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237833	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm%20Coleman	Norm Coleman	Norman Bertram Coleman Jr. (born August 17, 1949) is an American lobbyist, attorney, and politician. From 2003 to 2009, he served as a United States Senator for Minnesota. From 1994 to 2002, he was mayor of Saint Paul, Minnesota. First elected as a member of the Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL), Coleman became a Republican in 1996. He lost his 2008 Senate reelection bid to Al Franken by 312 votes out of over three million cast. As of 2021, he is the most recent Republican to have represented Minnesota in the U.S. Senate. Early life and education Coleman was born in New York, the son of Norman Bertram Coleman Sr. and his wife, Beverly (Behrman). His family is Jewish, his paternal grandfather having changed the surname from Goldman to Coleman. He was a graduate of James Madison High School in Brooklyn and Hofstra University on Long Island. At college Coleman was an active member of the 1960s counterculture and a liberal Democrat. "Carting a bullhorn around campus, he'd regularly lecture students about the immorality of the Nixon administration and the Vietnam War." He was elected president of the student senate during his junior year. Under Coleman, the senate refused to ratify the newspaper's editor and her co-editor and cut some funding to the newspaper. But after refusing to swear in the editor on four different occasions, the senate finally backed down. He celebrated his 20th birthday at the Woodstock Festival, and later admitted to smoking marijuana in his youth. He worked as a roadie for Jethro Tull and Ten Years After, among others. Coleman attended Brooklyn Law School from 1972 until 1974 but received his Juris Doctor from the University of Iowa College of Law in 1976. Career After graduating from law school, Coleman joined the office of the Minnesota Attorney General as a prosecutor, eventually rising to chief prosecutor and then solicitor general. Coleman left the Attorney General's office upon being elected mayor of St. Paul. One of his first acts as mayor was the elimination of underfunded retirement health benefits for city workers. One of Coleman's accomplishments as mayor of Saint Paul was to bring professional ice hockey back to Minnesota. In 1993 the Minnesota North Stars moved to Dallas, Texas. On June 7, 1997, the NHL awarded Saint Paul an expansion franchise, later named the Minnesota Wild, that would play in a new arena downtown at the site of Civic Center Arena. The new arena, later named the Xcel Energy Center, was built through a public-private partnership, with $65 million from state taxpayers and $30 million from the city of Saint Paul. Coleman also successfully fought property tax increases, freezing property tax rates for the eight years he served as mayor. During Coleman's mayoralty St. Paul's job rate grew by 7.1 percent and 18,000 jobs were added. While many praised him for his "pragmatic" leadership style and successes in revitalizing St. Paul, critics labeled him an "opportunist" and Coleman frequently found himself at odds with the Democratic Party's more liberal members. In 1996 he was sometimes booed at party events or excluded from them altogether. Coleman joined the Republican Party in 1996 and was reelected mayor of St. Paul in 1997, defeating Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party nominee State Senator Sandy Pappas. He is, as of 2020, the last Republican mayor of St. Paul. 1998 gubernatorial campaign Coleman's role in bringing professional hockey back to Minnesota and his popularity in St. Paul helped fuel a run for governor in 1998. He easily secured the Republican nomination, facing just token opposition in the primary. He faced DFL candidate Hubert H. "Skip" Humphrey III and Reform Party candidate Jesse Ventura in the general election. Polls had Coleman and Humphrey running even, but Ventura won the election in an upset. U.S. Senate, 2003–2009 Coleman made plans for a second run for governor in 2002, but Karl Rove and George W. Bush persuaded him to challenge incumbent Senator Paul Wellstone in that year's election instead. Coleman easily won the Republican nomination. Coleman and Wellstone were neck-and-neck in most polls for most of the campaign. On October 25, Wellstone died in a plane crash. The Democrats chose former Vice President Walter Mondale to replace Wellstone on the ballot. Mondale had held the same Senate seat from 1964 to 1977. Coleman defeated Mondale by just over 61,000 votes out of over 2 million cast. He succeeded Dean Barkley, whom Ventura had appointed to serve the remaining two months of Wellstone's term. In April 2003, Coleman told a Capitol Hill reporter that he was a "99% improvement" over Wellstone because he had a better working relationship with the White House. Many Wellstone supporters found this offensive and insulting, and at least one member of Congress urged Coleman to apologize. Coleman issued an apology, explaining that he was referring specifically to the reporter's question about the differences between his and Wellstone's relationship with the White House, and saying in part, "I would never want to diminish the legacy or memory of Senator Paul Wellstone, and I will accept full responsibility for not having been more accurate in my comments." In 2004 Coleman campaigned for the chairmanship of the National Republican Senatorial Committee (NRSC), but was defeated for the post by North Carolina Senator Elizabeth Dole in a 28–27 vote. 2008 reelection campaign In 2008, Coleman's opponents for reelection were Dean Barkley and the DFL nominee, former Air America host and comedian Al Franken. On the day after the election, Coleman led in votes and claimed victory in the race. Minnesota law requires an automatic recount when the margin between the leading candidates is less than 0.5% of the vote, and the margin between Coleman and Franken was about 0.01%. Barkley came in third with 15%. The initial results of the recount put Franken ahead by 225 votes out of almost 2.9 million votes cast. On December 24, 2008, Coleman's lawyers said it was a "virtual certainty" that he would contest the results of the election. Coleman's term expired on January 3, 2009. On January 5, Franken was certified as the winner of the recount by 225 votes. Coleman filed a legal challenge of the results on January 6, and a three-judge panel was seated. On February 3, the panel allowed Coleman to introduce evidence that as many as 4,800 absentee ballots were wrongly rejected and should be counted. The Franken campaign had tried to limit Coleman to bringing evidence on only the 650 absentee ballots cited in the initial court filing. On April 1 the panel ordered that an additional 400 absentee ballots be examined. After examining the 400 ballots on April 6, the panel ordered that an additional 351 ballots be opened and counted. On April 7 the additional 351 ballots were opened and counted before the panel and a packed courtroom. Franken got an additional 198 votes, Coleman gained 111, and other candidates received 42, increasing Franken's lead to 312 votes. On April 13, the three-judge panel issued its final ruling, sweeping aside all of Coleman's legal claims and declaring Franken the winner of the race by 312 votes. In its unanimous decision, the panel said, "The overwhelming weight of the evidence indicates that the November 4, 2008, election was conducted fairly, impartially and accurately", and that Franken should be issued a Certificate of Election. The panel ruled that Coleman had failed to prove that mistakes or irregularities in the treatment of absentee ballots had changed the outcome of the election. Coleman appealed to the Minnesota Supreme Court, which heard oral arguments on June 1. On June 30, the court unanimously ruled in Franken's favor, declaring him the winner of the election, whereupon Coleman conceded. Deep Marine Technology and corruption allegations While running for reelection in 2008, Coleman was mentioned in a Texas lawsuit by Paul McKim, CEO of Deep Marine Technology (DMT), against Nasser Kazeminy. Kazeminy was a longtime Coleman supporter who owned a controlling share of DMT. The petition alleged that Kazeminy had used DMT to funnel $75,000 or more to Laurie Coleman through her employer, Hays Companies, in order to enrich Senator Coleman. McKim's petition covered several issues, of which the Coleman matter was only one. Coleman's 2009 Senate financial disclosure form disclosed that Laurie Coleman received a salary from Hays Companies, but Senate rules do not require the salary amount to be revealed. Neither Coleman nor his wife was named as a defendant in the suit. On October 31 a related suit was filed in Delaware Chancery Court by minority shareholders in DMT. The Delaware suit also alleged that Kazeminy had used DMT to funnel unearned funds to Laurie Coleman through Hays Companies. As in the Texas case, the Colemans were not named as defendants. Coleman was not charged with any crime regarding allegations of corruption in receiving gifts of $100,000 from Kazeminy. Doug Grow, a MinnPost columnist, expressed skepticism about Coleman's attorneys' claim that the lack of charges meant that Coleman and Kazeminy were not guilty of any wrongdoing. Coleman responded with a campaign ad in which he denied the allegations and blamed them on Franken. In June 2011 the U.S. Justice Department decided not to file charges against Coleman or Kazeminy. Louis Freeh, an attorney for Kazeminy and a former FBI Director in the Clinton Administration, said he learned the Justice Department had ended the investigation in a February 24 meeting with Andrew Levchuk of the department's Public Integrity Section in Washington. Kazeminy hired Freeh to conduct an independent investigation of all charges. He concluded that there was no wrongdoing or impropriety by the Colemans or Kazeminy. Freeh said both his investigation, and a separate Deep Marine board investigation, concluded McKim had made false claims in an attempt to force a larger severance package out of Deep Marine. The Intercept, questioning Freeh's impartiality, reported that nine days after Freeh's investigation cleared Kazeminy of wrongdoing, Kazeminy gave Freeh's wife a one-half ownership stake in a Palm Beach property valued at $3 million. McKim's allegations were repeated hundreds of times in local and national media reports during the waning days of the 2008 election in what Coleman called "multi-million-dollar attacks against my family and Nasser Kazeminy". Freeh says McKim later prepared an affidavit that would have recanted his allegations against the Colemans and Kazeminy in exchange for a financial settlement. He concluded that McKim had a clear motive to use false allegations as leverage to enrich himself. McKim still questioned the legitimacy of insurance payments and said he had done nothing wrong, but another of Kazeminy's attorneys said his client had not ruled out future litigation against McKim. A columnist at The Weekly Standard wrote, "it is possible that the allegations against Coleman may have handed victory to Al Franken." 2009 and beyond In January 2009, Coleman became an adviser to and board member of the Republican Jewish Coalition. After sitting Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty announced that he would not seek reelection in 2010, it was widely anticipated that Coleman would run for governor. Polls in late 2009 showed him as the favorite among Republicans. But on January 17, 2010, Coleman announced that he would not run, saying, "The timing on this race is both a bit too soon and a bit too late. It is too soon after my last race and too late to do a proper job of seeking the support of delegates who will decide in which direction our party should go. The commitments I have to my family and the work I am currently engaged in do not allow me to now go forward." In 2010 Coleman became chairman and CEO of the American Action Network, which he co-founded. Coleman was considered a front-runner for the Republican National Committee's chairmanship. He said he would not run against Michael Steele should Steele seek reelection to that position; when Steele announced his candidacy for reelection in December 2010, Coleman said that he would not run for the chairmanship. In April 2011 Coleman joined Hogan Lovells, an international legal practice, as senior government advisor in its Washington D.C. office. Coleman stepped down as leader of the Government Relations and Public Affairs practice at Hogan Lovells in January 2020, but remains a senior counsel. Coleman is on the National Advisory Council for the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a bipartisan committee that promotes international engagement and includes every living former U.S. Secretary of State. He also works as a lobbyist on behalf of the government of Saudi Arabia. Political positions Coleman's politics have changed dramatically during his political career. College In college Coleman was a liberal Democrat and actively involved in the antiwar movement of the early 1970s; he was once suspended for leading a sit-in protest. He ran for student senate and opined in the school newspaper that his fellow students should vote for him because "These conservative kids don't fuck or get high like we do (purity, you know) ... Already the cries of motherhood, apple pie, and Jim Buckley reverberate through the halls of the Student Center. Everyone watch out, the 1950s bobby-sox generation is about to take over." Becoming a Republican While running for mayor in 1993, Coleman wrote in a letter to the City Convention Delegates: "I have never sought any other political office. I have no other ambition other than to be mayor." In the letter he wrote: I am a lifelong Democrat. Some accuse me of being the fiscal conservative in this race—I plead guilty! I'm not afraid to be tight with your tax dollars. Yet, my fiscal conservatism does not mean I am any less progressive in my Democratic ideals. From Bobby Kennedy to George McGovern to Warren Spannaus to Hubert Humphrey to Walter Mondale—my commitment to the great values of our party has remained solid. In 1996, Coleman chaired Wellstone's Senate reelection campaign. In his nomination speech at the 1996 state DFL convention, Coleman said, "Paul Wellstone is a Democrat, and I am a Democrat." Tensions were so high between Coleman and the DFL party at the time that a number of convention delegates loudly booed Coleman's speech. In December 1996, Coleman announced he was leaving the DFL to join the Republican Party. He cited his frustrations with the Democratic Party and his belief that the Republican Party offered the best chance to continue his efforts to hold the line on taxes and grow jobs. Coleman's critics, mostly DFL party leaders, speculated that his switch was motivated by his aspirations to statewide office. As an abortion opponent and a frequent adversary of public employee unions, Coleman was at odds with the DFL leadership in Minnesota. In a letter to supporters announcing the switch, he wrote, "while the political party I belong to changes, nothing about how I govern or what I believe changes at all." He was reelected mayor of St. Paul in 1997 with nearly 60% of the vote. As senator Coleman was a member of the Republican Main Street Partnership. In March 2007 National Journal ranked him the fourth most liberal Republican in the Senate. GovTrack, an independent tracking website, also described Coleman as a "moderate Republican". In September 2008 Coleman joined the bipartisan Gang of 20, which was seeking a solution to the American energy crisis. The group pushed for a bill that would encourage state-by-state decisions on offshore drilling and authorize billions of dollars for conservation and alternative energy. Coleman received a 14% progressive rating from Progressive Punch and a 73% conservative rating from the conservative SBE Council. Minnesota's other senator at the time, Democrat Mark Dayton, received ratings of 90% progressive and 9% conservative from the same groups. Specific issues Energy independence Coleman was a strong supporter of bipartisan efforts to create American independence from foreign sources of energy. This included development of alternative sources of energy such as wind, ethanol, and biofuels. In 2005, Coleman led a bipartisan coalition of 34 senators in securing a renewable fuels package as part of the 2005 Energy Policy Act, which included new standards for renewable fuels and an extension of tax credits for biodiesel, small ethanol producers and wind and livestock waste. Coleman supported additional oil exploration in the outer continental shelf, but maintained a campaign promise to oppose drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). On December 11, 2005, Coleman voted in favor of invoking cloture on, thus advancing, a defense appropriations bill that included oil exploration in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Critics viewed this as a violation of his pledge to oppose such drilling. Coleman said he did so because although he planned to vote against the bill, he did not believe that a filibuster was warranted. His vote notwithstanding, the filibuster held, and Coleman voted to strip the ANWR provision from the bill in a subsequent vote. Coleman received a score of 33% for 2007 from the League of Conservation Voters, in their view taking the pro-environment position in just five of 14 cases. Agriculture As a member of the Senate's Agriculture Committee, Coleman played an important role in agriculture policy. In 2008 he helped author the Farm Bill. Coleman was praised for his efforts to improve the bill's provisions with regard to sugar, a mainstay of northwestern Minnesota's economy, as well as the bill's dairy program. Coleman also worked for the inclusion of a permanent agriculture disaster assistance program and hailed the bill's investments in conservation, nutrition, and renewable energy. Coleman broke with his fellow Republicans in several instances over agriculture policy, notably by voting for the bill to move forward, and ultimately played a critical role in breaking the stalemate that had delayed Senate consideration of the bill. Coleman twice voted to override President Bush's veto of the Farm Bill. Coleman expressed reservations about supporting DR-CAFTA (Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement) unless the interests of the domestic U.S. sugar industry (including Minnesota's sugar beet industry) were accommodated. He voted in favor of DR-CAFTA after obtaining quotas imposed on foreign sugar until 2008. He stood behind President Bush on August 2, 2005, as the trade agreement was signed into law. "This is a 3-year insurance policy that I have purchased for my sugar farmers," he said. Fiscal issues Coleman was generally regarded as a fiscal centrist who supported increasing the minimum wage and safeguarding pensions while at the same time supporting broad tax relief and the line-item veto. Coleman played an important role in the passage of the Pension Protection Act of 2006. In addition to safeguarding the pensions of all Americans, the legislation is credited with saving the pensions of over 24,000 Northwest Airlines employees and retirees in Minnesota. Coleman consistently voted to increase the minimum wage as senator. Coleman had a consistent record of voting for broad tax reform. He supported reductions to the capital gains tax and the marriage penalty, and supported doubling the child tax credit. Coleman also supported elimination of the AMT and death tax. He supported efforts to make permanent the tax cuts enacted by the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003. As a member of the Small Business Committee, Coleman opposed eliminating the Microloan program, supported funding for Small Business Development Centers and the HUBZone program, successfully extended tax relief for Section 179 expensing, and cosponsored an amendment to increase funding for the SBA by $130 million. Coleman is a longtime supporter of the line-item veto, calling it a "no-brainer, the right thing to do." Iraq, Iran, and Israel Coleman was a strong supporter of the Iraq War from the start. In 2008, he was still a supporter of the war, generally tending to agree with the Bush administration. He was in favor of the eventual removal of U.S. troops from Iraq, but did not support any kind of timetable for their removal until the situation stabilized. An August 2008 MinnPost article summarized his position as: "He believes the prospects are good for a drawdown of U.S. troops, but it must be done based on conditions on the ground as reported by commanders in the field, not according to an 'arbitrary' timetable set for 'political' reasons in Washington." Coleman was also outspoken about the threat Iran poses to Western democracies. He sponsored numerous Congressional Resolutions aimed at Iran, including measures condemning its violations of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and other international obligations. Coleman led an effort to bring worldwide pressure on Iran to stop its attempts to enrich uranium, which many believed was the final step in an effort to gain offensive nuclear weapons capabilities. Coleman co-sponsored several pieces of legislation to increase sanctions on Iran, including divestment of American pension funds in companies that do business with Iran and sanctions against countries that provide it with nuclear technology. In 2007 Coleman said, "For the sake of our national security, the U.S. must ensure that the sensitive nuclear technology that we share with partner countries does not fall into the hands of the Iranians." Coleman is an outspoken defender of Israel. He was a co-sponsor of the Palestinian Anti-Terrorism Act of 2006 and sent then Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice a letter urging her to investigate Egypt's smuggling of arms to Palestinian terrorists in the Gaza Strip. Immigration reform Coleman was a strong supporter of President Bush's 2006 and 2007 attempts to pass comprehensive immigration reform in the U.S. Senate, one of the few Republicans to do so as many in the GOP called it "amnesty for illegal aliens". Drug control Coleman admitted to using marijuana as a youth, and he advocated its legalization while in college. He has said that maturity led him to understand that his drug use was dangerous and has repeatedly stated his opposition to legalized drugs, including marijuana. He has said, "I oppose the legalization of marijuana because, as noted by the Office of National Drug Control Policy, marijuana can have serious adverse health effects on individuals. The health problems that may occur from this highly addictive drug include short-term memory loss, anxiety, respiratory illness and a risk of lung cancer that far exceeds that of tobacco products. It would also make our transportation, schools and workplaces, just as examples, more dangerous." Social issues Coleman has campaigned as an anti-abortion candidate since at least 1993. He attributes this position to the death of two of his four children in infancy from a rare genetic disease. He supports limiting stem cell research to adult stem cells and stem cells derived from umbilical cord blood, and in July 2006 voted against lifting restrictions on federal research dollars for new embryonic stem cell lines. Coleman is a member of the Republican Main Street Partnership, which supports embryonic stem cell research. He voted in favor of legislative intervention to prolong the life of severely brain-damaged Floridian Terri Schiavo. Coleman opposes recognition of same-sex marriages by either the federal or state governments. In his 2002 Senate campaign he pledged support for an amendment to the United States Constitution that would ban any state from legalizing same-sex marriage. In 2004 and 2006 he voted in favor of such an amendment. As mayor Coleman refused to sign a city proclamation celebrating the annual gay pride festival, explaining his opposition: "What we have had in St. Paul and Minneapolis for many years is signing a joint proclamation making it gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender month. I will say that I support human rights ... And of course that includes sexual orientation. On the other hand, I've felt very strongly that it wasn't government's responsibility to give proclamations for people's sexuality. I don't think government has a responsibility to issue awards for one's sexuality." Coleman hired Susan Kimberly, a trans woman, as deputy mayor in 1998. Kimberly also worked as state legislative director in Coleman's Minnesota Senate office. Social Security Coleman supported allowing workers to divert a portion of their Social Security contributions to the creation of individual accounts to be invested in the stock market, a variation of a general plan supporters call "personal accounts," historically known as privatization. He agreed with President Bush's statements that the contribution changes would apply to those younger than 55. "The Social Security system for those folks 55 and over will not change in any way, shape or form—no ifs, ands, or buts," he said. Relationship with the Bush administration In 2002, the Bush administration persuaded Coleman to run against Wellstone rather than for governor. In December 2005, Coleman voted for a budget bill that cut funding from a number of programs but kept funding for sugar beet farmers in Minnesota after Rove asked him to support the administration's position on the issue. Coleman told Congress Daily that he would not vote for a bill that cut sugar beet funding but "Karl Rove called me and asked what I wanted. A few hours later it was out of the bill." On March 14, 2006, Coleman called on Bush to replace or reorganize his staff, saying that they did not sufficiently have their "ears to the ground" on matters like Hurricane Katrina, Harriet Miers's failed Supreme Court nomination, and the Dubai Ports World controversy, and accusing the administration of having a "tin ear."<ref>[https://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/03/14/minn_rep_calls_for_new_white_house_team/ Minn. Rep calls for new White House team] </ref> He said they showed inadequate "political sensitivity" in their handling of the issues. On January 22, 2007, Coleman and fellow Republican Senators John Warner and Susan Collins joined Democrats in opposing Bush's planned troop increase in Iraq. United Nations reform Coleman worked relentlessly to root out corruption at the United Nations, targeting the so-called "oil-for-food" program. In May 2005, the Senate's Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, chaired by Coleman, held hearings on their investigation of abuses of the UN Oil-for-Food program, including oil smuggling, illegal kickbacks and use of surcharges, and Saddam Hussein's use of oil vouchers to buy influence abroad. These Oil-for-Food Program Hearings covered corporations (including Bayoil) and several well-known political figures of various nations (including Vladimir Zhironovsky), but are best remembered for the confrontational appearance of British politician George Galloway, then a Member of Parliament (MP) for the RESPECT The Unity Coalition (Respect). Coleman accused Galloway of abuses that Galloway provably denied. The previous year, Coleman had called on UN Secretary-general Kofi Annan to resign for other alleged program abuses. On June 2, 2006, Coleman responded to criticism that he had insufficiently investigated the Australian Wheat Board (AWB) for sanctions busting, saying that there were legal and cost hurdles. Then Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, was a supporter of the invasion of Iraq. The Australian ambassador to the U.S., Michael Thawley, met with Coleman in late 2004 to lobby against any investigation of AWB. Coleman was selected to be a delegate to the U.N. 61st General Assembly in New York, where he pressed for reform and action on Darfur and Iran. Government infrastructure On February 10, 2006, in a meeting of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs of which Coleman was a member, during testimony of former Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) director Michael D. Brown, Coleman attacked Brown for poor leadership during Hurricane Katrina disaster relief efforts, saying, "you didn't provide the leadership, even with structural infirmities", "you're not prepared to kind of put a mirror in front of your face and recognize your own inadequacies", and "the record reflects that you didn't get it or you didn't in writing or in some way make commands that would move people to do what has to be done until way after it should have been done." Brown responded combatively, "well, Senator, that's very easy for you to say sitting behind that dais and not being there in the middle of that disaster, watching that human suffering and watching those people dying and trying to deal with those structural dysfunctionalities". and implored Coleman to stick to questions. He later likened Coleman's charges to a "drive-by shooting." Brown had recently said that he notified the Department of Homeland Security and the White House of the tremendous scale of Katrina flooding earlier than had been previously reported. On March 14, 2006, Coleman introduced a bill that would ban foreign companies from operating ports in the United States. In March 2007, Coleman introduced legislation (S. 754) to kill the Defense Travel System, a program intended to automate the purchasing of travel services by the U.S. Department of Defense, which accounts for more than half of the federal government's total outlays of around $11 billion annually for travel, including transportation, lodging, and rental cars. Shortly after he filed the legislation, Coleman received a generous contribution from the CEO of Carlson Companies, which owns Carlson Wagonlit Travel, a business travel management firm whose CW Government Travel unit provides travel management services for some federal agencies. The Carlson Companies are based in Minnesota. Over the years, Coleman has received tens of thousands of dollars in campaign donations from people connected with Carlson Companies. Personal life Coleman married actress Laurie Casserly in 1981. The couple have two children, Jacob and Sarah. Two other children died during infancy (Adam, 1983; Grace, 1992) from a rare genetic disorder known as Zellweger syndrome. In 2016, Jacob Coleman announced his candidacy for an open state senate seat held by Julianne Ortman, but did not win the Republican endorsement and chose to support the endorsed candidate. Coleman is a member of the Freemason fraternity, having been made a Mason at sight in 2003 by then Grand Master of Masons in Minnesota Neil Neddermeyer. Coleman was on the America Abroad Media advisory board. On September 11, 2009, Coleman announced he had been diagnosed with Bell's palsy. Doctors told him that he should fully recover from it. On August 14, 2018, Coleman announced that cancer he had been battling in his neck and throat had spread to his lungs. Electoral history See also List of American politicians who switched parties in office USA Congressional staff edits to Wikipedia Politics of Minnesota List of Jewish members of the United States Congress Jeff Larson References External links Coleman for Senate, campaign site Collected news and commentary from The New York Times'' Profile from SourceWatch \|- \|- \|- 1949 births 20th-century American lawyers 20th-century American politicians 21st-century American politicians American lobbyists American Zionists Brooklyn Law School alumni Hofstra University alumni James Madison High School (Brooklyn) alumni Jewish American people in Minnesota politics Jewish mayors of places in the United States Jewish United States senators Living people Mayors of Saint Paul, Minnesota Minnesota Democrats Minnesota lawyers Minnesota Republicans People associated with Hogan Lovells Politicians from Brooklyn Republican Party United States senators United Nations Oil-for-Food scandal United States 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237836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullins%20River	Mullins River	Mullins River is the name of both a river and of a village on that river in the Stann Creek District of Belize. The village of Mullins River is located at the mouth of the river of the same name on the coast of the Caribbean Sea, north of Dangriga. At the time of the 1904 census, Mullins River had a population of 243 people, but by 2000, the population had dwindled to 198. Religious history Mullins River was the locus of early missionary activity in 19th century Belize. Some Omoa residents from Spanish Honduras had settled there after the accession of the liberal Morazán to power in Honduras in 1830 In 1832, Fray Antonio began to work among them, building “a small Catholic chapel that was served intermittently by a Catholic priest.” This was the first Catholic chapel in Belize in modern times. In 1836, Fray Rubio from Bacalar replaced Fray Antonio. During 1830, Baptist minister James Bourne began visiting Mullins River and Stann Creek. He reported the population of each of the communities as about 100. By 1832, the number had grown to 500. In November 1834, Methodists Thomas Jefferies and John Greenwood had arrived in Mullins River, and by 1836, had a chapel and school. In the mid-1800s, Mullins River was a village of Creole and Spanish people. The Creoles resided in Belize Town and maintained small plantations at Mullins River, which they visited occasionally. The Spanish tended to move between Mullins River itself and Spanish Town, a nearby settlement of immigrants. In 1840, Apolonia Mejia brought to Mullins River from the Shrine of Nuestro Señor de Esquipulas in southern Guatemala the image of the crucified black Christ. The image was exposed in church for festivities during her life and donated to the church after her death, becoming “an object of public veneration ever since. Pilgrimages have been started from various points of the colony to visit the sacred image.” The report of Bishop Di Pietro’s visit in 1894 gave the number of Catholics as 243 and the average attendance of children at the school as 48. The school was going on satisfactorily because “the retail liquor license has been stopped, [so] the morality of the place has improved. Formerly Mullins River had a bad reputation but now the people spend their money on improving their plantations instead of wasting it in the liquor shop” The hurricane of 1941 destroyed the 1832 Mullins River Catholic church, which was rebuilt in 1942. The town By the late 1880s, the Belize Independent noted the addition to Mullins River of a few White settlers, with a few Caribs (Garifuna) working up the river at different banks. But in the town itself there were “few or no Carib residents.” The article further described Mullins River as a town with roadways and town operations, with the district magistrate holding court once monthly, and two policemen stationed there. The large Wesleyan population was building a “fine new church and schoolroom.” Mullins River hosted British Honduras Fruit Company and Belize Fruit Company, the former having been Drake’s Sugar Estate. Further economic activity included private farms of bananas, coconuts, and cacao. Mullins River, navigable by dory for some 25 miles, afforded “a natural highway to the virgin lands at the back as well as for sending down the produce.” The town served also as a playground for many Belize City folk during the vacation months of March through May.” References Rivers of Belize Populated places in Stann Creek District Stann Creek West Christianity in Belize	[ -0.1996922791004181, 0.3989199101924896, -0.12464671581983566, -0.5428195595741272, 0.09691229462623596, 0.6787723302841187, 0.34928569197654724, 0.44980648159980774, -0.47718924283981323, -0.396979957818985, -0.29110273718833923, 0.5524851083755493, -0.05497801676392555, 0.7724661231040955, -0.2304399460554123, 0.5842704176902771, -0.10693732649087906, 0.3415687382221222, 0.651033341884613, -0.45162099599838257, -0.07091694325208664, -0.40725603699684143, 0.45858630537986755, 0.28629687428474426, -0.01885482296347618, 0.34627801179885864, 0.359530508518219, 0.6319919228553772, 0.2530289888381958, 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237837	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake%20and%20Dinos%20Chapman	Jake and Dinos Chapman	Iakovos "Jake" Chapman (born 1966) and Konstantinos "Dinos" Chapman (born 1962) are British visual artists, often known as the Chapman Brothers. Their subject matter tries to be deliberately shocking, including, in 2008, a series of works that appropriated original watercolours by Adolf Hitler. In the mid-1990s, their sculptures were included in the YBA showcase exhibitions Brilliant! and Sensation. In 2003, the two were nominated for the annual Turner Prize but lost out to Grayson Perry. In 2013, their painting One Day You Will No Longer Be Loved III was the subject of Derren Brown's Channel 4 special, The Great Art Robbery. Lives and careers Jake Chapman was born in Cheltenham and Dinos Chapman in London. Their father was an English art teacher and their mother an orthodox Greek Cypriot (hence "Jake" an anglicised diminutive of the orthodox Iakovos, and "Dinos", a typical diminutive of the orthodox Konstantinos). They were brought up in Cheltenham but moved to St Leonards-on-Sea where they attended a local comprehensive (Christ Church Primary) &(William Parker School). Dinos studied at the Ravensbourne College of Art (1980–83), Jake at the North East London Polytechnic (1985–88) before both together enrolled at the Royal College of Art (1988–90), when they also worked as assistants to the artists Gilbert and George. Art collaboration They began their own collaboration in 1991. The brothers have often made pieces with plastic models or fibreglass mannequins of people. An early piece consisted of eighty-three scenes of torture and disfigurement derivative of those recorded by Francisco Goya in his series of etchings, The Disasters of War (a work they later returned to) rendered into small three-dimensional plastic models. One of these was later turned into a life-size work, Great Deeds Against the Dead, shown along with Zygotic Acceleration, Biogenetic, De-Sublimated Libidinal Model (Enlarged x 1000) at the Sensation exhibition in 1997. The Chapman brothers continued the theme of anatomical and pornographic grotesque with Fuck Face, a series of mannequins of children, sometimes fused together, with genitalia in place of facial features. Their sculpture Hell (2000) consisted of a large number of miniature figures of Nazis arranged in nine glass cases laid out in the shape of a swastika. In 2003, with a series of works named Insult to Injury, they altered a set of Goya's etchings by adding funny faces. As a protest against this piece, Aaron Barschak (who later gate-crashed Prince William's 21st birthday party dressed as Osama bin Laden in a frock) threw a pot of red paint over Jake Chapman during a talk he was giving in May 2003. The Chapmans' oeuvre has also referenced work by William Blake, Auguste Rodin and Nicolas Poussin. Jake Chapman has published a number of catalogue essays and pieces of art criticism in his own right, as well as a book, Meatphysics (Creation Books, 2003). The brothers have also designed a label for Becks beer as part of a series of limited edition labels produced by contemporary artists. Using a title from the Tim Burton film, in 2004 they curated A Nightmare Before Christmas as part of the occasional All Tomorrow's Parties music festival at Camber Sands. In October 2013 the Chapman brothers took part in Art Wars at the Saatchi Gallery curated by Ben Moore. The artists were issued with a stormtrooper helmet, which they transformed into a work of art. Proceeds went to the Missing Tom Fund set up by Moore to find his brother Tom who has been missing for over ten years. The work was also shown on the Regents Park platform as part of Art Below Regents Park. The Rape of Creativity From April–June 2003, the Chapmans held a solo show at Modern Art Oxford entitled The Rape of Creativity in which "the enfants terribles of Britart, bought a mint collection of Francisco Goya's most celebrated prints – and set about systematically defacing them". The Goya prints referred to his Disasters of War set of 80 etchings. The duo named their newly defaced works Insult to Injury. BBC described more of the exhibition's art: "Drawings of mutant Ronald McDonalds, a bronze sculpture of a painting showing a sad-faced Hitler in clown make-up and a major installation featuring a knackered old caravan and fake dog turds." While The Daily Telegraph commented that the Chapman brothers had "managed to raise the hackles of art historians by violating something much more sacred to the art world than the human body – another work of art", they also noted that the effect of their work was powerful. The Chapman brothers were nominated for the Turner Prize in 2003. As well as including Insult to Injury, their Turner Prize exhibit debuted two new works Sex and Death. Sex directly referenced their previous work Great Deeds against the Dead. The original work shows three dismembered corpses hanging from a tree, Sex shows the same scenario, but in a heightened state of decay. Additionally clown's noses are now present on the skulls of the corpses; snakes, rats and insects (like those found in joke shops) cover the piece. Death is two sex dolls, placed on top of each other, head-to-toe in the 69 sex position: despite appearing to be made of plastic it is in fact cast in bronze and painted to look like plastic. That year the prize was eventually won by Grayson Perry. On 24 May 2004, a fire in a storage warehouse destroyed many works from the Saatchi collection including Hell. The brothers subsequently made a very similar, though more extensive, work called Fucking Hell. Disputes with journalists In 2006, the journalist Lynn Barber claimed that she had received a death threat from the brothers, following conducting an interview with them. In 2007, they were criticised by journalist Johann Hari for adopting an anti-Enlightenment philosophy, and for Jake Chapman saying that the boys who murdered Liverpool toddler James Bulger performed "a good social service". This followed a public media brawl between Jake Chapman and journalist Carole Cadwalladr in The Observer and on the internet the previous year. Cadwalladr told readers that Chapman threw her out of their studio. Jake publicly replied, "You may grace your readers with the meek tones of plum-mouthed middle-Englanders, but don't send them round to my studio I'll make [...] mince meat out of them, ha ha ha." Art by Adolf Hitler In May 2008, White Cube gallery exhibited 13 apparently authenticated watercolours painted by Adolf Hitler, to which the brothers had added hippie motifs. Jake Chapman described most of the dictator's works as "awful landscapes" which they had "prettified". The central device and context of this exhibition were strikingly similar to those of the artist Ira Waldron in her project "Die Damen mit den Hündchen", first exhibited at the Thessaloniki Biennale of Contemporary art in May 2007. Waldron also entered into an artistic duel with Hitler, seen as a mediocre bohemian artist, by overlaying her motifs and colour on to expanded copies of thirteen of his drawings. Also included in the Chapmans' 2008 exhibition was Fucking Hell and a series of doctored eighteenth and nineteenth century-style aristocratic portraits in oils. In 2011, in their "Human Rainbow" and "Introspastic" series, the Chapman Brothers produced further works based on the same Hitler drawings of Geli Raubal and his dogs which had been previously appropriated by Ira Waldron in her 2007 exhibition. Letter to Culture Secretary On 1 October 2010, in an open letter to the British government's Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt – co-signed by a further 27 previous Turner Prize nominees, and 19 winners – the brothers opposed any future cuts in public funding for the arts. In the letter the cosignatories described the arts in Britain as a "remarkable and fertile landscape of culture and creativity." Personal lives Jake Chapman Jake married the fashion model Rosemary Ferguson in 2004. They have one child and live in Filkins, Oxfordshire. In August 2014 Chapman was quoted as saying that taking children to art galleries is a "total waste of time", stating that "children are not human yet." The comment caused other notable artists to speak out against Chapman's thoughts. BBC Art Critic, Will Gompertz referred to a defining characteristic of the "YBAs" being their ability to manipulate biddable media to get attention: The formula is simple: When you have an exhibition to promote, say something mildly inflammatory to the press, and watch the column inches (particularly in August) and ticket sales soar. Jake Chapman's comment about kids and paintings is a beautifully crafted example of the art. It has generated loads of attention, reinforced the brothers' bad-boy brand, and alerted an "outraged" middle England to the Chapmans' new show. Job done. Dinos Chapman Dinos is married to Tiphaine de Lussy. They have two daughters; Bliss (born 2005) and Blythe (born 2006) and live in Spitalfields, London. Both are members of Arts Emergency, a British charity working with 16- to 19-year-olds in further education from diverse backgrounds. References External links Jake and Dinos Chapman: Bad Art for Bad People – exhibition at Tate Liverpool, December 2006 – March 2007 Jake and Dinos Chapman: Come and See – exhibition at the Serpentine Galleries, November 2013 – February 2014 Interview by Maia Damianovic Living people English people of Greek Cypriot descent Sibling duos British male sculptors British installation artists Alumni of the Royal College of Art Art duos 1966 births 1962 births Alumni of the University of East London British contemporary artists	[ 0.9931702613830566, 0.7806854844093323, -0.8112148642539978, 0.00010241358540952206, -0.0395476408302784, 0.7128556966781616, -0.05597658082842827, 0.055137764662504196, -0.4957596957683563, -0.07349264621734619, -0.6631659865379333, 0.38444197177886963, -0.12700609862804413, -0.202659472823143, -0.17279435694217682, -0.1972878873348236, -0.17980322241783142, 0.04015648365020752, -0.09830285608768463, 0.012749945744872093, 0.32106730341911316, -0.3508894443511963, 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237841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placencia	Placencia	Placencia is a small village located in the Stann Creek District of Belize. History Prior to the European colonization of the Americas, the Placencia Peninsula was inhabited by the Maya. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Maya in this area produced salt and traded it with other settlements along the coast. In the 17th century, Placencia was settled by English Puritans, originally from Nova Scotia and Providence Island. This settlement died out during the Spanish American wars of independence in the 1820s. The Placencia Peninsula was resettled in the late 1800s by several families. Placencia prospered and soon became a village, earning its livelihood from the sea. The Spaniards that traveled the southern coast of Belize gave Placencia its name. At that time Placencia was called Placentia, with the point being called Punta Placentia, or Pleasant Point. In the late 20th century it became a significant tourism destination, and is now referred to as Placencia Village, or simply Placencia. On October 8, 2001, Hurricane Iris hit southern Belize with 145 mph winds causing major damage to nearly 95% of buildings in Placencia. Many developers took advantage of plummeted real estate value and an increased development of the peninsula and Placencia proper is consistently on the rise, as well as property value. Location and geographic setting The eastern side of the Peninsula is a long expanse of white sand beach and heavy mangrove in some areas; the western side is bounded by a long narrow north–south trending bay of the Caribbean Sea. Significant settlements on the 18 mile peninsula from North to South include Riversdale Village, Maya Beach Village, the Garifuna village of Seine Bight and finally, Placencia Village. Placencia, the southernmost village on the peninsula, is served by Placencia Airport. Demographics The village is home to 1,512 permanent residents according to the 2010 census, while the Placencia Peninsula is home to 3,458 permanent residents, which includes citizens and ex-pats alike. Attractions Placencia, it used to be a fishing village but now offers some tourist amusement such as bars and entertainment like kayaking, snorkeling, diving, saltwater fly fishing, whale shark watching during the full moons between April and July of each year, light tackle saltwater fishing, as well as numerous restaurants and local art gallery. Diving at Gladden Spit from Placencia: Cubera snappers aggregate to spawn at Gladden Spit typically from 2 days before to 12 days after full moon from March to September with more than 10000 individuals. This event attracts many predators as well as whale sharks. Placencia Village, hosts the Placencia Lobster Fest, the Placencia Peninsula Arts Festival, Easter Week (similar to US Florida Spring Break). Placencia Lagoon, with manatees, dolphins, rays (the Lagoon is a nursery for some species of rays), mangrove forests, birding by canoe or kayak, fishing (juvenile tarpon, snook, barracuda), wetlands and sea grass beds. Mayan ruins of Nim Li Punit and Lubantuum are in the Toledo District, a day trip from the Placencia Peninsula. Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, which is also a day trip from Placencia. Maya Centre Village with 12 self-guided trails, forest jaguar preserve, and nearly 300 bird species. Mayflower Archaeological Reserve, 3 post-classic Maya ruins: Mayflower, T'au Witz and Maintzunun and waterfalls. Bladen River Reserve Maya Beach Village is a tiny community on the Placencia Peninsula, midway between Placencia Village to the south and Riversdale Village to the north. The closest village is Seine Bight, a historic Garifuna settlement. Approximately long, the Maya Beach area is made up of homes, small resorts and a few retail establishments including two small grocery stores, a half-dozen bars & restaurants, and an art gallery. Placencia is known for the longest main street which is a sidewalk with many local gift shops, beach bars, hotels and cabanas. Visit Placencia Village guide for businesses in the village. Ranguana Caye is a 2-acre private island 18 miles off the coast of Placencia and a major day-trip and overnight for those staying in the village and peninsula. References External links Comprehensive FAQ list for those looking to visit: http://www.caribbeanbeachcabanas.com/faqs/ Best Placencia Blog: http://pureplacencia.blogspot.com/ Placencia Travel Information - Belize Travel Magazine Getting to Placencia-Belize - Tourism Industry Association Placencia Village Guide Landforms of Belize Peninsulas of North America Populated places in Stann Creek District	[ -0.15795770287513733, 0.19397522509098053, -0.3213009834289551, -0.3473246395587921, -0.0570649728178978, 0.3110271096229553, 0.04387751594185829, 0.3716120421886444, 0.029078777879476547, -0.4982419013977051, -0.29146909713745117, 0.27979812026023865, 0.3160315752029419, 0.3403206169605255, -0.4581127464771271, 0.4925364851951599, -0.0007921225042082369, 0.6831821203231812, 0.7863542437553406, 0.2668263614177704, -0.2261444479227066, -0.959381103515625, -0.2916192412376404, 0.5343598127365112, 0.2679409980773926, 0.18900492787361145, 0.2575625777244568, 0.1936720311641693, 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237846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Rudolph	Eric Rudolph	Eric Robert Rudolph (born September 19, 1966), also known as the Olympic Park Bomber, is an American domestic terrorist convicted for a series of bombings across the southern United States between 1996 and 1998, which killed two people and injured over 100 others, including the Centennial Olympic Park bombing at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. For five years, Rudolph was listed as one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives until he was caught in 2003. In 2005, as part of a plea bargain, Rudolph pleaded guilty to numerous state and federal homicide charges and accepted four consecutive life sentences in exchange for avoiding a trial and a potential death sentence. He remains incarcerated at the ADX Florence Supermax prison near Florence, Colorado. Early life Rudolph was born in Merritt Island, Florida, in 1966. After his father, Robert, died in 1981, he moved with his mother and siblings to Nantahala, Macon County, in western North Carolina. Rudolph attended ninth grade at the Nantahala School but dropped out after that year and worked as a carpenter with his older brother Daniel. When Rudolph was 18, he spent time with his mother at a Christian Identity compound in Missouri known as the Church of Israel. After Rudolph received his GED, he enlisted in the U.S. Army, undergoing basic training at Fort Benning in Georgia. He was discharged in January 1989, due to marijuana use, while serving with the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. In 1988, the year before his discharge, Rudolph had attended the Air Assault School at Fort Campbell. He attained the rank of Specialist/E-4. Bombings At age 29, Rudolph perpetrated the Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta, which occurred on July 27, 1996, during the 1996 Summer Olympics. He made two anonymous 911 calls, warning about the bomb before it detonated. The blast killed spectator Alice Hawthorne and wounded 111 others. Melih Uzunyol, a 40-year-old Turkish news cameraman suffered a fatal heart attack while running to the scene. Rudolph's motive for the bombing, according to his April 13, 2005 statement, was political: In the summer of 1996, the world converged upon Atlanta for the Olympic Games. Under the protection and auspices of the regime in Washington millions of people came to celebrate the ideals of global socialism. Multinational corporations spent billions of dollars, and Washington organized an army of security to protect these best of all games. Even though the conception and the purpose of the so-called Olympic movement is to promote the values of global socialism as perfectly expressed in the song "Imagine" by John Lennon, which was the theme of the 1996 Games—even though the purpose of the Olympics is to promote these ideals, the purpose of the attack on July 27 was to confound, anger and embarrass the Washington government in the eyes of the world for its abominable sanctioning of abortion on demand. The plan was to force the cancellation of the games, or at least create a state of insecurity in order to empty the streets around the venues and thereby eat into the vast amounts of money that had been invested in them. Rudolph's statement cleared Richard Jewell, a Centennial Olympic Park security guard, of any involvement in the bombing. Despite having been initially hailed as a hero for being the first one to spot Rudolph's explosive device and helping to clear the area, Jewell came under FBI suspicion for his alleged involvement in the crime. He became the prime suspect and the subject of international news media. Rudolph confessed to three other bombings: of an abortion clinic in the Atlanta suburb of Sandy Springs on January 16, 1997; of the Otherside Lounge of Atlanta, a lesbian bar, on February 21, 1997, injuring five; and of an abortion clinic in Birmingham, Alabama on January 29, 1998, killing Birmingham police officer Robert Sanderson, who was off-duty but working as security in uniform, and critically injuring nurse Emily Lyons. Rudolph's bombs contained nails, which acted as shrapnel. Fugitive Rudolph was first identified as a suspect in the Alabama bombing by the Department of Justice on February 14, 1998, following tips from two witnesses, Jeffrey Tickal and Jermaine Hughes. Tickal and Hughes observed Rudolph departing the scene and noted his appearance and truck license plate. He was named as a suspect in the other Atlanta and Alabama incidents on October 14, 1998. On May 5, 1998, he became the 454th fugitive listed by the FBI on the Ten Most Wanted list. The FBI considered him to be armed and extremely dangerous, and offered a $1 million reward for information leading directly to his arrest. He spent more than five years in the Appalachian wilderness as a fugitive, during which time federal and amateur search teams scoured the area without success. Rudolph's family supported him and believed he was innocent of all charges. They were questioned and placed under surveillance. On March 7, 1998, Rudolph's older brother, Daniel, videotaped himself cutting off his left hand with a radial arm saw in order to, in his words, "send a message to the FBI and the media." The hand was successfully reattached later by surgeons. According to Rudolph's own writings, he survived during his years as a fugitive by camping in the Nantahala National Forest near Cherokee and Graham Counties, in North Carolina, by gathering acorns and salamanders, pilfering vegetables from gardens, stealing grain from a grain silo, and raiding dumpsters in Murphy, North Carolina. Arrest and guilty plea Rudolph was arrested in Murphy, North Carolina on May 31, 2003, by rookie police officer Jeffrey Scott Postell of the Murphy Police Department while Rudolph was looking through a dumpster behind a Save-A-Lot store at about 4 a.m. Postell, on routine patrol, had initially suspected a burglary in progress. Rudolph was unarmed and did not resist arrest. When arrested, he was clean-shaven with a trimmed mustache, had dyed black hair and wore a camouflage jacket, work clothes, and new sneakers. Federal authorities charged him on October 14, 2003. Rudolph was initially defended by attorney Richard S. Jaffe. After Jaffe withdrew, he was represented by Judy Clarke. On April 8, 2005, the Department of Justice announced that Rudolph had agreed to a plea bargain under which he would plead guilty to all charges he was accused of in exchange for avoiding the death penalty. The deal was confirmed after the FBI found of dynamite he had hidden in the forests of North Carolina. His revealing the hiding places of the dynamite was a condition of his plea agreement. He made his pleas in person in Birmingham and Atlanta courts on April 13. Rudolph released a statement explaining his actions; he rationalized the bombings as serving the cause of anti-abortion and anti-gay terrorism. In his statement, he claimed that he had "deprived the government of its goal of sentencing me to death," and that "the fact that I have entered an agreement with the government is purely a tactical choice on my part and in no way legitimates the moral authority of the government to judge this matter or impute my guilt." The terms of the plea agreement were that Rudolph would be sentenced to four consecutive life terms. He was sentenced July 18, 2005, to two consecutive life terms without parole for the 1998 murder of a police officer. He was sentenced for his bombings in Atlanta on August 22, 2005, receiving two consecutive life terms. That same day, Rudolph was sent to the ADX Florence Supermax federal prison. Like other Supermax inmates, he spends 23 hours per day alone in his concrete cell. Motivations After Rudolph's arrest for the bombings, The Washington Post reported that the FBI considered Rudolph to have "had a long association with the Christian Identity movement, which asserts that Northern European whites are the direct descendants of the lost tribes of Israel, God's chosen people." Christian Identity is a white supremacist movement which holds the view that those who are not white Christians cannot be saved. In the same article, the Post reported that some FBI investigators believe that Rudolph may have written letters in which he claimed responsibility for the nightclub and abortion clinic bombings on behalf of the Army of God, a group that sanctions the use of force to combat abortions and is associated with Christian Identity. In a statement released after he entered a guilty plea, Rudolph denied being a supporter of the Christian Identity movement, claiming that his involvement amounted to a brief association with the daughter of a Christian Identity adherent, later identified as Pastor Daniel Gayman. When asked about his religion he said, "I was born a Catholic, and with forgiveness I hope to die one." In other written statements, Rudolph has cited biblical passages and offered religious motives for his militant opposition to abortion. Some books and media outlets have described Rudolph as a "Christian Identity extremist"; Harper's Magazine referred to him as a "Christian terrorist." The NPR radio program On Point referred to him as a "Christian Identity extremist." The Voice of America reported that Rudolph could be seen as part of an "attempt to try to use a Christian faith to try to forge a kind of racial and social purity." Writing in 2004, authors Michael Shermer and Dennis McFarland saw Rudolph's story as an example of "religious extremism in America," warning that the phenomenon he represented was "particularly potent when gathered together under the umbrella of militia groups". The Anti-Defamation League noted that "extremist chatter on the Internet has praised Rudolph as 'a hero' and some followers of hate groups are calling for further acts of violence to be modeled after the bombings he is accused of committing." In a letter to his mother from prison, Rudolph has written, "Many good people continue to send me money and books. Most of them have, of course, an agenda; mostly born-again Christians looking to save my soul. I suppose the assumption is made that because I'm in here I must be a 'sinner' in need of salvation, and they would be glad to sell me a ticket to heaven. I do appreciate their charity, but I could really do without the condescension. They have been so nice I would hate to break it to them that I really prefer Nietzsche to the Bible." Nevertheless, Rudolph has said, "The truth is I am a Christian". Rudolph remained unrepentant for his actions and, in a statement before the court, called his acts against abortion providers a “moral duty.” “As I go to a prison cell for a lifetime, I know that ‘I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith,’” Rudolph said, quoting scripture. Writings from prison Essays written by Rudolph that condone violence and militant action have been published on the Internet by an Army of God anti-abortion activist. Although victims maintain that Rudolph's messages are harassment and could incite violence, the prison can do little to restrict their publication, according to Alice Martin, who was the United States Attorney for the Northern District of Alabama when Rudolph was prosecuted for the Alabama bombing. "An inmate does not lose his freedom of speech," she said. As reported in an April 8, 2013, Alabama blog article, Rudolph's book Between the Lines of Drift: The Memoirs of a Militant was published, with help from his brother, by Lulu.com in February 2013. In April 2013, the U.S. Attorney General seized $200 to help pay off the $1 million that Rudolph owes in restitution to the state of Alabama. The book has since been republished and has been made available through the Army of God website. In popular culture In a fictionalized portrayal, Rudolph appears as the primary antagonist in season 2 of the drama anthology series Manhunt. He is portrayed by Eric Mendenhall in the 2019 film Richard Jewell. See also Anti-abortion violence Army of God (United States) Christian terrorism Christian Identity Movement Forensic linguistics Former FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives Notes References Maryanne Vollers (2006) Lone Wolf: Eric Rudolph: Murder, Myth and the Pursuit of an American Outlaw, (New York, NY: HarperCollins), Henry Schuster with Charles Stone, Hunting Eric Rudolph (Berkley Books, 2005), Text of Rudolph's statement Timeline in Eric Rudolph Case – May 31, 2003 'Run, Rudolph, Run' essay in Seek: Reports from the Edges of America & Beyond (2001) by Denis Johnson 1966 births 1996 murders in the United States 1996 Summer Olympics 1998 murders in the United States 20th-century American criminals Activists from North Carolina American anti-abortion activists American male criminals 20th-century American memoirists American people convicted of murder American people imprisoned on charges of terrorism American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment Army of God (United States) Bombers 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237849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications%20in%20East%20Timor	Telecommunications in East Timor	Telephones Following Indonesia's withdrawal from East Timor in 1999, the telecommunications infrastructure was destroyed in the ensuing violence, and Telkom Indonesia ceased to provide services. A new country code (670) was allocated to East Timor by the International Telecommunication Union, but international access often remained severely limited. A complicating factor has been the fact that the calling code 670 was previously used by the Northern Marianas, with many carriers not aware that the code is now used by East Timor (the Northern Marianas, as part of the North American Numbering Plan, now uses the country code 1 and the area code 670). Telephone calls are also often extremely expensive: for example, Telstra in Australia raised the cost of calls to East Timor to A$3.00 a minute from 97 cents in 2003. In the UK, BT's standard rate is over £2 a minute. Telstra expanded its cellular telephone signal into East Timor in 2000 and operated services until 2003, when Timor Telecom (TT), 50.1% part-owned by Portugal Telecom, began operating fixed-line and mobile telephone services. Until recently, the fixed-line network was mainly confined to the capital Dili, although this has been expanded nationwide, to each district capital. According to a press release issued by Portugal Telecom, the total number of fixed phones (landline) are 3,000 and mobile cellular are 103,000 (as of June 2008). At that time, there was no broadband or ADSL service. In 2019, the World Bank reported that the total number of mobile cellular subscriptions is 1,425,256, or 110.2% of the population of Timor Leste, and the total number of fixed telephone subscriptions is 2,075, or 0.16% of the population. In 2002, Timor Telecom signed a 15-year contract in 2002 to invest US$29 million to rebuild and operate the phone system. The contract could be extended by 10 more years, totaling 25 years of monopoly. 