Spelling Bee started in Cheyenne, Wyoming in 1996. Sponsored by the Wyoming AARP, it is open to contestants 50 and older. Maria Dawson is the only contestant to ever win two back-to-back titles at the National Senior Spelling Bee.
The South Asian Spelling Bee is another spelling bee platform in the US. This annual contest takes place across the US each summer in search of the next South Asian-American spelling champ between the ages of 8 and 14 years old. Launched in 2008, the South Asian Spelling Bee will tour 10 US cities in 2011 and is broadcast globally via the satellite channel, Sony Entertainment Television Asia.
Holding spelling bees in English, with its irregular spelling, makes more sense than in languages that have much more familiar spelling. Some languages, like Hindi, are based fully on phonetics and have regular spellings; and therefore, there are very few spelling bees in these languages.
By region, country, and community
Africa
In Africa, a spelling bee is organized by the African Spelling Bee, which holds an Annual Spelling Bee contest for children between the age of 6 and 16 across the continent. The first competition took place in July 2016, bringing together nine different countries.
There are several countries that run their own national spelling bees, including Uganda which holds the National Spelling Bee organized by enjuba in 10 different languages, including 8 local languages, sign language and English.
In Ghana, The Spelling Bee Ghana is organized annually, with the winners being flown to US to represent Ghana at the Scripps National Spelling Bee.
Nigeria's spelling bee is called the Nigeria spelling bee organized by the Bee Spelling Competition Initiative in states across the federation of Nigeria.
Botswana, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Rwanda are also part of the African Spelling Bee with the number of countries still growing.
Asia
In Asia, a spelling bee is being conducted up to the international level by MaRRS Spelling Bee. The competition involves learning the correct spelling of words, their use in sentences and in multiple contexts. Currently, it is being held in India, Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Bahrain, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras-al-Khaima, Sharjah, and Umm-Al-Quwain.
In Bahrain, an annual spelling bee contest named Spellbound Bahrain is conducted for the school children by KEEN4, an association of Kerala Engineers.
In Malaysia, the annual NST-RHB Spell-it-Right Challenge is open to primary and secondary school students under the Malaysian education syllabus. The competition is carried out in three rounds: the Preliminary Challenge, State Challenge and National Challenge. The preliminary challenge is a written spelling test, from which the top 100 spellers will be chosen to compete in the State Challenge, where the competition is carried out orally. The 1st prize winner from this stage will then represent their states to compete for the title of National Spell-it-Right Champion in the National Challenge.
In Taiwan, the National Spelling Bee Championship is a contest held by Bugstation.tv for young English learners. Thousands of young applicants join this contest each year.
The annual Asia Spelling Cup is held in different cities throughout Asia, and uses mobile pre-selection testing to identify finalists.
Australia
In Western Australia, a spelling bee is held by the State Library Foundation of Western Australia, for children in school years 5, 6, 7 and 8. The early stages of the competition are held online, and the final spell-off in front of a live audience. Two major prizes are awarded: one for a Junior Winner (Years 5-6) and the other for a Senior Winner (Years 7-8). Further prizes are given to the teacher and school class of each major prize winner, and to the most improved speller each week.
Bangladesh
Starting in 2012, Bangladesh's English daily newspaper, The Daily Star and e-Learning portal Champs21.com have been organizing a televised spelling bee on Channel i for the students of class six to ten from Bengali and English medium backgrounds, who compete through their schools and the Champs21 website. The spelling bee team visits 7 divisional cities (Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Rangpur, Rajshahi, Khulna & Barisal) to test top 1% speller and top 96 speller of the season participate in the television show. The competition is the first such arrangement in Bangladesh. The champion is rewarded with a trip to Washington, DC. The winners of season 2 met the honorable president of the People's Republic of Bangladesh Advocate Abdul Hamid. The fourth season was held in 2016.
Canada
The Postmedia Canspell National Spelling Bee is the only Scripps affiliated Canadian spelling bee held annually nationwide in Canada since 2005. The bee is affiliated with the United States-based Scripps National Spelling Bee and uses similar rules and word lists, and competes in all 10 Canadian provinces to provide a Canadian National Champion for the penultimate Scripps competition.
It should not be confused with another organization, calling itself the Spelling Bee of Canada, which started in 1987 in Toronto, Ontario, and celebrated its 25th anniversary by hosting a Canadian Invitational Bee in 2012, as well as organizing Provincial Bees across Canada, and the world.
India
The India Spelling Bee is held for school students across the country, featuring school-level, state and region-level, and national-level competitions.
Spelling bees in India have seen increasing interest and participation from schools across the country, including rural and suburban areas. This has been further fueled by the prevalence of Indian and Indian-American champions in the Scripps National Spelling Bee in the United States.
Kuwait
In the school year 2008–2009, Mrs. Wijdan Alawadhi (senior teacher) and Mrs. Mona Yehia (teacher of English) started the spelling bee contest in Mubarak al-Kabir Educational Area (one of the biggest Kuwaiti Governorates). They started the contest as an experiment in their school (Thabet Bin Zaid Primary School for Boys) with the fourth and fifth grades. It was a successful experiment which was faced with a lot of appreciation from Mrs. Aisha Al Awadhi, ELT Senior Supervisor of English Language supervision. Then they decided to hold the competition among the whole educational area (Mubarak Al-Kabeer Educational area). In 2010–2011, the contest was held with 27 schools (12 schools for boys and 15 for girls – around 2700 pupils). Each school nominated a pupil from the fifth grade to participate.
In 2012–2013, 30 schools participated. All the 30 pupils participated anxiously to win the competition with 200 words. It becomes officially an authorized contest in Mubarak Al-Kabeer Educational Area (Kuwaiti Spelling Bee) in Kuwait. In the school year 2013–2014 the competition was held in Al-Imam Al-Shafie primary school for boys with 31 schools and the words list contained 260 words.
In 2014–2015 with the patronage of Mr. Talaq Al-Hiem the director of Mubarak Al-Kabeer Educational Area the competition held with the participation of 33 schools (16 girls, 15 boys and 2 LD) in Sabah AL-Salem Primary school with the help of its principal Mrs. Amira Baqer. Mrs. Aisha Al-Awadhi and the success of the competition convinced the ELT General supervision to decide the competition as Kuwait National Spelling Bee for the coming year 2015–2016.
Nigeria
The Nigeria Spelling Bee is organized in across states of the federation with national finalists drawn after qualifying from their respective states and either of the six geo-political zones of the country.
The Nigeria Spelling Bee which is the widest spelling bee competition in the country has so far been conducted in more than 25 states across Nigeria by the organizers (Bee Spelling Competition Initiative) which has been endorsed by the Federal Ministry of Education, Ministry of Culture and the state ministries of education.
Winners of the Nigeria Spelling Bee competition win up to ₦1,000,000 in scholarship and participate in the annual African Spelling Bee which is a continental event organized by the African Spelling Bee Consortium as the official Nigerian delegates.
The competition is for students in any registered school in Nigeria from the ages of 9 years to 16 years who have to register on the competition's website.
Apart from the National spelling bee that has representatives across the states in the country, there is another spelling bee that commenced during while Asiwaju Bola Ahmed Tinubu was the governor of Lagos State.
This is referring to the New Era Foundation spelling Bee, an annual event in Lagos State that had its first outing in 2001.The spelling bee competition is held among all public primary and secondary school in Lagos State with the winner and runner-ups of the secondary school category carting away prizes ranging from cash, a trip to Finland and the most outstanding one being the opportunity for the overall winner to serve as one-day governor of the state alongside runner-ups as cabinet members. The spelling bee competition has till date produced 20 one-day governors with the year 2020 winner being a female student from Angus Memorial Senior High School, Shomolu Lagos - Miss Jemimah Marcus.
Nepal
In 2010, a spelling bee was held for the first time in Nepal organized by Rotaract Club of Charumati. Benish Shrestha, Grade 10, Galaxy Public School came first; Bibek Rauniyar, Grade 10, Gillette International Boarding School came second; and Arnav Singh from Grade 9 Little Angels School secured third position.
Now Spelling Bee-Nepal is being organized by Evention Master.
Netherlands and Belgium
The Netherlands and the Dutch-speaking Belgians (Flemish) organize a Dutch spelling bee every year, which is televised. It is called "Groot Dictee der Nederlandse taal".
Pakistan
In Pakistan, the spelling bee competition is promoted by the daily newspaper Dawn, and it takes place every year in October. There are three stages: district, regional and national. National is held in Islamabad. Dawn Spelling Bee is conducted in three stages. District and pool rounds are the first stage of the competition which are held across the districts and cities all across Pakistan. District champions compete in the Regional Championships which are held in 3 regions: Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad. Three regional winners from each group consisting of the regional champion, first runner up and second runner up compete in the national finals in Islamabad. Students from Karachi Grammar School, EMS High School, Beaconhouse School System, and Lahore Grammar School have won the competition several times.
United Arab Emirates
Sylvan Learning Center, a supplemental education organization from the United States, has organized an annual competition for Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Sharjah-area schools. The Sylvan Spelling Challenge is held annually in December and February for students in grades 3–8. The Sylvan competition expects to attract nearly 1,000 participants from 30 schools in its inaugural year.
Abu Dhabi University sponsors the largest spelling bee in the United Arab Emirates, attracting students from both public and private institutions for the past three years. The Abu Dhabi University Spelling Bee is heralded as the most challenging and well-known spelling competition in the United Arab Emirates.council.
Saudi Arabia
The English Language Department in Jeddah conducted a spelling bee competition, Spell Saudia, in 2017 and 2018. The competition has three rounds:
Round One: held at the educational offices level and the best 3 spellers from each group are nominated to round 2.
Round Two:18 spellers from each stage compete against each other and the best six spellers are nominated for the final round which takes place at the ELDJ Closing Ceremony at the end of the academic year.
Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas
Different companies/schools organize and participate in different, independent spelling bees, but the largest company in Latin America to organize annual international spelling bees since 2015 is Advanced Methods Corporation (Amco), a U.S. based company that promotes learning English as a second language. Schools from Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Chile, Honduras, and El Salvador enrolled to the Amco system are eligible to participate in the annual Amco Spelling Bee, consisting of 3 stages: school (selection of students to participate in the regional, repeats with the next stages), regional, and international. The international one is always set in Guadalajara, Jalisco, in Expo Guadalajara, and is almost always held in the last days of May or beginnings of June.
United Kingdom
In 1876 there were newspaper reports of spelling bees in a number of towns in the United Kingdom. Since 2009, The Times newspaper has run a spelling bee for schools: The Times Spelling Bee.
United States
Serious spelling bee competitors in the United States will study affixes and etymologies, and often foreign languages from which English draws, in order to spell challenging words. Several preparatory materials have been published, including some in connection with the Scripps National Spelling Bee and those created by independent organizations not related to Scripps.
For the first several decades of publication, the Scripps annual study booklet was named Words of the Champions, which offered 3,000 words in a list separated into beginning, intermediate & expert groupings. In the mid-1990s the annual study list changed to Paideia (from the Greek word meaning education and culture), which ultimately contained more than 4,100 words, then again in 2006 to the shorter list, entitled Spell It!, the 2009 edition having 1155 words (911 basic words and 244 challenge words).
The Consolidated Word List, also published by Scripps and available on the National Spelling Bee website, consists of all words used in the National Bee as far back as 1950. It is organized into three sections: Words Appearing Infrequently, Words Appearing with Moderate Frequency, and Word Appearing Frequently. Nearly 800 pages and 24,000 words long, the Consolidated Word List is intended for those who have mastered the basics and already gone through Spell It!. Spelling bee participants in the United States also use other reference books and tutoring materials are becoming available on the web.
Vanuatu
One of the first spelling bee competitions in Vanuatu took place in August 2019. Six primary schools and 36 students on the main island of Vanuatu participated and competed for secondary school scholarships. The SHEFA education office and Peace Corps Volunteers collaborated to make the spelling bee possible.
School spelling bees
Spelling bee students usually start competition in elementary school (primary school) or middle school. Classes compete against other classes in the same grade, or level, and the winning class is determined by the score of each class. On an individual level, school spelling bees determine which child will represent his or her school at district, state and national competitions.
See also
Chinese Characters Dictation Competition
Dictation (exercise)
Kanji Kentei
Spelling alphabet
References
External links
History of Louisville, Kentucky | [
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237737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading-edge%20extension | Leading-edge extension | A leading-edge extension (LEX) is a small extension to an aircraft wing surface, forward of the leading edge. The primary reason for adding an extension is to improve the airflow at high angles of attack and low airspeeds, to improve handling and delay the stall. A dog tooth can also improve airflow and reduce drag at higher speeds.
Leading-edge slat
A leading-edge slat is an aerodynamic surface running spanwise just ahead of the wing leading edge. It creates a leading edge slot between the slat and wing which directs air over the wing surface, helping to maintain smooth airflow at low speeds and high angles of attack. This delays the stall, allowing the aircraft to fly at a higher angle of attack. Slats may be made fixed, or retractable in normal flight to minimize drag.
Dogtooth extension
A dogtooth is a small, sharp zig-zag break in the leading edge of a wing. It is usually used on a swept wing, to generate a vortex flow field to prevent separated flow from progressing outboard at high angle of attack. The effect is the same as a wing fence. It can also be used on straight wings in a drooped leading edge arrangement.
Many high-performance aircraft use the dogtooth design, which induces a vortex over the wing to control boundary layer spanwise extension, increasing lift and improving resistance to stall. Some of the best-known uses of the dogtooth are in the stabilizer of the F-15 Eagle and the wings of the F-4 Phantom II, F/A-18 Super Hornet, CF-105 Arrow, F-8U Crusader, and the Ilyushin Il-62. Where the dogtooth is added as an afterthought, as for example on the Hawker Hunter and some variants of the Quest Kodiak, the dogtooth is created by adding an extension to the outer section of the leading edge.
Leading-edge cuff
A leading edge cuff (or wing cuff) is a fixed aerodynamic device employed on fixed-wing aircraft to introduce a sharp discontinuity in the leading edge of the wing in the same way as a dogtooth. It also typically has a slightly drooped leading edge to improve low-speed characteristics.
Leading-edge root extension
A leading-edge root extension (LERX) is a small fillet, typically roughly triangular in shape, running forward from the leading edge of the wing root to a point along the fuselage. These are often called simply leading-edge extensions (LEX), although they are not the only kind. To avoid ambiguity, this article uses the term LERX.
On a modern fighter aircraft, LERXes induce controlled airflow over the wing at high angles of attack, so delaying the stall and consequent loss of lift. In cruising flight, the effect of the LERX is minimal. However, at high angles of attack, as often encountered in a dogfight or during takeoff and landing, the LERX generates a high-speed vortex that attaches to the top of the wing. The vortex action maintains the attachment of the airflow to the upper-wing surface well past the normal stall point at which the airflow separates from the wing surface, thus sustaining lift at very high angles.
LERX were first used on the Northrop F-5 "Freedom Fighter" which flew in 1959, and have since become commonplace on many combat aircraft. The F/A-18 Hornet has especially large examples, as does the Sukhoi Su-27 and the CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder. The Su-27 LERX help make some advanced maneuvers possible, such as the Pugachev's Cobra, the Cobra Turn and the Kulbit.
A long, narrow sideways extension to the fuselage, attached in this position, is an example of a chine.
Leading-edge vortex controller
Leading-edge vortex controller (LEVCON) systems are a continuation of leading-edge root extension (LERX) technology, but with actuation that allows the leading edge vortices to be modified without adjusting the aircraft's attitude. Otherwise they operate on the same principles as the LERX system to create lift augmenting leading edge vortices during high angle of attack flight.
This system has been incorporated in the Russian Sukhoi Su-57 and Indian HAL LCA Navy.
The LEVCONs actuation ability also improves its performance over the LERX system in other areas.
When combined with the thrust vectoring controller (TVC), the aircraft controllability at extreme angles of attack is further increased, which assists in stunts which require supermaneuverability such as Pugachev's Cobra. Additionally, on the Sukhoi Su-57 the LEVCON system is used for increased departure-resistance in the event of TVC failure at a post-stall attitude. It can also be used for trimming the aircraft, and optimizing the lift to drag ratio during cruise.
See also
Strake (aviation)
Vortex generator
References
Aerospace engineering
Aerodynamics
Aircraft wing components
Aircraft wing design | [
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237739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Minto | Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto | Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto, (; 9 July 18451 March 1914), known as Viscount Melgund by courtesy from 1859 to 1891, was a British peer and politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the eighth since Canadian Confederation, and as Viceroy and Governor-General of India, the country's 17th.
Early life and career
Minto was born in London, the son of William Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 3rd Earl of Minto, and Emma, daughter of General Sir Thomas Hislop, 1st Baronet. After the death of his grandfather in 1859 he became known by the courtesy title of Viscount Melgund. After completing his education at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was commissioned a Lieutenant in the Scots Guards in 1867, but left in 1870. He joined the 1st Roxburghshire Mounted Rifle Volunteer Corps as a captain in 1872. In 1874, in the capacity of a newspaper correspondent, he witnessed the operations of the Carlists in Spain; he took service with the Turkish army in the war with Russia in 1877 and served under Lord Roberts in the second Afghan War (1878–1879), having narrowly escaped accompanying Sir Louis Cavagnari on his fatal mission to Kabul.
He acted as private secretary to Lord Roberts during his mission to the Cape in 1881, and was with the army occupying Egypt in 1882, thus furthering his military career and his experience of colonial administration. He was promoted Major in 1882. He was military secretary to the Marquess of Lansdowne during his governor-generalship of Canada from 1883 to 1885, and lived in Canada with his wife, Mary Caroline Grey, sister of Lord Grey, Governor General from 1904 to 1911, whom he had married in Britain on 28 July 1883. On this first Canadian visit, he was very active in raising a Canadian volunteer force to serve with the British Army in the Sudan Campaign of 1884. He served as Chief of Staff to General Middleton in the Riel Rebellion of 1885. When he was offered command of the North-West Mounted Police, he decided instead to pursue a political career in Britain. On his departure home to Britain, Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald apparently said to him, "I shall not live to see it, but some day Canada will welcome you back as Governor General".
His political aspirations were checked with his defeat in the 1886 general election, where he stood as the Conservative candidate for Hexham. He then applied himself with great enthusiasm to promoting a volunteer army in Britain. In 1888 he was promoted colonel on assuming command of the South of Scotland Brigade. He resigned his commission in 1889. He succeeded to his father's earldom in 1891, becoming The Earl of Minto.
Governor General of Canada
Macdonald's prediction came true when Minto was named Governor General of Canada in the summer of 1898, having campaigned for the post after he learned of the retirement of Lord Aberdeen. Sir Wilfrid Laurier wrote that Lord Minto "took his duties to heart" and a review of his life reveals an energetic man who welcomed many challenges and responsibilities.
Lord Minto's term of office was marked by a period of strong nationalism which saw economic growth coupled with massive immigration to Canada. Relations with the United States were strained as border and fishing disputes continued to create problems between the two countries.
In September 1901, after Queen Victoria's death in January, the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York (later to become King George V and Queen Mary) visited Canada, and travelled with Lady Minto to western Canada and the Klondike. Following the tour, Minto recommended Thomas Shaughnessy, President of the Canadian Pacific Railway, to the government at Westminster, via the Secretary of State for the Colonies, for a knighthood, as recognition for his service to the Duke and Duchess of York. Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, to whom Shaughnessy was no friend, opposed the idea; but, Minto made the recommendation anyway, invoking the ire of Laurier and prompting the Prime Minister to draft a policy dictating that all Canadian nominees for honours must be approved by the prime minister before the list was sent to London.
On 6 December 1901, Lord Minto held a skating party on the Ottawa River, when Andrew George Blair's daughter Bessie, and potential rescuer Henry Albert Harper both drowned.
Lord Minto, like his predecessors, travelled throughout the young country—he crossed Quebec, Ontario and western Canada, visiting former battlegrounds where he had served during the North-West Rebellion. He rode throughout western Canada with the North-West Mounted Police, and enjoyed the Quebec countryside on horseback.
Lord Minto's convictions about the importance of preserving Canadian heritage led to the creation of the National Archives of Canada.
Lord and Lady Minto were sports enthusiasts and the Minto Skating Club, which they founded in 1903, has produced many famous ice skaters. They both excelled at the sport and hosted many lively skating parties during their time at Rideau Hall. In the summer, the Minto family loved to bicycle and play lacrosse. In 1901, Lord Minto donated the Minto Cup and appointed trustees to oversee its annual awarding to the champion senior men's lacrosse team of Canada (since 1937 the Cup has been awarded to the junior men's champions). He loved the outdoors, championed the conservation of natural resources and promoted the creation of national parks.
In education and health, Lord Minto encouraged a forward-looking approach. He believed that Canada's progress depended on the cultivation of patriotism and unity, and this conviction was reflected in his desire to see a wider history curriculum developed in Canadian schools. In response to the health crisis posed by tuberculosis, he helped establish the first anti-tuberculosis foundation in Canada.
Lord Minto also took great interest in the development of the Canadian military and emphasized the need for training and professional development. He was appointed honorary Lieutenant-Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards Regiment on 1 December 1898 and was subsequently appointed Honorary Colonel, a tradition that has continued with the post of Governors General to this day.
He was appointed a Privy Counsellor on 11 August 1902, following an announcement of the King's intention to make this appointment in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published in June.
On his trip back to Britain in 1904, having finished his term as Canada's Governor General, Lord Minto wrote in his journal "... so our life in Canada is over and it has been a great wrench parting from so many friends and leaving a country which I love, and which has been very full of interest to me".
Viceroy and Governor General of India
In 1905, on the resignation of Lord Curzon of Kedleston, Minto was appointed Viceroy and Governor-General of India, retiring in 1910. In this, he followed in the footsteps of his great-grandfather, the first Lord Minto. When John Morley as Secretary of State for India wrote to Minto arguing that "Reforms may not save the Raj, but if they don't, nothing else will", Minto replied:
...when you say that "if reforms do not save the Raj nothing else will" I am afraid I must utterly disagree. The Raj will not disappear in India as long as the British race remains what it is, because we shall fight for the Raj as hard as we have ever fought, if it comes to fighting, and we shall win as we have always won.
The reforms were called usually by the name "Morley–Minto Reforms" because of both John Morley and Lord Minto worked together to draw these reforms. They were passed by the British parliament in 1909 as the Indian Councils Act.
He was succeeded by Lord Hardinge of Penshurst.
For his lifetime of service, he was made a Knight of the Garter.
Marriage
He married, on 28 July 1883, Lady Mary Caroline Grey, daughter of Charles Grey and Caroline Eliza Farquhar. They had five children:
Lady Eileen Nina Evelyn Sibell Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound (13 December 188429 May 1938), married Lord Francis Montagu Douglas Scott (son of the 6th Duke of Buccleuch and Lady Louisa Hamilton), and had issue;
Lady Ruby Florence Mary Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound (26 September 18865 November 1961), married Rowland Baring, 2nd Earl of Cromer, and had issue;
Lady Violet Mary Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound (28 May 18893 January 1965), married, firstly, Lord Charles Petty-Fitzmaurice, and had issue, secondly, John Astor, 1st Baron Astor of Hever, and had issue;
Victor Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 5th Earl of Minto (12 February 189111 January 1975);
The Honourable Gavin William Esmond Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound (25 April 18956 August 1917; killed in action).
Legacy
The Earl of Minto's popularity in Canada outlived him. In addition to a Minto Place in Rockcliffe, Ottawa and Minto Street in Vancouver and the SS Minto, a famous steamer on the Arrow Lakes, the gold-mining company town of Minto City in the Bridge River Country, established 1936, was named in honour of the Earl. Also named for the Earl was Mount Minto in the Atlin District of far northern British Columbia, the town of Minto, Ontario. In addition, Minto, New Brunswick was renamed in memory of him. The Earl of Minto and Lady Minto appeared on the obverse of the Canadian four-dollar bill in the 1900 and 1902 versions of this denomination. Indirectly, the town of Minto, North Dakota in the United States is named for Minto, Ontario, whence its settlers came.
Minto Park in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), India, commemorates him. The school from which Aligarh Muslim University evolved was named behind him as Minto Circle after his generous funding for the construction of the new school buildings.
Minto Road, an area where most of the ministers of Bangladesh government have their official residence, is named after Lord Minto.
Minto Hospital and Minto Park (now officially renamed but popularly still known as such) in Lahore were also named after him.
Minto Ophthalmic Hospital in Bangalore is also named after him. It is the oldest eye hospitals in India and one of the largest and busiest eye hospitals in the country.
See also
Bell Telephone Memorial
Minto Cup
Minto Circle
Minto Eye Hospital
Minto, Manitoba
Rural Municipality of Minto
Notes
References
This entry incorporates text originally from the Governor General of Canada website.
External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
Lord Minto, A Memoir (1924) at Project Gutenberg of Australia
Lady Minto's Fete
Library of Congress: Arrival of the Governor General, Lord Minto, at Quebec
Collection of Lord Minto's Public and Private Letters 1898–1904, published by the Champlain Society
Viceroys of India
1900s in British India
Governors General of Canada
1845 births
1914 deaths
Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Scots Guards officers
King's Own Scottish Borderers officers
British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Afghan War
British Army personnel of the Anglo-Egyptian War
People of the North-West Rebellion
Knights of the Garter
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
People educated at Eton College
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Rectors of the University of Edinburgh
Conservative Party (UK) hereditary peers
Conservative Party (UK) parliamentary candidates | [
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237743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thousand%20Islands%20%E2%80%93%20Frontenac%20Arch | Thousand Islands – Frontenac Arch | The Thousand Islands – Frontenac Arch region or the Frontenac Axis is an exposed strip of Precambrian rock in Canada and the United States that links the Canadian Shield from Algonquin Park with the Adirondack Mountain region in New York, an extension of the Laurentian mountains of Québec. The Algonquin to Adirondacks region, which includes the Frontenac Axis or Arch, is a critical linkage for biodiversity and resilience, and one with important conservation potential. The axis separates the St. Lawrence Lowlands and the Great Lakes Lowlands. It has many distinctive plant and animal species. It is one of four ecoregions of the Mixedwood Plains.
The Thousand Islands in the Saint Lawrence River have a distinctive flora and fauna and are a part of the biological corridor.
Geology
The bedrock is mostly gneiss, granite, and marble, more than a billion years old. The Frontenac terrain is the youngest of the Ontario portions of the arch, dated at 1.2 billion years old. These rocks were once part of a large mountain chain of the ancient supercontinent of Rodinia. There is also a meteor crater near Holleford, where the shield meets the limestone plains of southeastern Ontario.
Ecology
The area is distinctive for having tree species typically found further south, and reaching their northern limits. One example is pitch pine (Pinus rigida). Shallow soils and recurring fire have also produced unusual fire barren communities. These provide habitat for rare plants, such as bear oak (Quercus ilicifolia) and deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), as well as rare animals, such as the five-lined skink (Plestiodon fasciatus) and gray rat snake (Pantherophis spiloides). There is high bird diversity, including the cerulean warbler, considered nationally endangered owing to the destruction of forests. Although the most important factor producing the fauna and flora is likely the bed rock, the moderating effect of the Great Lakes may also be factor. Also, some northern species extend their range south, drawn by the rugged granite landscapes of the Canadian Shield.
The basic ecosystem type of the area is temperate deciduous forest. The area has a long history of logging, which has depleted these forests of larger trees. Settlement tends to have occurred in the areas of deeper soil, and fire has particularly influenced the uplands. Reference to the forest descriptions of early surveyors has documented decline in species such as hemlock, which were preferentially removed for leather tanning. Criteria for restoring these forests have been established, and include increased tree size, spring ephemeral abundance, and coarse woody debris. Pollen cores from Lanark County provide information about longer term trends in forest cover.
There is a wide array of wetlands, ranging from larger marshes along the St. Lawrence river, to smaller marshes and bogs along water courses, and large numbers of beaver ponds. The cycles in vegetation in beaver ponds contribute to further wetland diversity; depending upon the amount of beaver activity, there may be open water, marsh, wet meadows or shrub thickets. Some lakes in the area, such as Bob's Lake, also support uncommon species of turtles, such as the map turtles and Blanding's turtles. Where there is marble bedrock, or other sources of calcium, fens may arise. These often have unusual calcium dependent wetland plants.
A southern portion of this region was designated a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 2002, the Frontenac Arch Biosphere Reserve. Within this biosphere reserve is the relatively small St. Lawrence Islands National Park. Although it is small, it has many Frontenac Arch species mentioned above, including deerberry, Blanding's turtle, and five-lined skinks. Further north, there is still a large gap in the ecological link to Algonquin Park. In this gap are smaller parks such as Frontenac Provincial Park and Bon Echo Provincial Park.
References
Biosphere reserves of Canada
Thousand Islands
Geology of Ontario
Geology of New York (state) | [
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237744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortex%20generator | Vortex generator | A vortex generator (VG) is an aerodynamic device, consisting of a small vane usually attached to a lifting surface (or airfoil, such as an aircraft wing) or a rotor blade of a wind turbine. VGs may also be attached to some part of an aerodynamic vehicle such as an aircraft fuselage or a car. When the airfoil or the body is in motion relative to the air, the VG creates a vortex, which, by removing some part of the slow-moving boundary layer in contact with the airfoil surface, delays local flow separation and aerodynamic stalling, thereby improving the effectiveness of wings and control surfaces, such as flaps, elevators, ailerons, and rudders.
Method of operation
Vortex generators are most often used to delay flow separation. To accomplish this they are often placed on the external surfaces of vehicles and wind turbine blades. On both aircraft and wind turbine blades they are usually installed quite close to the leading edge of the aerofoil in order to maintain steady airflow over the control surfaces at the trailing edge. VGs are typically rectangular or triangular, about as tall as the local boundary layer, and run in spanwise lines usually near the thickest part of the wing. They can be seen on the wings and vertical tails of many airliners.
Vortex generators are positioned obliquely so that they have an angle of attack with respect to the local airflow in order to create a tip vortex which draws energetic, rapidly moving outside air into the slow-moving boundary layer in contact with the surface. A turbulent boundary layer is less likely to separate than a laminar one, and is therefore desirable to ensure effectiveness of trailing-edge control surfaces. Vortex generators are used to trigger this transition. Other devices such as vortilons, leading-edge extensions, and leading-edge cuffs, also delay flow separation at high angles of attack by re-energizing the boundary layer.
Examples of aircraft which use VGs include the ST Aerospace A-4SU Super Skyhawk and Symphony SA-160. For swept-wing transonic designs, VGs alleviate potential shock-stall problems (e.g., Harrier, Blackburn Buccaneer, Gloster Javelin).
Aftermarket installation
Many aircraft carry vane vortex generators from time of manufacture, but there are also aftermarket suppliers who sell VG kits to improve the STOL performance of some light aircraft. Aftermarket suppliers claim (i) that VGs lower stall speed and reduce take-off and landing speeds, and (ii) that VGs increase the effectiveness of ailerons, elevators and rudders, thereby improving controllability and safety at low speeds. For home-built and experimental kitplanes, VGs are cheap, cost-effective and can be installed quickly; but for certified aircraft installations, certification costs can be high, making the modification a relatively expensive process.
Owners fit aftermarket VGs primarily to gain benefits at low speeds, but a downside is that such VGs may reduce cruise speed slightly. In tests performed on a Cessna 182 and a Piper PA-28-235 Cherokee, independent reviewers have documented a loss of cruise speed of . However, these losses are relatively minor, since an aircraft wing at high speed has a small angle of attack, thereby reducing VG drag to a minimum.
Owners have reported that on the ground, it can be harder to clear snow and ice from wing surfaces with VGs than from a smooth wing, but VGs are not generally prone to inflight icing as they reside within the boundary layer of airflow. VGs may also have sharp edges which can tear the fabric of airframe covers and may thus require special covers to be made.
For twin-engined aircraft, manufacturers claim that VGs reduce single-engine control speed (Vmca), increase zero fuel and gross weight, improve the effectiveness of ailerons and rudder, provide a smoother ride in turbulence and make the aircraft a more stable instrument platform.
Increase in maximum takeoff weight
Some VG kits available for light twin-engine airplanes may allow an increase in maximum takeoff weight. The maximum takeoff weight of a twin-engine airplane is determined by structural requirements and single-engine climb performance requirements (which are lower for a lower stall speed). For many light twin-engine airplanes, the single-engine climb performance requirements determine a lower maximum weight rather than the structural requirements. Consequently, anything that can be done to improve the single-engine-inoperative climb performance will bring about an increase in maximum takeoff weight.
In the US from 1945 until 1991,
the one-engine-inoperative climb requirement for multi-engine airplanes with a maximum takeoff weight of or less was as follows:
where is the stalling speed in the landing configuration in miles per hour.
Installation of vortex generators can usually bring about a slight reduction in stalling speed of an airplane and therefore reduce the required one-engine-inoperative climb performance. The reduced requirement for climb performance allows an increase in maximum takeoff weight, at least up to the maximum weight allowed by structural requirements. An increase in maximum weight allowed by structural requirements can usually be achieved by specifying a maximum zero fuel weight or, if a maximum zero fuel weight is already specified as one of the airplane's limitations, by specifying a new higher maximum zero fuel weight. For these reasons, vortex generator kits for many light twin-engine airplanes are accompanied by a reduction in maximum zero fuel weight and an increase in maximum takeoff weight.
The one-engine-inoperative rate-of-climb requirement does not apply to single-engine airplanes, so gains in the maximum takeoff weight (based on stall speed or structural considerations) are less significant compared to those for 1945–1991 twins.
After 1991, the airworthiness certification requirements in the USA specify the one-engine-inoperative climb requirement as a gradient independent of stalling speed, so there is less opportunity for vortex generators to increase the maximum takeoff weight of multi-engine airplanes whose certification basis is FAR 23 at amendment 23-42 or later.
Maximum landing weight
Because the landing weights of most light aircraft are determined by structural considerations and not by stall speed, most VG kits increase only the takeoff weight and not the landing weight. Any increase in landing weight would require either structural modifications or re-testing the aircraft at the higher landing weight to demonstrate that the certification requirements are still met. However, after a lengthy flight, sufficient fuel may have been used, thereby bringing the aircraft back below the permitted maximum landing weight.
Aircraft noise reduction
Vortex generators have been used on the wing underside of Airbus A320 family aircraft to reduce noise generated by airflow over circular pressure equalisation vents for the fuel tanks. Lufthansa claims a noise reduction of up to 2 dB can thus be achieved.
See also
Turbulator
Boundary layer suction
Boundary layer control
Circulation control wing
References
Kermode, A.C. (1972), Mechanics of Flight, Chapter 11, page 350 - 8th edition, Pitman Publishing, London
Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Pitman Publishing, London
External links
Vortex Generators: 50 Years of Performance Benefits, a history of VGs
Aircraft components
Aerospace engineering
Aerodynamics
Aircraft wing design
Wind turbines | [
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237746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taser | Taser | A taser is an electroshock weapon used to temporarily incapacitate targets allowing them to be approached and handled in an unresisting and thus safe manner. It is sold by Axon, formerly TASER International. It fires two small barbed darts intended to puncture the skin and remain attached to the target, at . Their range extends from for non-Law Enforcement Tasers to for LE Tasers. The darts are connected to the main unit by thin insulated copper wire and deliver a modulated electric current designed to disrupt voluntary control of muscles, causing "neuromuscular incapacitation", which is often mistaken for unconsciousness by police officers and bystanders. The effects of a taser may only be localised pain or strong involuntary long muscle contractions, based on the mode of use and connectivity of the darts.
Tasers are marketed as less-lethal, since the possibility of serious injury or death exists whenever the weapon is deployed. At least 49 people died in 2018 after being shocked by police with a Taser.
The first taser conducted energy weapon was introduced in 1993 as a less-lethal force option for police to use to subdue fleeing, belligerent, or potentially dangerous people, who would have otherwise been subjected to more lethal force options such as firearms. According to a 2010 study titled "Police Use of Force, TASERs and Other Less-Lethal Weapons", over 15,000 law enforcement and military agencies around the world used tasers as part of their use of force continuum. There has been some controversy attending its use on children, and as to whether it constitutes a form of torture.
A 2009 report by the Police Executive Research Forum in the United States found that police officer injuries dropped by 76% in large law enforcement agencies that deployed taser devices in the first decade of the 21st century compared with those that did not use them at all. TASER International and its CEO Rick Smith have claimed that unspecified "police surveys" show that the device has "saved 75,000 lives through 2011". A more recent academic study suggested police use of conducted electrical weapons in the United States was less risky to police officers than hands-on tactics, and showed officer injury rates equal to use of chemical sprays such as oleoresin capsicum. However, when police combined conducted electrical weapons with use of other weapons, officers were four or five times more likely to be injured than when using a baton or chemical spray.
History
Jack Cover, a NASA researcher, began developing the first Taser in 1969. By 1974, Cover had completed the device, which he named TASER, using a loose acronym of the title of the book Tom Swift and His Electric Rifle, a book written by the Stratemeyer Syndicate under the pseudonym Victor Appleton and featuring Cover's childhood hero, Tom Swift.
The first Taser model that was offered for sale, called the TASER Public Defender used gunpowder as its propellant, which led the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms to classify it as a firearm in 1976.
Former TASER International CEO Patrick Smith testified in a TASER-related lawsuit that the catalyst for the development of the device was the "shooting death of two of his high school acquaintances" by a "guy with a legally licensed gun who lost his temper". In 1993, Rick Smith and his brother Thomas founded the original company, TASER, and began to investigate what they called "safer use of force option[s] for citizens and law enforcement". At their Scottsdale, Arizona, facilities, the brothers worked with Cover to develop a "non-firearm TASER electronic control device". The 1994 Air TASER Model 34000 conducted energy device had an "anti-felon identification (AFID) system" to prevent the likelihood that the device would be used by criminals; upon use, it released many small pieces of paper containing the serial number of the TASER device. The U.S. firearms regulator, the ATF, stated that the Air TASER conducted energy device was not a firearm.
In 1999, TASER International developed an "ergonomically handgun-shaped device called the Advanced TASER M-series systems", which used a "patented neuromuscular incapacitation (NMI) technology". In May 2003, TASER International released a new weapon called the TASER X26 conducted energy device, which used "shaped pulse technology". On July 27, 2009, TASER International released a new type of TASER device called the X3, which can fire three shots before reloading. It holds three new type cartridges, which are much thinner than the previous model. On April 5, 2017, TASER announced that it was rebranding itself as Axon to reflect its expanded business into body cameras and software. In 2018, TASER 7 conducted energy device was released, the seventh generation of TASER devices from Axon.
Function
A TASER device fires two small dart-like electrodes, which stay connected to the main unit by thin insulated copper wire as they are propelled by small compressed nitrogen charges. The cartridge contains a pair of electrodes and propellant for a single shot and is replaced after each use. Once fired the probes travel at per second, spread apart for every they travel, and must land at least apart from each another to complete the circuit and channel an electric pulse into the target person's body. They deliver a modulated electric current designed to disrupt voluntary control of muscles, causing "neuromuscular incapacitation". The effects of a TASER device may only be localized pain or strong involuntary long muscle contractions, based on the mode of use and connectivity of the darts. The TASER device is marketed as less-lethal, since the possibility of serious injury or death exists whenever the weapon is deployed.
There are a number of cartridges designated by range, with the maximum at . Cartridges available to non-law enforcement consumers are limited to . Practically speaking, police officers must generally be within in order to use a Taser, though the X26's probes can travel as far as 35feet.
The electrodes are pointed to penetrate clothing, and barbed to prevent removal once in place. The original TASER device probes unspool the wire from the cartridge that causes a yaw effect before the dart stabilizes, which made it difficult to penetrate thick clothing, but newer versions (X26, C2) use a "shaped pulse" that increases effectiveness in the presence of barriers.
The TASER 7 conducted energy device is a two-shot device with increased reliability over legacy products. The conductive wires spool from the dart when the TASER 7 conducted energy device is fired, instead of spooling from the TASER cartridge which increases stability while in flight and therefore increases accuracy. The spiral darts fly straighter and faster with nearly twice the kinetic energy for better connection to the target and penetration through thicker clothing. The body of the dart breaks away to allow for containment at tough angles. TASER 7 has a 93% increased probe spread at close range, where 85% of deployments occur, according to agency reports. Rapid arc technology with adaptive cross-connection helps enable full incapacitation even at close range. TASER 7 wirelessly connects to the Axon network, allowing for easier updates and inventory management.
A TASER device may provide a safety benefit to police officers. The use of a TASER device has a greater deployment range than batons, pepper spray, or empty hand techniques. This allows police to maintain a greater distance. A 2008 study of use-of-force incidents by the Calgary Police Service conducted by the Canadian Police Research Centre found that the use of the TASER device resulted in fewer injuries than the use of batons or empty hand techniques. The study found that only pepper spray was a safer intervention option.
Models
Axon currently has three models of TASER conducted electrical weapons (CEWs) available for law enforcement use.
The TASER X2 device is a two-shot TASER CEW with a warning arc and dual lasers.
The TASER X26P device is a single-shot TASER CEW that is the smallest, most compact SMART WEAPON of all three AXON models.
The TASER 7 device is the newest of all three CEWs. It is a two-shot device with spiral darts that spool from the dart allowing the probes to fly straighter. The TASER 7 device's rapid arc technology with adaptive cross connections allows for full incapacitation. The TASER 7 CEW connects wirelessly to the Axon network of software that includes inventory management capabilities using Axon Evidence.
Lethality
As with all less-lethal weapons, use of the TASER system is never risk free. Sharp metal projectiles and electricity are in use, so misuse or abuse of the weapon increases the likelihood that serious injury or death may occur. In addition, the manufacturer has identified other risk factors that may increase the risks of use. Children, pregnant women, the elderly, and very thin individuals are considered at higher risk. Persons with known medical problems, such as heart disease, history of seizure, or have a pacemaker are also at greater risk. Axon also warns that repeated, extended, or continuous exposure to the weapon is not safe. Because of this, the Police Executive Research Forum says that total exposure should not exceed 15 seconds.
There are other circumstances that pose higher secondary risks of serious injury or death, including:
Uncontrolled falls or subjects falling from elevated positions
Persons running on hard or rough surfaces, like asphalt
Persons operating machinery or conveyances (cars, motorcycles, bikes, skateboards)
Places where explosive or flammable substances are present
Fulton County, Georgia District Attorney Paul Howard Jr. said in 2020 that "under Georgia law, a taser is considered as a deadly weapon." A 2012 study published in the American Heart Association's journal Circulation found that Tasers can cause "ventricular arrhythmias, sudden cardiac arrest and even death." In 2014, NAACP State Conference President Scot X. Esdaile and the Connecticut NAACP argued that Tasers cause lethal results. Reuters reported that more than 1,000 people shocked with a Taser by police died through the end of 2018, nearly all of them since the early 2000s. At least 49 people died in 2018 after being shocked by police with a Taser.
Drive Stun capability
Some TASER device models, particularly those used by police departments, also have a "Drive Stun" capability, where the TASER device is held against the target without firing the projectiles, and is intended to cause pain without incapacitating the target. "Drive Stun" is "the process of using the EMD (Electro Muscular Disruption) weapon as a pain compliance technique. This is done by activating the TASER [device] and placing it against an individual's body. This can be done without an air cartridge in place or after an air cartridge has been deployed."
Guidelines released in 2011 by the U.S. Department of Justice recommend that use of Drive Stun as a pain compliance technique be avoided. The guidelines were issued by a joint committee of the Police Executive Research Forum and the U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. The guidelines state "Using the CEW to achieve pain compliance may have limited effectiveness and, when used repeatedly, may even exacerbate the situation by inducing rage in the subject".