2003 gross revenue totaled €10.5 million. In 2012 the government and TT agreed to end the contract, thus allowing the telecommunications market to be liberalised. All voice and data are carried out by Intelsat, using a direct satellite link with one hop to their downlink in Portugal. The telephone system suffered significant damage during the violence in the East Timorese independence. As a result, there is very little fixed-line service, and mobile-cellular service and coverage are limited primarily to urban areas. Timor Telecom offers mobile GSM services covering approximately 92% of the population, 100% of the districts, and 57% of the sub-districts. International service is available in major urban centers, but not much elsewhere. On January 17, 2013, the Prime Minister of Timor Leste, Mr. Xanana Gusmão, launched Telkomcel as the second telecommunication operator in Timor Leste with three main services: Mobile Services Corporate Solution Wholesale & International Services' Telkomcel is 100% owned by PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia International (TELIN). Radio There are at least 21 radio stations in East Timor. The main station is Radio Timor Leste, broadcasting in Tetum, Portuguese and Indonesian. Other radio stations include Radio Kmanek, and Radio Falintil, and Radio Renascença, while there are also FM retransmissions of RDP Internacional from Portugal, Radio Australia, and the BBC World Service. Community radio stations broadcast around the country, in regional languages such as Tokodede and Fataluku. Television East Timor has one national public broadcaster, Televisão Timor Leste or Televizaun Timor Lorosae, which broadcasts local programming in Tetum and Portuguese, as well as retransmissions of RTP Internacional from Portugal. In May 2007, RTTL's television and radio services became available via satellite, using a transponder leased from Telkom Indonesia. In February 2009, TVTL began carrying programmes from Rede Globo in Brazil. Internet The first Internet connection in East Timor was made by the United Nations APDIP Programme in 1999 to support UNTAET, the UN Transitional Administration. This consisted of a C Band link to Singapore Telecom. The initial bandwidth was 256kbit/s. The Internet country code for East Timor is .tl. This code was officially changed from .tp (for Portuguese Timor) when the country achieved its independence on 20 May 2002. There are three mobile operators in Timor-Leste providing the bulk of Internet connectivity to the population using 3G, 4G LTE, and HSDPA: Telemor Timor Telecom Telkomcel While ADSL and dedicated line infrastructure is offered by some of the operators, it is prohibitively expensive to install and is in most cases more expensive per GB than cellular options. Most individuals, organisations, and businesses thus rely on the cellular network for their Internet needs using smartphones, 4G modems and 4G routers. A fourth operator, Ceslink has applied to the government for a license to become a telecom operator, but as of September 2019 offers no services to the public. All operators rely on satellite communication for their uplink to the wider internet, which results in slow response times and drives up data prices. A project to physically connect Timor-Leste to Indonesia using a submarine fiber optic cable has been greenlit by the Government in 2018, but as of 2019, no progress appears to have been made. Alternatively, in January of 2022 it was announced Timor Leste Telecommunications provider SACOMTEL had signed an agreement with global subsea cable systems provider Inligo Networks to become the landing partner for a new cable system between the USA and Singapore called the Asia Connect Cable or ACC-1. The news was further confirmed by Inligo Networks some days later. The system is expected to connect the country in 2024. According to the International Telecommunications Union, 13.4% of the population was connected to the internet with the vast majority of users using cellular internet. However, according to the World Bank, in 2015, 23% of the population is connected to the Internet. As of 2017, 27.493% of the population is connected to the Internet. According to Timor Telecom about 94% of the population is able to access cellular phone and internet services. Timor Telecom has sought to block some voice over IP services on its network such as Skype, however in 2019 there is no evidence to suggest that any operators are blocking specific services or protocols. The concept of net neutrality does not seem to apply to Timor-Leste's and operators. Telemor and Telkomcel offer heavily discounted social media packages, with a focus on services owned by Facebook. Telkomcel also offers their customers limited free access to services under the Internet.org umbrella. Censorship There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice. References External links Telkomcel Timor Telecom Telemor Inligo Networks announces Timor Leste Landing and Partnership Australian subsea start-up to connect East Timor on Pacific route East Timor East Timor	[ 0.4093260169029236, 0.05944562330842018, -0.22920313477516174, 0.2323487251996994, 0.10826996713876724, 0.47891032695770264, -0.05169980973005295, 0.30754831433296204, -0.4248843789100647, 0.19817467033863068, -0.10443069785833359, 0.3792405426502228, -0.5352921485900879, 0.45176857709884644, -0.5935083031654358, 0.6325387954711914, 0.5317962169647217, 0.5407774448394775, 0.11403269320726395, -1.0318313837051392, -0.7772049307823181, 0.09587389975786209, 0.4247383773326874, 0.4900875985622406, 0.5015707015991211, -0.1721765697002411, -0.017712600529193878, 0.4520334303379059, -0.08977872133255005, -0.01010844949632883, 0.45142316818237305, 0.2161802500486374, -0.2325330376625061, 0.46827617287635803, -0.06123872846364975, -0.2181694060564041, 0.02377331256866455, 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237852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Lodge%20%28author%29	David Lodge (author)	David John Lodge CBE (born 28 January 1935) is an English author and critic. A literature professor at the University of Birmingham until 1987, some of his novels satirise academic life, notably the "Campus Trilogy" – Changing Places: A Tale of Two Campuses (1975), Small World: An Academic Romance (1984) and Nice Work (1988). The second two were shortlisted for the Booker Prize. Another theme is Roman Catholicism, beginning from his first published novel The Picturegoers (1960). Lodge has also written television screenplays and three stage plays. After retiring, he continued to publish literary criticism. His edition of Twentieth Century Literary Criticism (1972) includes essays on 20th-century writers such as T. S. Eliot. Biography David Lodge was born in Brockley, south-east London. His family home until 1959 was 81 Millmark Grove, a residential street of 1930s terraced houses between Brockley Cross and Barriedale. His father, a violinist, played in the orchestra pit of south London cinemas accompanying silent films. Lodge's first published novel The Picturegoers (1960) draws on early experiences in "Brickley" (based on Brockley) and his childhood home, which he revisits again in later novels, Therapy (1995), Deaf Sentence (2008) and Quite A Good Time to be Born: A Memoir (2015). World War II forced Lodge and his mother to evacuate to Surrey and Cornwall. He attended the Catholic St Joseph's Academy, Blackheath. University studies In 1952, Lodge entered University College, London, where he gained a first-class Bachelor of Arts degree in 1955. There he met his future wife, Mary Frances Jacob, as a fellow student, when they were 18. Meanwhile he wrote a first, unpublished novel (1953): The Devil, the World and the Flesh. After graduating from university, Lodge spent two years in the Royal Armoured Corps on national service, which provided a basis for his novel Ginger You're Barmy. He then returned to London University, earning a Master of Arts in 1959 for a thesis on "The Catholic Novel from the Oxford Movement to the Present Day". Family and early career In 1959, Lodge and Jacob married at the age of 24. Lodge later said, "It seems extraordinary now. I had no prospects, no job, little money but it never bothered me. We didn't really want children at the point they came along, but we got on with it." They had children in 1960 and 1963, a son and a daughter, and a second son, Christopher, born in 1966 with Down Syndrome. From 1959 to 1960, Lodge taught English in London for the British Council. In 1960, he gained a job as a lecturer at the University of Birmingham, where he was preparing a PhD thesis on the Oxford Movement. At Birmingham, Lodge met the novelist Malcolm Bradbury, who was to become his "closest writer friend"; the example of Bradbury's comic writing was, according to Lodge, a major influence on the development of his own work in this respect. In 1963, Lodge collaborated with Bradbury and another student, James Duckett, on a satirical revue for the Birmingham Repertory Theatre entitled Between These Four Walls, performed in the autumn of 1963. The cast included Julie Christie. During the performance of a certain skit that involved a radio being played on stage, Lodge and the audience heard news of the assassination of John F. Kennedy: "Some members of the audience had caught the words and tittered uneasily, taking it as a joke in poor taste. In the interval everybody discovered the awful truth, and the second half of the show fell very flat."In August 1964, Lodge and his family went to the United States, on a scholarship from the Harkness Commonwealth Fellowship. It required Lodge to travel at least three months out of twelve in the United States, with a car provided by the donor. The family first lived in Providence, Rhode Island, where David Lodge followed the American literature course at Brown University. During this period, free of teaching obligations, Lodge was able to complete a third novel, The British Museum Is Falling Down. Lodge's original title for the novel was The British Museum Has Lost Its Charm, a line from a George and Ira Gershwin song, but he was refused permission to use it by the Gershwin Publishing Corporation. In March 1965 the family went on a trip across the country, eventually moving to San Francisco. In 1966, Lodge published his first book of academic criticism, Language of Fiction, and in 1967 defended his doctoral thesis for a PhD in English awarded in 1967 by Birmingham University. Later career From 1967 to 1987, Lodge continued his academic career at the University of Birmingham, becoming Professor of English Literature in 1976, while writing several more novels and essays. In 1969, he became an associate professor at the University of California, Berkeley. Lodge retired from his post at Birmingham in 1987 to become a full-time writer: "It was the right time to leave. All my former colleagues say: 'You are well out of it.' There's a weary disillusion to university life now and that's a shame because, when I was there, there was excitement, a joie de vivre. Now it has become like a machine, servicing large numbers of students, and much less attractive and interesting." He retains the title of Honorary Professor of Modern English Literature and continues to live in Birmingham. Some of his papers are housed in the University Library's Special Collections. In 1997, Lodge was made a Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et Lettres by the French Ministry of Culture. In the 1998 New Years Honours list, he was appointed CBE for his services to literature. Works Overview Lodge's first published novels evoke the atmosphere of post-war England (for example, The Picturegoers (1960)). The theme occurs in later novels, through the childhood memories of certain characters (Paradise News, 1992; Therapy, 1995). The war is covered in Out of the Shelter (1970), while Ginger You're Barmy (1962) draws on Lodge's experience of military service in the 1950s. The Guardian review of the 2011 reissue of Ginger You're Barmy, called the novel "an impressively humane and feelingly political indictment of a tawdry postwar compromise" and "a moving glimpse of a world on the cusp of change". Lodge was brought up a Catholic and has described himself as an "agnostic Catholic". Many of his characters are Catholic and their Catholicism, particularly the relationship between Catholicism and sexuality, is a major theme. The British Museum Is Falling Down (1965) and How Far Can You Go? (1980; published in the US as Souls and Bodies), examine the difficulties faced by orthodox Catholics due to the prohibition of artificial contraception. Other novels where Catholicism plays an important part include Small World (in the character of Persse), Paradise News (1991) and Therapy (1995). In Therapy, the protagonist Laurence Passmore ("Tubby") suffers a breakdown after his marriage fails . He reminisces about his adolescent courtship with his first girlfriend at a Catholic youth club and seeks her out while she is on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Lodge has said that if read chronologically, his novels depict an orthodox Roman Catholic becoming "less and less so as time went on". Several of Lodge's novels satirise the academic world. The Campus Trilogy (Changing Places, Small World and Nice Work) are set at a fictional English Midland university of "Rummidge", modelled on Birmingham. (The name "Rummidge" appears to be derived from Brummagem, the local nickname for Birmingham, by removing the first and last letters and altering the spelling.) The novels share characters, notably the Rummidge English literature lecturer Philip Swallow and his American counterpart, Professor Morris Zapp, who aspires to be "the highest paid teacher of Humanities in the world". Swallow and Zapp first cross paths in Changing Places, where they swap jobs for an exchange scheme (and later, swap wives). Lodge has called the plot of the novel "a narrative transformation of the thematic material and the socio-cultural similarities and differences I had perceived between Birmingham and Berkeley," during his visiting professorship. Other fictional universities appear in Lodge's novels. Persse McGarrigle in Small World is a doctoral student at a fictional University College Limerick, the book having been written before the foundation of a real University of Limerick. Another campus novel, Thinks..., is set in a fictional University of Gloucester, before the foundation of the University of Gloucestershire. Lodge's novels cover the world of business in Nice Work, that of television in Therapy, and deafness and Alzheimer's disease in Deaf Sentence. The last draws on Lodge's own hearing problems: "I hate my deafness; it's a comic infirmity as opposed to blindness which is a tragic infirmity". Lodge has said of his own work, "Each of my novels corresponds to a particular phase or aspect of my own life [but] this does not mean they are autobiographical in any simple, straightforward sense." Two of Lodge's recent novels follow the lives of authors: Author, Author (2004) about Henry James and A Man of Parts (2011) about H. G. Wells. Author, Author suffered from comparison with Colm Tóibín's novel about Henry James, The Master, published six months earlier and then shortlisted for the Booker Prize. Most reviews of Lodge's novel dwelt on its unfortunate timing. Lodge wrote about the experience in The Year of Henry James (2006). In 2015, Quite a Good Time to Be Born was published: an autobiography covering Lodge's life from 1935 to 1975. Influences and allusions Lodge's major influences include English Catholic novelists (the subject of his MA dissertation), notably Graham Greene. Of his contemporaries, he has been compared most often to his friend Malcolm Bradbury, also an exponent of the campus novel. Lodge has acknowledged this debt: "The British Museum Is Falling Down was the first of my novels that could be described as in any way experimental. Comedy, it seemed, offered a way of reconciling a contradiction, of which I had long been aware, between my critical admiration for the great modernist writers, and my creative practice, formed by the neo-realist, anti-modernist writing of the 1950s. My association with Malcolm Bradbury, and the example of his own work in comedy, was therefore a crucial factor in this development in my writing." Lodge says he "was once rung up by a man to settle a bet by declaring whether I was the same person as Malcolm Bradbury." As an academic, Lodge was an early UK proponent of the work of Mikhail Bakhtin. Lodge also alludes frequently in his novels to other literary works. The British Museum Is Falling Down is influenced by Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf and Ulysses by James Joyce in that all of the action takes place in one day. The novel is mostly seen from the point of view of Adam Appleby, but the last chapter contains a long stream-of-consciousness section from the point of view of Adam's wife Barbara, modelled on Molly Bloom's famous soliloquy at the end of Ulysses. The novel contains a number of other passages which parody well-known writers, a fact not recognised by most reviewers when it was first published. Small World makes constant reference to Arthurian legend, in the plot, character names and allusions made by the characters (all academics). Lodge says of the novel's genesis, "It gradually grew on me that there was an analogy between my story and the Arthurian story, particularly the Grail quest in which a group of knights wander around the world, having adventures, pursuing ladies, love, and glory, jousting with each other, meeting rather coincidentally or unexpectedly, facing constant challenges and crises, and so on.... This all corresponded to the modern world with its Round Table of professors: the elite group who get invited to conferences, who go around the world in pursuit of glory. Sometimes they take the opportunity to indulge in amorous intrigue, or to joust with each other in debate, pursuing glory in the sense of wanting to be at the top of their profession." Dissemination and reception Lodge's work first came to wider notice in Britain in 1975, when he won the Hawthornden prize for Changing Places. He went on to win the Whitbread Book of the Year award in 1980 for How Far Can You Go? and the Sunday Express Book of the Year in 1988 for Nice Work. Two of his early novels were reissued during this period (Ginger You're Barmy, 1962/1982, and The British Museum is Falling Down, 1965/1981). His novels appeared in paperback in the 1960s with Pan and Panther Books, with Penguin Books from 1980 and with Vintage Publishing (Random House Group) since 2011. Vintage has reissued most of his earlier work. Lodge has been shortlisted for the Booker Prize twice, for Small World and Nice Work, and in 1989, Lodge chaired the Booker Prize judges. His 1970 novel Out of the Shelter was long-listed for the Lost Man Booker Prize in 2010. Anthony Burgess called Lodge "one of the best novelists of his generation". International publication Lodge's work first received recognition in France in the early 1990s, after the publication by Rivages of two of his novels, Nice Work and Changing Places. These were followed in 1991 by Small World and The British Museum Is Falling Down. Since then almost all his works of fiction have been translated – his new works fairly quickly. His present publisher in France is Payot et Rivages. Publication of his theoretical works in France began later, beginning in 2003 with Consciousness and the Novel. The earlier works of this area remained unpublished in France, except The Art of Fiction. His books are routinely translated into other languages, including German, Spanish, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, Czech, Polish and Turkish. Narrative techniques In The Art of Fiction (1992), Lodge studied, through examination of extracts from novels, various stylistic devices (repetition, variation in levels of language, etc.) and narrative techniques (varying viewpoints, defamiliarisation, etc.). Lodge self-consciously uses many of these techniques in his own novels. For example, in Paradise News (1991) the narration is mostly third-person point of view, but there are also first-person narratives (diary and autobiography, letters, postcards, emails) and various other documents, such as theoretical writings on tourism. In Therapy (1995) the bulk of the novel is told through the protagonist's diary, but there are other texts, presented as written by minor characters about the main character. It is eventually revealed that these were all written by the main character, as part of a therapy exercise. Television Two of Lodge's novels have been adapted into television serials: Small World (1988), and Nice Work (1989). Nice Work was adapted by Lodge himself and filmed at the University of Birmingham. He also adapted his play The Writing Game for television (1995). In 1994 Lodge adapted Dickens's Martin Chuzzlewit for a BBC series. Theatre Lodge has written three plays: The Writing Game, Home Truths (which he later turned into a novella), and Secret Thoughts (based on his novel Thinks...). In his autobiography Quite a Good Time To Be Born: a Memoir, 1935–75 (2015), Lodge notes that The Old Rep was one of his favourite theatres, with a long distinguished history and the likes of Laurence Olivier, Edith Evans, Ralph Richardson, Albert Finney and Derek Jacobi performing there. He referred to the theatre as "a gem", but noted that shabby as it was then, he could not have had a better venue for his first attempt at writing for the professional stage. The Writing Game is about the staff, teachers and students at a residential course for writers. The action is interspersed with readings by the characters of their own works in progress. According to Lodge, the play "originated in the experience of teaching such a course myself – not because its plot bears any resemblance to what happened on that course, but because it struck me that the bare situation possessed the classic dramatic unities of time, place and action. Indeed it would be true to say that I invented the plot of my play to fulfil the dramatic possibilities inherent in the situation." The play opened at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre on 13 May 1990 and ran for three weeks. An American production was staged at the American Repertory Theatre in Cambridge, Massachusetts in March 1991. Lodge later adapted the play for television. It was broadcast on Channel 4 on Sunday 18 February 1996, attracting 1.2 million viewers. Home Truths was performed at the Birmingham Rep in 1998. The story mainly focuses on Adrian Ludlow, a semi-retired writer interviewed by Fanny Tarrant, a journalist famous for sarcastic portrayals. Lodge later rewrote it as a novella of the same name. Lodge adapted his novel Thinks ... as a two-character play, Secret Thoughts, which opened at the Octagon Theatre, Bolton on 12 May 2011. The Stage called it "an intriguing, intensely witty, brainy play.... one of the most compelling two-handers imaginable." The Guardian review said that "Lodge's novel boils down neatly into an intellectually and erotically charged dialogue on the nature of the mind," yet felt that "Lodge cannot quite eradicate the sense that some of the cerebral jousting has a more natural home in a novel than on stage." Secret Thoughts won Best New Play at the Manchester Theatre Awards, hailed as a "bracing and ambitious production that wowed everyone who saw it." Awards and recognition Winner of the Hawthornden Prize and the Yorkshire Post Fiction Prize for Changing Places Whitbread Book of the Year (1980) for How Far Can You Go? Shortlisted for the Booker Prize (1984) for Small World Shortlisted for the Booker Prize (1988) for Nice Work Winner of the Sunday Express Book of the Year award (1988) for Nice Work Regional winner and finalist for the Commonwealth Writers Prize (1996) for Therapy Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature The television serialisation of Nice Work, which he adapted, won the Royal Television Society's Award for best Drama serial in 1989 and a Silver Nymph at the International Television Festival, Monte Carlo, 1990. Secret Thoughts, adapting his own novel Thinks..., won Best New Play award in the Manchester Theatre Awards at the Octagon Theatre, Bolton. Bibliography Fiction The Picturegoers, 1960 Ginger You're Barmy, 1962 The British Museum Is Falling Down, 1965 Out of the Shelter, 1970 Changing Places: A Tale of Two Campuses, 1975 How Far Can You Go? (US edition: Souls and Bodies), 1980 Small World: An Academic Romance, 1984 Nice Work, 1988 Paradise News, 1991 A David Lodge Trilogy, 1993 – single volume comprising Changing Places, Small World and Nice Work Therapy, 1995 The Man Who Wouldn't Get Up: And Other Stories, 1998 Home Truths, 1999 (novella, written from original play) Thinks ..., 2001 Author, Author, 2004 Deaf Sentence, 2008 A Man of Parts (H.G. Wells), 2011 The Man Who Wouldn't Get Up and Other Stories (expanded edition), 2016 Non-fiction Language of Fiction, 1966 The Novelist at the Crossroads, 1971 The Modes of Modern Writing, 1977 Working with Structuralism, 1981 Write On, 1986 After Bakhtin, 1990 The Art of Fiction, 1992 Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader — 1992 The Practice of Writing — 1997 Consciousness and the Novel — 2003 The Year of Henry James: The Story of a Novel, 2006 Lives in Writing — 2014 Twentieth Century Literary Criticism, 1972 Autobiography Quite a Good Time To Be Born: a Memoir, 1935–75 – 2015 Writer's Luck: A Memoir: 1976-1991 – 2018 Theatre The Writing Game, 1990 Home Truths, 1999 Secret Thoughts (based on Thinks...), 2011 Adaptations for television Small World – 1988 Nice Work – 1989 Martin Chuzzlewit – 1994 The Writing Game – 1995 References Further reading Daniel Ammann. David Lodge and the Art-and-Reality Novel. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag C. Winter, 1991. Bernard Bergonzi. David Lodge (Writers and Their Work). Tavistock, Devon: Northcote House Publishers, 1995. Bruce K. Martin. David Lodge. New York: Twayne, 1999. External links David Lodge Biography David Lodge Living under a deaf sentence, Sunday Times, 20 April 2008. 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237864	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differintegral	Differintegral	In fractional calculus, an area of mathematical analysis, the differintegral is a combined differentiation/integration operator. Applied to a function ƒ, the q-differintegral of f, here denoted by is the fractional derivative (if q > 0) or fractional integral (if q < 0). If q = 0, then the q-th differintegral of a function is the function itself. In the context of fractional integration and differentiation, there are several legitimate definitions of the differintegral. Standard definitions The four most common forms are: The Riemann–Liouville differintegralThis is the simplest and easiest to use, and consequently it is the most often used. It is a generalization of the Cauchy formula for repeated integration to arbitrary order. Here, . The Grunwald–Letnikov differintegralThe Grunwald–Letnikov differintegral is a direct generalization of the definition of a derivative. It is more difficult to use than the Riemann–Liouville differintegral, but can sometimes be used to solve problems that the Riemann–Liouville cannot. The Weyl differintegral This is formally similar to the Riemann–Liouville differintegral, but applies to periodic functions, with integral zero over a period. The Caputo differintegralIn opposite to the Riemann-Liouville differintegral, Caputo derivative of a constant is equal to zero. Moreover, a form of the Laplace transform allows to simply evaluate the initial conditions by computing finite, integer-order derivatives at point . Definitions via transforms Recall the continuous Fourier transform, here denoted : Using the continuous Fourier transform, in Fourier space, differentiation transforms into a multiplication: So, which generalizes to Under the bilateral Laplace transform, here denoted by and defined as , differentiation transforms into a multiplication Generalizing to arbitrary order and solving for Dqf(t), one obtains Basic formal properties Linearity rules Zero rule Product rule In general, composition (or semigroup) rule is not satisfied: See also Fractional-order integrator References External links MathWorld – Fractional calculus MathWorld – Fractional derivative Specialized journal: Fractional Calculus and Applied Analysis (1998-2014) and Fractional Calculus and Applied Analysis (from 2015) Specialized journal: Fractional Differential Equations (FDE) Specialized journal: Communications in Fractional Calculus () Specialized journal: Journal of Fractional Calculus and Applications (JFCA) https://web.archive.org/web/20040502170831/http://unr.edu/homepage/mcubed/FRG.html Igor Podlubny's collection of related books, articles, links, software, etc. Fractional calculus Generalizations of the derivative Linear operators in calculus	[ -0.28856149315834045, -0.17951138317584991, -0.09910096973180771, -0.10665157437324524, -0.1319696605205536, 0.15347698330879211, -0.3199938237667084, -0.23173557221889496, 0.3348638713359833, -0.18088172376155853, -0.3537137806415558, 0.47475311160087585, -0.07986808568239212, 0.30271804332733154, -0.30801424384117126, 0.3808605968952179, 0.16053035855293274, 0.43542400002479553, 0.13172045350074768, -0.2885989844799042, 0.17458952963352203, 0.4920576214790344, -0.1564888209104538, -0.5163704752922058, -0.13408257067203522, 0.08340092748403549, 0.13575352728366852, -0.07348556071519852, -0.5448390245437622, 0.2689756155014038, -0.14357821643352509, 1.2082858085632324, -0.14045929908752441, -0.009613179601728916, 0.04148728772997856, 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237868	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20%28category%20theory%29	Product (category theory)	In category theory, the product of two (or more) objects in a category is a notion designed to capture the essence behind constructions in other areas of mathematics such as the Cartesian product of sets, the direct product of groups or rings, and the product of topological spaces. Essentially, the product of a family of objects is the "most general" object which admits a morphism to each of the given objects. Definition Product of two objects Fix a category Let and be objects of A product of and is an object typically denoted equipped with a pair of morphisms satisfying the following universal property: For every object and every pair of morphisms there exists a unique morphism such that the following diagram commutes: Whether a product exists may depend on or on and If it does exist, it is unique up to canonical isomorphism, because of the universal property, so one may speak of the product. The morphisms and are called the canonical projections or projection morphisms. Given and the unique morphism is called the product of morphisms and and is denoted Product of an arbitrary family Instead of two objects, we can start with an arbitrary family of objects indexed by a set Given a family of objects, a product of the family is an object equipped with morphisms satisfying the following universal property: For every object and every -indexed family of morphisms there exists a unique morphism such that the following diagrams commute for all The product is denoted If then it is denoted and the product of morphisms is denoted Equational definition Alternatively, the product may be defined through equations. So, for example, for the binary product: Existence of is guaranteed by existence of the operation Commutativity of the diagrams above is guaranteed by the equality: for all and all Uniqueness of is guaranteed by the equality: for all As a limit The product is a special case of a limit. This may be seen by using a discrete category (a family of objects without any morphisms, other than their identity morphisms) as the diagram required for the definition of the limit. The discrete objects will serve as the index of the components and projections. If we regard this diagram as a functor, it is a functor from the index set considered as a discrete category. The definition of the product then coincides with the definition of the limit, being a cone and projections being the limit (limiting cone). Universal property Just as the limit is a special case of the universal construction, so is the product. Starting with the definition given for the universal property of limits, take as the discrete category with two objects, so that is simply the product category The diagonal functor assigns to each object the ordered pair and to each morphism the pair The product in is given by a universal morphism from the functor to the object in This universal morphism consists of an object of and a morphism which contains projections. Examples In the category of sets, the product (in the category theoretic sense) is the Cartesian product. Given a family of sets the product is defined as with the canonical projections Given any set with a family of functions the universal arrow is defined by Other examples: In the category of topological spaces, the product is the space whose underlying set is the Cartesian product and which carries the product topology. The product topology is the coarsest topology for which all the projections are continuous. In the category of modules over some ring the product is the Cartesian product with addition defined componentwise and distributive multiplication. In the category of groups, the product is the direct product of groups given by the Cartesian product with multiplication defined componentwise. In the category of graphs, the product is the tensor product of graphs. In the category of relations, the product is given by the disjoint union. (This may come as a bit of a surprise given that the category of sets is a subcategory of the category of relations.) In the category of algebraic varieties, the product is given by the Segre embedding. In the category of semi-abelian monoids, the product is given by the history monoid. A partially ordered set can be treated as a category, using the order relation as the morphisms. In this case the products and coproducts correspond to greatest lower bounds (meets) and least upper bounds (joins). Discussion An example in which the product does not exist: In the category of fields, the product does not exist, since there is no field with homomorphisms to both and Another example: An empty product (that is, is the empty set) is the same as a terminal object, and some categories, such as the category of infinite groups, do not have a terminal object: given any infinite group there are infinitely many morphisms so cannot be terminal. If is a set such that all products for families indexed with exist, then one can treat each product as a functor How this functor maps objects is obvious. Mapping of morphisms is subtle, because the product of morphisms defined above does not fit. First, consider the binary product functor, which is a bifunctor. For we should find a morphism We choose This operation on morphisms is called Cartesian product of morphisms. Second, consider the general product functor. For families we should find a morphism We choose the product of morphisms A category where every finite set of objects has a product is sometimes called a Cartesian category (although some authors use this phrase to mean "a category with all finite limits"). The product is associative. Suppose is a Cartesian category, product functors have been chosen as above, and denotes a terminal object of We then have natural isomorphisms These properties are formally similar to those of a commutative monoid; a Cartesian category with its finite products is an example of a symmetric monoidal category. Distributivity For any objects of a category with finite products and coproducts, there is a canonical morphism where the plus sign here denotes the coproduct. To see this, note that the universal property of the coproduct guarantees the existence of unique arrows filling out the following diagram (the induced arrows are dashed): The universal property of the product then guarantees a unique morphism induced by the dashed arrows in the above diagram. A distributive category is one in which this morphism is actually an isomorphism. Thus in a distributive category, there is the canonical isomorphism See also Coproduct – the dual of the product Diagonal functor – the left adjoint of the product functor. References Chapter 5. Definition 2.1.1 in External links Interactive Web page which generates examples of products in the category of finite sets. Written by Jocelyn Paine. 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237871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI%20Ten%20Most%20Wanted%20Fugitives	FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives	The FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives is a most wanted list maintained by the United States's Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The list arose from a conversation held in late 1949 between J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the FBI, and William Kinsey Hutchinson, International News Service (the predecessor of the United Press International) editor-in-chief, who were discussing ways to promote capture of the FBI's "toughest guys". This discussion turned into a published article, which received so much positive publicity that on March 14, 1950, the FBI officially announced the list to increase law enforcement's ability to capture dangerous fugitives. The first person added to the list was Thomas J. Holden, a robber and member of the Holden–Keating Gang on the day of the list's inception. Individuals are generally only removed from the list if they are captured, die, or if the charges against them are dropped; they are then replaced by a new entry selected by the FBI. In eleven cases, the FBI removed individuals from the list after deciding that they were no longer a "particularly dangerous menace to society". Machetero member Víctor Manuel Gerena, added to the list in 1984, was on the list for 32 years, which was longer than anyone else. Billie Austin Bryant spent the shortest amount of time on the list, being listed for two hours in 1969. The oldest person to be added to the list was Eugene Palmer on May 29, 2019, at 80 years old. On rare occasions, the FBI will add a "Number Eleven" if that individual is extremely dangerous but the Bureau does not feel any of the current ten should be removed. Despite occasional references in the media, the FBI does not rank their list; no suspect is considered "#1 on the FBI's Most Wanted List" or "The Most Wanted". The list is commonly posted in public places such as post offices. In many cases, fugitives on the list have turned themselves in on becoming aware of their listing. On May 18, 1996, after surrendering at the U.S. embassy in Guatemala City, Leslie Isben Rogge became the first person on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list to be apprehended due to the Internet. The FBI maintains other lists of individuals, including the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists, along with crime alerts, missing persons, and other fugitive lists. On June 17, 2013, the list reached a cumulative total of 500 fugitives having been listed. As of , 2022, 526 fugitives had been listed, ten of them women, and 491 of them were captured or located (94%), 162 (31%) of them due to public assistance. New additions The Criminal Investigative Division (CID) at FBI Headquarters calls upon all 56 Field Offices to submit candidates for the FBI's "Ten Most Wanted Fugitives" list. The nominees received are reviewed by special agents in the CID and the Office of Public Affairs. The selection of the "proposed" candidate(s) is forwarded to the Assistant Director of the CID for his/her approval and then to the FBI's Director for final approval. This process takes some time, which is why James Joseph "Whitey" Bulger Jr., who was arrested in Santa Monica, California on June 22, 2011, remained on the list until May 9, 2012, despite no longer being at large. Osama bin Laden similarly remained on the list for almost a year after his death at the hands of U.S. forces on May 2, 2011. List Rewards are offered for information leading to capture of fugitives on the list; the reward is a minimum of $100,000 for all fugitives, currently exceeded in the cases of Jason Derek Brown at $200,000, Jose Rodolfo Villarreal-Hernandez at $1,000,000, and Rafael Caro Quintero at $20,000,000. See also Former FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives FBI Most Wanted Terrorists List of Mexico's 37 most-wanted drug lords Specially Designated Global Terrorist References External links Ten most wanted fugitives list is turning 65 years old—FBI news blog Additional information from America's Most Wanted 1950 establishments in the United States	[ -0.48500868678092957, -0.0046365223824977875, -0.3445948362350464, 0.40586256980895996, 0.31247764825820923, -0.1670123189687729, 0.4731694161891937, 0.29189929366111755, -1.1350802183151245, 0.08977674692869186, -0.6524117588996887, 0.4838751256465912, -0.566386878490448, 0.11384367942810059, 0.12964485585689545, 0.03991302475333214, 0.3998299539089203, 0.6823348999023438, 0.06098359078168869, -0.9131567478179932, 0.5373743772506714, -0.2965700328350067, 0.06770110875368118, -1.0772364139556885, -0.18104290962219238, 0.026003101840615273, -0.44821053743362427, 0.06528759747743607, -0.5295007824897766, 0.414582759141922, -0.18198087811470032, 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237876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformation%20%28engineering%29	Deformation (engineering)	In engineering, deformation refers to the change in size or shape of an object. Displacements are the absolute change in position of a point on the object. Deflection is the relative change in external displacements on an object. Strain is the relative internal change in shape of an infinitesimally small cube of material and can be expressed as a non-dimensional change in length or angle of distortion of the cube. Strains are related to the forces acting on the cube, which are known as stress, by a stress-strain curve. The relationship between stress and strain is generally linear and reversible up until the yield point and the deformation is elastic. The linear relationship for a material is known as Young's modulus. Above the yield point, some degree of permanent distortion remains after unloading and is termed plastic deformation. The determination of the stress and strain throughout a solid object is given by the field of strength of materials and for a structure by structural analysis. Engineering stress and engineering strain are approximations to the internal state that may be determined from the external forces and deformations of an object, provided that there is no significant change in size. When there is a significant change in size, the true stress and true strain can be derived from the instantaneous size of the object. In the figure it can be seen that the compressive loading (indicated by the arrow) has caused deformation in the cylinder so that the original shape (dashed lines) has changed (deformed) into one with bulging sides. The sides bulge because the material, although strong enough to not crack or otherwise fail, is not strong enough to support the load without change. As a result, the material is forced out laterally. Internal forces (in this case at right angles to the deformation) resist the applied load. The concept of a rigid body can be applied if the deformation is negligible. Types of deformation Depending on the type of material, size and geometry of the object, and the forces applied, various types of deformation may result. The image to the right shows the engineering stress vs. strain diagram for a typical ductile material such as steel. Different deformation modes may occur under different conditions, as can be depicted using a deformation mechanism map. Permanent deformation is irreversible; the deformation stays even after removal of the applied forces, while the temporary deformation is recoverable as it disappears after the removal of applied forces. Temporary deformation is also called elastic deformation, while the permanent deformation is called plastic deformation. Elastic deformation The study of temporary or elastic deformation in the case of engineering strain is applied to materials used in mechanical and structural engineering, such as concrete and steel, which are subjected to very small deformations. Engineering strain is modeled by infinitesimal strain theory, also called small strain theory, small deformation theory, small displacement theory, or small displacement-gradient theory where strains and rotations are both small. For some materials, e.g. elastomers and polymers, subjected to large deformations, the engineering definition of strain is not applicable, e.g. typical engineering strains greater than 1%, thus other more complex definitions of strain are required, such as stretch, logarithmic strain, Green strain, and Almansi strain. Elastomers and shape memory metals such as Nitinol exhibit large elastic deformation ranges, as does rubber. However, elasticity is nonlinear in these materials. Normal metals, ceramics and most crystals show linear elasticity and a smaller elastic range. Linear elastic deformation is governed by Hooke's law, which states: Where is the applied stress, is a material constant called Young's modulus or elastic modulus, and ε is the resulting strain. This relationship only applies in the elastic range and indicates that the slope of the stress vs. strain curve can be used to find Young's modulus (). Engineers often use this calculation in tensile tests. Note that not all elastic materials undergo linear elastic deformation; some, such as concrete, gray cast iron, and many polymers, respond in a nonlinear fashion. For these materials Hooke's law is inapplicable. True stress and strain Since we disregard the change of area during deformation above, the true stress and strain curve should be re-derived. For deriving the stress strain curve, we can assume that the volume change is 0 even if we deformed the materials. We can assume that: Then, the true stress can be expressed as below: Additionally, the true strain εT can be express as below: Then, we can express the value as Thus, we can induce the plot in terms of and as right figure. Additionally, based on the true stress-strain curve, we can estimate the region where necking starts to happen. Since necking starts to appear after ultimate tensile stress where the maximum force applied, we can express this situation as below: so this form can be expressed as below: It indicates that the necking starts to appear where reduction of area becomes much significant compared to the stress change. Then the stress will be localized to specific area where the necking appears. Additionally, we can induce various relation based on true stress-strain curve. 1) True strain and stress curve can be expressed by the approximate linear relationship by taking a log on true stress and strain. The relation can be expressed as below: Where is stress coefficient and is strain-hardening coefficient. Usually, the value of has range around 0.02 to 0.5 at room temperature. If is 1, we can express this material as perfect elastic material. 2) In reality, stress is also highly dependent on the rate of strain variation. Thus, we can induce the empirical equation based on the strain rate variation. Where is constant related to the material flow stress. indicates the derivative of strain by the time, which is also known as strain rate. is the strain-rate sensitivity. Moreover, value of is related to the resistance toward the necking. Usually, the value of is at the range of 0-0.1 at room temperature and as high as 0.8 when the temperature is increased. By combining the 1) and 2), we can create the ultimate relation as below: Where is the global constant for relating strain, strain rate and stress. 3) Based on the true stress-strain curve and its derivative form, we can estimate the strain necessary to start necking. This can be calculated based on the intersection between true stress-strain curve as shown in right. This figure also shows the dependency of the necking strain at different temperature. In case of FCC metals, both of the stress-strain curve at its derivative are highly dependent on temperature. Therefore, at higher temperature, necking starts to appear even under lower strain value. All of these properties indicate the importance of calculating the true stress-strain curve for further analyzing the behavior of materials in sudden environment. 4) A graphical method, so-called "Considere construction", can help determine the behavior of stress-strain curve whether necking or drawing happens on the sample. By setting as determinant, the true stress and strain can be expressed with engineering stress and strain as below: Therefore, the value of engineering stress can be expressed by the secant line from made by true stress and value where to . By analyzing the shape of diagram and secant line, we can determine whether the materials show drawing or necking. On the figure (a), there is only concave upward Considere plot. It indicates that there is no yield drop so the material will be suffered from fracture before it yields. On the figure (b), there is specific point where the tangent matches with secant line at point where . After this value, the slope becomes smaller than the secant line where necking starts to appear. On the figure (c), there is point where yielding starts to appear but when , the drawing happens. After drawing, all the material will stretch and eventually show fracture. Between and , the material itself does not stretch but rather, only the neck starts to stretch out. Plastic deformation This type of deformation is not undone simply by removing the applied force. An object in the plastic deformation range, however, will first have undergone elastic deformation, which is undone simply be removing the applied force, so the object will return part way to its original shape. Soft thermoplastics have a rather large plastic deformation range as do ductile metals such as copper, silver, and gold. Steel does, too, but not cast iron. Hard thermosetting plastics, rubber, crystals, and ceramics have minimal plastic deformation ranges. An example of a material with a large plastic deformation range is wet chewing gum, which can be stretched to dozens of times its original length. Under tensile stress, plastic deformation is characterized by a strain hardening region and a necking region and finally, fracture (also called rupture). During strain hardening the material becomes stronger through the movement of atomic dislocations. The necking phase is indicated by a reduction in cross-sectional area of the specimen. Necking begins after the ultimate strength is reached. During necking, the material can no longer withstand the maximum stress and the strain in the specimen rapidly increases. Plastic deformation ends with the fracture of the material. Compressive failure Usually, compressive stress applied to bars, columns, etc. leads to shortening. Loading a structural element or specimen will increase the compressive stress until it reaches its compressive strength. According to the properties of the material, failure modes are yielding for materials with ductile behavior (most metals, some soils and plastics) or rupturing for brittle behavior (geomaterials, cast iron, glass, etc.). In long, slender structural elements — such as columns or truss bars — an increase of compressive force F leads to structural failure due to buckling at lower stress than the compressive strength. Fracture This type of deformation is also irreversible. A break occurs after the material has reached the end of the elastic, and then plastic, deformation ranges. At this point forces accumulate until they are sufficient to cause a fracture. All materials will eventually fracture, if sufficient forces are applied. Misconceptions A popular misconception is that all materials that bend are "weak" and those that don't are "strong". In reality, many materials that undergo large elastic and plastic deformations, such as steel, are able to absorb stresses that would cause brittle materials, such as glass, with minimal plastic deformation ranges, to break. See also Artificial cranial deformation Buff strength Creep (deformation) Deflection (engineering) Deformation (mechanics) Deformation mechanism maps Deformation Monitoring Deformation retract Deformation theory Elasticity Malleability Planar deformation features Plasticity (physics) Poisson's ratio Strain tensor Strength of materials Wood warping References Solid mechanics Deformation (mechanics)	[ -0.020959416404366493, 0.45110341906547546, -0.17428374290466309, 0.04987551271915436, -0.32741686701774597, 0.6473175883293152, 0.41788119077682495, 0.3595815896987915, -0.5816477537155151, -0.8093975186347961, -0.6851703524589539, 0.6254255771636963, 0.0570785254240036, 0.40956780314445496, -0.5599256157875061, 0.7009774446487427, -0.07522746175527573, 0.0801631510257721, -0.04967552796006203, 0.20396855473518372, -0.07041060924530029, -0.359274685382843, 0.251676470041275, -0.38494154810905457, 0.1199830025434494, -0.7308560609817505, -0.034150563180446625, 0.4088735282421112, 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237890	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanence	Immanence	The doctrine or theory of immanence holds that the divine encompasses or is manifested in the material world. It is held by some philosophical and metaphysical theories of divine presence. Immanence is usually applied in monotheistic, pantheistic, pandeistic, or panentheistic faiths to suggest that the spiritual world permeates the mundane. It is often contrasted with theories of transcendence, in which the divine is seen to be outside the material world. Major faiths commonly devote significant philosophical efforts to explaining the relationship between immanence and transcendence but do so in different ways, such as: casting immanence as a characteristic of a transcendent God (common in Abrahamic religions), subsuming immanent personal gods in a greater transcendent being (such as with Brahman in Hinduism), or approaching the question of transcendence as something which can only be answered through an appraisal of immanence. Western Esotericism Another meaning of immanence is the quality of being contained within, or remaining within the boundaries of a person, of the world, or of the mind. This meaning is more common within Christian and other monotheist theology, in which the one God is considered to transcend his creation. Pythagoreanism says that the nous is an intelligent principle of the world acting with a specific intention. This is the divine reason regarded in Neoplatonism as the first emanation of the divine. From the nous emerges the world soul, which gives rise to the manifest realm. Neoplatonic gnosticism goes on to say the Godhead is the Father, Mother, and Son (Zeus). In the mind of Zeus, the ideas are distinctly articulated and become the Logos by which he creates the world. These ideas become active in the Mind (nous) of Zeus. With him is the Power and from him is the nous. This theology further explains that Zeus is called Demiurge (Dêmiourgos, Creator), Maker (Poiêtês), and Craftsman (Technitês). The nous of the demiurge proceeds outward into manifestation becoming living ideas. They give rise to a lineage of mortal human souls. The components of the soul are 1) the higher soul, seat of the intuitive mind (divine nous); 2) the rational soul (logistikon) (seat of discursive reason / dianoia); 3) the nonrational soul (alogia), responsible for the senses, appetites, and motion. Zeus thinks the articulated ideas (Logos). The idea of ideas (Eidos - Eidôn), provides a model of the Paradigm of the Universe, which the Demiurge contemplates in his articulation of the ideas and his creation of the world according to the Logos. Buddhism Tantric Buddhism and Dzogchen posit a non-dual basis for both experience and reality that could be considered an exposition of a philosophy of immanence that has a history on the subcontinent of India from early CE to the present. A paradoxical non-dual awareness or rigpa (Tibetan — vidya in Sanskrit) — is said to be the 'self perfected state' of all beings. Scholarly works differentiate these traditions from monism. The non-dual is said to be not immanent and not transcendent, not neither, nor both. One classical exposition is the Madhyamaka refutation of extremes that the philosopher-adept Nagarjuna propounded. Exponents of this non-dual tradition emphasize the importance of a direct experience of non-duality through both meditative practice and philosophical investigation. In one version, one maintains awareness as thoughts arise and dissolve within the 'field' of mind, one does not accept or reject them, rather one lets the mind wander as it will until a subtle sense of immanence dawns. Vipassana or insight is the integration of one's 'presence of awareness' with that which arises in mind. Non-duality or rigpa is said to be the recognition that both the quiet, calm abiding state as found in samatha and the movement or arising of phenomena as found in vipassana are not separate. In this way it could be stated that Dzogchen is a method for recognizing a 'pure immanence' analogous to what Deleuze theorized about. Christianity Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Christianity According to Christian theology, the transcendent God, who cannot be approached or seen in essence or being, becomes immanent primarily in the God-man Jesus the Christ, who is the incarnate Second Person of the Trinity. In Byzantine Rite theology the immanence of God is expressed as the hypostases or energies of God, who in his essence is incomprehensible and transcendent. In Catholic theology, Christ and the Holy Spirit immanently reveal themselves; God the Father only reveals himself immanently vicariously through the Son and Spirit, and the divine nature, the Godhead is wholly transcendent and unable to be comprehended. This is expressed in St. Paul's letter to the Philippians, where he writes: The Holy Spirit is also expressed as an immanence of God. The immanence of the triune God is celebrated in the Catholic Church, traditional Protestant Churches, and Eastern Churches during the liturgical feast of the Theophany of God, known in Western Christianity as the Epiphany. Pope Pius X wrote at length about philosophical-theological controversies over immanence in his encyclical Pascendi dominici gregis. Mormonism According to Latter Day Saint theology, all of material creation is filled with immanence, known as the light of Christ. It is also responsible for the intuitive conscience born into man. The Light of Christ is the source of intellectual and spiritual enlightenment, and is the means by which God is in and through all things. LDS scriptures identify the divine Light with the mind of God, the source of all truth and conveyor of the characteristics of the divine nature through God’s goodness. The experienced brilliance of God reflects the “fullness” of this spirit within God’s being. Similarly, mankind can incorporate this spiritual light or divine mind and thus become one with God. This immanent spirit of light bridges the scientific and spiritual conceptualizations of the universe. Judaism Traditional Jewish religious thought can be divided into Nigleh ("Revealed") and Nistar ("Hidden") dimensions. Hebrew Scripture is, in the Kabbalistic tradition, explained using the four level exegesis method of Pardes. In this system, the first three approaches, Simple, Hinted and Homiletical interpretations, characterise the revealed aspects. The fourth approach, the Secret meaning, characterises a hidden aspect. Among the classic texts of Jewish tradition, some Jewish Bible commentators, the Midrash, the Talmud, and mainstream Jewish philosophy use revealed approaches. Other Bible commentators, the Kabbalah, and Hasidic philosophy, use hidden approaches. Both dimensions are seen by adherents as united and complementary. In this way, ideas in Jewish thought are given a variety of ascending meanings. Explanations of a concept in Nigleh, are given inherent, inner, mystical contexts from Nistar. Descriptions of divine immanence can be seen in Nigleh, from the Bible to Rabbinic Judaism. In Genesis, God makes a personal covenant with the forefathers Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Daily Jewish prayers refer to this inherited closeness and personal relationship with the divine, for their descendants, as "the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob". To Moses, God reveals his Tetragrammaton name, that more fully captures divine descriptions of transcendence. Each of the Biblical names for God, describe different divine manifestations. The most important prayer in Judaism, that forms part of the Scriptural narrative to Moses, says "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One." This declaration combines different divine names, and themes of immanence and transcendence. Perhaps the most personal example of a Jewish prayer that combines both themes is the invocation repeatedly voiced during the time in the Jewish calendar devoted to Teshuva (Return, often inaccurately translated as Repentance), Avinu Malkeinu ("Our Father, Our King"). Much of the later Hebrew Biblical narrative recounts the reciprocal relationship and national drama of the unfolding of themes of immanence and transcendence. Kabbalistic, or Hasidic Jewish thought and philosophy describe and articulate these interconnected aspects of the divine-human relationship. Jewish mysticism gives explanations of greater depth and spirituality to the interconnected aspects of God's immanence and transcendence. The main expression of mysticism, the Kabbalah, began to be taught in 12th Century Europe, and reached a new systemisation in 16th Century Israel. The Kabbalah gives the full, subtle, traditional system of Jewish metaphysics. In the Medieval Kabbalah, new doctrines described the 10 Sephirot (divine emanations) through which the Infinite, unknowable divine essence reveals, emanates, and continuously creates existence. The Kabbalists identified the final, feminine Sefirah with the earlier, traditional Jewish concept of the Shekhinah (immanent divine presence). This gave great spirituality to earlier ideas in Jewish thought, such as the theological explanations of suffering (theodicy). In this example, the Kabbalists described the Shekhinah accompanying the children of Israel in their exile, being exiled alongside them, and yearning for Her redemption. Such a concept derives from the Kabbalistic theology that the physical World, and also the Upper spiritual Worlds, are continuously recreated from nothing by the Shefa (flow) of divine will, which emanates through the Sefirot. As a result, within all creations are divine sparks of vitality that sustain them. Medieval Kabbalah describes two forms of divine emanation, a "light that fills all worlds", representing this immanent divine creative power, and a "light that surrounds all worlds", representing transcendent expressions of Divinity. The new doctrines of Isaac Luria in the 16th Century completed the Kabbalistic system of explanation. Lurianic Kabbalah describes the process of Tzimtzum (צמצום meaning "Contraction" or "Constriction") in the Kabbalistic theory of creation, where God "contracted" his infinite essence in order to allow for a "conceptual space" in which a finite, independent world could exist. This has received different later interpretations in Jewish mysticism, from the literal to the metaphorical. In this process, creation unfolds within the divine reality. Luria offered a daring cosmic theology that explained the reasons for the Tzimtzum, the primordial catastrophe of Shevirat Hakelim (the "Breaking of the Vessels" of the Sefirot in the first existence), and the messianic Tikkun ("Fixing") of this by every individual through their sanctification of physicality. The concept of Tzimtzum contains a built-in paradox, as it requires that God be simultaneously transcendent and immanent: On the one hand, if the Infinite did not "restrict itself", then nothing could exist. There would be no limits, as the infinite essence of God, and also His primordial infinite light (Kabbalistic sources discuss God being able to reign alone, a revealed "light" of the Sefirah of Kingship, "before" creation) would comprise all reality. Any existence would be nullified into the divine infinity. Therefore, we could not have the variety of limited, finite things that comprise the creations in the Universe that we inhabit. (The number of such creations could still be potentially limitless, if the physical Universe, or Multiverse had no end). Because each limited thing results from a restriction of God's completeness, God Himself must transcend (exist beyond) these various limited things. This idea can be interpreted in various ways. In its ultimate articulation, by the Hasidic leader Shneur Zalman of Liadi, in the intellectual Hasidic method of Chabad, the Tzimtzum is only metaphorical, an illusion from the perspective of man. Creation is panentheistic (taking place fully "within God"), and acosmic (Illusionary) from the divine perspective. God himself, and even his light, is unrestricted by Tzimtzum, from God's perspective. The Tzimtzum is merely the hiding of this unchanged reality from creation. Shneur Zalman distinguishes between the "Upper Level Unity" of God's existence from the divine perspective, with the "Lower Level Unity" of God's existence as creation perceives him. Because God can be above logic, both perspectives of this paradox are true, from their alternative views. The dimension of the Tzimtzum, which implies divine transcendence, corresponds to the Upper Level Unity. In this perspective, because God is the true, ultimate infinity, then creation (even if its physical and spiritual realms should extend without limit) is completely nullified into literal non-existence by the divine. There is no change in the complete unity of God as all Reality, before or after creation. This is the ultimate level of divine transcendence. On the other hand, in Lurianic Kabbalah, the Tzimtzum has an immanent divine dimension. The Tzimtzum formed a "space" (in Lurianic terminology, the Halal, "Vacuum") in which to allow creation to take place. The first act of creation was the emanation of a new light (Kav, "Ray") into the vacated space, from the ultimate divine reality "outside", or unaffected, by the space. The purpose of the Tzimtzum was that the vacated space allowed this new light to be suited to the needs and capacities of the new creations, without their being subsumed in the primordial divine infinity. Kabbalistic theology offers metaphysical explanations of how divine and spiritual processes unfold. In earlier, mainstream Jewish philosophy, logical descriptions of creation ex nihilo (from nothing) describe the new existence of creation, compared to the preceding absence. Kabbalah, however, seeks to explain how the spiritual, metaphysical processes unfold. Therefore, in the Kabbalistic system, God is the ultimate reality, so that creation only exists because it is continuously sustained by the will of God. Creation is formed from the emanated "light" of the divine Will, as it unfolds through the later Sefirot. The light that originated with the Kav later underwent further contractions that diminished it, so that this immanent expression of Divinity could itself create the various levels of Spiritual, and ultimately, Physical existence. The terms of "light" and temporal descriptions of time are metaphorical, in a language accessible to grasp. In this immanent divine dimension, God continuously maintains the existence of, and is thus not absent from, the created universe. In Shneur Zalman's explanation, this corresponds to the conscious perception by Creation of "Lower Level Unity" of God. In this perspective, Creation is real, and not an illusion, but is utterly nullified to the immanent divine life force that continuously sustains and recreates it. It may not perceive its complete dependence on Divinity, as in our present World, that feels its own existence as independent reality. However, this derives from the great concealments of Godliness in our present World. "The Divine life-force which brings all creatures into existence must constantly be present within them ... were this life-force to forsake any created being for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ...". (Tanya, Shaar Hayichud, Chapter 2-3. Shneur Zalman of Liadi). Continental philosophy Giordano Bruno, Baruch Spinoza and possibly Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel espoused philosophies of immanence versus philosophies of transcendence such as Thomism or Aristotelian tradition. Kant's "transcendental" critique can be contrasted to Hegel's "immanent dialectics."<ref>For further information on Hegel's immanent dialectics, see J. T. Fraser, F. C. Haber, G. H. Müller (eds.), The Study of Time: Proceedings of the First Conference of the International Society for the Study of Time Oberwolfach (Black Forest) — West Germany, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, p. 437.</ref> Gilles Deleuze qualified Spinoza as the "prince of philosophers" for his theory of immanence, which Spinoza resumed by "Deus sive Natura" ("God or Nature"). Such a theory considers that there is no transcendent principle or external cause to the world, and that the process of life production is contained in life itself. When compounded with Idealism, the immanence theory qualifies itself away from "the world" to there being no external cause to one's mind. Giovanni Gentile's actual idealism, sometimes called "philosophy of immanence" and the metaphysics of the "I", "affirms the organic synthesis of dialectical opposites that are immanent within actual or present awareness". His so-called method of immanence "attempted to avoid: (1) the postulate of an independently existing world or a Kantian Ding-an-sich (thing-in-itself), and (2) the tendency of neo-Hegelian philosophy to lose the particular self in an Absolute that amounts to a kind of mystical reality without distinctions." Political theorist Carl Schmitt used the term in his book Politische Theologie (1922), meaning a power within some thought, which makes it obvious for the people to accept it, without needing to claim being justified. The immanence of some political system or a part of it comes from the reigning contemporary definer of Weltanschauung, namely religion (or any similar system of beliefs, such as rationalistic or relativistic world-view). The Nazis took advantage of this theory creating, or resurrecting, basically religious mythology of race, its heroes, and its destiny to motivate people and to make their reign unquestionable, which it became. The French 20th-century philosopher Gilles Deleuze used the term immanence to refer to his "empiricist philosophy", which was obliged to create action and results rather than establish transcendents. His final text was titled Immanence: a life...'' and spoke of a plane of immanence. Furthermore, the Russian Formalist film theorists perceived immanence as a specific method of discussing the limits of ability for a technological object. Specifically, this is the scope of potential uses of an object outside of the limits prescribed by culture or convention, and is instead simply the empirical spectrum of function for a technological artifact. See also Buddha-nature Hasidic Judaism Iman (concept) Immanent evaluation Immanentize the eschaton Metaphysical naturalism Plane of immanence Substance (God is either transcendent or immanent, as is the case in Spinoza's philosophy) Transcendence (philosophy), often considered as the opposite of immanence References External links Catholic encyclopedia: Immanence "Immanence and Deterritorialization: The Philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari" "the culture of Immanence", Ricardo Barreto and Paula Perissinotto Pantheism Monism Religious philosophical concepts Concepts in metaphysics Mysticism Attributes of God in Christian theology Spinozism	[ 0.5159940719604492, 0.41249823570251465, -0.21623878180980682, 0.047831762582063675, -0.5422225594520569, -0.09544634819030762, 1.0839571952819824, -0.024783778935670853, 0.27423128485679626, -0.5095916986465454, -0.2727726995944977, 0.6283340454101562, -0.46787694096565247, 0.7680497169494629, 0.1083793044090271, 0.11864687502384186, 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237901	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland%27s%20language%20strife	Finland's language strife	Finland's language strife () () was a major conflict in mid-19th century Finland. Both the Swedish and Finnish languages were commonly used in Finland at the time, associated with descendants of Swedish colonisation and leading to class tensions among the speakers of the different languages. It became acute in the mid-19th century. The competition was considered to have officially ended when Finnish gained official language status in 1923 and became equal to the Swedish language. Background Finland had once been under Swedish rule (Sweden-Finland). Swedish (with some Latin) was the language of administration and education in the Swedish Realm. Swedish was therefore the most-used language of administration and higher education among the Finns. To gain higher education, one had to learn Swedish, and Finnish was considered by the upper classes to be a "language of peasants". Immigration of Swedish peasants to Finland's coastal regions also boosted the status of Swedish by sheer number of speakers. Although Mikael Agricola had started written Finnish with Abckiria in the 1500s, and a Finnish translation of the Civil Code of 1734 was published in 1759 (Ruotzin waldacunnan laki), it had no official status as a legal publication since the official language of administration was Swedish. As a result of the Finnish War, Sweden ceded Finland to Russia in 1809. Finland became the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland within the Russian Empire. Under Russian rule, the laws of the Sweden–Finland era remained largely unchanged, and Swedish continued to be used in administration. The language strife became more acute in the second half of the 19th century. Johan Vilhelm Snellman, a Swede who wished to increase education in Finland, became a chief initiator of conflict in the 1850s due to his concern about the changing language use among the educated classes, many of whom were using Russian or Finnish. He wrote to Zachris Topelius in 1860: "My view is this: Whether Russian or Finnish will win, only God knows. I dare not hope for anything. But that Swedish will lose - that I do know." Elias Lönnrot compiled the first Finnish-Swedish dictionary (Finsk-Svenskt lexikon), completing it in 1880. Nationalism and the question of language The rise of Fennomanic Finnish nationalism in the 19th century eventually led to the revived predominance of Finnish use in the country. A significant contribution to the Finnish national awakening from the mid-19th century onward came from the members of the mostly Swedish-speaking upper classes deliberately choosing to promote Finnish culture and language. Snellman was himself an ethnic Swede and was later ennobled. These Finnish Swedes, known as the Fennomans, Fennicized their family names, learned Finnish, and made a point of using Finnish both in public and at home. However, another group of the Swedish-speaking population, the Svecomans, did not wish to abandon Swedish and opposed the Fennoman ideology and Fennoman-inspired reforms. In 1863 Alexander II (AsK 26/1863) ruled that Finnish had an official language status comparable to that of Swedish; it could thereafter be used in an official capacity in legal and state office matters. Within a generation, the Finnish language use gained predominance in the government and the society of Finland. During the Russification of Finland, Tsar Nicholas II attempted to change the official language to Russian (Language Manifesto of 1900), but Russification was halted by the general strike of 1905. After independence After Finland gained independence in 1917, its relations with Sweden unexpectedly became strained in connection with the Finnish Civil War and the Åland crisis. These events aggravated the language dispute, and the controversy over Swedish and Finnish became a prominent feature of domestic politics during the 1920s and 1930s. In the newly independent Finnish constitution of 1919, Finnish and Swedish were given equal status as national languages. The language strife thereafter centered on this and on the role of Swedish in universities, particularly regarding the number of professors who spoke and wrote in Swedish in their teaching. In the interwar period, the University of Helsinki was the scene of conflict between those who wanted to advance the use of Finnish and those who wished to maintain the use of Swedish. Geographer Väinö Tanner was one of the most vocal defenders of Swedish. A campaign initiated by the Swedish People's Party of Finland collected 153,914 signatures in defense of Swedish in a petition that was presented to the parliament and government in October 1934. The conflict at the university generated an international reaction when academics from Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland sent letters to the diplomatic representatives of Finland in their respective countries warning that diminishing the role of Swedish at the university would result in a weakening of Nordic unity. The government issued a language decree on 1 January 1923 making Finnish and Swedish equal in status. During the resettlement of more than 420,000 Karelian refugees after the Winter War against the Soviet Union (1939–1940), the Swedish-speaking minority feared that the new Finnish-speaking settlers would change the linguistic balance of their neighborhoods. Since the late 20th century, there has been discussion of whether the policy of mandatory Swedish classes in schools should continue. See also Language revival Language policy References Further reading Hult, F.M., & Pietikäinen, S. (2014). "Shaping discourses of multilingualism through a language ideological debate: The case of Swedish in Finland", Journal of Language and Politics, 13, 1-20. 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237903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudy%20Boschwitz	Rudy Boschwitz	Rudolph Ely Boschwitz (born November 7, 1930) is an American politician and former Independent-Republican United States Senator from Minnesota. He served in the Senate from December 1978 to January 1991, in the 96th, 97th, 98th, 99th, 100th, and 101st congresses. In 1990 he was defeated by Paul Wellstone. Early life and education Boschwitz was born November 7, 1930 in Berlin, Weimar Germany, the son of Lucy (née Dawidowicz) and Eli Boschwitz. In 1933, when he was three years old, his Jewish family fled from Nazi Germany to the United States, settling in New Rochelle, New York, where he grew up. A graduate of The Pennington School, he attended Johns Hopkins University and graduated from the New York University Stern School of Business in 1950 and the New York University School of Law in 1953. Career He was admitted to the New York State bar in 1954 and the Wisconsin bar in 1959. He served in the United States Army Signal Corps in 1954–55. He was the founder and chairman of a plywood and home improvement retailer, Plywood Minnesota, which later became Home Valu Interiors. Boschwitz was elected as an Independent-Republican to the United States Senate in November 1978 and was subsequently appointed on December 30, 1978, to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Wendell Anderson, who was appointed to fill the seat after Walter Mondale was elected Vice President two years earlier. Boschwitz was well known in Minnesota for operating a "flavored milk" booth at the Minnesota State Fair. Boschwitz voted in favor of the bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday and the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 (as well as to override President Reagan's veto). Boschwitz voted in favor of the nomination of Robert Bork to the U.S. Supreme Court. Boschwitz is known for one of the more interesting campaign buttons in Minnesota politics; the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party alleged that Boschwitz's donors were "fat cats," so Boschwitz's campaign created a "skinny cat" campaign button to be worn by those who had donated less than $100 to his campaign. After his defeat in 1990 by Paul Wellstone, Boschwitz ran against Wellstone again in 1996 but lost. In 1991 he traveled to Ethiopia as the emissary of President George H. W. Bush. The negotiations Boschwitz led in Ethiopia resulted in Operation Solomon. Over 14,000 Jewish people were airlifted from Ethiopia to Israel. Operation Solomon took twice as many Beta Israel émigrés to Israel as Operation Moses and Operation Joshua combined. He was a top "Bush Pioneer" in 2000, fund-raising $388,193, and a "Bush Ranger" in 2004, raising at least $200,000 for George W. Bush's campaign fund in that election cycle. In 2005, Bush named Boschwitz as the United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which met at the U.N. in Geneva, Switzerland. He also supported John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. He appeared at a McCain Straight Talk Town Hall Meeting in Lakeville, MN on October 10, 2008. He presently serves on the Board of Directors of the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs, is an AIPAC Board Member, and is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. Electoral history 1978 Race for U.S. Senate Rudy Boschwitz (R), 57% Wendell Anderson (DFL) (inc.), 40% 1984 Race for U.S. Senate Rudy Boschwitz (R) (inc.), 58% Joan Anderson Growe (DFL), 41% 1990 Race for U.S. Senate Paul Wellstone (DFL), 50% Rudy Boschwitz (R) (inc.), 48% 1996 Race for U.S. Senate Paul Wellstone (DFL) (inc.), 50% Rudy Boschwitz (R), 41% Dean Barkley (Ref.), 7% See also List of Jewish members of the United States Congress List of United States senators born outside the United States References External links Rudy Boschwitz: An Inventory of His Papers at the Minnesota Historical Society 1930 births Living people Jewish American military personnel Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States Jewish United States senators Johns Hopkins University alumni Members of the Council on Foreign Relations Military personnel from New York City Minnesota Republicans New York University Stern School of Business alumni New York University School of Law alumni Politicians from New Rochelle, New York People with acquired American citizenship New York (state) lawyers Wisconsin lawyers United States Army personnel United States senators from Minnesota Republican Party United States senators Representatives of the United States to the United Nations Human Rights Council 20th-century American lawyers 20th-century American politicians Hudson Institute The Pennington School alumni Jewish American people in Minnesota politics Politicians from Berlin 21st-century American Jews	[ -0.27766045928001404, -0.14692910015583038, -0.6664208769798279, 0.13891790807247162, -0.1954275220632553, 0.5760260820388794, 0.6056556701660156, -0.1927223652601242, -0.6758366823196411, 0.1517612785100937, 0.5816736817359924, 0.201369047164917, -0.5353966951370239, 0.14022712409496307, -0.29803845286369324, 0.15843498706817627, 0.11082930117845535, 0.5365826487541199, -0.17318028211593628, 0.18011954426765442, 0.005326434504240751, -0.6691550016403198, 0.5296142101287842, 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237914	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Alexander%20Smith%20%28politician%29	William Alexander Smith (politician)	William Alexander Smith (January 9, 1828 – May 16, 1888) was a U.S. Representative from the state of North Carolina. Smith was born in Warren County, North Carolina and attended the common schools. He engaged in agricultural pursuits and was a member of the State constitutional convention in 1865 following the American Civil War. He was a member of the North Carolina State Senate in 1870. He was president of the North Carolina Railroad in 1868 and of the Yadkin River Railroad. He was elected as a Republican from the 4th District to the Forty-third Congress, serving from March 4, 1873 to March 3, 1875. Smith died in Richmond, Virginia and is interred in the city's Hollywood Cemetery. His home near Smithfield, North Carolina, the Atkinson-Smith House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. References 1828 births 1888 deaths Members of the United States House of Representatives from North Carolina North Carolina state senators Burials at Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia) North Carolina Republicans Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives 19th-century American politicians	[ 0.12277543544769287, 0.23413430154323578, -0.9489728212356567, 0.10993507504463196, -0.047462426126003265, 0.55530846118927, 1.3111963272094727, 0.213975727558136, -0.6637790203094482, -0.7744572162628174, 0.6847878098487854, 0.22381944954395294, -0.7459030151367188, 0.8418310880661011, -0.5595338344573975, 0.5081465840339661, -0.3873130977153778, 0.4308606684207916, -0.5143738985061646, -0.0536385178565979, -0.2204725742340088, -0.17716732621192932, 0.5095593333244324, -0.05632656067609787, -0.2997804880142212, 0.4522697329521179, -0.10021790117025375, -0.22161322832107544, -0.09153974801301956, 0.276968389749527, -0.12701013684272766, 0.4626574218273163, 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237925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold%20von%20Ranke	Leopold von Ranke	Leopold von Ranke (; 21 December 1795 – 23 May 1886) was a German historian and a founder of modern source-based history. According to Caroline Hoefferle, "Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape [the] historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century". He was able to implement the seminar teaching method in his classroom and focused on archival research and the analysis of historical documents. Building on the methods of the Göttingen School of History, he was the first to establish a historical seminar. Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources (empiricism), an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (Außenpolitik). Ranke also had a great influence on Western historiography. He was ennobled in 1865, with the addition of a "von" to his name. Early life Ranke was born in Wiehe, Thuringia, Saxony. Wiehe was then a part of the Electorate of Saxony. He came from a family of Lutheran pastors and lawyers. He was educated partly at home and partly in the high school at Schulpforta. His early years engendered a lifelong love of Ancient Greek, Latin and Lutheranism. In 1814, Ranke entered the University of Leipzig, where his subjects were Classics and Lutheran theology. At Leipzig, Ranke became an expert in philology and translation of the ancient authors into German. His teachers included Johann Gottfried Jakob Hermann. As a student, Ranke's favorite authors were Thucydides, Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Barthold Georg Niebuhr, Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Schelling and Friedrich Schlegel. Ranke showed little interest in the work of modern history because of his dissatisfaction with what he regarded as history books that were merely a collection of facts lumped together by modern historians. Between 1817 and 1825, Ranke worked as a schoolmaster teaching classics at the Friedrichs Gymnasium in Frankfurt an der Oder. During this time, he became interested in history in part because of his desire to be involved in the developing field of a more professionalized history and in part because of his desire to find the hand of God in the workings of history. Career In 1824, Ranke launched his career with the book Geschichten der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494 bis 1514 (Histories of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514) in which he used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age, including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses". In that sense, he leaned on the traditions of philology but emphasized mundane documents instead of old and exotic literature. After the minister of education was impressed with the work of a historian who did not have access to the nation's great public libraries, Ranke was given a position in the University of Berlin, where he was a professor for nearly fifty years, starting in 1825. At the university, he used the seminar system and taught how to check the value of sources. Ranke became deeply involved in the dispute between the followers of the legal professor Friedrich Carl von Savigny, who emphasized the varieties of different periods of history, and the followers of the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who saw history as the unfolding of a universal story. Ranke supported Savigny and criticized the Hegelian view of history as being a one-size-fits-all approach. Also during his time in Berlin, Ranke became the first historian to use the forty-seven volumes that comprised the diplomatic archives of Venice from the 16th and 17th centuries. Since many archives opened up during this time, he sent out his students to these places to recruit information. In his classrooms, he would discuss the sources that his students would find and would emphasize that history should be told "the way it happened". Therefore, he is often seen as "the pioneer of a critical historical science". Meanwhile, Ranke came to prefer dealing with primary sources as opposed to secondary sources. It was in Vienna where the friendship of Friedrich von Gentz and the protection of Klemens von Metternich opened to him the Venetian Archives, a fresh source, the value of which he first discovered; it is still not exhausted. He found time to write a short book entitled Die Serbische Revolution (1829) from material supplied to him by Vuk Karadžić, a Serb who had himself been witness to the scenes he related during the First Serbian Uprising in 1804. This was afterwards expanded into Serbien und die Turkei im 19 Jahrhundert (1879). At the behest of the Prussian government, Ranke founded and edited the Historische-Politische Zeitschrift journal from 1832 to 1836. Ranke, who was a conservative, used the journal to attack the ideas of liberalism. In his 1833 article "The Great Powers" and his 1836 article "Dialogue on Politics", Ranke claimed that every state is given a special moral character from God and individuals should strive to best fulfill the "idea" of their state. Thus, in this way, Ranke urged his readers to stay loyal to the Prussian state and to reject the ideas of the French Revolution, which Ranke claimed were meant for France only. From 1834 to 1836, Ranke published Die römischen Päpste, ihre Kirche und ihr Staat im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (The Popes of Rome, Their Church and State in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries) (3 vols.). As a Protestant, Ranke was barred from viewing the Vatican archives in Rome, but on the basis of private papers in Rome and Venice he was able to explain the history of the papacy in the 16th century. In this book, Ranke coined the term "Counter-reformation and offered colorful portrayals of Pope Paul IV, Ignatius of Loyola and Pope Pius V. He promoted research into primary sources: "I see the time approaching when we shall base modern history, no longer on the reports even of contemporary historians, except insofar as they were in the possession of personal and immediate knowledge of facts; and still less on work yet more remote from the source; but rather on the narratives of eyewitnesses, and on genuine and original documents". The papacy denounced Ranke's book as anti-Catholic while many Protestants denounced it as not anti-Catholic enough, but he has been generally praised by historians for placing the situation of the Roman Catholic Church in the context of the 16th century and for his fair treatment of the complex interaction of the political and religious issues in that century. The British Roman Catholic historian Lord Acton defended Ranke's book as the most fair-minded, balanced and objective study ever written on the papacy of the 16th century. In 1841, his fame in its ascendancy, Ranke was appointed Historiographer Royal to the Prussian court. In 1845, he became a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In Paris, Ranke met the Irish woman Clarissa Helena Graves (born 1808) from Dublin in July 1843. She had been educated in England and the Continent. They were engaged on 1 October and married in Bowness, England in a ceremony officiated by her brother Robert Perceval Graves, an Anglican priest. From 1847 to 1848, Ranke published Neun Bücher preussicher Geschichte (translated as Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg and History of Prussia, during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries) in which he examined the fortunes of the Hohenzollern family and state from the Middle Ages to the reign of Frederick the Great. Many Prussian nationalists were offended by Ranke's portrayal of Prussia as a typical medium-sized German state rather than as a great power. From 1852 to 1861, Ranke published French History Mainly in the 16th and 17th Centuries (5 vols.), covering Francis I to Louis XIV and gaining him more praise for his impartiality despite being German. In a series of lectures given before future King Maximilian II of Bavaria in 1854, Ranke argued that "every age is next to God", by which he meant that every period of history is unique and must be understood in its own context. He argued that God gazes over history in its totality and finds all periods equal. Ranke rejected the teleological approach to history, by which each period is considered inferior to the period which follows. Thus, the Middle Ages were not inferior to the Renaissance, simply different. In Ranke's view, the historian had to understand a period on its own terms and seek to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history. For Ranke, history was not to be an account of man's "progress" because "[a]fter Plato, there can be no more Plato". For Ranke, Christianity was morally most superior and could not be improved upon. Ultimately, "[h]istory is no criminal court". From 1854 to 1857, Ranke published History of the Reformation in Germany (Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation), using the ninety-six volumes of correspondence from ambassadors to the Imperial Diet he found in Frankfurt to explain the Reformation in Germany as the result of both politics and religion. From 1859 to 1867, Ranke published the six-volume History of England Principally in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Englische Geschichte vornehmlich im XVI and XVII Jahrhundert), followed by an expanded nine-volume edition from 1870 to 1884, which extended his huge reach even farther. At this point, he was eighty years old, and devoted the rest of his career to shorter treatises on German history that supplement his earlier writings. Later life The honors poured in when Ranke was ennobled in 1865, appointed a Prussian Privy Councillor in 1882 and given an honorary citizenship of Berlin in 1885. In 1884, he was appointed the first honorary member of the American Historical Association. In 1885, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. After his retirement in 1871, Ranke continued to write on a variety of subjects relating to German history such as the French Revolutionary Wars, Albrecht von Wallenstein, Karl August von Hardenberg, and King Frederick William IV of Prussia. In 1880, Ranke began a huge six-volume work on world history which began with ancient Egypt and the Israelites. By the time of his death in Berlin in 1886 at the age of 90, Ranke had reached only the 12th century, but his assistants later used his notes to take the series up to 1453. After his wife died in 1871, Ranke became half-blind, depending on assistants to read to him. A diary entry from January 1877 contains his mature thoughts about being a historian: The proverb tells us that poets are born. Not only in the arts, but even in some scholarly fields, young men develop into full bloom, or at least display their originality. Musicians and mathematicians have the expectation of attaining eminence in early years. But a historian must be old, not only because of the immeasurable extent of his field of study, but because of the insight into the historical process which a long life confers, especially under changing conditions. It would hardly be bearable for him to have only a short span of experience. For his personal development requires that great events complete their course before his eyes, that others collapse, that new forms be attempted. After Ranke's death, Syracuse University purchased his collection. The Ranke Library of 25,000 books and other materials was ten times as large as the university's own. Methodology and criticism At the core of his method, Ranke did not believe that general theories could cut across time and space. Instead, he made statements about the time using quotations from primary sources, saying: "My understanding of 'leading ideas' is simply that they are the dominant tendencies in each century. However, these tendencies can only be described; they can not, in the last resort, be summed up in a concept". Ranke objected to philosophy of history, particularly as practiced by Hegel, claiming that Hegel ignored the role of human agency in history which was too essential to be "characterized through only one idea or one word" or "circumscribed by a concept". This lack of emphasis on unifying theories or themes led Rudolf Haym to denigrate his ideas as "the mindlessness of the empiricist". In the 19th century, Ranke's work was very popular and his ideas about historical practice gradually became dominant in western historiography. However, he had critics among his contemporaries, including Karl Marx, a former Hegelian, who suggested that Ranke engaged in some of the practices he criticized in other historians. Ranke began his first book with the statement in the introduction that he would show the unity of the experiences of the "Teutonic" nations of Scandinavia, England and Germany and the "Latin" nations of Italy, Spain and France through the great "respirations" of the Völkerwanderung (great migration), the Crusades and colonization that in Ranke's view bound all of the nations together to produce modern European civilization. Despite his opening statement, Ranke largely treated all of the nations under examination separately until the outbreak of the wars for the control of Italy starting in 1494. However, the book is best remembered for Ranke's comment: "To history has been assigned the office of judging the past, of instructing the present for the benefit of future ages. To such high offices this work does not aspire: It wants only to show what actually happened (wie es eigentlich gewesen ist)". Ranke's statement that history should embrace the principle of wie es eigentlich gewesen ist (meaning "how things actually were") was subsequently taken by many historians as their guiding principle. There has been much debate over the precise meaning of this phrase. Some have argued that adhering to the principle of wie es eigentlich gewesen ist means that the historian should document facts, but not offer any interpretation of these facts. Following Georg Iggers, Peter Novick has argued that Ranke, who was more of a romantic and idealist than his American contemporaries understood, meant instead that the historian should discover the facts and find the essences behind them. Under this view, the word eigentlich should be translated as "essentially", the aim then being to "show what essentially happened". Ranke went on to write that the historian must seek the "Holy hieroglyph" that is God's hand in history, keeping an "eye for the universal" whilst taking "pleasure in the particular". While Ranke's methods remain influential in the practice of history, his broader ideas of historiography and empiricism are now regarded by some as outdated and no longer credible. They held sway among historians until the mid-20th century, when they were challenged by E. H. Carr and Fernand Braudel. Carr opposed Ranke's ideas of empiricism as naive, boring and outmoded, saying that historians did not merely report facts; they choose which facts they use. Braudel's approach was based on the histoire problème. Remarking on the legacy of Ranke's dictum that historians should represent the past wie es eigentlich gewesen ist ("as it actually happened"), Walter Benjamin scathingly wrote that it represented "the strongest narcotic of the [19th] century". Honours and awards Selected works Geschichten der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494 bis 1514 ("Histories of the Romanic and Germanic Peoples from 1494 to 1514", 1824) Serbische Revolution ("Serbian Revolution", 1829) Fürsten und Völker von Süd-Europa im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert ("Princes and Peoples of Southern Europe in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries") Die römischen Päpste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten ("The Roman Popes in the Last Four Centuries", 1834–1836) Neun Bücher preussischer Geschichte (Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg and History of Prussia, during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, 1847–1848) Französische Geschichte, vornehmlich im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Civil Wars and Monarchy in France, in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: A History of France Principally During That Period, 1852–1861) Die deutschen Mächte und der Fürstenbund ("The German Powers and the Princes' League", 1871–1872) Ursprung und Beginn der Revolutionskriege 1791 und 1792 (Origin and Beginning of the Revolutionary Wars 1791 and 1792, 1875) Hardenberg und die Geschichte des preussischen Staates von 1793 bis 1813 (Hardenberg and the History of the Prussian State from 1793 to 1813, 1877) Weltgeschichte – Die Römische Republik und ihre Weltherrschaft (World history: The Roman Republic and Its World Rule, 2 volumes, 1886) Works in English translation The Ottoman and the Spanish Empires, in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, Whittaker & Co., 1943. Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg and History of Prussia During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, John Murray, 1849. Civil Wars and Monarchy in France, in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, Richard Bentley, 1852. The History of Servia and the Servian Revolution, Henry G. Bohn, 1853. [https://archive.org/stream/historyofengland01rank#page/n7/mode/2up HisVolume Five, Volume Six, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1875. Universal History: The Oldest Historical Group of Nations and the Greeks, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884. History of the Popes: Their Church and State, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, P. F. Collier & Son, 1901. (Translated by Sarah Austin); first translation by Eliza Foster in 1847-48. History of the Reformation in Germany, George Routledge & Sons, 1905. History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations, 1494–1514, George Bell & Sons, 1909. The Secret of World History: Selected Writings on the Art and Science of History, Roger Wines, ed., Fordham University Press, 1981. Notes References and further reading Boldt, Andreas. "Ranke: objectivity and history." Rethinking History 18.4 (2014): 457–474. Boldt, Andreas D. The Life and Work of the German Historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886): An Assessment of His Achievements (Edwin Mellen Press, 2015). 372pp Boldt, Andreas D. Leopold Von Ranke: A Biography (2019) Bourne, Edward Gaylord (1896). "Leopold Von Ranke." The Sewanee Review, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 385–401. Bourne, Edward Gaylord (1901). "Ranke and the Beginning of the Seminary Method in Teaching History." In: Essays in Historical Criticism. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 265–274. Braw, J. D. "Vision as revision: Ranke and the Beginning of Modern History." History and Theory 46.4 (2007): 45–60. Croke, Brian. "How to study the historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886)." Teaching History 50.1 (2016): 31–37. Cunha, Marcelo Durão Rodrigues da. "The religious roots of modern German historical science: Wilhelm von Humboldt and Leopold von Ranke." Religião & Sociedade 38.2 (2018): 244–276. online Dalberg-Acton, John Emerich Edward (1907). "German Schools of History." In: Historical Essays and Studies. London: Macmillan & Co. Eskildsen, Kasper Risbjerg. "Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886): Criticizing an Early Modern Historian." History of Humanities 4.2 (2019): 257–262. online Eskildsen, Kasper Risbjerg. "Leopold Ranke's archival turn: location and evidence in modern historiography." Modern Intellectual History 5.3 (2008): 425–453. Farrenkopf, John (1991). "The Challenge of Spenglerian Pessimism to Ranke and Political Realism," Review of International Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 267–284. Fitzsimons, M. A. (1980). "Ranke: History as Worship," The Review of Politics, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 533–555. Gilbert, Felix (1986). "Leopold von Ranke and the American Philosophical Society," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 130, No. 3, pp. 362–366. Gilbert, Felix (1987). "Historiography: What Ranke Meant," The American Scholar, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 393–397. Grafton, Anthony. The Footnote: A Curious History (Harvard UP. 1997) pp 34–93. Guilland, Antoine (1915). "Leopold von Ranke." In: Modern Germany and her Historians. New York: McBride, Nast & Company, pp. 68–119. Iggers, Georg G. The German conception of history: The national tradition of historical thought from Herder to the present (Wesleyan University Press, 2014). Iggers, Georg (1962). "The Image of Ranke in American and German Historical Thought," History and Theory, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 17–40. Heying, Lü. "Equal emphasis on “research” and “representation”: A new analysis of Ranke’s debut work." Chinese Studies in History 53.2 (2020): 122–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2020.1720491 Kinzel, Katherina. "Method and meaning: Ranke and Droysen on the historian's disciplinary ethos." History and Theory 59.1 (2020): 22–41. online Krieger, Leonard (1975). "Elements of Early Historicism: Experience, Theory, and History in Ranke," History and Theory, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 1–14. Lincoln, John Larkin (1894). "The Historian Leopold von Ranke," In Memorian: John Larkin Lincoln. Boston & New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Company, pp. 568–584. Maurer, Kathrin. "The rhetoric of literary realism in Leopold von Ranke's historiography." Clio 35.3 (2006): 309–328. Müller, Christian Phillip. "Doing historical research in the early nineteenth century: Leopold Ranke, the archive policy, and the 'relazioni' of the Venetian Republic." Rivista internazionale di storia della storiografia 56 (2009): 81–103. Price, William (1897). "A Contribution toward a Bibliography of Leopold von Ranke," Annual Report of the American Historical Association, Vol. I, pp. 1265–1274. Rüsen, Jörn (1990). "Rhetoric and Aesthetics of History: Leopold von Ranke," History and Theory, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 190–204. Schevill, Ferdinand (1952). "Ranke: Rise, Decline, and Persistence of a Reputation," The Journal of Modern History, 24#3 pp. 219–234. online Su, Shih-Chieh. Modern Nationalism and the Making of a Professional Historian: The Life and Work of Leopold von Ranke (Academica Press, 2014). Further reading Williams, H. S. (1907). The historians' history of the world. Volume XV (ed., this volume covers Leopold von Ranke on page 633.) External links Works by Leopold von Ranke at Hathi Trust Syracuse University The Leopold von Ranke manuscript collection of Syracuse University : the complete catalogue Works by Leopold von Ranke at Europeana Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494 bis 1514 by Leopold von Ranke at the Internet Archive Biography of Ranke, 1901 by William Robinson Clark 1795 births 1886 deaths People from Wiehe People from the Electorate of Saxony 19th-century Lutherans German Lutherans Lutheran writers 19th-century German writers 19th-century German male writers German male non-fiction writers 19th-century German historians German monarchists German untitled nobility Leipzig University alumni Humboldt University of Berlin faculty Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences Members of the American Philosophical Society Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Commanders Grand Cross of the Order 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237931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acipenseriformes	Acipenseriformes	Acipenseriformes is an order of basal ray-finned fishes that includes living and fossil sturgeons and paddlefishes (Acipenseroidei), as well as the extinct families Chondrosteidae and Peipiaosteidae, and the more basal Eochondrosteus. Characteristics Notable characteristics of Acipenseriformes include: Cartilaginous endoskeleton Lack of vertebral centrum Spiral valve intestine Conus arteriosus Systematics The classification is based on the work of Mikko Haaramo, Neslon, Grande and Wilson 2016 and van der Laan 2016. Order Acipenseriformes Berg 1940 Genus †Hesperopsephurus Nesov 1997 Genus †Neochallaia Rusconi 1949 Genus †Psephuroides Nesov 1997 Family †Errolichthyidae Lehman 1952 Genus †Errolichthys Lehman 1952 Genus †Psilichthys Hall 1900 non Steindachner 1907 Suborder †Chondrosteoidei Family incertae sedis Genus †Eochondrosteus Lu, Li & Yang 2005 Family †Chondrosteidae Huxley 1861 Genus †Chondrosteus Agassiz 1843 ex Egerton 1858 Genus †Gyrosteus Morris 1854 Genus †Strongylosteus Egerton 1858 Suborder †Peipiaosteoidei Grande & Bemis 1996 Family †Peipiaosteidae Liu & Zhou 1965 Genus †Gualolepis Lopez-Arbarello, Rogers & Puerta 2006 Subfamily †Spherosteinae Grande & Bemis 1996 Genus †Spherosteus Jakovlev 1968 Genus †Yanosteus Jin et al. 1995 Subfamily †Peipiaosteinae Liu & Zhou 1965 Genus †Peipiaosteus Liu & Zhou 1965 Genus †Stichopterus Reis 1909 Suborder Acipenseroidei Grande & Bemis 1996 Family Polyodontidae Bonaparte 1838 (Paddlefish) Subfamily †Protopsephurinae Grande & Bemis 1996 Genus †Protopsephurus Lu 1994 Subfamily †Paleopsephurinae Grande & Bemis 1996 Genus †Paleopsephurus MacAlpin 1941a Subfamily †Polyodontinae Grande & Bemis 1991 non Pflugfelder 1934 Genus †Crossopholis Cope 1883 Genus Polyodon Lacépède 1797 (American paddlefish) Genus Psephurus Günther 1873 (Chinese paddlefish; likely extinct) Family Acipenseridae Bonaparte 1831 sensu Bemis et al. 1997 (Sturgeons) Genus †Protoscaphirhynchus Wilimovsky 1956 Genus †Anchiacipenser Sato, Murray, Vernygora and Currie, 2019 Subfamily †Priscosturioninae Grande & Hilton 2009 Genus †Priscosturion Grande & Hilton 2009 [Psammorhynchus Grande & Hilton 2006] Subfamily Acipenserinae Bonaparte 1831 Genus Acipenser Linnaeus 1758 Genus Huso J. F. Brandt & Ratzeburg 1833 Subfamily Scaphirhynchinae Gill 1890 Genus Scaphirhynchus Heckel 1835 Genus Pseudoscaphirhynchus Nikolskii 1900 Conservation Most living species of Acipenseriformes are classified as threatened (mostly endangered or critically endangered) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The Chinese paddlefish was last seen alive in 2003, and was considered to have gone extinct sometime between 2005 and 2010 by the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Institute in their 2019 report. Hybridization A study published in 2020 reported a successful hybridization between a Russian sturgeon (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii) and an American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), indicating that the two species can breed with one another despite their lineages having been separated for hundreds of millions of years. This has marked the first successful hybridization between members of Acipenseridae and Polyodontidae. References Martin Hochleithner and Joern Gessner, The Sturgeons and Paddlefishes of the World: Biology and Aquaculture Martin Hochleithner, Joern Gessner, and Sergej Podushka, The Bibliography of Acipenseriformes External links Photos and illustrations of Acipenseriformes CITES finalizes 2006 caviar export quotas Ray-finned fish orders Taxa named by Lev Berg Articles which contain graphical timelines Extant Late Jurassic first appearances	[ 0.1941807121038437, 0.022198250517249107, -0.23595410585403442, 0.48881930112838745, -0.09951573610305786, 0.7997660040855408, 0.6223506927490234, 0.24072222411632538, -0.023752719163894653, -0.32904788851737976, 0.4926794469356537, 0.22477057576179504, -0.10542192310094833, 0.2769510746002197, 0.17925910651683807, 0.6665306091308594, -0.03889089077711105, 0.5010728240013123, 0.03668918460607529, 0.02391376532614231, -0.5536794662475586, -0.5343134999275208, 0.4449578523635864, -0.5075536966323853, 0.26499342918395996, 0.28999802470207214, 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237937	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzbox%20%28disambiguation%29	Fuzzbox (disambiguation)	A fuzzbox is a device for deliberately introducing distortion in music. 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237941	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Wallen	De Wallen	De Wallen () or De Walletjes () was the largest and best known red-light district in Amsterdam prior to being temporarily shut down in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It consists of a network of alleys containing approximately three hundred one-room cabins rented by prostitutes who offer their sexual services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights and blacklight. Window prostitution is the most visible and typical kind of red-light district sex work in Amsterdam. De Wallen, together with the prostitution areas Singelgebied and Ruysdaelkade, form the Rosse Buurt (red-light areas) of Amsterdam. Of these De Wallen is the oldest and largest area. It is one of the city's major tourist attractions and the government of Amsterdam is examining ways to limit tourist numbers. The area also has a number of sex shops, sex theatres, peep shows, a sex museum, a cannabis museum, and a number of coffee shops that sell cannabis. History The Rokin and Damrak run along the original course of the river Amstel. These two roads meet in Dam Square which marks the spot where a bridge was built across the river in 1270. It had doors which were used to dam the river at certain times to avoid flooding. The Damrak then became a harbor and it was around this area that the red-light district first appeared. The walled canals led to the names De Wallen and Walletjes (little walls). Historically because of proximity to the harbor the area has attracted both prostitution and migrant populations and these are the features it is best known for today. From late Medieval times, the trade started to be restricted. Married men and priests were forbidden to enter the area. In 1578 during the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule a Protestant city board was formed with fornication deemed punishable. Sex workers were banned and forced underground. They would work for a madam who provided room and board, protection and advice. Often the madam and girls would venture out at night visiting pubs and inns to pick up clients. Parlours remained illegal but tolerated if kept hidden. Trade remained small-scale though spread across the city. Well-known areas were De Haarlemmerdijk, De Houttuinen, Zeedijk and around the harbor. In the 18th century, wealthy men would meet prostitutes at gambling houses on De Gelderskade and Zeedijk. The women would then take the men back to the parlors where they came from. However, these were often unappealing to a gentleman of means. A solution to this problem was for the gambling houses to provide board for the women. This suited everyone including the authorities. The gambling houses invested in luxury furnishings and gradually they became brothels employing up to 30 women. Famous brothels included De Pijl in Pijlstraat, De Fonteyn in Nieuwmarkt and Madame Therese on the Prinsengracht. For those who could not afford entry to these houses, there were still women to be found around Oudekerksplein and unofficial policies of tolerance remained, although prostitution was technically illegal. In 1811 the ban on prostitution was lifted. In this Napoleonic period, French soldiers were the main customers of prostitutes in De Wallen. Regulation was introduced and there were compulsory health checks to protect soldiers from venereal diseases. They were given a red card which was a permit to work. If found to be infected the card was taken until they could prove they were disease free. Because there was no reliable treatment for syphilis at this time this led to dangerous treatments such as mercury baths to ease symptoms. In the early 20th century religious organizations ran campaigns to try to end prostitution. In 1911 a law was passed banning brothels and pimping, but prostitution was not outlawed. Once again it was driven underground and tolerated as long it did not cause a disturbance. With the closure of many parlors in De Wallen some women moved to De Pijp. In 1935 it was estimated that there were around 150 disguised parlors. Fronts included massage, pedicure, manicure, and beauty treatments. Sex workers continued to work around the Oudekerksplein. Instead of being visible as they are today they would stand behind closed curtains and peer through a small crack looking for customers. If they stood in the doorway they would be arrested. Location The total area is approximately , limited by the Niezel in the north, the sea dike/Nieuwmarkt in the east, the Sint Jansstraat in the south and the Warmoesstraat in the west. Prostitution takes place within this area in the following streets: Barndesteeg, Bethlehemsteeg, Bloedstraat, Boomsteeg (now closed), Dollebegijnensteeg, Enge Kerksteeg, Goldbergersteeg, Gordijnensteeg, Molensteeg, Monnikenstraat, Oudekerksplein, Oudekennissteeg, Oudezijds Achterburgwal, Oudezijds Voorburgwal, Sint Annendwarsstraat, Sint Annenstraat, Stoofsteeg, and Trompettersteeg. Between Sint Jansstraat and Sint Annenstraat and running parallel to them are Leidekkerssteeg, Gooijersteeg, Blaauwlakensteeg, and Zwartlakensteeg. At least three of these had red light windows which were closed in the 1970s. Today these alleys are blocked by locked gates although the remains of some bricked over windows can be seen in the architecture. In the 1990s Slapersteeg was also closed and a gate now blocks the alley. In the 1990s parts of Sint Annenstraat and Sint Annendwarsstraat were demolished. The rooms in Goldbergersteeg were opened after this time. Sex work Prostitution is legal in the Netherlands, with the exception of street prostitution, but work permits are not issued in the form of a green card for prostitution; therefore legally working in the trade is limited mostly to EU citizens or foreign permanent residents. A non-EU citizen can work legally in the Netherlands without a work permit in certain circumstances, for instance, if they are the spouse of a local citizen. From January 2013 the legal working age of a prostitute in the Netherlands was raised from 18 to 21. There is no compulsory requirement for sex workers to undergo STD or HIV testing in the Netherlands. Some brothels and clubs have their sex workers screened at a regular basis, but no formal guidelines exist. Brothel owners and room operators often require health certificates such as the SERVSAFE test before employing or leasing rooms. To counter negative publicity, Mariska Majoor, founder of the Prostitution Information Center, organized two "open days" in February 2006 and March 2007, allowing visitors access to some window brothels and peep shows and informing them about the working conditions there. Majoor was also instrumental in having the world's first monument to sex workers installed in the red light district. The bronze statue was unveiled on the Oudekerksplein in front of the Oude Kerk at the open day in March 2007 and shows a woman standing in a doorway. Red lights and blue lights In De Wallen cisgendered women sex workers illuminate their windows with red lights, while trans women sex workers use blue lights. This is to help customers differentiate between the two. Bloedstraat, a street in De Wallen, has numerous transgender women working in it using blue lights. Cannabis coffeeshops Cannabis coffeeshops in the RLD and elsewhere in the Netherlands are licensed to sell cannabis and serve soft drinks. Some may serve small packaged food, or even whole meals infused with cannabis. The sale of tobacco on its own is not permitted, but many offer pre-rolled joints filled with a mix of cannabis and tobacco. Alcoholic beverages are generally not permitted inside of coffeeshops. Before the onset of coffeeshop licensing, some began openly selling cannabis. The first coffee shops opened in the 1970s. These faced trouble from police and the local councils with frequent closures. In 1976, the government of the Netherlands began to take steps to decriminalize the use and possession of cannabis by changing the law so that possession of up to 30 grams of cannabis was no longer a criminal offense. The gedoogbeleid or tolerance policy gave rise to coffeeshop licensing which meant that as long as coffeeshops did not sell hard drugs, they were allowed to operate. Coffeeshops were not allowed to operate in certain cities near the borders of Germany and Belgium because it was felt soft drug use might raise crime there. The government of Netherlands has continually been under pressure from different western countries to rein in coffeeshops, leading to several coffeeshops being shut down for flouting rules, with no licenses issued to new operators. This approach has continued since 1995. In the 1990s, the coffeeshop owners organized themselves into a union, the Bond van cannabis Detaillisten or BCD, set up to represent the interests of the coffeeshops which were under constant pressure from local councils. A recent policy meant that 26 coffeeshops in the De Wallen area had to close their doors between 1 September 2012 and 31 August 2015. Abuses, human rights and tourism nuisance Netherlands has been listed by a report of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime as a top destination for victims of human trafficking: According to Job Cohen, the former mayor of Amsterdam, "We've realized this is no longer about small-scale entrepreneurs, but those big crime organizations are involved here in trafficking women, drugs, killings, and other criminal activities". Groups of sex workers have also worked to raise awareness of their rights. The Prostitute Information Centre, founded in the 1990s, is a prostitute-led organisation offering tours of the area and information concerning safety and the rights of the people involved. While sex workers in brothels currently have to register, it has been suggested making escorts and kamer workers register, which has been opposed by some sex worker groups out of concern it would favor pimps over the workers themselves. Jan Fisher of Red Thread commented: “The ones who want to work know how devastating the stigma could be, and will be. They will try to work outside this system and they’ll be vulnerable when they’re detected by the police and tax office, and the ones who are trafficked may be forced by their pimps to register so they have a kind of legal status.” In 2007 a statue called "Belle" was unveiled on the Oudekerksplein with the inscription "Respect sex workers all over the world". About 75% of Amsterdam's prostitutes are from Eastern Europe, Africa, and Asia, according to a former prostitute who produced a report about the sex trade. European citizens of the 27 member EU states have the legal right under internal market to employment in the Netherlands in any work. Citizens of other countries must already have a valid residence permit (not visitor visa) to work legally in the sex trade as work permits are not issued for the jobs. TAMPEP research into the origin of migrant sex workers records 60% of workers in the Netherlands are foreign-born, with the highest proportion of these (43%) from elsewhere in Europe. This represents a decrease from 70% migrants in sex work as recorded in 2006. The report cites high internal mobility within the EU as the reason for this decrease. In 2004, Amsterdam authorities commissioned research into pimping and human trafficking in Amsterdam. The Willem Plompe institution took up that job. The researchers, under the leadership of professor Frank Bovenkerk, found that women under the control of a pimp can be easily put to work in the legal brothels with the brothel owners being aware that the women are controlled by pimps. The general setup of window prostitution was said to be helpful to pimps, as it facilitates the direct control of the women by their pimp. A Christian organization of aid workers named the 'Scharlaken Koord’ (in English, Scarlet Cord) has set up a special 'pal'-program for prostitutes in which the pals help the women build a new social network. In September 2007, the city council of Amsterdam at the behest of mayor Job Cohen, concerned about trafficking and pimping in the area, forced the owner Charlie Geerts to close 51 prostitution windows, reducing the total number of windows in De Wallen by a third. Amsterdam authorities bought 18 properties from Geerts, with the aim of developing the area with fashion designers and other upscale businesses. Mariska Majoor of the Prostitution Information Center and representatives of the sex worker rights group De Rode Draad have decried the decision, claiming it would not reduce crime but would only lead to higher rent and more competition for the remaining windows. In January 2008, the city council announced plans to close the Rosso live sex theatre and the Banana bar strip club in the area. Local business owners have formed the group "Platform 1012" (named after the zipcode of the area) to oppose the efforts of the Amsterdam government. In the end, the actions of the city government resulted in the closure of the Yab Yum brothel. At the end of 2008, mayor Job Cohen announced plans to close half of the city's 400 prostitution windows because of suspected criminal gang activity; part of the city's 70 cannabis cafes and sex clubs will also be closed. Mayor Job Cohen: "It is not that we want to get rid of our red-light district. We want to reduce it. Things have become unbalanced and if we do not act we will never regain control". In 2009, the Dutch justice ministry announced plans to close 320 prostitution "windows" from Amsterdam. Karina Shaapman, a former Amsterdam prostitute who is now a city councilor said: "There are people who are really proud of the red light district as a tourist attraction. It's supposed to be such a wonderful, cheery place that shows just what a free city we are. But I think it's a cesspit. There's a lot of serious criminality. There's a lot of exploitation of women, and a lot of social distress. That's nothing to be proud of." But in 2013 Metje Blaak, who worked in the sex trade for 25 years before turning to film making, says closing legal brothels will push women out onto the streets: “In the window is safe, open. You can see your clients. You can see everything,” she says. 2019 In July 2019, more than ten years after Asscher's efforts to bring change to the Red Light District, new mayor Femke Halsema announced a different approach. She proposed several different options for residents, sex workers, business owners and everyone else involved. A report called "The Future of Window Prostitution in Amsterdam" outlined four changes to the district that would become under serious consideration. "We must dare to think big – also about ending prostitution in the Red Light District", said Mayor Femke Halsema. "Unacceptable situations have arisen, and the council is ready to consider far-reaching solutions." See also Hash, Marihuana & Hemp Museum Prostitution in the Netherlands References External links Prostitution Information Centre Neighbourhoods of Amsterdam Red-light districts in the Netherlands	[ 0.21449051797389984, -0.21716441214084625, 0.35419943928718567, -0.5678168535232544, 0.10879440605640411, 0.13837042450904846, 0.3147929012775421, 0.17126286029815674, -0.22867704927921295, -0.2950170636177063, -0.19445133209228516, -0.02025914005935192, -0.39577487111091614, -0.22078552842140198, -0.40750178694725037, -0.10374709218740463, 1.0988006591796875, 0.33649998903274536, 0.14851951599121094, -0.2909623086452484, 0.02386026829481125, -0.1324681043624878, -0.036679912358522415, -0.003207667265087366, 0.2205018699169159, -0.7031620740890503, -0.2985365688800812, -0.16173486411571503, 0.27153098583221436, 0.31683018803596497, 0.3818913698196411, 0.4922647178173065, -0.3736283779144287, -0.07224982231855392, 0.47486668825149536, 0.07865270972251892, -0.2638375461101532, 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237945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddlefish	Paddlefish	Paddlefish (family Polyodontidae) are basal Chondrostean ray-finned fish. They have been referred to as "primitive fish" because they have evolved with few morphological changes since the earliest fossil records of the Early Cretaceous, 120 to 125 million years ago. Polyodontids are almost exclusively North American and Chinese, both extant and in the fossil record. There are six known species: four extinct species known only from fossil remains (three from western North America, one from China), one extant species, the American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) which is native to the Mississippi River basin in the U.S., and the Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius), reported as likely extinct in 2019. The species was last sighted in 2003 in the Yangtze River Basin in China. Chinese paddlefish are also commonly referred to as "Chinese swordfish", or "elephant fish". The earliest known species is Protopsephurus from the Early Cretaceous (Barremian) of China. Paddlefish populations have declined dramatically throughout their historic range as a result of overfishing, pollution, and the encroachment of human development, including the construction of dams that have blocked their seasonal upward migration to ancestral spawning grounds. Other detrimental effects include alterations of rivers which have changed natural flows resulting in the loss of spawning habitat and nursery areas. Morphology Paddlefish as a group are one of the few organisms that retain a notochord past the embryonic stage. Paddlefish have very few bones and their bodies mostly consist of cartilage with the notochord functioning as a soft spine. During the initial stages of development from embryo to fry, paddlefish have no rostrum (snout). It begins to form shortly after hatching. The rostrum of the Chinese paddlefish was narrow and sword-like whereas the rostrum of the American paddlefish is broad and paddle-like. Some common morphological characteristics of paddlefish include a spindle-shaped, smooth-skinned scaleless body, heterocercal tail, and small poorly developed eyes. Unlike the filter-feeding American paddlefish, Chinese paddlefish were piscivores, and highly predatory. Their jaws were more forward pointing which suggested they foraged primarily on small fishes in the water column, and occasionally on shrimp, benthic fishes, and crabs. The jaws of the American paddlefish are distinctly adapted for filter feeding only. They are ram suspension filter feeders with a diet that consists primarily of zooplankton, and occasionally small insects, insect larvae, and small fish. The largest Chinese paddlefish on record measured in length, and was estimated to weigh a few thousand pounds. They commonly reached and . Although the American paddlefish is one of the largest freshwater fishes in North America, their recorded lengths and weights fall short in comparison to the larger Chinese paddlefish. American paddlefish commonly reach or more in length and can weigh more than . The largest American paddlefish on record was caught in 1916 in Okoboji Lake, Iowa. The fish was taken with a spear, and measured long and in the girth. A report published by J.R. Harlan and E.B. Speaker in Iowa Fish and Fishing (1969) said the fish weighed over . The world record paddlefish caught on rod and reel weighed and was long. The fish was caught by Clinton Boldridge in a 5-acre pond in Atchison County, Kansas on May 5, 2004. However, the record would be broken an additional two times in 2020. On June 28, 2020, an Oklahoma man caught a 146-pounder in Keystone Lake, west of Tulsa. Later on July 23, 2020, the record was broken again when another Oklahoma man caught a 151-pound, nearly 6-foot long Paddlefish in the same lake. Scientists once believed paddlefish used their rostrums to excavate bottom substrate, but have since determined with the aid of electron microscopy that paddlefish have electroreceptors on their rostrum's ampulla (hair cells) which are similar in structure to other Lorenzini. The electroreceptors can detect weak electrical fields which not only signal the presence of prey items in the water column, such as zooplankton which is the primary diet of the American paddlefish, but they can also detect the individual feeding and swimming movements of zooplankton's appendages. Paddlefish have poorly developed eyes, and rely on their electroreceptors for foraging. However, the rostrum is not the paddlefish's sole means of food detection. Some reports incorrectly suggest that a damaged rostrum would render paddlefish less capable of foraging efficiently to maintain good health. Laboratory experiments, and field research indicate otherwise. In addition to electroreceptors on the rostrum, paddlefish also have sensory pores covering nearly half of the skin surface extending from the rostrum to the top of the head down to the tips of the operculum (gill flaps). Therefore, paddlefish with damaged or abbreviated rostrums are still able to forage and maintain good health. Habitat and historic range Over the past half century, paddlefish populations have been on the decline. Attributable causes are overfishing, pollution, and the encroachment of human development, including the construction of dams which block their seasonal upward migration to ancestral spawning grounds. Other detrimental effects include alterations of rivers which have changed the natural flow, and resulted in the loss of spawning habitat and nursery areas. American paddlefish have been extirpated from much of their Northern peripheral range, including the Great Lakes and Canada, New York, Maryland and Pennsylvania. There is growing concern about their populations in other states. The Chinese paddlefish is considered anadromous with upstream migration, however little is known about their migration habits and population structure. They are endemic to the Yangtze River Basin in China where they lived primarily in the broad surfaced main stem rivers and shoal zones along the East China Sea. Research suggests they preferred to navigate the middle and lower layers of the water column, and occasionally swam into large lakes. There have been no sightings of Chinese paddlefish since 2003, and was reported as extinct in 2019. Past attempts of artificial propagation for restoration purposes have failed because of difficulties encountered in keeping captive fish alive. American paddlefish are native to the Mississippi River basin from New York to Montana and south to the Gulf of Mexico. They have been found in several Gulf Slope drainages in medium to large rivers with long, deep sluggish pools, as well as in backwater lakes and bayous. In Texas, paddlefish occurred historically in the Angelina River, Big Cypress Bayou, Neches River, Red River tributaries, Sabine River, San Jacinto River, Sulphur River, and Trinity River. Their historical range also included occurrences in Canada in Lake Huron and Lake Helen, and in 26–27 states in the United States. The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources listed the paddlefish as extirpated from Ontario, Canada under their Endangered Species Act. The IUCN Red List lists the Canadian populations of paddlefish as extirpated, noting there have been no Canadian records since the early 1900s and distribution in Canada was highly peripheral. As a species, the American paddlefish is classified as vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List, and its international trade has been restricted since June 1992 under Appendix II of the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, or CITES. Life cycle Paddlefish are long-lived, and sexually late maturing. Females do not begin spawning until they are seven to ten years old, some even as late as sixteen to eighteen years old. Males begin spawning around age seven, some as late as nine or ten years of age. Paddlefish spawn in late spring provided the proper combination of events occur, including water flow, temperature, photoperiod, and availability of gravel substrates suitable for spawning. If all the conditions are not met, paddlefish will not spawn. Research suggests females do not spawn every year, rather they spawn every second or third year while males spawn more frequently, typically every year or every other year. Paddlefish migrate upstream to spawn, and prefer silt-free gravel bars that would otherwise be exposed to air, or covered by very shallow water were it not for the rises in the river from snow melt and annual spring rains that cause flooding. They are broadcast spawners, also referred to as mass spawners or synchronous spawners. Gravid females release their eggs into the water over bare rocks or gravel at the same time males release their sperm. Fertilization occurs externally. The eggs are adhesive and stick to the rocky substrate. The young are swept downstream after hatching and grow to adulthood in deep freshwater pools. Propagation and culture The advancements in biotechnology in paddlefish propagation and rearing of captive stock indicate significant improvements in reproduction success, adaptation and survival rates of paddlefish cultured for broodstock development and stock rehabilitation. Such improvements have led to successful practices in reservoir ranching and pond rearing, creating an increasing interest in the global market for paddlefish polyculture. In a cooperative scientific effort in the early 1970s between the US Fish & Wildlife Service and its former USSR counterpart, American paddlefish were imported into the former USSR for aquaculture, beginning with five-thousand hatched larvae from Missouri hatcheries in the United States. They were introduced into several rivers in Europe and Asia, and provided the first broodstock that were successfully reproduced in 1984–1986 in Russia. Paddlefish are now being raised in Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, and the Plovdiv and Vidin regions in Bulgaria. Reproduction was successful in 1988 and 1989, and resulted in the exportation of juvenile paddlefish to Romania and Hungary. In May 2006, specimens of different sizes and weights were caught by professional fisherman near Prahovo in the Serbian part of the Danube River. In 1988, fertilized paddlefish eggs and larvae from Missouri hatcheries were first introduced into China. Since that time, China imports approximately 4.5 million fertilized eggs and larvae every year from hatcheries in Russia, and the United States. Some of the paddlefish are polycultured in carp ponds, and sold to restaurants while others are cultured for brood stock and caviar production. China has also exported paddlefish to Cuba, where they are farmed for caviar production. Classification There are two currently or recently extant genera in this family and three extinct genera known exclusively from fossils: Polyodontidae Subfamily †Paleopsephurinae Genus †Paleopsephurus MacAlpin, 1947 Species †Paleopsephurus wilsoni MacAlpin, 1947 Subfamily Polyodontinae Genus †Crossopholis Cope, 1883 Species †Crossopholis magnicaudatus Cope, 1883 Genus Polyodon Lacépède, 1797 Polyodon spathula Walbaum, 1792 American paddlefish † Grande & Bemis, 1991 Genus Psephurus Günther, 1873Psephurus gladius E. von Martens, 1862 Chinese paddlefish (likely extinct as of 2019, last seen in 2003) Subfamily †Protopsephurinae Grande & Bemis, 1996 Genus †Protopsephurus Lu, 1994 Species †Protopsephurus liui Lu, 1994 References External links One hour PBS documentary The Chinese Paddlefish Website – containing many photographs of Psepherus''. images and movies of the paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) ARKive FishBase entry for Polyodontidae USGS UMESC Paddlefish Study Fisheries.org Paddlefish Fisheries Management Stochastic synchronization of electroreceptors in the paddlefish Polyodontidae Acipenseriformes Freshwater fish of North America Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte Extant Barremian first appearances	[ 0.09089929610490799, 0.016587432473897934, -0.23620976507663727, 0.4000004529953003, -0.04648558795452118, 0.6545845866203308, 0.3404431939125061, 0.09689126908779144, -0.7131170630455017, -0.49655383825302124, 0.445721834897995, 0.2866756319999695, -0.1641242802143097, 0.33782780170440674, 0.2666770815849304, 1.1004889011383057, 0.27926018834114075, 0.040728602558374405, -0.05720314010977745, 0.042868901044130325, -0.5407897233963013, -0.3956785500049591, 0.5906100273132324, 0.10118170827627182, 0.7195296287536621, 0.20551173388957977, 0.0402604304254055, 0.11669998615980148, 0.22999951243400574, -0.06318990886211395, 0.28810185194015503, 0.861320436000824, 0.17059208452701569, 0.3198569416999817, 0.05196123570203781, -0.7057806253433228, -0.41364696621894836, 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237949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial%20refueling	Aerial refueling	Aerial refueling, also referred to as air refueling, in-flight refueling (IFR), air-to-air refueling (AAR), and tanking, is the process of transferring aviation fuel from one military aircraft (the tanker) to another (the receiver) during flight. The two main refueling systems are probe-and-drogue, which is simpler to adapt to existing aircraft, and the flying boom, which offers faster fuel transfer, but requires a dedicated boom operator station. The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue and engineering factors such as engine oil consumption. As the receiver aircraft can be topped up with extra fuel in the air, air refueling can allow a takeoff with a greater payload which could be weapons, cargo, or personnel: the maximum takeoff weight is maintained by carrying less fuel and topping up once airborne. Aerial refueling has also been considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than . Potential fuel savings in the range of 35–40% have been estimated for long-haul flights (including the fuel used during the tanker missions). Usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the "probe-and-drogue" system is to be used. The cost of the refueling equipment on both tanker and receiver aircraft and the specialized aircraft handling of the aircraft to be refueled (very close "line astern" formation flying) has resulted in the activity only being used in military operations. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity. Originally employed shortly before World War II on a very limited scale to extend the range of British civilian transatlantic flying boats, and then after World War II on a large scale to extend the range of strategic bombers, aerial refueling since the Vietnam War has been extensively used in large-scale military operations. Development history Early experiments Some of the earliest experiments in aerial refueling took place in the 1920s; two slow-flying aircraft flew in formation, with a hose run down from a hand-held fuel tank on one aircraft and placed into the usual fuel filler of the other. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, between two planes occurred on June 27, 1923, between two Airco DH-4B biplanes of the United States Army Air Service. An endurance record was set by three DH-4Bs (a receiver and two tankers) on August 27–28, 1923, in which the receiver airplane remained aloft for more than 37 hours using nine mid-air refuelings to transfer of aviation gasoline and of engine oil. The same crews demonstrated the utility of the technique on October 25, 1923, when a DH-4 flew from Sumas, Washington, on the Canada–United States border, to Tijuana, Mexico, landing in San Diego, using mid-air refuelings at Eugene, Oregon, and Sacramento, California. Similar trial demonstrations of mid-air refueling technique took place at the Royal Aircraft Establishment in England and by the Armée de l'Air in France in the same year, but these early experiments were not yet regarded as a practical proposition, and were generally dismissed as stunts. As the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and he began experimenting with the possibilities of in-flight refueling to extend the range of flight. Cobham was one of the founding directors of Airspeed Limited, an aircraft manufacturing company that went on to produce a specially adapted Airspeed Courier that Cobham used for his early experiments with in-flight refueling. This craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobham's specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the plane's flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U.S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with a Fokker C-2A named the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Between June 11 and July 4, 1930, the brothers John, Kenneth, Albert, and Walter Hunter set a new record of 553 hours 40 minutes over Chicago using two Stinson SM-1 Detroiters as refueler and receiver. Aerial refueling remained a very dangerous process until 1935, when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle, designed by A. D. Hunter. They exceeded the Hunters' record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane , staying aloft for more than 27 days. The US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the second assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges and the need for such a regular service. In his article he even mentioned the use of aerial refueling after takeoff as a possible solution. At Le Bourget Airport near Paris, the Aéro-Club de France and the 34th Aviation Regiment of the French Air Force were able to demonstrate passing fuel between machines at the annual aviation fete at Vincennes in 1928. The UK's Royal Aircraft Establishment was also running mid-air refueling trials, with the aim to use this technique to extend the range of the long-distance flying boats that serviced the British Empire. By 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. While posted to the Middle East he developed and patented his 'crossover' system in 1934, in which the tanker trailed a large hooked line that would reel in a similar dropped line from the receiver, allowing the refueling to commence. In 1935, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service and turned to the development of inflight refueling, founding the company Flight Refuelling Ltd. Atcherly's system was bought up by Cobham's company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late '30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Grappled-line looped-hose Sir Alan Cobham's grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the receiver aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker, a Handley Page Type W10. The line was then drawn back into the tanker where the receiver's cable was connected to the refueling hose. The receiver could then haul back in its cable bringing the hose to it. Once the hose was connected, the tanker climbed sufficiently above the receiver aircraft to allow the fuel to flow under gravity. When Cobham was developing his system, he saw the need as purely for long-range transoceanic commercial aircraft flights, but today aerial refueling is used exclusively by military aircraft. In 1934, Cobham had founded Flight Refuelling Ltd and by 1938 had used FRL's looped-hose system to refuel aircraft as large as the Short Empire flying boat Cambria from an Armstrong Whitworth AW.23. Handley Page Harrows were used in the 1939 trials to perform aerial refueling of the Empire flying boats for regular transatlantic crossings. From August 5 to October 1, 1939, sixteen crossings of the Atlantic were made by Empire flying boats, with fifteen crossings using FRL's aerial refueling system. After the sixteen crossings further trials were suspended due to the outbreak of World War II. During the closing months of World War II, it had been intended that Tiger Force's Lancaster and Lincoln bombers would be in-flight refueled by converted Halifax tanker aircraft, fitted with the FRL's looped-hose units, in operations against the Japanese homelands, but the war ended before the aircraft could be deployed. After the war ended, the USAF bought a small number of FRL looped-hose units and fitted a number of B-29s as tankers to refuel specially equipped B-29s and later B-50s. The USAF made only one major change in the system used by the RAF. The USAF version had auto-coupling of the refueling nozzle, where the leader line with the refueling hose is pulled to the receiver aircraft and a refueling receptacle on the belly of the aircraft, allowing high-altitude air-to-air refueling and doing away with the aircraft having to fly to a lower altitude to be depressurized so a crew member could manually do the coupling. This air-to-air refueling system was used by the B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II of the 43rd Bomb Wing to make its famous first non-stop around-the-world flight in 1949. From February 26 to March 3, 1949, Lucky Lady II flew non-stop around the world in 94 hours and 1 minute, a feat made possible by four aerial refuelings from four pairs of KB-29M tankers of the 43d ARS. Before the mission, crews of the 43rd had experienced only a single operational air refueling contact. The flight started and ended at Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth, Texas with the refuelings accomplished over the Azores, West Africa, the Pacific Ocean near Guam, and between Hawaii and the West Coast. Probe-and-drogue system Cobham's company FRL soon realized that their looped-hose system left much to be desired and began work on an improved system that is now commonly called the probe-and-drogue air-to-air refueling system and today is one of the two systems chosen by air forces for air-to-air refueling, the other being the flying-boom system. In post-war trials the RAF used a modified Lancaster tanker employing the much improved probe-and-drogue system, with a modified Gloster Meteor F.3 jet fighter, serial EE397, fitted with a nose-mounted probe. On 7 August 1949, the Meteor flown by FRL test pilot Pat Hornidge took off from Tarrant Rushton and remained airborne for 12 hours and 3 minutes, receiving of fuel in ten refuelings from a Lancaster tanker. Hornidge flew an overall distance of , achieving a new jet endurance record. FRL still exists as part of Cobham plc. Modern specialized tanker aircraft have equipment specially designed for the task of offloading fuel to the receiver aircraft, based on drogue and probe, even at the higher speeds modern jet aircraft typically need to remain airborne. In January 1948, General Carl Spaatz, then the first Chief of Staff of the new United States Air Force, made aerial refueling a top priority of the service. In March 1948, the USAF purchased two sets of FRL's looped-hose in-flight refueling equipment, which had been in practical use with British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) since 1946, and manufacturing rights to the system. FRL also provided a year of technical assistance. The sets were immediately installed in two Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, with plans to equip 80 B-29s. Flight testing began in May 1948 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, and was so successful that in June orders went out to equip all new B-50s and subsequent bombers with receiving equipment. Two dedicated air refueling units were formed on June 30, 1948: the 43d Air Refueling Squadron at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, and the 509th Air Refueling Squadron at Walker Air Force Base, New Mexico. The first ARS aircraft used FRL's looped-hose refueling system, but testing with a boom system followed quickly in the autumn of 1948. The first use of aerial refueling in combat took place during the Korean War, involving F-84 fighter-bombers flying missions from Japanese airfields, due to Chinese-North Korean forces overrunning many of the bases for jet aircraft in South Korea, refueling from converted B-29s using the drogue-and-probe in-flight refueling system with the probe located in one of the F-84's wing-tip fuel tanks. Systems Flying boom The flying boom is a rigid, telescoping tube with movable flight control surfaces that a boom operator on the tanker aircraft extends and inserts into a receptacle on the receiving aircraft. All boom-equipped tankers (e.g. KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, KC-46 Pegasus) have a single boom and can refuel one aircraft at a time with this mechanism. History In the late 1940s, General Curtis LeMay, commander of the Strategic Air Command (SAC), asked Boeing to develop a refueling system that could transfer fuel at a higher rate than had been possible with earlier systems using flexible hoses, resulting in the flying boom system. The B-29 was the first to employ the boom, and between 1950 and 1951, 116 original B-29s, designated KB-29Ps, were converted at the Boeing plant at Renton, Washington. Boeing went on to develop the world's first production aerial tanker, the KC-97 Stratofreighter, a piston-engined Boeing Stratocruiser (USAF designation C-97 Stratofreighter) with a Boeing-developed flying boom and extra kerosene (jet fuel) tanks feeding the boom. The Stratocruiser airliner itself was developed from the B-29 bomber after World War II. In the KC-97, the mixed gasoline/kerosene fuel system was clearly not desirable and it was obvious that a jet-powered tanker aircraft would be the next development, having a single type of fuel for both its own engines and for passing to receiver aircraft. The 230 mph (370 km/h) cruise speed of the slower, piston-engined KC-97 was also a serious issue, as using it as an aerial tanker forced the newer jet-powered military aircraft to slow down to mate with the tanker's boom, a highly serious issue with the newer supersonic aircraft coming into service at that time, which could force such receiving aircraft in some situations to slow down enough to approach their stall speed during the approach to the tanker. It was no surprise that, after the KC-97, Boeing began receiving contracts from the USAF to build jet tankers based on the Boeing 367-80 (Dash-80) airframe. The result was the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, of which 732 were built. The flying boom is attached to the rear of the tanker aircraft. The attachment is gimballed, allowing the boom to move with the receiver aircraft. The boom contains a rigid pipe to transfer fuel. The fuel pipe ends in a nozzle with a flexible ball joint. The nozzle mates to the "receptacle" in the receiver aircraft during fuel transfer. A poppet valve in the end of the nozzle prevents fuel from exiting the tube until the nozzle properly mates with the receiver's refueling receptacle. Once properly mated, toggles in the receptacle engage the nozzle, holding it locked during fuel transfer. The "flying" boom is so named because flight control surfaces, small movable airfoils that are often in a V-tail configuration, are used to move the boom by creating aerodynamic forces. They are actuated hydraulically and controlled by the boom operator using a control stick. The boom operator also telescopes the boom to make the connection with the receiver's receptacle. To complete an aerial refueling, the tanker and receiver aircraft rendezvous, flying in formation. The receiver moves to a position behind the tanker, within safe limits of travel for the boom, aided by director lights or directions radioed by the boom operator. Once in position, the operator extends the boom to make contact with the receiver aircraft. Once in contact, fuel is pumped through the boom into the receiver aircraft. While in contact, the receiver pilot must continue to fly within the "air refueling envelope", the area in which contact with the boom is safe. Moving outside of this envelope can damage the boom or lead to mid-air collision, for example the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash. If the receiving aircraft approaches the outer limits of the envelope, the boom operator will command the receiver pilot to correct his position and disconnect the boom if necessary. When the desired amount of fuel has been transferred, the two aircraft disconnect and the receiver aircraft departs the formation. When not in use, the boom is stored flush with the bottom of the tanker's fuselage to minimize drag. The US Air Force fixed-wing aircraft use the flying boom system, along with countries operating F-16 or F-15 variants. The system is used by Australia (KC-30A), the Netherlands (KDC-10), Israel (modified Boeing 707), Japan (KC-767), Turkey (KC-135Rs), and Iran (Boeing 747). The system allows higher fuel flow rates (up to / per minute for the KC-135, but does require a boom operator, and can only refuel one aircraft at a time. Probe-and-drogue The probe-and-drogue refueling method employs a flexible hose that trails from the tanker aircraft. The drogue (or para-drogue), sometimes called a basket, is a fitting resembling a shuttlecock, attached at its narrow end (like the "cork" nose of a shuttlecock) with a valve to a flexible hose. The drogue stabilizes the hose in flight and provides a funnel to aid insertion of the receiver aircraft probe into the hose. The hose connects to a Hose Drum Unit (HDU). When not in use, the hose/drogue is reeled completely into the HDU. The receiver has a probe, which is a rigid, protruding or pivoted retractable arm placed on the aircraft's nose or fuselage to make the connection. Most modern versions of the probe are usually designed to be retractable, and are retracted when not in use, particularly on high speed aircraft. At the end of the probe is a valve that is closed until it mates with the drogue's forward internal receptacle, after which it opens and allows fuel to pass from tanker to receiver. The valves in the probe and drogue that are most commonly used are to a NATO standard and were originally developed by the company Flight Refuelling Limited in the UK and deployed in the late 1940s and 1950s. This standardization allows drogue-equipped tanker aircraft from many nations the ability to refuel probe-equipped aircraft from other nations. The NATO standard probe system incorporates shear rivets that attach the refueling valve to the end of the probe. This is so that if a large side or vertical load develops while in contact with the drogue, the rivets shear and the fuel valve breaks off, rather than the probe or receiver aircraft suffering structural damage. A so-called "broken probe" (actually a broken fuel valve, as described above) may happen if poor flying technique is used by the receiver pilot, or in turbulence. Sometimes the valve is retained in the tanker drogue and prevents further refueling from that drogue until removed during ground maintenance. A "buddy store" or "buddy pod" is an external pod loaded on an aircraft hardpoint that contains a hose and drogue system (HDU). Buddy stores allow fighterbomber aircraft to be reconfigured for "buddy tanking" other aircraft. This allows an air combat force without dedicated/specialized tanker support (for instance, a carrier air wing) to extend the range of its strike aircraft. In other cases, using the buddy store method allows a carrier-based aircraft to take-off with a heavier than usual load, the aircraft then being topped-up with fuel from an HDU-equipped "buddy" tanker, a method previously used by the Royal Navy in operating its Supermarine Scimitar, de Havilland Sea Vixen and Blackburn Buccaneers, in the Buccaneer's case using a bomb-bay-mounted tank and HDU. The tanker aircraft flies straight and level and extends the hose/drogue which is allowed to trail out behind and below the tanker under normal aerodynamic forces. The pilot of the receiver aircraft extends the probe (if required) and uses normal flight controls to "fly" the refueling probe directly into the basket. This requires a closure rate of approximately two knots (walking speed) in order to establish solid probe/drogue coupling and push the hose several feet into the HDU. Too little closure will cause an incomplete connection and no fuel flow (or occasionally leaking fuel). Too much closure is dangerous because it can trigger a strong transverse oscillation in the hose, severing the probe tip. Another significant danger is that the drogue may hit the recipient aircraft and damage it—instances have occurred in which the drogue has shattered the canopy of a fighter aircraft, causing great danger to its pilot. The optimal approach is from behind and below (not level with) the drogue. Because the drogue is relatively light (typically soft canvas webbing) and subject to aerodynamic forces, it can be pushed around by the bow wave of approaching aircraft, exacerbating engagement even in smooth air. After initial contact, the hose and drogue is pushed forward by the receiver a certain distance (typically, a few feet), and the hose is reeled slowly back onto its drum in the HDU. This opens the tanker's main refueling valve allowing fuel to flow to the drogue under the appropriate pressure (assuming the tanker crew has energized the pump). Tension on the hose is aerodynamically 'balanced' by a motor in the HDU so that as the receiver aircraft moves fore and aft, the hose retracts and extends, thus preventing bends in the hose that would cause undue side loads on the probe. Fuel flow is typically indicated by illumination of a green light near the HDU. If the hose is pushed in too far or not far enough, a cutoff switch will inhibit fuel flow, which is typically accompanied by an amber light. Disengagement is commanded by the tanker pilot with a red light. The U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and some Army aircraft refuel using the "hose-and-drogue" system, as well as most Western-European aircraft. The Soviet Union also reverse engineered the NATO hose and drogue system , which is called UPAZ, and so all Russian aircraft are also equipped with probe and drogue. The Chinese PLAF has a fleet of Xian H-6 bombers modified for aerial refueling as well as forthcoming Russian Ilyushin Il-78 aerial refueling tankers. Tankers can be equipped with multipoint hose-and-drogue systems allowing two (or more) aircraft to refuel simultaneously, reducing time spent refueling by as much as 75% for a four aircraft strike package. Boom drogue adapter units USAF KC-135 and French Air Force KC-135FR refueling-boom equipped tankers can be field converted to a probe-and-drogue system using a special adapter unit. In this configuration, the tanker retains its articulated boom, but has a hose/drogue at the end of it instead of the usual nozzle. The tanker boom operator holds the boom in a static position, while the receiver aircraft then flies the probe into the basket. Unlike the soft canvas basket used in most drogue systems, the adapter units use a steel basket, grimly known as the "iron maiden" by naval aviators because of its unforgiving nature. Soft drogues can be contacted slightly off center, wherein the probe is guided into the hose receptacle by the canvas drogue. The metal drogue, when contacted even slightly off center, will pivot out of place, potentially "slapping" the aircraft's fuselage and causing damage. The other major difference with this system is that when contacted, the hose does not "retract" into an HDU. Instead, the hose bends depending on how far it is pushed toward the boom. If it is pushed too far, it can loop around the probe or nose of the aircraft, damage the windscreen, or cause contact with the rigid boom. If not pushed far enough, the probe will disengage, halting fueling. Because of a much smaller position keeping tolerance, staying properly connected to a KC-135 adapter unit is considerably more difficult than staying in a traditional hose/drogue configuration. When fueling is complete, the receiver carefully backs off until the probe refueling valve disconnects from the valve in the basket. Off center disengagements, like engagements, can cause the drogue to "prang" the probe and/or strike the aircraft's fuselage. Multiple systems Some tankers have both a boom and one or more complete hose-and-drogue systems. The USAF KC-10 has both a flying boom and a separate hose and drogue system manufactured by Cobham plc. Both are on the aircraft centerline at the tail of the aircraft, so only one system can be used at once. However, such a system allows all types of probe- and receptacle-equipped aircraft to be refueled in a single mission, without landing to install an adapter. Many KC-135s and some KC-10s are also equipped with dual under-wing hose-and-drogue attachments known as Multi-point Refueling System (MPRSs) or Wing Air Refueling Pods (WARPs), respectively. Wing-to-wing In this method, similar to the probe-and-drogue method but more complicated, the tanker aircraft released a flexible hose from its wingtip. An aircraft, flying beside it, had to catch the hose with a special lock under its wingtip. After the hose was locked, and the connection was established, the fuel was pumped. It was used on a small number of Soviet Tu-4 and Tu-16 only (the tanker variant was Tu-16Z). Simple grappling Some historic systems used for pioneering aerial refueling used the grappling method, where the tanker aircraft unreeled the fuel hose and the receiver aircraft would grapple the hose midair, reel it in and connect it so that fuel can be transferred either with the assistance of pumps or simply by gravity feed. This was the method used on the Question Mark endurance flight in 1929. Compatibility issues The probe-and-drogue system is not compatible with flying boom equipment, creating a problem for military planners where mixed forces are involved. Incompatibility can also complicate the procurement of new systems — the Royal Canadian Air Force currently wish to purchase the F-35A, which can only refuel via the flying boom, but only possess probe-and-drogue refuelers. The potential cost of converting F-35As to probe-and-drogue refueling (as is used on U.S. Navy & Marine Corps F-35Bs and F-35Cs) has added to the political controversy which already surrounds F-35 procurement within the RCAF. These concerns can be addressed by drogue adapters (see section "Boom drogue adapter units" above) that allow drogue aircraft to refuel from boom-equipped aircraft, and by refuelers that are equipped with both drogue and boom units and can thus refuel both types in the same flight, such as the KC-10, MPRS KC-135, or Airbus A330 MRTT. Strategic The development of the KC-97 and Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers was pushed by the Cold War requirement of the United States to be able to keep fleets of nuclear-armed B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers airborne around-the-clock either to threaten retaliation against a Soviet strike for mutual assured destruction, or to bomb the U.S.S.R. first had it been ordered to do so by the President of the United States. The bombers would fly orbits around their assigned positions from which they were to enter Soviet airspace if they received the order, and the tankers would refill the bombers' fuel tanks so that they could keep a force in the air 24 hours a day, and still have enough fuel to reach their targets in the Soviet Union. This also ensured that a first strike against the bombers' airfields could not obliterate the U.S.'s ability to retaliate by bomber. In 1958, Valiant tankers in the UK were developed with one HDU mounted in the bomb-bay. Valiant tankers of 214 Squadron were used to demonstrate radius of action by refueling a Valiant bomber non-stop from UK to Singapore in 1960 and a Vulcan bomber to Australia in 1961. Other UK exercises involving refueling aircraft from Valiant tankers included Javelin and Lightning fighters, also Vulcan and Victor bombers. For instance, in 1962 a squadron of Javelin air defense aircraft was refueled in stages from the UK to India and back (exercise "Shiksha"). After the retirement of the Valiant in 1965, the Handley Page Victor took over the UK refueling role and had three hoses (HDUs). These were a fuselage-mounted HDU and a refueling pod on each wing. The center hose could refuel any probe-equipped aircraft, the wing pods could refuel the more maneuverable fighter/ground attack types. A byproduct of this development effort and the building of large numbers of tankers was that these tankers were also available to refuel cargo aircraft, fighter aircraft, and ground attack aircraft, in addition to bombers, for ferrying to distant theaters of operations. This was much used during the Vietnam War, when many aircraft could not have covered the transoceanic distances without aerial refueling, even with intermediate bases in Hawaii and Okinawa. In addition to allowing the transport of the aircraft themselves, the cargo aircraft could also carry matériel, supplies, and personnel to Vietnam without landing to refuel. KC-135s were also frequently used for refueling of air combat missions from air bases in Thailand. The USAF SR-71 Blackbird strategic reconnaissance aircraft made frequent use of air-to-air refueling. Indeed, design considerations of the aircraft made its mission impossible without aerial refueling. Based at Beale AFB in central California, SR-71s had to be forward-deployed to Europe and Japan prior to flying actual reconnaissance missions. These trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic flights during deployment were impossible without aerial refueling. The SR-71's designers traded takeoff performance for better high-speed, high-altitude performance, necessitating takeoff with less-than-full fuel tanks from even the longest runways. Once airborne, the Blackbird would accelerate to supersonic speed using afterburners to facilitate structural heating and expansion. The magnitude of temperature changes experienced by the SR-71, from parked to its maximum speed, resulted in significant expansion of its structural parts in cruise flight. To allow for the expansion, the Blackbird's parts had to fit loosely when cold, so loosely, in fact, that the Blackbird constantly leaked fuel before heating expanded the airframe enough to seal its fuel tanks. Following the supersonic dash, and to stop the fuel leaks, the SR-71 would then rendezvous with a tanker to fill its now nearly empty tanks before proceeding on its mission. This was referred to as the LTTR (for "Launch To Tanker Rendezvous") profile. LTTR had the added advantage of providing an operational test of the Blackbird's refueling capability within minutes after takeoff, enabling a Return-To-Launch-Site abort capability if necessary. At its most efficient altitude and speed, the Blackbird was capable of flying for many hours without refueling. The SR-71 used a special fuel, JP-7, with a very high flash point to withstand the extreme skin temperatures generated during Mach 3+ cruise flight. While JP-7 could be used by other aircraft, its burn characteristics posed problems in certain situations (such as high-altitude, emergency engine starts) that made it less than optimal for aircraft other than the SR-71. Normally, all the fuel aboard a tanker aircraft may be either offloaded, or burned by the tanker as necessary. To make this possible, the KC-135 fuel system incorporated gravity draining and pumps to allow moving fuel from tank to tank depending on mission needs. Mixing JP-7 with JP-4 or Jet A, however, rendered it unsuitable for use by the SR-71, so the US Air Force commissioned a specially modified KC-135 variant, the KC-135Q, which included changes to the fuel system and operating procedures preventing inadvertent inflight mixing of fuel intended for offload with fuel intended for use by the tanker. SR-71 aircraft were refueled exclusively by KC-135Q tankers. Tactical Tankers are considered "force multipliers", because they convey considerable tactical advantages. Primarily, aerial refueling adds to the combat radius of attack, fighter and bombers aircraft, and allows patrol aircraft to remain airborne longer, thereby reducing the numbers of aircraft necessary to accomplish a given mission. Aerial refueling can also mitigate basing issues that might otherwise place limitations on combat payload. Combat aircraft operating from airfields with shorter runways must limit their takeoff weight, which could mean a choice between range (fuel) and combat payload (munitions). Aerial refueling, however, eliminates many of these basing difficulties because a combat aircraft can take off with a full combat payload and refuel immediately. Aside from these issues, the psychological advantage of full fuel tanks – and a tanker likely available nearby – gives a pilot a distinct edge in combat. In most combat situations, speed is a necessity for optimal completion of the mission at hand. As high speeds require fuel, pilots must always balance fuel and speed requirements. Pilots operating aircraft with aerial refueling capability mitigate low-fuel concerns. Operational history Cold War Even as the first practical methods for aerial refueling were being developed, military planners had already envisioned what missions could be greatly enhanced by using such techniques. In the emerging Cold War climate of the late 1940s, the ability for bombers to perform increasingly long distance missions would enable targets to be struck even from air bases on a different continent. Thus, it became commonplace for nuclear-armed strategic bombers to be equipped with aerial refuelling apparatus and for it to be used to facilitate long distance patrols. During the late 1950s, aerial refuelling had become so prevalent amongst the bombers operated by the U.S. Air Force's Strategic Air Command that many, such as the Convair B-58 Hustler, would operate largely or entirely out of bases in the continental United States while maintaining strategic reach. This practice was promoted to address security concerns as well as diplomatic objections from some overseas nations that did not want foreign nuclear weapon being kept on their soil. In one early demonstration of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress's global reach, performed between 16 and 18 January 1957, three B-52Bs made a non-stop flight around the world during Operation Power Flite, during which 24,325 miles (21,145 nmi, 39,165 km) was covered in 45 hours 19 minutes (536.8 smph) with multiple in-flight refuelings being performed from KC-97s. While development of the Avro Vulcan strategic bomber was underway, British officials recognised that its operational flexibility could be improved by the provision of in-flight refuelling equipment. Accordingly, from the 16th aircraft to be completed onwards, the Vulcan was furnished with in-flight refuelling receiving equipment. While continuous airborne patrols were flown by the RAF for a time, these were deemed to be untenable, and the refuelling mechanisms across the Vulcan fleet largely fell into disuse during the 1960s. When the RAF chose to optimise its bomber fleet away from high-altitude flight and towards low-level penetration missions, bombers such as the Handley Page Victor were fitted with aerial refuelling probes and additional fuel tanks to counter the decreased range from the shift in flight profile. During the mid-1950s, to deliver France's independent nuclear deterrent, work commenced on what would become the Dassault Mirage IV supersonic bomber. The dimensions of this bomber was greatly determined by the viability of aerial refuelling, with work on an enlarged variant of the Mirage IV ultimately being aborted in favour of a greater reliance upon aerial tanker aircraft instead. In order to refuel the Mirage IVA fleet, France purchased 14 (12 plus 2 spares) U.S. Boeing C-135F tankers. Mirage IVAs also often operated in pairs, with one aircraft carrying a weapon and the other carrying fuel tanks and a buddy refueling pack, allowing it to refuel its partner en route to the target. While able to strike at numerous targets inside of the Soviet Union, the inability for the Mirage IV to return from some missions had been a point of controversy during the aircraft's design phase. Korean War On 6 July 1951, the first combat air refueling of fighter-type aircraft took place over Korea. Three RF-80As launched from Taegu with the modified tip-tanks and rendezvoused with a tanker offshore of Wonsan, North Korea. Through in-flight refueling, the RF-80s effectively doubled their range, which enabled them to photograph valuable targets in North Korea. Vietnam War During the Vietnam War, it was common for USAF fighter-bombers flying from Thailand to North Vietnam to refuel from KC-135s en route to their target. Besides extending their range, this enabled the F-105s and F-4 Phantoms to carry more bombs and rockets. Tankers were also available for refueling on the way back if necessary. In addition to ferrying aircraft across the Pacific Ocean, aerial refueling made it possible for battle-damaged fighters, with heavily leaking fuel tanks, to hook up to the tankers and let the tanker feed its engine(s) until the point where they could glide to the base and land. This saved numerous aircraft. The US Navy frequently used carrier-based aerial tankers like the KA-3 Skywarrior to refuel Navy and Marine aircraft such as the F-4, A-4 Skyhawk, A-6 Intruder, and A-7 Corsair II. This was particularly useful when a pilot returning from an airstrike was having difficulty landing and was running low on jet fuel. This gave him fuel for more attempts at landing for a successful "trap" on an aircraft carrier. The KA-3 could also refuel fighters on extended Combat Air Patrol. USMC jets based in South Vietnam and Thailand also used USMC KC-130 Hercules transports for air-to-air refueling on missions. During late August 1970, a pair of HH-53C helicopters performed the first Trans-Pacific flight by a helicopter, flying from Eglin AFB in Florida to Danang in South Vietnam. In addition to making multiple enroute stops to refuel on the ground, aerial refuelling was also used in this display of the type's long-range capabilities. The flight proved to be roughly four times faster than the traditional dispatching of rotorcraft to the theatre by ship. Middle East During the 1980s Iran–Iraq War, the Iranian Air Force maintained at least one KC 707-3J9C aerial tanker, which the Islamic Republic had inherited from the Shah's government. This was used most effectively on 4 April 1981, refueling eight IRIAF F-4 Phantoms on long-range sorties into Iraq to bomb the H-3 Al Walid airfield near the Jordanian border, destroying 27–50 Iraqi fighter jets and bombers. However, the Iranian Air Force was forced to cancel its 180-day air offensive and attempts to control Iranian airspace due to unsustainable rates of attrition. The Israeli Air Force has a fleet of Boeing 707s equipped with a boom refueling system similar to the KC-135, this system has the Israeli name Ram, used to refuel and extend the range of fighter bombers such as the F-15I and F-16I for deterrent and strike missions, they are nearing 60 years old and Israel does not disclose the number of tankers in their fleet. In 1985, Israeli F-15s used heavily modified Boeing 707 aircraft to provide aerial refueling over the Mediterranean Sea in order to extend their range for Operation Wooden Leg, an air raid on the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) near Tunis, Tunisia, that necessitated a 2,000 km flight. As of 2021 Israel has ordered four of a planned eight Boeing KC-46 Pegasus boom refueling tankers and has requested that the first two aircraft be fast-tracked for delivery in 2022 when they were to be delivered in 2023. The Jerusalem Post reports that Israeli commanders have made this request to enhance the strategic deterrence against Iran, the same article reports that the US, whose air force is also taking its first deliveries of the aircraft type, has refused to move forward the deliveries while supporting Israel's deterrence; the Jpost editor writing "The US State Department approved the possible sale of up to eight KC-46 tanker aircraft and related equipment to Israel for an estimated cost of $2.4 billion last March(i.e. 5/2020), marking the first time that Washington has allowed Jerusalem to buy new tankers." Falklands War During the Falklands War, aerial refueling played a vital role in all of the successful Argentine attacks against the Royal Navy. The Argentine Air Force had only two KC-130H Hercules available and they were used to refuel both Air Force and Navy A-4 Skyhawks and Navy Super Etendards in their Exocet strikes. The Hercules on several occasions approached the islands (where the Sea Harriers were in patrol) to search and guide the A-4s in their returning flights. On one of those flights (callsign Jaguar) one of the KC-130s went to rescue a damaged A-4 and delivered of fuel while carrying it to its airfield at San Julian. However, the Mirage IIIs and Daggers lack of air refueling capability prevented them from achieving better results. The Mirages were unable to reach the islands with a strike payload, and the Daggers could do so only for a five-minute strike flight. On the British side, air refueling was carried out by the Handley Page Victor K.2 and, after the Argentine surrender, by modified C-130 Hercules tankers. These aircraft aided deployments from the UK to the Ascension Island staging post in the Atlantic and further deployments south of bomber, transport and maritime patrol aircraft. The most famous refueling missions were the 8,000 nmi (15,000 km) "Operation Black Buck" sorties which used 14 Victor tankers to allow an Avro Vulcan bomber (with a flying reserve bomber) to attack the Argentine-captured airfield at Port Stanley on the Falkland Islands. With all the aircraft flying from Ascension, the tankers themselves needed refueling. The raids were the longest-range bombing raids in history until surpassed by the Boeing B-52s flying from the States to bomb Iraq in the 1991 Gulf War and later B-2 flights. Gulf War During the time of Operation Desert Shield, the military buildup to the Persian Gulf War, US Air Force Boeing KC-135s & McDonnell Douglas KC-10As, and USMC KC-130 Hercules aircraft were deployed to forward air bases in England, Diego Garcia, and Saudi Arabia. Aircraft stationed in Saudi Arabia normally maintained an orbit in the Saudi–Iraqi neutral zone, informally known as "Frisbee", and refueled coalition aircraft whenever necessary. Two side by side tracks over central Saudi Arabia called "Prune" and "Raisin" featured 2–4 basket equipped KC-135 tankers each and were used by Navy aircraft from the Red Sea Battle Force. Large Navy strike groups from the Red Sea would send A-6 tankers to the Prune and Raisin tracks ahead of the strike aircraft arriving to top off and take up station to the right of the Air Force tankers thereby providing an additional tanking point. RAF Handley Page Victor and Vickers VC10 tankers were also used to refuel British and coalition aircraft and were popular with the US Navy for their docile basket behavior and having three point refueling stations. An additional track was maintained close to the northwest border for the E-3 AWACS aircraft and any Navy aircraft needing emergency fuel. These 24-hour air-refueling zones enabled the intense air campaign during Desert Storm. An additional 24/7 tanker presence was maintained over the Red Sea itself to refuel Navy F-14 Tomcats maintaining Combat Air Patrol tracks. During the conflict's final week, KC-10s moved inside Iraq to support barrier CAP missions set up to block Iraqi fighters from escaping to Iran. On 16–17 January 1991, the first combat sortie of Operation Desert Storm, and the longest combat sortie in history at that time, was launched from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana. Seven B-52Gs flew a thirty-five-hour mission to the region and back to launch 35 Boeing Air Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCMs) with the surprise use of conventional warheads. This attack, which successfully destroyed 85–95 percent of intended targets, would have been impossible without the support of refueling tankers. An extremely useful tanker in Desert Storm was the USAF's KC-10A Extender. Besides being larger than the other tankers deployed, the KC-10A is equipped with the USAF "boom" refueling and also the "hose-and-drogue" system, enabling it to refuel not only USAF aircraft, and also USMC and US Navy jets that use the "probe-and-drogue" system, and also allied aircraft, such as those from the UK and Saudi Arabia. KC-135s may be equipped with a drogue depending on the mission profile. With a full jet fuel load, the KC-10A is capable of flying from a base on the American east coast, flying nonstop to Europe, transferring a considerable amount of fuel to other aircraft, and returning to its home base without landing anywhere else. On 24 January 1991, the Iraqi Air Force launched the Attack on Ras Tanura, an attempt to bomb the Ras Tanura oil facility in Saudi Arabia. On their way to the target, the Iraqi attack aircraft were refueled by tanker at an altitude of 100 meters. The attack ultimately failed, with two aircraft turning back and the remaining two shot down. Helicopters Helicopter in-flight refueling (HIFR) is a variation of aerial refueling when a naval helicopter approaches a warship (not necessarily suited for landing operations) and receives fuel through the cabin while hovering. Alternatively, some helicopters equipped with a probe extending out the front can be refueled from a drogue-equipped tanker aircraft in a similar manner to fixed-wing aircraft by matching a high forward speed for a helicopter to a slow speed for the fixed-wing tanker. Longest manned flight record A mission modified Cessna 172 Skyhawk with a crew of two set the world record for the longest continuous manned flight without landing of 64 days, 22 hours, 19 minutes, and five seconds in 1958. A Ford truck was outfitted with a fuel pump, tank, and other paraphernalia required to support the aircraft in flight. The publicity flight for a Las Vegas area hotel ended when the aircraft's performance had degraded to the point where the Cessna had difficulty climbing away from the refueling vehicle. Developments Commercial tankers are occasionally used by military forces. The Omega Aerial Refueling Services company is contracted by the US Navy. Autonomous (hands off) refueling using probe/drogue systems is being investigated by NASA, potentially for use by unmanned aerial vehicles in the KQ-X program. Operators Algerian Air Force Argentine Air Force Royal Australian Air Force Brazilian Air Force Royal Canadian Air Force Chilean Air Force People's Liberation Army Air Force Colombian Air Force Egyptian Air Force French Air Force French Navy German Air Force Indian Air Force Indonesian Air Force Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force Israeli Air Force Italian Air Force Japan Air Self-Defense Force Republic of Korea Air Force Kuwait Air Force Royal Malaysian Air Force Royal Moroccan Air Force Royal Netherlands Air Force Pakistan Air Force Russian Air Force Republic of Singapore Air Force Spanish Air Force Swedish Air Force Turkish Air Force United Arab Emirates Air Force Royal Air Force Royal Saudi Air Force United States Air Force United States Marine Corps United States Navy Venezuelan Air Force See also Military logistics Propellant depot Underway replenishment, the transfer of refuel and stores at sea List of tanker aircraft References Citations Bibliography Bull, Stephen. Encyclopedia of Military Technology And Innovation. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004. . Brookes, Andrew and Chris Davey. Vulcan Units of The Cold War (Osprey Combat Aircraft: 72). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2009. . Condor, Albert E. Air Force Gunners (AFGA): The Men Behind the Guns, The History of Enlisted Aerial Gunnery, 1917–1991. Nashville, Tennessee: Turner Publishing, 1994. . Darling, Kev. Avro Vulcan, Part One (RAF Illustrated). Vale of Glamorgan Wales, UK: Big Bird Aviation Publication, 2007. . Gunston, Bill. Bombers of the West. New York: Charles Scribner's and Sons; 1973. . Gunston, Bill and Peter Gilchrist. Jet Bombers: From the Messerschmitt Me 262 to the Stealth B-2. Osprey, 1993. . Knaack, Marcelle Size. Post-World War II Bombers, 1945–1973. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1988. . Rodwell, Robert R. "The Steel in the Blue: Last Week's Glimpse of the V-force". Flight, 13 February 1964, pp. 241–245. Windle, Dave and Martin Bowman. V Bombers: Vulcan, Valiant and Victor, Casemate Publishers, 2009. . Wynn, Humphrey. RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Origins, Roles and Deployment 1946–1969. London: The Stationery Office, 1997. . External links Photo aerial tanking 1929 Aerial tanking history Airborne rearming, a comprehensive article with video. Aerial Refueling on APA Air Refueling Systems Advisory Group Twenty-one Years of Flight Refuelling, a 1955 Flight article on the development of Flight Refuelling Ltd's refueling method. 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237956	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top%20Ten	Top Ten	A top ten list is a list of the ten highest-ranking items of a given category. Top Ten or Top 10 may also refer to: Media Top 10, a common record chart for the 10 most popular songs of the week in the musical chart of a country America's Top 10, a television program hosted by Casey Kasem among others Top 10 (comics), a comic book published by DC Comics Top 10 (Canadian TV program), a Canadian television program broadcast on NHL Network showing the Top 10 in various categories Top Ten (U.S. TV program), an American television program broadcast on Military Channel about top military weapons and systems Late Show Top Ten List, a regular segment on the Late Show with David Letterman ScrewAttack's Top 10, a video game-related web series Places Top Ten Club, a club in Hamburg, Germany made famous as an early venue for the Beatles Brands Topten, a South Korean clothing brand TopTen, an Estonian record label Other uses Top10 (rugby union), Italy's top level professional men's rugby union competition	[ -0.3105888366699219, 0.04525803402066231, 0.10825610160827637, 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237957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosively%20pumped%20flux%20compression%20generator	Explosively pumped flux compression generator	An explosively pumped flux compression generator (EPFCG) is a device used to generate a high-power electromagnetic pulse by compressing magnetic flux using high explosive. An EPFCG only ever generates a single pulse as the device is physically destroyed during operation. An EPFCG package that could be easily carried by a person can produce pulses in the millions of amperes and tens of terawatts. They require a starting current pulse to operate, usually supplied by capacitors. Explosively pumped flux compression generators are used to create ultrahigh magnetic fields in physics and materials science research and extremely intense pulses of electric current for pulsed power applications. They are being investigated as power sources for electronic warfare devices known as transient electromagnetic devices that generate an electromagnetic pulse without the costs, side effects, or enormous range of a nuclear electromagnetic pulse device. The first work on these generators was conducted by the VNIIEF center for nuclear research in Sarov in Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1950s followed by Los Alamos National Laboratory in the United States. History At the start of the 1950s, the need for very short and powerful electrical pulses became evident to Soviet scientists conducting nuclear fusion research. The Marx generator, which stores energy in capacitors, was the only device capable at the time of producing such high power pulses. The prohibitive cost of the capacitors required to obtain the desired power motivated the search for a more economical device. The first magneto-explosive generators, which followed from the ideas of Andrei Sakharov, were designed to fill this role. Mechanics Magneto-explosive generators use a technique called "magnetic flux compression", described in detail below. The technique is made possible when the time scales over which the device operates are sufficiently brief that resistive current loss is negligible, and the magnetic flux through any surface surrounded by a conductor (copper wire, for example) remains constant, even though the size and shape of the surface may change. This flux conservation can be demonstrated from Maxwell's equations. The most intuitive explanation of this conservation of enclosed flux follows from Lenz's law, which says that any change in the flux through an electric circuit will cause a current in the circuit which will oppose the change. For this reason, reducing the area of the surface enclosed by a closed loop conductor with a magnetic field passing through it, which would reduce the magnetic flux, results in the induction of current in the electrical conductor, which tends to keep the enclosed flux at its original value. In magneto-explosive generators, the reduction in area is accomplished by detonating explosives packed around a conductive tube or disk, so the resulting implosion compresses the tube or disk. Since flux is equal to the magnitude of the magnetic field multiplied by the area of the surface, as the surface area shrinks the magnetic field strength inside the conductor increases. The compression process partially transforms the chemical energy of the explosives into the energy of an intense magnetic field surrounded by a correspondingly large electric current. The purpose of the flux generator can be either the generation of an extremely strong magnetic field pulse, or an extremely strong electric current pulse; in the latter case the closed conductor is attached to an external electric circuit. This technique has been used to create the most intense manmade magnetic fields on Earth; fields up to about 1000 teslas (about 1000 times the strength of a typical neodymium permanent magnet) can be created for a few microseconds. Elementary description of flux compression An external magnetic field (blue lines) threads a closed ring made of a perfect conductor (with zero resistance). The total magnetic flux through the ring is equal to the magnetic field multiplied by the area of the surface spanning the ring. The nine field lines represent the magnetic flux threading the ring. Suppose the ring is deformed, reducing its cross-sectional area. The magnetic flux threading the ring, represented by five field lines, is reduced by the same ratio as the area of the ring. The variation of the magnetic flux induces a current (red arrows) in the ring by Faraday's law of induction, which in turn creates a new magnetic field circling the wire (green arrows) by Ampere's circuital law. The new magnetic field opposes the field outside the ring but adds to the field inside, so that the total flux in the interior of the ring is maintained: four green field lines added to the five blue lines give the original nine field lines. By adding together the external magnetic field and the induced field, it can be shown that the net result is that the magnetic field lines originally threading the hole stay inside the hole, thus flux is conserved, and a current has been created in the conductive ring. The magnetic field lines are "pinched" closer together, so the (average) magnetic field intensity inside the ring increases by the ratio of the original area to the final area. The various types of generators The simple basic principle of flux compression can be applied in a variety of different ways. Soviet scientists at the VNIIEF in Sarov, pioneers in this domain, conceived of three different types of generators: In the first type of generator (MK-1, 1951) developed by Robert Lyudaev, the magnetic flux produced by a wound conductor is confined to the interior of a hollow metallic tube surrounded by explosives, and submitted to a violent compression when the explosives are fired; a device of the same type was developed in the United States a dozen years later by C. M. (Max) Fowler's team at Los Alamos. In the second type of generator (MK-2, 1952), the magnetic flux, confined between the windings of the external conductor and a central conductive tube filled with explosive, is compressed by the conical 'piston' created by the deformation of the central tube as the detonation wave travels across the device. A third type of generator (DEMG), developed by Vladimir Chernyshev, is cylindrical, and contains a stack of concave metallic disks, facing each other in pairs, to create hollow modules (with the number varying according to the desired power), and separated by explosives; each module functions as an independent generator. Such generators can, if necessary, be utilised independently, or even assembled in a chain of successive stages: the energy produced by each generator is transferred to the next, which amplifies the pulse, and so on. For example, it is foreseen that the DEMG generator will be supplied by a MK-2 type generator. Hollow tube generators In the spring of 1952, R. Z. Lyudaev, E. A. Feoktistova, G. A. Tsyrkov, and A. A. Chvileva undertook the first experiment with this type of generator, with the goal of obtaining a very high magnetic field. The MK-1 generator functions as follows: A longitudinal magnetic field is produced inside a hollow metallic conductor, by discharging a bank of capacitors into the solenoid that surrounds the cylinder. To ensure a rapid penetration of the field in the cylinder, there is a slit in the cylinder, which closes rapidly as the cylinder deforms; The explosive charge placed around the tube is detonated in a manner that ensures that the compression of the cylinder commences when the current through the solenoid is at its maximum; The convergent cylindrical shock wave unleashed by the explosion produces a rapid contraction (greater than 1 km/s) of the central cylinder, compressing the magnetic field, and creating an inductive current, as per the explanation above (the speed of contraction permits, to first approximation, the neglect of Joule losses and the consideration of the cylinder as a perfect conductor). The first experiments were able to attain magnetic fields of millions of gauss (hundreds of teslas), given an initial field of 30 kG (3 T) which is in the free space "air" the same as H = B/μ0 = (3 Vs/m2) / (4π × 10−7 Vs/Am) = (approximately 2.4 MA/m). Helical generators Helical generators were principally conceived to deliver an intense current to a load situated at a safe distance. They are frequently used as the first stage of a multi-stage generator, with the exit current used to generate a very intense magnetic field in a second generator. The MK-2 generators function as follows: A longitudinal magnetic field is produced in between a metallic conductor and a surrounding solenoid, by discharging a battery of capacitors into the solenoid; After the charge is ignited, a detonation wave propagates in the explosive charge placed in the interior of the central metallic tube (from left to right on the figure); Under the effect of the pressure of the detonation wave, the tube deforms and becomes a cone which contacts the helically wrapped coil, diminishing the number of turns not short-circuited, compressing the magnetic field and creating an inductive current; At the point of maximal flux compression, the load switch is opened, which then delivers the maximal current to the load. The MK-2 generator is particularly interesting for the production of intense currents, up to 108 A (100 MA), as well as a very high energy magnetic field, as up to 20% of the explosive energy can be converted to magnetic energy, and the field strength can attain 2 × 106 gauss (200 T). The practical realization of high performance MK-2 systems required the pursuit of fundamental studies by a large team of researchers; this was effectively achieved by 1956, following the production of the first MK-2 generator in 1952, and the achievement of currents over 100 megaamperes from 1953. Disc generators A DEMG generator functions as follows: Conductive metallic discs, assembled in facing pairs to create hollow modules having the form of a lined torus, with explosive packed between pairs of modules, are stacked inside a cylinder; the number of modules can vary according to the desired power (the figure shows a device of 15 modules), as well as the radius of the discs (of the order of 20 to 40 cm). Current runs through the device, supplied by a MK-2 generator, and an intense magnetic field is created inside each module. When initiated, the explosion begins on the axis and propagates radially outwards, deforming the disc shaped protuberances with triangular section and pushing them away from the axis. The outward movement of this section of conductor plays the role of a piston. As the explosion proceeds, the magnetic field is compressed in the inside of each module by the conductive piston and the simultaneous drawing together of the inner faces, also creating an inductive current. As the induced current attains its maximum, the fuse opening switch fuses and the load switch simultaneously closes, allowing the current to be delivered to the load (the mechanism for the operation of the load switch is not explained in available documentation). Systems using up to 25 modules have been developed at VNIIEF. Output of 100 MJ at 256 MA have been produced by a generator a metre in diameter composed of three modules. See also Pinch (plasma physics) Explosive-driven ferroelectric generator Explosive-driven ferromagnetic generator Explosively pumped gas dynamic laser References External links Scientific Collaborations Between Los Alamos and Arzamas-16 Using Explosive-Driven Flux Compression Generators An Introduction to Explosive Magnetic Flux Compression Generators Generation of Ultra-High Magnetic Fields for AGEX (LANL) Superpower explosive magnetic energy sources (V.K. Chernyshev, VNIIEF) High-Strain-Rate Experiments to Determine the Dynamic Yield Strength of Copper Magnetized target fusion – an ultra high energy approach in an unexplored parameter space Energy weapons Microwave technology Pulsed power Soviet inventions Russian inventions	[ 0.18623970448970795, 0.2247471660375595, -0.1199207454919815, 0.21194839477539062, -0.7748076319694519, -0.16166436672210693, 0.09778869897127151, -0.06733554601669312, -0.28600868582725525, 0.18677406013011932, -0.43193885684013367, 0.6295599937438965, -0.602114737033844, 0.1551954746246338, 0.1680728942155838, 0.3331998288631439, 0.48300811648368835, 0.06687972694635391, -0.3495348393917084, -0.6968300938606262, 0.5603219270706177, -0.5855079293251038, 0.7251935601234436, 0.3001115322113037, 0.07003366202116013, 0.21658889949321747, -0.03189481794834137, -0.44944265484809875, 0.006820970214903355, 0.24752995371818542, -0.13579754531383514, 1.120046854019165, 0.30190518498420715, -0.3806799650192261, 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237960	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Bill%20Broonzy	Big Bill Broonzy	Big Bill Broonzy (born Lee Conley Bradley; June 26, 1903 – August 14, 1958) was an American blues singer, songwriter and guitarist. His career began in the 1920s, when he played country blues to mostly African-American audiences. Through the 1930s and 1940s he successfully navigated a transition in style to a more urban blues sound popular with working-class African-American audiences. In the 1950s a return to his traditional folk-blues roots made him one of the leading figures of the emerging American folk music revival and an international star. His long and varied career marks him as one of the key figures in the development of blues music in the 20th century. Broonzy copyrighted more than 300 songs during his lifetime, including both adaptations of traditional folk songs and original blues songs. As a blues composer, he was unique in writing songs that reflected his rural-to-urban experiences. Life and career Early years Born Lee Conley Bradley, he was one of the 17 children of Frank Broonzy (Bradley) and Mittie Belcher. The date and place of his birth are disputed. Broonzy claimed to have been born in Scott, Mississippi, but a body of emerging research compiled by the blues historian Robert Reisman suggests that he was born in Jefferson County, Arkansas. Broonzy claimed he was born in 1893, and many sources report that year, but family records discovered after his death suggested that the year was 1903. Soon after his birth the family moved to an area called Lake Dick, Arkansas, near Pine Bluff, Arkansas, where Bill spent his youth. He began playing music at an early age. At the age of 10 he made himself a fiddle from a cigar box and learned how to play spirituals and folk songs from his uncle, Jerry Belcher. He and a friend, Louis Carter, who played a homemade guitar, began performing at social and church functions. These early performances included playing at "two-stages": picnics where whites and blacks danced at the same event, but with different stages for blacks and whites. On the understanding that he was born in 1898 rather than earlier or later, sources suggest that in 1915, 17-year-old Broonzy was married and working as a sharecropper. He had given up playing the fiddle and had become a preacher. There is a story that he was offered $50 and a new violin if he would play for four days at a local venue. Before he could respond to the offer, his wife took the money and spent it, so he had to play. It has been previously stated that in 1916 his crop and stock were wiped out by drought and he went to work locally until he was drafted into the Army in 1917, that he served for two years in Europe during the First World War and that after his discharge from the Army in 1919, he left Pine Bluff and moved to the Little Rock area. However, biographer Bob Riesman, after examining Broonzy's family records, census records and local draft cards, concluded that Broonzy was only 14 in 1917 when the U.S. entered WW I and that Broonzy never actually served in the Army during World War I. In 1920, Broonzy moved north to Chicago in search of opportunity. 1920s After arriving in Chicago, Broonzy switched from fiddle to guitar. He learned to play the guitar from the veteran minstrel and medicine show performer Papa Charlie Jackson, who began recording for Paramount Records in 1924. Through the 1920s Broonzy worked at a string of odd jobs, including Pullman porter, cook, foundry worker and custodian, to supplement his income, but his main interest was music. He played regularly at rent parties and social gatherings, steadily improving his guitar playing. During this time he wrote one of his signature tunes, a solo guitar piece called "Saturday Night Rub". Thanks to his association with Jackson, Broonzy was able to get an audition with Paramount executive J. Mayo Williams. His initial test recordings, made with his friend John Thomas on vocals, were rejected, but Broonzy persisted, and his second try, a few months later, was more successful. His first record, "Big Bill's Blues", backed with "House Rent Stomp", credited to Big Bill and Thomps (Paramount 12656), was released in 1927. Although the recording was not well received, Paramount retained its new talent and in the next few years released more records by Big Bill and Thomps. The records sold poorly. Reviewers considered his style immature and derivative. 1930s In 1930, Paramount for the first time used Broonzy's full name on a recording, "Station Blues" – albeit misspelled as "Big Bill Broomsley". Record sales continued to be poor, and Broonzy was working at a grocery store. He was picked up by Lester Melrose, who produced musical acts for various labels, including Champion Records and Gennett Records. Harum Scarums, a trio comprising Broonzy, Georgia Tom and Mozelle Alderson, recorded the two-part "Alabama Scratch" in Grafton, Wisconsin, for Paramount Records (Paramount 13054) in January 1931, and it was reported that it sounded "as if it was a real party". Broonzy recorded several sides released in the spring of 1931 under the name Big Bill Johnson. In March 1932 he traveled to New York City and began recording for the American Record Corporation on their line of less expensive labels (Melotone Records, Perfect Records and others). These recordings sold better, and Broonzy was becoming better known. Back in Chicago he was working regularly in South Side clubs, and he toured with Memphis Minnie. In 1934 Broonzy moved to RCA Victor's subsidiary Bluebird Records and began recording with the pianist known as "Black Bob." With Black Bob his music was evolving to a stronger R&B sound, and his singing sounded more assured and personal. In 1937, he began playing with the pianist Joshua Altheimer, recording and performing with a small instrumental group, including "traps" (drums), double bass and one or more melody instruments (horns or harmonica or both). In March 1938 he began recording for Vocalion Records. Broonzy's reputation grew. In 1938 he was asked to fill in for the recently deceased Robert Johnson at the "From Spirituals to Swing" concert at Carnegie Hall, produced by John H. Hammond. He also appeared in the 1939 concert at the same venue. His success led him in the same year to a small role in Swingin' the Dream, Gilbert Seldes's jazz adaptation of Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream, set in New Orleans in 1890 and featuring, among others, Louis Armstrong as Bottom and Maxine Sullivan as Titania, with the Benny Goodman sextet. Broonzy's recorded output through the 1930s only partially reflects his importance to Chicago blues. His half-brother, Washboard Sam, and his friends Jazz Gillum and Tampa Red also recorded for Bluebird. Broonzy was credited as the composer of many of their most popular recordings of that time. He reportedly played guitar on most of Washboard Sam's tracks. Because of his exclusive arrangements with his record label, Broonzy was careful to allow his name to appear on these artists' records only as a composer. 1940s Broonzy expanded his work during the 1940s as he honed his songwriting skills, which showed a knack for appealing to his more sophisticated city audience as well as people that shared his country roots. His work in this period shows he performed across a wider musical spectrum than almost any other bluesman before or since, including in his repertoire ragtime, hokum blues, country blues, urban blues, jazz-tinged songs, folk songs and spirituals. After World War II, Broonzy recorded songs that were the bridge that allowed many younger musicians to cross over to the future of the blues: the electric blues of postwar Chicago. His 1945 recordings of "Where the Blues Began", with Big Maceo on piano and Buster Bennett on sax, and "Martha Blues", with Memphis Slim on piano, clearly showed the way forward. One of his best-known songs, "Key to the Highway", appeared at this time. When the second American Federation of Musicians strike ended in 1948, Broonzy was signed by Mercury Records. In 1949, Broonzy became part of a touring folk music revue, I Come for to Sing, formed by Win Stracke, which also included Studs Terkel and Lawrence Lane. Terkel called him the key figure in the group. The revue had some success thanks to the emerging folk revival. When the revue played at Iowa State University in Ames, Broonzy met a local couple, Leonard and Lillian Feinberg, who found him a custodial job at Iowa State when a doctor ordered Broonzy to discontinue touring later that year. He remained in Ames until 1951, when he resumed touring. 