A study of U.S. police and sheriff departments found that 29.6% of the jurisdictions allowed the use of Drive Stun for gaining compliance in a passive resistance arrest scenario, with no physical contact between the officer and the subject. For a scenario that also includes non-violent physical contact, this number is 65.2%.
A Las Vegas police document says "The Drive Stun causes significant localized pain in the area touched by the TASER [CEW], but does not have a significant effect on the central nervous system. The Drive Stun does not incapacitate a subject but may assist in taking a subject into custody." The UCLA TASER device incident and the University of Florida TASER device incident involved university police officers using their TASER device's "Drive Stun" capability (referred to as a "contact tase" in the University of Florida Offense Report).
Amnesty International has expressed particular concern about Drive Stun, noting that "the potential to use TASERs in drive-stun mode—where they are used as 'pain compliance' tools when individuals are already effectively in custody—and the capacity to inflict multiple and prolonged shocks, renders the weapons inherently open to abuse".
Users
According to a 2011 study by the United States Department of Justice's National Institute of Justice entitled Police Use of Force, TASERs and Other Less-Lethal Weapons, over 15,000 law enforcement and military agencies around the world used TASER devices as part of their use of force continuum. Just as the number of agencies deploying TASER conducted energy weapons has continued to increase each year, so too the number of TASER device related "incidents" between law enforcement officers and suspects has been on the rise.
In 2015, police in North Dakota were cleared to operate drone aircraft equipped with tear gas and TASER CEWs.
Excited delirium syndrome
Some of the deaths associated with TASER devices have been given a diagnosis of excited delirium, a term for a phenomenon that manifests as a combination of delirium, psychomotor agitation, anxiety, hallucinations, speech disturbances, disorientation, violent and bizarre behavior, insensitivity to pain, elevated body temperature, and increased strength. Excited delirium is associated with sudden death (usually via cardiac or respiratory arrest), particularly following the use of physical control measures, including police restraint and TASER devices. Excited delirium most commonly arises in male subjects with a history of serious mental illness or acute or chronic drug abuse, particularly stimulant drugs such as cocaine. Alcohol withdrawal or head trauma may also contribute to the condition.
The diagnosis of excited delirium has been controversial. Excited delirium has been listed as a cause of death by some medical examiners for several years, mainly as a diagnosis of exclusion established on autopsy. Additionally, academic discussion of excited delirium has been largely confined to forensic science literature, providing limited documentation about patients that survive the condition. These circumstances have led some civil liberties groups to question the cause of death diagnosis, claiming that excited delirium has been used to "excuse and exonerate" law enforcement authorities following the death of detained subjects, a possible "conspiracy or cover-up for brutality" when restraining agitated individuals. Also contributing to the controversy is the role of TASER device use in excited delirium deaths.
Excited delirium is not found in the current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; however. the term "excited delirium" has been accepted by the National Association of Medical Examiners and the American College of Emergency Physicians, who argued in a 2009 white paper that "excited delirium" may be described by several codes within the ICD-9. The American College of Emergency Physicians "rejects the theory" that excited delirium is an "invented syndrome" used to excuse or cover-up the use of excessive force by law enforcement.
Usage worldwide
Australia
Tasers are prohibited for civilian ownership in Australia in every state and territory. A weapons permit is required to purchase and own a taser.
Canada
As with the UK and Ireland, only members of law enforcement are allowed to legally own a taser. However, according to an article by The Globe and Mail, many Canadians illegally purchase tasers from the US, where they are legal.
Ireland
Under the Firearms Act of 1925, tasers, pepper spray and stun guns are illegal to possess or purchase in Ireland, even with a valid firearms certificate.
Jamaica
Tasers are legal for civilians to own, provided they possess a valid permit under the Customs Act. Police in Jamaica do not currently have access to tasers, but in February 2021 Corporal James Rohan, Chairman of the Police Federation, requested access to non-lethal weaponry in order to more effectively deal with encounters with mentally ill individuals.
Saudi Arabia
Tasers are classified as weapons under Federal Law No. 3 of 2009, and therefore require a valid license to own or import.
UK
Tasers have been in use by UK police forces since 2003, and require 18 hours of initial training, followed by six hours of annual top-up training, in order for an officer to be allowed to use one. Members of the general public are not allowed to own tasers, with possession or sale of a taser punishable by up to 10 years in prison. As of September 2019, 30,548 (19%) of police officers were trained to use tasers. Tasers were used 23,000 times from March 2018 to March 2019, compared to only 10,000 times in 2013. In March 2020, extra funding was provided to purchase devices to allow more than 8,000 extra UK police officers to carry a taser.
Use on children
There has been considerable controversy over the use of TASER devices on children and in schools. In 2004, the parents of a 6-year-old boy in Miami sued the Miami-Dade County Police department for firing a TASER device at their child. The police said the boy was threatening to injure his own leg with a shard of glass, and said that using the device was the safest option to prevent the boy from injuring himself. The boy's mother told CNN that the three officers involved probably found it easier not to reason with her child. In the same county two weeks later, a 12-year-old girl skipping school and drinking alcohol was tased while she was running from police. The Miami-Dade County Police reported that the girl had started to run into traffic and that the TASER device was deployed to stop her from being hit by cars or causing an automobile accident. In March 2008, an 11-year-old girl was subdued with a TASER device. In March 2009, a 15-year-old boy died from alcohol-induced excited delirium in Michigan after being tased.
Police claim that the use of TASER conducted energy weapons on smaller subjects and elderly subjects is safer than alternative methods of subduing suspects, alleging that striking them or falling on them will cause much more injury than a TASER device, because the device is designed to only cause the contraction of muscles. Critics counter that TASER devices may interact with pre-existing medical complications such as medications, and may even contribute to someone's death as a result. Critics also suggest that using a TASER conducted electrical weapon on a minor, particularly a young child, is effectively cruel and abusive punishment, or unnecessary.
Use in torture
A report from a meeting of the United Nations Committee Against Torture states that "The Committee was worried that the use of TASER X26 weapons, provoking extreme pain, constituted a form of torture, and that in certain cases it could also cause death, as shown by several reliable studies and by certain cases that had happened after practical use." Amnesty International has also raised extensive concerns about the use of other electro-shock devices by American police and in American prisons, as they can be (and according to Amnesty International, sometimes are) used to inflict cruel pain on individuals. Maurice Cunningham of South Carolina, while an inmate at the Lancaster County Detention Center, was subjected to continuous shock for 2 minutes 49 seconds, which a medical examiner said caused cardiac arrhythmia and his subsequent death. He was 29 years old and had no alcohol or drugs in his system.
In response to the claims that the pain inflicted by the use of the TASER device could potentially constitute torture, Tom Smith, the Chairman of the TASER Board, stated that the U.N. is "out of touch" with the needs of modern policing and asserted that "Pepper spray goes on for hours and hours, hitting someone with a baton breaks limbs, shooting someone with a firearm causes permanent damage, even punching and kicking—the intent of those tools is to inflict pain, ... with the TASER device, the intent is not to inflict pain; it's to end the confrontation. When it's over, it's over."
Legality
See also
Braidwood Inquiry – official Canadian inquiry into TASER CEWs and similar devices
Dazzler (weapon)
Death of Beto Laudisio
Graduated Electronic Decelerator
History of New York divorce coercion gang
Robert Dziekański TASER CEW incident
Stun belt
Tom Swift and His War Tank, also by "Victor Appleton"
References
External links
"TASERs in medicine: an irreverent call for proposals"—editorial in Canadian Medical Association Journal by Matthew B. Stanbrook, MD PhD, 2008
TASER CEW laws by state and city, local and state, by Ryan R. Karpilo, 2012
"The Use of Conducted Energy Devices (TASERs)", TELEMASP Bulletin, Texas Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics Program
"When TASERs Fail" (podcast) transcript (11 May 2019). Reveal and Public Radio Exchange.
American inventions
Brands that became generic
Instruments of torture
Non-lethal weapons
Police weapons | [
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237747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Verres | Gaius Verres | Gaius Verres (c. 120–43 BC) was a Roman magistrate, notorious for his misgovernment of Sicily. His extortion of local farmers and plundering of temples led to his prosecution by Cicero, whose accusations were so devastating that his defence advocate could only recommend that Verres should leave the country. Cicero's prosecution speeches were later published as the Verrine Orations.
Biography
Gaius Verres was born around 114 B.C.
Public career
During Sulla's civil war (83–82 BC), Verres deserted the government faction of Marius and Carbo and went over to Sulla. Sulla made him a present of land at Beneventum and secured him against punishment for embezzlement. In 80 BC Verres served on the staff of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, governor of Cilicia. According to Cicero, the governor and his subordinate both ruthlessly plundered the province. In 78 BC Dolabella had to stand trial at Rome accused of extortion and was found guilty with the evidence of Verres, who had secured a pardon.
In 74 BC, by lavish use of bribes, Verres secured a praetorship. He abused his authority to further the political ends of his party. As a reward, the Senate sent him as governor (propraetor) to Sicily, the breadbasket of the Roman Republic – a particularly rich province thanks to its central position in the Mediterranean making it a commercial crossroads. The people were for the most part prosperous and contented, but under Verres the island experienced more misery and desolation than during the time of the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) or the recent Servile Wars (135–72 BC). Verres ruined the wheat-growers and the revenue collectors by exorbitant imposts or by the iniquitous canceling of contracts. He robbed temples (notably that on the site of the Cathedral of Syracuse) and private houses of their works of art, and disregarded the rights of Roman citizens.
Another major charge leveled against Verres during his Sicilian tenure alleged that, during the time of the Third Servile War (73–71 BC) against Spartacus, he had used the emergency to raise cash. He would, allegedly, pick key slaves of wealthy landowners and charge them with plotting to join Spartacus' revolt or otherwise causing sedition in the province.
Having done so, he would sentence the slave to death by crucifixion, and then lay a broad hint that a sizable bribe from the slave's owner could expunge the charge and sentence. Other times he would name nonexistent slaves, charging that the landowner held a slave suspected of plotting rebellion and that the owner was actively hiding him. When the owner could not produce the fictitious person, Verres would throw the putative owner into prison until a bribe could be paid for his release.
He was also criticized for his public relationship with Tertia, which was regarded scandalous, and Chelidon, who was attributed undue influence upon his office by his detractors.
Verres returned to Rome in 70 BC, and in the same year, at the request of the Sicilians, Marcus Tullius Cicero prosecuted him: Cicero later published the prosecution speeches as the Verrine Orations. Verres entrusted his defence to the most eminent of Roman advocates, Quintus Hortensius, and he had the sympathy and support of several of the leading Roman patricians.
Trial and exile
The court was composed exclusively of senators, some of whom may have been his friends. However, the presiding judge, the city praetor, Manius Acilius Glabrio, was a thoroughly honest man, and his assessors were at least not accessible to bribery. Verres vainly tried to get the trial postponed until 69 BC when his friend Marcus Caecilius Metellus would be the presiding judge. Hortensius tried two successive tactics to delay the trial. The first was trying to sideline Verres' prosecution by hoping to get a prosecution of a former governor of Bithynia to take precedence. When that failed, the defense then looked to procedural delays (and gaming the usual format of a Roman extortion trial) until after a lengthy and upcoming round of public holidays, after which there would be scarce time for the trial to continue before Glabrio's term was up and the new and more malleable judge would be installed. However, in August, Cicero opened the case and vowed to short-circuit the plans by taking advantage of an opportunity to change the format of the trial to bring evidence and witnesses up much sooner, and opened his case with a short and blistering speech.
The effect of the first brief speech was so overwhelming that Hortensius refused to reply, and recommended his client leave the country. Before the expiration of the 9 days allowed for the prosecution Verres was on his way to exile. There he lived until 43 BC, when he was proscribed by Mark Antony, apparently for refusing to surrender some art treasures that Antony coveted.
Verres may have had a more decent character than that with which Cicero, the primary source of information, credits him, but there is no evidence to counter the allegation that he stood preeminent among the worst specimens of Roman provincial governors. Of the seven Verrine orations collectively called In Verrem, only two were delivered; the remaining five were compiled from the depositions of witnesses and published after Verres' flight.
It is not known what gens Verres belonged to, though some give him the nomen Licinius.
Popular culture references
Last Seen in Massilia, a novel in the Roma Sub Rosa series by Steven Saylor. Verres is a minor character.
Imperium, the first novel of Robert Harris's trilogy about Cicero. The first half of the book features Cicero's prosecution of Verres.
Spartacus: Swords and Ashes by Jonathan Clements. Verres is a major character in the novel, which is set on the eve of his governorship of Sicily and features an undocumented dispute with a young Cicero in Neapolis.
Fortune's Favourites, a novel in the Masters of Rome series by Colleen McCullough. Verres, while a secondary character, describes his career in detail, from his pillaging of Samnium during the Social War, to his departure to Asia in the retinue of governor Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella – where the author describes his vices and immeasurable greed, foreshadowing his misgovernment of Sicily – and, finally, Cicero's energetic prosecution.
"Song for Cleomenes", a song by The Mountain Goats from their Beautiful Rat Sunset 10" EP, recounts the story of Verres.
See also
Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Creticus#Role_in_Verres's_trial
Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 67 BC)
Heius, a Lilybaean, and a ward of Gaius Claudius Pulcher.
References
Attribution:
External links
University of Missouri-Kansas City (UMKC) School of Law, The Trial of Gaius Verres
120s BC births
43 BC deaths
1st-century BC Romans
Ancient Roman politicians
Roman governors of Sicily
Romans from unknown gentes | [
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237748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manius%20Acilius%20Glabrio%20%28consul%2067%20BC%29 | Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 67 BC) |
Manius Acilius Glabrio was a Roman statesman and general, grandson of the jurist Publius Mucius Scaevola.
When Glabrio was serving as a praetor in 70 BC, he presided over the trial of Verres. In 67 he was consul together with Gaius Calpurnius Piso. The two consuls proposed the Lex Acilia Calpurnia against bribery during canvassing for elections.
In the same year Manius Acilius was appointed to replace Lucius Licinius Lucullus, who was unable to control his soldiers, as proconsul of Cilicia and the command of the Third Mithridatic War against Mithradates VI of Pontus and Tigranes the Great of Armenia. While he was on his way to Pontus Mithridates won back almost all his kingdom and caused havoc in Cappadocia, which was allied with Rome and which had been left undefended. Manius Acilius did not march on Cappadocia nor Pontus but delayed in Bithynia. The 'lex Manilia' proposed by the plebeian tribune Gaius Manilius gave the command of the war to Pompey, who replaced Acilius. Little else is known of Manius Acilius except that he declared in favor of capital punishment for the Catilinarian conspirators.
See also
Acilia gens
Citations
References
Dio Cassius, Roman History, 36.14.4, 17.1, 38–41.2, 43.1
Cicero, Pro lege Manilia, 2. 9;
Appian, The Foreign Wars, the Mithridatic War, 90.
References
1st-century BC Roman consuls
Glabrio, Manius consul 687 AUC
Roman governors of Bithynia and Pontus
Roman Republican praetors | [
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237750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius%20Calpurnius%20Piso%20Caesoninus%20%28consul%2058%20BC%29 | Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 58 BC) | Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (101 BC – c. 43 BC) was a Roman senator and the father-in-law of Julius Caesar through his daughter Calpurnia. He was reportedly a follower of a school of Epicureanism that had been modified to befit politicians, as Epicureanism itself favoured withdrawal from politics. Piso was consul in the year 58 BC with Aulus Gabinius as his colleague.
Biography
Caesar mentions his father-in-law in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Piso's grandfather, also named Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, was killed with Lucius Cassius Longinus in 107 BC by the same Tigurini that Caesar conquered the year of Piso's consulship. As Caesar's father-in-law, when Cicero was faced with exile later that year for having violated the Leges Clodiae by executing members of the Catiline conspiracy without a formal trial, Piso declined to protect Cicero from the threat and consequences of exile, earning the enmity of that orator. In response, Cicero attacked Piso both during and after his subsequent administration of the province of Macedonia, which he administered from 57 BC to the beginning of 55 BC, when he was recalled and replaced by Quintus Ancharius. Piso's recall was perhaps in consequence of the violent attack made upon him by Cicero in the Senate in his speech De provinciis consularibus.
On his return, Piso addressed the Senate in his defence; Cicero replied with the coarse and exaggerated invective, a writing and/or oratory style or genre in classical times, known as In Pisonem. Piso issued a pamphlet by way of rejoinder, and there the matter ended. Cicero may have been afraid to bring the father-in-law of Julius Caesar to trial. At any rate, Piso's repute was solid enough that he was elected, though reluctant, to the office of censor in 50 BC.
At the outbreak of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, Piso offered his services as mediator. However, when Caesar marched upon Rome, Piso left the city by way of protest of Caesar. After the murder of Caesar, Piso insisted on the provisions of Caesar's will being strictly carried out, and the assassinated Dictator was given a public funeral. In the growing tension between Mark Antony and Octavianus, Piso played a role neutral to both parties, yet seeking some form of resolution between the two sides. At the Senate session held that 1 August he offered a proposal to bring harmony between the two, but not one man supported him.
As armed strife between the soldiers of the two sides increased, Piso continued to work for peace. When the Senate opened the year 43 BC with debating over Cicero's motion to declare Antony an enemy of the state, Piso twice intervened over the legality of such an act, arguing for compromise. Still hoping for peace, Piso joined two consular Senators -- Lucius Marcius Philippus and Servius Sulpicius Rufus—in an embassy to Antony at his camp in Mutina later that month. Piso and Philippus returned the following month—Sulpicius had died on the journey—to present terms from Antony that enraged Cicero. Antony's terms were rejected and the Senate declared a state of war. However, events in the further East alarmed the party at Rome, and a second embassy was sent to Antony in March, which included Piso. He is not heard of after this, and Syme concludes from this silence he died not long after.
Patronage
According to Ronald Syme, Piso "united loyalty to Roman standards of conduct to a lively appreciation of the literature and philosophy of Hellas." The author Philodemus was one of those whom he sponsored.
Piso is believed to have been the owner of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum.
Family
According to Asconius, Piso's wife was the daughter of one Rutilius Nudus. In addition to the daughter who married Julius Caesar, Piso also had a son, Lucius Calpurnius Piso, known as "the Pontifex", consul in 15 BC.
Legacy
The maxim fiat justitia ruat caelum ("let justice be done, though the heavens fall"), used by Lord Mansfield in Somerset's Case and in reversing the outlawry of John Wilkes, and in the alternate form fiat iustitia, et pereat mundus by Ferdinand of Habsburg, is sometimes attributed to Piso Caesoninus (more often to Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso), but this is disputed.
References
Sources
Further reading
"Calventius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology 1. p. 584. at Google Books
Pap Levente 2015 Piso the Rambler: Travelling and Tracking in Cicero's Rhetoric Discourse. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 7, 1 (2015) 21−28.
100s BC births
43 BC deaths
1st-century BC Roman consuls
1st-century BC Roman praetors
Caesoninus, Lucius consul 696 AUC
Epicureanism
Roman governors of Macedonia
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
Place of birth unknown
Place of death unknown | [
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237752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20Point%2C%20Ontario | Long Point, Ontario | Long Point is a sand spit and medium-sized hamlet on the north shore of Lake Erie, part of Norfolk County in the province of Ontario, Canada.
It is about long and is about across at its widest point. Lake Erie lies to the south of Long Point, and Long Point Bay lies on the north side comprise. The bay is subdivided into the Inner Bay and Outer Bay by a line that runs between Turkey Point to the north and Pottahawk Point to the south. Some of the towns along the bay's north shore include Port Rowan, Turkey Point and Port Dover. Long Point is north of and across the lake from Presque Isle and Erie, Pennsylvania.
History
Settlers from Europe began arriving in this area in 1790. After the American Revolution, many Loyalists began to settle here but after 1796, land was given to anyone who was capable of developing it. The first lighthouse was built in 1830.
In the 19th century, a powerful storm cut an opening through the middle of Long Point. A lighthouse was built alongside the channel, which was the first of several on the point. The opening became known as "The Old Cut". The cut has since closed along the lakeshore, but boaters continue to use the northern portion to access the bay, homes and cottages.
During the mid-19th century some of local residents saw an opportunity to make easy money by "blackbirding." Blackbirders erected fake lighthouses during times of low visibility. Ships trying to enter the old cut would run aground. When the crew abandoned ship the blackbirders would loot the ship of cargo and other valuables. With law enforcement based in London, Ontario, these blackbirders would store their loot on the many hiding spots that Long Point offered.
Abigail Becker on several occasions in the 19th century waded into stormy waters to save crew members of boats that had run aground. Long Point has caused many shipwrecks, with many of the wrecks located right off the tip of the point. More than 400 ships have sunk in an area called "The Lake Erie Quadrangle".
Sport hunting was important after the Long Point Company purchased the Point in 1866 to facilitate this pursuit. Long Point Provincial Park was created in May 1921; by 1929, it was connected to the mainland by a new causeway.
Economy and recreation
The year-round population of Long Point is about 450 people, but the population increases in summer months when cottagers and campers visit. Long Point is popular destination for boating, swimming, fishing, waterfowl-hunting and canoeing, attracting between 100,000 and 300,000 visitors each year. A large portion of Long Point is owned by the Long Point Company, a private organization that does not allow the public onto its property. Because of this, most homes, cottages and business are within the first few kilometres of the causeway that carries the road between Long Point and the mainland. Long Point Provincial Park, a popular destination for day visitors and campers, is located on the peninsula
Natural environment
Long Point is an example of sand dune and sand-spit formation in the Great Lakes region. It is the largest erosion deposit formation in the Great Lakes, created by water-borne sediments swept eastward and deposited in part along an underwater glacial moraine. Habitats on and surrounding Long Point include woodlands, sand dunes and bluffs, marshes, ponds, meadows, beaches and lakeshore. The complex is the largest biophysical formation of its kind in the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America. North of the peninsula lie several islands, including Ryerson's, Second, and Snow.
In 1982, the Long Point National Wildlife Area was recognized as a wetland of international significance under the Ramsar Convention. In 1986, Long Point Biosphere Reserve was designated as a World Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO and as a globally significant Important Bird Area by Bird Life International. The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources classifies Long Point as a Macrosite, an area that contains numerous ecological or geological significant zones, such as Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest.
Inner Long Point Bay covers approximately between the spit and Lake Erie's north shore. The Inner Bay is a diverse sport fishery and continentally important staging area for migratory waterfowl. Immediately adjacent to the coastal reserve is a distinctive terrestrial area of temperate 'Carolinian' broadleaf forests, conifer plantations, oak savannas and diverse agro-ecosystems.
Wildlife
The region is an important location for bird migration in spring and autumn. It is a major staging area for a variety of waterfowl. "Long Point itself is one of the most important wetland complexes for migrating waterfowl in southern Canada, and is reported to receive the highest waterfowl use (based on numbers of waterfowl days during spring and fall migration) of any area on the Great Lakes (approximately 4 million days per year). Up to 30,000 Tundra Swans pass through the area in spring, and up to 8% of the world's Canvasbacks congregate in the area on any one day during spring and fall," according to a report by the Long Point World Biosphere Reserve.
In 1960, the Long Point Bird Observatory was established to monitor migrant birds on the point. It is North America's oldest bird observatory. As a result of a growing national focus towards saving the birds, the organization was renamed Bird Studies Canada in 1998. Its national headquarters overlooks Long Point Inner Bay on the western limits of Port Rowan, adjacent to base of the peninsula.
The Long Point Biosphere Reserve and surrounding area is home to 1384 species of plant, 370 species of birds, 102 species of fish, 46 species of mammals, 34 species of amphibians and reptiles, and 91 species of butterflies. These include Species at Risk such as American ginseng (Panax quinquefollus), American badger (Taxidea taxus), Acadian flycatcher (Empidonax virescens) and channel darter (Percina copelandi).
Climate
According to the Atlas of Canada, Long point has a cool summer humid continental climate with no dry season (Köppen climate classification Dfb). The climate of Long Point is influenced by Lake Erie, causing spring and summer temperatures to be cooler, and autumn and winter temperatures to be warmer than the adjacent mainland. Winters are relatively cool, with a mean temperature of while summers are warm, averaging . Long Point averages of precipitation per year. It is estimated that Long Point averages 2,000 hours of bright sunshine per year or 45% of possible sunshine.
Gallery
See also
List of shipwrecks
List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in Canada
References
Sources
Lore and Legends of Long Point, Harry B. Barrett, Burns and MacEachearn 1977,
Long Point: Last Port of Call, David Stone, Boston Mills Press, 1988,
Waters Of Repose, Dave Stone and David Frew, Erie County Historical Society 1993,
External links
Long Point Provincial Park
Long Point Provincial Park Campgrounds
The Long Point Bird Observatory
Beaches of Ontario
Communities in Norfolk County, Ontario
Landforms of Norfolk County, Ontario
Lake Erie
Peninsulas of Ontario
Ramsar sites in Ontario
Spits of Canada
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in Canada
Forests of Ontario | [
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237754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius%20Clodius%20Pulcher | Publius Clodius Pulcher | Publius Clodius Pulcher (93–52 BC) was a populist Roman politician and street agitator during the time of the First Triumvirate. One of the most colourful personalities of his era, Clodius was descended from the aristocratic Claudia gens, one of Rome's oldest and noblest patrician families, but he contrived to be adopted by an obscure plebeian, so that he could be elected tribune of the plebs. During his term of office, he pushed through an ambitious legislative program, including a grain dole; but he is chiefly remembered for his scandalous lifestyle, which included violating the sanctity of a religious rite reserved solely for women, purportedly with the intention of seducing Caesar's wife; and for his feud with Cicero and Milo, which ended in Clodius' death at the hands of Milo's bodyguards.
Background
Born Publius Claudius Pulcher in 93 BC, Clodius was the youngest son of Appius Claudius Pulcher, who had been consul in 79 BC. His mother's name is uncertain; she may have been a daughter of Quintus Servilius Caepio, and thus descended from another ancient patrician house; or perhaps the sister of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer, and thus a descendant of the plebeian nobility. Publius' elder brothers were Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 54 BC, and Gaius Claudius Pulcher, praetor in 56 BC, and subsequently governor of Asia. His sisters included Claudia, the wife of Quintus Marcius Rex, Claudia Quadrantaria, the wife of Celer, and Claudia Quinta, the wife of Lucius Licinius Lucullus.
Through his family, Clodius was closely connected with a number of prominent Roman politicians. His brother-in-law, Lucullus, was consul in 74 BC, while Celer was consul in 60, and the latter's brother, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos, in 57. Mucia Tertia, a half-sister to the Caecilii, was the wife of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and later Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, praetor in 56 BC; a half-brother, Publius Mucius Scaevola, was a pontifex, while his brother Quintus was an augur, and tribune of the plebs in 54.
Early career
As a young man in 73 BC, Clodius rashly accused Catiline of adultery with one of the Vestal Virgins, a capital crime. When Catiline was acquitted, Clodius was denounced by Cato, and obliged to leave Rome. He may have gone to the east, where his brother-in-law, Lucullus, was serving as proconsul in the war against Mithridates. He was with Lucullus in 68, at which time Clodius, who felt that he was accorded insufficient respect by his brother-in-law, fomented discord among Lucullus' soldiers. The following year, Clodius deserted Lucullus, and joined his other brother-in-law, Marcius, who was proconsul in Cilicia. Placed in command of part of Marcius' fleet, Clodius was captured by pirates. Hoping to win his release, Clodius promised his captors a substantial reward, and they solicited a ransom from Ptolemy of Cyprus, an ally of the Romans. The amount offered was so paltry that it was clear that Clodius had greatly overestimated his worth, and the amused pirates released him without keeping the money. Ptolemy's conduct in the affair filled Clodius with hatred for the Cypriot ruler. Clodius repaired to Syria, where he nearly lost his life during a mutiny, which he was also accused of instigating.
Rome and Gaul, 66–62 BC
Clodius returned to Rome in 66 BC, at the age of twenty-seven. Almost immediately he found himself in need of protection from his brother-in-law, Lucullus. Not only did the general blame Clodius for the mutiny he had faced in the east, but the young Clodius was accused of carrying on an incestuous affair with his sister, Lucullus' wife. Lucullus divorced Claudia, and Clodius seems to have avoided further difficulty through bribery, and by gaining the trust of Lucius Licinius Murena, a close relative of Lucullus. Murena and Clodius were among those who accepted money from Catiline, who had been charged with extortion for his conduct as governor of Africa, and who secured his acquittal through the payment of large sums of money.
In 64, Murena was appointed governor of Gallia Narbonensis, and Clodius went with him as part of his staff. During his time in Gaul, Clodius enriched himself by various criminal schemes, allegedly including the forging of wills and arranging the deaths of heirs; and he forged a number of useful alliances. Clodius and Murena returned to Rome in 63, in time for Murena to stand for the consulship, in opposition to Catiline. With the support of veterans who had served under Lucullus, as well as that of Cicero, one of the consuls of 63, and probably that of Clodius, Murena was elected, becoming the first of the Murenae to attain the consulship.
Catiline responded to his defeat by conspiring with other disaffected Romans to stage a revolt. The conspirators hoped to slaughter their opponents among the Roman aristocracy, particularly the plebeian nobles and senators, and set up a small, patrician-dominated oligarchy. Although Clodius was a patrician, and it later suited Cicero to portray him as a participant in the conspiracy, he was not involved. Instead, he adhered closely to Murena and the cause of the optimates, who rendered Cicero every assistance. As the drama of the detection and arrest of the conspirators unfolded, Clodius appears to have joined the many other equestrian and noble youths, who formed an informal, but potent and intimidating bodyguard around Cicero.
About this time, a rift developed between the factions when one of Clodius' sisters—presumably Claudia Quinta, whom Lucullus had divorced—tried to persuade Cicero to divorce Terentia and marry her. Her scheme backfired, as Cicero remained loyal to his wife, while Terentia was infuriated with Claudia and her family.
Bona Dea scandal
In December of 62 BC, the rites of the Bona Dea were held at the Regia, the official residence of the Pontifex Maximus, Rome's chief priest. Caesar had been elected Pontifex Maximus the previous year, during the same contest that birthed the conspiracy of Catiline. The celebration was a sacred mystery, from which all men were excluded; not even the Pontifex Maximus could be in attendance. The rites were hosted by Caesar's wife, Pompeia, and mother, Aurelia, under the supervision of the Vestals. Clodius managed to gain entry to the rites, disguised as a woman, apparently with the intention of seducing Pompeia, but was discovered in the course of the evening. Clodius' mere presence at the rites was sacrilegious, but profaning the ceremonies in order to seduce the wife of the Pontifex Maximus was regarded as an even greater offense to the goddess.
The ensuing trial brought all of Rome to a standstill. Lucullus was determined to destroy his brother-in-law's political career, thereby repaying Clodius for instigating a mutiny among his soldiers, and destroying Lucullus' marriage; he charged Clodius with incestum, a capital crime. The prosecution was undertaken by three of the Cornelii Lentuli, probably headed by Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus. Clodius' chief advocate was Gaius Scribonius Curio, a noted orator who had been consul in 75 BC. The trial dragged on for months, during which time Pompeius returned from the east, and public business was suspended. The witnesses against Clodius included Aurelia and one of her daughters, as well as various household slaves, who claimed that Clodius had committed incest with his sister, Clodia, the wife of Lucullus. Caesar, despite the insult to his office and his honour, claimed no knowledge of the events, but he divorced his wife—not, he explained, because he believed that she would have yielded to Clodius' advances, but because no scandal could be tolerated in the household of the Pontifex Maximus; as expressed by Plutarch, "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion."
Clodius perjured himself by claiming not to have been in Rome on the day of the rites. Cicero was in a position to refute this fictitious alibi, but was reluctant to do so, knowing the profound impact that Clodius' conviction or acquittal might have on Roman society. His hand was eventually forced by national and domestic politics: Cicero was eager to forge a détente between Pompeius and Lucullus, who were at loggerheads over the settlement of the eastern provinces. Giving evidence against Clodius gave him the opportunity to do Lucullus a favour. At home, Cicero's wife Terentia, still smarting at the attempted seduction of her husband by Claudia, insisted that he testify against her rival's brother. But in spite of Cicero's evidence, and that of the other witnesses, the outcome of the trial was decided by Marcus Licinius Crassus, who bribed the jurors en masse to secure Clodius' acquittal.
The trial helped Clodius forge alliances with his benefactors, and deepened his hostility toward his rivals. He regarded Crassus as his chief patron, and was grateful to Caesar for disclaiming any direct knowledge of the events. He sought no retribution against those who had led his prosecution, apparently considering it fair repayment for the wrongs he had done them. However, he was greatly affronted by Cicero, who had attempted to bring about his downfall by testifying against him, and he regarded the antipathy shown toward him by Pompeius as a betrayal. When Clodius had stirred disaffection amongst Lucullus' troops in the east, it had been to Pompeius' advantage, and the latter's rivalry with both Lucullus and Cicero would seem to have made him Clodius' natural ally; yet Pompeius had not lifted a finger to help him during the trial.
Family
About 62 BC, Clodius married Fulvia (c. 83 – 40 BC), heiress of the Sempronii Tuditani, a noble family of Tusculum. She may not have been his first wife; Cicero refers to a certain Lucius Natta as Clodius' brother-in-law, although it is not entirely clear who he was, or how the two men were brothers-in-law. Clodius and Fulvia had at least two children who survived to adulthood: a son, Publius Claudius Pulcher, who eventually became praetor; and a daughter, Claudia, who would become the first wife of Augustus.
Adoption
On his return from Sicily, where he had been quaestor between 61 BC and 60 BC, Clodius sought election as tribune of the plebs, with the intention of revenging himself on his bitter enemy, Cicero. However, patricians were deliberately excluded from this office, and Clodius was a member of Rome's most aristocratic patrician families. To achieve his goal, Clodius contrived to be adopted into a plebeian gens, and renounced his status as a patrician. Although the adoption of a member of one gens into another was perfectly legal, and a venerable practice in Roman society, the adoption arranged by Clodius was highly irregular, and violated all of the usual conditions and legal requirements of the process. Normally, adoption was permitted only to men who were at least middle-aged, and who did not expect to father sons to carry on their legacy. In taking the place of a man's natural children, an adopted son would normally assume his new father's name, so that when he came of age he could pass it on to his own children.
Clodius, who was thirty-four years old in 59, and had probably been married for three years, was adopted by one Publius Fonteius, a member of a minor plebeian family, who was younger than Clodius himself, and who might well have expected to marry and father children of his own. Once the adoption was ratified and Clodius had renounced his patrician status, he discarded his adoptive father's name, instead affecting the spelling Clodius, which was associated with the plebeians. His sister, Clodia, did the same. Notably Clodius' children would return to the "patrician" spelling of their nomen. Clodius' unorthodox adoption was possible in part due to the fact that he had the support of Caesar, one of the consuls of that year. His scheme was successful, and Clodius was elected tribune of the plebs, taking office on November 16. He immediately began preparing for the destruction of Cicero, at the same time undertaking an extensive program of populist legislation, intended to position himself as benefactor to as much of the community as possible.
Tribunate
Clodius took up his tribunate in December of 59 BC. He won over the common people by pushing through several crowd-pleasing bills, which became known as the Leges Clodiae. The most striking was a free monthly corn dole, issued to all citizens; this replaced the subsidised grain supplies made available to poor citizens, set up by Cato during his tribunate in 63. Clodius also passed a number of measures curtailing the powers of various magistrates. Among these was the right of magistrates to prevent the assembly of the comitia, Rome's citizen assemblies, by taking the omens and declaring them to be unfavourable. This right, originally reserved for the augurs, had been conferred on the magistrates by the Lex Aelia et Fufia, around 150 BC. While it could not prevent the comitia from meeting indefinitely, it could bring proceedings to a halt on any given day, forestalling or preventing the passage of various measures. Clodius' measure abrogated the Lex Aelia, thereby preventing the magistrates from using this means of delaying or preventing the assemblies from acting. Another measure forbade the censors from excluding any citizen from the senate, or inflicting any punishment upon a citizen unless he had been publicly tried and convicted. Until this legislation, the power to enroll new members or expel them from the senate, to degrade the status of citizens or issue other punishments, had made the censorship potentially the most powerful magistracy.
Exile of Cicero
Ostensibly related to this curtailment of magisterial power, Clodius also introduced a law that threatened exile to any public official who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. This measure was squarely aimed at Cicero, who as consul in 63 had suppressed Catiline's conspiracy, and ordered the execution of its leading members before they could stand trial. Cicero argued that the senatus consultum ultimum empowering him to deal with the conspiracy indemnified him from punishment, and he sought the support of various senators and the consuls, especially Pompeius, to avoid the consequences of Clodius' legislation. In the spring of 58 BC, when it had become clear that help was not forthcoming, Cicero went into exile in Greece, arriving at Thessalonica on May 29. On the very day that Cicero departed Italy, Clodius proposed another law which forbade Cicero from approaching within of Italy, and confiscated his property. The bill was passed, and Cicero's house on the Palatine Hill was destroyed by Clodius' supporters, as were his villas in Tusculum and . Clodius ordered the confiscation and auction of Cicero's property in Rome, and had a temple dedicated to Libertas built on the site of his rival's house, so that if Cicero ever returned from exile, he could not reclaim the site. To his disappointment, Clodius was unable to find buyers for Cicero's other property.
Having observed that violence and physical force had become a viable means of achieving dominance in Roman politics, Clodius devised an ingenious plan for acquiring the support of various collegia, consisting of local trade associations, social and political clubs, which he intended to use as private gangs. He restored the Compitalia, a religious festival for which these collegia had traditionally organized street parties. These associations had been banned by the senate in the preceding decade, and by legalizing them again Clodius obtained the loyalty of their members. Clodius thus acquired a private force of thugs that he used to control the streets of Rome, and drive off the supporters of his political opponents. These gangs attacked any politician who dared confront their patron, employing various forms of harassment, including accosting and beating in the streets, loud booing, showering their targets with filth at the games, besieging their houses by throwing rocks and other weapons, or even attempting to burn them. Thus, opposition to Clodius was muted, and he became the "king of the Roman streets".
Relations with the triumvirs
With Cicero out of the way, and the backing of ordinary Romans, Clodius had rapidly become a formidable power in Roman politics. However, his dominance was not unchecked. Pompeius, Crassus, and Caesar had formed a political alliance that would become known as the First Triumvirate. All three had been consul; Pompeius and Caesar were formidable military leaders, while Crassus was perhaps the wealthiest man in Rome. Although he received little notice from Pompeius, Clodius had benefitted directly from Crassus' support, which had helped him escape punishment in the Bona Dea scandal, and for Caesar's forebearance on the same occasion, although Clodius had done him a substantial injury. Thus, it lay in Clodius' interest to comply with the wishes of the triumvirate. At the beginning of his tribunate, Clodius had vetoed a speech of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, in a gesture of support for Caesar, who was departing the consulship.
Clodius soon found an opportunity to act more decisively in favour of the triumvirate, and in the process gain a measure of personal revenge, when he passed a bill terminating the kingship of Ptolemy of Cyprus, and annexing the island to the Roman Republic. Clodius had never forgiven Ptolemy for the insult to his dignity, when he had been held captive by pirates a decade earlier, and Ptolemy had offered an insignificant ransom for his release. The members of the triumvirate suggested that Cato the Younger be appointed propraetor to take possession of the island and its royal treasures, and to preside over the administrative incorporation of Cyprus into the Roman province of Cilicia. Clodius readily agreed, as the appointment worked in his interests, as well as those of the triumvirate. Cato was a potential opponent for both Clodius and the triumvirs, and his duties would keep him from Rome for more than two years. At the same time, the prestige and opportunity afforded Cato by the appointment rendered him amenable to Clodius' actions, and led Cato, a skilled orator, to oppose Clodius' rivals when they attacked his legitimacy.
However, Clodius' relationship with the triumvirate deteriorated when Pompeius criticised his policies, and suggested the possibility of recalling Cicero from exile. Infuriated, Clodius began to harass Pompeius, reputedly with the secret approval of Crassus. When the general began to discuss the possibility of recalling Cicero with another of the tribunes, Clodius organised an attempt to assassinate him. In August of 58 BC, Clodius' gangs set up a blockade of Pompeius' house, forcing him to stay at home until the end of the year. Frustrated by his failure to eliminate one opponent, Clodius turned against Caesar by declaring illegal his consular legislation of the previous year. However, this act set the recall of Cicero in motion. When Clodius vetoed a bill for his rival's recall, which was supported by eight other tribunes, Caesar agreed to support the bill if it were renewed after Clodius' term of office expired in December. In January of 57, one of the new tribunes tried to pass the bill, but his attempt was thwarted by violent acts on the part of Clodius' gangs. Pompeius chose to fight fire with fire, and gave his approval for the tribunes Titus Annius Milo and Publius Sestius to raise their own forces in order to oppose Clodius' thugs. These new gangs were trained and led by experienced gladiators. Street fighting continued through the first half of the year, but Clodius' attempt to prevent Cicero's recall eventually failed.
When the orator returned from exile, workmen were assigned to rebuild his house at public cost. Clodius had the builders attacked, assaulted Cicero in the street, and set fire to the house of his brother, Quintus. The following year, 56 BC, Clodius was serving as curule aedile, and charged Milo, a close friend of Cicero, with vi, or public violence, for defending his house against Clodius' thugs, and with keeping armed bands in his service, while a private citizen. Attempts to bring Milo to trial were repeatedly hindered by street violence, and at last Clodius dropped the matter.
Death
In the elections of 53 BC, when Milo was a candidate for the consulship and Clodius for the praetorship, violent clashes erupted in the streets of Rome between the gangs of Clodius and Milo, twice delaying the election.
On January 18, 52 BC, Clodius was returning to Rome by way of the Appian Way from a visit to Aricia, some 16 miles (25 km) south-east of Rome. Clodius was travelling lightly with a band of 30 armed slaves and, uncommonly for him, without his wife. By chance, Milo was travelling the other way with his wife as well as an escort which included gladiators, and the two groups passed each other near Bovillae, 11 miles from Rome. The encounter between the two groups passed without incident until the last pair at the back of each train began a scuffle. It was then believed that Clodius turned back and was wounded by a javelin thrown by one of the gladiators in Milo's party. He was brought to a nearby inn for his wounds, and his slaves were killed or driven off.
Milo made the decision that a live political enemy was more dangerous than a dead one and ordered his gladiators to kill the injured Clodius. The body was discovered by a passing senator and sent back to Rome. There, Clodius' wife and two tribunes rallied his supporters to use the Curia as Clodius' funeral pyre, which resulted in the destruction of the Curia Hostilia. That action and the need to restore order in Rome are cited as the key reasons for the Senate's appointment of Pompey as sole consul.
The later trial of Milo would become famous for Cicero's defense of the accused Milo with his famous speech, Pro Milone, which ultimately failed to save Milo from exile, since the interruptions and catcalls from Clodius's supporters made it difficult for him to be heard. Additionally, in the presence of the soldiers, the jurors were pressured to decide according to Pompey's wishes.
Legacy
After Clodius' death, Fulvia married first Gaius Scribonius Curio, tribune of the plebs in 50 BC; and subsequently Marcus Antonius, the triumvir; both marriages produced children.