1950s He left Chicago in 1950 to work as a janitor at Iowa State having performed there and established relationships with a likely view to develop his own influence and craft. After his return to performing, the exposure from I Come for to Sing made it possible for Broonzy to tour Europe in 1951. Here he was greeted with standing ovations and critical praise wherever he played. The tour marked a turning point in his fortunes, and when he returned to the United States he was a featured act with many prominent folk artists, such as Pete Seeger, and Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee. From 1953 on, his financial position became more secure, and he was able to live well on his earnings from music. He returned to his solo folk-blues roots and travelled and recorded extensively. Broonzy's numerous performances during the 1950s in British folk and jazz clubs were a significant influence on British audiences' understanding of the blues and bolstered the nascent British folk revival and early blues scene. Many British musicians on the folk scene, such as Bert Jansch, cited him as an important influence. John Lennon, of the Beatles, also cited Broonzy as an important early influence. While in the Netherlands, Broonzy met and became romantically involved with a Dutch woman, Pim van Isveldt. Together they had a child, Michael, who still lives in Amsterdam. In 1953, Vera (King) Morkovin and Studs Terkel took Broonzy to Circle Pines Center, a cooperative year-round camp in Delton, Michigan, where he was employed as the summer camp cook. He worked there in the summer from 1953 to 1956. On July 4, 1954, Pete Seeger travelled to Circle Pines and gave a concert with Broonzy on the farmhouse lawn, which was recorded by Seeger for the new fine-arts radio station in Chicago, WFMT-FM. In 1955, with the assistance of the Belgian writer Yannick Bruynoghe, Broonzy published his autobiography, Big Bill Blues. He toured worldwide, travelling to Africa, South America, the Pacific region and across Europe into early 1956. In 1957 Broonzy was one of the founding faculty members of the Old Town School of Folk Music. On the school's opening night, December 1, he taught a class, "The Glory of Love". Illness and death By 1958 Broonzy was suffering from throat cancer. He died on August 14 or 15, 1958 (sources vary on the precise date), and is buried in Lincoln Cemetery, in Blue Island, Illinois. Style and influence Broonzy's influences included the folk music, spirituals, work songs, ragtime music, hokum, and country blues he heard growing up and the styles of his contemporaries, including Jimmie Rodgers, Blind Blake, Son House, and Blind Lemon Jefferson. Broonzy combined all these influences into his own style of the blues, which foreshadowed the postwar Chicago blues, later refined and popularized by artists such as Muddy Waters and Willie Dixon. Although he had been a pioneer of the Chicago blues style and had employed electric instruments as early as 1942, white audiences in the 1950s wanted to hear him playing his earlier songs accompanied only by his own acoustic guitar, which they considered to be more authentic. He portrayed the discrimination against black Americans in his song "Black, Brown and White". The song has been used globally in education about racism, but in the late 1990s its inclusion in antiracism education at a school in Greater Manchester, England, led pupils to taunt the school's only black pupil with the song's chorus, "If you're white, that's all right, if you're brown, stick around, but if you're black, oh brother get back, get back, get back". The national media reported that the problem became so bad that the nine-year-old boy was withdrawn from the school by his mother. The song had already been adopted by the National Front, a far-right British political party which peaked in popularity in the 1970s and opposed nonwhite immigration to Britain. A considerable part of Broonzy's early ARC/CBS recordings has been reissued in anthologies by CBS-Sony, and other earlier recordings have been collected on blues reissue labels, as have his European and Chicago recordings of the 1950s. The Smithsonian's Folkways Records has also released several albums featuring Broonzy. In 1980, he was inducted into the first class of the Blues Hall of Fame, along with 20 other of the world's greatest blues legends. In 2007, he was inducted into the first class of the Gennett Records Walk of Fame, along with 11 other musical greats, including Louis Armstrong, Jelly Roll Morton, Gene Autry, and Lawrence Welk. Broonzy as an acoustic guitar player inspired Muddy Waters, Memphis Slim, Ray Davies, John Renbourn, Rory Gallagher, Ben Taylor, and Steve Howe. In the September 2007 issue of Q Magazine, Ronnie Wood, of the Rolling Stones, cited Broonzy's track "Guitar Shuffle" as his favorite guitar music. Wood remarked, "It was one of the first tracks I learnt to play, but even to this day I can't play it exactly right." Eric Clapton has cited Broonzy as a major inspiration, commenting that Broonzy "became like a role model for me, in terms of how to play the acoustic guitar". Clapton featured Broonzy's song "Hey Hey" on his album Unplugged. The Derek and the Dominos album Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs includes their recording of "Key to the Highway". Tom Jones has cited Broonzy as a major influence on him and in a 2012 interview described his first experience of Broonzy's music as having been 'Fuck, what is that? Who is that?' Another musician heavily influenced by Broonzy was Jerry Garcia, who upon hearing a recording of Broonzy's blues playing decided to exchange an accordion he received on his 15th birthday for an electric guitar. Garcia would later co-found the Grateful Dead, who frequently performed a number of songs which Broonzy had recorded decades earlier, including "C.C. Rider" and "Goin' Down the Road Feelin' Bad". In the benediction at the 2009 inauguration ceremony of President Barack Obama, the civil rights leader Rev. Dr. Joseph Lowery paraphrased Broonzy's song "Black, Brown and White Blues". As part of the PopUp Archive project, in collaboration with the WFMT network, the Chicago History Museum, and the Library of Congress, an hour-long interview of Broonzy, recorded on September 13, 1955, by Studs Terkel was made available online. The interview includes reflections on his life and on the blues tradition, a performance of one of his most famous songs, "Alberta," and performances of "Goin' Down the Road Feelin' Bad" and other classics. Discography Between 1927 and 1942, Broonzy recorded 224 songs, which makes him the second most prolific blues recording artist during that period. These were released before blues records were tracked by recording industry trade magazines. By the time Billboard magazine instituted its "race music" charts in October 1942, Broonzy's recordings were less popular, and none appeared in the charts. Selected singles Many of Broonzy's singles were issued by more than one record company, sometimes under different names. Additional versions of some songs were also released. These are marked with a superscript plus sign. Broonzy also appeared as a sideman on recordings by Lil Green, Sonny Boy Williamson I, Washboard Sam, Jazz Gillum and other Bluebird Records artists. Albums Big Bill Broonzy and Washboard Sam (1953) Big Bill Broonzy and Roosevelt Sykes (DVD, recorded 1956) His Story (Folkways Records, 1957) Big Bill Broonzy Sings Country Blues (Folkways Records FA 2326, 1957) Blues with Big Bill Broonzy, Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee (Folkways Records, 1959) Big Bill Broonzy Sings Folk Songs (Folkways Records FA 2328, 1962) Big Bill Broonzy Sings Folk Songs (Smithsonian Folkways, 1989) (reissue) Best of the Blues Tradition (1991) Do That Guitar Rag (1928–1935) (1991) Trouble in Mind (Smithsonian Folkways, 2000) Broonzy Volume 2: 1945–1949: The Post War Years (2000) Big Bill Broonzy in Concert (2002) Big Bill Broonzy on Tour in Britain: Live in England & Scotland (2002) Big Bill Blues: His 23 Greatest Songs 1927–42 (2004) Get Back (2004) Big Bill Amsterdam Live Concerts 1953 (2006) Keys to the Blues (2009) All The Classics 1936-1937, Vol. 4 (2019) References Further reading Riesman, Bob (2011). I Feel So Good: The Life and Times of Big Bill Broonzy. University of Chicago Press. . See the website for the book. External links Big Bill Broonzy CD reissue discography Broonzy.com series of tribute pages including bio, discography, sound clips Big Bill Broonzy: Interviews and performances with Studs Terkel at Smithsonian Folkways Big Bill Broonzy research at the Mississippi Blues Trail Big Bill Broonzy recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. 1903 births 1958 deaths People from Bolivar County, Mississippi People from Pine Bluff, Arkansas African-American guitarists American street performers American blues guitarists American male guitarists Country blues singers American folk singers American male singer-songwriters American blues singer-songwriters Folk musicians from Chicago Old Town School of Folk musicians Country blues musicians Singer-songwriters from Arkansas Singer-songwriters from Mississippi Deaths from esophageal cancer Paramount Records artists Bluebird Records artists GNP Records artists Gennett Records artists Chess Records artists Vocalion Records artists 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237961	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center%20for%20Creative%20Imaging	Center for Creative Imaging	The Center for Creative Imaging (CCI) was a short-lived education and training center located in the renovated Knox Mill complex in Camden, Maine from about 1991 to 1994. It was an Eastman Kodak Company facility designed to teach digital imaging and related subject matter to artists, design professionals, photographers, and production staff. The 27,000 square foot (2,500 m²) facility sat on the Megunticook River, and contained what was then state-of-the-art equipment, including over 100 high-end Apple Macintosh IIfx computers, hard drives of up to 500 Mb of storage per machine, large displays, and an array of scanners, digital cameras, and output devices. Classes ran from one to five days in length, generally three, and covered digital imaging areas like publishing, photography, and illustration. Several invitational and special events brought artists and experts like Paul Davis, Milton Glaser, Gary Panter, Graham Nash, Edward Tufte, and dozens of others to lecture and teach. Many of the leading photographers of the day using cutting-edge digital techniques taught there; other well-known artists came to take classes. The Time "Man of the Year" cover for 1991 of Ted Turner was assembled by photographer Greg Heisler at the CCI with the assistance of staff. The creation of the cover took long enough to nearly delay the printing of the issue. Kodak chose to sell the CCI in 1993 to a local businessman who, without the vast resources of a multinational company behind him, was unable to transform it into a profitable teaching facility, despite expanding its focus to include conventional photography in competition with the long-running Maine Photographic Workshops down the road in Rockport, Maine. The CCI's building was purchased by MBNA, the credit card company. All of the fixtures, including polished granite and hardwoods, were removed, and the brickwork and exterior of the building were painted the drab gray and green corporate colors. MBNA left Camden before its merger with Bank of America in 2005. The CCI is still remembered around Camden quite well, as many people from the area had jobs there as teaching assistants and other staff, and many locals took classes and changed their careers. Many dozens of expensive Steelcase chairs, even after more than a decade, could still be found throughout local businesses who bought them at the closing sale. References Education in Knox County, Maine Maine culture	[ 0.3211718797683716, 0.23383991420269012, -0.06452537328004837, 0.4260385036468506, 0.2665124535560608, -0.2897966206073761, -0.040708765387535095, 0.28835856914520264, 0.1769694983959198, -0.4175606369972229, 0.22523945569992065, 0.2017143964767456, 0.036587927490472794, 0.08295571804046631, -0.5093432664871216, -0.04204036295413971, 0.4369524121284485, 0.0047172256745398045, 0.05456501618027687, 0.06504832953214645, -0.06007358059287071, -0.45842668414115906, 0.02051132544875145, -0.013114208355545998, -0.6625857353210449, 0.3202493488788605, -0.07735777646303177, 0.03185853362083435, 0.35781142115592957, -0.07449395954608917, 0.16635866463184357, -0.09218323975801468, -0.26233431696891785, -0.7371022701263428, 0.19136454164981842, 0.7260657548904419, -0.5022361874580383, 0.08965005725622177, -0.17164146900177002, -0.6218264102935791, 0.006985053885728121, -0.23691336810588837, -0.1662163883447647, -0.11017746478319168, 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237962	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinotherium	Deinotherium	Deinotherium ("terrible beast" derived from the Ancient Greek , meaning "terrible" and , meaning "beast") was a large prehistoric relative of modern-day elephants that appeared in the Middle Miocene and survived until the Early Pleistocene. During that time, it changed very little. In life, it probably resembled modern elephants, except it had downward-curving tusks attached to the lower jaw. Taxonomy and evolution Deinotherium is the type genus of the family Deinotheriidae, which evolved from the smaller, early Miocene Prodeinotherium. These proboscideans represent a totally distinct line of evolutionary descent to that of other elephants, one that probably diverged very early in the history of the group as a whole. The large group to which elephants belong formerly contained several other related groups; besides the deinotheres, there were the gomphotheres (some of which had shovel-like lower front teeth), and the mastodons. Only the elephants survive today. Three species are recognized, all of great size. Deinotherium giganteum is the type species, and is described above. It was primarily a Late Miocene species, most common in Europe, and is the only species known from the circum-Mediterranean. Its last reported occurrence was from the Middle Pliocene of Romania (2 to 4 million BP). An entire skull, found in the Lower Pliocene beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt in 1836, was long and wide, indicating an animal exceeding modern elephants in size. D. indicum was the Asian species, known from India and Pakistan. It is distinguished by a more robust dentition and p4-m3 intravalley tubercles. D. indicum appeared in the Middle Miocene, and was most common in the Late Miocene. It disappeared from the fossil record about 7 million years BP (Late Miocene). D. bozasi was the African species. It is characterized by a narrower rostral trough, a smaller but higher nasal aperture, a higher and narrower cranium, and a shorter mandibular symphysis than the other two species. D. bozasi appeared at the beginning of the Late Miocene, and continued there after the other two species had died out elsewhere. The youngest fossils are from the Kanjera Formation, Kenya, about 1 million years old (Early Pleistocene). Description Deinotherium was a large proboscidean. Two adults of D. giganteum are around tall and weighed . This is similar to adult males of D. proavum, one of which weighed and was tall. However, both these species are smaller than a 45-year-old male of D. "thraceiensis", at tall and . The permanent tooth formula of D. giganteum was 0-0-2-3/1-0-2-3 (deciduous 0-0-3/1-0-3), with vertical cheek tooth replacement. Two sets of bilophodont and trilophodont teeth were present. The molars and rear premolars were vertical shearing teeth, and show that deinotheres became an independent evolutionary branch very early on; the other premolars were used for crushing. The cranium was short, low, and flattened on the top, in contrast to more advanced proboscideans, which have a higher and more domed forehead, with very large, elevated occipital condyles. The nasal opening was retracted and large, indicating a large trunk. The rostrum was long and the rostral fossa broad. The mandibular symphyses (the lower jaw-bone) were very long and curved downward, which, with the backward-curved tusks, is a distinguishing feature of the group; it possessed no upper tusks. Deinotherium is distinguished from its predecessor Prodeinotherium by its much greater size, greater crown dimensions, and reduced development of posterior cingula ornamentation in the second and third molars. Paleoecology The way Deinotherium used its curious tusks has been much debated. It may have rooted in soil for underground plant parts like roots and tubers, pulled down branches to snap them and reach leaves, or stripped soft bark from tree trunks. Deinotherium fossils have been uncovered at several of the African sites where remains of prehistoric hominid relatives of modern humans have also been found. Early Pleistocene species of young Deinotherium might have also fallen prey to Homotherium. Distribution Deinotheriums range covered parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Adrienne Mayor, in The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology In Greek and Roman Times, has suggested that deinothere fossils found in Greece helped generate myths of archaic giant beings. A tooth of a deinothere found on the island of Crete, in shallow marine sediments of the Miocene suggests that Crete was closer or connected to the mainland during the Messinian salinity crisis. References Further reading Carroll, R.L. (1988), Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution, WH Freeman & Co. Colbert, E. H. (1969), Evolution of the Vertebrates, John Wiley & Sons Inc (2nd ed.) Harris, J.M. (1976) Evolution of feeding mechanisms in the family Deinotheriidae (Mammalia: Proboscidea). Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 56: 331-362 Athanassios Athanassiou, On a Deinotherium (Proboscidea) finding in the Neogene of Crete: Carnets Geol., vol. 4, no. L05: 7 p., DOI: 10.4267/2042/311 External links Deinotherium Factfile - ABC Deinotheriids Miocene proboscideans Pliocene proboscideans Pleistocene proboscideans Miocene genus first appearances Pleistocene genus extinctions Miocene mammals of Africa Miocene mammals of Europe Miocene mammals of Asia Pliocene mammals of Africa Pliocene mammals of Europe Pliocene mammals of Asia Pleistocene mammals of Asia Pleistocene mammals of Africa Pleistocene mammals of Europe Prehistoric elephants Prehistoric placental genera Taxa named by Johann Jakob Kaup Fossil taxa described in 1829	[ -0.17194633185863495, 0.2863346040248871, -1.1824626922607422, -0.010080480948090553, -0.3514835834503174, 0.8732926249504089, 0.5841847062110901, -0.021577902138233185, -0.7680564522743225, -0.11421968042850494, 0.4281875491142273, 0.07076038420200348, -0.48492053151130676, 0.37946048378944397, -0.3785444498062134, -0.04967508465051651, 0.35403135418891907, 0.12446470558643341, -0.2478928565979004, 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237964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image%20Comics	Image Comics	Image Comics is an American comic book publisher and is the third largest comic book and graphic novel publisher in the industry in both unit and market share. It was founded in 1992 by several high-profile illustrators as a venue for creator-owned properties, in which comics creators could publish material of their own creation without giving up the copyrights to those properties. Normally this was the case in the work for hire-dominated American comics industry, in which the legal author is a publisher, such as Marvel Comics or DC Comics, and the creator is an employee of that publisher. Its output was originally dominated by superhero and fantasy series from the studios of the founding Image partners, but now includes comics in many genres by numerous independent creators. Its best-known publications include Spawn, Savage Dragon, Witchblade, The Walking Dead, Invincible, Saga, Jupiter's Legacy, and Kick-Ass. History Founding In the early 1990s, comics creators Erik Larsen, Rob Liefeld, and Jim Valentino had dinner with Malibu Comics editor-in-chief Dave Olbrich. Malibu was a small but established publishing company sympathetic to creator-ownership, and Olbrich expressed interest in publishing comics created by them. These and several other freelance illustrators doing popular work for Marvel Comics were growing frustrated with the company's work for hire policies and practices, which they felt did not sufficiently reward the talent that produced them, as the company heavily merchandised their artwork, and compensated them with modest royalties. According to Todd McFarlane, he, Jim Lee and Liefeld met with Marvel president Terry Stewart and editor Tom DeFalco in late December 1991. Larsen and Marc Silvestri, who joined the group the night before, were not present, but the group that met with Stewart indicated that they were representing them as well. McFarlane says that they made no demands of Stewart or Marvel, but informed him that they were leaving, gave their reasons why, and cautioned Stewart to heed those reasons, lest the company suffer future departures. The creators had a similar meeting with DC Comics the next day, commenting that their new policies intended to be more beneficial to creators had been crafted unilaterally, without creators' input. After Whilce Portacio returned from his yearly trip to the Philippines, his Homage Studios colleague Lee asked him to join the group. A group of seven artists then announced the founding of Image Comics: Todd McFarlane (known for his work on Spider-Man), Jim Lee (X-Men), Rob Liefeld (X-Force), Marc Silvestri (Wolverine), Erik Larsen (The Amazing Spider-Man), Jim Valentino (Guardians of the Galaxy), and Whilce Portacio (Uncanny X-Men); with longtime Uncanny X-Men writer Chris Claremont (who was not actively involved with the group) adding his support. This development was nicknamed the "X-odus", because several of the artists involved (Liefeld, Lee, Silvestri, and Portacio) were famous for their work on the X-Men franchise. Marvel's stock fell $3.25/share when the news became public. Image's organizing charter had two key provisions: Image would not own any creator's work; the creator would. Image itself would own no intellectual property except the company trademarks: its name and its logo (designed by writer Hank Kanalz). No Image partner would interfere – creatively or financially – with any other partner's work. Each Image partner founded his own studio, which published under the Image banner but was autonomous from any central editorial control. Portacio withdrew during the formative stages to deal with his sister's illness, so Image originally consisted of six studios: Todd McFarlane Productions, owned by Todd McFarlane WildStorm Productions, owned by Jim Lee Highbrow Entertainment, owned by Erik Larsen Shadowline, owned by Jim Valentino Top Cow Productions, owned by Marc Silvestri Extreme Studios, owned by Rob Liefeld Development The founders' initial titles were produced under the Image imprint, but published through Malibu Comics, which provided administrative, production, distribution, and marketing support for the launch of them. The first Image comic books to arrive in stores were Liefeld's Youngblood, Larsen's The Savage Dragon, McFarlane's Spawn, and Lee's WildC.A.T.s. (Youngblood and Savage Dragon were not entirely new creations, having debuted in Gary Carlson's Megaton, an independent comic book title published from 1981 to 1987.) Propelled by the artists' popularity and the eagerness of comic book collectors to get in on the "next big thing", these series sold in numbers that no publisher other than Marvel, DC, or Valiant Comics had achieved in the years since the market's decline in the 1970s. (The company experienced lesser successes with Silvestri's Cyberforce, Valentino's Shadowhawk, and Portacio's much-delayed Wetworks.) Within a few months, the Image titles' success led to Malibu having almost 10% of the North American comics market share, briefly exceeding that of industry giant DC Comics. By the beginning of 1993, Image's financial situation was secure enough to publish its titles independently, and it left Malibu. Some of the founders' studios came to resemble separate publishers, each with several ongoing series set in a shared universe. (At first there were indications of an "Image Universe" shared by the studios, but these decreased as the studios developed their own directions.) The use of freelancers to write or illustrate series that were owned by the Image partners led to criticism that some of them had reproduced the very system they had rebelled against, but with them in charge instead of a corporation. Image partners such as Larsen and Valentino, who did not take this approach, assumed a neutral position on it, in keeping with the requirement that none of them had any say in how the others' studios were run. Some of the Image partners used their studios to also publish new works produced by independent creators, allowing those people to retain ownership and editorial control over those series, an arrangement which was then uncommon among large publishers. These included Sam Kieth (The Maxx), Dale Keown (Pitt), Jae Lee (Hellshock), and the team of Kurt Busiek, Brent Anderson, and Alex Ross (Astro City). Later, some established self-published series also moved to Image, such as Jeff Smith's Bone and Colleen Doran's A Distant Soil. The partners had little business or management experience, and many series quickly fell behind their intended publishing schedule. Comparing them to vaporware, one reader reported that 17 of the 36 delayed items in his December 1992 order were from Image. Retailers' advance orders of newly offered issues were typically based on the sales of recent issues, but as the issues shipped weeks and even several months late, fans' interest tended to wane, leaving retailers with inventory they couldn't sell when it arrived. In response, retailers cut orders to reduce their risk. This significantly hurt the studios, which were each responsible for their own cash flow and profitability. In late 1993, the partners hired independent cartoonist Larry Marder to act as "executive director" for the publisher; Valentino quipped in interviews that Marder's job was literally to "direct the executives" (i.e. the Image partners). Marder developed better financial planning and had some success in disciplining creators to deliver their work on time, in part by insisting that retail orders for new issues would not be solicited until the books had been illustrated, usually ensuring they would be ready to ship when promised. By the mid-1990s Image series such as Spawn and The Savage Dragon had proven themselves as lasting successes (the former frequently topping the sales charts for months in which new issues came out), while new series such as Wildstorm's Gen¹³, and Top Cow's Witchblade and The Darkness were also successful. Image had become the third-largest comics publisher in North America, exceeded only by long-established industry leaders Marvel and DC Comics. Partial break-up Disagreements between partners began to develop. Several of the partners complained that Liefeld was using his position as CEO of Image to promote and perhaps even to financially support Maximum Press, a publishing company that Liefeld operated separately from Image. Silvestri withdrew Top Cow from Image in 1996 (although he retained his partnership in the company), protesting that Liefeld was recruiting artists from his studio, including highly popular Michael Turner (Witchblade). The other five partners discussed ousting Liefeld from the company, and Liefeld resigned in September 1996, giving up his share of the company. Silvestri subsequently returned Top Cow to Image. Wildstorm's Cliffhanger imprint, established in 1998, was a commercial success, launching high-selling creator-owned properties by Humberto Ramos, J. Scott Campbell, Joe Madureira, and others. Jim Lee sold Wildstorm and its characters to DC Comics in 1999, citing a desire to exchange his responsibilities as a publisher for the opportunity to do more creative work. Diversification The founders of Image were best known for their dynamic and extravagant art, and for character-driven, thinly-plotted stories in the superhero genre. Although the company also published dissimilar works, many readers came to perceive this as the "Image style" of comics. Valentino had become less active as a creator after the company's first few years, and responded to this development in 1997 by using his position as a partner to seek out and publish a number of titles by other creators in distinctly different genres and styles, in a deliberate attempt to diversify Image's output and how it was perceived. Although most of these series—ironically dubbed the "non-line" because of their lack of commonality—did not sell well and were soon cancelled, they introduced an increasingly important business model for the company: offering other creators the same total-ownership terms the partners enjoyed, but taking a fixed fee upon publication for the company's administrative costs. This practice was later formalized as a function of "Image Central", a business unit independent of any of the studios. This focus on non-studio comics increased when Valentino took on the role of Image's publisher, assuming many of the responsibilities held by Marder until Marder left the company in 1999. The company's position in the North American direct market diminished in the 2000s, challenged by Dark Horse Comics and IDW Publishing for the position of "third largest publisher" after Marvel and DC. In February 2004, Larsen replaced Valentino as publisher, largely continuing existing business practices. Larsen stepped down as publisher in July 2008 and executive director Eric Stephenson was promoted to the position. Valentino returned to operating his own studio with his Shadowline imprint. Shortly after Stephenson's appointment, Image added Robert Kirkman as the company's first new partner since its founding. Kirkman's black-and-white series The Walking Dead was at that time already a long-running and popular series (it would run for 193 issues and serve as the basis for three television series), and his series Invincible was one of the longest-running series featuring a superhero created in the early 2000s (it would run for 144 issues). Kirkman created an imprint under his direction, known as Skybound. Starting in 2009, Image began to greatly expand both the types of comics it publishes and the types of creators drawn to the publisher, beginning a period of critical acclaim. Among its award-winning series, are Chew, Morning Glories, Fatale, The Manhattan Projects, and Saga. Saga creator Brian K. Vaughan explained why he chose Image to publish that series: Image's sales grew significantly during this period to a market share of around 10% in 2015, and an influx of Marvel- and DC-associated creators began publishing creator-owned work with them. As a result, Image was voted Diamond Comic Distributors' Publisher of the Year Over 4% three years in a row between 2013 and 2015. By this time, a clear majority of titles Image published in a given month were non-studio productions. Meanwhile, McFarlane's Spawn and related titles, his McFarlane Toys line, Silvestri's Top Cow imprint, and Kirkman's various series remained a substantial segment of Image's total sales. , McFarlane's Spawn and Larsen's Savage Dragon were the longest-running creator-owned titles published by Image, with over 300 and 250 issues, respectively. The company's headquarters moved from Berkeley, California to Portland, Oregon in 2017. In November 2021, members of the editorial, production, sales, and accounting staff formed Comic Book Workers United, a trade union affiliated with the Communications Workers of America; however, Image did not voluntary recognize the union. When it was certified by a vote in January 2022, it became the first such union in the American comics industry. List of imprints This list also includes studios and partners. Current 12-Gauge Comics Arancia Studio Black Market Narrative Giant Generator Highbrow Entertainment Millarworld Robert Kirkman, LLC Skybound Entertainment Skybound Games Howyaknow, LLC Todd McFarlane Productions Top Cow Productions Shadowline Syzygy Publishing Former Awesome Comics Devil's Due Publishing Gorilla Comics WildStorm America's Best Comics Accolades Image Comics titles have garnered both comics and mainstream critical acclaim. Image Comics titles boast multiple award nominations and wins across all categories in the Eisner Awards, Hugo Awards, Russ Manning Awards, The Edgar Awards, Bram Stoker Awards, Young Adult Library Association’s Great Graphic Novels for Teens, and more. Image Comics’ title list includes domestic and international bestsellers with regular appearances on The New York Times bestseller list, The Washington Posts bestseller list, USA Todays bestseller list, the Amazon.com bestseller list, and more. In July 2018, Marjorie Liu won the Eisner Award for Best Writer for her work on Monstress, making her the first woman in history to win in the category. In April 2019, Image Comics titles received a total 30 Eisner Award nominations—more than any other nominated publisher—and made history as the first publisher to sweep the Best New Series category, with all six titles nominated published by Image. See also List of Image Comics publications Image Universe List of unproduced Image Comics projects List of television series and films based on Image Comics publications Notes References Citations Sources Khoury, George (June 2007).Image Comics: The Road To Independence TwoMorrows Publishing. , excerpts: "McFarlane and Khoury on 15 Years of Image Comics" . Comic Book Resources. June 13, 2007 "Marc Silvestri from Image Comics: The Road to Independence". Newsarama. June 14, 2007 Dale Keown excerpt from Image Comics: The Road to Independence, June 14, 2007 Image Comics. Big Comic Book DataBase. 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237966	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WildStorm	WildStorm	WildStorm Productions, or simply WildStorm (often rendered Wildstorm), is an American comic book imprint. Originally founded as an independent company established by Jim Lee under the name "Aegis Entertainment" and expanded in subsequent years by other creators, WildStorm became a publishing imprint of DC Comics in 1999. Until it was shut down in 2010, the WildStorm imprint remained editorially separate from DC Comics, with its main studio located in California. The imprint took its name from the combining of the titles of the Jim Lee comic series WildC.A.T.S. and Stormwatch. Its main fictional universe, the Wildstorm Universe, featured costumed heroes. WildStorm maintained a number of its core titles from its early period, and continued to publish material expanding its core universe. Its main titles included WildC.A.T.S, Stormwatch, Gen¹³, Wetworks, and The Authority; it also produced single-character-oriented series like Deathblow, and Midnighter, and published secondary titles like Welcome to Tranquility. WildStorm also published creator-owned material, and licensed properties from other companies, covering a wide variety of genres. Its creator-owned titles included Red Menace, A god Somewhere, and Ex Machina, while its licensed titles included Friday the 13th, A Nightmare on Elm Street, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, StarCraft, the Dante's Inferno game, The X-Files, and the God of War video game series. DC shut down the WildStorm imprint in December 2010. In September 2011, the company relaunched its entire superhero line with a rebooted continuity in an initiative known as The New 52, which included Wildstorm characters incorporated into that continuity with its long-standing DC characters. Wildstorm was revived by comic writer Warren Ellis. It debuted in February 2017 with The Wild Storm formally reviving the imprint. History Image Comics (1992–1997) WildStorm, founded by Jim Lee and Brandon Choi, was one of the founding studios that formed Image Comics in 1992. Image grew out of Homage Studios and was founded by artists Whilce Portacio, Jim Lee, Erik Larsen, Rob Liefeld, Todd McFarlane, Marc Silvestri, and Jim Valentino in San Diego, California. All but Portacio decided to become full partners in the new firm. At the time, Lee and Portacio were recognized for their work on various X-Men titles at Marvel Comics. In late 1992, penciller Marc Silvestri joined the studio to work on the first issue of Cyberforce. Although he worked at the studio, his projects would debut as the work of a new Image "partner studio" firm named Top Cow. Silvestri continued to work out of WildStorm's studio for about two years. Although WildStorm considered attracting talent, such as John Romita Jr., from the "Big Two", (Marvel and DC), Lee decided to find new talent instead. Lee's talent search yielded Brett Booth in 1992, and J. Scott Campbell in 1993. Apart from McFarlane's Spawn, WildStorm produced the most consistently, commercially successful comics from Image. These included Lee's own titles WildC.A.T.s and the teen-hero title Gen¹³, illustrated by J. Scott Campbell. Like many other Image titles, some of the WildStorm titles suffered from inconsistent completion and shipping, resulting in "monthly" comics coming out every few months. This era produced a number of titles of varying popularity including Gen¹³, WildC.A.T.s, Stormwatch, Deathblow, Cybernary, and Whilce Portacio's Wetworks. In late 1993, Lee launched WildStorm Productions as a sub-imprint of Image. He explained: "During the startup of Image Comics, I incorporated my business activities under the name Aegis Entertainment. As Aegis grew and the marketplace changed, I decided a new name would more accurately define the nature of the titles we produce". In conjunction with the name change, former DC editor Bill Kaplan was brought in to oversee production and scheduling, in an effort to combat the studio's problems with erratic publication schedules. His attempts to get the studio's characters into other media proved disappointing. A Saturday morning cartoon series of WildC.A.T.s lasted only a single season (1994–1995), while a full-length animated version of Gen¹³ was produced but never released in the United States. Disney had acquired the domestic distribution rights, but shelved the product. Paramount had international distribution rights, and later released the film only in a few foreign markets. Toys from both titles were less successful than those made by Todd McFarlane, partly due to poor marketing and partly because the McFarlane toys were targeted at a more mature audience. However, they had a big success copying Wizards of the Coast's Magic: The Gathering with their introduction of the card game, WildStorms: The Expandable Super-Hero Card Game produced between 1995 - 1997, which was later spun off into a crossover set of cards with Marvel. The crossover was the swan song for the Wildstorms game as Marvel's merchandising clout succeeded in pushing WildStorm's out of the spotlight. Although the timing was right for their card game, they were too early by a year with a Pog game which used the WildC.A.T.s characters they released in 1993. In 1995, WildStorm created an imprint called Homage Comics, centered on more writer-driven books. The imprint started with Kurt Busiek's Astro City and The Wizard's Tale, James Robinson's Leave It to Chance (with Paul Smith), and Terry Moore's Strangers In Paradise. Subsequently, the imprint featured works by Sam Kieth, including The Maxx, Zero Girl and Four Women, three of Warren Ellis' pop-comics mini-series, Mek, Red, and Reload, and Jeff Mariotte's weird western Desperadoes. In 1997, Cliffhanger debuted a line of creator-owned comic books which included such popular works as: J. Scott Campbell's Danger Girl, Joe Madureira's Battle Chasers, Humberto Ramos' Crimson and Out There, Joe Kelly and Chris Bachalo's Steampunk, Kurt Busiek and Carlos Pacheco's Arrowsmith, Busiek's Astro City and Warren Ellis's Two-Step and Tokyo Storm Warning. 1997 also saw a revamp of all the WildStorm Universe titles, including comic-books by writers such as: Alan Moore, Warren Ellis, Adam Warren, Sean Phillips, and Joe Casey. After this revamp the new Wildcats series, Stormwatch and DV8 took the places of the most popular and most commercially successful comics of the WildStorm Universe. WildStorm also made a presentation to Lucasfilm Ltd. in an attempt to obtain a license for the lucrative Star Wars license, but lost to the incumbent Dark Horse Comics. DC Comics first run (1998–2010) Sales of comic books began to decline in 1993, and by the mid-1990s Jim Lee was looking for a buyer. The result was the 1998 acquisition of WildStorm by DC Comics, which went into effect in January 1999. According to DC, this was meant to "strengthen both WildStorm's ability to expand its editorial goals and diversifying DC's output". WildStorm was editorially separate from DC Comics, and the two companies maintained offices on opposite coasts: Wildstorm in California, and DC in New York City. DC's acquisition of WildStorm allowed their respective universes to co-exist, and characters from either universe could appear in the titles of either imprint. In 1999, WildStorm launched several new titles, including The Authority, a dark and violent superhero comic whose characters fought dirty and had little regard for the rights and lives of their opponents; their only goal was to make the world a better place. Warren Ellis created The Authority as a successor to Stormwatch. He wrote its first twelve issues before handing the series over to Mark Millar. The Authority fused Silver Age superhero concepts with 1990s cynicism. In the 2004 Wildstorm crossover, Coup d'etat, the Authority takes control of the United States. Ellis and artist John Cassaday created Planetary, about "explorers of the strange", an experiment that merged pop culture, comic book history and literary characters. WildStorm launched a new imprint titled America's Best Comics as a showcase for Alan Moore. The line includes the titles Promethea, The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Tomorrow Stories, Tom Strong and Top 10. The studio launched Eye of the Storm in 2001 as an experiment. By this time, WildStorm had become largely a "mature readers" imprint. Joe Casey continued writing Wildcats, retitling it Wildcats 3.0 to reflect the shift in tone. The new version was penciled by Dustin Nguyen with inks by Richard Friend. Gen¹³ was relaunched with a new first issue, written by X-Men's Chris Claremont. A Gen¹³ spinoff, 21 Down, was written by Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Gray. After the Point Blank mini-series, Ed Brubaker developed the same themes into the critically acclaimed Sleeper, set in the WildStorm universe. In 2001 Warren Ellis began Global Frequency. The rights for Global Frequency were bought by Warner Bros. in 2004 and a pilot for a TV series for the WB Network was made. The pilot never aired and was not picked up as a series, although the pilot was later leaked on the internet. Stormwatch was relaunched as Stormwatch: Team Achilles, about a team of normal soldiers who combat rogue superheroes. Robbie Morrison wrote a one-shot featuring the Authority characters, titled "Scorched Earth" (2003). It was serialized as a back-up story in the Eye of the Storm titles. A new ongoing Authority series began the storyline of the Coup d'état crossover, which ran through Authority, Sleeper, Stormwatch: Team Achilles and Wildcats 3.0. Two Winter Special anthologies also came out. Most of the line, except Sleeper, were canceled two years after their introduction. In 2004, WildStorm revamped its array of sub-imprints. The core titles were grouped into the "Wildstorm Universe" imprint, the creator-owned properties became the "WildStorm Signature Series" imprint, and all the licensed properties remained under the "WildStorm" imprint. Following Eye of the Storm, WildStorm published fewer Wildstorm Universe titles, including Majestic and Wildcats: Nemesis; Majestic was based on a character that had appeared in DC Comics Superman titles. In August 2006, WildStorm simplified its "brand" by returning all content to a single WildStorm imprint, and discarding the "Universe" and "Signature Series" imprints. In 2007, the Wildstorm fictional universe became "Earth-50", part of the DC Comics Multiverse. In April 2008, Ben Abernathy announced that the events of Wildstorm: Revelations, Wildstorm: Armageddon and Number of the Beast would segue into Wildstorm: World's End, a post-apocalyptic direction for the line. In July of the same year, Christos Gage and Neil Googe published a new WildCats: World's End #1. There followed, in August 2008, a new Authority: World's End #1 by Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning with art by Simon Coleby, Gen¹³ #21 by Scott Beatty with art by Mike Huddleson, and Stormwatch: PHD #13 by Ian Edginton with art by Leandro Fernández and Francisco Paronzini. The year 2008 was also when the crossover limited series DC/Wildstorm: DreamWar was released, making it one of the earliest times where DC and Wildstorm characters would appear together. The six-issue comic book limited series was written by Keith Giffen, drawn by Lee Garbett, and published by DC Comics. The Stormwatch: PHD title ended in November 2009. The remaining series each received another creative-team shake-up as 2010 began: February's The Authority #18 by Marc Bernardin and Adam Freeman with art by Al Barrionuevo, Wildcats #19 by Adam Beechen with art by Tim Seeley and Ryan Winn, and April's Gen¹³ #35 by Phil Hester and art by Cruddie Torian. WildStorm varied its publishing with licensed properties, such as: A Nightmare on Elm Street, Friday the 13th, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, Mirror's Edge, World of Warcraft, The X-Files, Dante's Inferno, and God of War. WildStorm has also published original graphic novels from the pens of writers Kevin J. Anderson, John Ridley and David Brin. The imprint was shut down in December 2010, with Wildcats (vol. 5) #30 as its last issue, although DC Comics announced that the characters would reappear some time in the future. DC Comics relaunched its DC Universe imprint in September 2011, which included the integration of the Wildstorm characters into the DC Universe. The initial wave of relaunched titles included: Voodoo and Grifter solo series, a revived Stormwatch title featuring Jack Hawksmoor, Midnighter, Apollo, the Engineer, and Jenny Quantum, and a revived version of Team 7 with non-WildStorm characters Deathstroke, Amanda Waller and Black Canary. The Teen Titans spin-off title The Ravagers featured Caitlin Fairchild and Warblade as part of the cast, while WildC.A.T.s villain Helspont appeared in Superman #7 and #8, Grunge appeared in Superboy #8, Zealot appeared in Deathstroke #9, and Spartan appeared in Team 7 #5. Midnighter was a recurring character in Grayson, before spinning off into his own ongoing series. Midnighter and Apollo also appeared in a 6-issue miniseries, Midnighter and Apollo. DC Comics revival (2017–present) On February 16, 2017, Wildstorm was officially revived with The Wild Storm #1 by Warren Ellis and Jon Davis-Hunt, a 24 issue series that re-imagined the Wildstorm Universe. On October 11, 2017, Wildstorm launched a second series under The Wild Storm banner with the 12 issue mini-series The Wild Storm: Michael Cray by Bryan Hill. Following the conclusion of The Wild Storm DC Comics announced that a new Wildcats six issue mini-series was to debut August 28, 2019, again penned by Ellis with art by Ramon Villalobos, but has been cancelled in 2019, with a future possibility of a release. Titles Major WildStorm Universe WildC.A.T.s Stormwatch The Authority Wetworks Gen¹³ Dv8 Team 7 Creator-owned titles Ex Machina by Brian K. Vaughan Astro City by Kurt Busiek The Wizard's Tale by Kurt Busiek Arrowsmith by Kurt Busiek and Carlos Pacheco America's Best Comics by Alan Moore Danger Girl by Andy Hartnell and J. Scott Campbell Battle Chasers by Joe Madureira Crimson by Humberto Ramos Out There by Humberto Ramos Steampunk by Chris Bachalo and Joe Kelly Red Menace by Danny Bilson, Paul DeMeo, Adam Brody and Jerry Ordway A god Somewhere by John Arcudi and Peter Snejbjerg Leave It to Chance by James Robinson and Paul Smith Strangers in Paradise by Terry Moore The Maxx by Sam Kieth The Boys by Garth Ennis and Darick Robertson Zero Girl by Sam Kieth Four Women by Sam Kieth Mek by Warren Ellis Red by Warren Ellis Reload by Warren Ellis Two-Step by Warren Ellis Tokyo Storm Warning by Warren Ellis Desperadoes by Jeff Mariotte Licensed titles Friday the 13th A Nightmare on Elm Street The Texas Chainsaw Massacre World of Warcraft StarCraft Resident Evil Dante's Inferno The X-Files God of War #1-5; #6 was published by DC Comics due to WildStorm's closure at that time. Modern Warfare 2: Ghost Gears of War (comics) #1-14; #15-24 were published by DC. Star Trek: A series of limited series and one-shots, published by DC 1999-2002. See also List of WildStorm titles List of WildStorm reprint collections References External links Wildstorm general search at the Grand Comics Database Wildstorm at the Big Comic Book DataBase Wild at Heart: Ben Abernathy, Newsarama, May 19, 2008 Comic book publishing companies of the United States DC Comics imprints Horror comics La Jolla, San Diego Companies based in San Diego Publishing companies established in 1992 Mass media companies disestablished in 2010 1992 establishments in California 2010 disestablishments in California Defunct companies based in California	[ 0.4574136435985565, -0.2584264278411865, -0.3261018395423889, -0.022405365481972694, -0.4825837016105652, -0.25117579102516174, 0.10406935214996338, 0.19934579730033875, -0.2946855425834656, 0.37026458978652954, -0.46798259019851685, 0.2523942291736603, -0.2797507345676422, 0.02414580248296261, -0.3252578377723694, 0.10263682901859283, -0.4978906214237213, 0.29526811838150024, -0.5251621603965759, -0.09477652609348297, 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237970	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomorrow%20Stories	Tomorrow Stories	Tomorrow Stories was an American comic book series created by Alan Moore for his America's Best Comics (ABC) line, published by Wildstorm (now a subsidiary of DC Comics). Overview Tomorrow Stories started in August 1999 as a collection of short stories featuring the same characters (one or two) every issue. Many of these characters were often inspired by pulp magazine and comic book archetypes, such as the boy genius and the masked detective. They include: Cobweb – created by Moore and Melinda Gebbie First American – created by Moore and Jim Baikie Greyshirt – created by Moore and Rick Veitch Jack B. Quick – created by Moore and Kevin Nowlan Splash Brannigan – created by Moore and Hilary Barta Issues Individual comics 64-page specials Collected editions The series has been collected into two volumes: Book 1 collects issues #1–6 (hardback: , paperback: ). Book 2 collects issues #7–12 (hardback: , paperback: ). Awards 2000: Won "Best Anthology" Eisner Award References 1999 comics debuts Comics by Alan Moore America's Best Comics titles Eisner Award winners for Best Anthology Comics anthologies	[ 0.2936416566371918, -0.5619522929191589, -0.043901339173316956, 0.4480282962322235, 0.42633166909217834, -0.1601458489894867, -0.09167701005935669, 0.282694011926651, 0.08868750929832458, 0.001499016536399722, -0.5195782780647278, 0.6278759837150574, -0.38880854845046997, 0.14230641722679138, -0.06706347316503525, -0.06993965804576874, 0.1603686362504959, 0.49381667375564575, -0.4915067255496979, -0.6110655069351196, -0.2552448809146881, -0.541368842124939, 0.3434183895587921, -0.4283562898635864, -0.1552196443080902, -0.38532915711402893, 0.27622199058532715, -0.27913418412208557, 0.04024067521095276, 0.23528318107128143, -0.2125217169523239, 0.1493365317583084, -0.10085667669773102, -0.28356343507766724, -0.4366114139556885, -0.11955321580171585, -0.6030685305595398, -0.09323932975530624, 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237971	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Strong	Tom Strong	Tom Strong is a comic book created by writer Alan Moore and artist Chris Sprouse, initially published bi-monthly by America's Best Comics, an imprint of DC Comics' Wildstorm division. Tom Strong, the title character, is a "science hero", with a wife, Dhalua, and a daughter, Tesla, both with enhanced physical and mental abilities and longevity. He lives in a building called The Stronghold in Millennium City. He is also helped by Pneuman, a steam-powered robot, and King Solomon, a gorilla with human characteristics. His greatest foe is tuxedo-clad "science villain" Paul Saveen. The series explores many different timelines and universes, which are a nod to different comic genres. The primary characters are tributes to and spoofs of early pulp heroes. Spin-offs include Tom Strong's Terrific Tales, Terra Obscura, and the one-shot The Many Worlds of Tesla Strong. A limited series titled Tom Strong and the Planet of Peril was published in 2013 by Vertigo. Tom Strong appears in The Terrifics, a DC Comics series about a group of the same name formed by Mr. Terrific, Metamorpho, Plastic Man and Phantom Girl. Fictional character biography Tom was reared in a high-gravity chamber and given an intensive education by his eccentric scientist parents on the fictional West Indian island of Attabar Teru. His upbringing, plus ingesting a root used by the natives of the island for health and long life, have made him nearly physically and mentally perfect. Though born at the dawn of the 20th century, by the year 2000 he looks as if he is only in his 40s. Tom Strong frequently has adventures alongside his younger self. There is also a parallel cartoon universe where a talking bunny is a version of Tom Strong, as well as a Western universe, and even "Tom Teen", where characters are similar to those from Archie Comics. Powers and abilities Tom Strong has super-strength and is an inventive genius. Strong maintains his physical health and longevity through the regular consumption of a mysterious herb called Goloka Root. He is an explorer with vast personal wealth and has contributed greatly to the technology available in Millennium City. Publication history Issues #1–7 The following issues are collected in Tom Strong: Book One: Tom Strong #1 – How Tom Strong Got Started (7 April 1999)w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Alan Gordon c: Tad Ehrlich Timmy Turbo receives his Strongmen of America membership, which also includes the story of How Tom Strong Got Started. As he reads of Tom Strong's origins and upbringing on Attabar Teru, Tom Strong defeats Blimp Bandit in the very cable car in which Timmy is riding — but Timmy is too engrossed in his reading to notice. Tom Strong #2 – Return of the Modular Man (12 May 1999) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Alan Gordon c: Tad Ehrlich The Modular Man, the unique mechanical-molecular megalomaniac Tom first destroyed in 1987, returns to Millennium City after two nerds download Modular Man's plans from the internet and accidentally reactivate him. Tom must find a way to stop the Modular Man before he envelops the whole city. Tom Strong #3 – Aztech Nights (8 July 1999)w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Alan Gordon c: Tad Ehrlich When a mysterious Aztec building materialises in Millennium Park, Tom discovers that it belongs to a brutal futuristic race from an alternate Earth. These Aztecs worship a sentient computer program that models itself after Quetzalcoatl. Tom Strong #4 – Swastika Girls! (1 September 1999) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Art Adams (untold tale) i: Alan Gordon c: Tad Ehrlich Ingrid Weiss and her Nazi cohorts attack Tom Strong's home, The Stronghold, in Millennium City. When Tom attempts to defend his home and family, he finds himself drawn into a sinister plot. Along the way we see an Untold Tale of Tom Strong which reveals when Weiss and Strong first met in Berlin in 1945. This is the first sequence of a four-part arc. Tom Strong #5 – Memories of Pangaea, Escape from Eden! (13 October 1999) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Jerry Ordway (untold tale) i: Alan Gordon c: Tad Ehrlich Having been sent backwards through time to a primordial Earth, Tom Strong must defend himself from its single inhabitant, which spans the Earth's entire solitary continent: The Pangean. Along the way we see Tom's first expedition to ancient Earth, with his wife, Dhalua, in the 1950s. The flashback is drawn to resemble an EC Comics story. Tom Strong #6 – Dead Man's Hand, The Big Heat? (29 December 1999) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Dave Gibbons (untold tale) i: Alan Gordon, Dave Gibbons c: Mike Garcia Trapped by villainous Paul Saveen, Tom must fight his way out of his captor's grasp; even if he succeeds, Ingrid Weiss has one last trump card to play. Along the way we see the first encounter between Tom and his arch-nemesis Saveen in the 1920s. Tom Strong #7 – Sons and Heirs, Showdown in the Shimmering City (1 March 2000) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Gary Frank (untold tale) i: Alan Gordon, Cam Smith c: Mike Garcia Held emotionally to ransom by Paul Saveen and Ingrid Weiss, Tom Strong must come to terms with his shocking piece of news. Along the way we see a futuristic Tom Strong in 2050. The conclusion of the four-part arc. Issues #8–14 The following issues are collected in Tom Strong: Book Two: Tom Strong #8 – Riders of the Lost Mesa; The Old Skool!; Sparks (17 May 2000) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Alan Weiss i: Alan Gordon, Alan Weiss c: Wildstorm FX, Mike Garcia Riders of the Lost Mesa – A prospecting town in Arizona that disappeared on New Year's Eve of 1849 suddenly reappears again 150 years later. Tom Strong and King Solomon investigate. The Old Skool! – During a school trip, Timmy Turbo and other members of the Strongmen of America find themselves sucked into a warp dimension where harsh teaching methods are enforced by massive robots. Sparks – Tesla Strong investigates sudden unexpected volcano activity in San Mageo amid native talk of "fire-devils" and "salamanders", and finds a little more than she bargained for. First appearance of Val Var Garm. Tom Strong #9 – Terror Temple of Tayasal; Volcano Dreams; Flip Attitude! (19 July 2000) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Paul Chadwick i: Alan Gordon, Paul Chadwick c: Matt Hollingsworth Terror Temple of Tayasal – En route to meeting with his wife and his father-in-law on Attabar Teru, Tom Strong stops off to investigate an intriguing archaeological find amongst the ruins of the Mayan city of Tayasal. Volcano Dreams – Tom Strong arrives late on Attabar Teru to meet his wife, Dhalua, and father-in-law. Dhalua recounts the story of her "Vision Ordeal" (a rite of passage for Omotu women) on Attabar Teru. Flip Attitude! – Tesla Strong meets Kid Tilt, daughter of science-villain King Tilt who Tom Strong captured and placed in jail, while Tom and Dhalua are away. Tom Strong #10 – Tom Strong and his Phantom Autogyro; Funnyland!; Too Many Teslas? (20 September 2000) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Gary Gianni i: Alan Gordon, Gary Gianni c: Matt Hollingsworth Tom Strong and his Phantom Autogyro – In 1925 Tom makes a journey into the land of the dead using the late Foster Parallax's final invention and learns a little about his parentage. Funnyland! – Inspired by his visit to a parallel dimension in Aztech Nights, Tom builds and uses a "searchboard" capable of pan-dimension travel. His first stop takes him to the anthropomorphic animal world of Warren Strong. Too Many Teslas? – Eager to try out her father's new invention, Tesla sneaks into her father's laboratory and activates the "searchboard", but it seems like all the Teslas in the different dimension have the same idea at once. This issue marks the first appearance of several alternate Earths later featured in The Many Worlds of Tesla Strong. Tom Strong #11 – Strange Reunion (20 December 2000) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Alan Gordon c: Matt Hollingsworth, David Baron Tom gets a surprising visit from old acquaintance Tom "Doc" Strange, who arrives all the way from Terra Obscura, an alternate version of Earth on the other side of the Milky Way galaxy which Strong visited in 1969. This is the first appearance of Terra Obscura, which would later have its own spin-off series. Tom Strong #12 – Terror on Terra Obscura! (18 April 2001) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Alan Gordon c: Matt Hollingsworth Part two: Tom Strong and Doc Strange return to Terra Obscura together to battle the evil that threatens the planet, freeing many of the science-heroes that have been trapped for the past 30 years in the process. Tom Strong #13 – The Tower at Time's End! (16 May 2001) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Kyle Baker, Russ Heath, Pete Poplaski i: Alan Gordon c: Matt Hollingsworth The mysterious Time-Keeper at the End of Time itself is forced to split the ruby capstone of Eternity into three, and send it back through time to into the care of three different versions of Tom Strong, in the hope of saving it from the evil clutches of Paul Saveen and thus foiling his plans to dominate history. Tom Strong #14 – Space Family Strong; The Land of Heart's Desire!; Baubles of the Brain Bazaar! (8 August 2001) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Hilary Barta i: Alan Gordon, Hilary Barta c: Matt Hollingsworth Space Family Strong – Tom Strong's family go into space for their vacation of 1954, and everything goes wrong. This is a comedy episode, featuring a caricature of Tom Strong. The Land of Heart's Desire – During the Strong family vacation of 1955, Tom and Dhalua are drawn to a mysterious and dangerous planet. Baubles of the Brain Bazaar! – When the Strong family attempt to return home from their vacation they find themselves 40,000,000 years in the future alongside Johnny Future battling a heartless slaver of souls. This is the first appearance of Johnny Future, the predecessor of Jonni Future. This issue was most likely an inspiration for the spin-off series Tom Strong's Terrific Tales, featuring a comedic "untold tale", a story featuring Young Tom Strong and an adventure set in Jonni Future's universe. Issues #15–19 The following issues are collected in Tom Strong: Book Three: Tom Strong #15 – Ring Of Fire! (4 January 2002) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story c: Matt Hollingsworth Tesla Strong is kidnapped by the mysterious "fire devil" from Tom Strong #8 (story "Sparks") and it is up to her parents to rescue her. Tom Strong #16 – Some Call Him The Space Cowboy (27 February 2002) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story c: Alex Sinclair Part One: While Tom Strong is struggling to come to terms with his daughter's new boyfriend, a mysterious three-eyed stranger arrives in Millennium City with a warning for Tom Strong. Tom Strong #17 – Ant Fugue! (3 July 2002) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story c: Alex Sinclair Part Two: Tom Strong and the Weird Rider attempt to prepare a force to tackle the impending invasion of Earth. Tom Strong #18 – The Last Roundup (30 October 2002) w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story c: Dave Stewart Part Three: Tom Strong and company defend Earth against the alien menace. Tom Strong #19 – Electric Ladyland!; Bad To The Bone; The Hero-Hoard Of Horatio Hogg! (19 February 2003) w: Alan Moore, Leah Moore p: Chris Sprouse, Howard Chaykin, Shawn McManusi: Karl Story, Howard Chaykin, Steve Mitchell c: Dave Stewart Electric Ladyland! – Dhalua is kidnapped by a secret society of women. Bad to the Bone – The details of Paul Saveen's death are revealed as he searches for the Temple of Everlasting Life. The Hero-Hoard of Horatio Hogg! – Tom and Tesla are trapped inside a booby-trapped comic-book by crazed collector Horatio Hogg. Issues #20–25 The following issues are collected in Tom Strong: Book Four: Tom Strong #20 – How Tom Stone Got Started: Chapter One (23 April 2003) w: Alan Moore p: Jerry Ordway i: Karl Story c: Dave Stewart Part One: The Stronghold is invaded by a mysterious woman who claims to be an alternate-timeline version of Susan Strong, Tom's mother. She tells him of an alternate history in which Sinclair Strong, rather than the sailor Tomas, was killed in the landing on Attabar Teru. Tom Strong #21 – How Tom Stone Got Started: Chapter Two – Strongmen In Silvertime (20 August 2003) w: Alan Moore p: Jerry Ordway i: Trevor Scott, Karl Story, Richard Friend c: Wildstorm FX Part Two: The greater emotional warmth and social skill of the mixed-race science-hero Tom Stone enable him to reform many of the villains who Tom Strong merely fought. Tom Strong #22 – How Tom Stone Got Started: Chapter Three – Crisis In Infinite Hearts (8 October 2003) w: Alan Moore p: Jerry Ordway i: Jerry Ordway, Sandra Hope, Richard Friend c: Dave Stewart Part Three: The tragic collapse of Tom Stone's life is revealed, and Tom Strong helps Susan Stone to make a terrible decision. Tom Strong #23 – Moonday (12 November 2003) w: Peter Hogan p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story, John Dell c: Dave Stewart Svetlana X and Tom Strong travel to the moon to rescue Svetlana's missing partner Dimi. Tom Strong #24 – Snow Queen (2 January 2004) w: Peter Hogan p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story, John Dell c: Dave Stewart Tom discovers that his first love Greta Gabriel, believed murdered by the villain Dr. Permafrost, is still alive in a mutated form. Tom Strong #25 – Tom Strong's Pal, Wally Willoughby (25 February 2004) w: Geoff Johns p: John Paul Leon i: John Paul Leon c: Dave Stewart Tom has to deal with Wally Willoughby, a socially crippled obsessive fan whose pain manifests itself through uncontrollable and destructive reality-warping powers. Issues #26–30 The following issues are collected in Tom Strong: Book Five: Tom Strong #26 – The Day Tom Strong Renegotiated the Friendly Skies (5 May 2004)w: Mark Schultz p: Pasqual Ferry i: Pascual Ferry c: Wendy Fouts, Carrie Strachan When all Earth's heavier-than-air flying machines mysteriously stop working, Tom must follow in his father's footsteps to renew an old compact. Tom Strong #27 – Jenny Panic and the Bible of Dreams (8 July 2004) w: Steve Aylett p: Shawn McManus i: Shawn McManus c: Wildstorm FX Tom tries to put a non-violent end to the trail of deaths unknowingly caused by a young woman whose vengeful dreams assault their real-world targets. Tom Strong #28 – A Fire in His Belly (22 September 2004) w: Brian K. Vaughan p: Peter Snejberg c: Wildstorm FX Sad events cause Pneuman to make a shocking decision. Tom Strong #29 – The Terrible True Life of Tom Strong, Part 1 (13 October 2004) w: Ed Brubaker p: Duncan Fegredo i: Duncan Fegredo c: Carrie Strachan Tom Strong battles mad scientist Eldon Moravia for an ancient magical artefact. Tom Strong #30 – The Terrible True Life of Tom Strong, Part 2 (29 December 2004) w: Ed Brubaker p: Duncan Fegredo i: Duncan Fegredo c: Michelle Madsen Trapped in a hideously grim and gritty universe, Tom finds himself making increasingly horrific discoveries about his own past. This issue can be seen as a parody of elements of Moore's famous metafictional superhero comic Miracleman. Issues #31–36 The following issues are collected in the final volume Tom Strong: Book Six: Tom Strong #31 – The Black Blade of the Barbary Coast, Part 1 (16 February 2005)w: Michael Moorcock p: Jerry Ordway i: Jerry Ordway c: Michelle Madsen Metatemporal investigator Sir Seaton Begg persuades Tom to travel to an alternate Earth's Golden Age of Piracy, to stop the albino Captain Zodiac unleashing Chaos on the Multiverse. Tom Strong #32 – The Black Blade of the Barbary Coast, Part 2 (13 April 2005)w: Michael Moorcock p: Jerry Ordway i: Jerry Ordway c: Michelle Madsen Tom and Zodiac fight over the mysterious Black Blade, while Solomon meets some distant relatives. Tom Strong #33 – The Journey Within (8 June 2005) w: Joe Casey p: Ben Oliver i: Ben Oliver c: Joe Mettler Pneuman's increasingly bizarre behaviour forces Tom and Solomon to engage in some very hands-on debugging. Tom Strong #34 – The Spires of Samakhara (31 August 2005)w: Steve Moore p: Paul Gulacy i: Jimmy Palmiotti c: Michelle Madsen Tom investigates an anomaly in China and encounters places and characters from a boyhood favourite pulp fantasy story. Tom Strong #35 – Cold Calling (2 November 2005)w: Peter Hogan p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story The second part to Hogan's "Snow Queen". Tom is shocked to discover that Greta is apparently the partner-in-crime of a new Dr. Permafrost. Tom Strong #36 – Tom Strong at the End of the World (8 March 2006)w: Alan Moore p: Chris Sprouse i: Karl Story c: José Villarrubia The final issue features a cross over with the final issues of Promethea – and the apocalypse depicted therein – from Tom's perspective. Guest appearances by characters from all the ABC series, including Top 10, Tomorrow Stories, Terra Obscura and Tom Strong's Terrific Tales. Additional appearances America's Best Comics: 64 Page Giant featured a Tom Strong story written by Steve Moore with pencils by Humberto Ramos and inks by John Totleben. The ABC Preview was polybagged with Wizard magazine and this story (with art by Chris Sprouse) was the actual first appearance of Tom Strong and King Solomon, albeit in a one-page cameo. Tom Strong also makes an appearance in The Many Worlds of Tesla Strong, a 64-page story written by Peter Hogan with various artists (the above stories are collected in the America's Best Comics trade-paperback). Promethea also had an appearance from Tom Strong, which was recounted from Strong's perspective in issue #36. Tomorrow Stories Special #2 included an "America's Best" story, "The Lethal Luck of the Magister Ludi". This was set in the Silver Age of the ABC universe and featured Tom Strong, the Cobweb, the William Woolcott version of Promethea, Splash Brannigan, Johnny Future (the uncle and predecessor of Jonni Future), and air-ace heroine Fancy O'Keefe (who had previously appeared in the Young Tom Strong story in Tom Strong's Terrific Tales #11). The story was a pastiche, printed on deliberately aged-looking paper and with mock-1960s art, of Silver Age Justice League comics. Tom Strong's name is mentioned in Top 10: The Forty-Niners during an old World War II video as one of 'America's Science Heroes' who joined in the war effort to fight the Nazis. Tom Strong was featured as a recurring guest-star in the DC Comics series, "The Terrifics" (2018-2020). Tom Strong's Terrific TalesTom Strong's Terrific Tales was an anthology spin-off from the parent title. It usually featured three regular storylines in each issue: One story would usually focus on Tom Strong, or on one of his supporting cast, and be either experimental or humorous in tone; Another would be a Young Tom Strong tale (set during Strong's formative years on Attabar Teru, and illustrated by Alan Weiss); A Jonni Future story (by Steve Moore and Art Adams) would often round out the issue. The series ran for twelve issues, and would be sporadically published over the space of a couple of years. Stories of note include: A silent story in which Tesla steals the keys to the Hyper-Saucer and parties on another planet (art by Jaime Hernandez; appeared in issue #1) King Solomon in a solo adventure (by Leah Moore and Sergio Aragonés; appeared in issue #5) A prose history of Millennium City, with illustrations by Mike Kaluta (appeared in issue #9) Another silent story, with art by Peter Kuper (appeared in issue #10) A collaboration between Alan Moore and Peter Bagge, which recasts the Strong family in a milieu not unlike the one used by Bagge in his Buddy Bradley stories. This was printed in the final issue (#12), and features appearances by characters resembling Dick Tracy, Fred Flintstone and the Kool-Aid Man. Limited series In 2010, Peter Hogan and Chris Sprouse produced the six-issue series Tom Strong and the Robots of Doom, followed by six-issue story Tom Strong and the Planet of Peril in 2013. Collected editions The Tom Strong series been collected into individual volumes: Tom Strong: Book One, issues #1–7 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong: Book Two, issues #8–14 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong: Book Three, issues #15–19 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong: Book Four, issues #20–25 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong: Book Five, issues #26–30 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong: Book Six, issues #31–36 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong and the Robots of Doom, issues #1–6 (paperback: ) Tom Strong and the Planet of Peril, issues #1-6 (paperback: ) Tom Strong's Terrific Tales: Book One, issues #1–6 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong's Terrific Tales: Book Two, issues #7–12 (hardcover: , paperback: ) Tom Strong: Deluxe Edition: Book 1, issues #1–12 (336 page, oversized hardcover: ) Tom Strong: Deluxe Edition: Book 2, issues #13–24 (336 page, oversized hardcover: ) The short story Skull & Bones, the 64-page story The Many Worlds of Tesla Strong and the original one-page cameo from the ABC Preview are collected in: America's Best Comics (softcover: ) Limited series Tom Strong and the Robots of Doom, issues #1–6 (144 page paperback: ) Tom Strong and the Planet of Peril, issues #1–6 (144 page paperback: ) Awards The story "How Tom Strong Got Started" in Tom Strong #1 was a top vote-getter for the Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Story for 2000. References External links Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Awards 1999 comics debuts Comics by Alan Moore America's Best Comics titles America's Best Comics superheroes Fictional scientists Fictional engineers Fictional explorers Fictional inventors Characters created by Alan Moore Eisner Award winners Vertigo Comics characters	[ -0.30006372928619385, -0.24532988667488098, -0.027800334617495537, 0.09132634848356247, 0.08166227489709854, 0.09549544751644135, 0.38277482986450195, -0.0754416361451149, 0.07913775742053986, 0.26137539744377136, -0.8706615567207336, 0.2498926967382431, -0.4057309627532959, -0.1600761115550995, -0.12289483845233917, 0.49679121375083923, -0.07606811821460724, 0.43732547760009766, -0.3883049190044403, 0.032422952353954315, -0.553243100643158, -0.8827165365219116, 0.23626266419887543, -0.40709811449050903, 0.2806829512119293, 0.4573608934879303, -0.0803801417350769, -0.5343016386032104, -0.34714820981025696, 0.42792177200317383, 0.03591588884592056, 0.04226842150092125, 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237972	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melinda%20Gebbie	Melinda Gebbie	Melinda Gebbie is an American comics artist and writer, known for her participation in the underground comix movement. She is also known for creating the controversial work Fresca Zizis and her contributions to Wimmen's Comix, as well as her work with her husband Alan Moore on the three-volume graphic novel Lost Girls and the Tomorrow Stories anthology series. Personal life Melinda Gebbie was born in San Francisco. She became interested in comics in 1973, when she met writer/artist Lee Marrs at a publishers' fair. In 1984 Gebbie married Adam Cornford, a poet from California; their marriage was short-lived. Their marriage is believed to have been an inspiration for his poetry collection Animations. She married Alan Moore in 2007. Career Melinda Gebbie contributed her first comic strip to Wimmen's Comix #3, the inceptive all-women anthology published by Last Gasp. She wrote and drew short stories for Wimmen's Comix and many other anthologies, including Tits & Clits Comix, Wet Satin, and Anarchy Comics. In 1977 she completed her own solo comic book, Fresca Zizis, which was later banned in Britain in 1985 for obscenity, and still is to this day. In 1984, she moved to England to work on the animated film adaptation of Raymond Briggs' When the Wind Blows. Following this, she worked in a variety of illustration and office jobs and continued making short stories for anthologies such as Strip AIDS and Heartbreak Hotel. In the early 1990s, Alan Moore and Gebbie began collaborating on Lost Girls, a story in which the female protagonists of Peter and Wendy, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz meet and share sexual stories and experiences. Moore wrote the story, and Gebbie illustrated it. The story was finished in 2006. Meanwhile, she and Moore created Cobweb, a mysterious heroine who appeared in twelve issues of the Moore-written anthology Tomorrow Stories between 1999 and 2002. Feminism in the Underground Comix Movement Hilary Chute claims that the underground comix movement was parallel to second-wave feminism because it gave women comic artists the ability to establish work that was political and freely explore and publish their artistic expression. Autobiographical comics were popular among the underground comix industry due to groups of people being underrepresented in the mainstream comics industry. Although they were not completely autobiographical, comics like Tits & Clits, Wimmen's Comix, and Twisted Sisters contained many stores that touched on the comic artists' personal experiences. Their stories discussed topics that were not represented in the male-dominated mainstream and underground comix, because it addressed women's point of view on sex, masturbation, abuse, coming out, and menstruation. Many of the male anthologies created in the underground kept women from collaborating with them, which prompted the creation of all-girl collaborated comics like It Ain't Me Babe and Wimmen's Comix. Although the series of publication was not consistent, Wimmen's Comix published 17 issues from 1972 to 1992. Fresca Zizis (Last Gasp, 1977) In 1977, Melinda Gebbie produced her first solo work, Fresca Zizis. The title means "fresh cocks" in southern Italy dialect. During the 1980s, her comic book was banned in Britain for obscenity due to its pornographic illustrations. Fresca Zizis is semi-autobiographical and includes Gebbie's past experiences with childhood abuse and sex, as well as portraits and stories of fellow cartoonist friends such as Trina Robbins and Lee Marrs. Gebbie describes that it "deals with the cruelty of lovers, the excesses of youth, and the states of depression and dreams - a warning and a comfort to those who venture out too deep." When Gebbie was put on trial to defend the 'obscenity' in her work, she explained that the illustrations from the comic book come from her own experiences and argued that the people who put her through those experiences should be seen as obscene rather than her work, which is portrayed in her comic called 'Public Enemy' in Anarchy Comics issue #4. Lost Girls (Top Shelf, 2006) The graphic novel Lost Girls was illustrated by Gebbie and written by her husband Alan Moore. It took Gebbie 16 years to illustrate the comic due to the layering techniques used to create the shimmering, children's book-like effect, which was done by her use of water colors and 12-14 layers of colored pencils. Lost Girls follows the story of three young girls that come from popular fiction; Alice from Through the Looking Glass, Dorothy from The Wizard of Oz, and Wendy from Peter and Wendy. The three female protagonists meet at an Austrian hotel and share with each other their past sexual fantasies and experiences in flashbacks, while also meeting others who are staying at the hotel and having sex with them. The stories of each female protagonist's sexual experience is integrated within their original narratives from popular fiction. Due to the Coroners and Justice Act, many comic artists thought the book would be banned in the UK because of its depictions of child pornography, however, it is still sold in the UK. Bibliography Fresca Zizis (Last Gasp Publishing, 1977) Lost Girls (with writer Alan Moore, Top Shelf Productions, 2006, ) Anthologies Cobweb (with writer Alan Moore, in Tomorrow Stories #1–8, America's Best Comics/Wildstorm, 1999–2002) Heartbreak Hotel Strip AIDS "The Cockpit" (in Wet Satin #1, Last Gasp Publishing) "My Three Swans", in Young Lust #6 (Last Gasp Publishing) Wimmen's Comix #4–7 (Last Gasp Publishing) Anarchy Comics (Last Gasp Publishing) 24 Panels: "If Einstein's Right..." (with writer Alan Moore, Image Comics, 2018) Notes References Melinda Gebbie at Lambiek's Comiclopedia External links Interviews Writers from San Francisco American female comics artists American comics writers American erotic artists Year of birth missing (living people) Female comics writers Alan Moore Living people Artists from San Francisco 20th-century American women writers 20th-century American writers	[ 0.40333276987075806, -0.003996178507804871, -1.0028504133224487, 0.1081102192401886, -0.01789935864508152, 0.39606016874313354, 0.1543278992176056, 0.31923505663871765, -0.1508435755968094, -0.222898930311203, -0.5025991797447205, 0.51637202501297, 0.14060837030410767, 0.11788096278905869, -0.17747442424297333, -0.03226105868816376, -0.40474048256874084, 0.09124813973903656, -0.2909514009952545, -0.2182682752609253, -0.29118072986602783, -0.600594162940979, 0.11661890149116516, 0.05139819532632828, -0.39521071314811707, 0.09552943706512451, 0.1242370679974556, 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237977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangrene	Gangrene	Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply. Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly affected. If the gangrene is caused by an infectious agent, it may present with a fever or sepsis. Risk factors include diabetes, peripheral arterial disease, smoking, major trauma, alcoholism, HIV/AIDS, frostbite, influenza, dengue fever, malaria, chickenpox, plague, hypernatremia, radiation injuries, meningococcal disease, Group B streptococcal infection and Raynaud's syndrome. It can be classified as dry gangrene, wet gangrene, gas gangrene, internal gangrene, and necrotizing fasciitis. The diagnosis of gangrene is based on symptoms and supported by tests such as medical imaging. Treatment may involve surgery to remove the dead tissue, antibiotics to treat any infection, and efforts to address the underlying cause. Surgical efforts may include debridement, amputation, or the use of maggot therapy. Efforts to treat the underlying cause may include bypass surgery or angioplasty. In certain cases, hyperbaric oxygen therapy may be useful. How commonly the condition occurs is unknown. Signs and symptoms Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly involved. Causes Gangrene is caused by a critically insufficient blood supply (e.g., peripheral vascular disease) or infection. It is associated with diabetes and long-term tobacco smoking. Dry gangrene Dry gangrene is a form of coagulative necrosis that develops in ischemic tissue, where the blood supply is inadequate to keep tissue viable. It is not a disease itself, but a symptom of other diseases. The term dry is used only when referring to a limb or to the gut (in other locations, this same type of necrosis is called an infarction, such as myocardial infarction). Dry gangrene is often due to peripheral artery disease, but can be due to acute limb ischemia. As a result, people with arteriosclerosis, high cholesterol, diabetes and smokers commonly have dry gangrene. The limited oxygen in the ischemic limb limits putrefaction and bacteria fail to survive. The affected part is dry, shrunken, and dark reddish-black. The line of separation usually brings about complete separation, with eventual falling off of the gangrenous tissue if it is not removed surgically, a process called autoamputation. Dry gangrene is the result of chronic ischemia without infection. If ischemia is detected early, when ischemic wounds rather than gangrene are present, the process can be treated by revascularization (via vascular bypass or angioplasty). However, once gangrene has developed, the affected tissues are not salvageable. Because dry gangrene is not accompanied by infection, it is not as emergent as gas gangrene or wet gangrene, both of which have a risk of sepsis. Over time, dry gangrene may develop into wet gangrene if an infection develops in the dead tissues. Diabetes mellitus is a risk factor for peripheral vascular disease, thus for dry gangrene, but also a risk factor for wet gangrene, particularly in patients with poorly controlled blood sugar levels, as elevated serum glucose creates a favorable environment for bacterial infection. Wet gangrene Wet, or infected, gangrene is characterized by thriving bacteria and has a poor prognosis (compared to dry gangrene) due to sepsis resulting from the free communication between infected fluid and circulatory fluid. In wet gangrene, the tissue is infected by saprogenic microorganisms (Clostridium perfringens or Bacillus fusiformis, for example), which cause tissue to swell and emit a foul odor. Wet gangrene usually develops rapidly due to blockage of venous (mainly) or arterial blood flow. The affected part is saturated with stagnant blood, which promotes the rapid growth of bacteria. The toxic products formed by bacteria are absorbed, causing systemic manifestation of sepsis and finally death. The affected part is edematous, soft, putrid, rotten, and dark. Because of the high mortality associated with infected gangrene (about 80% without treatment and 20% with treatment), an emergency salvage amputation, such as a guillotine amputation, is often needed to limit systemic effects of the infection. Such an amputation can be converted to a formal amputation, such as a below- above-knee amputation. Gas gangrene Gas gangrene is a bacterial infection that produces gas within tissues. It can be caused by Clostridium, most commonly alpha toxin-producing C. perfringens, or various nonclostridial species. Infection spreads rapidly as the gases produced by the bacteria expand and infiltrate healthy tissue in the vicinity. Because of its ability to quickly spread to surrounding tissues, gas gangrene should be treated as a medical emergency, this is the most fatal form of gangrene, it is highly fatal, even with treatment (50%), which can be 100% if left untreated. Gas gangrene is caused by bacterial exotoxin-producing clostridial species, which are mostly found in soil, and other anaerobes such as Bacteroides and anaerobic streptococci. These environmental bacteria may enter the muscle through a wound and subsequently proliferate in necrotic tissue and secrete powerful toxins, which destroy nearby tissue, generating gas at the same time. A gas composition of 5.9% hydrogen, 3.4% carbon dioxide, 74.5% nitrogen, and 16.1% oxygen was reported in one clinical case. Gas gangrene can cause necrosis, gas production, and sepsis. Progression to toxemia and shock is often very rapid. Other types Necrotizing fasciitis, also known as hemolytic streptococcal gangrene, is a very rare infection that spreads deep into the body along tissue planes. It is characterized by infection with S.pyogenes, a gram-positive cocci bacteria. Noma is a gangrene of the face common in Africa and Asia, with 99% of cases occurring there, whereas the disease is practically non-existent in other continents. Fournier gangrene is a type of necrotizing fasciitis that usually affects the genitals and groin. Venous limb gangrene may be caused by heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Severe mesenteric ischemia may result in gangrene of the small intestine. Severe ischemic colitis may result in gangrene of the large intestine. Treatment Treatment varies based on the severity and type of gangrene. Lifestyle Exercises such as walking and massage therapy may be tried. Medication Medications may include pain management, medications that promote circulation in the circulatory system and antibiotics. Since gangrene is associated with periodic pain caused by too little blood flow, pain management is important so patients can continue doing exercises that promote circulation. Pain management medications can include opioids and opioid-like analgesics. Since gangrene is a result of ischemia, circulatory system management is important. These medications can include antiplatelet drug, anticoagulant, and fibrinolytics. As infection is often associated with gangrene, antibiotics are often a critical component of its treatment. The life-threatening nature of gangrene requires treatment with intravenous antibiotics in an inpatient setting. Antibiotics alone are not effective because they may not penetrate infected tissues sufficiently. Surgery Surgical removal of all dead tissue, however, is the mainstay of treatment for gangrene. Often, gangrene is associated with underlying infection, thus the gangrenous tissue must be debrided to hinder the spread of the associated infection. The extent of surgical debridement needed depends on the extent of the gangrene and may be limited to the removal of a finger, toe, or ear, but in severe cases may involve a limb amputation. Dead tissue alone does not require debridement, and in some cases, such as dry gangrene, the affected part falls off (autoamputates), making surgical removal unnecessary. Waiting for autoamputation, however, may cause health complications as well as decreased quality of life. After the gangrene is treated with debridement and antibiotics, the underlying cause can be treated. In the case of gangrene due to critical limb ischemia, revascularization can be performed to treat the underlying peripheral underlateral artery disease. Ischemic disease of the legs is the most common reason for amputations. In about a quarter of these cases, the other side requires amputation in the next three years. Angioplasty should be considered if severe blockage in lower leg vessels (tibial and peroneal artery) leads to gangrene. Other Hyperbaric oxygen therapy treatment is used to treat gas gangrene. It increases pressure and oxygen content to allow blood to carry more oxygen to inhibit anaerobic organism growth and reproduction. Regenerative medical treatments and stem-cell therapies have successfully altered gangrene and ulcer prognosis. History As early as 1028, flies and maggots were commonly used to treat chronic wounds or ulcers to prevent or arrest necrotic spread, as some species of maggots consume only dead flesh, leaving nearby living tissue unaffected. This practice largely died out after the introduction of antibiotics, acetonitrile, and enzyme to the range of treatments for wounds. In recent times, however, maggot therapy has regained some credibility and is sometimes employed with great efficacy in cases of chronic tissue necrosis. The French Baroque composer Jean-Baptiste Lully contracted gangrene in January 1687 when, while conducting a performance of his Te Deum, he stabbed his own toe with his pointed staff (which was used as a baton). The disease spread to his leg, but the composer refused to have his toe amputated, which eventually led to his death in March of that year. French King Louis XIV died of gangrene in his leg on 1 September 1715, four days prior to his 77th birthday. Sebald Justinus Brugmans, Professor at Leyden University, from 1795 on Director of the Medical Bureau of the Batavian Republic, and inspector-general of the French Imperial Military Health-Service in 1811, became a leading expert in the fight against hospital-gangrene and its prevention. He wrote a treatise on gangrene in 1814 in which he meticulously analyzed and explained the causes of this dreadful disease, which he was convinced was contagious. He completed his entry with a thorough evaluation of all possible and well experienced sanitary regulations. His work was very well received and was instrumental in convincing most later authors that gangrene was a contagious disease. John M. Trombold wrote: "Middleton Goldsmith, a surgeon in the Union Army during the American Civil War, meticulously studied hospital gangrene and developed a revolutionary treatment regimen. The cumulative Civil War hospital gangrene mortality was 45%. Goldsmith's method, which he applied to over 330 cases, yielded a mortality under 3%." Goldsmith advocated the use of debridement and topical and injected bromide solutions on infected wounds to reduce the incidence and virulence of "poisoned miasma". Copies of his book were issued to Union surgeons to encourage the use of his methods. Father Camille Bulcke also died of gangrene on 17 August 1982. Etymology The etymology of gangrene derives from the Latin word and from the Greek (γάγγραινα), which means "putrefaction of tissues". It has no etymological connection with the word green, despite the affected areas turning black, green, or yellowish brown. 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237980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Caleb%20Bingham	George Caleb Bingham	George Caleb Bingham (March 20, 1811 – July 7, 1879) was an American artist, soldier and politician known in his lifetime as "the Missouri Artist". Initially a Whig, he was elected as a delegate to the Missouri legislature before the American Civil War where he fought against the extension of slavery westward. During that war, although born in Virginia, Bingham was dedicated to the Union cause and became captain of a volunteer company which helped keep the state from joining the Confederacy, and then served four years as Missouri's Treasurer. During his final years, Bingham held several offices in Kansas City, while also serving as Missouri's Adjutant General. His paintings of American frontier life along the Missouri River exemplify the Luminist style. Early life and education Born on a farm in Augusta County, Virginia, George Caleb Bingham was the second of seven children that Mary Amend (1789–1851) bore with her husband Henry Vest Bingham (1784–1823). Upon their marriage, Mary's father Matthias Amend gave the Binghams ownership of the family mill, land, and several slaves with the agreement that Matthias could live with the family for the rest of his life. Henry Bingham offered the land and mill as surety for a friend's debt and, when the friend died in 1818, all was lost. In 1819, the Bingham family (including grandfather Amend) moved to Franklin, Howard County, Missouri on the Missouri River near the state's center as well as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fe Trail, "where the land was said to be bountiful, fertile and cheap." George Bingham was initially educated by his mother, and self-taught as an artist. His sole childhood exposure to a working artist was as a nine-year-old boy, when famed American portraitist Chester Harding visited Franklin looking for business, having recently sketched Daniel Boone in Warren County, Missouri (Boone's sons owned a salt spring and manufactured salt in Howard County). George assisted Harding during his brief stay, an experience that left a powerful impression. On December 23, 1823, Bingham's father Henry, who had initially opened a tavern in Franklin and in 1821 become the judge of the Howard County Court, died of malaria at the age of thirty-eight. His investment in a tobacco venture had failed, and debts forced the sale of the home in Franklin. The young sons barely kept their small farm in nearby Saline County afloat, in part with the help of their father's brother John, who had moved to the area and donated half the land which became Arrow Rock. Mary Bingham opened a school for girls on the farmstead. George, then twelve, worked as the school janitor, and later received some art tutoring when the school hired Mattie Wood as an art teacher. At age sixteen, the young Bingham was apprenticed to cabinet maker Jesse Green in nearby Boonville in Cooper County. After Green moved away (a major flood of the Missouri River having destroyed much of Franklin and other riverside towns in 1827), Bingham apprenticed with another cabinet maker, Justinian Williams. Both tradesmen were Methodist ministers. While under their tutelage, Bingham studied religious texts, preached at camp meetings and thought about becoming a minister in his Baptist Church (in which he would remain active throughout his life). He also considered becoming a lawyer. His elder brother Matthias Bingham would travel to Texas to fight for its independence in 1836, and remain in Mexico until his death in 1861, becoming a large landowner in the process but never marrying. By age nineteen, Bingham was painting portraits for $20.00 apiece, often completing the works in a single day. He found clients in Howard and Saline counties and nearby areas. Though his painting abilities were still developing, he impressed his patrons by strong draftsmanship as well as his native ability to capture his subject's likeness, and he was able to support himself by this work by 1833. Soon Bingham was ready to travel to St. Louis to ply his trade, but contracted measles. The illness left him weak and permanently bald. By 1838, Bingham had established a studio in St. Louis, the state's major city (Jefferson City, also on the Missouri River and nearer his home, was the state capital), and was beginning to make a name as a portrait artist. Several prominent local citizens visited his studio for portraits, including the lawyer James S. Rollins of Columbia, Missouri, who became a lifelong friend as well as a powerful politician in the state. While Bingham frequently worked in St. Louis, he kept his principal residence in Arrow Rock for years. Bingham then decided to try formal education in the east, and moved with his young wife to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he spent three years studying art at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, including a trip to New York City to visit the National Academy of Design exhibition. Bingham then spent nearly five years in Washington, D.C., where he painted portraits of various politicians, including former president John Quincy Adams, who had become a member of Congress and famous abolitionist. Marriage and family In 1836, the year Missouri expanded with the Platte Purchase of former Native American territory (thus violating the Missouri Compromise of 1820 which had led to the state's creation), 25-year-old Bingham married 18-year-old Sarah Elizabeth Hutchison (1818–1848), who bore him four children before her death. From 1837 to 1845 they lived in Arrow Rock in Saline County, where their house has been designated a National Historic Landmark. She died in 1848 at the age of twenty-nine. Bingham's mother Mary helped him raise his children before she died in 1851. Bingham married twice more, first to Eliza K. Thomas. After several years, she was confined to a mental asylum, where she died in 1876. He next married the widow Martha Lykins, a Kansas City community activist respected for her work among orphans (despite her Confederate activism years earlier), but their marriage lasted less than a year before Bingham died (Martha Lykins Bingham died in 1890). Career in St. Louis Bingham returned with his family to St. Louis permanently in 1845. Despite—or because of—his commercial success through the American Art Union based in New York (which distributed engravings of his "Jolly Flatboatmen" to 10,000 subscribers in 1847 and would purchase and distribute several more paintings in the next seven years), Bingham ran for election as a Whig to the Missouri House of Representatives the following year. He appeared to have won in 1846 by 3 votes, but lost in a recount. In a reprise of the election in 1848, Bingham won the seat by a decisive margin, becoming one of the few artists to serve in elected political office. He actively opposed the pro-slavery "Jackson resolutions" in 1849, although their proponent was also a resident of Saline County. He would also represent Missouri's eighth district at the Whig National Convention in June 1852. Bingham's political interests would be reflected in his vivid paintings of frontier political life. In 1856, two years after the tumultuous creation of the Kansas Territory, Bingham traveled to Europe for an extensive tour with his second wife Eliza and youngest daughter. First they stayed in Paris for several months, where Bingham fulfilled a long-cherished desire and studied the Old Masters at the Louvre Museum, likely his chief reason for going abroad. They went on to Düsseldorf, Germany, where they lived until 1859, taking part in the Düsseldorf school of painting. Bingham lived and worked among the American and German artists of the art colony, among whom was the German-American Emanuel Leutze, the most prominent historical painter in the United States. (Washington Crossing the Delaware was then his most famous work.) Leutze was unusual for living in both countries and had an open studio in Düsseldorf, where he welcomed Bingham as a friend and already successful artist. While in Germany, Bingham worked on important commissions from the Missouri State Legislature of Presidents Washington and Jefferson (later destroyed by fire), as well as independent paintings. American Civil War Bingham returned to America after to the death of his wife's father in 1859. He continued to travel throughout Missouri seeking commissions, and again became involved in politics. In the 1860 election, Missourians had elected his one-time opponent, Democrat Claiborne Fox Jackson, governor in part because Jackson declared himself anti-secession. Abraham Lincoln had also been elected president and secession talk abounded. Upon taking office, Governor Jackson opened communications with Confederates, including Jefferson Davis, and sent the state national guard's artillery pieces down the Mississippi River for Confederate service. Bingham, as a dedicated Union man, raised troops to oppose Jackson and his appointed ally, Major General Sterling Price, and was commissioned as a captain. Union forces routed the Confederates at Boonville on June 17 and again on September 13, 1861. Between those battles, the Missouri Convention met and almost unanimously declared itself against secession, then declared the governor's position vacant and on July 28 elected Hamilton Gamble governor to replace Jackson. Jackson refused to accept his deposition, instead declaring Missouri a "Free Republic" on August 5 and traveling to Richmond, Virginia, to confer with Confederate officials. In September 1861, Governor Gamble appointed Bingham State Treasurer of Missouri, and he served honestly and competently throughout the war. In 1863 Bingham vociferously opposed as inhumane Union General Ewing's Order No. 11, which ordered the depopulation of Cass, Bates and Jackson Counties and part of Vernon County in western Missouri to limit support for Confederate partisans. Bingham believed many of the atrocities on the Kansas–Missouri border were in fact committed by pro-Union "Jayhawkers" with Ewing's connivance. The order backfired by exacerbating resentments against occupying troops even by Union sympathizers (and later became the subject of a painting shown herein). Boonville also would be briefly occupied by Confederate troops on October 11, 1863 and again on October 11, 1864. Meanwhile, Bingham also continued to paint more portraits, which had always been his "bread and butter" work. Postwar career Although the Whig Party was nearly defunct by the time Bingham returned to Missouri, Bingham also returned to politics, and he would later align with the Democratic Party. He continued to stay involved in politics in the post-Civil War years through political appointments. In 1874, he was appointed president of Kansas City Board of Police Commissioners, and appointed the first chief of police there. In 1875, the governor appointed Bingham as Adjutant-General of Missouri, so thereafter he was often referred to as "General Bingham". Toward the end of his life, although quite ill, Bingham was appointed the first Professor of Art at the University of Missouri in Columbia, Missouri, which his friend Major Rollins and the Rollins family helped found. He met with only a few students before his death; among them was Amanda Austin. Death, legacy and honors Bingham died on July 7, 1879, in Kansas City, Missouri. He was survived by his wife of less than a year, as well as his son by his second wife, (James) Rollins Bingham (1861–1910), who became a lawyer in Independence, Missouri. George Caleb Bingham was buried at Kansas City's Union Cemetery. The following year, Rollins Bingham hauled his father's "Order No. 11" to Ohio and displayed it while opposing the gubernatorial run of its issuer, Gen. Thomas Ewing, Jr. (who lost the narrow race). Litigation concerning his late brother's estate in Mexico would drag on for years, and upon his wife's death, many of Bingham's works would be sold and the proceeds funded the Confederate Veterans Home despite Bingham's Union sympathies, although after her death her charitable work among orphans would continue under the auspices of the Little Sisters of the Poor. As an artist, Bingham's reputation languished by the turn of the century, but increased in 1933, long after his death. Fellow Missouri artist Thomas Hart Benton (great-grandnephew of the Missouri Senator and slaveowner whose refusal to support extending slavery westward in 1849 impacted both his and Bingham's political careers) acknowledged Bingham, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art bought his early AAU work, "Fur Traders Descending the Missouri" described below. In 1934, the St. Louis Art Museum held a retrospective exhibition of his work, and others noticed his depictions of ordinary people from the middle of the previous century. However, by 1963, his gravestone had become defaced as that historic area of Kansas City deteriorated. Although activists restored Bingham's former home in Arrow Rock as the George Caleb Bingham House (which ultimately was designated a National Historic Landmark), their plans to rebury him near his father, first wife and other kin were thwarted; Kansas City instead decided to fix its historic but decrepit cemetery. By the time of his bicentennial in 2011, Bingham was considered one of the greatest American painters of the 19th century. That year the George Caleb Bingham Catalogue Raisonné Supplement Of Paintings & Drawings—directed and edited by Bingham scholar Fred R. Kline—announced the authentication of ten recently discovered paintings by Bingham. As of June 2015, a total of twenty-three (23) newly discovered paintings by Bingham have been authenticated and are listed with the GCBCRS. Honors also include: The University of Missouri has named the George Caleb Bingham Art Gallery in his honor. George Caleb Bingham Middle School (Formerly George Caleb Bingham 7th Grade Center) In The Independence Public School District in Independence, Missouri was named after him because he served on the Independence Public School District Board Of Education. Major works Fur Traders Descending the Missouri One of Bingham's most famous paintings, this work is owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Painted around 1845 in the style called luminism by some historians of American art, it was originally entitled, French Trader, Half-breed Son. The American Art Union thought the title potentially controversial and renamed it when it was first exhibited. It reflected the reality of fur trappers and traders frequently marrying Native American women in their territories; in Canada the ethnic Métis people have been recognized by the government as a distinct group with status similar to First Nations. The painting is haunting for its evocation of an era in American history—note, in particular, the liberty cap worn by the older man. A bear cub seated at the end of the boat is secured by a chain. The Election Series Bingham's Election Series comprises three paintings: The County Election, Stump Speaking, and The Verdict of the People. Bingham intended for the Election Series to reach a national audience rather than Missourians alone. To spread his idea of free people and free institutions, Bingham exhibited his paintings in Washington and urged the Library Committee of Congress to purchase them so American leaders could view them. When the Library Committee of Congress decided to not purchase his trio, he lent the paintings to the Mercantile Library Association in St. Louis. The County Election The first painting made for the Election Series shows the voting process in Missouri. The County Election depicts a variety of people from several different social classes, such as young boys playing a game, two men talking about the election happening around them, and a mass of men walking up the stairs to vote. A banner shows the words, "The Will of the People[,] The Supreme Law", a credo that had great meaning for Bingham. He believed that people had a right to share their ideas; he also believed that he lost his seat in legislature in 1846 due to the improper following of the people's will. A mill in the background of the painting provided both a local detail and a reference to a Whig candidate who used a mill as a political symbol. The cedar barrels are evocative of a different Whig candidate who used cedar barrels as his political symbol. In his first painting of The County Election, Bingham showed two men flipping a coin beneath a judge. The two people represent ex-governor Marmaduke's bet that he had placed on the election of Bingham versus his opponent, Erasmus Sappington. Bingham also purposefully kept the scene outside to represent universal suffrage, one of his beliefs. The openness of the setting shows that politics should happen in the open rather than behind the curtains of the government. The idea of universal suffrage agrees with Bingham's ideas of the will of the people: every white man should have the right to vote because the will of the people should be the supreme law. Though many people understood and supported the principles portrayed by Bingham, some believed that Bingham did not correctly portray his beliefs. A critic complained that the painting made a mockery of American principles by including details such as the drunkard voting in the foreground. The critic claimed that because Bingham had shown drinking and gambling as part of the election process, he was defaming the political process. The reference to Marmaduke in The County Election was only relative to Missouri, so in order to generalize the message of the painting to the nation, Bingham removed the two men tossing a coin in the print version. In the corner of the original painting a newspaper title reads, "The Missouri Republican"; Bingham requested that the man who replicated his painting change the title to "The National Intelligencer" so that the painting would generalize to a larger audience. Stump Speaking In the second painting of the trio, Stump Speaking, a politician persuades Missourians to vote in his favor. Depicted are three figures that stand out because of their startling bright white clothing: the "Stump Speaker", the "Outstanding Citizen" (the sitting man opposite of the speaker), and the "Small Businessman" (the young child in middle of the painting). Before the creation of the painting, Bingham had made preliminary sketches of the three aforementioned people, who represented Bingham's belief of the past, present, and future of American politics. The "Outstanding Citizen", as Bingham's sketch refers to him, represents the past as the man's sharp edges and fine clothes show how he is unwilling to bend his beliefs and instead works among the people. His sharp edges contrast with the softer curves of the "Stump Speaker", the character that represents the present of American politics. The "Stump Speaker" appears to be swaying the assembled crowd by bending to the people's desires, shown by the curving arm that is outstretched to the audience. The "Small Businessman" represents the future. That child shows how people are starting to focus more on their money, as the child is, and less on the politics, parallel to how the child is detached from the debate surrounding him. The three people represent "the Jeffersonian past, of statesmen and gentlemen farmers; the Jacksonian present, of demagogues, party hacks, and gullible citizens; and a materialistic future of isolated citizens with no common public life at all." Within Bingham's painting Stump Speaking, he creates a scene that has both a national message and a local message; some of the people portrayed in the paintings resemble local Missouri politicians. Behind the speaker sits a man resembling Bingham's self-portrait taking notes about the speech, waiting for his turn to speak. The "Stump Speaker" resembled Sappington, who was Bingham's opponent in his previous elections, and the person sitting next to Bingham resembles the ex-governor of Missouri, Meredith Marmaduke. The Verdict of the People The last painting of Bingham's Election Series, The Verdict of the People, tells the end of the story represented in the series. Within this painting, Bingham hid several political motives and ideas similar to the rest of the Election Series. Completed in 1854, the work covered issues of slavery, temperance, and a representative government, subjects that had gone from a local to a national level. During the early 1850s, the temperance movement grew and more states were abolishing alcohol. A book by Herman Humphrey, titled Parallel between Intemperance and Slavery, associated the cause of anti-slavery to that of temperance. Bingham showed his view on intemperance and slavery by painting a banner that said, "Freedom for Virtue[,] Restriction for Vice." The banner referred to temperance by saying that the vice and alcohol would need to be restricted for the people to be free. The banner then references Bingham's ideas of slavery by using the connection of the temperance movement and the anti-slavery movement to show that Bingham thought negatively about slavery and shared that view with intemperance. Bingham Bicentennial 2011 The George Caleb Bingham Catalogue Raisonné Supplement Of Paintings & Drawings was begun in 2005, directed and edited by art historian Fred R. Kline with initial advisory board members Paul Nagel and William Kloss. At the Bingham Bicentennial, ten newly discovered paintings were announced by the GCBCRS; as of June 2015, the GCBCRS has added 23 paintings to Bingham's body of work. The paintings exhibited, catalogued, and illustrated online include: Horse Thief (a political allegory posing the question of U.S. Constitutional law versus Vigilantism in the Western regions of the U.S.), Baiting the Hook (Bingham's first river genre), Young Fisherman, Hudson River Palisades (Bingham's only known Hudson River painting); and portraits including Colin Dunlop & His Dog, Lewis Allen Dicken Crenshaw, Fanny Smith Crenshaw, Frederick Moss Prewitt, Civil War Lt. Col. Levi Pritchard (Bingham's largest portrait at 80 inches high), Charles Chilton, Samuel Chilton, Thomas B. Hudson, Missouri Steamboat Capt. Joseph Kinney and Martha Lykins, a previously unidentified woman who has now been recognized as Bingham's third wife, painted years before their marriage. The GCBCRS is built upon and continues E. Maurice Bloch's authoritative George Caleb Bingham Catalogue Raisonné of paintings and drawings, begun in the 1940s, which includes Bingham's known paintings up to 1986 (Bloch died in 1989). All 23 paintings authenticated by the GCBCRS Committee were unknown to Bloch. Nearly all Bingham's over 500 recorded paintings (460 are portraits) are unsigned, including famous ones such as Fur Traders Descending the Missouri, The Emigration of Daniel Boone, and The County Election. Bingham neglected record keeping and signing, allowing scores of paintings to remain unidentified. The GCBCRS is sponsored by Rachael Cozad Fine Art in Kansas City with publication in book form planned for the near future. Gallery Works 1834 – Self Portrait, 1834–35, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1837 – General Richard Gentry, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1838 – Judge Henry Lewis, 1838–39, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1838 – Mrs. Henry Lewis (Elizabeth Morton Woodson), 1838–39, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1843 – The Dull Story, 1843–1844, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1845 – Cottage Scenery, oil on canvas, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 1846 – Jolly Flatboatmen, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1846 – Landscape with Cattle, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1846 – Lighter Relieving the Steamboat Aground, 1846–47, oil on canvas 1847 – Raftsmen Playing Cards, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1848 – The Student (Dr. Oscar Fitzland Potter), oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1850 – Mississippi Boatman, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 1850 – The Wood-boat, oil on canvas mounted on board, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1850 – Shooting for the Beef, c. 1850, oil on canvas, Brooklyn Museum, New York City 1851 – Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers through the Cumberland Gap, oil on canvas, 1851–52 1852 – The County Election, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1852 – Canvassing for a Vote, oil on canvas, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, MO 1853 – Stump Speaking, 1853–54, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1854 – The Verdict of the People, 1854–55, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1856 – Old Field Horse, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1856 – The Belated Wayfarers, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1856 – Washington Crossing the Delaware, 1856–71, oil on canvas 1857 – Jolly Flatboatmen in Port, oil on canvas, Saint Louis Art Museum, St. Louis, MO 1868 – Order No. 11, 1868, oil on canvas 1872 – View of Pikes Peak, oil on canvas 1876 – Portrait of Vinnie Ream (Vinnie Ream), oil on canvas See also George Caleb Bingham House References Further reading Nagel, Paul C. George Caleb Bingham: Missouri's Famed Painter and Forgotten Politician (University of Missouri Press, 2005). xx, 161 pp. heavily illustrated. External links Art and the empire city: New York, 1825–1861, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on George Caleb Bingham (see index) Paintings from the Permanent Collection of the Utah Museum of Fine Arts George Caleb Bingham Catalogue Raisonné Supplement of Paintings and Drawings, edited and directed by Fred R. Kline Cottage Scenery, 1845, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Works by George Caleb Bingham at the State Historical Society of Missouri Paintings Gallery 1811 births 1879 deaths People from Augusta County, Virginia 19th-century American painters American male painters Luminism (American art style) Artists from Kansas City, Missouri University of Missouri faculty State treasurers of Missouri Missouri Democrats Artists from Columbia, Missouri Painters from Virginia Painters from Missouri American portrait painters American municipal police chiefs Members of the Missouri House of Representatives 19th-century American politicians Politicians from Columbia, Missouri Düsseldorf school of painting	[ 0.11989090591669083, 0.15224307775497437, -1.390516996383667, 0.3136690557003021, 0.5826697945594788, 0.7492478489875793, 0.9704431295394897, 0.36332547664642334, -0.3963542878627777, -0.7939030528068542, -0.3571240305900574, 0.4503292441368103, -0.14715951681137085, 0.7155561447143555, -0.49491751194000244, 0.6917085647583008, -0.1919586956501007, 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237989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela%20Stephenson	Pamela Stephenson	Pamela Helen Stephenson, Lady Connolly (born 4 December 1949) is a New Zealand-born psychologist, writer, and performer who is now a resident in both the United Kingdom and the United States. She is best known for her work as an actress and comedienne during the 1980s, particularly in Not the Nine O'Clock News; History of the World, Part I; and Superman III. She has written several books, which include a biography of her husband Sir Billy Connolly, and presented a psychology-based interview show called Shrink Rap on British and Australian television. Early life Pamela Helen Stephenson was born on 4 December 1949 in Takapuna, Auckland. In 1953, she moved to Australia with her scientist parents and two sisters. She attended Boronia Park Primary School in Sydney and then Sydney Church of England Girls' Grammar School, Darlinghurst. According to her own autobiography, Stephenson was raped at age 16 while she was living in Australia by a 35-year-old heroin addict, contracting an STD as a consequence. She concealed the fact but was expelled from her home by her parents once her medical condition was known: "I remember the feeling well, because I still experience it every time someone rejects me, even in some relatively small way." Comedy and acting Stephenson began her acting career in television. In 1972, she starred as Elsie in the ABC-TV production of the opera The Yeomen of the Guard. She starred during 1973–74 as Julie King in the Australian TV series Ryan. She made numerous television and film appearances, including as Michelle Osgood in the Space: 1999 episode "Catacombs of the Moon" (1976), Josephine in the 1977 ABC production of Malcolm Williamson's opera The Violins of Saint-Jacques, and Wendy in the 1977 New Avengers episode "Angels of Death". She had another recurring role as Iris Reade in the UK series Funny Man (1981). She made a TV comedy sketch show pilot, Stephenson's Rocket, which was not taken up. Among her first appearances in the UK, she joined the live on-stage team at The Comic Strip led by Rik Mayall, Peter Richardson and Alexei Sayle at the Raymond Revuebar in Soho. This was not a happy experience, according to an interview she gave in 2014: "Doing stand-up was like a war with everyone playing this game of "I can be funnier than you". Probably her most widely recognised television role was in the 1980s UK comedy television sketch show Not The Nine O'Clock News, alongside Rowan Atkinson, Mel Smith and Griff Rhys Jones (1979–82). Her parodies included Kate Bush in a song called "Oh England, My Leotard" (referencing "Oh England My Lionheart"), and Olivia Newton-John in a song called "Typical Bloody Typical" (referencing "Physical"). She also had a small part in three episodes of the British crime-action television drama series The Professionals. Her personal contribution as a comedian added to the success of Not the Nine O'Clock News, and led to a collaboration with comedy and satire writers Mike Lepine and Mark Leigh. This spawned a book, How To Be A Complete Bitch, and a board game. In 1982–83, she starred in the West End production of Joseph Papp's version of The Pirates of Penzance. She also featured in the American comedy sketch show Saturday Night Live (SNL) (1984–85) making her the first female SNL cast member born outside North America, and the second overall, joining Tony Rosato. Her characters on the show included Angela Bradleigh (Weekend Update commentator) and celebrity impersonations of Madonna (in a fake commercial parodying the singer's "Lucky Star" music video), Billy Idol, Debby Douillard, Peggy Ashcroft, Joan Collins and Cyndi Lauper. Stephenson acted in a number of films, including Private Collection (1972), Stand Up, Virgin Soldiers (1977), The Comeback (1978), Doctors and Nurses (1981), Mel Brooks's History of the World, Part 1 (1981), Superman III (1983), Bloodbath at the House of Death (1983), Finders Keepers (1984), Scandalous (1984), Ghosts Can Do It (1987), and Les Patterson Saves the World (1987). Other media appearances In 1987, Stephenson participated in Prince Edward's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament. In 1993, she hosted the Australian lifestyle program Sex. In December 2010, Stephenson competed in the eighth series of the BBC1 television show Strictly Come Dancing, consistently winning praise. She received on 4 December a perfect score of 10 from each of the four judges for her Viennese Waltz, becoming only the eighth celebrity (up until that point) to do so. She then reached the final along with Matt Baker and Kara Tointon. On 18 December, with dancing partner James Jordan, she came third in the competition. Also in December 2010, Stephenson was the guest on BBC Radio 3's Private Passions, with a choice of music including Bellini, Satie and Debussy. In 2012, Stephenson travelled as a backpacker to Papua New Guinea in the Television New Zealand travel show Intrepid Journeys. Psychology Stephenson is a US-licensed psychologist who practices and publishes under the name Pamela Stephenson-Connolly. In her private practice in Beverly Hills, she provided mental health care to adult individuals and couples for a range of psychological complaints. Stephenson's professional specialties include human sexuality. She was founder and president of the Los Angeles Sexuality Center, an online sexual research engine that operated for five years until she moved to New York. Stephenson is a past Secretary of the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors and Therapists (AASECT). In 2002 and 2003, she served as conference program co-chair of the annual AASECT Conference. Stephenson is also a member of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association and the International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health. Stephenson was an adjunct professor at the California Graduate Institute (CGI – now a part of the Chicago School of Professional Psychology) for six years. She taught Human Sexuality and Sex Therapy, Advanced Human Sexuality and Sex Therapy, and Clinical Practicum in Sex Therapy. She also taught clinical hypnosis at CGI. She received her PhD in 1996, and then in 2009 received an Honorary Doctorate in Science from the Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen for her contributions to the field of human sexuality. Stephenson has completed research projects and other field studies on the gender-liminal people of Samoa, Tonga, and India. She has also presented the TV show Shrink Rap, in which she conducted psychologically-based interviews with well-known people, including Salman Rushdie, Carrie Fisher and Robin Williams. The programme premièred on More4 on 2 April 2007 and was aired in Australia on ABC2 in 2008. Activism From the 1980s, Stephenson campaigned to raise awareness of food additives and colours, particularly in children's confectionery. She appeared on the daily variety show Midday with Ray Martin, and painted a picture using the colours she extracted from children's lollies in order to demonstrate how many are contained in them. She became involved in the Parents for Safe Food Movement. In 2010, Stephenson travelled to the Democratic Republic of Congo with the international medical aid charity Merlin to meet the survivors of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). Personal life Stephenson started practising Buddhism in 1979. Stephenson married actor Nicholas Ball in 1978 but later left him shortly afterwards to be with Billy Connolly. She lived with Connolly for ten years before they married in Fiji on 20 December 1989. Politics In the 1987 United Kingdom general election, Stephenson was a candidate in the Windsor and Maidenhead constituency on behalf of the Blancmange Throwers Party; she came sixth with 328 votes. Travels In late 2004, she sold her house in Hollywood and spent a year on a sailing cruise around the South Pacific Ocean, following the path of Robert Louis Stevenson and Fanny Stevenson. She said she was inspired by Fanny (also married to a Scotsman) who had convinced her husband to travel to the tropics for the sake of his fragile health. Her travels were documented in her book Treasure Islands. The boat she bought was renamed "Takapuna" after her birthplace. A year later, she went on another voyage to discover the fate of an ancestor, a sailing captain who had disappeared in the South Seas. The voyage was the subject of a documentary for Australian television, Murder or Mutiny. Theatre production Stephenson formed a dance company in collaboration with Brazilian lambazouk dancer Braz Dos Santos, and wrote and produced a dance-drama stage production called Brazouka. Harley Medcalf was lead producer and Arlene Phillips director. The biographical show told the story of Dos Santos and his dancing. Dos Santos also performed in the show. It premiered at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in August 2014 and toured South Africa and Australia through January 2015. Books As an author, Pamela Connolly has published seven books. Her biography Billy topped best-seller lists in Britain and several other countries. Head Case describes self-help approaches for a variety of mental health problems. She has been a regular contributor to Psychologies magazine, writes a column on relationships for The Australian Women's Weekly and has a weekly sex therapy column in The Guardian, written under the name Pamela Stephenson Connolly. References Sources casproduction.com. Dr. Pamela Connolly / Pamela Stephenson Retrieved 14 July 2008 Waldren, Murray. The Last Laugh: the tears and trauma of comedian Billy Connolly . (First published in The Weekend Australian, 29 September 2001.) Retrieved 14 July 2008. External links Pamela Stephenson interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, 23 July 1982 1949 births 20th-century New Zealand actresses Living people New Zealand Buddhists New Zealand expatriates in the United Kingdom National Institute of Dramatic Art alumni New Zealand television actresses New Zealand psychologists University of New South Wales alumni New Zealand women comedians People from Auckland New Zealand expatriates in the United States American sketch comedians New Zealand women psychologists People educated at Sydney Church of England Girls Grammar School Wives of knights	[ -0.03744583576917648, 0.26812025904655457, -0.2009401172399521, -0.35154715180397034, 0.43111541867256165, 0.8932946920394897, 0.708614706993103, -0.21555766463279724, -0.56409752368927, 0.46033820509910583, -0.09953511506319046, -0.0925557091832161, 0.06239091232419014, 0.19389452040195465, -0.5140783190727234, 0.2564452886581421, 0.022403353825211525, 0.08906584233045578, -0.35076725482940674, 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237992	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griff%20Rhys%20Jones	Griff Rhys Jones	Griffith Rhys Jones (born 16 November 1953) is a Welsh comedian, writer, actor, and television presenter. He starred in a number of television series with his comedy partner, Mel Smith. Rhys Jones came to national attention in the 1980s for his work in the BBC television comedy sketch shows Not the Nine O'Clock News and Alas Smith and Jones. With Smith, he co-founded the television production company Talkback Productions, now part of RTL Group and later in 2005, he established the production company Modern Television. Rhys Jones developed a career as a television presenter and writer, as well as continuing with acting work. From 2008 to 2016, he presented the television bloopers show It'll be Alright on the Night for ITV, having replaced Denis Norden, who hosted the show for almost 30 years. Rhys Jones was himself succeeded in 2018 by David Walliams. Early life and education Griffith Rhys Jones was born on 16 November 1953 in Cardiff, the son of Gwynneth Margaret (née Jones) and Elwyn Rhys Jones, a medical doctor. His family moved due to his father's occupation to West Sussex when Rhys Jones was six months old. Rhys Jones attended Conifers Primary School in Midhurst, West Sussex, junior school in Epping, Essex, and Brentwood School, also in Essex. After a short spell working as a petrol pump attendant, Rhys Jones gained a gap year job on the P&O ship Uganda, working for a company organising school trips. In his autobiography, Semi-Detached, he describes how he was charged with helping to look after 600 Canadian schoolgirls, followed by a similar number of younger Scottish schoolchildren, and refers to the experience as being like "St Trinians at sea". He wrote to eight of the Canadians afterwards. Rhys Jones initially read History, later changing to English, at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, graduating with a 2:1. Career After Cambridge, Rhys Jones then joined BBC Radio Light Entertainment as a trainee producer, with his responsibilities including the satirical show Week Ending and Brain of Britain. An evening planned to spend watching his hero Frankie Howerd at the invitation of friends Clive Anderson and Rory McGrath, who were writing the show at the time, resulted in Rhys Jones replacing the show's producer, who had suffered from a stress-related illness from dealing with the comedian. He later produced Rowan Atkinson's show The Atkinson People for the BBC and appeared twice on Whose Line Is It Anyway? Rhys Jones filled in several minor roles in the first series of Not the Nine O'Clock News, and was brought in as a regular cast member from the second series onwards, replacing Chris Langham. Rhys Jones says that the reason he got the part was not due to his appearance in the initial shows, or his talent, but because producer John Lloyd was dating his sister at the time. Rhys Jones became a regular from the commissioned second series. Rhys Jones was awarded the Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 1984 (1983 season) for Best Comedy Performance in Charley's Aunt and in 1994 (1993 season) for Best Comedy Performance for his performance in An Absolute Turkey. He also played Toad in The Wind in the Willows at the National Theatre in 1990, as well as a number of other theatre roles. He provided the voices on the series of short cartoons Funnybones, for which he also sang the theme tune. Rhys Jones has continued his acting career, being cast in Casualty and Agatha Christie's Marple as well as starring in Russell T Davies' drama series Mine All Mine on ITV. It'll be Alright on the Night returned with Rhys Jones as the new presenter, taking over from Denis Norden. The first programme with Rhys Jones as host aired in 2008. In January 2012, Rhys Jones returned to sketch comedy at the BBC alongside "some of the biggest names in TV", including Hugh Bonneville, Tom Hollander and Larry Lamb, for one of a three episode series in which comedy legends take to the stage for a mix of stand-up and sketches. It also featured a special guest appearance by former comedy partner Mel Smith in a new Head to Head sketch, referring many times to it having been 16 years since their last. Partnership with Mel Smith After Not the Nine O'Clock News, Mel Smith and Rhys Jones decided to create and write more material together, and to found a management company. From 1984, Smith and Rhys Jones appeared in the comedy sketch series Alas Smith and Jones (the show's title being a pun on the American television series Alias Smith and Jones). After the first series, the two men appeared on the in Mike Hodges' science fiction comedy movie Morons from Outer Space and then in 1989, the London Weekend Television production Wilt. Smith and Rhys Jones were reunited in March 2005, for a Comic Relief sketch, which led to a revival of their previous television series in The Smith and Jones Sketchbook, recorded that same year but aired over twelve months later. Their final television appearance together was a Head To Head routine for the special of 2012 The One Griff Rhys-Jones. When Smith died in the summer of 2013, Rhys Jones wrote a piece about his comedy partner in the Radio Times, saying it was "sheer bliss" to perform with Smith. Production companies In 1981, Rhys Jones along with Mel Smith founded Talkback, a production company which produced many British comedy series, including Smack the Pony, Da Ali G Show, I'm Alan Partridge, They Think It's All Over, QI and Big Train. They eventually sold the company to Pearson for £62 million. In 2005, Rhys Jones created his own production company Modern Television, which has since made a number of productions with Rhys Jones as presenter and executive producer. In May 2014, Rhys Jones was executive producer on his production company's debut BBC drama A Poet in New York starring Tom Hollander as Dylan Thomas. Documentaries Rhys Jones has developed a career as a television presenter, beginning as the co-host on several Comic Relief programmes. He presented Bookworm from 1994 to 2000, was the presenter of the BBC's Restoration programme and has undertaken fundraising work for the Hackney Empire theatre conservation project. In 2004, he led a demonstration at the Senate House in Cambridge University for the purpose of saving architecture as a degree in Cambridge. Since 2006, Rhys Jones has appeared in the BBC's Three Men in a Boat series, alongside Dara Ó Briain and Rory McGrath. The series has included the trio rowing the River Thames, as in the 1889 novel, sailing from London to the Isle of Wight for a sailing boat race, borrowing numerous vessels to make their way from Plymouth to the Isles of Scilly. In later adventures, the three men took to the Irish Canals and Rivers on a trip from Dublin to Limerick (Dara's Greyhound Snip Nua also tagged along for the trip), went to Scotland, and sailed along the Balkan coast ending up in Venice for a gondola race. His documentary series Mountain, for which he climbed 15 British peaks during 2006, was broadcast on BBC One 29 July–26 August 2007. Rhys Jones visited his mother's home town in Ferndale, Rhondda Cynon Taff for an episode of the BBC One series Who Do You Think You Are?, broadcast on 20 September 2007. In the episode, he detailed early memories and stories of his grandparents' fruit and vegetable shop on the high street and his mother's childhood concert performances at Trerhondda Chapel. He presented a documentary series with 5 episodes A Pembrokeshire Farm which was broadcast on BBC4 in July/August 2007. Two years later he presented another 5 episode documentary series Return to a Pembrokeshire Farm which was broadcast on BBC4 in September/ October 2009. Both series concerned the renovation of a farm in Pembrokeshire which Rhys Jones had purchased with a view to restoring them. He presented a seasonal documentary, Charles Dickens and the Invention of Christmas, which was broadcast on 23 December 2007 on BBC One. Rhys Jones fronted Greatest Cities of the World, which saw him visiting a different city each week. The first series, featuring London, New York City and Paris, aired on primetime ITV in October 2008. A second series featuring Rome, Sydney and Hong Kong was broadcast in April and May 2010. Rhys Jones has created and presented programmes about Arthur Ransome, Thomas Hardy, John Betjeman and Rudyard Kipling. During July to August 2009, Rhys Jones presented the BBC programme Rivers with Griff Rhys Jones. which featured on the cover of Radio Times. In 2010, Rhys Jones presented a programme called The Prince's Welsh Village that featured Prince Charles. In 2011, he presented the series Hidden Treasures of Art, which examined the art of Australia, India and Africa over the course of three episodes. Britain's Lost Routes with Griff Rhys Jones was broadcast on BBC One from 30 May to 20 June 2012. The show looked at lesser known routes around Great Britain. On 29 April 2012, Rhys Jones guest presented an episode of Perspectives on ITV, his chosen subject being Wind in the Willows. In 2013, Rhys Jones presented a documentary about his father's service as a medical officer with the Gold Coast Regiment and the war in Burma, Burma, My Father and the Forgotten Army, was broadcast on BBC Two on 7 July. In 2014, Rhys Jones fronted an eight-part ITV documentary series entitled A Great Welsh Adventure with Griff Rhys Jones. From 10 April 2015, he introduced a five-part documentary series for ITV, Slow Train Through Africa, taking in life on and off trains from Morocco to South Africa, by way of Algeria, Tunisia, Kenya and Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Namibia. In December 2015, it was announced that Rhys Jones would present Griff's Great Britain, a new eight-part series for ITV. The show began airing in January 2016. Radio In 2002, Rhys Jones starred in a series of adaptations of comedic stories by Nikolai Gogol broadcast on BBC Radio 4 (subsequently re-broadcast on BBC Radio 7 and BBC Radio 4 Extra) under the umbrella title of Three Ivans, Two Aunts and an Overcoat. Stage Rhys Jones won Olivier awards for best comedy performance in Charley's Aunt (1984) and An Absolute Turkey (1994), and appeared at the National Theatre as Toad in The Wind in the Willows in 1990. He starred as Fagin in Cameron Mackintosh's production of Oliver! in London's West End from 14 December 2009 until 8 January 2011. Writing Rhys Jones has written or co-written many of the programmes he has appeared in, and many spin-off books. In 2002, he began writing a book called To the Baltic with Bob, describing his adventures on the high seas with his sailing friend Bob, as they make their way to Saint Petersburg, port by port.The book was published in 2003, with Rhys Jones saying of the experience: "As a child you go out and play and you lose all track of time and space. It's harder and harder to attain that blissful state of absorption as you get older. I did a six-month sailing trip to St Petersburg with some mates just to get it back." His early life has been captured in his autobiography, Semi-Detached, published in 2006 by Penguin Books. His book to accompany the BBC One series Mountain was published in July 2007. Other work During 1999 to 2001, Rhys Jones featured in television adverts for the Vauxhall range of cars, as a "boffin". In April 2001, he was dismissed by Vauxhall, after an embarrassing advert for the Vauxhall VX220. He officially signed the deal in May 1999. Rhys Jones provided the voice over for Brentwood School's 450th anniversary DVD, reading a script written by fellow Old Brentwoodian Jonathan Ruffle. Rhys Jones became President of The Victorian Society in February 2018, in succession to Asa Briggs, following a period as Vice President from 2009, and has participated in media campaigns for the society. Since 2007, he has been a Vice-President of the River Stour Trust, a registered charity led by volunteers who are dedicated to the restoration and conservation of the River Stour Navigation for the benefit and enjoyment of the public. In June 2008, it was announced that Rhys Jones was to become the President of Civic Voice, the nationwide charity that campaigns for better places in the built and green environment. In August 2014, Rhys Jones was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue. Personal life Rhys Jones met his wife, Jo, a graphic designer, while working at the BBC. He has described