Clodius' son, Publius Claudius Pulcher, was probably born between 62 and 59 BC. He achieved little in public life: Valerius Maximus describes him as a lethargic nonentity, who rose to the praetorship only through the influence of the second triumvirate, and died amid scandals of luxurious excess and an obsessive attachment to a common prostitute, probably after 31 BC. An inscription of ownership on an expensive Egyptian alabaster vase once owned by Clodius' son has survived to attest his short official career. It includes an unusual triple filiation, which confirms the literary evidence to the effect that Clodius was the son of Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 79 BC, and grandson of Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 143 BC.
Clodius' daughter, Claudia, was probably born between 57 and 55 BC. About 43 or 42, while still quite young, she was married to the young Octavian. This was a political marriage, arranged in order to reconcile Octavian to Claudia's stepfather, Marcus Antonius, as the two men and their followers contended with several other factions for the control of the Roman state. However, in 41 BC, Claudia's mother, Fulvia, joined her brother-in-law, the consul Lucius Antonius, in raising eight legions against Octavian, in what became known as the Perusine War. The resulting enmity between the triumvirs gave Octavian an excuse to divorce Claudia in 40 BC. She was still living in 36 BC, but her subsequent fate is unknown.
Sex and politics in the late Republic
"If the Republic must be destroyed by someone", Cicero fulminates against Clodius in mock resignation, "let it at least be destroyed by a real man" (Latin vir). Clodius' transvestitism in the Bona Dea incident was to supply Cicero with invective ammunition for years. Like other popularist politicians of his time, as embodied by Caesar and Marcus Antonius, Clodius was accused of exerting a sexual magnetism that was attractive to both women and men and enhanced his political charisma: "The sexual power of Clodius, his suspected ability to win the wife of Caesar, might be read as indicating the potency of his political influence".
Eleanor Winsor Leach claimed, in her Lacanian analysis "Gendering Clodius", that the frequency and intensity of Cicero's word plays on the cognomen Pulcher ("handsome, lovely") show a certain fascination that masqueraded under rebuke. Leach calls Cicero's description of Clodius' attire when he intruded on the rites amounts to a verbal striptease, as the privative Latin preposition a ("from") deprives the future tribune of his garments and props one by one:
Publius Clodius, out from his saffron dress, from his headdress, from his Cinderella slippers and his purple ribbons, from his breast band, from his dereliction, from his lust, is suddenly rendered a democrat.
Cicero's accusations of sexual profligacy against Clodius, including the attempt to seduce Caesar's wife into adultery and his incestuous relations with his sisters fail to enlarge in scope over time, as Clodius' marriage to the formidable Fulvia appears to have been an enduring model of fidelity until death cut it short. At the same time, even devotion to one's wife could be construed by the upholders of traditional values as undermining one's manhood since it implied dependence on a woman.
Stemma
In fiction
Clodius plays a minor role in The Ides of March, a 1948 epistolary novel by Thornton Wilder dealing with characters and events leading to, and culminating in the assassination of Julius Caesar. Clodius' possible involvement with Caesar's second wife Pompeia and his attempt to attend the secret rites of the Bona Dea are mentioned.
Clodius is a key player in Colleen McCullough's Masters of Rome series books Caesar's Women and Caesar. His entire exploits from his time in the East to his death in 52 BC are chronicled as a subplot to the greater story.
Clodius makes several appearances in Roma Sub Rosa, a series of novels by the American author Steven Saylor. A Murder on the Appian Way tells the story of his death.
Clodius also plays a central role in Robert Harris's novels Lustrum (published as Conspirata in the USA) and Dictator, the sequels to Imperium, which chronicle the career of Marcus Tullius Cicero.
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Ancient sources
Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Domo Sua, De Haruspicum Responsis, De Provinciis Consularibus, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, Epistulae ad Familiares, In Pisonem, Pro Caelio, Pro Milone, Pro Sestio.
Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarii, Caesar Giarratano, ed., Rome (1920), reprinted by Adolf M. Hakkert, Amsterdam (1967).
Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (Plutarch), Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans.
Cassius Dio, Roman History.
Modern works
I. Gentile, Clodio e Cicerone, Milan (1876).
E.S. Beesley, "Cicero and Clodius," in Fortnightly Review, v.; G. Lacour-Gayet, De P. Clodio Pulchro, Paris (1888), and in Revue historique (Sept. 1889).
Gaston Boissier, Cicero and his Friends, (1897).
H. White, Cicero, Clodius and Milo (New York, (1900).
Thomas Stangl, Ciceronis Orationum Scholiastae: Asconius. Scholia Bobiensia. Scholia Pseudoasconii Sangallensia. Scholia Cluniacensia et recentiora Ambrosiana ac Vaticana. Scholia Lugdunensia sive Gronoviana et eorum excerpta Lugdunensia (The Scoliasts on the Orations of Cicero) Vienna (1912), reprinted by Georg Olms, Hildesheim (1964).
Andrew Lintott, "P. Clodius Pulcher – Felix Catilina?", in Greece & Rome, n.s. 14, pp. 157–169 (1967); Violence in Republican Rome, Oxford University Press, (1968).
Philippe Moreau, Clodiana religio. Un procès politique en 61 av. J.-C., Les Belles Lettres, Paris (1982),
W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: P. Clodius Pulcher: Studies in the History of Greece and Rome, University of North Carolina Press (1999),
Wilfried Nippel, Publius Clodius Pulcher – "der Achill der Straße", in Von Romulus zu Augustus. Große Gestalten der römischen Republik, Karl-Joachim and Elke Stein-Hölkeskamp, eds., Beck, Munich, pp. 279–291 (2000),
Stanisław Stabryła, "P. Clodius Pulcher: a Politician or a Terrorist," in Violence and Aggression in the Ancient World, Jerzy Styka, ed., Kraków, Ksiegarnia Akademicka (2006, Classica Cracoviensia, No. 10).
L. Fezzi, Il tribuno Clodio, Laterza, Rome-Bari (2008),
Richard Billows, Julius Caesar: The Colossus of Rome, Routledge (2009),
External links
93 BC births
52 BC deaths
1st-century BC Romans
Ancient Roman murder victims
Publius
Pulcher, Publius
Curule aediles
Husbands of Fulvia
Populares
Senators of the Roman Republic
Tribunes of the plebs | [
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237757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20American%20Soccer%20League%20%281968%E2%80%931984%29 | North American Soccer League (1968–1984) | The North American Soccer League (NASL) was the top-level major professional soccer league in the United States and Canada that operated from 1968 to 1984. It was the first soccer league to be successful on a national scale in the United States. The league final was called the Soccer Bowl from 1975 to 1983 and the Soccer Bowl Series in its final year, 1984. The league was headed by Commissioner Phil Woosnam from 1969 to 1983.
The league's popularity peaked in the late 1970s. The league averaged over 13,000 fans per game in each season from 1977 to 1983, and the league's matches were broadcast on network television from 1975 to 1980.
The league's most prominent team was the New York Cosmos. During the mid-to-late 1970s, the Cosmos signed a number of the world's best players —Pelé, Franz Beckenbauer, Carlos Alberto— and the Cosmos averaged over 28,000 fans for each season from 1977 to 1982 while having three seasons of the average attendance topping 40,000 spectators per game. Other internationally well-known players in the league included Giorgio Chinaglia, Johan Cruyff, Johan Neeskens, Gerd Müller, and George Best.
The league additionally sanctioned indoor soccer in various tournament forms in 1971, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1979 and 1983, and in a season format in 1979–80, 1980–81, 1981–82 and 1983–84.
History
Founding
The surprisingly large North American TV audience of over 1 million for the 1966 FIFA World Cup and the resulting documentary film, Goal!, led American sports investors to believe there was an untapped market for the sport in the U.S. and Canada. In 1967, two professional soccer leagues started in the United States: the FIFA-sanctioned United Soccer Association (USA), which consisted of entire European and South American teams brought to the U.S. and given local names, and the unsanctioned "outlaw" National Professional Soccer League (NPSL).
While the USA had FIFA sanction, the foreign teams which were rebranded as American for the summer 1967 season viewed the league as little more than a training exercise for their off-season, and most did not field their best players. The NPSL had a two-year national television contract in the U.S. with the CBS television network. Officials were instructed to whistle fouls and delay play to allow CBS to insert commercials. The ratings for matches were unacceptable even by weekend daytime standards and the arrangement with CBS was soon terminated. Bill MacPhail, head of CBS Sports, attributed NPSL's lack of TV appeal to empty stadiums with few fans, and to undistinguished foreign players who were unfamiliar to American soccer fans.
The two leagues merged on December 7, 1967, to form the North American Soccer League (NASL). NASL began the 1968 season with 17 of the 22 teams that had participated during the 1967 season, folding five redundant teams in cities where both USA and NPSL had operated. The teams relied mostly on foreign talent, including the Brazilian Vavá, one of the leading scorers of the 1958 and 1962 World Cups. International friendlies included victories against Pelé's Santos and against English champions Manchester City.
Though the league had a few successes, the league had significant problems gaining acceptance in the American sports community. The 17 teams included only 30 North American players. The expenses of high salaries for foreign players and renting of large stadiums, coupled with low attendances, resulted in every team losing money in 1968, and investors quickly pulled the plug after their year's commitment ended. At the end of the year, CBS pulled its TV contract, and all but five of the teams folded. The league moved its offices to a basement of Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium, and at the end of the sixteen-game 1969 season, the league declared Kansas City the league champions on the basis of most points in the round-robin, and the Baltimore Bays announced they would fold. It appeared top-tier professional soccer would not survive in North America.
Desperate to keep the league afloat, the league approached two American Soccer League teams, the Rochester Lancers and the Washington Darts about transferring to the NASL. Despite coming from the ASL (which had a nearly 40-year history as a semi-pro league), the two teams were immediately the most successful, and won their respective divisions. Rochester beat Washington in a two-game final, and the league survived.
In 1971, NASL added three teams—the New York Cosmos, Montreal Olympique, and the Toronto Metros—each of which paid a $25,000 expansion fee. The Dallas Tornado won the title after a number of multiple overtime playoff games, including a 173-minute marathon against Rochester.
Realizing it needed to sell to North Americans the sport of soccer, which was still foreign to most people, the NASL modified its game rules in an attempt to make its product more exciting, and comprehensible, to the average sports fan. These changes included the following:
Utilizing a clock that counted game time down to zero, as was typical of other timed American sports, rather than the traditional upwards direction to 90 minutes.
The introduction during the 1972 season of a line from the goal to determine offside calls, rather than the usual midfield line. Meant to increase scoring opportunities and reduce the frequency of defenses trapping an attacking player into an offside position, this rule allowed the attacker to no longer be offside unless he had crossed that 35-yard line. Though it was ridiculed outside the NASL, the experiment did have FIFA's blessing until 1982.
The implementation in 1974 of a penalty shootout to decide matches that ended in a draw. By the 1977 season the shootout was modified to somewhat resemble, in spirit anyway, a penalty shot in ice hockey. The attacking player would start at the 35-yard line and attempt his shot within five seconds, but he could make as many breakaway moves as he could; likewise, the goalkeeper could take on the attacker without restriction. The format was best-of-5-kicks, with each team attempting extra rounds if the score was still tied after five rounds.
The carryover of the NPSL's 1967 points system, in which teams were awarded six points for a regulation (and later extra time) win, and initially three points for a draw. When the penalty shootout eliminated tie games in 1974, the winning team was awarded three points for a win rather than six; this was later reduced to one point in 1975–1976, raised to the traditional six points from 1977 to 1980, and reduced again to four points from 1981 to 1984.
The most notable variation on the points system that was also carried over from the NPSL was awarding a team a bonus point for each goal (up to a three-goal maximum) they scored in the game, regardless of its outcome. On five occasions this nontraditional system gave the regular season title to a team other than the one with the best record; this most notably occurred in 1983, when the Cosmos, buoyed by their league-leading 87 goals, were awarded the regular season title despite having two fewer wins than the Vancouver Whitecaps.
Interest begins to grow
The NASL of the early 1970s was, to a large extent, a semi-pro league, with many of the players holding other jobs.
On September 3, 1973, Sports Illustrated featured a soccer player on its cover for the first time – Philadelphia Atoms goalkeeper Bob Rigby. SI profiled the Philadelphia Atoms victory in the NASL championship, the first time an American expansion sports team won a title in its first season. Philadelphia averaged 11,500 fans in 1973, the first time since 1967 that any North American professional soccer team had averaged over 10,000 fans. The cover title declared "Soccer Goes American", as Philadelphia had started six Americans in the championship match. Despite the "Soccer Goes American" title, however, in no season after 1974 did any American player win the MVP award or finish as league top scorer, as the mid-1970s saw an influx of foreign talent.
SI predicted continued success for the Philadelphia Atoms, but the Atoms dissolved in 1976.
NASL's average attendance had grown steadily from a low of 2,930 in 1969 to 7,770 in 1974, and by 1974 four teams were averaging over 10,000 attendance. The 1974 NASL Championship game between the Los Angeles Aztecs and the Miami Toros was televised live on CBS, the first national broadcast of a pro soccer match in the United States since 1968.
The 1974 and 1975 seasons saw rapid expansion for NASL. In 1974, eight new teams paid the $75,000 franchise fee and joined the league, although two existing teams folded. The 1974 expansion saw teams on the west coast, giving NASL a national presence for the first time. The west coast expansion was a success, with three of the teams – San Jose, Seattle and Vancouver – averaging over 10,000 fans in 1974. In 1975, five more franchises were added. Two of these five additions – Chicago and Hartford – were in cities that had successful franchises in the Division II American Soccer League, which at the time saw itself as a potential challenger to NASL as the U.S.'s top professional soccer league. The expansions of 1974 and 1975 meant that NASL had grown from 9 teams in 1973 to 20 teams by 1975.
The 1975 season saw the signing of internationally known players, including Portuguese star Eusébio (who Rhode Island of the Division II ASL had tried to sign), and former England goalkeeper Peter Bonetti.
Pelé and the New York Cosmos
In 1975, the New York Cosmos created a media sensation and overnight transformed the fortunes of soccer in the United States by signing Pelé. From the moment he signed his contract at the 21 Club on June 10, 1975, in front of a crush of ecstatic worldwide media, Pelé's every move was followed, bringing attention and credibility to soccer in America. The Cosmos' home attendance tripled in just half the season Pelé was there, and on the road the Cosmos also played in front of huge crowds that came to watch Pelé play.
Pelé's arrival resulted in greater TV exposure for the Cosmos and for the league overall. Ten million people tuned in to watch CBS' live broadcast of Pelé's debut match—a record American TV audience for soccer—with the Cosmos on June 15, 1975, against the Dallas Tornado at Downing Stadium in New York. CBS also televised another Cosmos match plus the 1975 Soccer Bowl championship match, and in 1976 ABC signed a contract to broadcast matches during the 1976 season. By 1976, NASL was being picked up by the mainstream media, with the sports pages of newspapers covering the league. The NASL was shown on the TVS network (a syndicated television service) during 1977 and 1978, although some games were tape delayed or not carried in certain markets.
The biggest club in the league and the organization's bellwether was the Cosmos, who drew upwards of 40,000 fans per game at their height, during the period that older soccer superstars, like Pelé of Brazil and Franz Beckenbauer of Germany, played for the club. Although both well past their prime by this stage of their careers, the two were considered to have previously been the best attacking (offensive) (Pelé) and defensive (Beckenbauer) players in the world.
Giants Stadium sold out (73,000+) their 1978 championship win. However, the overall average attendance of the entire league never reached 15,000, with some clubs averaging less than 5,000.
Expansion and star players
The Los Angeles Aztecs signed Manchester United star George Best in 1976. NASL had been trying to persuade Best to come to America and place him in a major media market, but once the New York Cosmos had signed Pelé, Los Angeles was the logical placement for Best. Best was traded to Fort Lauderdale in 1978, and in 1979 Los Angeles signed its next big star, Johan Cruyff. Cruyff was an instant success, doubling the team's attendance, and winning the league's MVP award.
LA also brought in a new head coach from 1979 to 1980, Rinus Michels, who had coached Ajax Amsterdam, Barcelona, and the Dutch national team, the man credited with the invention of the Dutch playing style of "Total Football" in the 1970s.
The Minnesota Kicks were established in 1976 and quickly became one of the league's more popular teams, drawing an average attendance of 23,120 fans per game in 1976 to the Metropolitan Stadium in a Minneapolis-Saint Paul suburb. The Kicks won their division four years in a row from 1976 to 1979, drawing over 23,000 fans in each of those four seasons (peaking at 32,775 in 1977).
After LA, Cruyff then moved on to the Washington Diplomats. The Washington Diplomats had been purchased by Madison Square Garden Corp. and its chairman Sonny Werblin in October 1978. Cruyff's presence was a huge boost, as was Wim Jansen, a midfielder who had played for the Netherlands at the 1974 and 1978 World Cups. For the 1980 season, the Diplomats attendance was 19,205 spectators per match.
Despite NASL's apparent success, of NASL's 18 teams in 1977, six were considered franchises that needed to be relocated, bought out, or folded. A planning committee of owners issued a report recommending that NASL strengthen its existing teams, and limit expansion to two franchises for 1978, with one additional franchise per year for the following years. Despite this recommendation, NASL brought in six new teams at $3 million per team, raising the league's teams from 18 to 24 for the 1978 season.
San Diego Sockers President Jack Daley later described NASL's boom years of the late 1970s: "It became fashionable to chase the Cosmos. Everyone had to have a Pelé. Coaches went around the world on talent searches, forcing the prices up."
The Portland Timbers tripled their team payroll from 1979 to 1980 in an effort to keep up with the league average.
The league began a college draft in 1972 in an attempt to increase the number of U.S.- and Canadian-born players in the league. The foreign image of soccer was not helped, however, by a league that brought in many older, high-profile foreign players, and frequently left Americans on the bench. This effort was often doubly futile, as while many of the foreign players were perhaps "big names" in their home countries, almost none of them qualified as such in North America, and they quickly absorbed most of the available payroll, such as it was, which could have otherwise been used to pay North American players better. After the 1977 season, the team owners voted to mandate an increase in the number of North American players by limiting the number of non-North American players a team was permitted to have on the field at one time and reducing the total of non-citizen on a club's rosters to a total of 11 by 1984. As of 1979, NASL rules required that each squad start two U.S. or Canadian players—often a goalkeeper and an outside defender—and that each 17-man roster carry six native players. The U.S. had lacked sufficient quality youth soccer programs in the 1950s, resulting in the dearth of U.S.-born talent in NASL in the 1970s. NASL suffered a minor blow with a players strike at the start of the 1979 season, but the strike was honored by only one third of the players and lasted only five days.
In 1980, the minimum number of U.S. and Canadian starters was raised to three. The 1980 season was referred to as "the year of the North American player" with a renewed emphasis on "native players." With the increased requirements for teams to field U.S. and Canadian players, demand for quality native players boomed, with Jim McAlister setting a transfer record for an American player at $200,000.
With the end of the 1970s, NASL seemed poised for moderate success. The 1979 season had seen attendance increase by 8%. ABC televised several matches during the 1979 and 1980 seasons. An apparent era of stability seemed to have arrived, with the 1980 season expecting no planned expansion, relocations or failed teams among its 24 franchises, and with most rosters remaining relatively stable.
FIFA disputes
The NASL was often in dispute with FIFA due to its rules changes. In April 1978, FIFA threatened the United States Soccer Federation with banning NASL players from playing international games, due to the unsanctioned soccer rule changes by the NASL.
Financial problems and contraction
At the close of the 1980 season, NASL's woes were beginning to mount, as NASL was feeling the effects of over-expansion, the economic recession, and disputes with the players union. In the early 1980s the U.S. economy went into the doldrums, with unemployment reaching 10.8% in 1982, its highest level since World War II. NASL's owners, who were losing money, were not immune from the broader economy.
Perhaps most troubling of all, NASL owners were spending sums on player salaries that could not be covered by league revenue. Whereas NFL owners in 1980 were spending on average 40% of the team's budget on player salaries, NASL owners were averaging over 70% of their budget on player salaries. The Cosmos in particular, owned by Warner Communications, were spending lavish sums on player salaries, and while other teams—such as Los Angeles, Jacksonville, Portland, Toronto, and Montreal—that were owned by major corporations could keep up with the Cosmos, owners without deep pockets could not keep pace with the spending levels. Owners spent millions on aging stars to try to match the success of the Cosmos, and lost significant amounts of money in doing so.
Another headache for NASL was competition from the resurgent Major Indoor Soccer League. The MISL began during the 1978–79 season, grew quickly, and by the early 1980s MISL was averaging over 8,000 fans per game. MISL's growth meant that throughout the early 1980s the NASL and the MISL engaged in a bidding war for U.S. based soccer players, putting further pressure on league salaries and heightening NASL's financial problems. In an effort to vie for MISL's expanding audiences, the NASL operated an indoor soccer league from 1979–80 to 1981–82 and in 1983–84.
As a result, the league ran a collective deficit in 1980 of about $30 million, with each team losing money. The San Diego Sockers lost $10 million from 1978 to 1983, and Tulsa lost $8 million from 1980 to 1983. The Washington Diplomats folded in November 1980, after owners MSG Corp. lost a rumored $5 million on the team in 1979 and 1980.
NASL had also decided to sell TV advertising locally, instead of recruiting national sponsors. During the 1980 offseason, the NASL Players' Association was in dispute with the league over projected payments for the indoor season, causing the players to file a lawsuit against the league.
The 1981 season was even worse for the league, with the league's 24 teams again running a collective deficit of $30 million and every team losing money. Ted Turner's Atlanta Chiefs lost $7 million, the Minnesota Kicks lost $2.5 million, the Calgary Boomers lost over $2 million, and Lamar Hunt's Dallas Tornado had lost $1 million annually.
At the close of the 1981 season five teams folded, with another two teams—the L.A. Aztecs and Minnesota Kicks—later folding during the 1981-82 offseason after failing to find buyers. NASL shrank from 21 teams to 14.
Many of these new owners were not soccer savvy, and once the perceived popularity started to decline, they got out as quickly as they got in.
Over-expansion without sufficient vetting of ownership groups was a huge factor in the death of the league. Once the league started growing, new franchises were awarded quickly, and it doubled in size in a few years, peaking at 24 teams. Many have suggested that cash-starved existing owners longed for their share of the expansion fee charged of new owners, even though Forbes Magazine reported this amount as being only $100,000.
Decline and demise
With the league declining rapidly in the early 1980s and losing many franchises, the NASL made several changes in an attempt to keep going. Phil Woosnam, who had served as NASL Commissioner since 1969 and had been a strong proponent of expansion during the 1970s, was removed by the league's 14 owners in April 1982 by a reported 11–3 vote. NASL tried to help bring the 1986 World Cup to the United States after Colombia withdrew from its commitment to host, but FIFA decided in 1983 to award the hosting of the 1986 FIFA World Cup to Mexico, rather than the U.S. In early 1984, NASL reached a collective bargaining agreement with the NASL Players Association that included a $825,000 salary cap to be achieved by annual 10% reductions, and a reduction in roster sizes from 28 to 19.
The league lasted until the 1984 NASL season with only nine teams taking the field. On March 28, 1985, the NASL suspended operations for the 1985 season, when only the Minnesota Strikers and Toronto Blizzard were interested in playing. At the time, the league planned to relaunch in 1986.
Of those final nine teams, the Chicago Sting, Minnesota Strikers, New York Cosmos, and San Diego Sockers joined the Major Indoor Soccer League for its 1984–85 season. The Tulsa Roughnecks independently played 11 matches in 1985, before suspending operations on July 17. The Golden Bay Earthquakes and Tampa Bay Rowdies managed to survive as independent franchises until they joined the WSA and AISA respectively. The Rowdies were the last surviving NASL franchise to play outdoor soccer, lasting until February 1994. The Sockers were the final league franchise to dissolve. They survived playing exclusively indoor soccer until 1996.
Heritage
After the United States' early elimination in 1982 World Cup qualifying, American manager Walt Chyzowych stated the NASL had failed to offer much of a foundation for his team, since the league had largely failed to develop American players. Canada fared better, coming a win short of qualification for the 1982 World Cup with a squad exclusively made up of NASL players.
Although the NASL ultimately failed, it did introduce soccer to the North American sports scene on a large scale for the first time, and was a major contributing factor in soccer becoming one of the most popular sports among American youth. On July 4, 1988, FIFA awarded the hosting of the 1994 World Cup to the United States. NASL has also provided lessons for its successor Major League Soccer, which has taken precautions against such problems, particularly a philosophy of financial restraint (mainstream American sports, by the time of MLS' startup in 1996, had adopted financial restraint rules, which MLS adopted). American college and high school soccer still use some NASL-style rules (with shortened halves, although the time does stop for certain reasons).
18 of the 22 players on the Canadian squad at the 1986 World Cup were former NASL players. The United States did not have any former NASL players on their squad at the 1990 World Cup but had three on the 1994 team (Fernando Clavijo, Hugo Pérez and Roy Wegerle) and one on the 1998 team (Wegerle).
Several NASL team names have been reused by teams in later soccer leagues. Currently the Portland Timbers, San Jose Earthquakes, Seattle Sounders, and Vancouver Whitecaps are all successor teams in Major League Soccer. Four other well known names (New York Cosmos, Tampa Bay Rowdies, Fort Lauderdale Strikers, and Tulsa Roughnecks) have resurfaced in the new NASL and the USL, which are both Division II leagues. Two of the oldest derbies in North American professional soccer (Cascadia Cup and Fort Lauderdale–Tampa Bay) began in the NASL of the 1970s, and continue today via successor clubs.
NASL indoor
The NASL first staged an indoor tournament in 1971 at the St. Louis Arena with a $2,800 purse. After a couple of years of experimenting, including a three-city tour by the Red Army team from Moscow in 1974, the league again staged tournaments in 1975 and 1976. For many years Tampa Bay owner George W. Strawbridge, Jr. lobbied his fellow owners to start up a winter indoor season, but was repeatedly stone-walled by other owners. For several years, his Rowdies and several other teams used winter indoor "friendlies" as part of their training and build-up to the outdoor season. In the meantime, pressed by the rival Major Indoor Soccer League (MISL), which inaugurated play in 1978, two-day mini-tournaments like the Skelly Invitational and the NASL Budweiser Invitational were held with varying degrees of success. The NASL finally started a full indoor league schedule, a 12-game season with 10 teams, in 1979–80. For the 1980–81 season, the number of teams playing indoor soccer increased to 19 and the schedule grew to 18 games. The schedule remained at 18 games, but the teams participating decreased to 13 for the 1981–82 season. The league canceled the 1982–83 indoor season and three teams (Chicago, Golden Bay, and San Diego) played in the MISL for that season. Four other teams (Fort Lauderdale, Montreal, Tampa Bay and Tulsa) competed in a short NASL Grand Prix of Indoor Soccer Tournament in early 1983. The NASL indoor season returned for 1983–84 with only seven teams but a 32-game schedule.
NASL champions
By year
* Due to the NASL's nontraditional points system, in 1968, 1969, 1980, 1983 & 1984 the team with the best win-loss record did not win the regular season.
# The New York Cosmos dropped "New York" from its name for the 1977 and 1978 seasons, then returned to the full name.
By club
# The New York Cosmos dropped "New York" from its name for the 1977 and 1978 seasons, then returned to the full name.
NASL indoor champions
By year
By club
Teams
Outdoor season
Legend
– existed before 1968 NASL formation. – continued after 1984 NASL demise. – existed before 1968 and after 1984
*Operated as Toronto Croatia from 1956 until they merged with the NASL's Toronto Metros in 1975, and then again after they sold out of the NASL in 1979.
Of the 67 teams that played in the NASL over the course of its 17 seasons, many represent relocated franchises, and a handful represent the same franchise in the same location with changed names such as the Apollos, Cosmos and Earthquakes. The total number of unique clubs was 43.
Teams that played indoor seasons or tournaments (1971, 1975–76, 1978–84)
Atlanta Chiefs (1979–81)
Baltimore Comets (1975)
Boston Minutemen (1975–76)
Calgary Boomers (1980–81)
California Surf (1979–81)
Chicago Sting (1976, 1980–82, 1983–84)
Dallas Tornado (1971, 1975–76, 1979, 1980–81)
Detroit Express (1979–81)
Edmonton Drillers (1980–82)
Fort Lauderdale Strikers (1979–81, 1983)
Golden Bay Earthquakes (1983–84)
Hartford Bicentennials (1975)
Houston Hurricane (1978)
Jacksonville Tea Men (1980–82)
Los Angeles Aztecs (1975, 1979–81)
Memphis Rogues (1979–80)
Miami Toros (1975–76)
Minnesota Kicks (1978–81)
Montreal Manic (1981–82, 1983)
New England Tea Men (1979–80)
New York Cosmos (1975, 1981–82, 1983–84)
Philadelphia Atoms (1975)
Portland Timbers (1980–82)
Rochester Lancers (1971, 1975–76)
St. Louis Stars (1971, 1975–76)
San Diego Jaws (1976)
San Diego Sockers (1980–82, 1983–84)
San Jose Earthquakes (1975–76, 1980–82)
Seattle Sounders (1975, 1980–82)
Tampa Bay Rowdies (1975–76, 1979–84)
Toronto Blizzard (1980–82)
Toronto Metros-Croatia (1975–76)
Tulsa Roughnecks (1978–84)
Vancouver Whitecaps (1975–76, 1980–82, 1983–84)
Washington Darts (1971)
Washington Diplomats (1975–76, 1978)
Commissioners
1967: Dick Walsh (USA) – After 18 years with the Los Angeles Dodgers, he was chosen to serve as commissioner of first the United Soccer Association (USA) in 1966, then the North American Soccer League (NASL), which resulted from the merger of the US and the National Professional Soccer League (NPSL) prior to the 1968 season. He served the NASL through its first full season, 1968, then returned to baseball.
1967: Ken Macker (NPSL)
1968: Walsh and Macker co-commissioners
1969–83: Phil Woosnam – He is credited as an important factor in the development of the NASL, and had been a major figure in promoting the league and had secured TV contracts from CBS and ABC. He played a key role during 1970 in recruiting executives at Warner Communications to invest in an expansion team—the New York Cosmos. Woosnam oversaw the westward expansion of NASL in the early 1970s, establishing teams in Los Angeles, the Bay Area, Seattle, and Vancouver. However, he also guided the league into several poor business decisions, such as over-expansion to 24 teams, that led to team owners' significant financial losses. He was removed from his duties as commissioner of the NASL in 1983 following a vote of the club owners.
1983–84: Howard J. Samuels – His pioneering methods in the petrochemical industry and success in the then-niche household consumer market translated into posts as Vice President of the Mobil Oil Corporation, Commissioner of the North American Soccer League, and chairman to Elms Capital Management, Alexander Proudfoot PLC, and Communities in Schools.
1984–85: Clive Toye (acting) – After the sudden death of Howard J. Samuels, Toye was appointed interim president of the NASL in December 1984. The league ceased operations early the following year.
Annual honors
MVP, Rookie, and Coach of the Year
Teams named after NASL teams
The Heritage Cup in Major League Soccer was developed as a way to remember the NASL's heritage by having teams named after NASL teams to participate for a special trophy. Today, two MLS teams, San Jose and Seattle, play for this trophy, although Portland and Vancouver are both eligible for the trophy if they decide to participate in this derby. NASL clubs' names still active in some form today are listed in bold.
Baltimore Bays (1972–73)
Baltimore Bays (1993–1998)
Boston Tea Men
Chicago Stingers
Chicago Mustangs (2012–)
DFW Tornados
Detroit Express (1981–1983)
East Bay FC Stompers – NPSL
Edmonton Drillers (1996–2000)
Edmonton Drillers (2007–2010)
Florida Strikers – USISL
Fort Lauderdale Strikers (1988–1994)
Fort Lauderdale Strikers (1994–1997)
Fort Lauderdale Strikers (2006–2016)
Houston Hurricanes
Houston Hurricanes FC
Houston Stars (WPSL)
Jomo Cosmos – National First Division
Kaizer Chiefs FC – Premier Soccer League
L.A. Wolves FC
Las Vegas Quicksilver
Maryland Bays
Memphis Rogues – AISA & SISL
New York Cosmos (2010)
Philadelphia Atoms SC– ASL
Philadelphia Fury – NISL
Portland Timbers – WSL
Portland Timbers – USL
Portland Timbers – MLS
Rochester Lady Lancers – UWS
Rochester Lancers (2011–2015)
Rochester Lancers – NPSL
Santa Cruz Surf – USISL
San Diego Sockers (2001–2004)
San Diego Sockers (2009–)
San Diego Surf – PASL
San Jose Earthquakes – Heritage Cup (MLS)
San Fernando Valley Quakes
Seattle Sounders – USL
Seattle Sounders FC – Heritage Cup (MLS)
SoCal Surf – PDL
South Florida Strikers – WPSL
Tampa Bay Rowdies
Toronto Blizzard (1986–1993)
Toronto Falcons (NSL)
Tulsa Roughnecks (1993–2000)
Tulsa Roughnecks (1995) – W-League
Tulsa Roughnecks FC (2015–2019) – USL (now called FC Tulsa)
Vancouver Whitecaps – USL
Vancouver Whitecaps FC – MLS
Washington Diplomats (1988–1990)
Players
The NASL brought some of the world's best soccer players to the United States. The trend started early as players such as Vavá, Peter McParland, Rubén Marino Navarro, Co Prins and Juan Santisteban appeared in the league in 1968. However, after the Cosmos signed Pele in 1975, the number of famous names increased during the NASL's peak during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In fact, 20 of the 44 World Cup Best XI selections between 1966 and 1978 spent time in the NASL. At one time NASL squads fielded the captains of the past three World Cup-winning teams—Beckenbauer (1974), Alberto (1970), and Moore (1966). Of the European Footballer of the Year awards from 1965 to 1976, eight of the twelve awards—Eusébio (1965), Best (1968), Muller (1970), Cruyff (1971, '73, '74), Beckenbauer (1972, '76) —were given to players who went on to play in NASL. In addition, several players went on to greater acclaim after leaving the NASL, among them Peter Beardsley, Bruce Grobbelaar, Julio César Romero, Hugo Sánchez and Graeme Souness. Two players appeared in both the NASL and MLS, spanning a 12-year gap in North American professional soccer: Hugo Sánchez and Roy Wegerle.
Attendance
Yearly average attendance
*Cosmos dropped "New York" from name for 1977 and 1978 seasons
Single-game attendance records
The New York Cosmos hold 21 of the 24 top attendance records in NASL history. Of the 107 games involving NASL clubs that have drawn 40,000+ fans, 65 were Cosmos' home matches at Giants Stadium (excludes Soccer Bowl '78). The table below ranks teams by the number of 40,000+ crowds they attracted.
See also
List of American and Canadian soccer champions
North American Soccer League on television
Record attendances in United States club soccer
Soccer Bowl
References
External links
The American Soccer History Archives
NASL statistics on Steve Dimitry's Extinct Sports League
NASL tribute site
Complete Results from 1968–1984 on Soccer Stats
Sports leagues established in 1968
Sports leagues disestablished in 1984
1984 disestablishments
Defunct soccer leagues in the United States
Defunct indoor soccer leagues in the United States
Defunct soccer leagues in Canada
Defunct top level association football leagues in North America | [
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237759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baillie%20Scott | Baillie Scott | Mackay Hugh Baillie Scott (23 October 1865 – 10 February 1945) was a British architect and artist. Through his long career, he designed in a variety of styles, including a style derived from the Tudor, an Arts and Crafts style reminiscent of Voysey and later the Neo-Georgian.
Early life
The son of a wealthy Scottish landowner, Scott was born at Beards Hill, St Peter's near Broadstairs, Kent, the second of ten children. He originally studied at the Royal Agricultural College in Cirencester, but, having qualified in 1885, he decided to study architecture instead. He studied briefly in Bath, but his architectural development was especially marked by the 12 years he spent living in the Isle of Man. The first four years of this time he lived at Alexander Terrace, Douglas. In 1893, he and his family moved to Red House, Victoria Road, Douglas, which he had designed.
Career
At the beginning of his career, Scott worked with Fred Saunders, with whom he had studied at the Isle of Man School of Art, which is also in Douglas. In May 1891, he was an art teacher. It was at the school of art that Scott and Archibald Knox became friends. He then left Saunders and set up his own business in 23 Athol Street, Douglas. In 1894, in an article in The Studio, he proposed a design having a high central hall with a galleried inglenook between the drawing and dining rooms and separated from them by folding screens. This hypothetical 'ideal house' brought in many commissions.
Scott developed his own Arts and Crafts style however, which progressed towards a simple form of architecture, relying on truth to material and function, and on precise craftsmanship.
Scott was known for the work he put into both the exterior and the interior, and its decoration. He produced nearly 300 buildings over the course of his career.
Notable buildings
Bexton Croft, Knutsford, Cheshire, 1896, Grade II* listed
Blackwell, Bowness, Cumbria, 1898–1900, Grade I listed
The White House, Helensburgh, Scotland, 1899, Category A
Home Close, Sibford Ferris, Oxfordshire, 1911
Snowshill Manor gardens, 1920–23
Church Rate Corner (private house), Cambridge, 1924, Grade II listed
Oakhams, 1942 (additions; his home)
Red House, Isle of Man
Woodbury Hollow, Loughton, Essex
Winscombe House, Crowborough, Sussex
Sandford House, Kilmany, Fife, Scotland, Category B
Majestic Hotel, Onchan, Isle of Man (demolished)
White Lodge, Wantage, Oxfordshire
Chludzinski's Mansion, Lieskavičy, Šumilina district, Vitebsk region, Belarus (derelicted)
Family & Later life
He married Florence Kate Nash, a descendant of Beau Nash, on 1 February 1899 in Batheaston Parish Church, Somersset.
They had two children:
Daughter, Enid Maud Mackay Baillie-Scott, born 26 November 1889 d. 1968
Son, Mackay Hugh Baillie-Scott, born 13 May 1891 d. 1943
He died at the Elm Grove Hospital (now Brighton General Hospital) in the Elm Grove area of Brighton. His gravestone in Edenbridge, Kent reads: "Nature he loved and next to nature art".
References
Further reading
Omilanowska Małgorzata, Dwa polskie projekty M. H. Scotta (Two Polish works of M. H. Baillie Scott), Rocznik Historii Sztuki (Warsaw), T. XXII: 1996, s. 139–154.
External links
Mackay Hugh Baillie Scott: An Overview on The Victorian Web.
1865 births
1945 deaths
People from Margate
20th-century English architects
English designers
Arts and Crafts architects
Arts and Crafts movement artists
People of the Victorian era
Architects from Kent | [
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237762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlevoix | Charlevoix | Charlevoix () is a cultural and natural region in Quebec, on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River as well as in the Laurentian Mountains area of the Canadian Shield. This dramatic landscape includes rolling terrain, fjords, headlands, and bays; the region was designated a World Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1989. Administratively, it comprises the Charlevoix and Charlevoix-Est regional county municipalities within the larger Capitale-Nationale administrative region.
History
The region was named after Pierre François-Xavier de Charlevoix, a French Jesuit explorer and historian who travelled through the area in the 18th century. The community of La Malbaie was known as the first resort area in Canada. As early as 1760, Scottish noblemen Malcolm Fraser and John Nairn hosted visitors at their manors. For much of its history, Charlevoix was home to a thriving summer colony of wealthy Americans, including President William Howard Taft.
Geography
From an administrative point of view, the "Charlevoix region" does not exist in itself, but is rather made up of the regional county municipalities of Charlevoix-Est and Charlevoix.
Features of note include:
Baie-Saint-Paul, an important arts centre
Le Domaine Forget music festival and academy
Île aux Coudres
the Parc des Grands-Jardins
the Haute-Gorges de la Rivière Malbaie
the Manoir Richelieu and the Casino de Charlevoix
the fjord of the Saguenay River
the Commission scolaire de Charlevoix
the Museum of Charlevoix
Natural history
The topography of this region was dramatically altered by a meteorite impact that occurred 350 million years ago creating the Charlevoix crater: The impact created the forty-mile-wide crater that is the heart of Quebec's Charlevoix region, ranging from just west of Baie-Saint-Paul to just east of La Malbaie. Today, the area inside the crater is home to 90 percent of Charlevoix residents and is a very pastoral setting by comparison to what it could have been.
This area was subsequently reshaped by glaciation during the last ice age.
There have been several major earthquakes in the region in recorded history:
on February 5, 1663, centred south of La Malbaie. See 1663 Charlevoix earthquake.
on December 6, 1791, centred near Baie-Saint-Paul
on October 17, 1860, centred under the Saint Lawrence River
on October 20, 1870, centred near Baie-Saint-Paul. See 1870 Charlevoix earthquake
on February 28, 1925, centred under the Saint Lawrence River. See 1925 Charlevoix–Kamouraska earthquake.
Ecological characteristics
Situated some 80 km east of Quebec City, Charlevoix Biosphere Reserve borders the Saint Lawrence River to the south. Extending from 5 to 1,150 metres above sea level, the area comprises agricultural areas, river ecosystems, estuarine tidal marshes and flats, coniferous and mixed forests, stunted vegetation (krummholz) and mountain tundra ecosystems.
Maple forests including paper birch (Betula papyriferae), alder (Alnus spp.) and elm (Ulmus spp.) and with an understory of sumac (Rhus typhina), Acer pensylvanicum and Cornus alternifolia; mixed fir (Abies sp.) forest with Corylus cornuta, Sambucus pubens and Taxus canadensis; boreal forests up to an altitude of 300 metres with fir and spruce (Picea spp.); estuarine tidal marsh and flats dominated by Scirpus americanus meadows including Zizania palustris, Sagittaria cuneata and S. latifolia; tundra with ericaceous zones consisting of Kalmia spp., Ledum groenlandicum; stunted vegetation community (krummholz) with Picea mariana and Abies balsamea; agro-ecosystems with cereals, fruits and legumes, and river ecosystems.
Animal species in the area include beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas), wolf (Canis lupus), boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), North American cougar (Puma concolor couguar) and blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus).
Socio-economic characteristics
About 30,000 people live in the biosphere reserve (1988), which covers 457,000 hectares. In former times, the population of Charlevoix used to rely on the river and the sea, for example on coastal navigation, marine constructions and fisheries (e.g. beluga, eel).
Today, the economic landscape has diversified and major factors in the local economy are now forestry, silica mining, agriculture and tourism. The forest education centre ‘Les Palissades’ or the ecological centre ‘Port-au-Saumon’ are important institutions for environmental education in the area.
Transportation
Quebec Route 138 is the major highway through the region, which closely follows the shoreline of the Saint Lawrence River. Between Baie-Saint-Paul and La Malbaie, the highway turns inland with Quebec Route 362 serving the riverside communities of Les Éboulements and Saint-Irénée.
The Train de Charlevoix, a tourist rail service, links the coastal communities of Charlevoix to Quebec City.
Charlevoix Airport is a small regional airport serving the region.
See also
Charlevoix (electoral district)
List of earthquakes in Canada
List of Quebec regions
Sources
Further reading
Daniel Dufour: Répertoire cartobibliographique de Charlevoix. Société d'histoire de Charlevoix, Baie-Saint-Paul 1986
References
External links
Official Charlevoix tourism site
Charlevoix Biosphere Reserve, Canada
UNESCO Charlevoix Biosphere Reserve Information
Biosphere reserves of Canada
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237770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative%20resistance | Negative resistance | In electronics, negative resistance (NR) is a property of some electrical circuits and devices in which an increase in voltage across the device's terminals results in a decrease in electric current through it.
This is in contrast to an ordinary resistor in which an increase of applied voltage causes a proportional increase in current due to Ohm's law, resulting in a positive resistance. While a positive resistance consumes power from current passing through it, a negative resistance produces power. Under certain conditions it can increase the power of an electrical signal, amplifying it.
Negative resistance is an uncommon property which occurs in a few nonlinear electronic components. In a nonlinear device, two types of resistance can be defined: 'static' or 'absolute resistance', the ratio of voltage to current , and differential resistance, the ratio of a change in voltage to the resulting change in current . The term negative resistance means negative differential resistance (NDR), . In general, a negative differential resistance is a two-terminal component which can amplify, converting DC power applied to its terminals to AC output power to amplify an AC signal applied to the same terminals. They are used in electronic oscillators and amplifiers, particularly at microwave frequencies. Most microwave energy is produced with negative differential resistance devices. They can also have hysteresis and be bistable, and so are used in switching and memory circuits. Examples of devices with negative differential resistance are tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, and gas discharge tubes such as neon lamps, and fluorescent lights. In addition, circuits containing amplifying devices such as transistors and op amps with positive feedback can have negative differential resistance. These are used in oscillators and active filters.
Because they are nonlinear, negative resistance devices have a more complicated behavior than the positive "ohmic" resistances usually encountered in electric circuits. Unlike most positive resistances, negative resistance varies depending on the voltage or current applied to the device, and negative resistance devices can only have negative resistance over a limited portion of their voltage or current range. Therefore, there is no real "negative resistor" analogous to a positive resistor, which has a constant negative resistance over an arbitrarily wide range of current.
Definitions
The resistance between two terminals of an electrical device or circuit is determined by its current–voltage (I–V) curve (characteristic curve), giving the current through it for any given voltage across it. Most materials, including the ordinary (positive) resistances encountered in electrical circuits, obey Ohm's law; the current through them is proportional to the voltage over a wide range. So the I–V curve of an ohmic resistance is a straight line through the origin with positive slope. The resistance is the ratio of voltage to current, the inverse slope of the line (in I–V graphs where the voltage is the independent variable) and is constant.
Negative resistance occurs in a few nonlinear (nonohmic) devices. In a nonlinear component the I–V curve is not a straight line, so it does not obey Ohm's law. Resistance can still be defined, but the resistance is not constant; it varies with the voltage or current through the device. The resistance of such a nonlinear device can be defined in two ways, which are equal for ohmic resistances:
Static resistance (also called chordal resistance, absolute resistance or just resistance) – This is the common definition of resistance; the voltage divided by the current:
.
It is the inverse slope of the line (chord) from the origin through the point on the I–V curve. In a power source, like a battery or electric generator, positive current flows out of the positive voltage terminal, opposite to the direction of current in a resistor, so from the passive sign convention and have opposite signs, representing points lying in the 2nd or 4th quadrant of the I–V plane (diagram right). Thus power sources formally have negative static resistance ( However this term is never used in practice, because the term "resistance" is only applied to passive components. Static resistance determines the power dissipation in a component. Passive devices, which consume electric power, have positive static resistance; while active devices, which produce electric power, do not.
Differential resistance (also called dynamic, or incremental resistance) – This is the derivative of the voltage with respect to the current; the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding change in current, the inverse slope of the I–V curve at a point:
.
Differential resistance is only relevant to time-varying currents. Points on the curve where the slope is negative (declining to the right), meaning an increase in voltage causes a decrease in current, have negative differential resistance . Devices of this type can amplify signals, and are what is usually meant by the term "negative resistance".
Negative resistance, like positive resistance, is measured in ohms.
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. It is measured in siemens (formerly mho) which is the conductance of a resistor with a resistance of one ohm. Each type of resistance defined above has a corresponding conductance
Static conductance
Differential conductance
It can be seen that the conductance has the same sign as its corresponding resistance: a negative resistance will have a negative conductance while a positive resistance will have a positive conductance.
Operation
One way in which the different types of resistance can be distinguished is in the directions of current and electric power between a circuit and an electronic component. The illustrations below, with a rectangle representing the component attached to a circuit, summarize how the different types work:
Types and terminology
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! style="background:#cfcfcf; text-align:center;" | rdiff > 0Positive differential resistance
! style="background:#cfcfcf; text-align:center;" border="1" | rdiff < 0Negative differential resistance
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! scope="row" style="background:#dfdfdf; text-align:center;" | Rstatic > 0Passive:Consumesnet power
| valign="top" | Positive resistances:
| Passive negative differential resistances:
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! scope="row" style="background:#dfdfdf; text-align:center;" | Rstatic < 0Active:Producesnet power
| valign="top" | Power sources:
| "Active resistors"Positive feedback amplifiers used in:
|}
In an electronic device, the differential resistance , the static resistance , or both, can be negative, so there are three categories of devices (fig. 2–4 above, and table) which could be called "negative resistances".
The term "negative resistance" almost always means negative differential resistance Negative differential resistance devices have unique capabilities: they can act as one-port amplifiers, increasing the power of a time-varying signal applied to their port (terminals), or excite oscillations in a tuned circuit to make an oscillator. They can also have hysteresis. It is not possible for a device to have negative differential resistance without a power source, and these devices can be divided into two categories depending on whether they get their power from an internal source or from their port:
Passive negative differential resistance devices (fig. 2 above): These are the most well-known type of "negative resistances"; passive two-terminal components whose intrinsic I–V curve has a downward "kink", causing the current to decrease with increasing voltage over a limited range. The I–V curve, including the negative resistance region, lies in the 1st and 3rd quadrant of the plane so the device has positive static resistance. Examples are gas-discharge tubes, tunnel diodes, and Gunn diodes. These devices have no internal power source and in general work by converting external DC power from their port to time varying (AC) power, so they require a DC bias current applied to the port in addition to the signal. To add to the confusion, some authors call these "active" devices, since they can amplify. This category also includes a few three-terminal devices, such as the unijunction transistor. They are covered in the Negative differential resistance section below.
Active negative differential resistance devices (fig. 4): Circuits can be designed in which a positive voltage applied to the terminals will cause a proportional "negative" current; a current out of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor, over a limited range, In this video Prof. Horowitz demonstrates that negative static resistance actually exists. He has a black box with two terminals, labelled "−10 kilohms" and shows with ordinary test equipment that it acts like a linear negative resistor (active resistor) with a resistance of −10 KΩ: a positive voltage across it causes a proportional negative current through it, and when connected in a voltage divider with an ordinary resistor the output of the divider is greater than the input, it can amplify. At the end he opens the box and shows it contains an op-amp negative impedance converter circuit and battery. Unlike in the above devices, the downward-sloping region of the I–V curve passes through the origin, so it lies in the 2nd and 4th quadrants of the plane, meaning the device sources power. Amplifying devices like transistors and op-amps with positive feedback can have this type of negative resistance, and are used in feedback oscillators and active filters. Since these circuits produce net power from their port, they must have an internal DC power source, or else a separate connection to an external power supply. In circuit theory this is called an "active resistor". Although this type is sometimes referred to as "linear", "absolute", "ideal", or "pure" negative resistance to distinguish it from "passive" negative differential resistances, in electronics it is more often simply called positive feedback or regeneration. These are covered in the Active resistors section below.
Occasionally ordinary power sources are referred to as "negative resistances", abstract. (fig. 3 above). Although the "static" or "absolute" resistance of active devices (power sources) can be considered negative (see Negative static resistance section below) most ordinary power sources (AC or DC), such as batteries, generators, and (non positive feedback) amplifiers, have positive differential resistance (their source resistance).Glisson, 2011 Introduction to Circuit Analysis and Design, p. 96 Therefore, these devices cannot function as one-port amplifiers or have the other capabilities of negative differential resistances.
List of negative resistance devices
Electronic components with negative differential resistance include these devices:
tunnel diode, resonant tunneling diode and other semiconductor diodes using the tunneling mechanism
Gunn diode and other diodes using the transferred electron mechanism
IMPATT diode, TRAPATT diode and other diodes using the impact ionization mechanism
Some NPN transistors with E-C reverse biased, known as negistor
unijunction transistor (UJT)
thyristors
triode and tetrode vacuum tubes operating in the dynatron mode
Some magnetron tubes and other microwave vacuum tubes
maser
parametric amplifier
Electric discharges through gases also exhibit negative differential resistance,, fig. 1.54 including these devices
electric arc
thyratron tubes
neon lamp
fluorescent lamp
other gas discharge tubes
In addition, active circuits with negative differential resistance can also be built with amplifying devices like transistors and op amps, using feedback. A number of new experimental negative differential resistance materials and devices have been discovered in recent years. The physical processes which cause negative resistance are diverse, and each type of device has its own negative resistance characteristics, specified by its current–voltage curve.
Negative static or "absolute" resistance
A point of some confusion is whether ordinary resistance ("static" or "absolute" resistance, ) can be negative. In electronics, the term "resistance" is customarily applied only to passive materials and components – such as wires, resistors and diodes. These cannot have as shown by Joule's law . A passive device consumes electric power, so from the passive sign convention . Therefore, from Joule's law .<ref n In other words, no material can conduct electric current better than a "perfect" conductor with zero resistance. For a passive device to have would violate either conservation of energy or the second law of thermodynamics, (diagram). Therefore, some authors state that static resistance can never be negative.
However it is easily shown that the ratio of voltage to current v/i at the terminals of any power source (AC or DC) is negative. For electric power (potential energy) to flow out of a device into the circuit, charge must flow through the device in the direction of increasing potential energy, conventional current (positive charge) must move from the negative to the positive terminal. So the direction of the instantaneous current is out of the positive terminal. This is opposite to the direction of current in a passive device defined by the passive sign convention so the current and voltage have opposite signs, and their ratio is negative
This can also be proved from Joule's law
This shows that power can flow out of a device into the circuit if and only if . Whether or not this quantity is referred to as "resistance" when negative is a matter of convention. The absolute resistance of power sources is negative, but this is not to be regarded as "resistance" in the same sense as positive resistances. The negative static resistance of a power source is a rather abstract and not very useful quantity, because it varies with the load. Due to conservation of energy it is always simply equal to the negative of the static resistance of the attached circuit (right).
Work must be done on the charges by some source of energy in the device, to make them move toward the positive terminal against the electric field, so conservation of energy requires that negative static resistances have a source of power. The power may come from an internal source which converts some other form of energy to electric power as in a battery or generator, or from a separate connection to an external power supply circuit as in an amplifying device like a transistor, vacuum tube, or op amp.
Eventual passivity
A circuit cannot have negative static resistance (be active) over an infinite voltage or current range, because it would have to be able to produce infinite power. Any active circuit or device with a finite power source is "eventually passive". This property means if a large enough external voltage or current of either polarity is applied to it, its static resistance becomes positive and it consumes power
where is the maximum power the device can produce.
Therefore, the ends of the I–V curve will eventually turn and enter the 1st and 3rd quadrants. Thus the range of the curve having negative static resistance is limited, confined to a region around the origin. For example, applying a voltage to a generator or battery (graph, above) greater than its open-circuit voltage will reverse the direction of current flow, making its static resistance positive so it consumes power. Similarly, applying a voltage to the negative impedance converter below greater than its power supply voltage Vs will cause the amplifier to saturate, also making its resistance positive.
Negative differential resistance
In a device or circuit with negative differential resistance (NDR), in some part of the I–V curve the current decreases as the voltage increases:
The I–V curve is nonmonotonic (having peaks and troughs) with regions of negative slope representing negative differential resistance.
Passive negative differential resistances have positive static resistance; they consume net power. Therefore, the I–V curve is confined to the 1st and 3rd quadrants of the graph, and passes through the origin. This requirement means (excluding some asymptotic cases) that the region(s) of negative resistance must be limited, and surrounded by regions of positive resistance, and cannot include the origin.
Types
Negative differential resistances can be classified into two types:
Voltage controlled negative resistance (VCNR, short-circuit stable, or "N" type): In this type the current is a single valued, continuous function of the voltage, but the voltage is a multivalued function of the current. In the most common type there is only one negative resistance region, and the graph is a curve shaped generally like the letter "N". As the voltage is increased, the current increases (positive resistance) until it reaches a maximum (i1), then decreases in the region of negative resistance to a minimum (i2), then increases again. Devices with this type of negative resistance include the tunnel diode, resonant tunneling diode, lambda diode, Gunn diode, and dynatron oscillators.
Current controlled negative resistance (CCNR, open-circuit stable, or "S" type): In this type, the dual of the VCNR, the voltage is a single valued function of the current, but the current is a multivalued function of the voltage. In the most common type, with one negative resistance region, the graph is a curve shaped like the letter "S". Devices with this type of negative resistance include the IMPATT diode, UJT, SCRs and other thyristors, electric arc, and gas discharge tubes .
Most devices have a single negative resistance region. However devices with multiple separate negative resistance regions can also be fabricated. These can have more than two stable states, and are of interest for use in digital circuits to implement multivalued logic.
An intrinsic parameter used to compare different devices is the peak-to-valley current ratio (PVR), the ratio of the current at the top of the negative resistance region to the current at the bottom (see graphs, above):
The larger this is, the larger the potential AC output for a given DC bias current, and therefore the greater the efficiency
Amplification
A negative differential resistance device can amplify an AC signal applied to it if the signal is biased with a DC voltage or current to lie within the negative resistance region of its I–V curve.
The tunnel diode circuit (see diagram) is an example. The tunnel diode TD has voltage controlled negative differential resistance. The battery adds a constant voltage (bias) across the diode so it operates in its negative resistance range, and provides power to amplify the signal. Suppose the negative resistance at the bias point is . For stability must be less than . Using the formula for a voltage divider, the AC output voltage is
so the voltage gain is
In a normal voltage divider, the resistance of each branch is less than the resistance of the whole, so the output voltage is less than the input. Here, due to the negative resistance, the total AC resistance is less than the resistance of the diode alone so the AC output voltage is greater than the input . The voltage gain is greater than one, and increases without limit as approaches .
Explanation of power gain
The diagrams illustrate how a biased negative differential resistance device can increase the power of a signal applied to it, amplifying it, although it only has two terminals. Due to the superposition principle the voltage and current at the device's terminals can be divided into a DC bias component and an AC component .
Since a positive change in voltage causes a negative change in current , the AC current and voltage in the device are 180° out of phase. This means in the AC equivalent circuit (right), the instantaneous AC current Δi flows through the device in the direction of increasing AC potential Δv, as it would in a generator. Therefore, the AC power dissipation is negative; AC power is produced by the device and flows into the external circuit.
With the proper external circuit, the device can increase the AC signal power delivered to a load, serving as an amplifier, or excite oscillations in a resonant circuit to make an oscillator. Unlike in a two port amplifying device such as a transistor or op amp, the amplified signal leaves the device through the same two terminals (port) as the input signal enters.
In a passive device, the AC power produced comes from the input DC bias current, the device absorbs DC power, some of which is converted to AC power by the nonlinearity of the device, amplifying the applied signal. Therefore, the output power is limited by the bias power
The negative differential resistance region cannot include the origin, because it would then be able to amplify a signal with no applied DC bias current, producing AC power with no power input. The device also dissipates some power as heat, equal to the difference between the DC power in and the AC power out.
The device may also have reactance and therefore the phase difference between current and voltage may differ from 180° and may vary with frequency. As long as the real component of the impedance is negative (phase angle between 90° and 270°), the device will have negative resistance and can amplify.
The maximum AC output power is limited by size of the negative resistance region ( in graphs above)
Reflection coefficient
The reason that the output signal can leave a negative resistance through the same port that the input signal enters is that from transmission line theory, the AC voltage or current at the terminals of a component can be divided into two oppositely moving waves, the incident wave , which travels toward the device, and the reflected wave , which travels away from the device. A negative differential resistance in a circuit can amplify if the magnitude of its reflection coefficient , the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave, is greater than one.
where
The "reflected" (output) signal has larger amplitude than the incident; the device has "reflection gain". The reflection coefficient is determined by the AC impedance of the negative resistance device, , and the impedance of the circuit attached to it, . If and then and the device will amplify. On the Smith chart, a graphical aide widely used in the design of high frequency circuits, negative differential resistance corresponds to points outside the unit circle , the boundary of the conventional chart, so special "expanded" charts must be used.
Stability conditions
Because it is nonlinear, a circuit with negative differential resistance can have multiple equilibrium points (possible DC operating points), which lie on the I–V curve. An equilibrium point will be stable, so the circuit converges to it within some neighborhood of the point, if its poles are in the left half of the s plane (LHP), while a point is unstable, causing the circuit to oscillate or "latch up" (converge to another point), if its poles are on the jω axis or right half plane (RHP), respectively. In contrast, a linear circuit has a single equilibrium point that may be stable or unstable. The equilibrium points are determined by the DC bias circuit, and their stability is determined by the AC impedance of the external circuit.
However, because of the different shapes of the curves, the condition for stability is different for VCNR and CCNR types of negative resistance:
In a CCNR (S-type) negative resistance, the resistance function is single-valued. Therefore, stability is determined by the poles of the circuit's impedance equation:.
For nonreactive circuits a sufficient condition for stability is that the total resistance is positive
so the CCNR is stable for
Since CCNRs are stable with no load at all, they are called "open circuit stable".
In a VCNR (N-type) negative resistance, the conductance function is single-valued. Therefore, stability is determined by the poles of the admittance equation . For this reason the VCNR is sometimes referred to as a negative conductance.
As above, for nonreactive circuits a sufficient condition for stability is that the total conductance in the circuit is positive
so the VCNR is stable for
Since VCNRs are even stable with a short-circuited output, they are called "short circuit stable".
For general negative resistance circuits with reactance, the stability must be determined by standard tests like the Nyquist stability criterion. Alternatively, in high frequency circuit design, the values of for which the circuit is stable are determined by a graphical technique using "stability circles" on a Smith chart.
Operating regions and applications
For simple nonreactive negative resistance devices with and the different operating regions of the device can be illustrated by load lines on the I–V curve (see graphs).
The DC load line (DCL) is a straight line determined by the DC bias circuit, with equation
where is the DC bias supply voltage and R is the resistance of the supply. The possible DC operating point(s) (Q points) occur where the DC load line intersects the I–V curve. For stability
VCNRs require a low impedance bias , such as a voltage source.
CCNRs require a high impedance bias such as a current source, or voltage source in series with a high resistance.
The AC load line (L1 − L3) is a straight line through the Q point whose slope is the differential (AC) resistance facing the device. Increasing rotates the load line counterclockwise. The circuit operates in one of three possible regions (see diagrams), depending on .
Stable region (green) (illustrated by line L1): When the load line lies in this region, it intersects the I–V curve at one point Q1. For nonreactive circuits it is a stable equilibrium (poles in the LHP) so the circuit is stable. Negative resistance amplifiers operate in this region. However, due to hysteresis, with an energy storage device like a capacitor or inductor the circuit can become unstable to make a nonlinear relaxation oscillator (astable multivibrator) or a monostable multivibrator.
VCNRs are stable when .
CCNRs are stable when .
Unstable point (Line L2): When the load line is tangent to the I–V curve. The total differential (AC) resistance of the circuit is zero (poles on the jω axis), so it is unstable and with a tuned circuit can oscillate. Linear oscillators operate at this point. Practical oscillators actually start in the unstable region below, with poles in the RHP, but as the amplitude increases the oscillations become nonlinear, and due to eventual passivity the negative resistance r decreases with increasing amplitude, so the oscillations stabilize at an amplitude where .
Bistable region (red) (illustrated by line L3): In this region the load line can intersect the I–V curve at three points. The center point (Q1) is a point of unstable equilibrium (poles in the RHP), while the two outer points, Q2 and Q3 are stable equilibria. So with correct biasing the circuit can be bistable, it will converge to one of the two points Q2 or Q3 and can be switched between them with an input pulse. Switching circuits like flip-flops (bistable multivibrators) and Schmidt triggers operate in this region.
VCNRs can be bistable when
CCNRs can be bistable when
Active resistors – negative resistance from feedback
In addition to the passive devices with intrinsic negative differential resistance above, circuits with amplifying devices like transistors or op amps can have negative resistance at their ports. The input or output impedance of an amplifier with enough positive feedback applied to it can be negative. If is the input resistance of the amplifier without feedback, is the amplifier gain, and is the transfer function of the feedback path, the input resistance with positive shunt feedback is
So if the loop gain is greater than one, will be negative. The circuit acts like a "negative linear resistor" over a limited range, with I–V curve having a straight line segment through the origin with negative slope (see graphs). It has both negative differential resistance and is active
and thus obeys Ohm's law as if it had a negative value of resistance −R, over its linear range (such amplifiers can also have more complicated negative resistance I–V curves that do not pass through the origin).
In circuit theory these are called "active resistors". Applying a voltage across the terminals causes a proportional current out of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor. For example, connecting a battery to the terminals would cause the battery to charge rather than discharge.
Considered as one-port devices, these circuits function similarly to the passive negative differential resistance components above, and like them can be used to make one-port amplifiers and oscillators with the advantages that:
because they are active devices they do not require an external DC bias to provide power, and can be DC coupled,
the amount of negative resistance can be varied by adjusting the loop gain,
they can be linear circuit elements; if operation is confined to the straight segment of the curve near the origin the voltage is proportional to the current, so they do not cause harmonic distortion.
The I–V curve can have voltage-controlled ("N" type) or current-controlled ("S" type) negative resistance, depending on whether the feedback loop is connected in "shunt" or "series".
Negative reactances (below) can also be created, so feedback circuits can be used to create "active" linear circuit elements, resistors, capacitors, and inductors, with negative values. They are widely used in active filters because they can create transfer functions that cannot be realized with positive circuit elements. Examples of circuits with this type of negative resistance are the negative impedance converter (NIC), gyrator, Deboo integrator, frequency dependent negative resistance (FDNR), and generalized immittance converter (GIC).
Feedback oscillators
If an LC circuit is connected across the input of a positive feedback amplifier like that above, the negative differential input resistance can cancel the positive loss resistance inherent in the tuned circuit. If this will create in effect a tuned circuit with zero AC resistance (poles on the jω axis). Spontaneous oscillation will be excited in the tuned circuit at its resonant frequency, sustained by the power from the amplifier. This is how feedback oscillators such as Hartley or Colpitts oscillators work. This negative resistance model is an alternate way of analyzing feedback oscillator operation. All linear oscillator circuits have negative resistance although in most feedback oscillators the tuned circuit is an integral part of the feedback network, so the circuit does not have negative resistance at all frequencies but only near the oscillation frequency.
Q enhancement
A tuned circuit connected to a negative resistance which cancels some but not all of its parasitic loss resistance (so ) will not oscillate, but the negative resistance will decrease the damping in the circuit (moving its poles toward the jω axis), increasing its Q factor so it has a narrower bandwidth and more selectivity. Q enhancement, also called regeneration, was first used in the regenerative radio receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1912 and later in "Q multipliers". It is widely used in active filters. For example, RF integrated circuits use integrated inductors to save space, consisting of a spiral conductor fabricated on chip. These have high losses and low Q, so to create high Q tuned circuits their Q is increased by applying negative resistance.
Chaotic circuits
Circuits which exhibit chaotic behavior can be considered quasi-periodic or nonperiodic oscillators, and like all oscillators require a negative resistance in the circuit to provide power. Chua's circuit, a simple nonlinear circuit widely used as the standard example of a chaotic system, requires a nonlinear active resistor component, sometimes called Chua's diode. This is usually synthesized using a negative impedance converter circuit.
Negative impedance converter
A common example of an "active resistance" circuit is the negative impedance converter (NIC) shown in the diagram. The two resistors and the op amp constitute a negative feedback non-inverting amplifier with gain of 2. The output voltage of the op-amp is
So if a voltage is applied to the input, the same voltage is applied "backwards" across , causing current to flow through it out of the input. The current is
So the input impedance to the circuit is
The circuit converts the impedance to its negative. If is a resistor of value , within the linear range of the op amp the input impedance acts like a linear "negative resistor" of value . The input port of the circuit is connected into another circuit as if it was a component. An NIC can cancel undesired positive resistance in another circuit, for example they were originally developed to cancel resistance in telephone cables, serving as repeaters.
Negative capacitance and inductance
By replacing in the above circuit with a capacitor , negative capacitances and inductances can also be synthesized. A negative capacitance will have an I–V relation and an impedance of
where . Applying a positive current to a negative capacitance will cause it to discharge; its voltage will decrease. Similarly, a negative inductance will have an I–V characteristic and impedance of
A circuit having negative capacitance or inductance can be used to cancel unwanted positive capacitance or inductance in another circuit. NIC circuits were used to cancel reactance on telephone cables.
There is also another way of looking at them. In a negative capacitance the current will be 180° opposite in phase to the current in a positive capacitance. Instead of leading the voltage by 90° it will lag the voltage by 90°, as in an inductor. Therefore, a negative capacitance acts like an inductance in which the impedance has a reverse dependence on frequency ω; decreasing instead of increasing like a real inductance Similarly a negative inductance acts like a capacitance that has an impedance which increases with frequency. Negative capacitances and inductances are "non-Foster" circuits which violate Foster's reactance theorem. One application being researched is to create an active matching network which could match an antenna to a transmission line over a broad range of frequencies, rather than just a single frequency as with current networks. This would allow the creation of small compact antennas that would have broad bandwidth, exceeding the Chu–Harrington limit.
Oscillators
Negative differential resistance devices are widely used to make electronic oscillators. In a negative resistance oscillator, a negative differential resistance device such as an IMPATT diode, Gunn diode, or microwave vacuum tube is connected across an electrical resonator such as an LC circuit, a quartz crystal, dielectric resonator or cavity resonator with a DC source to bias the device into its negative resistance region and provide power. A resonator such as an LC circuit is "almost" an oscillator; it can store oscillating electrical energy, but because all resonators have internal resistance or other losses, the oscillations are damped and decay to zero. The negative resistance cancels the positive resistance of the resonator, creating in effect a lossless resonator, in which spontaneous continuous oscillations occur at the resonator's resonant frequency.
Uses
Negative resistance oscillators are mainly used at high frequencies in the microwave range or above, since feedback oscillators function poorly at these frequencies. Microwave diodes are used in low- to medium-power oscillators for applications such as radar speed guns, and local oscillators for satellite receivers. They are a widely used source of microwave energy, and virtually the only solid-state source of millimeter wave and terahertz energy Negative resistance microwave vacuum tubes such as magnetrons produce higher power outputs, in such applications as radar transmitters and microwave ovens. Lower frequency relaxation oscillators can be made with UJTs and gas-discharge lamps such as neon lamps.
The negative resistance oscillator model is not limited to one-port devices like diodes but can also be applied to feedback oscillator circuits with two port devices such as transistors and tubes. In addition, in modern high frequency oscillators, transistors are increasingly used as one-port negative resistance devices like diodes. At microwave frequencies, transistors with certain loads applied to one port can become unstable due to internal feedback and show negative resistance at the other port. So high frequency transistor oscillators are designed by applying a reactive load to one port to give the transistor negative resistance, and connecting the other port across a resonator to make a negative resistance oscillator as described below.
Gunn diode oscillator
The common Gunn diode oscillator (circuit diagrams) illustrates how negative resistance oscillators work. The diode D has voltage controlled ("N" type) negative resistance and the voltage source biases it into its negative resistance region where its differential resistance is . The choke RFC prevents AC current from flowing through the bias source. is the equivalent resistance due to damping and losses in the series tuned circuit , plus any load resistance. Analyzing the AC circuit with Kirchhoff's Voltage Law gives a differential equation for , the AC current
Solving this equation gives a solution of the form
where
This shows that the current through the circuit, , varies with time about the DC Q point, . When started from a nonzero initial current the current oscillates sinusoidally at the resonant frequency ω of the tuned circuit, with amplitude either constant, increasing, or decreasing exponentially, depending on the value of α. Whether the circuit can sustain steady oscillations depends on the balance between and , the positive and negative resistance in the circuit:
: (poles in left half plane) If the diode's negative resistance is less than the positive resistance of the tuned circuit, the damping is positive. Any oscillations in the circuit will lose energy as heat in the resistance and die away exponentially to zero, as in an ordinary tuned circuit. So the circuit does not oscillate.
: (poles on jω axis) If the positive and negative resistances are equal, the net resistance is zero, so the damping is zero. The diode adds just enough energy to compensate for energy lost in the tuned circuit and load, so oscillations in the circuit, once started, will continue at a constant amplitude. This is the condition during steady-state operation of the oscillator.
: (poles in right half plane) If the negative resistance is greater than the positive resistance, damping is negative, so oscillations will grow exponentially in energy and amplitude. This is the condition during startup.
Practical oscillators are designed in region (3) above, with net negative resistance, to get oscillations started. A widely used rule of thumb is to make . When the power is turned on, electrical noise in the circuit provides a signal to start spontaneous oscillations, which grow exponentially. However, the oscillations cannot grow forever; the nonlinearity of the diode eventually limits the amplitude.
At large amplitudes the circuit is nonlinear, so the linear analysis above does not strictly apply and differential resistance is undefined; but the circuit can be understood by considering to be the "average" resistance over the cycle. As the amplitude of the sine wave exceeds the width of the negative resistance region and the voltage swing extends into regions of the curve with positive differential resistance, the average negative differential resistance becomes smaller, and thus the total resistance and the damping becomes less negative and eventually turns positive. Therefore, the oscillations will stabilize at the amplitude at which the damping becomes zero, which is when .
Gunn diodes have negative resistance in the range −5 to −25 ohms. In oscillators where is close to ; just small enough to allow the oscillator to start, the voltage swing will be mostly limited to the linear portion of the I–V curve, the output waveform will be nearly sinusoidal and the frequency will be most stable. In circuits in which is far below , the swing extends further into the nonlinear part of the curve, the clipping distortion of the output sine wave is more severe, and the frequency will be increasingly dependent on the supply voltage.
Types of circuit
Negative resistance oscillator circuits can be divided into two types, which are used with the two types of negative differential resistance – voltage controlled (VCNR), and current controlled (CCNR)
Negative resistance (voltage controlled) oscillator: Since VCNR ("N" type) devices require a low impedance bias and are stable for load impedances less than r, the ideal oscillator circuit for this device has the form shown at top right, with a voltage source Vbias to bias the device into its negative resistance region, and parallel resonant circuit load LC. The resonant circuit has high impedance only at its resonant frequency, so the circuit will be unstable and oscillate only at that frequency.
Negative conductance (current controlled) oscillator: CCNR ("S" type) devices, in contrast, require a high impedance bias and are stable for load impedances greater than r. The ideal oscillator circuit is like that at bottom right, with a current source bias Ibias (which may consist of a voltage source in series with a large resistor) and series resonant circuit LC. The series LC circuit has low impedance only at its resonant frequency and so will only oscillate there.
Conditions for oscillation
Most oscillators are more complicated than the Gunn diode example, since both the active device and the load may have reactance (X) as well as resistance (R). Modern negative resistance oscillators are designed by a frequency domain technique due to K. Kurokawa. The circuit diagram is imagined to be divided by a "reference plane" (red) which separates the negative resistance part, the active device, from the positive resistance part, the resonant circuit and output load (right). The complex impedance of the negative resistance part depends on frequency ω but is also nonlinear, in general declining with the amplitude of the AC oscillation current I; while the resonator part is linear, depending only on frequency. The circuit equation is so it will only oscillate (have nonzero I) at the frequency ω and amplitude I for which the total impedance is zero. This means the magnitude of the negative and positive resistances must be equal, and the reactances must be conjugate
and
For steady-state oscillation the equal sign applies. During startup the inequality applies, because the circuit must have excess negative resistance for oscillations to start.
Alternately, the condition for oscillation can be expressed using the reflection coefficient. The voltage waveform at the reference plane can be divided into a component V1 travelling toward the negative resistance device and a component V2 travelling in the opposite direction, toward the resonator part. The reflection coefficient of the active device is greater than one, while that of the resonator part is less than one. During operation the waves are reflected back and forth in a round trip so the circuit will oscillate only if
As above, the equality gives the condition for steady oscillation, while the inequality is required during startup to provide excess negative resistance. The above conditions are analogous to the Barkhausen criterion for feedback oscillators; they are necessary but not sufficient, so there are some circuits that satisfy the equations but do not oscillate. Kurokawa also derived more complicated sufficient conditions, which are often used instead.
Amplifiers
Negative differential resistance devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes are also used to make amplifiers, particularly at microwave frequencies, but not as commonly as oscillators. Because negative resistance devices have only one port (two terminals), unlike two-port devices such as transistors, the outgoing amplified signal has to leave the device by the same terminals as the incoming signal enters it. Without some way of separating the two signals, a negative resistance amplifier is bilateral; it amplifies in both directions, so it suffers from sensitivity to load impedance and feedback problems. To separate the input and output signals, many negative resistance amplifiers use nonreciprocal devices such as isolators and directional couplers.
Reflection amplifier
One widely used circuit is the reflection amplifier in which the separation is accomplished by a circulator. A circulator is a nonreciprocal solid-state component with three ports (connectors) which transfers a signal applied to one port to the next in only one direction, port 1 to port 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 1. In the reflection amplifier diagram the input signal is applied to port 1, a biased VCNR negative resistance diode N is attached through a filter F to port 2, and the output circuit is attached to port 3. The input signal is passed from port 1 to the diode at port 2, but the outgoing "reflected" amplified signal from the diode is routed to port 3, so there is little coupling from output to input. The characteristic impedance of the input and output transmission lines, usually 50Ω, is matched to the port impedance of the circulator. The purpose of the filter F is to present the correct impedance to the diode to set the gain. At radio frequencies NR diodes are not pure resistive loads and have reactance, so a second purpose of the filter is to cancel the diode reactance with a conjugate reactance to prevent standing waves.
The filter has only reactive components and so does not absorb any power itself, so power is passed between the diode and the ports without loss. The input signal power to the diode is
The output power from the diode is
So the power gain of the amplifier is the square of the reflection coefficient
is the negative resistance of the diode −r. Assuming the filter is matched to the diode so then the gain is
The VCNR reflection amplifier above is stable for . while a CCNR amplifier is stable for . It can be seen that the reflection amplifier can have unlimited gain, approaching infinity as approaches the point of oscillation at . This is a characteristic of all NR amplifiers, contrasting with the behavior of two-port amplifiers, which generally have limited gain but are often unconditionally stable. In practice the gain is limited by the backward "leakage" coupling between circulator ports.
Masers and parametric amplifiers are extremely low noise NR amplifiers that are also implemented as reflection amplifiers; they are used in applications like radio telescopes.
Switching circuits
Negative differential resistance devices are also used in switching circuits in which the device operates nonlinearly, changing abruptly from one state to another, with hysteresis. The advantage of using a negative resistance device is that a relaxation oscillator, flip-flop or memory cell can be built with a single active device, whereas the standard logic circuit for these functions, the Eccles-Jordan multivibrator, requires two active devices (transistors). Three switching circuits built with negative resistances are
Astable multivibrator – a circuit with two unstable states, in which the output periodically switches back and forth between the states. The time it remains in each state is determined by the time constant of an RC circuit. Therefore, it is a relaxation oscillator, and can produce square waves or triangle waves.
Monostable multivibrator – is a circuit with one unstable state and one stable state. When in its stable state a pulse is applied to the input, the output switches to its other state and remains in it for a period of time dependent on the time constant of the RC circuit, then switches back to the stable state. Thus the monostable can be used as a timer or delay element.
Bistable multivibrator or flip flop – is a circuit with two stable states. A pulse at the input switches the circuit to its other state. Therefore, bistables can be used as memory circuits, and digital counters.
Other applications
Neuronal models
Some instances of neurons display regions of negative slope conductances (RNSC) in voltage-clamp experiments. The negative resistance here is implied were one to consider the neuron a typical Hodgkin–Huxley style circuit model.
History
Negative resistance was first recognized during investigations of electric arcs, which were used for lighting during the 19th century. In 1881 Alfred Niaudet had observed that the voltage across arc electrodes decreased temporarily as the arc current increased, but many researchers thought this was a secondary effect due to temperature. The term "negative resistance" was applied by some to this effect, but the term was controversial because it was known that the resistance of a passive device could not be negative. Beginning in 1895 Hertha Ayrton, extending her husband William's research with a series of meticulous experiments measuring the I–V curve of arcs, established that the curve had regions of negative slope, igniting controversy. Frith and Rodgers in 1896 with the support of the Ayrtons introduced the concept of differential resistance, dv/di, and it was slowly accepted that arcs had negative differential resistance. In recognition of her research, Hertha Ayrton became the first woman voted for induction into the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Arc transmitters
George Francis FitzGerald first realized in 1892 that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative, it would produce continuous oscillations. In the same year Elihu Thomson built a negative resistance oscillator by connecting an LC circuit to the electrodes of an arc, perhaps the first example of an electronic oscillator. William Duddell, a student of Ayrton at London Central Technical College, brought Thomson's arc oscillator to public attention. Due to its negative resistance, the current through an arc was unstable, and arc lights would often produce hissing, humming, or even howling noises. In 1899, investigating this effect, Duddell connected an LC circuit across an arc and the negative resistance excited oscillations in the tuned circuit, producing a musical tone from the arc. To demonstrate his invention Duddell wired several tuned circuits to an arc and played a tune on it. Duddell's "singing arc" oscillator was limited to audio frequencies. However, in 1903 Danish engineers Valdemar Poulsen and P. O. Pederson increased the frequency into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere in a magnetic field, inventing the Poulsen arc radio transmitter, which was widely used until the 1920s.
Vacuum tubes
By the early 20th century, although the physical causes of negative resistance were not understood, engineers knew it could generate oscillations and had begun to apply it. Heinrich Barkhausen in 1907 showed that oscillators must have negative resistance. Ernst Ruhmer and Adolf Pieper discovered that mercury vapor lamps could produce oscillations, and by 1912 AT&T had used them to build amplifying repeaters for telephone lines.
In 1918 Albert Hull at GE discovered that vacuum tubes could have negative resistance in parts of their operating ranges, due to a phenomenon called secondary emission. In a vacuum tube when electrons strike the plate electrode they can knock additional electrons out of the surface into the tube. This represents a current away from the plate, reducing the plate current. Under certain conditions increasing the plate voltage causes a decrease in plate current. By connecting an LC circuit to the tube Hull created an oscillator, the dynatron oscillator. Other negative resistance tube oscillators followed, such as the magnetron invented by Hull in 1920.
The negative impedance converter originated from work by Marius Latour around 1920. He was also one of the first to report negative capacitance and inductance. A decade later, vacuum tube NICs were developed as telephone line repeaters at Bell Labs by George Crisson and others, which made transcontinental telephone service possible. Transistor NICs, pioneered by Linvill in 1953, initiated a great increase in interest in NICs and many new circuits and applications developed.
Solid state devices
Negative differential resistance in semiconductors was observed around 1909 in the first point-contact junction diodes, called cat's whisker detectors, by researchers such as William Henry Eccles and G. W. Pickard. They noticed that when junctions were biased with a DC voltage to improve their sensitivity as radio detectors, they would sometimes break into spontaneous oscillations. However the effect was not pursued.
The first person to exploit negative resistance diodes practically was Russian radio researcher Oleg Losev, who in 1922 discovered negative differential resistance in biased zincite (zinc oxide) point contact junctions. He used these to build solid-state amplifiers, oscillators, and amplifying and regenerative radio receivers, 25 years before the invention of the transistor. Later he even built a superheterodyne receiver. However his achievements were overlooked because of the success of vacuum tube technology. After ten years he abandoned research into this technology (dubbed "Crystodyne" by Hugo Gernsback), and it was forgotten.
The first widely used solid-state negative resistance device was the tunnel diode, invented in 1957 by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki. Because they have lower parasitic capacitance than vacuum tubes due to their small junction size, diodes can function at higher frequencies, and tunnel diode oscillators proved able to produce power at microwave frequencies, above the range of ordinary vacuum tube oscillators. Its invention set off a search for other negative resistance semiconductor devices for use as microwave oscillators, resulting in the discovery of the IMPATT diode, Gunn diode, TRAPATT diode, and others. In 1969 Kurokawa derived conditions for stability in negative resistance circuits. Currently negative differential resistance diode oscillators are the most widely used sources of microwave energy, and many new negative resistance devices have been discovered in recent decades.
Notes
References
Further reading
How negative differential resistance devices work in oscillators.
, ch. 6 Account of discovery of negative resistance and its role in early radio.
Elementary one-page introduction to negative resistance.
Electricity
Microwave technology
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237778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Gottfried%20Schweigh%C3%A4user | Johann Gottfried Schweighäuser | Johann Gottfried Schweighäuser () (2 January 1776, Strasbourg –14 March 1844) was a French philologist and archaeologist. He was the son of classicist Johann Schweighäuser.
At the age of 13 he began his studies of philosophy at the University of Strasbourg. In 1792 he volunteered with the French armed forces, subsequently being involved in a number of war-related events in the Palatinate. After his discharge from military service, he relocated to Paris, where in 1799, he was for a short period of time, a tutor in the home of Wilhelm von Humboldt. According to Paul Louis Courier, his father sent him to England to collate a manuscript for his edition of Athenaeus.
In 1812 he became a professor at the Protestant seminary in Strasbourg, and three years later succeeded his father as librarian at the munincipal and seminary libraries. In 1824 he took over his father's chair at the University of Strasbourg.
In 1822 he became a correspondent member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
Published works
He was joint-author with Philippe de Golbéry of Antiquités de l'Alsace (1828). Other noted works by Schweighäuser include:
Notice sur la vie et les travaux littéraires de M. Brunck, 1803 – On the life and literary work of Richard François Philippe Brunck.
Les monumens antiques du Musée Napoléon (with Tommaso Piroli, Louis-Charles François Petit-Radel) 1804 – Ancient monuments at the Musée Napoléon.
Notice sur un passage de Simplicius découvert par le citoyen Schweighaeuser – On a passage of Simplicius discovered by Schweighaeuser.
Stances pour une fête religieuse de la paix, suivies de récitations religieuses et patriotiques et d'un hymne au dieu de la lumière, Paris : Maugeret, 1814.
Discours sur les services que les Grecs ont rendus à la civilisation, 1821.
Mémoire sur les antiquités romaines de la ville de Strasbourg, 1822 – On Roman antiquities in the city of Strasbourg.
Notice sur les anciens châteaux et autres monumens remarquables de la partie méridionale du département du Bas-Rhin, Strasbourg : impr. de F.G. Levrault, 1824.
Histoire de l'invention de l'imprimerie, pour servir de défense à la ville de Strasbourg contre les prétentions de Harlem (with Jean Frédéric Lichtenberger), 1825.
Antiquités de Rheinzabern, 1832 – Antiquities of Rheinzabern.
Notice sur les antiquités gallo-romaines de Rheinzabern, 1843 – On Greco-Roman antiquities of Rheinzabern.
Caractères de La Bruyère: Suivis des Caractères de Théophraste, 1844 – The Caractères of Jean de La Bruyère, followed by the "Characters" of Theophrastus.
References
1776 births
1844 deaths
French archaeologists
University of Strasbourg faculty
French philologists
French classical scholars
People from Strasbourg | [
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237780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss%20Psalm | Swiss Psalm | The "Swiss Psalm" (, ; , ; , ; , ) is the national anthem of Switzerland.
It was composed in 1841, by Alberich Zwyssig (1808–1854). Since then, it has been frequently sung at patriotic events. The Federal Council declined however on numerous occasions to accept the psalm as the official anthem. This was because the council wanted the people to express their say on what they wanted as a national anthem. From 1961 to 1981 it provisionally replaced "" ("When You Call, My Country"; French ""; Italian "", Romansh ""), the anthem by Johann Rudolf Wyss (1743–1818) which was set to the melody of "God Save the Queen". On 1 April 1981, the Swiss Psalm was declared the official Swiss national anthem.