their first meeting by saying: "The day we met, I was semi naked and she was throwing water over me." The couple have two children, and live between homes in London (previously in Islington, now in a Grade I listed house in London's Fitzrovia in the West End) and Holbrook in Suffolk. Rhys Jones owned Undina, the , fifty-year-old wooden sailing yacht which was used in Three Men in Another Boat; he spent £500,000 on her restoration and in 2013 stated she was for sale for £195,000, "probably less". Around 2011, he bought a 1948 wooden yacht, Argyll, which he races at regattas, including the Fastnet Race. He and Jo are keen gardeners, and he discussed their extensive garden in an October 2015 episode of Gardeners' World, part of which was filmed there. A former heavy drinker, Rhys Jones is a teetotaller: "I don't drink so going to a party can become very tedious. By about 11 o'clock, everybody goes to another planet and you're not there with them, so I tend to avoid that sort of thing." He started running as a leisure pursuit in his early forties. In 2008, he presented two programmes called Losing It which were shown on BBC Two, in which he discussed his own problems with anger management. An active conservationist, Rhys Jones is the president of Civic Voice, the national organisation representing Britain's civic societies. He also owns a small pack of alpacas. A resident of East Anglia, Rhys Jones was awarded an honorary degree by the University of East Anglia in 2002. He was awarded honorary degrees by the University of Glamorgan, the University of Essex and an honorary D.Litt from Anglia Ruskin University. He is also a Fellow of the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama, the Royal Society of Arts, and an Honorary Fellow of his alma mater, Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In 2009 he was honoured by his father's former university, the University of Wales College of Medicine (now part of Cardiff University). Rhys Jones was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2019 Birthday Honours for services to the National Civic Society Movement, charity and entertainment. Filmography References External links TLS editor Peter Stothard remembers his schooldays with Rhys Jones Griff Rhys Jones – Official website Griff Rhys Jones Myspace appreciation group Griff Rhys Jones – Vice President, River Stour Trust 1953 births Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge BBC radio producers Welsh comedy writers Welsh male film actors Welsh male television actors Welsh television presenters Welsh television writers Living people People educated at Brentwood School, Essex People from Babergh Mass media people from Cardiff Welsh male comedians Laurence Olivier Award winners British male television writers Officers of the Order of the British Empire	[ -0.34158048033714294, 0.7251404523849487, 0.13585525751113892, -0.8270244598388672, 0.26365649700164795, 0.8683114051818848, 0.6074544787406921, -0.14454835653305054, 0.0205485001206398, 0.16798247396945953, -0.1390761286020279, 0.6323548555374146, -0.12452221661806107, 0.40443894267082214, 0.169549822807312, 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237993	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Langham	Chris Langham	Christopher Langham (born 14 April 1949) is an English writer, actor, and comedian. He is known for playing the cabinet minister Hugh Abbot in the BBC sitcom The Thick of It, and as presenter Roy Mallard in People Like Us, first on BBC Radio 4 and later on its transfer to television on BBC Two, where Mallard is almost entirely an unseen character. He subsequently created several spoof advertisements in the same vein. He also played similar unseen interviewers in an episode of the television series Happy Families and in the film The Big Tease. He is also known for his roles in the television series Not the Nine O'Clock News, Help, and Kiss Me Kate, and as the gatehouse guard in Chelmsford 123. In 2006, he won BAFTA awards for The Thick of It and Help. On 2 August 2007, Langham was found guilty of 15 charges of downloading and possessing level 5 child sexual abuse images and videos. Langham was jailed for 10 months, reduced to 6 months on appeal. He was made to sign the sex offenders' register and was banned from working with children for 10 years. Early life and education Langham is the son of theatre director Michael Langham and actress Helen Burns. He was educated at St Paul's School, an independent school for boys in Barnes in West London, followed by the University of Bristol, where he studied English and drama, before dropping out. Career Langham began performing comedy and writing for Spike Milligan. One of his earliest breaks was as the sole British writer for The Muppet Show. He also appeared as the "special guest star" in the 19th episode of the final season, when the scheduled guest, Richard Pryor, was unable to make it to the recording; a script was hastily written in which "Chris the Delivery Boy" stood in for an absent celebrity. He received two awards from the Writers Guild of America for his work on The Muppet Show. He also made a brief appearance as a police driver in The Pink Panther Strikes Again in 1976, opposite Peter Sellers. In 1976 also was the inception, at the Science Fiction Theatre of Liverpool, of the nine-hour stage play Illuminatus, which Langham co-wrote with Ken Campbell. In 1977, the production transferred to the Cottesloe Theatre, London, where he took the part of George Dorn, giving a performance which Peter Hall found "extremely impressive". Langham was part of the original cast for the pilot for Not the Nine O'Clock News in 1979, written by Richard Curtis. The show was positioned as a comedy series, which was neither Monty Python's Flying Circus nor The Two Ronnies. Even after the original pilot was pulled from the schedules, Langham was retained for the first full series, billed equally with the then-unknown Mel Smith, Pamela Stephenson, and Rowan Atkinson. The first series did not rate as well as hoped, however, and Langham was felt to be "too independent a spirit." Langham took a part in Monty Python's Life of Brian as a centurion, a film which generated controversy for its satire of Christianity, resulting in a televised debate between John Cleese, Michael Palin, Malcolm Muggeridge, and Mervyn Stockwood over whether the film is blasphemous. Curtis had written a skit that parodied this debate itself. Langham was upset at the inclusion of the sketch, which gave the team and producer John Lloyd the excuse for his replacement by support player Griff Rhys Jones. Langham did not learn of the switch until the last day of filming, when he heard the crew discussing the second series. The show only achieved cult status during its later series, and in subsequent compilation repeats, most of Langham's contributions have been cut, giving the impression that he was never a main cast member. Langham went on to appear on Smith and Jones' own programme, Alas Smith and Jones, playing an ineffectual panel-show host. This character apparently inspired John Morton to create the character of Roy Mallard, who was later to feature in his show People Like Us; Mallard was played both on radio and (offscreen) on television by Langham. Langham also played a fly-on-the-wall documentary interviewer very similar to Roy Mallard in Happy Families in 1985. Also in 1979, Langham played Arthur Dent in the first professional stage version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, directed by Ken Campbell. He later returned to Hitchhiker's, appearing as Prak in Above The Title Productions' Tertiary Phase radio series in 2004. He appeared in a series of Birdseye advertisements for their Steakhouse range (1991–1993). Langham narrated the 1984 radio series The History of Rock with Chris Langham, in which Langham gave a comedic and somewhat fictitious account of the history of rock music. On 14 November 1985, Langham appeared as the narrator/reporter in "Roxanne", episode five of the BBC situation comedy Happy Families, written by Ben Elton. In 1992, he appeared in the film Carry On Columbus. In addition to several one-man shows, Langham counts among his stage credits Les Misérables, in which he played Thénardier in 1996; Crazy for You, for which he received an Olivier nomination; The Way of the World, The Nerd and The Pirates of Penzance. He created the comic role of the Assassin in Blondel (co-starring Paul Nicholas; by Tim Rice and Stephen Oliver), and appears on the original cast album. Langham wrote the BBC One sitcom Kiss Me Kate, in which he appeared alongside Caroline Quentin and Amanda Holden. In 2002, he wrote and starred in Bradford in My Dreams, an adaptation of a short story by Lawrence Block for the BBC. On Radio 4, he narrated the series The Rapid Eye Movement, which starred Martin Freeman as Chester Beatty, in whose head the entire series took place. In 2003, he directed the BBC TV comedy series Posh Nosh. In 2003 and 2005, respectively, he portrayed authors George Orwell and John Wyndham in the BBC docudrama George Orwell – A Life in Pictures and the BBC Four documentary John Wyndham: the Invisible Man of Science Fiction. He also appeared in the radio magazine satire The Sunday Format. He starred alongside co-writer Paul Whitehouse in Help on BBC Two in 2005, where he also appeared in the Armando Iannucci comedy The Thick of It in the same year. Langham was named Best Comedy Actor in the 2005 British Comedy Awards and won the 2006 BAFTA Best Comedy Performance award for his role in The Thick of It. In November 2005, Langham wrote and starred in ITV pilot Seven Second Delay. He was a frequent guest on The Heaven and Earth Show. He was part of the writing team for Bremner, Bird and Fortune, in which he occasionally appeared as a civil servant discussing things with Bremner's Tony Blair. Langham has appeared as a panelist on the Radio 4 show Armando Iannucci's Charm Offensive. A few days after his release from prison in 2008, Langham was interviewed by celebrity psychologist Pamela Connolly, with whom he had worked on Not the Nine O'Clock News, for her UK television series Shrink Rap, where he discussed being abused as an eight-year-old child, events which he said led to his trial and conviction. The interview was broadcast on More4 on 15 January 2008. Langham was also invited to make a speech in front of the Oxford Union on 29 May 2008, but the invitation was then withdrawn. In 2011, in his first screen appearance after his release, he was cast as the lead in Black Pond, a low-budget British film directed by Tom Kingsley and Will Sharpe. In an interview with The Guardian in September 2011, Langham stated that many people had suggested to him that he should work again, but no one wanted to employ him. Reviewing his performance in Black Pond positively, The Independent commented, "whether it will rehabilitate him among casting agents and comedy show commissioners is another question". The Kino Digital cinema in Hawkhurst had a screening of the film on 11 December 2011. Afterwards, Langham, who lived nearby, held a brief question-and-answer session to help promote the film. In 2012, he appeared with Billy Murray, Leslie Grantham, and Crissy Rock in Richard John Taylor's drama film Acceptance. In 2021, Langham's The Muppet Show episode was not made available on Disney+ when the series was added to the streaming service. Disney stated that most missing episodes and segments were due to music-rights issues, but refused to comment on Langham in particular. Personal life Langham's first marriage, to actress/singer Sue Jones-Davies, produced three children, but broke up on his own admission due to his alcoholism. Langham had two children by his second wife, director Christine Cartwright. Langham sought counselling for alcohol and cocaine addiction, and was still undergoing therapy once a week as of 2006. He used his experiences to co-write the BBC2 series Help, in which he portrayed a psychotherapist, with friend Paul Whitehouse, and played a counsellor in sitcom Kiss Me Kate. Despite his conviction and imprisonment for possession of images of child abuse, his marriage to Cartwright survived, and his wife and children continued to live with him in the family home in Cranbrook, Kent, after his release. Likewise, his three sons from his first marriage stood by him. Arrest and conviction On 29 November 2005, Langham was arrested by Kent Police in connection with Operation Ore, a British police operation into credit-card customers paying to access indecent and abusive images of children on the internet. The arrest was first reported in the press on 16 December 2005, in response to which Langham's lawyer read a statement in which he said that he was innocent and pointed out that he had not been charged. On 11 May 2006, he was charged with 15 counts of "making indecent images" (a legal term meaning to download and store indecent images as distinct from the act of photography) of children. The trial took place at Maidstone Crown Court during July and August 2007. Part of Langham's defence to these charges in court was that they were research on a peeping tom character "Pedro" for a television comedy. Langham's former Help co-star/writer Paul Whitehouse confirmed that the character was referred to as a "peeping tom" who was prone to highly dubious sexual behaviour. Whitehouse stated that the character was not intended to be a paedophile, nor was he personally aware of Langham obtaining such material for the development of the programme's script. The prosecutor, Richard Barraclough QC, asked Mr Whitehouse, "Did Mr Langham ever discuss with you that he was undertaking any research for the shows?" "Not to my knowledge, no," Mr Whitehouse replied. Langham also said in court that he was the victim of child sexual abuse and this caused him to look for images; Barraclough called this "pseudo-psychobabble" and the judge dismissed its legality as a defence. Langham had paid with his credit card for access to a site entitled "European Lolita Sex" in 1999. On the evening that the public was made aware of the scope of Operation Ore, Langham had contacted police to report his "concern" about spam emails, with links to paedophile sites, which he said he was receiving. The prosecution said that he had contacted police because he had "panicked" and "wanted to give the impression of being a good citizen". During his trial, he was also accused of having sex with an under-age girl in upmarket hotels, his West End dressing room, his car, and his home. The accuser claimed this had started when she was 14 years old. Langham denied the charges and claimed he had only had sex with her when she was 18. He was found not guilty of six counts of indecent assault and two counts of buggery between January 1996 and April 2000. On 2 August 2007, Langham was found guilty on charges of possessing child sexual abuse images and videos. He was sentenced to 10 months in prison and was placed on the sexual offenders register for 10 years. Before sentencing, the judge said that "some of the children viewed are clearly prepubescent... The worst video was 15 minutes long and it showed in quite graphic detail the sadistic brutalisation of an eight-year-old girl in the UK, with some serious sexual offences against her". He was released on 14 November 2007, after his sentence was reduced to six months on appeal. Dame Heather Steel, who gave the decision, said that the court viewed Langham's explanation that he viewed the child sexual abuse images for research as "highly improbable", but could not reject it, although he was still guilty of encouraging "despicable acts" through downloading the images of child sexual abuse. On his release, Langham stated, "My life has been ruined, but my conscience is clear" and complained that the media "completely ignored" the court's "acceptance based upon all the evidence and expert opinion that I have no sexual interest in children". Despite the judge ruling, "Paedophilia is not an issue in this case" and "[Langham] is not a sexual predator", after the trial Detective Superintendent Paul Fotheringham of Kent Police told journalists, "Langham doesn’t like the label, but I am satisfied that he is a paedophile". References External links Chris Langham at the British Film Institute at the bbc.co.uk Guide to Comedy Interviews "My top TV: Chris Langham" at BBC News Online (May 2001) "'Just to be OK is something I crave'" at The Guardian (May 2006) 1949 births 20th-century English male actors 21st-century English criminals 21st-century English male actors Alumni of the University of Bristol Best Comedy Performance BAFTA Award (television) winners BBC people British male criminals Criminals from London Emmy Award winners English comedy writers English male comedians English male television actors English male voice actors English people convicted of child pornography offences English television writers Living people British male television writers People educated at St Paul's School, London Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales Writers Guild of America Award winners	[ -0.15061821043491364, 0.3369692862033844, 0.014340337365865707, -0.9427986741065979, 0.49133726954460144, 0.8733671307563782, 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237996	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stay%20on%20These%20Roads	Stay on These Roads	Stay on These Roads is the third studio album by Norwegian band A-ha, released on 3 May 1988 by Warner Bros. Records. Six singles were released from the album. Recording A Synclavier, Sequential Circuits Prophet 5, Yamaha DX-7, Roland D-50, and Roland Juno-60 or Roland Juno-106 synthesizers were used in the recording of this album, as was a Yamaha RX-5 drum machine. Release and reception The album peaked at number 148 on the US Billboard 200. It was another big hit by A-ha internationally, selling over 4 million copies worldwide. Stay on These Roads achieved Platinum status in Brazil and Gold in the UK, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Germany and Double Platinum status in France. It reached number two in the European top-100 albums sales chart. William Ruhlmann of AllMusic said "in the U.K., the album became the group's third straight to peak at number two, though it charted for a shorter period than the first two albums, and there were four Top 25 hits—the title track, 'The Blood That Moves the Body,' 'Touchy!,' and 'You Are the One'." Also included was a re-recording of A-ha's 1987 theme from the James Bond movie The Living Daylights, which, in its single version, was a U.K. number five that missed the U.S. charts. Lead single "Stay on These Roads", number one in Norway, was a hit across Europe, including top-five showings in the UK, France, Austria and Ireland and top-ten chartings in Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland. Stay on These Roads includes three more hit singles, "The Blood That Moves The Body", "Touchy!" and "You Are the One", though a final single, "There's Never a Forever Thing", was released only in Brazil. Track listing All lyrics written by Paul Waaktaar-Savoy; music composers listed below. Side one "Stay on These Roads" – 4:45 (Furuholmen, Harket, Waaktaar) "The Blood That Moves the Body" – 4:06 (Waaktaar) "Touchy!" – 4:34 (Furuholmen, Harket, Waaktaar) "This Alone Is Love" – 5:15 (Furuholmen, Waaktaar) "Hurry Home" – 4:37 (Furuholmen, Waaktaar) Side two "The Living Daylights" – 4:47 (Barry, Waaktaar) "There's Never a Forever Thing" – 2:53 (Waaktaar) "Out of Blue Comes Green" – 6:42 (Waaktaar) "You Are the One" – 3:51 (Furuholmen, Waaktaar) "You'll End up Crying" – 2:06 (Waaktaar) 2015 Deluxe edition Disc 1 "Stay on These Roads" (2015 Remastered) "The Blood That Moves the Body" (2015 Remastered) "Touchy!" (2015 Remastered) "This Alone Is Love" (2015 Remastered) "Hurry Home" (2015 Remastered) "The Living Daylights" (2015 Remastered) "There's Never a Forever Thing" (2015 Remastered) "Out of Blue Comes Green" (2015 Remastered) "You Are the One" (2015 Remastered) "You'll End up Crying" (2015 Remastered) "Stay on These Roads" (Extended Remix) "You Are the One" (12" Remix) "The Living Daylights (Extended Version) "The Blood That Moves the Body" (Extended Remix) "Touchy!" (Go-Go Mix) Disc 2 - Demos & Alternate Versions "Stay on These Roads" (Early Version) "The Blood That Moves the Body" (Demo) "Touchy!" "This Alone Is Love" (Demo) "You Are the One" (Early Version) "Cold River" (1987 Demo) "Hurry Home" (Demo) "I'll Never Find Streetful City" (Demo) "The Living Daylights" (Demo) "There's Never a Forever Thing" (Demo) "Out of Blue Comes Green" (Alternate Mix) "You'll End up Crying" (Demo) "You Are the One" (Alternate Version) "Touchy!" (Demo) "Umbrella" (Rendezvous Demo) "Thus Ended Our Love Affair" (Demo) "There's Never a Forever Thing" (Acoustic Version) "Evitar" (Demo) "You Are the One" (Demo) "Sail On My Love" (Writing Session) Personnel A-ha Morten Harket - lead and backing vocals Magne Furuholmen - keyboards, bass and drum programming, backing vocals Paul Waaktaar-Savoy - guitar, strings, backing vocals Technical Production: Alan Tarney Recording engineer: Gerry Kitchingham Mixing engineer: John Hudson Contributions to the recording of the album: Steve Sidwell, Ben Robbins, Anne Dudley, Randy Hope-Taylor, Øystein Jevanord, Kick Horns. Art direction: Jeri Heiden Photographs: Just Loomis Photograph "Still Life": Stuart Watson Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales References External links Lyrics Tour of 1988-1989, in German 1988 albums A-ha albums Albums produced by Alan Tarney Warner Records albums	[ 0.41184598207473755, 0.5073399543762207, -0.21381306648254395, 0.190558522939682, 0.047839488834142685, 0.20994071662425995, 1.0424070358276367, 0.189850851893425, -0.15354983508586884, -0.04626623913645744, 0.4778360426425934, 1.0158694982528687, -0.3933473825454712, 0.24180974066257477, 0.725377082824707, 0.2193327397108078, 0.4114557206630707, 0.3788767457008362, 0.03117925114929676, -0.56064373254776, 0.35469233989715576, -0.46917015314102173, 0.4436556100845337, -0.37767449021339417, -0.16777369379997253, 0.0420239232480526, -0.09942304342985153, 0.8502334952354431, -0.1081731989979744, -0.7544280886650085, 0.3158961832523346, 0.3162558078765869, -0.019510146230459213, 0.03002140112221241, 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237997	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naxi	Naxi	Naxi may refer to: Naxi people (), an ethnic group mainly living in southwest provinces of China Naxi language, the language of the Naxi people Naxi District (), Luzhou, Sichuan	[ 0.352908730506897, 0.10198692232370377, -0.614040195941925, -0.29386526346206665, 0.27574315667152405, 0.9255318641662598, -0.18471704423427582, 1.0405464172363281, -0.19156514108181, -0.7504422068595886, -0.3291535973548889, -0.010714896954596043, -0.4971141815185547, 0.22192181646823883, 0.17118965089321136, 0.5980711579322815, 0.5286255478858948, 0.4250621497631073, 0.20059756934642792, 0.003378375433385372, -0.4158545732498169, -0.18508021533489227, 0.26200804114341736, 0.11340703815221786, 0.11961562186479568, -0.2429705262184143, 0.5392604470252991, 0.3244999051094055, 0.5587893128395081, 0.13871446251869202, -0.3346242308616638, 1.1036442518234253, 0.03699095547199249, -0.0316530242562294, 0.2136002779006958, -0.14201399683952332, -0.5328589081764221, 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237998	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samart%20Payakaroon	Samart Payakaroon	Samart Payakaroon (; ), real name Samart Tiptarmai (; , born 5 December 1962, in the Klong Khet village in the Chachoengsao Province), is a former Muay Thai fighter, boxer and entertainer. He is considered by many to be the greatest Muay Thai fighter of all time, becoming a multiple time Lumpinee stadium champion, as well as a WBC world champion in boxing. He also went on to have an entertainment career, releasing several successful music albums in Thailand and appearing in several films. Fighting career Muay Thai Samart has an older brother, Kongtoranee Payakaroon, who induced Samart to start training in Muay Thai. Samart started training Muay Thai when he was 7 years old. The First Muay Thai teacher of Samart was Yodtong Senanan (Kru Tui) who taught both Samart and Kongtoranee. His first fight name was Samart Lookklongket. After he fought about a dozen fights, he came to Bangkok to fight at Lumpinee Stadium in 1978. He possessed an extremely high fight IQ, lightning quick reflexes, and excellent ring vision. Samart also fought using creative techniques that were effective and unpredictable, even against elite competition in the 80s and 90s (dubbed the Golden Age of Muay Thai). There were contests where Samart was pushed past the brink of exhaustion, and still gave his opponents the fight of their lives. Even in the period where Samart was more concerned about his music and acting career, he defeated some of the greatest fighters of his generation. Boxing In 1982, he turned to boxing where he fought from a southpaw stance. In 1986, he won a WBC junior featherweight title with a surprise KO over rock-chinned Lupe Pintor in the fifth round and defended against the respected Juan Meza before being stopped by undefeated Australian Jeff Fenech. He made a comeback in the 1990s and challenged unsuccessfully for another world title. Payakaroon was named The Rings Progress of the Year fighter for 1986. He now teaches Muay Thai in Thailand. Titles and accomplishmentsMuay ThaiLumpinee Stadium 1980 Lumpinee Stadium 102 lbs Champion 1980 Lumpinee Stadium 105 lbs Champion 1981 Lumpinee Stadium 115 lbs Champion 1981 Lumpinee Stadium 126 lbs ChampionAwards 1981 Sports Writers Association of Thailand Fighter of the Year 1981 Sports Writers Association of Thailand Fight of the Year (vs Mafeuang Weerapon) 1982 Sports Writers Association of ThailandFight of the Year (vs Dieselnoi Chor Thanasukarn) 1983 Sports Writers Association of Thailand Fighter of the Year 1988 Sports Writers Association of Thailand Fight of the Year (vs Panomtuanlek Hapalang) 1988 Sports Writers Association of Thailand Fighter of the YearBoxingWorld Boxing Council World Boxing Council World Super Bantamweight Champion (1986) Entertainment Music Between his two stints as boxing champion, Samart signed with a Grammy Entertainment winning label and released three albums. They are pop music but with his upcountry accent ('"Ner" เหน่อ) as opposed to central Thailand accent. His first album, Rock Ner Ner. (ร็อคเหน่อๆ) in 1989, contains a famous song On Som (อ่อนซ้อม - not enough practice) talking about him being very proficient in boxing but lacking the same aptitude at getting love from women. His second and third album, Arom Dee (อารมณ์ดี) and Kun Mai Kun Mike (คันไม้คันไมค์) followed in 1990 and 1992 with famous songs Nam Plik Pla Too (น้ำพริกปลาทู) and Kao Ao Eng (เกาเอาเอง) respectively. After the three albums, he went back to boxing. Acting In 2000, Samart starred as a minor antagonist named Chartchai Payakaroon in A Fighter's Blues. He had a role in the 2001 Thai film, The Legend of Suriyothai. He had a major role in the French drama film, Fureur, and was in the 2004 film, The Bodyguard. In 2006, he co-starred in the Thai martial arts film, Dynamite Warrior. He appeared in Muay Thai Chaiya in 2007. In 2015, his biography has created a documentary film released in Mard Payak (มาดพยัคฆ์; "Tiger Style") by NOW26 in a network of Nation Multimedia Group. Legacy Samart is considered to be the "Muhammad Ali" and "Sugar Ray Robinson" of Muay Thai. His name holds prestige for followers of the sport to this day. Coach and legendary fighter Kru Sityodtong spoke highly of Samart, saying Samart was easily the most talented fighter he’s ever seen. Sidyodtong also believes Thailand still hasn’t seen anyone as talented as Samart grace the ring, and he says that during an era where Saenchai reigns supreme. K-1 champion Buakaw Banchamek stated that Samart was the greatest Muay Thai fighter ever, without question. Many modern day fighters, such as Saekson Janjira, Matee Jedeepitek, Kongnapa Kansaek Sor Ploenjit, Lookchang, and Nokweed all look up to Samart and aspire to be like him. Fight Record Professional boxing record Muay Thai record \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 2001-01-20\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Varazdat Mihranyan \|\| Muay Thai combat - Sidekick Promotion \|\| Inglewood, California, USA \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Maikel Lieuwfat \|\| \|\| Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1993-12-10 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Paul Lenehan \|\| \|\| France \|\| TKO \|\| 3 \|\| 2:40 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1993-12-05 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Gilbert Ballantine \|\| King's Birthday \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1993-10-02 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Murat Comert \|\| \|\| Paris, France \|\| TKO \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1993-04-24 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Satoshi Niizuma \|\| MAJKF \|\| Tokyo, Japan \|\| Decision (Unanimous)\|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#FFBBBB;" \| 1989-05-10 \|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Wangchannoi Sor Palangchai \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1989-01-06 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Jaroenthong Kiatbanchong \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| KO (Right hook) \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1988-12-02 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Namphon Nongkeepahuyuth \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1988-10-28 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Namphon Nongkeepahuyuth \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| TKO (Doctor Stoppage) \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1988-06-24 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Samransak Muangsurin \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1988-05-26 \|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Samransak Muangsurin \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1988-01-26 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Panomtuanlek Hapalang \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| KO (Punches) \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1984-09-21 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Wattana Soudareth \|\| \|\| Paris, France \|\| TKO \|\| 4 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1983-12-28 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Samart Prasarnmit \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium 133 lbs vs 135\|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| TKO \|\| \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1983-11-11 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chamuakpetch Haphalung \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1983-10-13 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Rabout Sor Thanikul \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1983-08-24 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Kitty Sor Thanikul \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1983-04-05 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Samransak Muangsurin \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1983-02-04 \|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Samingnoom Sithiboontham \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#FFBBBB;" \| 1982-12-24 \|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Dieselnoi Chor Thanasukarn \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1982-05-10\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Padejsuk Pitsanurachan \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1982-03-12\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Padejsuk Pitsanurachan \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1982-01-15\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Nongkhai Sor.Prapatsorn \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1981-11-09\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Kitty Sor Thanikul \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1981-10-13\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Samingnoom Sithiboontham \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1981-09-04\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Paruhat Longnoen \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1981-06-09\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Mafeuang Weerapon \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1981-04-28\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Fonluang Luksadetmaepuanthong \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1981-03-31\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Singthong Prasopchai \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1981-01-13\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Poollap Saknirun \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-12-02\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chamuakpetch Haphalung \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-11-11\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Poollap Saknirun \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-10-14\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Hanuman Sitporluang \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-09-23\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Bangkhlanoi Sor.Thanikul \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#FFBBBB;" \| 1980-08-08\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Chamuakpetch Haphalung \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1980-06-27\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Bangkhlanoi Sor.Thanikul \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-06-06\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Paruhatlek Sitchunthong \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-04-29\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Prabpipop Lukklongtan \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-03-28\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sonsil Sit.Nerpayong \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-03-14\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Paruhatlek Sitchunthong \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1980-02-11\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Kongsamut Sor Thanikul \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- style="background:#c5d2ea;" \| 1979-12-30\|\| Draw\|\|align=left\| Sichanglek Look KM-16 \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1979-12-02\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Praseurtsak Singthapraya \|\| \|\| Sa Kaeo Province, Thailand \|\|KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1979-11-20\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sichanglek Look KM-16 \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1979-09-02\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chaowalit Sitpraprom \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#FFBBBB;" \| 1979-08-17\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Paruhatlek Sitchunthong \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#FFBBBB;" \| 1979-06-26\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Jampatong Na Nontachai\|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#FFBBBB;" \| 1979-06-08\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Jampatong Na Nontachai\|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1979-03-23\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Saksuriya Fairtex \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#c5d2ea;" \| 1979-02-25\|\| Draw\|\|align=left\| Pharuatlek Sitchunthong \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1979-02-13\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sichanglek Look KM-16 \|\| Lumpinee Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1979-01-01\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chaowalit Sitpraprom \|\| \|\| Sa Kaeo Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-08-06\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Payakmok Surakosang \|\| Rajadamnern Stadium \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-07-20\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Saengpetch Sor. Wongsiam \|\| \|\| Chanthaburi Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-07-03\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Aunhain Lookbanplai \|\| \|\| Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1978-05-23\|\| Loss\|\|align=left\| Thaninoi Sakniran \|\| Lumpinee Stadium 100 lbs \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-05-05\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Gakao Sitchuchai \|\| \|\| Sam Yan, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-04-23\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Pornchai Sithaosing \|\| \|\| Pong District, Thailand \|\|KO \|\| 2 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-04-15\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sampownoi Janjira \|\| \|\| Ratchaburi Province, Thailand \|\|KO \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-04-03\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Kiatwiwath Lookchaimai \|\| \|\| Rayong Province, Thailand \|\|KO \|\| 4 \|\| \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1978-03-27\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Awout Sor. Thanikhul \|\| \|\| Nonthaburi Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-03-02\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Maewnoi Singtchakawan \|\| \|\| Samrong District, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1978-02-19\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Jokceynoi Por. Muang U-bon \|\| \|\| Phanat Nikhom District, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1978-02-01\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Thaninoi Saknilan \|\| \|\| Chanthaburi Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1978-01-18\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Leungchai Thairungruang \|\| \|\| Chonburi Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1977-12-13\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Payom Chokchaisith \|\| \|\| Chai Nat Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1977-08-04\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Cheugchai Sithseri \|\| \|\| Ban Bueng District, Thailand \|\|KO \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1977-06-20\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sittichai Sanangym \|\| \|\| Phanat Nikhom District, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1977-03-19\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sittichai Sanangym \|\| \|\| Pak Kret District, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1977-01-24\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Saksuriya Fairtex \|\| \|\| Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand \|\|Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-12-01\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chattamin Sithpratana \|\| \|\| Kalasin Province, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-10-30\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Pongkramnoi Sor. Kingstar \|\| \|\| Roi Et Province, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-07-12\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Awout Sor. Thanikhul\|\| \|\| Phitsanulok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-07-12\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Pornsawan Sitsuwan \|\| \|\| Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-03-03\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Payak Lookmakramkou \|\| \|\| Pattaya, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-02-19\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Nomtanong Sitsaengsawang \|\| \|\| Kanchanaburi, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 2 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-01-07\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sama-air Sitsamrith \|\| \|\| Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 2 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-01-02\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Koukong Sor. Sawangtith \|\| \|\| Samrong District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1976-01-07\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Sama-air Sitsamrith \|\| \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 2 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-12-\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Pinchai Singbanlao\|\| \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-12-\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Somyoth Lookchaomai \|\| \|\| Trat Province, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 2 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-12-10\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Petchmani Lookbanlao \|\| \|\| Trat Province, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-12-04\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Pounsak Sitworawath \|\| \|\| Chanthaburi Province, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-11-20\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Uangfah Sittrangloig\|\| \|\| Chanthaburi Province, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-11-12\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Bangsai Sitsaithong \|\| \|\| Rayong, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-10-27\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Panetchone Lookbanprao \|\| \|\| Lat Phrao District, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 4 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-10-26\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Thaksin Lookkraosaming \|\| \|\| Trat Province, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-10-04\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Surasak Sakpraseurt \|\| \|\| Trat Province, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-09-30\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Ayduan Hatari \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-09-20\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Thanoukranong Latsaminaga \|\| \|\| Trat Province, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 3 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-08-31\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Koukong Sor. Sawangtith \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-08-17\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Kao Sor. Bantchongsak \|\| \|\| Trat Province, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 2 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-08-07\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chaowalit Sitpraprom \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1975-05-05\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Bangkhlanoi Sor.Thanikul \|\| \|\| Samrong District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1975-03-29\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Thai Looksamet \|\| \|\| Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-02-29\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chaowalit Sitpraprom\|\| \|\| Bangkok, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-02-10\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Tchongdi Srisopa \|\| \|\| Ayutthaya Province, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1975-01-19\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Chamnaseuk Na.Pattaya \|\| \|\| Ban Khai District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1975-01-10\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Thai Looksamet \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1975-01-02\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Thongchainoi Sitkrulam \|\| \|\| Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-12-09\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Chatchai Na. Bankrod \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 4 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-11-21\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Singdam Lookhinnawong \|\| \|\| Pattaya, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-10-16\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Bangkhlanoi Sor.Thanikul \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1974-09-03\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Thai Looksamet \|\| \|\| Chonburi Province, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-08-19\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Pandeg Sor. Nuanhanan \|\| \|\| Phetchaburi Province, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1974-07-31\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Thongdeg Sor. Lackana \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-05-15\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chaowalit Sitpraprom \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#c5d2ea;" \| 1974-04-16\|\| Draw \|\|align=left\| Chatchai Na. Bankrod \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-03-13\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Thongdeg Sor. Lackana \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-03-13\|\| Win\|\|align=left\| Kenoi Latsamijan \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1974-02-25\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Thongdeg Sor. Lackana \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 1974-01-31\|\| Loss \|\|align=left\| Saenkanong Sitkruchip \|\| \|\| Chonburi Province, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-01-27\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Chaowalit Sitpraprom \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-01-19\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Saekson Janjira \|\| \|\| Bang Lamung District, Thailand \|\| KO \|\| 1 \|\| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1974-01-04\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Saekson Janjira \|\| \|\| Pattaya, Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- style="background:#cfc;" \| 1972-\|\| Win \|\|align=left\| Petaroon Sitnimit \|\| \|\| Thailand \|\| Decision \|\| 5 \|\| 3:00 \|- ! style=background:white colspan=9 \| \|- \| colspan=9 \| Legend'': Filmography TV Dramas TV Series TV Sitcom Film Master of Ceremony: MC Television 20 : ทุกวัน เวลา น. On Air Online 2021''' : - สามารถ VS ฉมวกเพชร กลับมาแก้แค้นแทนเพื่อนรัก On Air YouTube:มอสทะเล Channel References External links Living people 1962 births Flyweight kickboxers Bantamweight kickboxers Featherweight kickboxers World boxing champions World Boxing Council champions Samart Payakaroon Samart Payakaroon Samart Payakaroon Place of birth missing (living people) Muay Thai trainers Samart Payakaroon Samart Payakaroon Samart Payakaroon Samart Payakaroon Samart Payakaroon	[ -0.44454777240753174, 0.09759839624166489, -0.12376487255096436, -0.8076585531234741, -0.05155366286635399, 0.35379666090011597, 0.8074939846992493, 0.054827746003866196, -0.4142025411128998, 0.2160455286502838, -0.16548170149326324, 0.18351037800312042, -0.1548336297273636, -0.36872220039367676, 0.15711374580860138, -0.03801657259464264, 0.639318585395813, 0.12375690788030624, -0.06671076267957687, -0.0583195798099041, -0.13023878633975983, -0.169969379901886, 0.4376530647277832, -0.407736212015152, 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237999	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsburg%20University	Augsburg University	Augsburg University is a private university in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It is affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. It was founded in 1869 as a Norwegian-American Lutheran seminary known as Augsburg Seminarium. Today, the university enrolls approximately 3,000 undergraduate students and 800 graduate students. The university is known for its emphasis on service learning; volunteering in the community is both an instructional strategy and a required part of a student's coursework. History Augsburg was founded as a seminary by Norwegian Lutherans. It was named after the Augsburg Confession of 1530, the primary confession of faith presented by Lutherans in Augsburg, Germany, and contained in the Book of Concord of 1580. Augsburg Seminarium opened in September 1869, in Marshall, Wisconsin. Three years later, by 1873, it moved to Minneapolis, changing its name to The Norwegian Danish Evangelical Lutheran Augsburg Seminary to reflect the name of the church body that sponsored the school. Expanding its mission, undergraduate classes began in the fall of 1874, with the first class graduating in the spring of 1879. In 1892, the school's name was shortened to Augsburg Seminary. In 1893, reacting to what it deemed overly-hierarchical elements in the Norwegian church, Augsburg leaders organized the "Friends of Augsburg", which, by 1897 had coalesced to form a new Lutheran denomination, the Lutheran Free Church, a body that flourished for 70 years. During its early years the college and seminary served men only, with women first admitted to the school in 1921. To further expand its mission, a high school level Augsburg Academy was provided on the campus until it closed in 1933. Augsburg Seminary remained the name of the school until 1942, when its name was officially changed and expanded to Augsburg College and Theological Seminary, a name that had been informally used since the 1910s. When the Lutheran Free Church merged with the much larger American Lutheran Church (ALC) in 1963, Augsburg Seminary merged with the ALC's Luther Theological Seminary, later renamed Luther Seminary. The name of the remaining undergraduate college became Augsburg College. In 2017, the name of the school officially became Augsburg University. August Weenaas was Augsburg's first president (1869-1876). Weenaas recruited two teachers from Norway—Sven Oftedal and Georg Sverdrup. These three men clearly articulated the direction of Augsburg: to educate Norwegian Lutherans to minister to immigrants and to provide such "college" studies as would prepare students for theological study. In 1874, they proposed a three-part plan: first, train ministerial candidates; second, prepare future theological students; and third, educate the farmer, worker, and businessman. The statement stressed that a good education is also practical. Augsburg's next two presidents also emphatically rejected ivory tower concepts of education. This commitment to church and community has led to Augsburg's theme of over 130 years: Education for Service. This seminarian focus began to change after World War I. In 1911, George Sverdrup Jr. became president. He worked to develop college departments with an appeal to a broader range of students than just those intending to be ministers. In 1937, Augsburg elected Bernhard Christensen, an erudite and scholarly teacher, to be president (1938-1962). His involvement in ecumenical and civic circles made Augsburg a more visible part of church and city life. After World War II, Augsburg leaders made vigorous efforts to expand and improve academic offerings. Thus by mid-century, the undergraduate college had become a larger part of the institution than the seminary and received the most attention. As a result, Augsburg steadily added departments essential to a liberal arts college, offering a modern college program based on general education requirements and elective majors. Augsburg aims to reflect the commitment and dedication of its founders who believed "an Augsburg education should be preparation for service in community and church", [by] "Providing an education grounded in vocational calling, that provides students both the theoretical learning and the practical experience to succeed in a global, diverse world." Church affiliations Presidents Academics Augsburg University is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. The student-faculty ratio at Augsburg University is 16:1, and the school has 64.4 percent of its classes with fewer than 20 students. The most popular majors at Augsburg University include: Business, Management, Marketing, and Related Support Services; Education; Health Professions and Related Programs; Communication, Journalism, and Related Programs; and Social Sciences. Augsburg offers undergraduate degrees in over 50 major areas of study. The university also grants eight graduate degrees, including an MBA program. Augsburg offers one doctoral degree, the Doctor of Nursing Practice. Rankings Augsburg University was one of six higher education institutions in the nation to receive the 2010 Presidential Award for Community Service, the highest honor in the annual President's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll. U.S. News & World Report magazine named Augsburg, in 2013, as one of the best colleges for service-learning, which includes 31 schools across the country where volunteering in the community is both an instructional strategy and a requirement of a student's coursework. According to the U.S. News & World Report 2013 rankings, Augsburg University was 23rd in its Regional University Midwest Ranking. USN&WR also consistently ranks Augsburg as a Tier 1 institution for its Physician Assistant program. In 2013, Augsburg ranked #70 in the nation. Augsburg shared the #70 rank with the following institutions: University of Southern California, Western University of Health Sciences, and the University of New England. Campus Residence halls Urness Hall is the first-year building. It has 9 floors of traditional-style residence hall rooms (plus two other floors), with one co-ed floor. Each floor is led by a resident advisor (RA). Mortensen Hall (known as Mort) is connected to the Urness Hall lobby and has 13 floors of apartment-style housing (eight apartments on every floor). It is the tallest building on the campus. Mortensen Hall is named for Gerda Mortensen, Dean of Women at Augsburg University between 1923 and 1964. Anderson Hall is a four-story building with four different styles of housing available. These include single person suites, four person apartments, eight person townhomes (two floors), and 15 person floorhouses. Martin Luther Residence Hall (also known as Luther Hall) was built in 1999 using state funding. It was originally named New Hall because there was no major contributor to name the hall for. It assumed its current name on October 1, 2007, when the completion of the Oren Gateway Center made the old name misleading. Luther Hall has studios, two bedroom, and four bedroom apartments. The apartments all consist of single or double person rooms and have a full kitchen. The Oren Gateway Center is a substance-free residence hall and houses students in the StepUP program, as well as other students who choose sober living. It has rooms for 106 students and also contains six classrooms and an art gallery. Other buildings Old Main is the oldest building on campus and is still in use today. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Christensen Center contains admissions offices, the cafeteria, a coffee shop, computers, and an art gallery, It formerly housed the bookstore until August 2007, after which the bookstore moved to the Oren Gateway Center. On March 28, 2008, a student lounge opened in the former bookstore space. It is connected by skyway to Urness Hall/Mortensen Hall. Sverdrup Hall (formerly known as Sverdrup Library until the completion of the Lindell Library in 1998) contains the Enrollment Center and Registrar's Office as well as several class rooms and computer labs on the upper level. The James G. Lindell Library has four levels containing approximately 190,000 items. The second floor of the library is home to the Gage Center for Student Success, which has offices for Academic Advising, the Center for Learning and Accessible Student Services (CLASS), and Augsburg's offices of the Federal TRIO Programs. The library is connected to Sverdrup Hall, the Oren Gateway Center, and the Hagfors Center for Business, Science, and Religion by skyway. The Foss Center for Worship, Drama and Communication contains the chapel, a theater, and several classrooms. Sverdrup Hall and Oftedal Memorial Hall contains offices for the college's professors. The Norman and Evangeline Hagfors Center for Science, Business, and Religion is the newest building on campus and also the largest. Future expansion Several new facilities are currently planned including a new residence hall to replace the Science Hall, a parking ramp, and other buildings. Student life Augsburg's student body totals approximately 3,800 students representing some 40 states, more than 40 foreign countries, and 24 tribal nations/reservations. The college is involved in providing services to students with physical or learning disabilities. StepUP is Augsburg's program for students in recovery from drug and alcohol abuse. The program provides a sober environment for about 60 students in the Oren Gateway Center . The program claims an excellent success rate: 84% abstinence over 538 people between 1997 and 2007. The on-campus diversity is enhanced by Augsburg's location in the Cedar-Riverside neighborhood, the Twin Cities' most culturally diverse neighborhood. The largest concentration of Somali immigrants in the U.S. is located throughout the Augsburg neighborhood, and one of the largest urban Native American populations is within one mile. Augsburg is also located in the heart of a major theater center. The university has been designated as a Minnesota Indian Teacher Training Program site. Internationally, Augsburg maintains a relationship with the United International College, in southern China. Campus organizations Augsburg students have opportunities for involvement in more than 50 clubs and organizations, including student academic societies, publications, Student Government, Augsburg Business Organization, Augsburg Asian Student Association, Campus Ministry, Augsburg University Pre-law Society, Pan-Afrikan and Pan-Asian Student Union, forensics, cheerleading, Amnesty International, Intertribal Student Union and the Hispanic/Latino Student Association. There are presently no fraternity or sorority groups on campus, although some students participate in nearby University of Minnesota Greek Life. The Echo The Echo is the student-produced newspaper for the university. It consists of eight pages divided into five sections: News, Opinions and Editorials, Sports, Arts and Entertainment, and Features. The paper is printed in black and white on tabloid-sized recycled paper. KAUG KAUG is Augsburg's student radio station, based in the Auggies' Nest in the basement of Christensen Center. KAUG streams 24 hours-a-day online through their website and can be heard on the airwaves on 91.7 FM within a 2-mile radius of the campus. KAUG provides a venue for a number of DJs, who play several genres of music and talk radio. Marginalized Voices in Film and Media Originally known as "Women in Film", Marginalized Voices in Film and Media (MVFM) is a student group dedicated to the advancement of women and other minorities in the film and television industry. The group discusses the depiction of minorities on the screen and their roles behind the camera. Queer Pride Alliance Known as "Queer and Straight In Unity" (QSU) until 2014, and originally incorporated as "BAGLS" in 1988, Queer Pride Alliance (QPA) is Augsburg's lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual support group. After the hostile campus environment towards LGBTQIA individuals culminated in several anti-LGBTQIA incidences in 2003, students occupied administrator offices to protest the university's lack of action. In response, Augsburg established the GLBTQIA Student Services office (today known as the LGBTQIA Student Services office), which became the primary point of contact and support for QSU and the LGBTQIA student body. QPA is advised by the director of the LGBTQIA Student Services office, which jointly provides the campus community with workshops, performances, weekly group meetings, and speakers, as well as exposing students to the wider Midwestern LGBTQIA rights movement by sponsoring retreats and trips to conferences. Today, the university is certified Reconciling in Christ by ReconcilingWorks, which means that in accordance with its theological values, it welcomes and actively affirms "all people in regard to their gender expression, gender identity, and sexual orientation." Notable alumni Peter Agre, M.D., 1970, the 2003 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry and faculty member at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Susan Allen, 1992, first Native American woman elected to the Minnesota state legislature, and first openly lesbian Native American to win election to a state legislature. Jill Billings, 1990, Wisconsin State Assembly Rev. Herbert W. Chilstrom, 1954, Retired (and the first) Presiding Bishop of the ELCA Otis Dozovic, 2011, WWE professional wrestler, 2017 Rookie of the Year. Devean George, 1999, former National Basketball Association player for the Los Angeles Lakers, the Dallas Mavericks, and the Golden State Warriors Rev. Mark Hanson, 1971, former Presiding Bishop of the ELCA Kelly D. Holstine, 2007, winner of Education Minnesota's 2018 Minnesota Teacher of the Year award Roger Huerta, former wrestler, mixed martial artist once competing in the Ultimate Fighting Championship and Bellator Fighting Championship Marcus LeVesseur, 2007, 4-time Wrestling National Champion (2003–05, 2007), 4-time Minnesota State High School Wrestling Champion (1998–2001). LeVesseur is the first Division III wrestler with four national titles. He is only the second college wrestler ever to finish his career unbeaten and untied, with a 155–0 career record (Cael Sanderson was the first). LeVesseur is currently competing in Mixed Martial Arts. Maren Tschinkel, Winner of Miss Earth Germany 2018. Lute Olson, 1956, basketball coach at University of Iowa and Arizona, coached Arizona to a national championship. Anne Panning, 1988, writer, winner of 2006 Flannery O'Connor Award for Super America Oscar S. Paulson, 1914, Wisconsin State Senate James Pederson, 1934, played in the National Football League from 1930 to 1932 with the Minneapolis Red Jackets, Frankford Yellow Jackets, and Chicago Bears. Martin Sabo, 1959, former Minnesota State Representative (1961-1978) and U.S. Congress Representative (1979-2007). Dave Stevens, 1991, amputee athlete born without legs, who played college football. Only congenital amputee to ever play college sports. Jane Jeong Trenka, activist, author, and winner of a Minnesota Book Award Athletics The Augsburg Auggies are a member of the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (MIAC). Augsburg University participates in NCAA Division III Athletics. The wrestling team has won thirteen NCAA Division III National team wrestling champions: 1991, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2010, 2015 and 2018. The men's hockey team had won 3 NAIA national ice hockey championships in 1978, 1981 and 1982. Men's Varsity Sports (9): baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, ice hockey, soccer, track & field, wrestling Women's Varsity Sports (10): basketball, cross country, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming, track & field, volleyball Conference championships "c" indicates co-champions * As of 2003, Wrestling is no longer a MIAC sponsored sport See also List of colleges and universities in Minnesota Higher education in Minnesota Notes References Chrislock, Carl H. "From Fjord to Freeway: 100 years, Augsburg College" (Minneapolis: Augsburg College 1969) External links Official website Educational institutions established in 1869 Universities and colleges in Minneapolis Private universities and colleges in Minnesota 1869 establishments in Minnesota	[ 0.1697702556848526, 0.38608965277671814, 0.1708737313747406, 0.1463371366262436, -0.2884867191314697, 0.6225183010101318, 1.2703652381896973, 0.7971992492675781, -0.6661351323127747, -0.6253992915153503, -0.24474017322063446, -0.14663788676261902, 0.10872334986925125, 0.13543906807899475, 0.11110173910856247, -0.250306099653244, 0.3406562805175781, 0.6893768906593323, 0.1845300942659378, -0.16890081763267517, -0.17270423471927643, -0.28003036975860596, 0.8992651700973511, 0.22338861227035522, -0.11833861470222473, 0.1534755378961563, 0.6338393688201904, 0.2603321969509125, -0.2533856928348541, 0.3842885494232178, 0.019740385934710503, 0.29730746150016785, 0.2004493623971939, -0.32736682891845703, 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238004	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Rescuers%20Down%20Under	The Rescuers Down Under	The Rescuers Down Under is a 1990 American animated adventure film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 29th Disney animated feature film, it is the sequel to the 1977 film The Rescuers, which was based on the novels by Margery Sharp. In The Rescuers Down Under, Bernard and Bianca travel to the Australian Outback to save a boy named Cody from a villainous poacher in pursuit of an endangered bird of prey. Directed by Hendel Butoy and Mike Gabriel (in their feature directorial debuts) from a screenplay by Jim Cox, Karey Kirkpatrick, Byron Simpson, and Joe Ranft, the film features the voices of Bob Newhart, Eva Gabor (in her final film role), John Candy, and George C. Scott. By the mid-1980s, The Rescuers had become one of Disney's most successful animated releases. Under the new management of Michael Eisner and Jeffrey Katzenberg, a feature-length sequel was approved, making it the first animated film sequel theatrically released by the studio. Following their duties on Oliver & Company, animators Butoy and Gabriel were recruited to direct the sequel. Research trips to Australia provided inspiration for the background designs. The film would also mark the full use of the Computer Animation Production System (CAPS), becoming the first feature film to be completely created digitally. The software allowed for artists to digitally ink-and-paint the animators' drawings, and then composite the digital cels over the scanned background art. The Rescuers Down Under was released to theaters on November 16, 1990, to positive reviews from film critics. However, it struggled at the box office, as it opened on the same day as Home Alone (which also features John Candy), it went on to garner a total of only $47.4 million worldwide. Plot In the Australian Outback, a young boy named Cody rescues and befriends a rare golden eagle called Marahute, who shows him her nest and eggs and gives him one of her feathers. Later on, he falls into an animal trap set by Percival C. McLeach, a local poacher wanted by the Australian Rangers. Seeing that Cody knows Marahute's whereabouts since the boy has the feather, McLeach, who earlier killed Marahute's mate, kidnaps Cody, throwing the boy's backpack to a float of crocodiles to convince the Rangers that Cody has been eaten. The mouse who was the bait in the trap hurries to an outpost, from which a telegram is sent to the Rescue Aid Society headquarters in the United Nations, New York City. Bernard and Miss Bianca, the RAS' elite field agents, are assigned to the mission, interrupting Bernard's attempts to propose marriage to Bianca. They go to find Orville the albatross, who aided them before, and meet his brother Wilbur, who flies them to Australia. There, they meet Jake, a hopping mouse who is the RAS' local regional operative. Jake becomes infatuated with Bianca and flirts with her, much to Bernard's dismay. He serves as their "tour guide" and protector in search of the boy. Wilbur accidentally bends his spinal column out of shape trying to help them, so Jake sends him to the hospital (an old ambulance). Wilbur refuses to undergo surgery, but his back is straightened as he fights to escape the medical mice. He flies off in search of his friends. At McLeach's hideout, Cody is imprisoned with a number of captured animals after refusing to divulge Marahute's whereabouts. Cody attempts to free himself and the animals, but is thwarted by Joanna, McLeach's pet goanna. Realizing that protecting Marahute's eggs is Cody's weak spot, McLeach tricks Cody into thinking someone else killed Marahute and releases him, knowing that Cody will go to her nest. Bernard, Bianca, and Jake arrive as McLeach departs in his halftrack after Cody. The three hitch a ride on the vehicle and attempt to warn Cody upon arriving at the nest, but Mcleach captures Cody, Marahute, Jake and Bianca. McLeach then sends Joanna to eat Marahute's eggs, but Bernard manages to trick her using egg-shaped stones. Wilbur arrives at the nest, and Bernard leaves Wilbur to sit on the real eggs while he (Bernard) goes after McLeach. McLeach takes his captives to Crocodile Falls, a huge waterfall at the end of the river he threw Cody's backpack into. He ties Cody up and hangs him over the float of crocodiles, intent on feeding him to them due to outliving his usefulness and in order to prevent him from warning the Rangers, but Bernard, riding a wild razorback pig he tamed using a horse whispering technique he learned from Jake, arrives and disables McLeach's vehicle before he can succeed. McLeach then attempts to shoot the rope holding Cody above the water, but Bernard tricks Joanna into crashing into McLeach, sending both of them into the water. The crocodiles turn their attention to McLeach and Joanna, while behind them, Cody falls into the water as the damaged rope breaks. As Joanna flees to the bank, McLeach fends off and taunts the crocodiles, forgetting about the waterfall until it is too late; he is washed over the edge to his death. Bernard dives into the water and holds Cody long enough for Jake and Bianca to free Marahute, allowing the eagle to save Cody and Bernard just as they go over the waterfall. Bernard, desperate to prevent any further incidents, proposes to Bianca, who immediately accepts, while Jake salutes him with new-found respect. Safe at last, the group departs for Cody's home. Meanwhile, Wilbur is still sitting on Marahute‘s eggs; they hatch, and one of the eaglets bites him, to his dismay. Cast The Rescuers Down Under features three characters from the first film; Bernard, Bianca and the Chairmouse, all of whom feature the same actors reprising their roles from the original 1977 film. Bob Newhart as Bernard, a male grey