In 2013, the organized a public competition and unofficial vote to change the lyrics of the national anthem.
History
The German-language patriotic song "" (French "", Italian "", Romansh ""), composed in 1811 by Johann Rudolf Wyss (1743–1818), was used as de facto national anthem from about 1850.
The setting of the hymn to the British tune of "God Save the Queen" led to confusing situations when both countries' anthems were played. Therefore, it was replaced with another tune in 1961.
The Swiss Psalm was composed in 1841 by Alberich Zwyssig (1808–1854). Zwyssig used a tune he had composed in 1835, and slightly altered the words of a poem written in 1840 by (1809–1867).
In the second half of the 19th century, the song became popular and was frequently sung at patriotic celebrations. Between 1894 and 1953, there were repeated suggestions for it to be adopted as official national anthem. In this, it was in competition with Rufst du, mein Vaterland, a patriotic song which was widely seen as de facto national anthem, but was never given official status.
The Swiss Psalm temporarily became the national anthem in 1961. After a trial period of three years the Swiss tune was adopted indefinitely in 1965. The statute could not be challenged until ten years later but did not totally exclude the possibility of an ultimate change. A competition was set up in 1979 to search for a successor to the anthem. Despite many submissions, none of the others seemed to express the Swiss sentiment. The Swiss anthem finally got its definitive statutory status in April 1981, the Federal Council maintaining that it was purely a Swiss song suitably dignified and solemn. The popularity of the song has not been established. At least, it has been shown with several vox pops taken that many people do not know it at all, and only a small percentage can recite it all.
Lyrics
Because Switzerland has four national languages, the lyrics of the original German song were translated into the other three national languages: French, Italian and Romansh. The English version here under is a translation from the German version (the French one is slightly different).
Proposals for a new anthem or new lyrics
1986: "" ("Roll the drums!") by Henri-Frédéric Amiel was proposed by the Swiss National Alliance.
Late 1990s: the Fondation Pro CH 98 tried to promote a new anthem composed by the Argovian Christian Daniel Jakob.
2013: the started a public competition to find new lyrics for the national anthem. The instruction was to take inspiration from the preamble of the Federal Constitution of Switzerland. The jury received 208 proposals; it selected six of them and translated them in the four national languages of Switzerland. In March 2015, the six selected proposals were released on-line (with videos in four languages) and opened to public vote (until May 2015). The top three vote-getters were selected for a second on-line ballot between June and August. In September 2015, a televised final selected one set of lyrics. Finally, the Société suisse d'utilité publique will propose the winning lyrics to the federal authorities. As soon as the new hymn text is known enough, the Swiss Parliament and the electorate will be asked to determine it. As of 2017, the new lyrics have not been officially adopted. A version of the winning lyrics was also made by combining the four national languages of Switzerland.
As 500,000 Swiss abroad and residents in Switzerland are native English speakers, the new hymn text has been translated not only into the four official Swiss languages but also into English.
More information and the scores of the hymn can be found at:
References
External links
National anthems
Swiss music
National symbols of Switzerland
Swiss patriotic songs
European anthems
1841 songs
National anthem compositions in B-flat major | [
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237782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20stork | White stork | The white stork (Ciconia ciconia) is a large bird in the stork family, Ciconiidae. Its plumage is mainly white, with black on the bird's wings. Adults have long red legs and long pointed red beaks, and measure on average from beak tip to end of tail, with a wingspan. The two subspecies, which differ slightly in size, breed in Europe (north to Finland), northwestern Africa, southwestern Asia (east to southern Kazakhstan) and southern Africa. The white stork is a long-distance migrant, wintering in Africa from tropical Sub-Saharan Africa to as far south as South Africa, or on the Indian subcontinent. When migrating between Europe and Africa, it avoids crossing the Mediterranean Sea and detours via the Levant in the east or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west, because the air thermals on which it depends for soaring do not form over water.
A carnivore, the white stork eats a wide range of animal prey, including insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals and small birds. It takes most of its food from the ground, among low vegetation, and from shallow water. It is a monogamous breeder, but does not pair for life. Both members of the pair build a large stick nest, which may be used for several years. Each year the female can lay one clutch of usually four eggs, which hatch asynchronously 33–34 days after being laid. Both parents take turns incubating the eggs and both feed the young. The young leave the nest 58–64 days after hatching, and continue to be fed by the parents for a further 7–20 days.
The white stork has been rated as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It benefited from human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared, but changes in farming methods and industrialisation saw it decline and disappear from parts of Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Conservation and reintroduction programs across Europe have resulted in the white stork resuming breeding in the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. It has few natural predators, but may harbour several types of parasite; the plumage is home to chewing lice and feather mites, while the large nests maintain a diverse range of mesostigmatic mites. This conspicuous species has given rise to many legends across its range, of which the best-known is the story of babies being brought by storks.
Taxonomy and evolution
English naturalist Francis Willughby wrote about the white stork in the 17th century, having seen a drawing sent to him by his friend and natural history enthusiast Sir Thomas Brown of Norwich. He named it Ciconia alba. They noted they were occasional vagrants to England, blown there by storms. It was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Ardea ciconia. It was reclassified to (and was designated the type species of) the new genus Ciconia by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. Both the genus and specific epithet, cĭcōnia, are the Latin word for "stork", originally recorded in the works of Horace and Ovid. The Latin word survives in most Romance languages (cicogna, cigüeña, cegonha and the like). The word stork is derived from the Old English word storc, and appeared in the 10th-century works the Erfurt Glossary, where the word is equated with Ciconia, and Aelfric's Homilies. The word is related to the Old High German storah, "stork", and similar words in many other European languages, all of which are descended from the Germanic sturko-z.
There are two subspecies:
C. c. ciconia, the nominate subspecies described by Linnaeus in 1758, breeds from Europe to northwestern Africa and westernmost Asia and in southern Africa, and winters mainly in Africa south of the Sahara Desert, though some birds winter in India.
C. c. asiatica, described by Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov in 1873, breeds in Turkestan and winters from Iran to India. It is slightly larger than the nominate subspecies.
The stork family contains six genera in three broad groups: the open-billed and wood storks (Mycteria and Anastomus), the giant storks (Ephippiorhynchus, Jabiru and Leptoptilos) and the "typical" storks (Ciconia). The typical storks include the white stork and six other extant species, which are characterised by straight pointed beaks and mainly black and white plumage. Its closest relatives are the larger, black-billed Oriental stork (Ciconia boyciana) of East Asia, which was formerly classified as a subspecies of the white stork, and the maguari stork (C. maguari) of South America. Close evolutionary relationships within Ciconia are suggested by behavioural similarities and, biochemically, through analysis of both mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences and DNA-DNA hybridization.
A Ciconia fossil representing the distal end of a right humerus has been recovered from Miocene beds of Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya. The 24–6 million year old fossil could have originated from either a white stork or a black stork (C. nigra), which are species of about the same size with very similar bone structures. The Middle Miocene beds of Maboko Island have yielded further remains.
Description
The white stork is a large bird. It has a length of , and a standing height of . The wingspan is and its weight is . Like all storks, it has long legs, a long neck and a long straight pointed beak. The sexes are identical in appearance, except that males are larger than females on average. The plumage is mainly white with black flight feathers and wing coverts; the black is caused by the pigment melanin. The breast feathers are long and shaggy forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays. The irises are dull brown or grey, and the peri-orbital skin is black. The adult has a bright red beak and red legs, the colouration of which is derived from carotenoids in the diet. In parts of Spain, studies have shown that the pigment is based on astaxanthin obtained from an introduced species of crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and the bright red beak colours show up even in nestlings, in contrast to the duller beaks of young white storks elsewhere.
As with other storks, the wings are long and broad enabling the bird to soar. In flapping flight its wingbeats are slow and regular. It flies with its neck stretched forward and with its long legs extended well beyond the end of its short tail. It walks at a slow and steady pace with its neck upstretched. In contrast, it often hunches its head between its shoulders when resting. Moulting has not been extensively studied, but appears to take place throughout the year, with the primary flight feathers replaced over the breeding season.
Upon hatching, the young white stork is partly covered with short, sparse, whitish down feathers. This early down is replaced about a week later with a denser coat of woolly white down. By three weeks, the young bird acquires black scapulars and flight feathers. On hatching the chick has pinkish legs, which turn to greyish-black as it ages. Its beak is black with a brownish tip. By the time it fledges, the juvenile bird's plumage is similar to that of the adult, though its black feathers are often tinged with brown, and its beak and legs are a duller brownish-red or orange. The beak is typically orange or red with a darker tip. The bills gain the adults' red colour the following summer, although the black tips persist in some individuals. Young storks adopt adult plumage by their second summer.
Similar species
Within its range the white stork is distinctive when seen on the ground. The winter range of C. c. asiatica overlaps that of the Asian openbill, which has similar plumage but a different bill shape. When seen at a distance in flight, the white stork can be confused with several other species with similar underwing patterns, such as the yellow-billed stork, great white pelican and Egyptian vulture. The yellow-billed stork is identified by its black tail and a longer, slightly curved, yellow beak. The white stork also tends to be larger than the yellow-billed stork. The great white pelican has short legs which do not extend beyond its tail, and it flies with its neck retracted, keeping its head near to its stocky body, giving it a different flight profile. Pelicans also behave differently, soaring in orderly, synchronised flocks rather than in disorganised groups of individuals as the white stork does. The Egyptian vulture is much smaller, with a long wedge-shaped tail, shorter legs and a small yellow-tinged head on a short neck. The common crane, which can also look black and white in strong light, shows longer legs and a longer neck in flight.
Distribution and habitat
The nominate race of the white stork has a wide although disjunct summer range across Europe, clustered in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in the west, and much of eastern and central Europe, with 25% of the world's population concentrated in Poland, as well as parts of western Asia. The asiatica population of about 1450 birds is restricted to a region in central Asia between the Aral Sea and Xinjiang in western China. The Xinjiang population is believed to have become extinct around 1980. Migration routes extend the range of this species into many parts of Africa and India. Some populations adhere to the eastern migration route, which passes across Israel into eastern and central Africa.
A few records of breeding from South Africa have been known since 1933 at Calitzdorp, and about 10 birds have been known to breed since the 1990s around Bredasdorp. A small population of white storks winters in India and is thought to derive principally from the C. c. asiatica population as flocks of up to 200 birds have been observed on spring migration in the early 1900s through the Kurram Valley. However, birds ringed in Germany have been recovered in western (Bikaner) and southern (Tirunelveli) India. An atypical specimen with red orbital skin, a feature of the Oriental white stork, has been recorded and further study of the Indian population is required. North of the breeding range, it is a passage migrant or vagrant in Finland, Iceland, Ireland, Norway and Sweden, and west to the Azores and Madeira. In recent years, the range has expanded into western Russia.
The white stork's preferred feeding grounds are grassy meadows, farmland and shallow wetlands. It avoids areas overgrown with tall grass and shrubs. In the Chernobyl area of northern Ukraine, white stork populations declined after the 1986 nuclear accident there as farmland was succeeded by tall grass shrubs. In parts of Poland, poor natural foraging grounds have forced birds to seek food at rubbish dumps since 1999. White storks have also been reported foraging in rubbish dumps in the Middle East, North Africa and South Africa.
The white stork breeds in greater numbers in areas with open grasslands, particularly grassy areas which are wet or periodically flooded, and less in areas with taller vegetation cover such as forest and shrubland. They make use of grasslands, wetlands, and farmland on the wintering grounds in Africa. White storks were probably aided by human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared and new pastures and farmland were created, and they were found across much of Europe, breeding as far north as Sweden. The population in Sweden is thought to have established in the 16th century after forests were cut down for agriculture. About 5000 pairs were estimated to breed in the 18th century which declined subsequently. The first accurate census in 1917 found 25 pairs and the last pair failed to breed around 1955. The white stork has been a rare visitor to the British Isles, with about 20 birds seen in Britain every year, and prior to 2020 there were no records of nesting since a pair nested atop St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1416. In 2020, a pair bred in the United Kingdom for the first time in over 600 years, as part of an re-introduction initiative called the White Stork Project.
A decline in population began in the 19th century due to industrialisation and changes in agricultural methods. White storks no longer nest in many countries, and the current strongholds of the western population are in Portugal, Spain, Ukraine and Poland. In the Iberian Peninsula, populations are concentrated in the southwest, and have also declined due to agricultural practices. A study published in 2005 found that the Podhale region in the uplands of southern Poland had seen an influx of white storks, which first bred there in 1931 and have nested at progressively higher altitudes since, reaching 890 m (3000 ft) in 1999. The authors proposed that this was related to climate warming and the influx of other animals and plants to higher altitudes. White storks arriving in Poznań province (Greater Poland Voivodeship) in western Poland in spring to breed did so some 10 days earlier in the last twenty years of the 20th century than at the end of the 19th century.
Migration
Systematic research into migration of the white stork began with German ornithologist Johannes Thienemann who commenced bird ringing studies in 1906 at the Rossitten Bird Observatory, on the Curonian Spit in what was then East Prussia. Although not many storks passed through Rossitten itself, the observatory coordinated the large-scale ringing of the species throughout Germany and elsewhere in Europe. Between 1906 and the Second World War about 100,000, mainly juvenile, white storks were ringed, with over 2,000 long-distance recoveries of birds wearing Rossitten rings reported between 1908 and 1954.
Routes
White storks fly south from their summer breeding grounds in Europe in August and September, heading for Africa. There, they spend the winter in savannah from Kenya and Uganda south to the Cape Province of South Africa. In these areas, they congregate in large flocks which may exceed a thousand individuals. Some diverge westwards into western Sudan and Chad, and may reach Nigeria.
In spring, the birds return north; they are recorded from Sudan and Egypt from February to April. They arrive back in Europe around late March and April, after an average journey of 49 days. By comparison, the autumn journey is completed in about 26 days. Tailwinds and scarcity of food and water en route (birds fly faster over regions lacking resources) increase average speed.
To avoid a long sea crossing over the Mediterranean, birds from central Europe either follow an eastern migration route by crossing the Bosphorus in Turkey, traversing the Levant, then bypassing the Sahara Desert by following the Nile valley southwards, or follow a western route over the Strait of Gibraltar. These migration corridors maximise help from the thermals and thus save energy.
In winter 2013–2014, white storks were observed in southern India's Mudumalai National Park for the first time.
The eastern route is by far the more important with 530,000 white storks using it annually, making the species the second commonest migrant there (after the European honey buzzard). The flocks of migrating raptors, white storks and great white pelicans can stretch for 200 km (125 mi). The eastern route is twice as long as the western, but storks take the same time to reach the wintering grounds by either.
Juvenile white storks set off on their first southward migration in an inherited direction but, if displaced from that bearing by weather conditions, they are unable to compensate, and may end up in a new wintering location. Adults can compensate for strong winds and adjust their direction to finish at their normal winter sites, because they are familiar with the location. For the same reason, all spring migrants, even those from displaced wintering locations, can find their way back to the traditional breeding sites. An experiment with young birds raised in captivity in Kaliningrad and released in the absence of wild storks to show them the way revealed that they appeared to have an instinct to fly south, although the scatter in direction was large.
Energetics
White storks rely on the uplift of air thermals to soar and glide the long distances of their annual migrations between Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. For many, the shortest route would take them over the Mediterranean Sea; however, since air thermals do not form over water, they generally detour over land to avoid the trans-Mediterranean flights that would require prolonged energetic wing flapping. It has been estimated that flapping flight metabolises 23 times more body fat than soaring flight per distance travelled. Thus, flocks spiral upwards on rising warm air until they emerge at the top, up to above the ground (though one record from Western Sudan observed an altitude of ).
Long flights over water may occasionally be undertaken. A young white stork ringed at the nest in Denmark subsequently appeared in England, where it spent some days before moving on. It was later seen flying over St Mary's, Isles of Scilly, and arrived in a poor condition in Madeira three days later. That island is 500 km (320 mi) from Africa, and twice as far from the European mainland. Migration through the Middle East may be hampered by the khamsin, winds bringing gusty overcast days unsuitable for flying. In these situations, flocks of white storks sit out the adverse weather on the ground, standing and facing into the wind.
Behaviour
The white stork is a gregarious bird; flocks of thousands of individuals have been recorded on migration routes and at wintering areas in Africa. Non-breeding birds gather in groups of 40 or 50 during the breeding season. The smaller dark-plumaged Abdim's stork is often encountered with white stork flocks in southern Africa. Breeding pairs of white stork may gather in small groups to hunt, and colony nesting has been recorded in some areas. However, groups among white stork colonies vary widely in size and the social structure is loosely defined; young breeding storks are often restricted to peripheral nests, while older storks attain higher breeding success while occupying the better quality nests toward the centres of breeding colonies. Social structure and group cohesion is maintained by altruistic behaviours such as allopreening. White storks exhibit this behaviour exclusively at the nest site. Standing birds preen the heads of sitting birds, sometimes these are parents grooming juveniles, and sometimes juveniles preen each other. Unlike most storks, it never adopts a spread-winged posture, though it is known to droop its wings (holding them away from its body with the primary feathers pointing downwards) when its plumage is wet.
A white stork's droppings, containing faeces and uric acid, are sometimes directed onto its own legs, making them appear white. The resulting evaporation provides cooling and is termed urohidrosis. Birds that have been ringed can sometimes be affected by the accumulation of droppings around the ring leading to constriction and leg trauma. The white stork has also been noted for tool use by squeezing moss in the beak to drip water into the mouths of its chicks.
Communication
The adult white stork's main sound is noisy bill-clattering, which has been likened to distant machine gun fire. The bird makes these sounds by rapidly opening and closing its beak so that a knocking sound is made each time its beak closes. The clattering is amplified by its throat pouch, which acts as a resonator. Used in a variety of social interactions, bill-clattering generally grows louder the longer it lasts, and takes on distinctive rhythms depending on the situation—for example, slower during copulation and briefer when given as an alarm call. The only vocal sound adult birds generate is a weak barely audible hiss; however, young birds can generate a harsh hiss, various cheeping sounds, and a cat-like mew they use to beg for food. Like the adults, young also clatter their beaks. The up-down display is used for a number of interactions with other members of the species. Here a stork quickly throws its head backwards so that its crown rests on its back before slowly bringing its head and neck forwards again, and this is repeated several times. The display is used as a greeting between birds, post coitus, and also as a threat display. Breeding pairs are territorial over the summer, and use this display, as well as crouching forward with the tails cocked and wings extended.
Breeding and lifespan
The white stork breeds in open farmland areas with access to marshy wetlands, building a large stick nest in trees, on buildings, or on purpose-built man-made platforms. Each nest is in depth, in diameter, and in weight. Nests are built in loose colonies. Not persecuted as it is viewed as a good omen, it often nests close to human habitation; in southern Europe, nests can be seen on churches and other buildings. The nest is typically used year after year especially by older males. The males arrive earlier in the season and choose the nests. Larger nests are associated with greater numbers of young successfully fledged, and appear to be sought after. Nest change is often related to a change in the pairing and failure to raise young the previous year, and younger birds are more likely to change nesting sites. Although a pair may be found to occupy a nest, partners may change several times during the early stages and breeding activities begin only after a stable pairing is achieved.
Several bird species often nest within the large nests of the white stork. Regular occupants are house sparrows, tree sparrows, and common starlings; less common residents include Eurasian kestrels, little owls, European rollers, white wagtails, black redstarts, Eurasian jackdaws, and Spanish sparrows. Paired birds greet by engaging in up-down and head-shaking crouch displays, and clattering the beak while throwing back the head. Pairs copulate frequently throughout the month before eggs are laid. High-frequency pair copulation is usually associated with sperm competition and high frequency of extra-pair copulation; however, extra-pair copulation is infrequent in white storks.
A white stork pair raises a single brood a year. The female typically lays four eggs, though clutches of one to seven have been recorded. The eggs are white, but often look dirty or yellowish due to a glutinous covering. They typically measure , and weigh , of which about is shell. Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid, so the brood hatches asynchronously, beginning 33 to 34 days later. The first hatchling typically has a competitive edge over the others. While stronger chicks are not aggressive towards weaker siblings, as is the case in some species, weak or small chicks are sometimes killed by their parents. This behaviour occurs in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings. White stork nestlings do not attack each other, and their parents' method of feeding them (disgorging large amounts of food at once) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly, hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size. Despite this, this behaviour has not commonly been observed.
The temperature and weather around the time of hatching in spring is important; cool temperatures and wet weather increase chick mortality and reduce breeding success rates. Somewhat unexpectedly, studies have found that later-hatching chicks which successfully reach adulthood produce more chicks than do their earlier-hatching nestmates. The body weight of the chicks increases rapidly in the first few weeks and reaches a plateau of about in 45 days. The length of the beak increases linearly for about 50 days. Young birds are fed with earthworms and insects, which are regurgitated by the parents onto the floor of the nest. Older chicks reach into the mouths of parents to obtain food. Chicks fledge 58 to 64 days after hatching.
White storks generally begin breeding when about four years old, although the age of first breeding has been recorded as early as two years and as late as seven years. The oldest known wild white stork lived for 39 years after being ringed in Switzerland, while captive birds have lived for more than 35 years.
Feeding
White storks consume a wide variety of animal prey. They prefer to forage in meadows that are within roughly 5 km (3 mi) of their nest and sites where the vegetation is shorter so that their prey is more accessible. Their diet varies according to season, locality and prey availability. Common food items include insects (primarily beetles, grasshoppers, locusts and crickets), earthworms, reptiles, amphibians, particularly frog species such as the edible frog (Pelophylax kl. esculentus) and common frog (Rana temporaria) and small mammals such as voles, moles and shrews. Less commonly, they also eat bird eggs and young birds, fish, molluscs, crustaceans and scorpions. They hunt mainly during the day, swallowing small prey whole, but killing and breaking apart larger prey before swallowing. Rubber bands are mistaken for earthworms and consumed, occasionally resulting in fatal blockage of the digestive tract.
Birds returning to Latvia during spring have been shown to locate their prey, moor frogs (Rana arvalis), by homing in on the mating calls produced by aggregations of male frogs.
The diet of non-breeding birds is similar to that of breeding birds, but food items are more often taken from dry areas. White storks wintering in western India have been observed to follow blackbuck to capture insects disturbed by them. Wintering white storks in India sometimes forage along with the woolly-necked stork (Ciconia episcopus). Food piracy has been recorded in India with a rodent captured by a western marsh harrier appropriated by a white stork, while Montagu's harrier is known to harass white storks foraging for voles in some parts of Poland. White storks can exploit landfill sites for food during the breeding season, migration period and winter.
Parasites and diseases
White stork nests are habitats for an array of small arthropods, particularly over the warmer months after the birds arrive to breed. Nesting over successive years, the storks bring more material to line their nests and layers of organic material accumulate within them. Not only do their bodies tend to regulate temperatures within the nest, but excrement, food remains and feather and skin fragments provide nourishment for a large and diverse population of free-living mesostigmatic mites. A survey of twelve nests found 13,352 individuals of 34 species, the most common being Macrocheles merdarius, M. robustulus, Uroobovella pyriformis and Trichouropoda orbicularis, which together represented almost 85% of all the specimens collected. These feed on the eggs and larvae of insects and on nematodes, which are abundant in the nest litter. These mites are dispersed by coprophilous beetles, often of the family Scarabaeidae, or on dung brought by the storks during nest construction. Parasitic mites do not occur, perhaps being controlled by the predatory species. The overall effect of the mite population is unclear, the mites may have a role in suppressing harmful organisms (and hence be beneficial), or they may themselves have an adverse effect on nestlings.
The birds themselves host species belonging to more than four genera of feather mites. These mites, including Freyanopterolichus pelargicus, Pseudogabucinia ciconiae, and Pelargolichus didactylus live on fungi growing on the feathers. The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin of the outer feathers or on feather oil. Chewing lice such as Colpocephalum zebra tend to be found on the wings, and Neophilopterus incompletus elsewhere on the body.
The white stork also carries several types of internal parasites, including Toxoplasma gondii and intestinal parasites of the genus Giardia. A study of 120 white stork carcasses from Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg in Germany yielded eight species of trematode (fluke), four cestode (tapeworm) species, and at least three species of nematode. One species of fluke, Chaunocephalus ferox, caused lesions in the wall of the small intestine in a number of birds admitted to two rehabilitation centres in central Spain, and was associated with reduced weight. It is a recognised pathogen and cause of morbidity in the Asian openbill (Anastomus oscitans). More recently, the thorough study performed by J. Sitko and P. Heneberg in the Czech Republic in 1962–2013 suggested that the central European white storks host 11 helminth species. Chaunocephalus ferox, Tylodelphys excavata and Dictymetra discoidea were reported to be the dominant ones. The other species found included Cathaemasia hians, Echinochasmus spinulosus, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinostoma sudanense, Duboisia syriaca, Apharyngostrigea cornu, Capillaria sp. and Dictymetra discoidea. Juvenile white storks were shown to host less species, but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adult storks.
West Nile virus (WNV) is mainly a bird infection that is transmitted between birds by mosquitos. Migrating birds appear to be important in spread of the virus, the ecology of which remains poorly known. On 26 August 1998, a flock of about 1,200 migrating white storks that had been blown off course on their southward journey landed in Eilat, in southern Israel. The flock was stressed as it had resorted to flapping flight to return to its migratory route, and a number of birds died. A virulent strain of West Nile virus was isolated from the brains of eleven dead juveniles. Other white storks subsequently tested in Israel have shown anti-WNV antibodies. In 2008 three juvenile white storks from a Polish wildlife refuge yielded seropositive results indicating exposure to the virus, but the context or existence of the virus in Poland is unclear.
Conservation
The white stork's decline due to industrialisation and agricultural changes (principally the draining of wetlands and conversion of meadows to crops such as maize) began in the 19th century: the last wild individual in Belgium was seen in 1895, in Sweden in 1955, in Switzerland in 1950 and in the Netherlands in 1991. However, the species has since been reintroduced to many regions. It has been rated as least concern by the IUCN since 1994, after being evaluated as near threatened in 1988. The white stork is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Parties to the agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies described in a detailed action plan. The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation, management of human activities, research, education, and implementation. Threats include the continued loss of wetlands, collisions with overhead power lines, use of persistent pesticides (such as DDT) to combat locusts in Africa, and largely illegal hunting on migration routes and wintering grounds.
A large population of white storks breeds in central (Poland, Ukraine and Germany) and southern Europe (Spain and Turkey). In a 2004/05 census, there were 52,500 pairs in Poland, 30,000 pairs in Ukraine, 20,000 pairs in Belarus, 13,000 pairs in Lithuania (the highest known density of this species in the world), 10,700 pairs in Latvia, and 10,200 in Russia. There were around 5,500 pairs in Romania, 5,300 in Hungary and an estimated 4,956 breeding pairs in Bulgaria. In Germany, the majority of the total 4,482 pairs were in the eastern region, especially in the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (1296 and 863 pairs in 2008 respectively). Apart from Spain and Portugal (33,217 and 7,684 pairs in 2004/05 respectively), populations are generally much less stable. The Danish population declined to just three pairs in 2005. In the eastern Mediterranean region Turkey has a sizeable population of 6,195 pairs, and Greece 2,139 pairs. In Western Europe the white stork remains a rare bird despite conservation efforts. In 2004 France had only 973 pairs, and the Netherlands 528 pairs. In Armenia the population of the white stork slightly increased in the period between 2005 and 2015, and by last data reached 652 pairs.
In the early 1980s, the population had fallen to fewer than nine pairs in the entire upper Rhine River valley, an area closely identified with the white stork for centuries. Conservation efforts successfully increased the population of birds there to 270 pairs (in 2008), largely due to the actions of the Association for the Protection and Reintroduction of Storks in Alsace and Lorraine. The reintroduction of zoo-reared birds has halted further declines in Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. There were 601 pairs breeding in Armenia and around 700 pairs in the Netherlands in 2008, and few pairs also breed in South Africa, typically recent colonists from within the normal wintering population. In Poland, electric poles have been modified with a platform at the top to prevent the white stork's large nest from disrupting the electricity supply, and sometimes nests are moved from an electric pole to a man-made platform. Introductions of zoo-reared birds in the Netherlands has been followed up by feeding and nest-building programs by volunteers. Similar reintroduction programs are taking place in Sweden, and Switzerland, where 175 pairs were recorded breeding in 2000. Long-term viability of the population in Switzerland is unclear as breeding success rates are low, and supplementary feeding does not appear to be of benefit. However, as of 2017, 470 adults and 757 young ones were recorded in Switzerland.
In August 2019, 24 juveniles were released at the Knepp Estate in West Sussex, and others at a site near Tunbridge Wells and at the Wintershall Estate, near Godalming, as part of a project to reintroduce the white stork as a breeding species in South East England, for the first time since 1416. In 2020, the program was successful with the birth of five baby storks.
Cultural associations
Due to its large size, predation on vermin, and nesting behaviour close to human settlements and on rooftops, the white stork has an imposing presence that has influenced human culture and folklore. The Hebrew word for the white stork is chasidah (חסידה), meaning "merciful" or "kind". Greek and Roman mythology portray storks as models of parental devotion. The 3rd century Roman writer Aelian citing the authority of Alexander of Myndus noted in his De natura animalium (book 3, chapter 23) that aged storks flew away to oceanic islands where they were transformed into humans as a reward for their piety towards their parents. The bird is featured in at least three of Aesop's Fables: The Fox and the Stork, The Farmer and the Stork, and The Frogs Who Desired a King. Storks were also thought to care for their aged parents, feeding them and even transporting them, and children's books depicted them as a model of filial values. A Greek law called Pelargonia, from the Ancient Greek word pelargos for stork, required citizens to take care of their aged parents. The Greeks also held that killing a stork could be punished with death. Storks were allegedly protected in Ancient Thessaly as they hunted snakes, and widely held to be Virgil's "white bird". Roman writers noted the white stork's arrival in spring, which alerted farmers to plant their vines.
Followers of Islam revered storks because they made an annual pilgrimage to Mecca on their migration. Some of the earliest understanding on bird migration were initiated by an interest in white storks; Pfeilstörche ("arrow storks") were found in Europe with African arrows embedded in their bodies. A well-known example of such a stork found in the summer of 1822 in the German town of Klütz in Mecklenburg was made into a mounted taxidermy specimen, complete with the ornate African arrow, that is now in the University of Rostock.
Storks have little fear of humans if not disturbed, and often nest on buildings in Europe. In Germany, the presence of a nest on a house was believed to protect against fires. They were also protected because of the belief that their souls were human. German, Dutch and Polish households would encourage storks to nest on houses, sometimes by constructing purpose-built high platforms, to bring good luck. Across much of Central and Eastern Europe it is believed that storks bring harmony to a family on whose property they nest.
The white stork is a popular motif on postage stamps, and it is featured on more than 120 stamps issued by more than 60 stamp-issuing entities. It is the national bird of Lithuania, Belarus and Poland, and it was a Polish mascot at the Expo 2000 Fair in Hanover. Storks nesting in Polish villages such as Żywkowo have made them tourist attractions, drawing 2000–5000 visitors a year in 2014. In the 19th century, storks were also thought to only live in countries having a republican form of government. Polish poet Cyprian Kamil Norwid mentioned storks in his poem Moja piosnka (II) ("My Song (II)"):
In 1942 Heinrich Himmler sought to use storks to carry Nazi propaganda leaflets so as to win support from the Boers in South Africa. The idea for this "Storchbein-Propaganda" plan was a secret that was transmitted by Walter Schellenberg to be examined by the German ornithologist Ernst Schüz at the Rossiten bird observatory, who pointed out that the probability of finding marked storks in Africa was less than one percent, requiring a 1000 birds to transmit 10 leaflets successfully. The plan was then dropped.
Storks and delivery of babies
According to European folklore, the stork is responsible for bringing babies to new parents. The legend is very ancient, but was popularised by a 19th-century Hans Christian Andersen story called "The Storks". German folklore held that storks found babies in caves or marshes and brought them to households in a basket on their backs or held in their beaks. These caves contained adebarsteine or "stork stones". The babies would then be given to the mother or dropped down the chimney. Households would notify when they wanted children by placing sweets for the stork on the window sill. From there the folklore has spread around the world to the Philippines and countries in South America. Birthmarks on the back of the head of newborn baby, nevus flammeus nuchae, are sometimes referred to as stork-bite.
In Slavic mythology and pagan religion, storks were thought to carry unborn souls from Vyraj to Earth in spring and summer. This belief still persists in the modern folk culture of many Slavic countries, in the simplified child story that "storks bring children into the world". Storks were seen by Early Slavs as bringing luck, and killing one would bring misfortune. A long-term study that showed a spurious correlation between the numbers of stork nests and human births is widely used in the teaching of basic statistics as an example to highlight that correlation does not necessarily indicate causation. The child-bringing myth has appeared in different forms in history. Children of African American slaves were sometimes told that white babies were brought by storks, while black babies were born from buzzard eggs.
Likewise, in Norse mythology, the god Hœnir, responsible for giving reason to the first humans, Ask and Embla, has been connected with the stork through his epithets long-legs and mud-king, along with Indo-European cognates such as Greek κύκνος 'swan' and Sanskrit शकुन.
Psychoanalyst Marvin Margolis suggests the enduring nature of the stork fable of the newborn is linked to its addressing a psychological need, in that it allays the discomfort of discussing sex and procreation with children. Birds have long been associated with the maternal symbols from pagan goddesses such as Juno to the Holy Ghost, and the stork may have been chosen for its white plumage (depicting purity) size, and flight at high altitude (likened to flying between Earth and Heaven). The fable and its relation to the internal world of the child have been discussed by Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. In fact, Jung recalled being told the story himself upon the birth of his own sister. The traditional link with the newborn continues with their use in advertising for such products as nappies and baby announcements.
There were negative aspects to stork folklore as well; a Polish folk tale relates how God made the stork's plumage white, while the Devil gave it black wings, imbuing it with both good and evil impulses. They were also associated with handicapped or stillborn babies in Germany, explained as the stork having dropped the baby en route to the household, or as revenge or punishment for past wrongdoing. A mother who was confined to bed around the time of childbirth was said to have been "bitten" by the stork. In Denmark, storks were said to toss a nestling off the nest and then an egg in successive years. In medieval England, storks were also associated with adultery, possibly inspired by their courtship rituals. Their preening and posture saw them linked with the attribute of self-conceit.
See also
Klepetan and Malena
Notes
Citations
Works cited
External links
Feathers of white stork (Ciconia ciconia)
Educational video about white stork (Ciconia ciconia)
white stork
Birds of Africa
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of Europe
Birds of Western Asia
white stork
white stork
National symbols of Lithuania | [
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237785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Creek%2C%20Belize | Big Creek, Belize | Big Creek or Cala Grande is a deep-water port facility on the Caribbean Sea in Belize's Toledo District (just south of the boundary with Stann Creek District), constructed in the 1990s. It is the nation's second largest port, after Belize City. Big Creek is the main port for Belize's banana industry; citrus fruit and shrimp are also exported from here. It is also the location from which oil, extracted from the fields of Spanish Lookout, is exported.
Facilities
The port is ISPS certified and has 3 berths. Cargoes handled include bananas, citrus fruit and petroleum.
Hurricanes
The port is not a designated safe harbour with regard to hurricane preparedness.
Big Creek was the location in which the Peter Hughes dive boat "Wave Dancer" capsized during Hurricane Iris in October 2001, killing 20 persons, comprising 3 crew members and 17 vacationing divers from Richmond, Virginia.
References
External links
Populated places in Toledo District
Port cities in the Caribbean
Ports and harbours of Belize | [
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237788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayoquot%20Sound | Clayoquot Sound | Clayoquot Sound is located on the west coast of Vancouver Island in the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is bordered by the Esowista Peninsula to the south, and the Hesquiaht Peninsula to the North. It is a body of water with many inlets and islands. Major inlets include Sydney Inlet, Shelter Inlet, Herbert Inlet, Bedwell Inlet, Lemmens Inlet, and Tofino Inlet. Major islands include Flores Island, Vargas Island, and Meares Island. The name is also used for the larger region of land around the waterbody (essentially its watershed).
Origin of the name
The name Clayoquot is derived from the name of a subgroup of the Nuu-chah-nulth, who lived at Clayoqua. In the late 20th century, this group merged into the multi-group band government known as the , meaning "different" or "changing" in their language.
History
First Nations have inhabited the area for thousands of years. The oldest dated location within Nuu-cha-nulth territory is 4,200 years (at Yuquot, Nootka Island). Because post-glacial sea-levels are known to have risen, overtaking earlier locations, most scholars will date the beginnings of human habitation beyond 9,000 years BP before present.
In the late 18th century, Clayoquot Sound and the Native American peoples were explored by ship by various Europeans and Americans who were involved mainly in the fur trade. In 1791, the complex inner waters were explored and mapped by José María Narváez and Juan Carrasco; their commander, Francisco de Eliza, met and befriended Wickaninnish, the chief of the peoples.
These explorers recognized the region's wealth of natural resources. These resources attracted growing numbers of non-First Nations peoples, who limited First Nation access to land, and generated resentment among the locals. Government support of private company resource extraction allowed for the growth of such industry over time. Logging companies were active in harvesting timber in the Clayoquot Sound area as late as the 1980s and 1990s.
Logging protests
In the late 20th century, First Nations became more active in trying to defend their rights and resources. They developed Native lobbying organizations and insisted on negotiations regarding governmental policies about such resources. In the late 1980s, the situation escalated when the government approved MacMillan Bloedel Corporation's permit to log Meares Island.
The First Nations peoples expressed their opposition to the MacMillan Bloedel Corporation logging in the Clayoquot Sound by several peaceful protests and blockades of logging roads from 1980 to 1994. In the summer of 1993, over 800 protestors were arrested, and many were tried for interfering with approved industry. Protestors included members of the local First Nation and Ahousaht First Nation bands, as well as NDP MP Svend Robinson, and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of Clayoquot Sound.
International mass media covered the protests and blockades, helping to create national support for environmental movements in British Columbia and foster strong advocacy for anti-logging campaigns. Media reported the perceived injustice of numerous individuals being arrested for joining peaceful protests and blockades. In some cases, law enforcement responded aggressively, which eventually helped strengthen public support for non-violent protests.
After the 1990 protests, the provincial government made its first significant change in policy. It commissioned a scientific panel to examine issues related to Clayoquot Sound. In July 1995, the Forests Minister of British Columbia, Andrew Petter, and the Environment Minister, Elizabeth Cull, officially accepted the 127 panel recommendations, on behalf of the NDP government.
Members of Greenpeace were reported to play a significant role in these protests and instigated a boycott of BC forest products to apply pressure on the industry. After the government accepted the scientific panel's recommendations, specifically deferring logging until an inventory of pristine areas was completed, Greenpeace lifted the boycott. After the inventory, the government reduced the Annual Allowable Cut, and clear-cuts in the area were limited to a maximum of four hectares. In addition, once biological and cultural inventories were completed, the government required Eco-Based Planning.
Salmon farming and related controversy
The sound's ecological features have made it a major site for the farming of salmon, a fish traditional to this area. Floating feedlots have been installed, consisting of giant fenced pens. There are roughly twenty such farms in operation. A massive die-off of fish, possibly linked to an algal bloom caused by the intensive farming operation, occurred in 2019.
The densely packed farms have the disadvantage of providing conditions that allow for the rapid spread of disease. A highly contagious virus variant found in Norwegian salmon farms has been found in Clayoquot Sound farmed salmon. Environmental advocacy organizations have stated such events are evidence of the environmental damage associated with this type of fish farming. The British Columbia provincial government has closed other salmon farming sites on Vancouver Island. For instance, it is phasing out salmon farms by 2022 in the Discovery Islands on Vancouver Island's east side.
Indigenous peoples and governments
The members of three major First Nations band governments of the peoples inhabit the Clayoquot Sound: the Hesquiaht in the North, the Ahousaht in the middle, and the in the south. The latter group is based in the village of Opitsaht on Meares Island. The village of Tofino lies opposite Opitsaht on the southern promontory of the entrance to the sound.
In 1985, for the first time in British Columbia history, the courts froze resource development on crown land because of a related Aboriginal title claim. Chiefs of the Ahousaht and first nations obtained an injunction halting logging on Meares Island in Clayoquot Sound pending treaty negotiations with the provincial government. These negotiations resulted in the provincial government and first nations signing the Interim Measures Act (IMA) on March 19, 1994. (This followed protests in 1993 that gained international coverage on this issue, increasing the pressure.) Since the IMA was signed, the First Nations and government have negotiated to co-manage local land and resources, including economic development strategies.
With the reduction in logging in this area, in the early 21st century, the communities surrounding Clayoquot Sound (Tofino, Ucluelet, and Ahousaht) have been developing new sources of income. They are emphasizing ecotourism and selective logging, based on co-management strategies.
Ecology, parks and terrain
The land around Clayoquot Sound includes vast coastal temperate rain forest, rivers, lakes, marine areas and beaches. It includes part of the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve and some of Strathcona Provincial Park. The total size of the Clayoquot Sound region, including both land and water, is .
More than have been included as the subject of a multi-year study using Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping (TEM) to identify areas prone to geologic and geomorphic hazards, in particular, landslides, soil erosion, and sedimentation. The study is also to identify and characterize terrain conditions associated with these hazards. The region contains the largest area of intact (unlogged) temperate rainforest left on Vancouver Island.
Clayoquot Sound is home to wolves, black bears, cougars, grey whales, orcas, porpoises, seals, sea lions, river otters, bald eagles, osprey, marbled murrelets, Pacific loons, Roosevelt elk, martens, and raccoons.
In 2000, Clayoquot Sound Biosphere Reserve was designated as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. The designation created world recognition of Clayoquot Sound's biological diversity, and a $12M monetary fund to "support research, education and training in the Biosphere region".
At the end of July 2006, a new set of Watershed Plans was approved for Clayoquot Sound. This enabled logging in some of the forest, including pristine old-growth valleys. As of 2007, both logging tenures within Clayoquot Sound are controlled by aboriginal-owned logging companies Iisaak Forest Resources controls Timber Forest License (TFL) 57 in Clayoquot Sound, and MaMook Natural Resources Ltd, in conjunction with Coulson Forest Products, manages TFL54 in Clayoquot Sound.
See also
Kennedy Lake
Cougar Annie
Clayoquot Arm Provincial Park
Clayoquot Plateau Provincial Park
Great Bear Rainforest
References
External links
Integrated Land Management Bureau, Government of British Columbia website
Biosphere reserves of Canada
Old-growth forests
Sounds of British Columbia
Clayoquot Sound region
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237789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les%20Mis%C3%A9rables%20%28musical%29 | Les Misérables (musical) | Les Misérables (; ), colloquially known as Les Mis or Les Miz (), is a sung-through musical and an adaptation of Victor Hugo's 1862 novel of the same name, by Claude-Michel Schönberg (music), Alain Boublil and Jean-Marc Natel (original French lyrics), and Herbert Kretzmer (English lyrics). The original French musical premiered in Paris in 1980 with direction by Robert Hossein. Its English-language adaptation by producer Cameron Mackintosh has been running in London since October 1985, making it the longest-running musical in the West End and the second longest-running musical in the world after the original Off-Broadway run of The Fantasticks.
Set in early 19th-century France, Les Misérables is the story of Jean Valjean, a French peasant, and his desire for redemption, released in 1815 after serving nineteen years in jail for stealing a loaf of bread for his sister's starving child. Valjean decides to break his parole and start his life anew after a bishop inspires him with a tremendous act of mercy, but a police inspector named Javert refuses to let him escape justice and pursues him for most of the play. Along the way, Valjean and a slew of characters are swept into a revolutionary period in France, where a group of young idealists attempt to overthrow the government at a street barricade in Paris.
Background
Les Misérables was originally released as a French-language concept album, and the first musical-stage adaptation of Les Misérables was presented at the Palais des Sports in 1980.
In 1983, about six months after producer Cameron Mackintosh had opened Cats on Broadway, he received a copy of the French concept album from director Peter Farago. Farago had been impressed by the work and asked Mackintosh to produce an English-language version of the show. Initially reluctant, Mackintosh eventually agreed. Mackintosh, in conjunction with the Royal Shakespeare Company, assembled a production team to adapt the French musical for a British audience. After two years in development, the English-language version opened in London on 8 October 1985, by the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Barbican Centre, then the London home of the RSC. The success of the West End musical led to a Broadway production.
Critical reception and milestones
Les Misérables has received widespread critical acclaim, and audiences have often cited it as one of the greatest musicals ever composed. However, this was not always the case. Initially, critical reviews for Les Misérables were negative. At the opening of the London production, The Sunday Telegraphs Francis King described the musical as "a lurid Victorian melodrama produced with Victorian lavishness" and Michael Ratcliffe of The Observer considered the show "a witless and synthetic entertainment", while literary scholars condemned the project for converting classic literature into a musical. Public opinion differed: the box office received record orders. The three-month engagement sold out, and reviews improved. The original London production ran from October 1985 to July 2019, playing over 13,000 performances and making it the second longest-running musical in the world after The Fantasticks, the second longest-running West End show after The Mousetrap, and the longest-running musical in the West End. On 3 October 2010, the show celebrated its 25th anniversary with three productions running in London: the original production at the Queen's Theatre; the 25th Anniversary touring production at the Barbican Centre; and the 25th Anniversary concert at London's O2 Arena.
The Broadway production opened 12 March 1987 and ran until 18 May 2003, closing after 6,680 performances. At the time of its closing, it was the second-longest running musical in Broadway history. As of 2019, it remains the sixth longest-running Broadway show. The show was nominated for 12 Tony Awards, at that time a record number, of which it won eight, including Best Musical and Best Original Score.
Subsequently, numerous tours and international and regional productions have been staged, as well as concert and broadcast productions. Several recordings have also been made. A Broadway revival opened in 2006 at the Broadhurst Theatre and closed in 2008, and a second Broadway revival opened in 2014 at the Imperial Theatre and closed in September 2016. The show was placed first in a BBC Radio 2 listener poll of Britain's "Number One Essential Musicals" in 2005, receiving more than forty percent of the votes. A film version directed by Tom Hooper was released at the end of 2012 to generally positive reviews as well as numerous awards nominations, winning three Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards and four British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA).
Emblem
The musical's emblem is a picture of the waif Cosette sweeping the Thénardiers' inn (which occurs in the musical during "Castle on a Cloud"). It is usually cropped to a head-and-shoulders portrait, superimposed on the French flag. The image is based on an etching by Gustave Brion, which in turn was based on the drawing by Émile Bayard. Bayard's drawing appeared in several of the novel's earliest French-language editions.
Synopsis
Prologue
In 1815 in France, a chain gang of prisoners work at hard labor ("Prologue: Work Song"). After 19 years in prison (five for stealing bread for his sister's starving son and her family, and the rest for trying to escape), Jean Valjean, "prisoner 24601,” is released on parole by the prison guard Javert. By law, Valjean must display a yellow ticket of leave, which identifies him as an ex-convict ("On Parole").
As a convict, Valjean is shunned wherever he goes and cannot find regular work with decent wages or lodging, but the Bishop of Digne offers him food and shelter. Desperate and embittered, Valjean steals the Bishop's silver, angering a farmer and other merchants as he flees. He is captured by the police, but rather than turn him in, the Bishop lies and tells the police that the silver was a gift, giving Valjean a pair of silver candlesticks in addition. The Bishop tells Valjean that he must use the silver "to become an honest man" and that he has "bought (Valjean's) soul for God" ("Valjean Arrested, Valjean Forgiven"). Humbled by the Bishop's kindness, Valjean resolves to redeem his sins ("Valjean's Soliloquy (What Have I Done?)") and tears up his yellow ticket, breaking his parole but giving himself a chance to start a new life free from the stigma of his criminal past.
Act I
Eight years later, in 1823, Jean Valjean has assumed a new identity as Monsieur Madeleine, a wealthy factory owner and mayor of Montreuil-sur-Mer. Fantine is a single mother working in his factory, trying to support her daughter Cosette, who is being raised by an innkeeper and his wife while Fantine labours in the city. Unbeknownst to Valjean, the factory foreman lusts after Fantine, and when she rejects his advances, he takes it out on the other workers, who resent her for it. One day, a coworker steals a letter about Cosette from Fantine, revealing to the other workers that Fantine has a child. A fight breaks out, and the foreman and other workers use the incident as a pretence to fire Fantine ("At the End of the Day"). Fantine reflects on her broken dreams and about Cosette's father, who abandoned them both ("I Dreamed a Dream"). Desperate for money, she sells her locket and hair, finally becoming a prostitute ("Lovely Ladies"), and attracts local sailors. When she fights back against an abusive customer, Bamatabois, Javert, now a police inspector stationed in Montreuil-sur-Mer, arrives to arrest her. Valjean, passing by the scene, pities Fantine, and when he realises she once worked for him and that she blames him for her misfortune, he is guilt-stricken. He orders Javert to release her and takes her to a hospital ("Fantine's Arrest").
Soon afterwards, Valjean rescues a man, Fauchelevent, who is pinned by a runaway cart ("The Runaway Cart"). Javert, who has up until now not recognised Valjean, though he has pursued him as a fugitive all these years, witnesses the incident and becomes suspicious, remembering the incredible strength Valjean displayed in the work camp. However, it turns out a man who looks like Valjean has been arrested, and is about to go to trial for breaking parole. The real Valjean realises that this case of mistaken identity could free him forever, but he is not willing to see an innocent man go to prison in his place. He confesses his identity to the court ("Who Am I? (The Trial)"). At the hospital, a delirious Fantine dreams of Cosette. Valjean promises to find Cosette and protect her ("Come to Me (Fantine's Death)"). Relieved, Fantine succumbs to her illness and dies. Javert arrives to take Valjean back into custody, but Valjean asks Javert for time to fetch Cosette. Javert refuses, insisting that a criminal like Valjean can never change for the better. They struggle, but Valjean overpowers Javert and escapes ("The Confrontation").
In Montfermeil, the duplicitous innkeepers, the Thénardiers, use Cosette as a servant and treat her cruelly while extorting money from Fantine by claiming that Cosette is regularly and seriously ill, as well as demanding money to feed and clothe Cosette, all the while indulging their own daughter, Éponine. Cosette dreams of a life with a mother where she is not forced to work and is treated lovingly ("Castle on a Cloud"). The Thénardiers cheat their customers, stealing their possessions and setting high prices for low-quality service, and live a life of criminal depravity ("Master of the House"). Valjean meets Cosette while she's on an errand drawing water and offers the Thénardiers payment to adopt her ("The Bargain"). The Thénardiers feign concern for Cosette, claiming that they love her like a daughter and that she is in fragile health, and bargain with Valjean, who pays them 1,500 francs in the end. Valjean and Cosette leave for Paris ("The Waltz of Treachery").
Nine years later, in 1832, Paris is in upheaval because of the impending death of General Lamarque, the only man in the government who shows mercy to the poor. Among those mingling in the streets are the student revolutionaries Marius Pontmercy and Enjolras, who contemplate the effect Lamarque's death will have on the poor and desperate in Paris; the Thénardiers, who have since lost their inn and now run a street gang which consists of thugs Brujon, Babet, Claquesous, and Montparnasse; the Thénardiers’ daughter Éponine, who is now grown and has fallen in love with her best friend, Marius (who is oblivious of her affections); and the streetwise young urchin Gavroche, who knows everything that happens in the slums ("Look Down"). The Thénardiers prepare to con some charitable visitors, who turn out to be Valjean and Cosette, who has grown into a beautiful young woman. While the gang bamboozles her father, Cosette runs into Marius, and the pair fall in love at first sight. Thénardier suddenly recognises Valjean, but before they can finish the robbery, Javert, now an inspector stationed in Paris, comes to the rescue ("The Robbery"). Valjean and Cosette escape, and only later (when Thénardier tips him off) does Javert suspect who they were. Javert makes a vow to the stars – which represent his belief in a just and ordered universe where suffering is a punishment for sin – that he will find Valjean and recapture him ("Stars"). Meanwhile, Marius persuades Éponine to help him find Cosette ("Éponine's Errand").
At a small café, Enjolras exhorts a group of idealistic students to prepare for revolution. Marius interrupts the serious atmosphere by fantasising about his new-found love, much to the amusement of his compatriots, particularly the wine-loving Grantaire ("The ABC Café/Red and Black"). When Gavroche brings the news of General Lamarque's death, the students realise that they can use the public's dismay to incite their revolution, and that their time has come ("Do You Hear the People Sing?"). At Valjean's house, Cosette thinks about her chance meeting with Marius. She confronts Valjean about the secrets he keeps about his and her own past ("Rue Plumet/In My Life"). Éponine leads Marius to Cosette's garden. He and Cosette meet again and confess their mutual love, while a heartbroken Éponine watches them through the garden gate and laments that Marius has fallen in love with another ("A Heart Full of Love"). Thénardier and his gang arrive, intending to rob Valjean's house, but Éponine stops them by screaming a warning ("The Attack on Rue Plumet"). The scream alerts Valjean, who believes that the intruder was Javert. He tells Cosette that it's time once again for them to go on the run, and starts planning for them to flee France altogether.
On the eve of the 1832 Paris Uprising, Valjean prepares to go into exile; Cosette and Marius part in despair; Enjolras encourages all of Paris to join the revolution; the other students prepare for battle; Éponine acknowledges despairingly that Marius will never love her; Marius is conflicted whether to follow Cosette or join the uprising; Javert reveals his plans to spy on the students; and the Thénardiers scheme to profit off the coming violence. Marius decides to stand with his friends, and all anticipate what the dawn will bring ("One Day More").
Act II
As the students build a barricade to serve as their rally point, Javert, disguised as a rebel, volunteers to "spy" on the government troops. Marius discovers that Éponine has disguised herself as a boy to join the rebels and, wanting to keep his best friend safe from the impending violence, he sends her to deliver a farewell letter to Cosette. ("Building the Barricade (Upon These Stones)") Valjean intercepts the letter and learns about Marius and Cosette's romance. Éponine walks the streets of Paris alone, imagining that Marius is there with her, but laments that her love for Marius will never be reciprocated ("On My Own").
The French army arrives at the barricade and demands that the students surrender ("At the Barricade"). Though Javert tells the students that the government will not attack that night ("Javert's Arrival"), Gavroche recognises him and quickly exposes him as a spy, and the students detain him ("Little People"). Their plan is to spark a general uprising with their act of defiance, hoping that all the people of Paris will side with them and overwhelm the army. Éponine returns to find Marius but is shot by the soldiers crossing the barricade. As Marius holds her, she assures him that she feels no pain and reveals her love for him before dying in his arms ("A Little Fall of Rain (Eponine's Death)"). The students mourn this first loss of life at the barricades and resolve to fight in her name. Enjolras attempts to comfort Marius, who is devastated and heartbroken over the death of his best friend. Valjean arrives at the barricade, crossing the government lines, disguised as a soldier ("Night of Anguish"), hoping that he might somehow protect Marius in the coming battle for Cosette's sake. The rebels are suspicious of him at first, but when the army attacks, Valjean saves Enjolras by shooting at a sniper and scaring him off, and they accept him as one of them. In return, he asks Enjolras to allow him to be the one to execute the imprisoned Javert, which Enjolras grants. But as soon as Valjean and Javert are alone, Valjean frees Javert. Javert warns Valjean that he will not give up his pursuit and rejects what he perceives as a bargain for Valjean's freedom. Valjean says there are no conditions to his release, and holds no grudges toward Javert for doing his duty ("The First Attack").
The students settle down for the night and reminisce about the past while also expressing anxiety about the battle to come. Enjolras tells the other students to stay awake in case the enemy strikes unexpectedly in the night, but he tells Marius to get some sleep, knowing Marius is still much too devastated over losing Éponine to stay awake. Grantaire gets angry and asks the students if they fear to die. Marius wonders if Cosette will remember him if he does ("Drink with Me"). As Marius sleeps, Valjean prays to God to protect Marius, even if the cost for Marius' safety is his own life ("Bring Him Home"). As dawn approaches, Enjolras realises that the people of Paris have not risen up with them, but resolves to fight on in spite of the impossible odds ("Dawn of Anguish"). Their resolve is fired even further when the army kills Gavroche, who snuck out to collect ammunition from bodies on the other side of the barricade ("The Second Attack (Death of Gavroche)"). The army gives a final warning, but the rebels fight to the last man with Enjolras exhorting "Let others rise to take our place, until the Earth is free!". Everyone at the barricade is killed except Valjean and a gravely wounded Marius, who escape into the sewers ("The Final Battle"). Javert returns to the barricade, searching for Valjean amongst the bodies, and finds the open sewer grating.
Valjean carries Marius through the sewers but collapses in exhaustion. While he is unconscious, Thénardier, who has been looting bodies, comes upon them and takes a ring from the unconscious Marius, but flees when Valjean (whom he again recognises) regains consciousness ("Dog Eats Dog"). When Valjean carries Marius to the sewer's exit, he finds Javert waiting for him. Valjean begs Javert for one hour to bring Marius to a doctor, and Javert reluctantly agrees. Javert finds himself unable to reconcile Valjean's merciful acts with his conception of Valjean as an irredeemable criminal. Refusing to compromise his principles but no longer able to hold them sacred, he finds himself torn between his beliefs about God and his desire to adhere to the law. He is unable to reconcile and commits suicide by throwing himself into the Seine ("Javert's Suicide").
In the wake of the failed revolution, women mourn the deaths of the students ("Turning"). Marius, wounded but alive, despairs at the death of his friends and sees that their sacrifice was for nothing ("Empty Chairs at Empty Tables"). As he wonders who saved his own life, Cosette comforts him, and they reaffirm their blossoming romance. Valjean realises that Cosette will not need him as a caretaker once she's married and gives them his blessing ("Every Day"). Valjean confesses to Marius that he is an escaped convict and must go away because his presence endangers Cosette ("Valjean's Confession"), making Marius promise never to tell Cosette. A few months later, Marius and Cosette marry ("Wedding Chorale"). The Thénardiers crash the reception disguised as nobility and attempt to blackmail Marius, telling him that Valjean is a murderer and that Thénardier saw him carrying a corpse in the sewers after the barricades fell. When Thénardier shows him the ring he stole as proof, Marius realises that it was Valjean who saved his life. The newlyweds leave to find Valjean (in some productions, Marius pauses to give Thénardier a punch in the face). The Thénardiers are not discouraged, instead gloating that their craven practicality has saved their lives time and time again ("Beggars at the Feast").
At a convent, Valjean awaits his death, having nothing left to live for. The spirit of Fantine appears to him and tells him that he has been forgiven and will soon be with God. Cosette and Marius arrive to find Valjean near death. Valjean thanks God for letting him live long enough to see Cosette again, and Marius thanks him for saving his life ("Valjean's Death"). Valjean gives Cosette a letter confessing his troubled past and the truth about her mother. As he dies, the spirits of Fantine and Éponine guide him to Heaven reminding him that "to love another person is to see the face of God". They are joined by the spirits of those who died at the barricades, who sing that in the next world, God lays low all tyranny and frees all oppressed people from their shackles ("Do You Hear The People Sing? (Reprise)").
Musical numbers
Instrumentation
The standard orchestration for the 2009 U.K. tour of Les Misérables consisted of:
Bass
Cello
Horn 1
Horn 2
Keyboard 1
Keyboard 2
Percussion
Reed 1 (Alto Flute, Alto Recorder, Flute, Piccolo)
Reed 2 (Cor Anglais, Oboe)
Reed 3 (B♭ Clarinet, Bass Clarinet, E♭ Clarinet, Tenor Recorder)
Trombone/ Tuba
Trumpet/ Flugelhorn
Viola
Violin
Characters
Casts
Original casts
Notable replacements
West End (1985- )
Jean Valjean: Dave Willetts, Dudu Fisher, Martin Smith, John Owen-Jones, Simon Bowman, Drew Sarich, Alfie Boe, Ramin Karimloo, Peter Lockyer, Simon Gleeson, Killian Donnelly, Jon Robyns, Antony Hansen (u/s)
Javert: Clive Carter, Philip Quast, David Burt, Michael McCarthy, Jérôme Pradon, Earl Carpenter, Norm Lewis, Hadley Fraser, Hayden Tee, David Thaxton, Michael Ball
Fantine: Kathleen Rowe McAllen, Ruthie Henshall, Gunilla Backman, Carmen Cusack, Joanna Ampil, Kerry Ellis, Allyson Brown, Madalena Alberto, Caroline Sheen, Sierra Boggess, Celinde Schoenmaker, Na-Young Jeon, Rachelle Ann Go, Carley Stenson, Carrie Hope Fletcher, Lucie Jones, Dianne Pilkington (u/s)
Thénardier: Peter Polycarpou, Barry James, Chris Langham, Martin Ball, Stephen Tate, Matt Lucas
Madame Thénardier: Jenny Galloway, Gay Soper, Louise Plowright, Tracie Bennett, Claire Moore, Vicky Entwistle, Linzi Hateley, Jodie Prenger, Josefina Gabrielle
Cosette: Myrra Malmberg, Gina Beck, Celia Graham, Katie Hall, Lucie Jones, Dianne Pilkington (u/s)
Marius: Martin Smith, Simon Bowman, Glenn Carter, Hadley Fraser, Jon Lee, Hayden Tee, Jon Robyns, Alistair Brammer, Gareth Gates, Nick Jonas, Antony Hansen (u/s)
Éponine: Linzi Hateley, Meredith Braun, Lea Salonga, Joanna Ampil, Laura Michelle Kelly, Caroline Sheen, Shonagh Daly, Sabrina Aloueche, Nancy Sullivan, Samantha Barks, Alexia Khadime, Danielle Hope, Carrie Hope Fletcher, Eva Noblezada, Helen Owen (u/s)
Enjolras: John Owen-Jones, Ramin Karimloo, Oliver Thornton, Jon Robyns, David Thaxton, Killian Donnelly
Gavroche: Jonathan Bailey, Daniel Huttlestone
Broadway (1987-2003)
Jean Valjean: Gary Morris, Dudu Fisher, Robert Marien, Rob Evan, John Cudia (u/s), Mike Eldred (u/s)
Javert: Anthony Crivello, Robert Westenberg, Chuck Wagner, Robert Cuccioli, Gregg Edelman, Shuler Hensley, Michael McCarthy, Jeff McCarthy, Stephen Bogardus (u/s), Robert Hunt (u/s)
Fantine: Maureen Moore, Laurie Beechman, Rachel York, Donna Kane, Andrea McArdle, Debbie Gravitte, Catherine Hickland, Paige O'Hara, Melba Moore, Alice Ripley, Lauren Kennedy, Jacquelyn Piro Donovan, Ann Crumb (u/s), Marla Schaffel (u/s)
Thénardier: Ed Dixon, Nick Wyman
Madame Thénardier: Betsy Joslyn, Olga Merediz (u/s), Jessica Molaskey (u/s), Liz McCartney (u/s)
Cosette: Jacquelyn Piro Donovan, Sarah Litzsinger (u/s), Megan Lawrence (u/s), Elena Shaddow (u/s), Jennifer Paz (u/s)
Marius: Hugh Panaro, Eric Kunze, Matthew Porretta, Peter Lockyer, Ricky Martin, Chris Diamantopoulos, Kevin Kern, Marcus Lovett (u/s), Hunter Foster (u/s), Max von Essen (u/s)
Éponine: Natalie Toro, Debbie Gibson, Lea Salonga, Sarah Uriarte Berry, Shanice, Jessica Boevers, Catherine Brunell, Kerry Butler, Megan Lawrence, Diana Kaarina, Sarah Litzsinger (u/s), Sutton Foster (u/s), Jennifer Paz (u/s)
Enjolras: Ron Bohmer, Gary Mauer (u/s), Kevin Earley (u/s), Darren Ritchie (u/s)
Gavroche: Michael Shulman, Jarrod Spector, Jason Tam, Michael Zeidman, Grant Rosenmeyer, Harrison Chad, Nick Jonas
Young Cosette: Daisy Eagan, Eden Riegel, Savannah Wise, Lacey Chabert, Nathalie Paulding, Lea Michele, Alicia Morton, Andrea Bowen, Janel Parrish
Broadway revival (2006–08)
Jean Valjean: Drew Sarich, John Owen-Jones, Jeff Kready (u/s)
Javert: Drew Sarich, Robert Hunt
Fantine: Lea Salonga, Judy Kuhn
Thénardier: Chip Zien
Madame Thénardier: Ann Harada
Éponine: Mandy Bruno, Megan McGinnis
Enjolras: Max von Essen
Broadway revival (2014–16)
Jean Valjean: Alfie Boe, John Owen-Jones, Kyle Jean-Baptiste (u/s)
Javert: Earl Carpenter, Hayden Tee
Fantine: Erika Henningsen, Montego Glover, Alison Luff, Desi Oakley (u/s)
Thénardier: Gavin Lee
Marius: Chris McCarrell
Filmed Concert casts
Productions
Sit-down productions
Original French production
Alain Boublil's initial idea to adapt Victor Hugo's novel into a musical came while at a performance of the musical Oliver! in London:
As soon as the Artful Dodger came onstage, Gavroche came to mind. It was like a blow to the solar plexus. I started seeing all the characters of Victor Hugo's Les Misérables—Valjean, Javert, Gavroche, Cosette, Marius, and Éponine—in my mind's eye, laughing, crying, and singing onstage.
He shared the idea with French composer Claude-Michel Schönberg, and the two developed a rough synopsis and analysis of each character's mental and emotional state, as well as that of an audience. Schönberg then began work on the music, while Boublil the text. According to Boublil, "I could begin work on the words. This I did—after myself deciding on the subject and title of every song—in collaboration with my friend, poet Jean-Marc Natel." Two years later, a two-hour demo tape of Schönberg accompanying himself on the piano and singing every role was completed. An album of this collaboration was recorded at CTS Studios in Wembley and was released in 1980, selling 260,000 copies.
The concept album includes Maurice Barrier as Jean Valjean, Jacques Mercier as Javert, Rose Laurens as Fantine, Yvan Dautin as Thénardier, Marie-France Roussel as Mme. Thénardier, Richard Dewitte as Marius, Fabienne Guyon as Cosette, Marie-France Dufour as Éponine, Michel Sardou as Enjolras, Fabrice Bernard as Gavroche, Maryse Cédolin as Young Cosette, Claude-Michel Schönberg as Courfeyrac, Salvatore Adamo as Combeferre, Michel Delpech as Feuilly, Dominique Tirmont as M. Gillenormand, and Mireille as the hair buyer.
That year, in September 1980, a stage version directed by veteran French film director Robert Hossein was produced at the Palais des Sports in Paris. The show was a success, with 100 performances seen by over 500,000 people.
Most of the cast from the concept album performed in the production. The cast included Maurice Barrier as Valjean, Jean Vallée as Javert, Rose Laurens as Fantine, Maryse Cédolin and Sylvie Camacho and Priscilla Patron as Young Cosette, Marie-France Roussel as Mme. Thénardier, Yvan Dautin as M. Thénardier, Florence Davis and Fabrice Ploquin and Cyrille Dupont as Gavroche, Marianne Mille as Éponine, Gilles Buhlmann as Marius, Christian Ratellin as Enjolras, Fabienne Guyon as Cosette, René-Louis Baron as Combeferre, Dominique Tirmont as M. Gillenormand, Anne Forrez as Mlle. Gillenormand, and Claude Reva as the storyteller.
Original London production
The English-language version, with lyrics by Herbert Kretzmer and additional material by James Fenton, was substantially expanded and reworked from a literal translation by Siobhan Bracke of the original Paris version, in particular adding a prologue to tell Jean Valjean's background story. Kretzmer's lyrics are not a direct translation of the French, a term that Kretzmer refused to use. A third of the English lyrics were a rough translation, another third were adapted from the French lyrics and the final third consisted of new material. The majority is performed in recitative style; the vocalists use natural speech, not musical metrics.
The first production in English, produced by Cameron Mackintosh and adapted and directed by Trevor Nunn and John Caird, played to preview performances beginning on 28 September 1985 and formally opened on 8 October 1985 at the Barbican Centre, London. It was billed in the programme as "The Royal Shakespeare Company presentation of the RSC/Cameron Mackintosh production".
The set was designed by John Napier, costumes by Andreane Neofitou and lighting by David Hersey. Musical supervision and orchestrations were by John Cameron, who had been involved with the show since Boublil and Schönberg hired him to orchestrate the original French concept album. Musical staging was by Kate Flatt with musical direction by Martin Koch.
The original London cast included Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, Roger Allam as Javert, Ken Caswell as the Bishop of Digne, Patti LuPone as Fantine, Zoë Hart, Justine McIntyre, Jayne O'Mahony and Joanne Woodcock as Young Cosette, Danielle Akers, Gillian Brander and Juliette Caton as Young Éponine, Susan Jane Tanner as Madame Thénardier, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Rebecca Caine as Cosette, Michael Ball as Marius, David Burt as Enjolras, with Ian Tucker, Oliver Spencer and Liza Hayden sharing the role of Gavroche.
On 4 December 1985, the show transferred to the Palace Theatre, London and moved again on 3 April 2004, to the smaller Queens Theatre, now called the Sondheim Theatre, with some revisions of staging.
The show celebrated its ten-thousandth performance on 5 January 2010 and its 30th anniversary in October 2015.
The co-production has generated valuable income for the Royal Shakespeare Company.
The original show closed at the Queen's Theatre on 13 July 2019 to allow for theatre refurbishments, after which a staged concert was performed at the adjacent Gielgud Theatre for a four-month run before a restaged revival would return to the Sondheim Theatre.
2019 London revival
The newly updated staging developed for the 25th anniversary touring production opened at the newly renamed Sondheim Theatre on 18 December 2019 in previews with opening night set for 16 January 2020. The new production is co-directed by James Powell and Laurence Connor with set and image design by Matt Kinley, lighting by Paule Constable, sound by Mick Potter and costumes by Andreane Neofitou and Christine Rowlands. The first cast for this new version included Jon Robyns (Valjean), Bradley Jaden (Javert), Carrie Hope Fletcher (Fantine), Shan Ako (Éponine), Lily Kerhoas (Cosette), Harry Apps (Marius), Gerard Carey (Thénardier), Josefina Gabrielle (Madame Thénardier) and Ashley Gilmour (Enjolras).
The show was forced to close temporarily from March 16, 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. It was announced in June 2020 that it would not reopen until 2021. It reopened on 25 September 2021.
Original Broadway production
The musical opened as a pre-Broadway tryout at the Kennedy Center's Opera House in Washington, D.C. on 27 December 1986. It ran for eight weeks through 14 February 1987.
The musical then premiered on Broadway on 12 March 1987 at The Broadway Theatre. Colm Wilkinson and Frances Ruffelle reprised their roles from the London production. The $4.5 million production had a more than $4 million advance sale prior to its New York opening.
The show underwent further tightening, namely with improved sewer lighting and the incorporation of the Javert suicide scene effect. A New York Times report consisted of the following: "The transfer from London to the United States has prompted further modifications. 'We are taking this opportunity to rethink and perfect, to rewrite some details which probably no one else will see, but which for us are still long nights of work,' Mr. Boublil says. 'There are things that nobody had time to do in London, and here we have a wonderful opportunity to fix a few things. No one will notice, perhaps, but for us, it will make us so happy if we can better this show. We would like this to be the final version. Two songs were deleted—the complete version of Gavroche's song "Little People" and the adult Cosette's "I Saw Him Once". A short section at the beginning of "In My Life" replaced "I Saw Him Once". The lyrics in Javert's "Stars" were changed. It now ended with the line, "This I swear by the stars!", while the London production and cast recording ended with the repeated line, "Keeping watch in the night".
The original Broadway cast included Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, David Bryant as Marius, Judy Kuhn as Cosette, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Braden Danner as Gavroche, Donna Vivino as Young Cosette, Jennifer Butt as Madame Thénardier, Leo Burmester as Thénardier, Randy Graff as Fantine, Terrence Mann as Javert, and Chrissie McDonald as Young Éponine.
Other members of the original Broadway cast included Kevin Marcum (Brujon), Paul Harman (Combeferre/Foreman), Anthony Crivello (Grantaire/Bamatabois), John Dewar (Joly), Joseph Kolinski (Feuilly), Alex Santoriello (Montparnasse/Labourer), Jesse Corti (Courfeyrac/Farmer), Susan Goodman (Old Woman/Innkeeper's Wife), John Norman (Prouvaire/Pimp), Norman Large (Bishop/Lesgles), Marcus Lovett (Babet/Constable), Steve Shocket (Claquesous/Fauchevelant/Constable/Pimp), Cindy Benson (Old Woman), Marcie Shaw, Jane Bodle, Joanna Glushak, Ann Crumb (Factory Girl), Kelli James, and Gretchen Kingsley-Weihe. Michael Hinton was the original drummer and credited on the cast album.
The musical ran at the Broadway Theatre through 10 October 1990, when it moved to the Imperial Theatre. It was scheduled to close on 15 March 2003, but the closing was postponed by a surge in public interest. According to an article in The Scotsman, "Sales picked up last October, when Sir Cameron made the announcement that the show would be closing on March 15th... its closure postponed to May 18th because of an unexpected increase in business." After 6,680 performances in sixteen years, when it closed on 18 May 2003, it was the second-longest-running Broadway musical after Cats. It was surpassed by The Phantom of the Opera in 2006.
This Broadway production of Les Misérables and its advertising in New York City is a recurring theme in American Psycho. The reviewer for the Financial Times wrote that Les Misérables is "the book's hilarious main cultural compass-point".
2006 Broadway revival
Only three years after the original run closed, Les Misérables began a return to Broadway on 9 November 2006 at the Broadhurst Theatre for a limited run that was subsequently made open-ended.
Using the set, costumes, performers, and other resources from the recently finished third US national touring production, the production was only slightly altered. Minor changes included colourful projections blended into its existing lighting design, and a proscenium that extended out into the first two boxes on either side of the stage.
Some cuts made to the show's prologue during its original Broadway run were restored, lyrics for Gavroche's death scene (known in the revival as "Ten Little Bullets") cut during the development of the original London production were restored, and much of the show was re-orchestrated by Christopher Jahnke, introducing a snare and timpani-heavy sound played by a 14-member band, a reduction of about 8 musicians from the original production's 22 musician orchestration.
The original 2006 Broadway revival cast included Alexander Gemignani as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Daphne Rubin-Vega as Fantine, Celia Keenan-Bolger as Éponine, Aaron Lazar as Enjolras, Adam Jacobs as Marius, Ali Ewoldt as Cosette, Gary Beach as Thénardier, Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Brian D’Addario, Jacob Levine, Skye Rainforth and Austyn Myers as Gavroche, and Tess Adams, Kylie Liya Goldstein and Carly Rose Sonenclar as Young Cosette/Young Éponine. The ensemble consisted of Becca Ayers, Daniel Bogart (Combeferre/Bamatabois), Justin Bohon (Joly/Major Domo), Kate Chapman, Nikki Renee Daniels, Karen Elliott (Old Woman/Innkeeper's Wife), Blake Ginther (Feuilly), J.D. Goldblatt (Montparnasse/Pimp/Labourer), Marya Grandy(Crone), Victor Hawks (Brujon), Robert Hunt (Courfeyrac/Foreman), Nehal Joshi (Lesgles/Constable), Jeff Kready (Babet/Constable/Fauchevelant), Doug Kreeger (Jean Prouvaire/Farmer), James Chip Leanord (Bishop/Claquesous), Megan McGinnis, Drew Sarich (Grantaire/Innkeeper), Haviland Stillwell (Factory Girl), and Idara Victor.
Lea Salonga, who previously played the role of Éponine in the 10th Anniversary concert, replaced Rubin-Vega as Fantine beginning on 2 March 2007. Zach Rand replaced Jacob Levine as Gavroche on 15 March 2007. Ann Harada replaced Jenny Galloway as Mme. Thénardier on 24 April 2007. Ben Davis joined playing Javert, and Max von Essen playing Enjolras. Ben Crawford and Mandy Bruno joined the cast that day too, playing Brujon and Éponine respectively. On 23 July 2007, Sarich took over the role of Valjean, following Gemignani's departure. On 5 September 2007, it was announced that John Owen-Jones (who was playing Valjean in London) was to join the Broadway cast. In return, Sarich would join the London cast in Owen-Jones' place. Judy Kuhn, who originated the role of Cosette, returned to the show after twenty years as Fantine, succeeding Salonga.
The revival closed on 6 January 2008 after 17 previews and 463 performances.
2013 Toronto revival
A sit down production played at the Princess of Wales Theatre in Toronto, Canada based on the 25th Anniversary touring production. Previews began on 27 September 2013 with the opening night on 9 October. The production closed on 2 February 2014. Co-directed by Lawrence Connor and James Powell, Laurence Olivier Award nominee Ramin Karimloo starred as Jean Valjean; Colm Wilkinson, who originated the role, portrayed the Bishop of Digne in a one-day performance symbolic handing of the torch to Karimloo. He was joined by fellow West End star, Earl Carpenter, who reprised the role of Inspector Javert. Other cast members included Genevieve Leclerc as Fantine, Samantha Hill as Cosette, Melissa O'Neil as Éponine, Perry Sherman as Marius, Cliff Saunders as Monsieur Thénardier, Lisa Horner as Madame Thénardier, and Mark Uhre as Enjolras. The roles of young Cosette and young Éponine were shared by Ella Ballentine, Saara Chaudry and Madison Oldroyd. Gavroche was shared by David Gregory Black and Aiden GlennRead.
2014 Broadway revival
The show returned to Broadway in March 2014 at the Imperial Theatre with previews beginning 1 March 2014 and had an official opening on 23 March 2014. The creative team included the direction of Laurence Connor and James Powell, set design by Matt Kinley, costumes by Andreane Neofitou and Christine Rowlands, lighting by Paule Constable, sound by Mick Potter and projections by Fifty-Nine Productions. Cameron Mackintosh once again produced the show. On 22 October 2013, it was announced that Ramin Karimloo, Will Swenson, Caissie Levy, and Nikki M. James would be headlining the revival cast as Jean Valjean, Javert, Fantine, and Éponine respectively. Andy Mientus and Samantha Hill also starred as Marius and Cosette respectively. Angeli Negron and McKayla Twiggs share the role of Young Cosette. On 30 August 2015, Karimloo ended his run of the show and was replaced by Alfie Boe. After Boe's final performance on 28 February, the role of Valjean was played by John Owen-Jones beginning 1 March 2016 until the production closed on 4 September 2016, after 1,026 performances over two-and-a-half years. The revival recouped its entire initial investment and grossed $109 million.
The 2014 Broadway revival was nominated for 3 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Best Leading Actor in a Musical for Karimloo, and Best Sound Design for Potter.
Touring productions
US national tours
The show had three national touring companies of the original Broadway production in the US, all of which shared the Broadway producer and manager, creative teams, as well nearly identical sets, costumes, and lighting. While the touring production and the New York production were running simultaneously, the staff, cast members, crew, and musicians of the two productions interchanged often, which contributed to keeping both companies of the show in form. When the New York production closed in 2003, the Third National Tour continued for another three years, and enjoyed the influx of many members from the original and subsequent New York companies.
The First National Tour opened at Boston's Shubert Theatre on 12 December 1987, and continued to play major cities until late 1991. The Second National Tour (called "The Fantine Company") opened at Los Angeles' Shubert Theatre on 1 June 1988. The production played for fourteen months then transferred to San Francisco's Curran Theatre where it enjoyed a similar run. The Third National Tour of Les Misérables (called "The Marius Company") was one of the longest running American touring musical productions. Opening on 28 November 1988, at the Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center in Florida, and closing on 23 July 2006, at the Fox Theatre in St. Louis, Missouri, the tour ran for seventeen years and 7,061 performances. The tour played in 145 cities in 43 states. The same touring company also frequently performed in Canada, made a 1994 diversion to Singapore, and another diversion in 2002 to be the first Western musical production to visit China, opening in Shanghai's Grand Theatre for a three-week engagement.
All US productions (including Broadway and its revival) were visually identical in scale and design but the third national tour was notable for its portability without sacrificing the Broadway-caliber experience. Thanks to innovative touring techniques borrowed from the pop/rock concert industry, the 4.5 million dollar production was adaptable to smaller and larger venues and traveled complete in all of 8 semi tractor trailers. It was set up and ready to go in less than 24 hours and broken down and packed up in about 16 hours. This allowed it to reach many cities and venues in its acclaimed, original Broadway form.
A new national tour began on 21 September 2017 at the Providence Performing Arts Centre (PPAC). It starred Nick Cartell as Valjean, Josh Davis as Javert, Melissa Mitchell as Fantine, J. Anthony Crane as Thénardier, Allison Guinn as Madame Thénardier, Joshua Grosso as Marius, Phoenix Best as Éponine, Matt Shingledecker as Enjolras and Jillian Butler as Cosette. The roles of young Cosette and Éponine were shared by Zoe Glick and Sophie Knapp, while the role of Gavroche was shared by Jordan Cole and Julian Lerner. It uses much of the staging and technical work of the 2014 Broadway revival.
UK and Ireland tours
1992–1993 Tour
The first tour of the UK and Ireland opened at the Palace Theatre, Manchester 14 April 1992 with Jeff Leyton (Jean Valjean), Philip Quast (Javert, later replaced by Michael McCarthy) Ria Jones (Fantine), Meredith Braun (Éponine), Mike Sterling (Marius, later replaced by Richard Burman), Tony Timberlake (Thénardier), Louise Plowright (Mdme Thénardier), Sarah Ryan (Cosette) and Daniel Coll (Enjolras). The production then moved on to the Point Theatre, Dublin, Ireland, opening 30 June 1993, and then to Playhouse, Edinburgh, Scotland, opening 23 September 1993.
1997–2000 Tour
In 1997 a second tour began at the Theatre Royal, Plymouth, running from 6 May until 14 June, the cast featured: Stig Rossen (Jean Valjean), Michael McCarthy (Javert), Julia Worsley (Fantine), Gemma Sandy (Éponine), Norman Bowman (Marius), Cameron Blakely (Thénardier), Cathy Breeze (Mdme Thénardier), Rebecca Vere (Cosette) and Mark O'Malley (Enjolras). The tour then continued as detailed in the table below:
25th Anniversary Tour
A tour to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the show began performances on 12 December 2009, at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff. Differences from the original production included a new set, new costumes, new direction and alterations to the original orchestrations. The tour also did not use a revolving stage and the scenery was inspired by the paintings of Victor Hugo. Locations have included Manchester, Norwich, Birmingham, and Edinburgh. The tour also played a special engagement in Paris. From September through October, the show returned to the Barbican Centre, London, site of the original 1985 production. The tour cast featured John Owen-Jones as Valjean, Earl Carpenter as Javert, Gareth Gates as Marius, Ashley Artus as Thénardier, Lynne Wilmot as Madame Thénardier, Madalena Alberto as Fantine, Rosalind James as Éponine, Jon Robyns as Enjolras, Katie Hall as Cosette (with Samara Clarke as Young Cosette), and David Lawrence as the Bishop of Digne. The tour ended on 2 October 2010, at the Barbican Theatre.
In the fall of 2010, the tour moved to the US with a new company presented by Broadway Across America to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the show opening on Broadway. The tour had its opening on 19 November 2010 at the Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey, running until 19 December 2010. This tour originally starred Lawrence Clayton as Valjean, Andrew Varela as Javert, Betsy Morgan as Fantine, Jenny Latimer as Cosette, Justin Scott Brown as Marius, Chasten Harmon as Éponine, Michael Kostroff as Thénardier, Shawna Hamic as Madame Thénardier, Jeremy Hays as Enjolras, Josh Caggiano and Ethan Paul Khusidman as Gavroche, Maya Jade Frank, Faith Perez and Juliana Simone alternating as Young Cosette and Young Éponine. J. Mark McVey's daughter, Kylie McVey was the understudy for Young Cosette and Young Éponine. Clayton left the tour in April 2011. Ron Sharpe later took over as Valjean until June 2011. J. Mark McVey was then Valjean (McVey previously played the role on Broadway), but McVey and his daughter left the tour on 1 April 2012. Peter Lockyer replaces him as Valjean. Betsy Morgan left the tour on 2 December 2012. She was replaced by Genevieve Leclerc. The tour ran until 11 August 2013, closing at the Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas. The tour's final cast included Peter Lockyer as Valjean, Andrew Varela as Javert, Genevieve Leclerc as Fantine, Lauren Wiley as Cosette, Devin Ilaw as Marius, Briana Carlson-Goodman as Éponine, Timothy Gulan as Thénardier, Shawna Hamic as Madame Thénardier, Jason Forbach as Enjolras, Ava Della Pietra and Erin Cearlock alternating as Little Cosette and Young Eponine, with Mia Sinclair Jenness as Little Girl, In 2011 it was reported that the tour is one of six US national Broadway tours that are grossing over $1,000,000 per week.
2018–2020 Tour
A new UK and Ireland tour (similar to the 25th Anniversary production) began at Curve, Leicester from 3 to 24 November 2018, before touring to the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre, Dublin (5 December to 12 January 2019), Edinburgh Festival Theatre (22 January to 16 February 2019), Palace Theatre, Manchester (19 February to 30 March 2019), Birmingham Hippodrome (2 April to 11 May 2019), Milton Keynes Theatre (14 May to 8 June 2019), Theatre Royal, Plymouth (11 June to 6 July 2019), The Alhambra Theatre, Bradford (9 July to 10 August 2019), Newcastle Theatre Royal (15 August to 5 October 2019), Liverpool Empire (9 to 26 October 2019), Mayflower Theatre, Southampton (29 October to 23 November 2019) and Wales Millennium Centre (26 November 2019 to 4 January 2020). The tour then leaves the UK to play a special engagement in Zürich, Switzerland (21 January to 23 February 2020) before visiting Norwich Theatre Royal (4 March to 4 April 2020), Bristol Hippodrome (7 April to 9 May 2020), The Lowry, Salford (12 to 30 May 2020), Glasgow Theatre Royal (3 to 27 June 2020), Birmingham Hippodrome (30 June to 18 July 2020), Leeds Grand Theatre (23 July to 15 August 2020), Bord Gáis Energy Theatre, Dublin (25 August to 13 September 2020), Marlowe Theatre, Canterbury (25 September to 24 October 2020) and finally Hull New Theatre (28 October to 21 November 2020).
The cast featured Killian Donnelly (Jean Valjean), Nic Greenshields (Javert), Katie Hall (Fantine), Tegan Bannister (Éponine), Bronwen Hanson (Cosette), Harry Apps (Marius), Martin Ball (Thénardier), Sophie-Louise Dann (Madame Thénardier) and Will Richardson (Enjolras).
The cast for the tour's second year featured Dean Chisnall (Jean Valjean), Nic Greenshields (Javert), Katie Hall (Fantine), Frances Mayli McCann (Éponine), Charlie Burn (Cosette), Felix Mosse (Marius), Ian Hughes (Thénardier), Helen Walsh (Madame Thénardier) and Barnaby Hughes (Enjolras).
2014 Australian tour
In mid 2013, a brand new Australian tour was announced, with Simon Gleeson as Valjean, Hayden Tee as Javert, Patrice Tipoki as Fantine, Trevor Ashley and Lara Mulcahy as the Thénardiers, Kerrie Anne Greenland as Éponine, Emily Langridge as Cosette, Euan Doidge as Marius and Chris Durling as Enjolras and Nicholas Cradock as Gavroche. The production premiered on 4 July at Her Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne. Additional stops for the Australian tour included the Crown Theatre in Perth, the Capitol Theatre in Sydney, and the Lyric Theatre QPAC in Brisbane. The Australian revival production transferred to Manila, Philippines in March 2016, becoming an international tour.
2016 International tour
On 16 September 2015, it was announced that the Australian tour would launch its international tour in Manila, Philippines at the Theatre at Solaire from March 2016 until 1 May 2016, and proceeded to the Esplanade Theatre in Singapore from May 2016. It then had its GCC premiere at the Dubai Opera in Dubai, United Arab Emirates from November 2016.
The Manila and Singapore productions featured Simon Gleeson as Valjean, Earl Carpenter as Javert, Helen Walsh as Madame Thénardier, Cameron Blakely as Thénardier, Kerrie Anne Greenland as Éponine, Emily Langridge as Cosette, Chris Durling as Enjolras, and Paul Wilkins as Marius. Rachelle Ann Go played the role of Fantine in the Manila production, and Patrice Tipoki returned the role in the Singapore production after her stint in the original London production. The Dubai production features John Owen-Jones as Valjean, Hayden Tee as Javert, Patrice Tipoki as Fantine, Peter Polycarpou as Thénardier, Jodie Prenger as Madame Thénardier, Carrie Hope Fletcher as Éponine, Alistair Brammer as Enjolras, Emily Langridge as Cosette, and Paul Wilkins as Marius.
Concert productions
10th Anniversary Concert
On 8 October 1995, the show celebrated the tenth anniversary of the West End production with a concert at the Royal Albert Hall. This 10th Anniversary Concert was nearly "complete", missing only a handful of scenes, including "The Death of Gavroche", "The Robbery" and the confrontation between Marius and the Thénardiers at the wedding feast. Sir Cameron Mackintosh hand-selected the cast, which became known as the Les Misérables Dream Cast, assembled from around the world, and engaged the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. The concert concluded with seventeen Valjeans from various international productions singing, "Do You Hear the People Sing?" in their native languages. The concert cast included Colm Wilkinson as Jean Valjean, Philip Quast as Javert, Paul Monaghan as the Bishop of Digne, Ruthie Henshall as Fantine, Hannah Chick as Young Cosette, Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Adam Searles as Gavroche, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Michael Ball as Marius, Judy Kuhn as Cosette, Lea Salonga as Éponine, and Anthony Crivello as Grantaire. The concert was staged by Ken Caswell and conducted by David Charles Abell.
25th Anniversary Concert
The 25th Anniversary Concert of the West End production was held at The O2 in North Greenwich, South East London, United Kingdom, on Sunday, 3 October 2010 at 1:30 pm and 7:00 pm.
It featured Alfie Boe as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Lea Salonga as Fantine, Nick Jonas as Marius, Katie Hall as Cosette (in place of Camilla Kerslake, who was unable to attend), Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier, Ramin Karimloo as Enjolras, Samantha Barks as Éponine, Matt Lucas as Thénardier, Mia Jenkins as Young Cosette, Rob Madge as Gavroche and Earl Carpenter as the Bishop of Digne. Casts of the current London, international tour, original 1985 London, and several school productions took part, comprising an ensemble of three hundred performers and musicians. The concert was directed by Laurence Connor & James Powell and conducted by David Charles Abell.
The All-Star Staged Concert
From 10 August to 2 December 2019, the musical was performed as a staged concert version at the Gielgud Theatre in the West End during the refurbishment of the adjacent Sondheim Theatre, where the original London production had been running and would be home to the new production from December 2019 onwards.
Featuring a cast and orchestra of over 65, the 16-week concert run starred Michael Ball as Javert, Alfie Boe as Jean Valjean, Carrie Hope Fletcher as Fantine and Matt Lucas as Thénardier. Katy Secombe also starred as Madame Thénardier, and John Owen-Jones played Jean Valjean for some performances during the run. Further leads included Rob Houchen (Marius), Bradley Jaden (Enjolras), Shan Ako (Éponine) and Lily Kerhoas (Cosette). Earl Carpenter also played the dual role of The Bishop/Bamatabois, while understudying Javert.
The final concert was filmed and broadcast live to cinemas on 2 December and has since been released on home video and album, with a tour planned.
In October 2020, on the final of Britain's Got Talent, it was confirmed that the stage concert would return for a limited 6-week run at the Sondheim Theatre from 5 December 2020 to 17 January 2021. It was subsequently extended twice and was due to play until 28 February 2021. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the audience were socially distanced and capacity was limited to 50%. Due to local COVID restrictions, the show was suspended from 16 December 2020 after just 10 performances, in which Boe had performed as Jean Valjean on 8 occasions and Owen-Jones on 2 occasions. It reopened on 20 May 2021 and ran until 5 September. Ball, Boe, Fletcher, Lucas and Owen-Jones did not reprise their roles at reopening.
Other concert performances
The musical has also been performed in concert at Cardiff Castle and several venues in southern England, produced by Earl Carpenter Concerts. A concert version starring Jeff Leyton, Carmen Cusack, Annalene Beechey and Joanna Ampil was also performed at the Odyssey Arena, Belfast in 2001. In 1989, a one-night concert performance was performed at SkyDome, Toronto, and the largest concert production attracted an audience of approximately 125,000 as part of the Australia Day celebrations in Sydney's Domain Park. The Scandinavian concert tour, produced by Cameron Mackintosh in association with Noble Art, starred Danish musical icon Stig Rossen in the leading role and commemorated author Victor Hugo's 200th birthday. Venues on the tour included the Stockholm Globe Arena, Oslo Spektrum, the Helsinki Hartwell Areena, and the Gothenburg Scandinavium, with audiences totalling over 150,000 for the complete tour.
In November 2004, to celebrate the centennial of the Entente Cordiale, the Queen invited the cast of Les Misérables in the West End to perform for French President Jacques Chirac at Windsor Castle. It was the first time the cast of a West End musical had performed at a Royal residence. The part of Jean Valjean was played by Michael Ball – the original 1985 London and 1995 Dream Cast Marius – and the part of Javert was played by Michael McCarthy, Joanna Ampil as Fantine, Gemma Wardle as Eponine, Julia Möller as Cosette, Gary Tushaw as Marius and Ramin Karimloo as Enjolras. The rest of the cast was the same as in the West End, supplemented by several guest singers and a choir of former performers.
In February 2008, Les Misérables was performed at the Bournemouth International Centre, England with a cast of West End stars accompanied by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra. In August 2008, a concert version, directed by Richard Jay-Alexander, was performed at the Hollywood Bowl. The cast included veteran Les Misérables star J. Mark McVey as Valjean, The Office star Melora Hardin as Fantine, Broadway star and Bowl veteran Brian Stokes Mitchell as Javert, Spring Awakening and Glee star Lea Michele as Éponine, Tony-winning Jersey Boys star John Lloyd Young as Marius, West End star Tom Lowe as Enjolras, Michael McCormick as Thénardier, Ruth Williamson as Madame Thénardier, Michele Maika as Cosette, Maddie Levy as Young Cosette, and Sage Ryan as Gavroche.
In September 2008, it was performed at the St John Loveridge Hall in Guernsey with a cast of West End performers—the first time that it had been professionally performed on the Island where Victor Hugo wrote the novel. Former London Valjean Phil Cavill reprised his role alongside Les Misérables veteran Michael McCarthy as Javert. In March 2009, the Guernsey production was remounted at Fort Regent in Jersey; and in July 2009, the musical was performed in concert at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.
International productions
The show has been produced in forty-two countries and translated into twenty-one languages: English, French (re-translated from the English version), German (Austria and Germany), Spanish (six versions: two from Spain, two from Mexico, one from Argentina, and one from Venezuela), Japanese, Hebrew, Hungarian, Icelandic, Norwegian (Bokmål and Nynorsk), Polish, Swedish (in Sweden and in Finland), Dutch (Netherlands and Belgium), Danish, Finnish, Brazilian Portuguese, Estonian, Czech, Mauritian Creole, Basque, Catalan and Korean. Including singles and promos, there have been over seventy official recordings from worldwide productions.
The first full West End / Broadway production in Europe (mainland) was set up in Oslo, Norway at Det Norske Teatret and opened on 17 March 1988. The production was in Norwegian and starred Norwegian singer/actor Øystein Wiik as Jean Valjean, Paul Åge Johannessen as Javert, Øivind Blunck as Thénardier, Kari Gjærum as Fantine, Amund Enger as Enjolras and Guri Schanke as Éponine. The first Oslo production was hugely successful and some 10% of Norway's entire population saw the show in the first 6 months. Øystein Wiik went on to also star as Jean Valjean in the productions in Vienna and London in 1989–1990.
The stage show, which had changed so significantly since its Parisian conception as a stadium concert in 1980, was translated back into the language of Victor Hugo for its French world première in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1991. This production had a cast that presented five shows a week in French and three a week in English.
North American productions
In September 2008, a mini-tour produced by Atlanta's Theater of the Stars played Eisenhower Hall at the United States Military Academy, in West Point, New York; the Filene Center at the Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts in Vienna, Virginia; Kansas City Starlight Theatre; and the Fox Theater in Atlanta. The show featured a new set of original pictures painted by Victor Hugo himself. Robert Evan played Valjean, returning to the role he played in the mid-nineties on Broadway. Also featured were Nikki Rene Daniels as Fantine and Robert Hunt as Javert, both reprising their roles from the Broadway revival. Fred Hanson directed the production. The creative team included Matt Kinley as Scenic Designer, Ken Billington as Lighting Designer, Peter Fitzgerald and Erich Bechtel as Sound Designers, Zachary Borovay as Projection Designer, and Dan Riddle as Musical Director and Conductor.
In 2008, the Signature Theatre in Arlington, Virginia staged a small venue "black box" version of the play. Signature received Mackintosh's special permission for the production: "One of the great pleasures of being involved with the creation of Les Misérables is seeing this marvelous musical being done in a completely different and original way. Having seen many shows brilliantly reimagined at Signature I have no doubt that Eric and his team will come up with a revolutionary new take on Les Miz unlike anything anyone has seen before. Viva la différence!" The production officially opened on 14 December 2008 (after previews from 2 December), and ran through 22 February 2009 (extended from 25 January 2009).
A 2014 production at the Dallas Theater Center modernized the staging in a way rarely attempted in productions of this play, set visually in the modern-day United States rather than 1830s France. The concept was thought to be refreshing as a change from typical production styles and effective as a commentary on modern inequality. Though, much controversy surrounded their unauthorized depart from the authors' libretto and score.
In Panama, Les Misérables was staged in 2014 in Spanish at the famed National Theatre of Panama for a short, sold-out run, directed by Aaron Zebede.
School edition
The school edition cuts a considerable amount of material from the original show. It is divided into thirty scenes and, although no critical scenes or songs have been removed, it runs 25–30 minutes shorter than the official version making the total running time about hours. A few subtle changes of vocal pitch have been made: "What Have I Done?", Valjean's Soliloquy, "Stars" by Javert, "A Little Fall of Rain" by Éponine and Marius, "Turning", and "Castle on a Cloud" lose a verse each. During "Fantine's Arrest" Bamatabois loses two verses. The song "Fantine's Death/Confrontation" is edited, and the counterpoint duel between Javert and Valjean is lost, as well as a verse by Fantine. "Dog Eats Dog" by Thénardier is heavily truncated. "Beggars at the Feast", is shortened, with Thénardier losing a verse, and the song before it, "Wedding Chorale", is excluded entirely although the rest of the wedding remains in place. Also, the drinker's introduction to "Master of the House" is cut completely.
Film adaptation
Although numerous films of the Les Misérables story have been made, no film adaptation of the stage musical was produced for many years. A film adaptation was in development at several times since the late 1980s. Alan Parker was reported to be connected to an adaptation at an early stage. In 1992 Mackintosh announced planning for a film to be directed by Bruce Beresford and co-produced by TriStar Pictures, but the project was later abandoned.
The 2010 DVD/Blu-ray release of Les Misérables in Concert: The 25th Anniversary included an announcement of revised plans for a film adaptation which was later confirmed by Mackintosh. Tom Hooper signed on in March 2011 to direct the Mackintosh-produced film from a screenplay by William Nicholson. In June 2011, Working Title Films and Mackintosh announced that the film would begin principal photography in early 2012 for a tentative December release date. The film was given its general US release on Christmas Day 2012. Principal cast members include Hugh Jackman as Jean Valjean, Russell Crowe as Javert, Anne Hathaway as Fantine, Amanda Seyfried as Cosette, Eddie Redmayne as Marius, Samantha Barks as Éponine, Aaron Tveit as Enjolras, and Sacha Baron Cohen and Helena Bonham Carter as the Thénardiers. Other notable actors who played roles in the film include Bertie Carvel as Bamatabois, Colm Wilkinson, the original Valjean, as the Bishop of Digne, Hadley Fraser as the army general and Frances Ruffelle as a prostitute.
Cast recordings
English
The following recordings of Les Misérables are available in English: the Original London Cast, the Original Broadway Cast, the Complete Symphonic Recording, the 10th Anniversary London Concert, The 25th Anniversary UK Tour Cast and The 25th Anniversary London Concert.
Original London Cast recording
The Original London Cast recording was the first English language album of the musical. Recorded in 1985, when the show premiered, it is closest to the original French concept album. For example, "Stars" appears before "Look Down" and shortly after, the original version of "Little People" plays, which was later incorporated into the revealing of Javert. It also features a song titled "I Saw Him Once", sung by Cosette, which was later incorporated into the first part of "In My Life". The album has sold 887,000 copies in the US.
The cast includes Colm Wilkinson as Valjean, Roger Allam as Javert, Patti LuPone as Fantine, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Susan Jane Tanner as Mme. Thénardier, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Ian Tucker as Gavroche, Michael Ball as Marius, David Burt as Enjolras, Rebecca Caine as Cosette and Zoë Hart
as Young Cosette.
Original Broadway Cast recording
The Original Broadway Cast recording was produced in 1987. It included several changes to the songs that are still evident in today's performances. As with its predecessor, it is incomplete, and leaves out songs or parts that are more important narratively than musically (e.g., "Fantine's Arrest", "The Runaway Cart", "The Final Battle"). The album has sold 1,596,000 copies in the US.
The cast includes Colm Wilkinson as Valjean, Terrence Mann as Javert, Randy Graff as Fantine, Leo Burmester as Thénardier, Jennifer Butt as Madame Thénardier, Frances Ruffelle as Éponine, Braden Danner as Gavroche, David Bryant as Marius, Judy Kuhn as Cosette, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, and Donna Vivino as Young Cosette.
Complete Symphonic Recording
Recorded in 1988 and released in 1989, the Complete Symphonic Recording features the entire score. (The Czech Revival Recording is the only other album, in any language, to feature the entire score; on the other hand, the four 2003 Japanese recordings feature the entire score after the cuts first made on Broadway at the end of 2000.) Cameron Mackintosh's original plan was to use the Australian cast, but the scope was expanded to create an international cast featuring performers from the major performances of the musical. The cast was recorded in three different places.
The album, produced by David Caddick and conducted by Martin Koch, won the Best Musical Cast Show Album Grammy Award in 1990. The cast includes Gary Morris as Valjean, Philip Quast as Javert, Debra Byrne as Fantine, Gay Soper as Mme. Thénardier, Barry James as Thénardier, Kaho Shimada as Éponine, Ross McCall as Gavroche, Michael Ball as Marius, Anthony Warlow as Enjolras, Tracy Shayne as Cosette and Marissa Dunlop as Young Cosette.
10th Anniversary Concert
The 10th Anniversary recording was of a concert version of Les Misérables, performed at the Royal Albert Hall in October 1995, featuring full orchestra and choir. All parts were sung live, giving the performance a different mood from other recording. The score was recorded consecutively without pauses or multiple recordings. The concert's encores are also included. As with the original recordings, however, they differed from the stage versions by excluding some songs (e.g., those vital to plot such as "Fantine's Arrest" and "The Runaway Cart" were kept, while unnecessary or complex songs, such as "At the Barricade", were left out).
The cast includes Colm Wilkinson as Valjean, Philip Quast as Javert, Ruthie Henshall as Fantine, Alun Armstrong as Thénardier, Jenny Galloway as Mme. Thénardier, Lea Salonga as Éponine, Adam Searles as Gavroche, Hannah Chick as Young Cosette, Michael Ball as Marius, Michael Maguire as Enjolras, Judy Kuhn as Cosette and Anthony Crivello as Grantaire.
Manchester Highlights
A five-track album featuring members of the UK national tour was released in 1992 and includes "I Dreamed a Dream" (Ria Jones); "Stars" (Philip Quast); "On My Own" (Meredith Braun); "Bring Him Home" (Jeff Leyton); and "Empty Chairs at Empty Tables" (Mike Sterling). The version of "Stars" is the same as that on the Complete Symphonic Recording.
25th Anniversary UK Tour Cast
Recorded live at the Palace Theatre in Manchester, this recording was released to commemorate 25 years of Les Misérables in English. This recording featured new arrangements and reinspired orchestrations, and included John Owen-Jones as Valjean, Earl Carpenter as Javert, Madalena Alberto as Fantine, Ashley Artus as M. Thénardier, Lynne Wilmot as Mme. Thénardier, Gareth Gates as Marius, Katie Hall as Cosette, Samara Clarke as Young Cosette, Jon Robyns as Enjolras, and Rosalind James as Éponine.
25th Anniversary Concert
The 25th Anniversary Concert was recorded live at The O2 Arena on 3 October 2010 and is available on DVD in the UK while the Blu-ray was released worldwide. It was shown in select US theaters via NCM Fathom Events. The release for the DVD and Blu-ray in the United States was 22 February 2011 to promote the film adaptation. A CD single of the 'Valjean Quartet' singing "Bring Him Home" was also recorded and released, with proceeds going to the charity "Tickets For Troops". The cast included Alfie Boe as Jean Valjean, Norm Lewis as Javert, Nick Jonas as Marius, Samantha Barks as Éponine, Katie Hall as Cosette, Ramin Karimloo as Enjolras, Lea Salonga as Fantine, Matt Lucas as Monsieur Thénardier, and Jenny Galloway as Madame Thénardier.
Other languages
There are also various non-English language cast albums of the musical.
1980 Original French concept album
1987 Original Israeli cast
1988 Original Hungarian cast
1988 Original Vienna cast
1990 Original Swedish cast
1991 Original Dutch cast
1991 Paris revival cast
1992 Original Danish cast
1992 Original Czech cast
1993 Original Spanish cast
1994 Japanese "blue" cast
1994 Japanese "red" cast
1996 Original Duisburg cast
1996 Swedish Värmland cast
1998 Original Antwerp cast
2003 Japanese "orange" cast
2003 Japanese "green" cast
2003 Japanese "light blue" cast
2003 Japanese "violet" cast
2003 Czech revival cast
2008 Dutch revival cast
2008 Le Capitole de Québec cast
2010 Polish revival cast
2010 Spanish 25th anniversary production cast
2011 Czech cast
2017 French concert cast
Awards and nominations
Original West End production
Original Broadway production
2013 Toronto revival
2014 Broadway revival
2014 Australian revival
See also
Les Misérables
Les Misérables (British TV series)
Lists of musicals
Adaptations of Les Misérables
Notes
References
Les Miserables Reviews Box Office Theatre Ltd. Retrieved 12 July 2016
Bibliography
External links
An Archive of Performers from the Original Broadway Run of Les Misérables
An Archive of Performers from the London Run of Les Misérables
Musicals by Claude-Michel Schönberg
1980 musicals
French musicals
Works based on Les Misérables
Plays set in the 19th century
Plays set in France
Broadway musicals
West End musicals
Musicals based on novels
Laurence Olivier Award-winning musicals
Sung-through musicals
Tony Award for Best Musical
Tony Award-winning musicals | [
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237790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20stork | Black stork | The black stork (Ciconia nigra) is a large bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. Measuring on average from beak tip to end of tail with a wingspan, the adult black stork has mainly black plumage, with white underparts, long red legs and a long pointed red beak. A widespread but uncommon species, it breeds in scattered locations across Europe (predominantly in Portugal and Spain, and central and eastern parts), and east across the Palearctic to the Pacific Ocean. It is a long-distance migrant, with European populations wintering in tropical Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asian populations in the Indian subcontinent. When migrating between Europe and Africa, it avoids crossing the Mediterranean Sea and detours via the Levant in the east or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west. An isolated, non-migratory, population occurs in Southern Africa.
Unlike the closely related white stork, the black stork is a shy and wary species. It is seen singly or in pairs, usually in marshy areas, rivers or inland waters. It feeds on amphibians, small fish and insects, generally wading slowly in shallow water stalking its prey. Breeding pairs usually build nests in large forest trees—most commonly deciduous but also coniferous—which can be seen from long distances, as well as on large boulders, or under overhanging ledges in mountainous areas. The female lays two to five greyish-white eggs, which become soiled over time in the nest. Incubation takes 32 to 38 days, with both sexes sharing duties, and fledging takes 60 to 71 days.
The black stork is considered to be a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, but its actual status is uncertain. Despite its large range, it is nowhere abundant, and it appears to be declining in parts of its range, such as in India, China and parts of Western Europe, though increasing in others such as the Iberian Peninsula. Various conservation measures have been taken for the black stork, like the Conservation Action Plan for African black storks by Wetlands International. It is also protected under the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
Taxonomy and etymology
English naturalist Francis Willughby wrote about the black stork in the 17th century, having seen one in Frankfurt. He named it Ciconia nigra, from the Latin words for "stork" and "black" respectively. It was one of the many species originally described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Ardea nigra. It was moved to the new genus Ciconia by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson two years later. The word stork is derived from the Old English word storc, thought to be related to the Old High German storah, meaning "stork", and the Old English stearc, meaning "stiff".
The black stork is a member of the genus Ciconia, or typical storks, a group of seven extant species, characterised by straight bills and mainly black and white plumage. The black stork was long thought to be most closely related to the white stork (C. ciconia). However, genetic analysis via DNA–DNA hybridization and mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA by Beth Slikas in 1997 found that it was basal (an early offshoot) in the genus Ciconia. Fossil remains have been recovered from Miocene beds on Rusinga and Maboko Islands in Kenya, which are indistinguishable from the white and black storks.
Description
The black stork is a large bird, measuring between in length with a wingspan, and weighing around . Standing as tall as , it has long red legs, a long neck and a long, straight, pointed red beak. It bears some resemblance to Abdim's stork (C. abdimii), which can be distinguished by its much smaller build, predominantly green bill, legs and feet, and white rump and lower back. The plumage is black with a purplish green sheen, except for the white lower breast, belly, armpits, axillaries and undertail coverts. The breast feathers are long and shaggy, forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays. The black stork has brown irises, and bare red skin around its eyes. The sexes are identical in appearance, except that males are larger than females on average. Moulting takes place in spring, with the iridescent sheen brighter in new plumage. It walks slowly and steadily on the ground and like all storks, it flies with its neck outstretched.
The juvenile resembles the adult in plumage, but the areas corresponding to the adult black feathers are browner and less glossy. The scapulars, wing and upper tail coverts have pale tips. The legs, bill and bare skin around the eyes are greyish green. It could possibly be confused with the juvenile yellow-billed stork, but the latter has paler wings and mantle, a longer bill and white under the wings.
Distribution and habitat
During the summer, the black stork is found from Eastern Asia (Siberia and northern China) west to Central Europe, reaching Estonia in the north, Poland, Lower Saxony and Bavaria in Germany, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy and Greece in the south, with an outlying population in the central-southwest region of the Iberian Peninsula (Extremadura and surrounding provinces of Spain, plus Portugal). It is migratory, wintering in tropical Africa and Asia, although certain populations of black storks are sedentary or dispersive. An isolated population exists in Southern Africa, where the species is more numerous in the east, in eastern South Africa and Mozambique, and is also found in Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Botswana and less commonly Namibia.
Most of the black storks that summer in Europe migrate to Africa, with those from western Germany and points west heading south via the Iberian Peninsula and the rest via Turkey and the Levant. Those flying via Spain spend winter in the Falémé River basin of eastern Senegal, Guinea, southern Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone and western and central Mali, while those flying via the Sinai end up in northern Ethiopia, the Kotto River basin in the Central African Republic, the Mbokou river basin in Chad and northeastern Nigeria. Black storks summering in western Asia migrate to northern and northeastern India, ranging mainly from Punjab south to Karnataka, and Africa. They are occasional visitors to Sri Lanka. Those summering further east in eastern Russia and China winter mainly in southern China, and occasionally in Hong Kong, Myanmar, northern Thailand, and Laos. They were first recorded in western Myanmar in 1998.
The black stork prefers more wooded areas than the better-known white stork, and breeds in large marshy wetlands with interspersed coniferous or broadleaved woodlands, but also inhabits hills and mountains with sufficient networks of creeks. It usually inhabits ponds, rivers, edges of lakes, estuaries and other freshwater wetlands. The black stork does inhabit more agricultural areas in the Caspian lowlands, but even here it avoids close contact with people. Its wintering habitat in India comprises reservoirs or rivers with nearby scrub or forest, which provide trees that black storks can roost in at night. In southern Africa it is found in shallow water in rivers or lakes, or swamps, but is occasionally encountered on dry land.
After disappearing from Belgium before the onset of the 20th century, it has returned to breed in the Belgian Ardennes, Luxembourg and Burgundy, France, by 2000. It appears to be increasing in numbers in Spain and Portugal, where the population was estimated at 405 to 483 pairs in 2006. The black stork is a rare vagrant to the British Isles, turning up in the warmer months—particularly in spring—generally in the south and east. Sightings have become more common since the 1970s as its breeding range moves northwards. It has been recorded in Scotland six times between 1946 and 1983, including from Shetland, Orkney and the Highlands, as well as the Scottish Borders (Peebles). It is not abundant in the western parts of its distribution, but more densely inhabits eastern Transcaucasia. Further east, it has been recorded from locations across Iran, though little is known about its habits there; breeding has been recorded from near Aliabad in Fars province, Khabr National Park in Kerman province, Karun river in Khuzestan province, Qaranqu River in East Azarbaijan province, and Aliabad river in Razavi Khorasan province. The population has declined in Iran due to draining of wetlands. East of the Ural Mountains, the black stork is patchily found in forested and mountainous areas up to 60°‒63° N across Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. South of Siberia, it breeds in Xinjiang, northwestern China, northern Mongolia south to the Altai Mountains, and northeastern China south to the vicinity of Beijing. In the Korean Peninsula, the black stork is an uncommon summer visitor, no longer breeding in the south since 1966. Birds have been seen in the northeast but it is not known whether they breed there. Similarly it has been seen in the summer in Afghanistan, but its breeding status is uncertain.
Migration
Migration takes place from early August to October, with a major exodus in September. Some of the Iberian populations, and also those in southern Africa, are essentially non-migratory, though they may wander freely in the non-breeding areas. A broad-winged soaring bird, the black stork is assisted by thermals of hot air for long-distance flight, although is less dependent on them than is the white stork. Since thermals only form over land, the black stork, together with large raptors, must cross the Mediterranean at the narrowest points, and many black storks travel south through the Bosphorus, as well as the Sinai and Gibraltar. The trip is around via the western route and via the eastern route, with satellite tracking yielding an average travel time of 37 and 80 days respectively. The western route goes over the Rock of Gibraltar or over the Bay of Gibraltar, generally on a southwesterly track that takes them to the central part of the strait, from where they reach Morocco. Many birds fly around the Sahara next to the coast. About 10% of the western storks choose the passage Sicily – Cap Bon, Tunisia.
Spain contains several important areas—Monfragüe National Park, Sierra de Gredos Regional Park, National Hunting Reserve in Cíjara, Natural Park of the Sierra Hornachuelos and Doñana National Park—where black storks stop over on the western migration route. Pesticide use has threatened birdlife in nearby Doñana. Further south, Lake Faguibine in Mali is another stopover point but it has been affected by drought in recent years.
Behaviour
A wary species, the black stork avoids contact with people. It is generally found alone or in pairs, or in flocks of up to 100 birds when migrating or during winter.
The black stork has a wider range of calls than the white stork, its main call being a chee leee, which sounds like a loud inhalation. It makes a hissing call as a warning or threat. Displaying males produce a long series of wheezy raptor-like squealing calls rising in volume and then falling. It rarely indulges in mutual bill-clattering when adults meet at the nest. Adults will do so as part of their mating ritual or when angered. The young clatter their bills when aroused.
The up-down display is used for a number of interactions with other members of the species. Here a stork positions its body horizontally and quickly bobs its head up from down-facing to around 30 degrees above horizontal and back again, while displaying the white segments of its plumage prominently, and this is repeated several times. The display is used as a greeting between birds, and—more vigorously—as a threat display. The species' solitary nature means that this threat display is rarely witnessed.
Breeding
The black stork breeds between April and May in the Northern Hemisphere, with eggs usually laid in late April. In southern Africa, breeding takes place in the months between September and March, possibly to take advantage of abundant water prey rendered easier to catch as the rivers dry up and recede—from April and May in Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern South Africa, and as late as July further south.
Pairs in courtship have aerial displays that appear to be unique among the storks. Paired birds soared in parallel, usually over the nest territory early in the mornings or late afternoons with one bird splaying the white undertail coverts to the sides of the narrowed black tail and the pair calls to each other. These courtship flights are difficult to see due to the densely forested habitat in which they breed. The nest is large, constructed from sticks and twigs, and sometimes also large branches, at an elevation of . The black stork prefers to construct its nest in forest trees with large canopies where the nest can be built far from the main trunk—generally in places far from human disturbance. For the most part, deciduous trees are chosen for nesting sites, though conifers are used as well. A 2003 field study in Estonia found that the black stork preferred oak (Quercus robur), European aspen (Populus tremula), and to a lesser extent Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and ignored Norway spruce (Picea abies), in part due to the canopy structure of the trees. Trees with nests averaged around high and had a diameter at breast height of . Furthermore, 90% of the trees chosen were at least 80 years old, highlighting the importance of conserving old-growth forests. A 2004 field study of nesting sites in Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park in north-eastern Greece found that it preferred the Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia), which had large side branches that allowed it to build the nest away from the trunk, as well as black pine (Pinus nigra) and to a lesser extent Turkey oak (Quercus cerris). It chose the largest trees in an area, generally on steeper ground and near streams. Trees chosen were on average over 90 years old. In the Iberian peninsula it nests in pine and cork oak (Quercus suber).
In steeply mountainous areas such as parts of Spain, South Africa and the Carpathian Mountains it nests on cliffs, on large boulders, in caves and under overhanging ledges. The black stork's solitary nests are usually at least 1 km (0.6 mi) apart, even where the species is numerous. Although newly constructed nests may be significantly smaller, older nests can be in diameter. In southern Africa, the black stork may occupy the nests of other bird species such as hamerkop (Scopus umbretta) or Verreaux's eagle (Aquila verreauxi) and commonly reuses them in successive years. They are repaired with earth and grass, and lined with leaves, moss, grass, animal fur, paper, clay and rags. In a clutch, there are two to five, or rarely even six large oval grey-white eggs, which become soiled during incubation. They can be long and wide, averaging about in length and in width. The eggs are laid with an interval of two days. Hatching is asynchronous, and takes place at the end of May. Incubation takes 32 to 38 days, with both sexes sharing duties, which commence after the first or second egg is laid. The young start flying by the end of July. Fledging takes 60 to 71 days, after which the young joins the adults at their feeding grounds. However, for another two weeks, the young continue to return to the nest, to be fed and to roost at night.
At least one adult remains in the nest for two to three weeks after hatching to protect the young. Both parents feed the young by regurgitating onto the floor of the nest. Black stork parents have been known to kill one of their fledglings, generally the weakest, in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings. Stork nestlings do not attack each other, and their parents' method of feeding them (disgorging large amounts of food at once) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly, hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size. This behaviour has only rarely been observed in the species, although the shyness of the species and difficulties in studying its nesting habits mean that it might not be an uncommon phenomenon.
Ringing recovery studies in Europe suggests that nearly 20% of chicks reach the breeding stage, around 3 years, and about 10% live beyond 10 years and about 5% beyond 20 years. Captive individuals have lived for as long as 36 years.
Feeding
The black stork mainly eats fish, including small cyprinids, pikes, roaches, eels, budds, perches, burbots, sticklebacks and muddy loaches (Misgurnus and Cobitis). It may feed on amphibians, small reptiles, crabs, mammals and birds, and invertebrates such as snails, molluscs, earthworms, and insects like water beetles and their larvae.
Foraging for food takes place mostly in fresh water, though the black stork may look for food on dry land at times. The black stork wades patiently and slowly in shallow water, often alone or in a small group if food is plentiful. It has been observed shading the water with its wings while hunting. In India, it often forages in mixed species flocks with the white stork, woolly-necked stork (Ciconia episcopus), demoiselle crane (Grus virgo) and bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). The black stork also follows large mammals such as deer and livestock, presumably to eat the invertebrates and small animals flushed by their presence.
Parasites and symbionts
More than 12 species of parasitic helminth have been recorded from black storks with Cathaemasia hians and Dicheilonema ciconiae reported to be the most dominant. The juvenile black stork, although having a less diverse helminth population, is parasitized more frequently than the adult. A species of Corynebacterium—C. ciconiae—was isolated and described from the trachea of healthy black storks, and is thought to be part of the natural flora of the species. A herpes virus is known from black storks. Birdlice that have been recorded on the species include Neophilopterus tricolor, Colpocephalum nigrae, and Ardeicola maculatus. A diverse array of predatory mesostigmatid mites—particularly the genera Dendrolaelaps and Macrocheles—have been recovered from black stork nests. Their role is unknown, though they could prey on parasitic arthropods.
Status and conservation
Since 1998, the black stork has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it has a large range—more than 20,000 km2 (7,700 mi2)—and because its population is thought not to have declined by 30% over ten years or three generations and thus is not a rapid enough decline to warrant a vulnerable rating. Even so, the state of the population overall is unclear, and although it is widespread, it is not abundant anywhere. Black stork numbers have declined for many years in western Europe, and the species has already been extirpated from Scandinavia. The population in India—a major wintering ground—is declining. Previously a regular winter visitor to the Mai Po Marshes, it is now seldom seen there, and appears to be in decline in China overall. Its habitat is changing rapidly in much of eastern Europe and Asia. Various conservation measures have been taken, including Wetlands International's Conservation Action Plan for African black storks, which focuses on improving the wintering conditions of the birds which breed in Europe. It is protected by the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Hunters threaten the black stork in some countries of southern Europe and Asia, such as Pakistan, and breeding populations may have been eliminated there. The black stork vanished from the Ticino River valley in northern Italy, with hunting a likely contributor. In 2005, black storks were released into the Parco Lombardo del Ticino in an attempt to re-establish the species there.
Since October 2021, C. nigra has been classified as Moderately Depleted by the IUCN.
Notes
References
Cited texts
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
black stork
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Southern Africa
Birds of Africa
black stork
Articles containing video clips
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237797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaturanga | Chaturanga | Chaturanga (; ) is an ancient Indian strategy game. While there is some uncertainty, the prevailing view among chess historians is that it is the common ancestor of the board games chess (European), xiangqi (Chinese), janggi (Korean), shogi (Japanese), sittuyin (Burmese), makruk (Thai), and modern Indian chess.
Chaturanga is first known from the Gupta Empire in India around the 6th century CE. In the 7th century, it was adopted as chatrang (shatranj) in Sassanid Persia, which in turn was the form of chess brought to late-medieval Europe. Archeological remains from 2000-3000 B.C have been found from the city of Lothal (of the Indus Valley Civilisation) of pieces on a board that resemble chess. According to Stewart Culin, chaturanga was first described in the Hindu text Bhavishya Purana. However, the Bhavishya Purana is known to include modern additions and interpolations, even mentioning British rule of India.
The exact rules of chaturanga are unknown. Chess historians suppose that the game had similar rules to those of its successor, shatranj. In particular, there is uncertainty as to the moves of the Gaja (elephant).
Origin and etymology
The Sanskrit word "chaturanga" means 'four-limbed' or 'four arms', referring to ancient army divisions of infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry.
The origin of chaturanga has been a puzzle for centuries. It has its origins in the Gupta Empire, with the earliest clear reference dating from the sixth century of the common era, and from north India. The first substantial argument that chaturanga is much older than this is the fact that the chariot is the most powerful piece on the board, although chariots appear to have been obsolete in warfare for at least five or six centuries. The counter-argument is that they remained prominent in literature. Several more recent scholars have proposed a gradual evolution in the centuries B.C. in the northern or northwestern border areas of Indian culture, where it was in contact with Greek culture brought by the Macedonian-Greek army, and where some rulers issued coins with fused Greek-Indian imagery. Myron Samsin argues that chaturanga originated in the kingdom of Bactria, ca. 255–55 B.C., in a fusion of the many short-moving men of the Greek game petteia, or poleis, with men derived from the various moves of an Indian race game, perhaps Seega or Chaupur, on the ashtapada, the board of another race game. Gerhard Josten proposes that the fusion took place in the Kushan Empire ca. 50 B.C.–200 A.D. and draws not only on Indian games but on the Chinese game of Liubo and Chinese and Babylonian divination techniques.
History
Sanskrit is a bahuvrihi compound word, meaning "having four limbs or parts" and in epic poetry often meaning "army". The name comes from a battle formation mentioned in the Indian epic Mahabharata, referring to four divisions of an army, namely elephantry, chariotry, cavalry and infantry. An ancient battle formation, akshauhini, is like the setup of chaturanga.
Chaturanga was played on an 8×8 uncheckered board, called ashtāpada, which is also the name of a game. The board sometimes had special markings, the meaning of which are unknown today. These marks were not related to chaturanga, but were drawn on the board only by tradition. These special markings coincide with squares unreachable by any of the four Gajas that start on the board due to movement rules. Chess historian H. J. R. Murray conjectured that the ashtāpada was also used for some old race-type dice game, perhaps similar to chowka bhara, in which the marks had meaning.
An early reference to an ancient Indian board game is sometimes attributed to Subandhu in his Vasavadatta, dated between the 5th and 7th centuries AD: The time of the rains played its game with frogs for pieces [nayadyutair] yellow and green in colour, as if mottled by lac, leapt up on the black field squares.
The colours are not those of the two camps, but mean that the frogs have two colours, yellow and green.
Banabhatta's Harsha Charitha (c. AD 625) contains the earliest reference to the name chaturanga: Under this monarch, only the bees quarrelled to collect the dew; the only feet cut off were those of measurements, and only from Ashtâpada one could learn how to draw up a chaturanga, there was no cutting-off of the four limbs of condemned criminals...
While there is little doubt that ashtâpada is the gameboard of 8×8 squares, the double meaning of chaturanga, as the four-folded army, may be controversial. There is a probability that the ancestor of chess was mentioned there.
The game was first introduced to the West in Thomas Hyde's De ludis orientalibus libri duo, published in 1694. Subsequently, translations of Sanskrit accounts of the game were published by Sir William Jones.
In Arabic, most of the terminology of chess is derived directly from chaturanga: Modern chess itself is called shatranj in Arabic, and the bishop is called the elephant. The Tamerlane chess was also introduced in Iran later.
Rules
The initial position is as shown. White moves first. The objective in chaturanga, is to checkmate the opponent's Raja (king) or reducing the opposition to just the Raja.
Pieces and their moves
Raja (king) (also spelled Rajah): moves one step in any direction (vertical, horizontal or diagonal), the same as the king in chess. There is no castling in chaturanga.
Mantri (minister or counsellor); also known as Senapati (general): moves one step diagonally in any direction, like the fers in shatranj.
Ratha (chariot) (also known as Śakata): moves the same as a rook in chess- whereby the rook moves horizontally or vertically, through any number of unoccupied squares.
Gaja (elephant) (also known as Hastin): three different moves are described in ancient literature:
Two squares in any diagonal direction, jumping over the first square, as the alfil in Iranian shatranj, Ethiopian senterej, Mongolian Tamerlane chess and medieval courier chess. This is a fairy chess piece that is a (2,2)-leaper.
The same move is used for the boat in Indian chaturaji, a four-player version of chaturanga.
The elephant in Chinese xiangqi has the same move, but is not able to jump over an intervening piece or pawn.
The elephant in Korean janggi has a very similar move, also without the ability to jump over an intervening piece or pawn.
One step forward or one step in any diagonal direction.
The same move is used for the khon (nobleman) in Thai makruk and the sin (elephant) in Burmese sittuyin, as well as for the silver general in Japanese shogi.
The move was described c. 1030 by Biruni in his book India.
Two squares in any orthogonal (vertical or horizontal) direction, jumping over the first square.
A piece with such a move is called a dabbābah in some chess variants. The move was described by the Arabic chess master al-Adli c. 840 in his (partly lost) chess work. (The Arabic word dabbāba in former times meant a covered siege engine for attacking walled fortifications; today it means "army tank").
This is reminiscent of the aforementioned chaturaji, where the elephant moves as a rook.
The German historian Johannes Kohtz (1843–1918) suggests, rather, that this was the earliest move of the Ratha.
Ashva (horse) (also spelled Ashwa or Asva): moves the same as a knight in chess.
Padàti or Bhata (foot-soldier or infantry) (also spelled Pedati); also known as Sainik (warrior): moves and captures the same as a pawn in chess, but without a double-step option on the first move.
Additional rules
Al-Adli mentions two further differences:
Stalemate was a win for a stalemated player. This rule appeared again in some medieval chess variants in England c. 1600. According to some sources, there was no stalemate, though this is improbable.
The player that is first to bare the opponent's king (i.e. capture all enemy pieces except the king) wins. In shatranj this is also a win, but only if the opponent cannot bare the player's king on his next turn.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Chaturanga by Hans Bodlaender, The Chess Variant Pages
Chaturanga a simple program by Ed Friedlander (Java)
Abstract strategy games
History of chess
Chess in India
Games related to chaturanga
Traditional board games
Indian inventions
Traditional sports of India
Ancient sports
Indian board games | [
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237799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac%20Medal | Dirac Medal | The Dirac Medal is the name of four awards in the field of theoretical physics, computational chemistry, and mathematics, awarded by different organizations, named in honour of Professor Paul Dirac, one of the great theoretical physicists of the 20th century.
The Dirac Medal and Lecture (University of New South Wales)
The first-established prize is the Dirac Medal for the Advancement of Theoretical Physics, awarded by the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, jointly with the Australian Institute of Physics on the occasion of the public Dirac Lecture. The Lecture and the Medal commemorate the visit to the university in 1975 of Professor Dirac, who gave five lectures there. The lectures were subsequently published as a book Directions of Physics (Wiley, 1978 – H. Hora and J. Shepanski, eds.). Professor Dirac donated the royalties from this book to the University for the establishment of the Dirac Lecture series. The prize includes a silver medal and honorarium. It was first awarded in 1979.
Recipients
1979: Hannes Alfvén
1981: John Clive Ward
1983: Nicolaas Bloembergen
1985: David Pines
1987: Robert Hofstadter
1988: Klaus von Klitzing
1989: Carlo Rubbia & Kenneth G. Wilson
1990: Norman F. Ramsey
1991: Herbert A. Hauptman
1992: Wolfgang Paul
1996: Edwin Salpeter
1998: David Deutsch
2002: Heinrich Hora
2003:
2004: Iosif Khriplovich
2006: Sir Roger Penrose
2007: John Iliopoulos
2008: Harald Fritzsch
2010: E. C. George Sudarshan
2011: Lord May of Oxford
2012: Brian Schmidt
2013: Sir Michael Pepper
2014: Serge Haroche
2015: Subir Sachdev
2016: Kenneth Freeman
2017: Boris Altshuler
2019: Lene Hau
2020: Susan Scott
Dirac Medal of the ICTP
The Dirac Medal of the ICTP is given each year by the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in honour of physicist Paul Dirac. The award, announced each year on 8 August (Dirac's birthday), was first awarded in 1985.
An international committee of distinguished scientists selects the winners from a list of nominated candidates. The Committee invites nominations from scientists working in the fields of theoretical physics or mathematics.
The Dirac Medal of the ICTP is not awarded to Nobel Laureates, Fields Medalists, or Wolf Prize winners.
However, several Dirac Medallists have subsequently won one of these awards.
The medallists receive a prize of US$5,000.
Recipients
1985: Edward Witten, Yakov Zel'dovich
1986: Alexander Polyakov, Yoichiro Nambu
1987: Bruno Zumino, Bryce DeWitt
1988: David J. Gross, Efim S. Fradkin
1989: John H. Schwarz, Michael Green
1990: Ludwig Faddeev, Sidney R. Coleman
1991: Jeffrey Goldstone, Stanley Mandelstam
1992: Nikolai Bogoliubov, Yakov G. Sinai
1993: Daniel Z. Freedman, Peter van Nieuwenhuizen, Sergio Ferrara
1994: Frank Wilczek
1995: Michael Berry
1996: Martinus J.G. Veltman, Tullio Regge
1997: David Olive, Peter Goddard
1998: Roman Jackiw, Stephen L. Adler
1999: Giorgio Parisi
2000: Helen Quinn, Howard Georgi, Jogesh Pati
2001: John Hopfield
2002: Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhardt
2003: Robert Kraichnan, Vladimir E. Zakharov
2004: Curtis Callan, James Bjorken
2005: Patrick A. Lee, Sir Samuel Frederick Edwards
2006: Peter Zoller
2007: Jean Iliopoulos, Luciano Maiani
2008: Joe Polchinski, Juan Maldacena, Cumrun Vafa
2009: Roberto Car, Michele Parrinello
2010: Nicola Cabibbo, George Sudarshan
2011: Édouard Brézin, John Cardy, Alexander Zamolodchikov
2012: Duncan Haldane, Charles Kane, Shoucheng Zhang
2013: Tom W. B. Kibble, Jim Peebles, Martin John Rees
2014: Ashoke Sen, Andrew Strominger, Gabriele Veneziano
2015: Alexei Kitaev, Greg Moore, Nicholas Read
2016: Nathan Seiberg, Mikhail Shifman, Arkady Vainshtein
2017: Charles H. Bennett, David Deutsch, Peter W. Shor
2018: Subir Sachdev, Dam Thanh Son, Xiao-Gang Wen
2019: Viatcheslav Mukhanov, Alexei Starobinsky, Rashid Sunyaev
2020: André Neveu, Pierre Ramond, Miguel Virasoro
2021: Alessandra Buonanno, Thibault Damour, Frans Pretorius, Saul Teukolsky
Dirac Medal of the IOP
The Dirac Medal is a gold medal awarded annually by the Institute of Physics (Britain's and Ireland's main professional body for physicists) for "outstanding contributions to theoretical (including mathematical and computational) physics". The award, which includes a £1000 prize, was decided upon by the Institute of Physics in 1985, and first granted in 1987.
Recipients
1987: Stephen Hawking
1988: John Stewart Bell
1989: Roger Penrose
1990: Michael Berry
1991: Rudolf Peierls
1992: Anthony Leggett
1993: David Thouless
1994: Volker Heine
1995: Daniel Walls
1996: John Pendry
1997: Peter Higgs
1998: David Deutsch
1999: Ian Percival
2000: John Cardy
2001: Brian Ridley
2002:
2003: Christopher Hull
2004: Michael Green
2005: John Ellis (CERN) For his highly influential work on particle physics phenomenology; in particular on the properties of gluons, the Higgs boson and the top quark.
2006: (University College London)For his contributions to the development of atomic-scale computer simulations, which have greatly extended their power and effectiveness across an immense range of applications.
2007: David Sherrington (University of Oxford) For his pioneering work in spin glasses.
2008: Bryan Webber (University of Cambridge) For his pioneering work in understanding and applying quantum chromodynamics (QCD), the theory of the strong interaction which is one of the three fundamental forces of Nature.
2009: Michael Cates (University of Edinburgh) For pioneering work in the theoretical physics of soft materials, particularly in relation to their flow behaviour.
2010: James Binney (University of Oxford) For his contribution to our understanding of how galaxies are constituted, how they work and how they were formed.
2011: Christopher Isham (Imperial College London) For his major contributions to the search for a consistent quantum theory of gravity and to the foundations of quantum mechanics.
2012: Graham Garland Ross (University of Oxford) For his theoretical work in developing both the Standard Model of fundamental particles and forces and theories beyond the Standard Model that have led to many new insights into the origins and nature of the universe.
2013: (University of Strathclyde) For his wide ranging contributions throughout optics research, which both inspire and lead experimental endeavours.
2014: Tim Palmer (University of Oxford) For the development of probabilistic weather and climate prediction systems.
2015: John Barrow (University of Cambridge) For his combination of mathematical and physical reasoning to increase our understanding of the evolution of the universe, and his use of cosmology to increase our understanding of fundamental physics.
2016: Sandu Popescu (University of Bristol) For his fundamental and influential research into nonlocality and his contribution to the foundations of quantum physics.
2017: Michael Duff (Imperial College London and Oxford University) For sustained groundbreaking contributions to theoretical physics including the discovery of Weyl anomalies, for having pioneered Kaluza-Klein supergravity, and for recognising that superstrings in 10 dimensions are merely a special case of membranes in an 11-dimensional M-theory.
2018: , University of Oxford for "his pioneering, deep, and distinctive contributions to condensed-matter theory, particularly in the quantum Hall effect, and to geometrically frustrated magnets."
2019: Richard Keith Ellis, University of Durham for "his seminal work in quantum chromodynamics (QCD) where he performed many of the key calculations that led to the acceptance of QCD as the correct theory of the strong interaction."
2020: Carlos Frenk, University of Durham for "outstanding contributions to establishing the current standard model for the formation of all cosmic structure, and for leading computational cosmology within the UK for more than three decades."
2021: Steven Balbus, University of Oxford for "fundamental contributions to the theory of accretion-disc turbulence and the dynamical stability of astrophysical fluids, breaking new ground by establishing the critical role played by weak magnetic fields."
Dirac Medal of the WATOC
The Dirac Medal is awarded annually by The World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists "for the outstanding computational chemist in the world under the age of 40". The award was first granted in 1998.
Recipients
Source: WATOC
1998: Timothy J. Lee
1999: Peter M. W. Gill
2000: Jiali Gao
2001: Martin Kaupp
2002: Jerzy Cioslowski
2003: Peter Schreiner
2004: Jan Martin
2005: Ursula Röthlisberger
2006: Lucas Visscher
2007: Anna Krylov
2008: Kenneth Ruud
2009: Jeremy Harvey
2010: Daniel Crawford
2011: Leticia González
2012: Paul Ayers
2013: Filipp Furche
2014: Denis Jacquemin
2015: Edward Valeev
2016: Johannes Neugebauer
2017: Francesco Evangelista
2018: Erin Johnson
2019: Satoshi Maeda
See also
List of physics awards
List of awards named after people
References
Physics awards
Awards of the Institute of Physics
Australian science and technology awards
British science and technology awards
Awards established in 1921 | [
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] |
237802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20abbreviations | Lists of abbreviations | Lists of abbreviations contain abbreviations and acronyms in different languages and fields. They include Latin and English abbreviations and acronyms.
Classical abbreviations
List of classical abbreviations (Latin abbreviations that occur in the writings and inscriptions of the Romans)
List of Latin abbreviations (Common Latin abbreviations that have been adopted by Modern English)
List of medieval abbreviations (Abbreviations used by ancient and medieval scribes writing in various languages, including Latin, Greek, Old English and Old Norse)
English language abbreviations
Lists of abbreviations in the English language:
Athletics abbreviations
List of business and finance abbreviations
List of computing and IT abbreviations
List of ecclesiastical abbreviations
List of energy abbreviations
List of abbreviations in photography
List of glossing abbreviations (grammatical terms used in linguistic interlinear glossing)
List of legal abbreviations
List of medical abbreviations
List of abbreviations for medical organisations and personnel
Reporting mark (owners of rolling stock and other railway equipment)
List of style guide abbreviations
List of abbreviations used on Wikipedia for Wikipedia things
Acronyms
An acronym is a type of abbreviation formed from the initial components of the words of a longer name or phrase,
Lists of acronyms
Three-letter acronyms
List of government and military acronyms
List of U.S. government and military acronyms
List of U.S. Navy acronyms
Other languages
Abbreviations in other languages:
List of German abbreviations
List of Hebrew abbreviations
See also
:Category:Lists of abbreviations
:Category:Glossaries of sports | [
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237803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltzar%20von%20Platen%20%28statesman%29 | Baltzar von Platen (statesman) | Count Baltzar Bogislaus von Platen (29 May 1766 – 6 December 1829) was a Swedish naval officer and statesman. He was born on the island of Rügen (now in Germany) to Philip Julius Bernhard von Platen, Field Marshal and the Swedish Governor General of Pomerania, and Regina Juliana von Usedom.
Swedish Navy
At age 13 Baltzar entered the Royal Swedish Navy where he served with distinction until resigning in 1800, having attained the rank of captain.
Göta Canal
Following the revolution in 1809 he became a member Government and, in the following year, received a promotion to rear admiral. He was also made chairman of the Göta Canal directorate charged with constructing a canal across Sweden. The canal, following a design by Thomas Telford, would only be completed in 1832, after von Platen's death, but during its construction, he did discover two skilled mechanical engineering brothers John Ericsson and Nils Ericson.
Honors
He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1815. He was appointed Governor of Norway on 26 November 1827, a position which he held until his death in Christiania (modern name Oslo), the Norwegian capital, on 6 December 1829.
Burial site
He was married to Hedvig Elisabeth Ekman. Baltzar von Platen's grave is at the side of the Göta Canal in Motala, where it is something of a tourist attraction, especially for canal visitors.
References
1766 births
1829 deaths
People from Swedish Pomerania
Baltzar
Swedish nobility
Swedish people of German descent
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Swedish Navy vice admirals
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
19th-century Swedish businesspeople
19th-century Swedish military personnel
19th-century Swedish politicians | [
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237806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jos%C3%A9%2C%20Belize | San José, Belize | San José is a village in the Orange Walk District of Belize. In the 2000 census, San José had a population of 2,254 people. The village is the fourth largest in the Orange Walk district and is estimated to have almost 3,000 residents as of 2016 mainly of Yucatec Maya-Mestizo ancestry. San José is adjacent to San Pablo and is only divided from the latter by a speed bump. Combined, the two villages make up the third largest population center in the Orange Walk District with approximately 4,000 residents.
Ethnicities
The community is populated by Maya Mestizos (Yucatec Mayas), Chinese, Taiwanese, and other people from Central America. It is heavily influenced by Catholicism.
Population and Housing
2010 Population and Housing Census has San José's total population as 2,862 residents, of this 1,468 are males and 1,376 are females. The total number of households is 590 and the average household size is 4.9.
Educational institutions
San José only has one elementary school which is San José Government School. Children also attend school in neighbouring San Pablo at San Pablo Roman Catholic School and San Pablo Community School.
Transportation
The locality is served by the local bus company Cabrera's Bus Service. Local bus service to and from Orange Walk and Belize City to the south and Corozal Town to the north operates approximately every half-hour.
Language
Most of the villagers of San Jose speak Spanish inside the village but they also understand English. Many of the elders continue speaking Yucatec Maya.
References
Populated places in Orange Walk District | [
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237807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipyard%2C%20Belize | Shipyard, Belize | Shipyard, also called Shipyard Colony, is a Mennonite settlement that is also an administrative village in the Orange Walk District of Belize.
Shipyard was founded in 1958 by Old Colony Mennonites from Chihuahua and Durango states in Mexico. It consists of more than 20 camps (German: "dörfer"), which have German names like "Blumenort" or "Hochfeld", but outside the Mennonite community they are referred to only by numbers, e. g. "Camp 5" instead of "Reinfeld".
Most of the population of Shipyard are Plautdietsch-speaking ethnic Mennonites, living in a very integrated community where most of them work as carpenters, farmers and mechanics. Most Mennonites of Shipyard are quite traditional in lifestyle, still using horse and buggy for transportation and tractors with steel wheels for fieldwork. Compared with other Mennonites in Belize, Shipyard is more conservative than Spanish Lookout and Blue Creek, but more modern concerning the use of technology than Upper Barton Creek, Springfield and daughter colonies.
Population
Around 1960 the total population of Shipyard was 728. In 1987 it had grown to 1,966. In the 2014 census it had a total population of 3,497 people. In 2017 it has grown to 3,805 people. It is thus the largest Mennonite settlement in Belize.
See also
Mennonites in Belize
External links
Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online: Shipyard Colony (Belize)
References
Mennonitism in Belize
Mexican Belizean
Old Colony Mennonites
Populated places in Orange Walk District
Ukrainian diaspora in North America
Russian Mennonite diaspora in Belize | [
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237808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver%20Creek | Silver Creek | Silver Creek may refer to:
Places
Australia
Silver Creek, Queensland, a locality in the Whitsunday Region
Belize
Silver Creek, Belize, a village in the Toledo District of Belize
Canada
Rural Municipality of Silver Creek, Parkland Region, Manitoba
Silver Creek, Ontario, a community of Halton Hills
Silver Creek, British Columbia (Hope), a community in the district municipality of Hope, British Columbia
Silver Creek, British Columbia (CSRD), an unincorporated community in the Columbia-Shuswap Regional District (CSRD)
United States
Silver Creek, California, a former settlement in Plumas County
Silver Creek High School (California), a high school in San Jose which is operated by the East Side Union High School District
Silver Creek, Colorado, a mining ghost town
Silver Creek, Georgia, an unincorporated community in Floyd County
Silver Creek, Lake County, Minnesota, an unincorporated community
Silver Creek, Wright County, Minnesota, an unincorporated community
Silver Creek, Mississippi, a town in Lawrence County
Silver Creek, Missouri, a village in Newton County
Silver Creek, Nebraska, a village in Merrick County
Silver Creek, New York, a village in Chautauqua County
Silver Creek, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Silver Creek, Tennessee, an unincorporated community
Silver Creek, Washington, an unincorporated community in Lewis County
Silver Creek, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Silver Creek Township (disambiguation)
Streams
Canada
Big Silver Creek, a major feeder stream of Harrison Lake, British Columbia
Silver Creek (Huron County, Ontario), a tributary of the Bayfield River in Huron County, Ontario
United States
Silver Creek (Arizona), a stream located in the White Mountains of Arizona north of Show Low
Silver Creek (Georgia)
Silver Creek (Idaho), a spring-fed creek in south-central Idaho
Silver Creek (Eel River tributary), a stream in Indiana
Silver Creek (Ohio River tributary), a stream in southern Indiana
Silver Creek (Kentucky), a creek in Madison County, Kentucky
Silver Creek (East Fork Little Chariton River tributary), a stream in Missouri
Silver Creek (Shoal Creek tributary), a stream in Missouri
Silver Creek (Nebraska), in Jefferson and Washington counties, Nebraska
Silver Creek (Oregon) (disambiguation), many different creeks in Oregon
Silver Creek (Saucon Creek tributary), in Northampton County, Pennsylvania
Silver Creek (Susquehanna River tributary), in Snyder County, Pennsylvania
Silver Creek (West Virginia), a stream in West Virginia
Other
Silver Creek Entertainment, a video game developer of classic card games
See also
Silver Creek Township (disambiguation) | [
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237809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltzar%20von%20Platen%20%28inventor%29 | Baltzar von Platen (inventor) | Baltzar von Platen (24 February 1898 – 29 April 1984) was a Swedish engineer and inventor.
Biography
Baltzar von Platen born in Malmö, Sweden. He was the son of Philip Ludvig von Platen and Eva Hedvig Ingeborg Ehrenborg. He first studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy at Lund University.
Together with inventor and entrepreneur Carl Munters (1897–1989), he was the inventor of the gas absorption refrigerator in 1922 while they were both Swedish engineering students at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden. The Platen-Munters design could operate without a pump. The technique produced "cold" from a heat source such as propane, electricity, or kerosene. In 1923, production by AB Arctic began. In 1925, AB Arctic was purchased by Electrolux, which began selling them worldwide. In 1925, American manufacturer Servel purchased the rights to the Swedish patent for a continuous absorption refrigerator and started to focus on the gas refrigeration market. The company manufactured refrigerators and was the only U.S. manufacturer for many years.
Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters both received the Polhem Prize (Polhemspriset) awarded by Swedish Association of Graduate Engineers in 1925. Baltzar von Platen was awarded the Franklin Institute John Price Wetherill Medal in 1932. He was awarded the Adelsköld Medal (Adelsköldska medaljen) in gold from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences during 1940. Von Platen also worked with ASEA, Sweden's major electrical company, on the development of a process which used heat and pressure to produce diamonds. Von Platen left the project before it succeeded in producing the first synthetic diamonds in 1953.
References
External links
The Gas Model Refrigerator Alex Imholtz
1898 births
1984 deaths
Baltzar
Swedish nobility
People from Malmö
Lund University alumni
KTH Royal Institute of Technology alumni
20th-century Swedish engineers
20th-century Swedish inventors | [
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237816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orville%20Freeman | Orville Freeman | Orville Lothrop Freeman (May 9, 1918February 20, 2003) was an American Democratic politician who served as the 29th Governor of Minnesota from January 5, 1955, to January 2, 1961, and as the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture from 1961 to 1969 under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. He was one of the founding members of the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party and strongly influential in the merger of the pre-DFL Minnesota Democratic and Farmer-Labor Parties. Freeman nominated Kennedy for president at the 1960 Democratic Party national convention.
Early life
Freeman was born on May 9, 1918, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Orville and Frances (Schroeder) Freeman. He attended Central High School in Minneapolis. Freeman then went on to attend the University of Minnesota, where he graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1940 and met his lifelong friend and political ally, Hubert Humphrey. He also met his wife, Jane Charlotte Shields (May 25, 1921 – March 23, 2018), in college. They married on May 2, 1942. They had two children: Michael Orville and Constance Jane Freeman.
Military service
Figuring that the United States would eventually become involved in the war, Freeman signed up for the Marine Reserves in late 1940 with the understanding he could finish law school before he fulfilled his required service. The attack on Pearl Harbor ended that arrangement, and on December 31, 1941, he received orders to report to Officer Candidate School at Marine Corps Base Quantico.
After graduating and following training to be an infantry officer, he reported to Camp Elliot, just outside San Diego, California. He was soon assigned to the 9th Marine Regiment, Kilo Company, 3rd Battalion, 9th Marines. His unit eventually shipped out overseas for periods of training in New Zealand and Guadalcanal.
On November 1, 1943, he saw his first combat when his unit came ashore at Torokina on Bougainville in what were the first battles of the Bougainville Campaign. A few days later, while he was leading a patrol, he encountered a group of five or six Japanese soldiers in a clearing. An exchange of gunfire followed, and Freeman was wounded in the jaw and left arm. Eventually, he was evacuated to a US Army hospital on New Caledonia and then to a Naval hospital on Nouméa. He returned to the United States in 1944 but never recovered enough movement in his arm to pass a US Marine Corps physical to return to combat.
Political career
He earned his LL.B. from the University of Minnesota Law School in 1946. Freeman went on to practice law in Minneapolis. He ran unsuccessfully for attorney general of Minnesota in 1950 and for governor in 1952.
Freeman was elected governor in 1954, and was re-elected in 1956 and 1958. He took the unusual action of declaring martial law in the city of Albert Lea on December 11, 1959, to maintain law and order during a strike at the Wilson Packing Company. After twelve days, a federal court ruled that the imposition of martial law was inappropriate. Also, on November 13, 1955, Freeman was a guest on the variety show Toast of the Town, which would later be called The Ed Sullivan Show.
In July 1960, Freeman nominated U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts for president at the Democratic National Convention.
Following his defeat for re-election as governor in 1960, Freeman was appointed as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture by the newly elected President Kennedy, and he was retained in that post by President Lyndon B. Johnson following the Kennedy assassination. Freeman served until January 21, 1969.
Later life
Later, Freeman headed two consulting businesses and practiced law in Washington, DC.
Freeman died from complications of Alzheimer's disease on February 20, 2003, in Minneapolis. He was buried in that city's Lakewood Cemetery.
Legacy
Freeman is remembered for submitting proposed legislation to establish the Food Stamp Program for the poor, which is still in use today.
His son Mike Freeman ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1998 and has served non-consecutive terms as County Attorney for Hennepin County, Minnesota (1991 to 1999, and 2007 to the present).
Freeman’s name was also mentioned in a 1963 episode of The Beverly Hillbillies. In the Season 2 episode entitled “Granny’s Garden”, the main characters are about to mule-plow the front lawn of their estate in order to plant a garden. The character of Jane Hathaway drives up and exclaims “What in the name of Secretary Freeman are you doing?!” (Season 2, Episode 3,October 9, 1963.)
Awards and decorations
Known decorations and medals include:
See also
List of notable United States Marines
Notes
References
Bibliography
Web
Minnesota Historical Society
External links
The personal papers of Orville Freeman are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society.
Oral History Interviews with Orville Freeman, Lyndon Baines Johnson Library
|-
|-
1918 births
2003 deaths
Cooperative organizers
Governors of Minnesota
United States Secretaries of Agriculture
Minnesota Democrats
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
University of Minnesota alumni
University of Minnesota Law School alumni
United States Marine Corps officers
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
Military personnel from Minnesota
American people of Norwegian descent
American people of Swedish descent
Politicians from Minneapolis
Lyndon B. Johnson administration cabinet members
Kennedy administration cabinet members
20th-century American politicians
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Burials at Lakewood Cemetery
Neurological disease deaths in Minnesota
Central High School (Minneapolis, Minnesota) alumni
United States Marine Corps reservists | [
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237818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold%20Stassen | Harold Stassen | Harold Edward Stassen (April 13, 1907 – March 4, 2001) was an American politician who was the 25th Governor of Minnesota. He was a leading candidate for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in 1948, considered for a time to be the front-runner. He thereafter regularly continued to run for that and other offices, such that his name became most identified with his status as a perennial candidate.
Born in West St. Paul, Minnesota, Stassen was elected as the district attorney of Dakota County, Minnesota after graduating from the University of Minnesota. He won election as Governor of Minnesota in 1938. Stassen is the youngest person elected to that office. He gave the keynote address at the 1940 Republican National Convention. He resigned as governor to serve in the United States Navy during World War II, becoming an aide to Admiral William Halsey Jr. After the war, he became president of the University of Pennsylvania, holding that position from 1948 to 1953. Stassen sought the presidential nomination at the 1948 Republican National Convention, winning a significant share of the delegates on the first two ballots of the convention. During the Republican primaries preceding the convention, he engaged in the Dewey–Stassen debate, the first recorded debate between presidential candidates.
Stassen sought the presidential nomination again at the 1952 Republican National Convention, and helped Dwight D. Eisenhower win the nomination by shifting his support to Eisenhower. After serving in the Eisenhower administration, Stassen sought various offices. Between 1958 and 1990, he campaigned unsuccessfully for the positions of Governor of Pennsylvania, Mayor of Philadelphia, United States Senator, Governor of Minnesota, and United States Representative. He further sought the Republican nomination for president in 1964, 1968, 1976, 1980, 1984, 1988, and 1992.
Early life (1907–1930)
Stassen, the third of five children, was born in West St. Paul, Minnesota, to Elsie Emma (née Mueller) and William Andrew Stassen, a farmer and several-times mayor of West St. Paul. His mother was German and his father was born in Minnesota, to German and Czech parents. At the age of 11 Stassen graduated from elementary school and four years later graduated from high school. At the University of Minnesota, Stassen was an intercollegiate debater and orator, and captain of the champion university rifle team in 1927. He received his B.A. degree in 1927, and his LL.B. degree from the University of Minnesota Law School in 1929. That year, he married his wife, the former Esther Glewwe, whose sister, Martha, was married to Harold's younger brother, William.
Career
Early political career (1930–1938)
In 1930, after opening a law office with Elmer J. Ryan in South St. Paul, Stassen defeated Alfred Joyce, the incumbent District Attorney of Dakota County, and took office on January 5, 1931, months after Joyce was suspended from practicing law. Three years after taking office Stassen was elected president of the Minnesota County Attorney's association.
In 1935, Stassen participated in the creation of the Young Republicans committee in Minnesota and was one of three elected to be temporary members of the state committee to carry on pre-convention work and would be elected its chairman later that year. In 1936 Stassen led an effort by the Young Republicans that demanded greater representation for them at county conventions and for their inclusion in state leadership before his tenure as chairman ended later that year.
Stassen was a delegate to the 1936 Republican National Convention. On April 24, 1937 he gave the keynote address at the Minnesota Republican state convention. In October he announced his intention to run for governor in 1938, and formally started his campaign in November. Despite being a member of the party's executive committee Stassen seconded a motion preventing a gubernatorial endorsement at the convention in December.
Governorship (1939–1943)
On January 2, 1939 Stassen was inaugurated by Chief Justice Henry M. Gallagher. His first action was to order an audit of expenditures in every state department. He would later sign into law Minnesota's first civil service law. In September he organized a farm problems conference with World War Two's effect on agricultural being the main issue that was attended by the governors of South Dakota, Wisconsin, Kansas, North Dakota, and Illinois or their representatives. When New York District Attorney and future Governor Thomas E. Dewey traveled to Minneapolis during the 1940 presidential campaign he was introduced by Stassen. By the end of 1939 Stassen's approval rating was over 80% and he had the support of over 80% of both Democrats and Farmer-Laborers. Despite the fact that Stassen was then constitutionally ineligible for the presidency because of his age, some Republicans supported his involvement in presidential politics and Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes commented that Stassen was a political upcomer and was more serious than Dewey.
World War II
Stassen, who was reelected as governor of Minnesota in 1940 and 1942, supported President Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policy and encouraged the state Republican Party to repudiate American isolationism before the attack on Pearl Harbor. During the 1942 campaign, he announced that, if re-elected, he would resign to serve on active duty with the United States Naval Reserve, which Stassen had joined with the rank of lieutenant commander earlier that year.
Stassen was re-elected governor in November 1942 and, true to his campaign promise, resigned as governor on April 23, 1943 prior to reporting for active duty with the Navy. (Although he would run in 13 more elections in his life, this was the last time he would hold an elected office.)
After being promoted to the rank of commander, he joined the staff of Admiral William F. Halsey, Commander of the Third Fleet in the Pacific Theater. He was awarded the Legion of Merit for meritorious service in this position. After almost two and a half years of service, he was promoted to the rank of captain on September 27, 1945 and was released from active duty in November of the same year.
Stassen lost some of his political base while overseas, whereas Republican candidates such as Thomas E. Dewey had a chance to increase theirs. Stassen was a delegate at the San Francisco Conference that established the United Nations, and was one of the US signatories of the United Nations Charter. He served as president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1948 to 1953. His attempt to increase the prominence of the university football team was unpopular and soon abandoned. From 1953 to 1955, he was the director of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's short-lived Foreign Operations Administration.
Presidential politics (1944–1964)
Stassen was later best known for being a perennial candidate for the Republican Party nomination for President of the United States, seeking it nine times between 1944 and 1992 (1944, 1948, 1952, 1964, 1968, 1980, 1984, 1988, and 1992). He never won the Republican nomination, much less the presidency; in fact, after 1952, he never even came close, but continued to campaign actively and seriously for President until just a year before his death.
Due to his victory in the gubernatorial race, status as America's youngest governor and overwhelming approval rating Stassen was touted as a possible future Republican presidential nominee starting in 1940 despite the fact that he would be constitutionally unable to serve in 1941 due to the requirement that a President be at least 35 years of age.
Stassen's strongest bid for the Republican presidential nomination was in 1948, when he won a series of upset victories in early primaries. His challenge to the front runner, New York Governor and 1944 G.O.P. presidential nominee Thomas E. Dewey, was serious enough that Dewey challenged Stassen to a debate on the night before the Oregon Republican primary. The May 17 Dewey–Stassen debate was the first recorded modern debate between presidential candidates to take place in the United States. The debate, which concerned the criminalization of the Communist Party of the United States, was broadcast over the radio throughout the nation.
At the convention in Philadelphia, Osro Cobb, the then Republican state chairman in Arkansas, made a seconding speech for Stassen, having been motivated by Stassen's promise if nominated to campaign actively in the South. Cobb described the South as "the last frontier to which we can turn for substantial gains for our party – gains that can be held in the years to come. There is a definite affinity between the southern farmer and the grassroots Midwestern Republicans. ...Our party simply cannot indulge the luxury of a Solid South, handed on a silver platter to the opposition every four years...."
In the first two rounds of balloting, Stassen finished third behind Dewey, the front runner, and Robert Taft. After the second round, Stassen and Taft bowed out and Dewey was selected unanimously as the nominee on the next ballot. In all Republican conventions since 1948, the nominee has been selected on the first ballot.
Stassen's home-state delegation played a key role in the 1952 Republican contest when, over his objection, his delegates were released to Dwight D. Eisenhower. This swing helped Eisenhower to defeat Robert A. Taft on the first ballot. He served in the Eisenhower Administration, filling posts including director of the Mutual Security Administration (foreign aid) and Special Assistant to the President for Disarmament. During this period, he held cabinet rank and led a quixotic effort (perhaps covertly encouraged by Eisenhower, who had reservations about Richard Nixon's maturity for the presidency) to "dump Nixon" at the 1956 Republican Convention.
Later life (1964–2001)
Stassen also ran for:
Dakota County District Attorney (he won in 1930 and 1934);
Governor of Minnesota on four occasions (he won on his first three attempts in 1938, 1940, and 1942, but was unsuccessful in 1982);
United States Senate twice (1978 and 1994 in Minnesota);
Governor of Pennsylvania twice (1958) and (1966)
Mayor of Philadelphia once (1959);
U.S. Representative (he was the Republican nominee against Bruce Vento of Minnesota in 1986).
After leaving the Eisenhower Administration, Stassen campaigned unsuccessfully for governor of Pennsylvania (1958 and 1966) and for mayor of Philadelphia (1959). In 1978, Stassen moved back to Minnesota and ran a campaign for the U.S. Senate. In 1982, he campaigned for the Minnesota governorship and in 1986 for the fourth district congressional seat. He campaigned for the Republican Party presidential nomination in every election except 1956, 1960, and 1972. He was on the ballot in the 1988 New Hampshire Republican primary and received 130 votes, and also received 1 vote in the Democratic primary.
On the death of Happy Chandler in 1991, Stassen became the earliest serving governor of any U.S. state still living. When he died, the title was passed to Charles Poletti, a former governor of New York State. Stassen died of natural causes in 2001 in Bloomington, Minnesota, at the age of 93 and is buried at the Acacia Park Cemetery in Mendota Heights, Minnesota. The Minnesota Department of Revenue headquarters near the State Capitol is named for him.
Religious life
Raised as a Baptist, Stassen was active with regional Baptist associations as well as many other religious organizations. During the 1960s, he gained a reputation as a liberal, particularly when, as president of the American Baptist Convention in 1963, he joined Martin Luther King Jr. in his March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Much of Stassen's political thought came from his religious beliefs. He held important positions in his denomination and in local and national councils of churches. In the latter 1960s and early 1970s, Stassen also participated with the U.S. Inter-religious Committee on Peace, which sponsored a series of conferences on religion and peace. Baptists writing memorials remembered him as much as a church figure as a political candidate. His son Glen Stassen was a prominent Baptist theologian.
Political positions
Throughout his life, Stassen was a liberal Republican and challenged the more conservative elements of the Republican Party such as when he primaried Senator Robert A. Taft, favorite son and a leader of the conservative coalition, in Taft's home state of Ohio during the 1948 Republican primary.
Economics
During the 1938 Minnesota gubernatorial campaign Stassen ran against the creation of a sales tax and later in life supported a form of universal basic income in which unemployed mothers of two or more children would be given $115 per month.
Foreign policy
Despite having called for the banning of the Communist Party in the United States, Stassen differed from the majority of conservatives with his stances against the embargo on Cuba and military intervention in Vietnam, instead favoring both North and South Vietnam joining the UN where their problems could be settled.
United Nations
Stassen was one of the founders of the United Nations and supported it throughout his life. When he died on March 4, 2001, aged 93, he was the last living signer of the United Nations Charter.
Military awards
Legion of Merit
Navy Commendation Ribbon
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with four battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Legion of Merit citation
Commander Harold E. Stassen, United States Navy, is awarded the Legion of Merit for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States as Assistant Chief of Staff, Administration, and Aide and Flag Secretary on the staff of Commander, THIRD Fleet, from 15 June 1944 to 26 January 1945.
General Orders: Bureau of Naval Personnel Information Bulletin No. 337 (April 1945) & No. 363 (May 1947)
Action Date: June 15, 1944 – January 26, 1945
Cultural references
In the Lord of the Rings parody Bored of the Rings, the "Bath of Lavalier" (which parodies the Mirror of Galadriel in The Fellowship of the Ring) is shown predicting a happy ending for all concerned, and Lavalier says that it bodes well, because the Bath of Lavalier never lies. After the characters leave, the Bath of Lavalier is described as showing "the triumphant reception of the RMS Titanic in New York Harbor, the repayment of the French war debt, and the inaugural ball of Harold Stassen."
Stassen appears in Harry Turtledove's alternate history novels Colonization: Aftershocks (part of the Worldwar series) and Joe Steele (a standalone).
In the ninth episode of the 18th season of The Simpsons, while staying with the titular family, Gil Gunderson makes breakfast and asks the kids "Who wants some eggs à la Harold Stassen?" When met with dumbfounded looks, he reveals the punchline: "They're always running!"
In Elia Kazan's 1947 movie Gentleman's Agreement starring Gregory Peck, the lead character played by Peck mentions early in the film his disappointment with being assigned to write on antisemitism by his magazine editor. Peck's character mentions he feels his first assignment should involve some theme of import, such as "covering Stassen". This is presumably a reference to the then looming 1948 United States presidential election Republican party primary nomination which Stassen and Thomas E. Dewey were both then in heated competition to win.
Electoral history
In his political career, Stassen, ran many campaigns for public office. He was successfully elected governor of Minnesota three times, in 1938, 1940, and 1942.
Stassen ran for Republican nomination for President of the United States in 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1964, 1968, 1980, 1984, 1988, and 1992. As then-Governor of Minnesota, his 1940 bid was just as a favorite-son candidate and after delivering the keynote address, he endorsed the eventual nominee, Wendell Wilkie. His 1948 and 1952 campaigns saw him run competitively, whilst his other candidacy saw him make little impact.
Stassen would run many unsuccessful campaigns for other public offices. He ran unsuccessfully for Lt. Governor of Pennsylvania. He twice ran unsuccessfully for Governor of Pennsylvania, in Republican primary for Governor of Pennsylvania, 1958 and 1966. He ran unsuccessfully for Mayor of Philadelphia in 1959. He twice ran unsuccessfully for United States Senate from Minnesota, in 1978 and 1994. He ran unsuccessfully for the Minnesota's 2nd district in the United States House of Representatives in 1986.
References
Bibliography
Kirby, Alec, Dalin, David G., Rothmann, John F.. Harold E. Stassen – The Life and Perennial Candidacy of the Progressive Republican (McFarland, 2013) 235pp
Pietrusza, David 1948: Harry Truman's Improbable Victory and the Year that Changed America, Union Square Press, 2011.
Smemo, Kristoffer. "A "New Dealized" Grand Old Party: Labor and the Emergence of Liberal Republicanism in Minneapolis, 1937–1939." Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas (2014) 11#2 pp: 35–59.
Werle, Steve, Stassen Again, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press), 2015.
Archives
In the Harold E. Stassen Papers at the Minnesota Historical Society, digital content is available for researcher use, including speech files, handwritten notes, memoranda, annotated briefings, correspondence, war diaries, working papers, and draft charters for the United Nations.
The entire Harold E. Stassen collection includes campaign and political, naval service, United Nations, Eisenhower administration, and organizational membership files of the Minnesota Governor (1938–1943), Naval Officer (1943–1945), United Nations delegate (April–June 1945), Presidential contender (1948), and Eisenhower cabinet member and Director of the Mutual Security Agency (1953–1958), documenting most aspects of Stassen's six-decade career, including all of his public offices, campaigns, and Republican Party and other non-official activities.
Digital selections from this manuscript collection were made based on user and researcher interest, historic significance, and copyright status.
External links
Harold Stassen in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia
Biographical information, gubernatorial records, and Finding Aid: Harold E. Stassen Papers at the Minnesota Historical Society
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1907 births
2001 deaths
20th-century American politicians
United States Navy personnel of World War II
American people of Czech descent
American people of German descent
Baptists from Minnesota
Chief Administrators of the University of Pennsylvania
Eisenhower administration cabinet members
Governors of Minnesota
Military personnel from Minnesota
Minnesota lawyers
Minnesota Republicans
Pennsylvania lawyers
People from West St. Paul, Minnesota
Politicians from Philadelphia
Republican Party state governors of the United States
United States Navy officers
Candidates in the 1944 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1948 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1952 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1964 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1968 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1976 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1980 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1984 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1988 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1992 United States presidential election
University of Minnesota Law School alumni | [
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237819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Antonio%2C%20Cayo | San Antonio, Cayo | San Antonio is a village in the Cayo District of Belize. In 2000, the village of San Antonio had a population of 2,124 people. Its population is predominantly Yukatek-speaking Maya.
Populated places in Cayo District
Cayo Central | [
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237820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley%20of%20Peace%2C%20Belize | Valley of Peace, Belize | Valley of Peace (Valle de Paz in original Spanish) is a village in the Cayo District of Belize that was founded on March 12, 1982. In 2000 Valley of Peace had a population of 1,809 people. The population in 2007 grew to 2,108.
Valley of Peace was created as a refugee community for immigrants fleeing from the Salvadoran Civil War. Other Central American immigrants, joined the community during the same time. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) implemented a project to assist the immigrants to find a peaceful and safe place to live. At that time, the Prime Minister of Belize was Rt. Hon. George Cadle Price. The project was taken to vote to the Senate and after debating, the majority voted in favor. It was agreed that for every three refugees families, one Belizean family was to be included in the project.
The funding for the project was paid for by UNHCR. They provided food supplies to each family for four months, while they settled. Most of the refugees were peasant farmers, so each family was given one acre of land to live in and fifty acres of land to farm. Throughout that time, the Mennonite Central Committee played a vital role in the survival of the village. They were responsible for taking food supplies to the refugees and distributing them evenly. They also provided the village with water that was transported from the river in a water truck. UNHCR also provided zinc for the roofing and cement for the floor of each house built in the community. By 1985, the villagers started a cooperative with 15 members which grew to 19 by the end of that year. It was the first local shop which provided the village with basic products. In 1992, Valley of Peace was officially registered as one of Belize's Villages.
When the project initiated, life in the community was simple. It only had one primary school, so students wishing to further their education had to travel to a high school in Belmopan on a tractor-pulled cart. Now, Valley of Peace has a strong education base. It has two pre-schools, two primary schools and a high school. Students are now able to do their research in the local library or in an internet café.
Most of the men in the community still engage in peasant farming for food and income. Now, the community is a predominant supplier of fruits and vegetables to the Belmopan Market. However, a large part of the younger generation is moving away from farming. Many young people are now going to high school and university to become skilled in various areas. People in the village engage in various activities that keep them busy. For recreation, the village has a complete park with a playground. It also has three major churches which have many practicing members who engage in spiritual-related functions. In 2003, Valley of Peace was considered by the UNHCR as the largest refugee community in Belize.
References
Populated places in Cayo District
Cayo South | [
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237822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20Lookout | Spanish Lookout | Spanish Lookout is a settlement in the Cayo District of Belize in Central America. According to the 2010 census, Spanish Lookout had a population of 2,253 people in 482 households. Spanish Lookout is a community of Mennonites.
The Mennonite community in Spanish Lookout is quite modern: they use cars and other modern conveniences and the overall impression of the settlement is rather like rural North America than Central America or the Caribbean. The citizens of this community speak Plautdietsch as their mothertongue. Most also speak English and Spanish. It is largely an agricultural community with some light industry, furniture making, prefabricated wood houses and the only oil field in production in Belize.
History
In 1958 Kleine Gemeinde Mennonites from Mexico moved to Belize, creating the Spanish Lookout settlement. They objected to a new social welfare law in Mexico and arable land was more readily available in Belize. Over time, a number of families left for Manitoba and Nova Scotia, Canada. Nevertheless, the settlement's population of 1,108 in 1987 has more than doubled until 2010 through natural growth. In the 1980s, refugees arrived from Guatemala and El Salvador finding employment and schooling for their children within the settlement.
Location and geographic setting
Spanish Lookout is accessible via several roads, going north off the Western Highway. The main access to Spanish Lookout is via the Iguana Creek Bridge. The Central Farm entrance takes you across a river, via one of Belize’s two hand-cranked ferries equipped to transport vehicles. Several vehicles can fit on the ferry at once, while larger trucks may pass one or two at a time.
Climate
Spanish Lookout has a tropical climate, with little temperature difference between seasons, but a pronounced rainy season. The warmest month on average is May. The coolest month on average is January.
Economy
Spanish Lookout specializes in auto parts and is the country's leader in tire hardware and steel imports. It is a major producer of dairy products, poultry, vegetables and cattle produce, supplying the majority of the country with these commodities. The producer of Belize’s most popular chicken brand, Quality Poultry Products, is located at Spanish Lookout. Western Dairies, Belize’s only commercial producer of milk, is also located in the town. Country Foods is Belize's main supplier of eggs. As of 2006, Spanish Lookout has the only commercial oilfield within Belize.
Galeria
Literature
Heinrich Penner, John D. Reimer, Leonard M. Reimer: Spanish Lookout since 1958 - Progress in Action, Spanish Lookout 2008.
References
Canadian diaspora in North America
Populated places in Cayo District
Cayo North East
Mennonitism in Belize
Mexican Belizean
Populated places established in 1958
Russian Mennonite diaspora in Belize
Ukrainian diaspora in North America | [
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237824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence%20and%20Mango%20Creek | Independence and Mango Creek | Independence and Mango Creek are adjacent villages in the Stann Creek District of Belize. For the purposes of the census, they are counted as one community. In 2000, Independence and Mango Creek had a combined population of 2,929 people. It is a relatively large village compared to its surrounding communities. It contains 2 primary schools, one secondary school and one college which hosts students from the surrounding communities, and provides access to the only mainland bay.
Populated places in Stann Creek District | [
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