mouse; the United States representative of the Rescue Aid Society, promoted from his role as janitor to full-fledged agent after proving a success with the previous rescue. Eva Gabor as Miss Bianca, a female white mouse; the Hungarian representative of the Rescue Aid Society. This was Eva Gabor's last film role before her death in 1995. John Candy as Wilbur, a comical albatross; named after Wilbur Wright. He is the brother of Orville, the albatross who appeared in the first film (named after Orville Wright). Adam Ryen as Cody, a young boy able to converse with most animals, the same as Penny in the first film. George C. Scott as Percival C. McLeach, a sadistic poacher who wants to capture Marahute for money. Frank Welker as Marahute, a giant eagle. Welker also voiced Joanna, McLeach's pet goanna, who enjoys intimidating her captives and has a fondness for eggs; and additional special vocal effects. Tristan Rogers as Jake, a debonair, self-confident and charismatic hopping mouse. Peter Firth as Red, a male red kangaroo imprisoned by McLeach. Wayne Robson as Frank, a fearful and erratic frill-necked lizard imprisoned by McLeach. Douglas Seale as Krebbs, a pessimistic koala imprisoned by McLeach. Carla Meyer as Faloo, a female red kangaroo who summons Cody to save Marahute. Meyer also voices Cody's mother. Bernard Fox as Chairmouse, the chairman of the Rescue Aid Society. Fox also voices Doctor Mouse, the supervisor of the surgical mice who examine Wilbur when he is injured. Russi Taylor as Nurse Mouse, the operator of Doctor Mouse's instructions and a competent second-in-command. Peter Greenwood as The Airplane Captain and The Radio Announcer. One of the few members of the cast to voice two roles, the Radio Announcer has a pivotal moment as the mother is handed Cody's backpack. Production Development By 1984, The Rescuers had become one of Disney's most successful recent animated films, earning $41 million in worldwide box office rentals. Under the new studio management of then-CEO Michael Eisner and studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg, it was decided that a feature-length sequel should be produced. Shortly after, the success of Crocodile Dundee had enhanced the appeal of Australian culture to a mainstream American audience. The new sequel would be set in Australia, for which writing began in 1986. Following work on Oliver & Company, Peter Schneider, president of Walt Disney Feature Animation, asked supervising animator Mike Gabriel if he would consider directing. At the time, Gabriel declined the offer, stating, "Well, after watching George [Scribner], it doesn't look like it would be much fun." After a few months, Schneider made Gabriel another offer to direct The Rescuers Down Under, which he accepted. Following his assignment as supervising animator as Tito on Oliver, which was met with praise from general audiences, Hendel Butoy was added to co-direct Rescuers Down Under with Gabriel. Meanwhile, Schneider recruited Thomas Schumacher, who had worked at the Mark Taper Forum, to serve as producer on the project. With Schumacher as producer, Schneider selected storyboard artist Joe Ranft to serve as story supervisor because of his "ability to change and transform through excellence of idea". Throughout the storyboarding process, Ranft constantly bolstered the creative morale of his crew, but he rarely drew storyboard sequences himself. Ranft also had creative disagreements with the studio management and marketing executives, including one where he and the story team petitioned for the casting of an Aboriginal Australian child actor to voice Cody. According to storyboard artist Brenda Chapman, Katzenberg overrode this idea, casting "a little white blonde kid" and giving Cody a matching design. Because of the rising popularity of Australian-themed action films, and with Americans becoming more environmentally conscious, the filmmakers decided to abandon the musical format of the original, finding that the placement of the songs slowed down the pacing of the new film. Instead, they decided to market it as the studio's first action-adventure film, with Butoy and Gabriel finding visual inspiration from live-action films by Orson Welles, Alfred Hitchcock, and David Lean. It would also mark the studio's first film since Bambi to have an animal rights and environmental message. In December 1988, original cast members Bob Newhart and Eva Gabor were confirmed to be reprising their roles. However, Jim Jordan, who had voiced Orville in the original film, died earlier that same year in April following a fall at his home. In acknowledgment of Jordan's death, Roy E. Disney suggested that the character of Wilbur be written as Orville's brother, to serve as his replacement. Intentionally, the names were in reference to the Wright brothers. Animation and design Members of the production team, including art director Maurice Hunt and six of his animators, spent several days in Australia to study settings and animals found in the Australian Outback to observe, take photographs, and draw sketches to properly illustrate the Outback on film. They ventured through the Uluru, Katherine Gorge, and the Kakadu national parks, the inspiration for Hunt's initial designs emphasizing the spectrum of scale between the sweeping vistas and the film's protagonists. Serving as the supervising animator on the eagle character Marahute, Glen Keane studied six eagles residing at the Peregrine Fund in Boise, Idaho, as well as a stuffed American eagle loaned from the Los Angeles Museum of Natural History and an eagle skeleton. To animate the eagle, Keane and his animation crew enlarged the bird, shrank its head, elongated its neck and wings, and puffed out its chest. Additionally, Keane had to slow the bird's wing movements to about 25–30 percent of an eagle's flight speed. Because of the excessive details on Marahute, who carried 200 feathers, the character appeared for only seven minutes altogether, during the opening and ending sequences. Furthermore, in order to have the film finished on time, Schumacher enlisted the support of Disney-MGM Studios, which was originally envisioned to produce independent cartoon shorts and featurettes. On its first assignment on a Disney animated feature film, seventy artists contributed ten minutes of screen time, including supervising animator Mark Henn. Serving as one of ten supervising animators, Henn animated several scenes of Bernard, Miss Bianca, and Percival C. McLeach. For the mice characters, Henn studied the mannerisms of Bob Newhart and Eva Gabor during voice recording sessions, and looked to George C. Scott's performance in Dr. Strangelove for inspiration while animating McLeach. To create believable realism for the Australian animals, additional animators traveled to the San Diego Zoo to observe kangaroos, kookaburras, and snakes, while an iguana was brought in by the staff at Walt Disney World's Discovery Island for the animators drawing Joanna. The Rescuers Down Under is notable for Disney as its first traditionally animated film using only the new computerized CAPS process. CAPS (Computer Animation Production System) was a computer-based production system used for digital ink and paint and compositing, allowing for more efficient and sophisticated post-production of the Disney animated films and making the traditional practice of hand-painting cels obsolete. The animators' drawings and the background paintings were scanned into computer systems instead, where the animation drawings were inked and painted by digital artists. The drawings were later composited with the scanned backgrounds in software to allow for camera positioning, camera movements, multiplane effects, and other camera techniques. Those digital files would then be recorded onto film stock. The film also uses CGI elements throughout, such as the field of flowers in the opening sequence, McLeach's truck, and perspective shots of Wilbur flying above Sydney Opera House and New York City. The CAPS project was the first of Disney's collaborations with computer graphics company Pixar, which would eventually become a feature animation production studio making computer-generated animated films for Disney before being acquired in 2006. As a result, The Rescuers Down Under was the first animated film for which the entire final film elements were assembled and completed within a digital environment, as well as the first fully digital feature film. However, the film's marketing approach did not call attention to the use of the CAPS process. Music The score for the film was composed and conducted by Bruce Broughton. Unlike the vast majority of Disney animated features, the film had no songs written for it (although "Message Montage" includes a quotation from "Rescue Aid Society" by Sammy Fain, Carol Connors, and Ayn Robbins, the only musical reference to the first film). This was the second Disney film not to include any songs, the first one being The Black Cauldron. The score received positive critical reception, with critics singling out "Cody's Flight" for its sense of majesty, excitement, and freedom. AllMusic gave the soundtrack 4.5 out of 5 stars. In 2002, Walt Disney Records reissued the album on compact disc, including the Shelby Flint songs "The Journey", "Someone's Waiting for You" and "Tomorrow Is Another Day" (from The Rescuers). In 2016 Intrada Records released the complete Broughton score, including material (in italics) not used in the movie. Release During the film's theatrical release, the film was released as a double feature with the new Mickey Mouse featurette The Prince and the Pauper. Home media The Rescuers Down Under was released in the Walt Disney Classics video series on September 20, 1991, in a pan-and-scan transfer, while The Rescuers was released on VHS a year later in September 1992. Unlike the original film, however, The Rescuers Down Under was not included in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection. Both home video editions went into moratorium on April 30, 1993. In its original release, the VHS edition sold 5.2 million units in the United States, generating $72.8 million in revenue. Launching in January 2000, Walt Disney Home Video began the Gold Classic Collection, with The Rescuers Down Under re-issued on VHS and DVD on August 1, 2000. The DVD contained the film in its 1.66:1 aspect ratio enhanced for 16:9 television sets and 4.0 surround sound, and was accompanied with special features, including a storybook and trivia as well as an "Animals of the Outback" activity booklet. The Rescuers Down Under was released alongside The Rescuers on Blu-ray in a "2-Movie Collection" on August 21, 2012 to commemorate the first film's 35th anniversary in the United States. Reception Box office During its opening weekend, The Rescuers Down Under grossed $3.5 million, ranking fourth, after Home Alone, Rocky V, and Child's Play 2, and below the studio's expectations. As a result, Katzenberg decided to pull all of the Rescuers television advertising. The film eventually went on to make $27.9 million in the United States and $47.4 million worldwide. Critical reaction On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, The Rescuers Down Under has an approval rating of 71%, based on 28 reviews, with a weighted average score of 6.30/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Though its story is second-rate, The Rescuers Down Under redeems itself with some remarkable production values – particularly its flight scenes." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote, "Animation can give us the glory of sights and experiences that are impossible in the real world, and one of those sights, in 'The Rescuers Down Under,' is of a little boy clinging to the back of a soaring eagle. The flight sequence and many of the other action scenes in this new Disney animated feature create an exhilaration and freedom that are liberating. And the rest of the story is fun, too." Likewise giving it three stars out of four, Gene Siskel of The Chicago Tribune summarized the film as a "bold, rousing but sometimes needlessly intense Disney animated feature" where "good fun is provided by a goofy albatross (voiced by John Candy), one in a long line of silly Disney birds". Janet Maslin, reviewing for The New York Times, praised the animation and the action sequences, though she remained critical of the storyline, labeling it "a trifle dark and un-involving for very small children"; Maslin acknowledged that its "slightly more grown-up, adventurous approach may be the reason it does not include the expected musical interludes, but they would have been welcome". Also finding error with "such a mediocre story that adults may duck", the staff of Variety, nevertheless wrote that The Rescuers Down Under "boasts reasonably solid production values and fine character voices". Halliwell's Film Guide gave it two stars out of four, saying, "[This] slick, lively and enjoyable animated feature [is] an improvement on the original." TV Guide gave the film two stars out of four, saying, "Three years in the making, it was obviously conceived during the height of this country's fascination with Australia, brought on by Paul Hogan's fabulously successful Crocodile Dundee (1986). By 1990, the mania had long since subsided, and this film's Australian setting did nothing to enhance its box office appeal. Further, the film doesn't make particularly imaginative use of the location. Take away the accents and the obligatory kangaroos and koalas, and the story could have taken place anywhere. Another problem is that 'the rescuers' themselves don't even enter the action until a third of the film has passed. And when they do appear, they don't have much to do with the main plot until near the film's end. The characters seem grafted on to a story that probably would have been more successful without them. Finally, the film suffers from some action and plotting that is questionable in a children's film. The villain is far too malignant, the young vigilante hero seems to be a kiddie 'Rambo,' and some of the action is quite violent, if not tasteless." Josh Spiegel echoes that point and expands on it, explaining, "The Rescuers Down Under tanked with barely $3.5 million in its opening-weekend take, Katzenberg removed all television advertisements for the film. By itself, that's not the worst possible fate, but it proves that he had zero confidence in its ability to perform at a seemingly ideal time of year. Here's the thing: the more demoralizing fact isn't that Katzenberg yanked the marketing. It's that Disney set The Rescuers Down Under up to fail, opening it on the same weekend as a little film called Home Alone, otherwise known as the highest-grossing film of 1990. He may not have been able to predict its long-lasting impact on popular culture, but Katzenberg likely had enough tracking information to tip him off that Home Alone would be a monster laying waste to everything in its path. The Rescuers Down Under was forced to take the hit, then and afterwards." Conversely, Ellen MacKay of Common Sense Media gave the film four out of five stars, writing, "A rare sequel that improves on the original". References External links 1990 animated films 1990 films 1990s adventure films 1990s American animated films 1990s children's animated films 1990 comedy-drama films 1990s crime drama films 1990s crime comedy films 1990s fantasy-comedy films 1990s English-language films American adventure drama films American buddy films American children's animated adventure films American children's animated comedy films American children's animated drama films American children's animated fantasy films American films American coming-of-age films American crime drama films American crime comedy films American fantasy adventure films American sequel films Animated buddy films Animated coming-of-age films Animated films about birds Animated films about reptiles and amphibians Animated films based on children's books Animated films set in New York City Disney Renaissance Films about child abduction Films about animals Films based on British novels Films based on works by Margery Sharp Films directed by Hendel Butoy Films directed by Mike Gabriel Animated films about mice Films about animal rights Films about hunters Films scored by Bruce Broughton Films set in New York City Films set in the Outback Films with screenplays by Joe Ranft Films with screenplays by Karey Kirkpatrick Walt Disney Animation Studios films Walt Disney Pictures films 1990 directorial debut films	[ -0.4256232678890228, 0.4661748707294464, 0.2559308707714081, 0.2865067720413208, 0.5169427394866943, -0.28199663758277893, 0.7459222078323364, -0.03366388753056526, -0.32952362298965454, 0.43864068388938904, -0.491210013628006, 0.27677857875823975, -0.036496277898550034, 0.13036295771598816, -0.07519277185201645, -0.1550407111644745, 0.23138117790222168, 0.17449739575386047, 0.13965199887752533, -0.46963104605674744, -0.23753510415554047, -0.6378870010375977, 0.4647032618522644, -0.26145681738853455, 0.13346533477306366, -0.06096414104104042, -0.23941826820373535, 0.5604768395423889, 0.3943602442741394, 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238012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tojo	Tojo	Tojo may refer to: Places Tōjō, Hiroshima, Japan, a town Tōjō, Hyōgo, Japan, a town merged with others to form the city of Katō Tōjō Station (Aichi), a railway station in Toyokawa, Aichi Prefecture, Japan Tōjō Station (Hiroshima), a railway station in Kawatō, Tōjō-chō, Shōbara, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan Tojo, Sulawesi, a district in Tojo Una-Una Regency, Sulawesi, Indonesia People Hideki Tojo (1884–1948), Japanese politician, general, convicted war criminal, and Prime Minister of Japan during World War II Tojo Yamamoto (1927–1992), ring name of American professional wrestler Harold Watanabe Generoso Jiménez (1917–2007), better known as Tojo, Cuban trombonist Other uses Tōbu Tōjō Line, a railway line in Tokyo and Saitama Prefecture, Japan Tōjō (surname), a Japanese surname "Tojo" (song), a 1983 song by Hoodoo Gurus from Stoneage Romeos Nakajima Ki-44, codename Tojo, a Japanese World War II fighter aircraft	[ 0.16833288967609406, 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238014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucky%20Records	Lucky Records	Lucky Records is the name of several different record labels. Lucky Records - Tokyo Lucky Records of the 1930s was a record label based in Tokyo, Japan, which specialized in issuing American popular music to the Japanese audience. Lucky was founded in November 1934 by the Lucky Record Co. Tokyo, owned by the Saito Shoten cotton importing business. It made arrangements with the American Record Corporation to issue material from ARC labels in Japan. Its most successful imports were the recordings of Bing Crosby. Many of the other Lucky Records issues are surprisingly eclectic, including recordings by Eddie Condon, Red Allen, Cab Calloway and Duke Ellington, but also rural southern blues records otherwise unissued outside of the United States in the era (and in the US mostly restricted to labels catering to the African American market). Lucky issues also included accordion bands, Hawaiian music, calypso music and Argentine tangos. It is unclear if this material was specifically selected, or if some was simply chosen at random by someone at either Lucky or ARC. Lucky was the victim of the Tojo government's nationalistic campaign against foreign cultural influence, and closed down by early 1940. Lucky Records - Los Angeles Lucky Records of the 1950s was a Los Angeles-based label run by John Dolphin. Lucky Records - Bootlegs Lucky Records of the 1960s and 1970s was a bootleg label, issuing recordings of live performances of noted rock & roll artists (including Elvis Presley and Bob Dylan) on vinyl records. Lucky Records - Seattle Lucky Records of the 1990s, described by one website as "Canadian surf and rock'n'roll", is based in Seattle, Washington, US. 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238019	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowshoe%20hare	Snowshoe hare	The snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), also called the varying hare or snowshoe rabbit, is a species of hare found in North America. It has the name "snowshoe" because of the large size of its hind feet. The animal's feet prevent it from sinking into the snow when it hops and walks. Its feet also have fur on the soles to protect it from freezing temperatures. For camouflage, its fur turns white during the winter and rusty brown during the summer. Its flanks are white year-round. The snowshoe hare is also distinguishable by the black tufts of fur on the edge of its ears. Its ears are shorter than those of most other hares. In summer, it feeds on plants such as grass, ferns, and leaves; in winter, it eats twigs, the bark from trees, and plants and, similar to the Arctic hare, has been known to occasionally eat dead animals. It can sometimes be seen feeding in small groups. This animal is mainly active at night and does not hibernate. The snowshoe hare may have up to four litters in a year, which average three to eight young. Males compete for females, and females may breed with several males. A major predator of the snowshoe hare is the Canada lynx. Historical records of animals caught by fur hunters over hundreds of years show the lynx and hare numbers rising and falling in a cycle, which has made the hare known to biology students worldwide as a case study of the relationship between numbers of predators and their prey. Taxonomy and distribution Snowshoe hares occur from Newfoundland to Alaska; south in the Sierra Nevada to central California; in the Rocky Mountains to southern Utah and northern New Mexico; and in the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee. Locations of subspecies are as follows: Lepus americanus americanus (Erxleben) – Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Montana, and North Dakota L. a. cascadensis (Nelson) – British Columbia and Washington L. a. columbiensis (Rhoads) – British Columbia, Alberta, and Washington L. a. dalli (Merriam) – Mackenzie District, British Columbia, Alaska, Yukon L. a. klamathensis (Merriam) – Oregon and California L. a. oregonus (Orr) – Oregon L. a. pallidus (Cowan) – British Columbia L. a. phaeonotus (J. A. Allen) – Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota L. a. pineus (Dalquest) – British Columbia, Idaho, and Washington L. a. seclusus (Baker and Hankins) – Wyoming L. a. struthopus (Bangs) – Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Maine L. a. tahoensis (Orr) – California, western Nevada L. a. virginianus (Harlan) – Ontario, Quebec, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee L. a. washingtonii (Baird) – British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon Description The snowshoe hare's fur is rusty brown in the spring and summer, and white in the winter. It also always has a gray underbelly, and black on the tips and edges of its ears and tail. It has very large hind feet, and dense fur on their soles. The snowshoe hare's ears are not as long as some other species of hares' ears. In the winter, it turns a bright white to blend in with the snow. Snowshoe hares range in length from 413 to 518 mm, of which 39 to 52 mm are tail. The hind foot, long and broad, measures 117 to 147 mm in length. The ears are 62 to 70 mm from notch to tip. Snowshoe hares usually weigh between 1.43 and 1.55 kg. Males are slightly smaller than females, as is typical for leporids. In the summer, the coat is a grizzled rusty or grayish brown, with a blackish middorsal line, buffy flanks and a white belly. The face and legs are cinnamon brown. The ears are brownish with black tips and white or creamy borders. During the winter, the fur is almost entirely white, except for black eyelids and the blackened tips on the ears. The soles of the feet are densely furred, with stiff hairs (forming the snowshoe) on the hind feet. Habitats Snowshoe hares are primarily found in boreal forests and upper montane forests; within these forests, they favor habitats with a dense shrub layer. In the Pacific Northwest, snowshoe hares occupy diverse habitats, including mature conifers (mostly Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] and variants), immature conifers, alder (Alnus spp.)/salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)/salal (Gaultheria shallon), and cedar (Thuja spp.) swamps. In western Oregon, snowshoe hares were present in brush patches of vine maple (Acer circinatum), willows (Salix spp.), rhododendrons (Rhododendron spp.), and other shrubs. In Utah, snowshoe hares used Gambel oak (Quercus gambelli) in the northern portion of the Gambel oak range. In the Southwest, the southernmost populations of snowshoe hares occur in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, New Mexico, in subalpine scrub: narrow bands of shrubby and prostrate conifers at and just below timberline that are usually composed of Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata), limber pine (P. flexilis), and/or common juniper (Juniperus communis). In Minnesota, snowshoe hares use jack pine (P. banksiana) uplands, edges, tamarack (Larix laricina) bogs, black spruce (Picea mariana) bogs, and sedge (Carex spp.), alder, and scrub fens. In New England, snowshoe hares favor second-growth aspen (Populus spp.)-birch (Betula spp.) near conifers, but other forest types occupied by snowshoe hares include aspens, paper birch (B. papyrifera), northern hardwoods, red maple (A. rubrum), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), red spruce (Picea rubens)-balsam fir, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), oak (Quercus spp.)-pine (Pinus spp.), eastern white pine (P. strobus)-northern red oak-red maple, and eastern white pine. Snowshoe hares also use shrub swamps dominated by buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), alders, and silky dogwood (Cornus ammomum). Further details on plant communities used by snowshoe hares in different regions are in Bittner and Rongstad. Timing of major life events Snowshoe hares are crepuscular to nocturnal. They are shy and secretive and spend most of the day in shallow depressions, called forms, scraped out under clumps of ferns, brush thickets, and downed piles of timber. They occasionally use the large burrows of mountain beavers (Aplodontia rufa) as forms. Diurnal activity level increases during the breeding season. Juveniles are usually more active and less cautious than adults. Snowshoe hares are active year-round. The breeding season for hares is stimulated by new vegetation and varies with latitude, location, and yearly events (such as weather conditions and phase of snowshoe hare population cycle). Breeding generally begins in late December to January and lasts until July or August . In northwestern Oregon, male peak breeding activity (as determined by testes weight) occurs in May and is at the minimum in November. In Ontario, the peak is in May and in Newfoundland, the peak is in June. Female estrus begins in March in Newfoundland, Alberta, and Maine, and in early April in Michigan and Colorado. First litters of the year are born from mid-April to May. The gestation period is 35 to 40 days; most studies report 37 days as the average length of gestation. Litters average three to five leverets depending on latitude, elevation, and phase of population cycle, ranging from one to seven. Deep snowpack increases the amount of upper-branch browse available to snowshoe hares in winter, and therefore has a positive relationship with the nutritional status of breeding adults. Litters are usually smaller in the southern sections of their range since there is less snow. Newborns are fully furred, open-eyed, and mobile. They leave the natal form within a short time after birth, often within 24 hours. After leaving the birthplace, siblings stay near each other during the day, gathering once each evening to nurse. Weaning occurs at 25 to 28 days except for the last litter of the season, which may nurse for two months or longer. Female snowshoe hares can become pregnant anytime after the 35th day of gestation. The second litter can therefore be conceived before the first litter is born (snowshoe hares have twin uteri). Pregnancy rates ranged from 78 to 100% for females during the period of first litter production, 82 to 100% for second litters, and for the periods of third and fourth litters pregnancy rates vary with population cycle. In Newfoundland, the average number of litters per female per year ranged from 2.9 to 3.5, and in Alberta the range was from 2.7 to 3.3. The number of litters per year varies with phase of population cycle (see below). In Alberta the average number of litters per year was almost 3 just after a population peak and 4 just after the population low. Females normally first breed as 1-year-olds. Juvenile breeding is rare and has only been observed in females from the first litter of the year and only in years immediately following a low point in the population cycle. In Yukon, 30-day survival of radio-tagged leverets was 46%, 15%, and 43% for the first, second, and third litters of the year, respectively. There were no differences in mortality in plots with food added. The main proximate cause of mortality was predation by small mammals, including red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) and Arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii). Littermates tended to live or die together more often than by chance. Individual survival was negatively related to litter size and positively related to body size at birth. Litter size is negatively correlated with body size at birth. Population cycles Northern populations of snowshoe hares undergo cycles that range from seven to 17 years between population peaks. The average time between peaks is approximately 10 years. The period of abundance usually lasts for two to five years, followed by a population decline to lower numbers or local scarcity. Areas of great abundance tend to be scattered. Populations do not peak simultaneously in all areas, although a great deal of synchronicity occurs in northern latitudes. From 1931 to 1948, the cycle was synchronized within one or two years over most of Canada and Alaska, despite differences in predators and food supplies. In central Alberta, low snowshoe hare density occurred in 1965, with 42 to 74 snowshoe hares per 100 acres (40 ha). The population peak occurred in November 1970 with 2,830 to 5,660 snowshoe hares per 100 acres (40 ha). In the southern parts of its range, snowshoe hare populations do not fluctuate radically. Exclosure experiments in Alberta indicated browsing by snowshoe hares during population peaks has the greatest impact on palatable species, thus further reducing the amount of available foods. In this study, insufficient nutritious young browse was available to sustain the number of snowshoe hares present in the peak years (1971 and 1972) in winter. The hare's fluctuating numbers are modelled by the Lotka–Volterra equations. Preferred habitat Major variables in habitat quality include average visual obstruction and browse biomass. Snowshoe hares prefer young forests with abundant understories. The presence of cover is the primary determinant of habitat quality, and is more significant than food availability or species composition. Species composition does, however, influence population density; dense softwood understories support greater snowshoe hare density than hardwoods because of cover quality. In Maine, female snowshoe hares were observed to be more common on sites with less cover but more nutritious forage; males tended to be found on sites with heavier cover. Winter browse availability depends on height of understory brush and winter snow depth; saplings with narrow stem diameters are required for winter browse in heavy snow. In northern regions, snowshoe hares occupy conifer and mixed forests in all stages of succession, but early successional forests foster peak abundance. Deciduous forests are usually occupied only in early stages of succession. In New England, snowshoe hares preferred second-growth deciduous, coniferous, and mixed woods with dense brushy understories; they appear to prefer shrubby old-field areas, early- to mid-successional burns, shrub-swamps, bogs, and upper montane krumholz vegetation. In Maine, snowshoe hares were more active in clearcut areas than in partially cut or uncut areas. Sapling densities were highest on 12- to 15-year-old plots; these plots were used more than younger stands. In northern Utah, they occupied all the later stages of succession on quaking aspen and spruce-fir, but were not observed in meadows. In Alberta, snowshoe hares use upland shrub-sapling stages of regenerating aspens (either postfire or postharvest). In British Columbia overstocked juvenile lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stands formed optimal snowshoe hare habitat. In western Washington, most unburned, burned, or scarified clearcuts will normally be fully occupied by snowshoe hares within four to five years, as vegetation becomes dense. In older stands (more than 25 years), stem density begins to decline and cover for snowshoe hares decreases. However, in north-central Washington, they may not colonize clearcuts until six or seven years, and it may take 20 to 25 years for their density to reach maximum. Winter snowshoe hare pellet counts were highest in 20-year-old lodgepole pine stands, lower in older lodgepole stands, and lowest in spruce-dominated stands. In western Oregon, snowshoe hares were abundant only in early successional stages, including stable brushfields. In west-central Oregon, an old-growth Douglas-fir forest was clearcut and monitored through 10 years of succession. A few snowshoe hares were noted in adjacent virgin forest plots; they represented widely scattered, sparse populations. One snowshoe hare was observed on the disturbed plot 2.5 years after it had been clearcut and burned; at this stage, ground cover was similar to that of the uncut forest. By 9 years after disturbance, snowshoe hare density had increased markedly. In western Washington, snowshoe hares routinely used steep slopes where cover was adequate; most studies, however, suggest they tend to prefer gentle slopes. Moonlight increases snowshoe hare vulnerability to predation, particularly in winter. They tend to avoid open areas during bright phases of the moon and during bright periods of a single night. Their activity usually shifts from coniferous understories in winter to hardwood understories in summer. Vegetative structure plays an important role in the size of snowshoe hare home ranges. Snowshoe hares wander up to 5 miles (8 km) when food is scarce. In Montana home ranges are smaller in brushy woods than in open woods. In Colorado and Utah, the average home range of both sexes was 20 acres (8.1 ha). On the Island of Montreal in Quebec, the average daily range for both sexes was 4 acres (1.6 ha) in old-field mixed woods. In Montana, the home range averaged 25 acres (10 ha) for males and 19 acres (7.6 ha) for females. In Oregon the average snowshoe hare home range was 14.6 acres (5.9 ha). Cover requirements Snowshoe hares require dense, brushy, usually coniferous cover; thermal and escape cover are especially important for young hares. Low brush provides hiding, escape, and thermal cover. Heavy cover 10 feet (3 m) above ground provides protection from avian predators, and heavy cover 3.3 feet (1 m) tall provides cover from terrestrial predators. Overwinter survival increases with increased cover. A wide variety of habitat types are used if cover is available. Base visibility in good snowshoe hare habitat ranges from 2% at 16.5 feet (5 m) distance to 0% at 66 feet (20 m). Travel cover is slightly more open, ranging from 14.7% visibility at 16.5 feet (5 m) to 2.6% at 66 feet (20 m). Areas with horizontal vegetation density of 40 to 100% at 50 feet (15 m) are adequate snowshoe hare habitat in Utah. Food habits Snowshoe hares eat a variety of plant materials. Forage type varies with season. Succulent green vegetation is consumed when available from spring to fall; after the first frost, buds, twigs, evergreen needles, and bark form the bulk of snowshoe hare diets until spring greenup. Snowshoe hares typically feed at night and follow well-worn forest paths to feed on various plants and trees. Winter Snowshoe hares prefer branches, twigs, and small stems up to 0.25 inch (6.3 mm) diameter; larger stems are sometimes used in winter. In Yukon, they normally eat fast-growing birches and willows, and avoid spruce. At high densities, however, the apical shoots of small spruce are eaten. The snowshoe hare winter diet is dominated by bog birch (Betula glandulosa), which is preferred but not always available. Greyleaf willow (Salix glauca) is eaten most often when bog birch is not available. Buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis) is the fourth most common diet item. White spruce (Picea glauca) is eaten, but not preferred. In Alaska, spruce, willows, and alders comprise 75% of snowshoe hare diets; spruce needles make up nearly 40% of the diet. In northwestern Oregon, winter foods include needles and tender bark of Sitka spruce, Douglas-fir, and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla); leaves and green twigs of salal; buds, twigs, and bark of willows; and green herbs. In north-central Washington, willows and birches are not plentiful; snowshoe hares browse the tips of lodgepole pine seedlings. In Utah, winter foods include Douglas-fir, willows, snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), maples, and serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.). In Minnesota, aspens, willows, hazelnut (Corylus spp.), ferns (Pteridophyta spp.), birches, alders, sumacs (Rhus spp.), and strawberries (Fragaria spp.) are winter foods. Winter foods in New York include eastern white pine, red pine (Pinus resinosa), white spruce, paper birch, and aspens. In Ontario, sugar maple (Acer saccharum), striped maple (A. pensylvanicum), red maple, other deciduous species, northern white-cedar (T. occidentalis), balsam fir, beaked hazelnut (C. cornuta), and buffaloberry were heavily barked. In New Brunswick, snowshoe hares consumed northern white-cedar, spruces, American beech (Fagus grandifolia), balsam fir, mountain maple (A. spicatum), and many other species of browse. In Newfoundland, paper birch is preferred. Further details on regional food preferences are summarized in Snowshoe hare and allies: Recent studies show that Snowshoe hares also eat meat including flesh from their own species. Spring, summer and autumn In Alaska, snowshoe hares consume new leaves of blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), new shoots of field horsetails (Equisetum arvense), and fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) in spring. Grasses are not a major item due to low availability associated with sites that have adequate cover. In summer, leaves of willows, black spruce, birches, and bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum) are also consumed. Black spruce is the most heavily used and the most common species in the area. Pen trials suggest black spruce is not actually preferred. Roses (Rosa spp.) were preferred, but a minor dietary item, as they were not common in the study area. In northwest Oregon, summer foods include grasses, clovers (Trifolium spp.), other forbs, and some woody plants, including Sitka spruce, Douglas-fir, and young leaves and twigs of salal. In Minnesota, aspens, willows, grasses, birches, alders, sumacs, and strawberries are consumed when green. In Ontario, summer diets consist of clovers, grasses, and forbs. Predators The snowshoe hare is a major prey item for a number of predators. Its foremost predator is the Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), but other predators include bobcats (L. rufus), fishers (Pekania pennanti), American martens (Martes americana), Pacific martens, (M. caurina), long-tailed weasels (Neogale frenata), minks (N. vison), foxes (Vulpes and Urocyon spp.), coyote (Canis latrans), domestic dogs (C. familiaris), domestic cats (Felis catus), wolves (Canis lupus), cougars (Puma concolor), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), barred owls (Strix varia), spotted owls (S. occidentalis), other owls, red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis), other hawks (Buteonidae), golden eagles (Aquila chryseatos), as well as corvids. Other predators include black bears (Ursus americanus). In Glacier National Park snowshoe hares are a prey item of Rocky Mountain wolves (Canis lupus irremotus). Vulnerability to climate change The habitat for some snowshoe hares has changed dramatically, leaving some habitats without snow for longer periods than previously. Some hares have adapted and stay brown all winter. Others, however, continue to turn white in winter. These hares are at an increased risk of being hunted and killed because they are no longer camouflaged. Many people in the scientific community believe that snowshoe hare populations are at risk of crashing unless interbreeding speeds up the process of evolution to year-round brown. Other species who rely on the hare as part of their diet are also at risk. References External links Environmental Education for Kids!: Critter Corner National Park Service Snowshoe hare at Animal Diversity Web Lepus Hare, snowshoe Hare, snowshoe Hare, snowshoe Fauna of Alaska Fauna of the Sierra Nevada (United States) Fauna of the Western United States Fauna of the Great Lakes region (North America) Mammals described in 1777 Taxa named by Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben	[ 0.029150567948818207, 0.32513439655303955, -0.44397303462028503, -0.03101389668881893, -0.13214026391506195, 0.16563166677951813, 1.036403775215149, 0.27377232909202576, -0.6039481163024902, -0.20990972220897675, -0.07200270146131516, -0.3453131318092346, -1.1269252300262451, -0.17197920382022858, -0.3752053678035736, 0.2396237850189209, 0.013554597273468971, 0.43092212080955505, 0.06318195164203644, 0.0873352438211441, 0.23094621300697327, -0.37931710481643677, -0.048683829605579376, -0.36495092511177063, -0.07979599386453629, 0.17736002802848816, 0.6622611284255981, 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238020	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThrustSSC	ThrustSSC	ThrustSSC, Thrust SSC or Thrust SuperSonic Car is a British jet car developed by Richard Noble, Glynne Bowsher, Ron Ayers, and Jeremy Bliss. Thrust SSC holds the world land speed record, set on 15 October 1997, and driven by Andy Green, when it achieved a speed of and became the first land vehicle to officially break the sound barrier. Both Thrust SSC and Thrust2 are displayed at the Coventry Transport Museum in Coventry, England. As part of the Museum's redevelopment project, both cars were relocated by specialist haulier from their position in the Museum's Spirit of Speed Gallery to the new Biffa Award Land Speed Record Gallery which opened in 2015. The car is long and wide and weighs nearly 10 tons. It had a total thrust of 223 kN (approximately 50,000 pounds force), equivalent to around 102,000 brake horsepower at the measured record speed (calculated using Power = Force x Velocity). Details The car was driven by Royal Air Force fighter pilot Wing Commander Andy Green in the Black Rock Desert in the state of Nevada. It was powered by two afterburning Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines, as used in the British version of the F-4 Phantom II jet fighter. The twin engines developed a net thrust of 223 kN (50,000 lbf), giving a power output of roughly 102,000 bhp (76 MW) at the measured record speed of 341 metres per second, burning around 18 litres/second (4.0 Imperial gallons/s or 4.8 US gallons/s) of fuel. Transformed into the usual terms for car mileages based on this speed, the fuel consumption was about . The thermal power released by burning 18 litres/second of aviation fuel is approximately 630 MW which means the vehicle was operating at around 12% efficiency at its record speed, efficiency being the useful working power (76 MW) divided by the thermal power (630 MW). The record run in October 1997 was preceded by extensive test runs of the vehicle in autumn 1996 and spring 1997 in the Al-Jafr desert (located in Ma'an Governorate) in Jordan, a location unknown before for its capabilities as a test range for high speed land vehicles. After the record was set, the World Motor Sport Council released the following message: The World Motor Sport Council homologated the new world land speed records set by the team ThrustSSC of Richard Noble, driver Andy Green, on 15 October 1997 at Black Rock Desert, Nevada (USA). This is the first time in history that a land vehicle has exceeded the speed of sound. The new records are as follows: Flying mile Flying kilometre In setting the record, the sound barrier was broken in both the north and south runs. Paris, 11 November 1997. The complete run history is available. Legacy In 1983 Richard Noble had broken the world land speed record with his earlier car Thrust2, which reached a speed of . The date of Andy Green's record came exactly a half century and one day after Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier in Earth's atmosphere, with the Bell X-1 research rocket plane on 14 October 1947. Both Thrust SSC and Thrust2 are displayed at the Coventry Transport Museum in Coventry, England. Visitors can ride a 4D motion simulator depicting a computer-generated animation of the record-breaking run from the perspective of Green. Several teams are competing to break the record, including the Bloodhound LSR project, launched in 2008, and the North American Eagle Project, launched in 2004. Richard NobleOrange-Intel dispute In June 2012, a television advertisement for the Orange San Diego mobile phone, containing an Intel processor, was broadcast on British television and featured a fast car in computer generated imagery. Richard Noble claimed that the car was a representation of Thrust SSC and thus these companies had used his intellectual property without permission, putting the future of the Bloodhound LSR project in doubt. The Advertising Standards Authority rejected the Bloodhound team's complaint, claiming that intellectual property disputes were not in its remit. According to BBC News technology correspondent Rory Cellan-Jones, Intel and Orange responded that their production team had researched different styles of "superfast vehicles" and developed their own Orange-branded land speed car, and that the advertisement and phone were not connected to Noble or Bloodhound LSR. See also Air speed record Budweiser Rocket List of vehicle speed records RAF High Speed Flight Rocket car Bloodhound SSC Notes References Richard Noble: Thrust: The Remarkable Story of One Man's Quest for Speed, Hardcover: Partridge, 1998, ; Paperback: Bantam, 1999, External links Official Thrust SSC website (no longer being updated) Richard Noble Coventry Transport Museum where Thrust SSC is on display Photo-Diary by John Coppinger – including the aerial photo by Richard Meredith-Hardy showing the shock wave as Thrust SSC narrowly exceeds the speed of sound Thrust SSC the car and the run Thrust SSC Photos Pictures from Blackrock, Nevada – 15 October 1997 Speed Record Club – The Speed Record Club seeks to promote an informed and educated enthusiast identity, reporting accurately and impartially to the best of its ability on record-breaking engineering, events, attempts and history. 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238025	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Nyos	Lake Nyos	Lake Nyos ( ) is a crater lake in the Northwest Region of Cameroon, located about northwest of Yaoundé, the capital. Nyos is a deep lake high on the flank of an inactive volcano in the Oku volcanic plain along the Cameroon line of volcanic activity. A volcanic dam impounds the lake waters. A pocket of magma lies beneath the lake and leaks carbon dioxide () into the water, changing it into carbonic acid. Nyos is one of only three lakes known to be saturated with carbon dioxide in this way, and therefore prone to limnic eruptions (the others being Lake Monoun, also in Cameroon, and Lake Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda). In 1986, possibly as the result of a landslide, Lake Nyos suddenly emitted a large cloud of , which suffocated 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock in nearby towns and villages, the most notable one being Chah, which was abandoned after the incident. Though not completely unprecedented, it was the first known large-scale asphyxiation caused by a natural event. To prevent a recurrence, a degassing tube that siphons water from the bottom layers to the top, allowing the carbon dioxide to leak in safe quantities, was installed in 2001. Two additional tubes were installed in 2011. Today, the lake also poses a threat because its natural wall is weakening. A geological tremor could cause this natural levée to give way, allowing water to rush into downstream villages all the way into Nigeria and allowing large amounts of carbon dioxide to escape. Geography Lake Nyos lies within the Oku Volcanic Field, located near the northern boundary of the Cameroon Volcanic Line, a zone of volcanoes and other tectonic activity that extends southwest to the Mt. Cameroon stratovolcano. The field consists of volcanic maars and basaltic scoria cones. Formation and geologic history Lake Nyos is located south of the dirt road from Wum, about to the west, to Nkambé in the east. Villages along the road in the vicinity of the lake include Cha, Nyos, Munji, Djingbe, and Subum. The lake is from the Nigerian border to the north, and lies on the northern slopes of the Massif du Mbam, drained by streams running north, then northwest, to the Katsina-Ala River in Nigeria which is part of the Benue River basin. Lake Nyos fills a roughly circular maar in the Oku Volcanic Field, an explosion crater caused when a lava flow interacted violently with groundwater. The maar is believed to have formed in an eruption a maximum of 12,000 years ago, and is 1,800 m (5,900 ft) across and 208 m (682 ft) deep. The area has been volcanically active for millions of years—after South America and Africa were split apart by plate tectonics about 110 million years ago, West Africa also experienced rifting, although to a lesser degree. The rift is known as the Mbéré Rift Valley, and crustal extension has allowed magma to reach the surface along a line extending through Cameroon. Mount Cameroon also lies on this fault line. Lake Nyos is surrounded by old lava flows and pyroclastic deposits. Although Nyos is situated within an extinct volcano, magma still exists beneath it. Approximately directly below the lake resides a pool of magma, which releases carbon dioxide and other gases; the gases then travel upward through the earth. The fumes then dissolve in the natural springs encircling the lake, ultimately rising to the surface of the water and leaching into the lake. The lake waters are held in place by a natural dam composed of volcanic rock. At its narrowest point, the wall measures high and wide. Gas saturation Lake Nyos is one of only three lakes in the world known to be saturated with carbon dioxide—the others are Lake Monoun, also in Cameroon, and Lake Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo. A magma chamber beneath the region is an abundant source of carbon dioxide, which seeps up through the lake bed, charging the waters of Lake Nyos with an estimated 90 million tonnes of . Lake Nyos is thermally stratified, with layers of warm, less dense water near the surface floating on the colder, denser water layers near the lake's bottom. Over long periods, carbon dioxide gas seeping into the cold water at the lake's bottom is dissolved in great amounts. Most of the time, the lake is stable and the remains in solution in the lower layers. However, over time, the water becomes supersaturated, and if an event such as an earthquake or landslide occurs, large amounts of may suddenly come out of solution. 1986 disaster Although a sudden outgassing of had occurred at Lake Monoun in 1984, a similar threat from Lake Nyos was not anticipated. However, on August 21, 1986, a limnic eruption occurred at Lake Nyos, triggering the sudden release of about 100,000–300,000 tons (some sources state as much as 1.6 million tonnes) of . This gas cloud rose at nearly and spilled over the northern lip of the lake into a valley running roughly east–west from Cha to Subum. It then rushed down two valleys branching off to the north, displacing all of the air and suffocating 1,746 people within of the lake, mostly rural villagers, as well as 3,500 livestock. The villages most affected were Cha, Nyos, and Subum. Scientists concluded from evidence that a fountain of water and foam formed at the surface of the lake. The huge amount of water rising suddenly caused much turbulence in the water, spawning a wave of at least that would scour the shore of one side. It is not known what triggered the catastrophic outgassing. Most geologists suspect a landslide, but some believe that a small volcanic eruption may have occurred on the bed of the lake. A third possibility is that cool rainwater falling on one side of the lake triggered the overturn. Others still believe there was a small earthquake, but as witnesses did not report feeling any tremors on the morning of the disaster, this hypothesis is unlikely. Whatever the cause, the event resulted in the rapid mixing of the supersaturated deep water with the upper layers of the lake, where the reduced pressure allowed the stored to effervesce out of solution. It is believed that about of gas was released. The normally blue waters of the lake turned a deep red after the outgassing, due to iron-rich water from the deep rising to the surface and being oxidised by the air. The level of the lake dropped by about a metre and trees near the lake were knocked down. Degassing The scale of the 1986 disaster led to much study on how a recurrence could be prevented. Estimates of the rate of carbon dioxide entering the lake suggested that outgassings could occur every 10–30 years, though a recent study shows that release of water from the lake, caused by erosion of the natural barrier that keeps in the lake's water, could in turn reduce pressure on the lake's carbon dioxide and cause a gas escape much sooner. Several researchers independently proposed the installation of degassing columns from rafts in the lake. These use a pump to initially lift water from the bottom of the lake, heavily saturated with , until the loss of pressure begins releasing the gas from the diphasic fluid, at which point the process becomes self-powered. In 1992 at Monoun, and in 1995 at Nyos, a French team directed by Michel Halbwachs demonstrated the feasibility of this approach. In 2001, the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance funded a permanent installation at Nyos. In 2011, two additional pipes were installed by Michel Halbwachs and his French-Cameroonian team to assure the complete degassing of Lake Nyos. Following the disaster, scientists investigated other African lakes to see if a similar phenomenon could happen elsewhere. Lake Kivu, 2,000 times larger than Lake Nyos, was also found to be supersaturated, and geologists found evidence for outgassing events around the lake about every thousand years. The eruption of nearby Mount Nyiragongo in 2002 sent lava flowing into the lake, raising fears that a gas eruption could be triggered, but it was not, as the flow of lava stopped well before it got near the bottom layers of the lake, where the gas is maintained in solution by the water pressure. Weakening dam In 2005, Isaac Njilah, a geologist at the University of Yaoundé, suggested that the natural dam of volcanic rock that keeps in the lake's waters could collapse in the near future. Erosion has worn the dam away, causing holes and pockets to develop in the dam's upper layer, and water already passes through the lower section. Meanwhile, landslides have reduced dam strength on the outside. Seismic activity caused by the lake's volcanic foundation could thus cause the lake wall to give way, resulting in up to 50 million m3 (1.8 billion ft3) of water flooding downhill into areas of the Northwest Province and the Nigerian states of Taraba and Benue. The Cameroonian government, speaking through Gregory Tanyi-Leke of the Institute of Mining and Geological Research, acknowledges the weakening wall, but denies that it presents any immediate threat. A United Nations team led by Olaf Van Duin and Nisa Nurmohamed of the Netherlands' Ministry of Transport and Public Works inspected the dam over three days in September 2005, and confirmed that the natural lip had weakened. Van Duin believed that the dam would breach within the next 10 to 20 years. One possible means of averting such a catastrophe would be to strengthen the lake wall, though this would take much time and money. Engineers could also introduce a channel to allow excess water to drain; if the water level were lowered by about , the pressure on the wall would be reduced significantly. Return of population Despite the risks from carbon dioxide and collapse of the lake's retaining wall, the area is being resettled. Settlers cite the wish to return to ancestral lands (although some are newcomers) and the great fertility of the land as reasons for their return. In popular culture [Nyos: The ceremony of innocence] (2016), a novel by Basileios Drolias focusing on the lake Nyos disaster. Stikvallei [Choke Valley] (2013), a non-fiction account of the lake Nyos disaster by Frank Westerman. See also References Further reading "Cameroon scientist denies dam about to collapse" (August 23, 2005). Reuters. Cotel A (1999), A trigger mechanism for the Lake Nyos disaster, American Physical Society, Division of Fluid Dynamics Meeting, November 21–23, 1999 Decker, R. and Decker, B. (1997) Volcanoes, 3rd edition, WH Freeman, New York. Musa, Tansa (September 28, 2005). "Cameroon dam could collapse in 10 years-UN experts". Reuters. Musa, Tansa (August 18, 2005). "Cameroon dam nears collapse, 10,000 lives at risk". Reuters. Sano Y., Kusakabe M., Hirabayashi J. et al. (1990), Helium and carbon fluxes in Lake Nyos, Cameroon: constraint on next gas burst, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 99, p. 303–314 Sano Y., Wakita H., Ohsumi T., Kusakabe M. (1987), Helium isotope evidence for magmatic gases in Lake Nyos, Cameroon, Geophysical Research Letters, v. 14, p. 1039–1041 Stager, J.C. (1987), "Silent Death from Cameroon's Killer Lake", National Geographic, September 1987 Gideon Aghaindum, Ajeagah (2017) "Eco-autopsy of the lake Nyos disaster in Cameroon: 30 Years After Calamity". External links Lake Nyos Degassing: in 1995 Michel HALBWACHS with his french scientist team found the solution for lake Nyos degassing problem Lake Nyos incident BBC News 'On This Day' article BBC news article about the degassing of Lake Nyos BBC Horizon episode Killer lakes USGS information Defusing Africa’s Killer Lakes – Smithsonian Gas threat grows from Cameroon's lethal lakes — The Guardian Lake Nyos – The Vanguard, Cameroon BBC News 27 Sep 2005: Action needed on deadly lakes Mechanics of the switching on of the trigger mechanism of limnological catastrophes – Latvian research by Nataliya Anatolievna Solodovnik and Anatoliy Borisovich Solodovnik BBC Article on Lake Kivu A similar problem at Lake Kivu and plans to deal with it The Strangest Disaster of the 20th Century reprinted from Uncle John's Bathroom Reader: World of Odd. 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238029	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crushing%20%28execution%29	Crushing (execution)	Death by crushing or pressing is a method of execution that has a history during which the techniques used varied greatly from place to place, generally involving placing heavy weights upon a person with the intent to kill. This form of execution is no longer used by any government. Crushing by elephant A common method of death throughout South and Southeast Asia for over 4,000 years was crushing by elephants. The Sasanians, Romans, and Carthaginians also used this method on occasion. Ancient Rome In the early history of ancient Rome, Tarpeia was a Roman maiden who betrayed the city of Rome to the Sabines in exchange for what she thought would be a reward of jewelry. She was instead crushed to death and her body cast from the Tarpeian Rock which now bears her name. Crushing in pre-Columbian America Crushing is also reported from pre-Columbian America, notably in the Aztec Empire. Crushing under common law Peine forte et dure (Law French for "forceful and hard punishment") was a method of torture formerly used in the common law legal system, in which a defendant who refused to plead ("stood mute") would be subjected to having heavier and heavier stones placed upon his or her chest until a plea was entered, or as the weight of the stones on the chest became too great for the condemned to breathe, fatal suffocation would occur. The common law courts originally took a very limited view of their own jurisdiction. They considered themselves to lack jurisdiction over a defendant until he had voluntarily submitted to it by entering a plea seeking judgment from the court. Since a criminal justice system that tried and punished only those who volunteered for trial and punishment was practically unworkable, this was the means chosen to coerce them. Many defendants charged with capital offences nonetheless refused to plead, since thereby they would escape forfeiture of property, and their heirs would still inherit their estate; but if the defendant pleaded guilty and was executed, their heirs would inherit nothing, their property escheating to the Crown. Peine forte et dure was abolished in Great Britain in 1772, and the last known use of the practice was in 1741. In 1772, refusing to plead was deemed to be equivalent to pleading guilty. This was changed in 1827 to being deemed a plea of not guilty. Today, in all common law jurisdictions, standing mute is treated by the courts as equivalent to a plea of not guilty. The elaborate procedure was recorded by a 15th-century witness in an oft-quoted description: "he will lie upon his back, with his head covered and his feet, and one arm will be drawn to one quarter of the house with a cord, and the other arm to another quarter, and in the same manner it will be done with his legs; and let there be laid upon his body iron and stone, as much as he can bear, or more ..." "Pressing to death" might take several days, and not necessarily with a continued increase in the load. The Frenchman Guy Miege, who from 1668 taught languages in London says the following about the English practice: The most famous case in the United Kingdom was that of Roman Catholic martyr St Margaret Clitherow, who, in order to avoid a trial in which her own children would be obliged to give evidence, was pressed to death on March 25, 1586, after refusing to plead to the charge of having harboured Catholic priests in her house. She died within fifteen minutes under a weight of at least 700 pounds (320 kg). Several hardened criminals, including William Spigott (1721) and Edward Burnworth, lasted a half hour under 400 pounds (180 kg) before pleading to the indictment. Others, such as Major Strangways (1658) and John Weekes (1731), refused to plead, even under 400 pounds (180 kg), and were killed when bystanders, out of mercy, sat on them. The only death by peine forte et dure in American history was Giles Corey, who was pressed to death on September 19, 1692, during the Salem witch trials, after he refused to enter a plea in the judicial proceeding. According to legend, his last words as he was being crushed were "More weight", and he was thought to be dead as the weight was applied. In medieval Europe, the slow crushing of body parts in screw-operated "bone vises" of iron was a common method of torture, and a tremendous variety of cruel instruments were used to savagely crush the head, knee, hand, and, most commonly, either the thumb or the naked foot. Such instruments were finely threaded and variously provided with spiked inner surfaces or heated red-hot before their application to the limb to be tortured. In popular culture Peine forte et dure is referred to in Arthur Miller's political drama The Crucible (1953), where Giles Corey is pressed to death after refusing to plead "aye or nay" to the charge of witchcraft. In the 1996 film version of this play, the screenplay also written by Arthur Miller, Corey is crushed to death for refusing to reveal the name of a source of information. In the 1970 American made-for-television supernatural horror film, "Crowhaven Farm," directed by Walter Grauman and starring Hope Lange, Paul Burke and John Carradine, a coven uses crushing to torture Lange's character after she inherits a haunted Massachusetts farm house. See also Crush syndrome References Further reading McKenzie, Andrea. "'This Death Some Strong and Stout Hearted Man Doth Choose': The Practice of Peine Forte et Dure in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century England". Law and History Review, Summer 2005, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 279–313. 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238030	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterintelligence	Counterintelligence	Counterintelligence is an activity aimed at protecting an agency's intelligence program from an opposition's intelligence service. It includes gathering information and conducting activities to prevent espionage, sabotage, assassinations or other intelligence activities conducted by, for, or on behalf of foreign powers, organizations or persons. Many countries will have multiple organisations focusing on a different aspect of counterintelligence, such as domestic, international, and counter-terrorism. Some states will formalise it as part of the police structure, such as the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation. Others will establish independent bodies, such as the United Kingdom's MI5. History Modern tactics of espionage and dedicated government intelligence agencies developed over the course of the late-19th century. A key background to this development was The Great Game - the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire throughout Central Asia between 1830 and 1895. To counter Russian ambitions in the region and the potential threat it posed to the British position in India, the Indian Civil Service built up a system of surveillance, intelligence and counterintelligence. The existence of this shadowy conflict was popularized in Rudyard Kipling's famous spy book, Kim (1901), where he portrayed the Great Game (a phrase Kipling popularized) as an espionage and intelligence conflict that "never ceases, day or night". The establishment of dedicated intelligence and counterintelligence organizations had much to do with the colonial rivalries between the major European powers and to the accelerating development of military technology. As espionage became more widely used, it became imperative to expand the role of existing police and internal security forces into a role of detecting and countering foreign spies. The Evidenzbureau (founded in the Austrian Empire in 1850) had the role from the late-19th century of countering the actions of the Pan-Slavist movement operating out of Serbia. After the fallout from the Dreyfus Affair of 1894–1906 in France, responsibility for French military counter-espionage passed in 1899 to the Sûreté générale—an agency originally responsible for order enforcement and public safety—and overseen by the Ministry of the Interior. The Okhrana initially formed in 1880 to combat political terrorism and left-wing revolutionary activity throughout the Russian Empire, was also tasked with countering enemy espionage. Its main concern was the activities of revolutionaries, who often worked and plotted subversive actions from abroad. It set up a branch in Paris, run by Pyotr Rachkovsky, to monitor their activities. The agency used many methods to achieve its goals, including covert operations, undercover agents, and "perlustration"—the interception and reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana became notorious for its use of agents provocateurs, who often succeeded in penetrating the activities of revolutionary groups - including the Bolsheviks. Integrated counterintelligence agencies run directly by governments were also established. The British government founded the Secret Service Bureau in 1909 as the first independent and interdepartmental agency fully in control over all government counterintelligence activities. Due to intense lobbying from William Melville and after he obtained German mobilization plans and proof of their financial support to the Boers, the British government authorized the formation of a new intelligence section in the War Office, MO3 (subsequently redesignated MO5) headed by Melville, in 1903. Working under-cover from a flat in London, Melville ran both counterintelligence and foreign intelligence operations, capitalizing on the knowledge and foreign contacts he had accumulated during his years running Special Branch. Due to its success, the Government Committee on Intelligence, with support from Richard Haldane and Winston Churchill, established the Secret Service Bureau in 1909 as a joint initiative of the Admiralty, the War Office and the Foreign Office to control secret intelligence operations in the UK and overseas, particularly concentrating on the activities of the Imperial German government. Its first director was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming alias "C". The Secret Service Bureau was split into a foreign and counter-intelligence domestic service in 1910. The latter, headed by Sir Vernon Kell, originally aimed at calming public fears of large-scale German espionage. As the Service was not authorized with police powers, Kell liaised extensively with the Special Branch of Scotland Yard (headed by Basil Thomson), and succeeded in disrupting the work of Indian revolutionaries collaborating with the Germans during the war. Instead of a system whereby rival departments and military services would work on their own priorities with little to no consultation or cooperation with each other, the newly established Secret Intelligence Service was interdepartmental, and submitted its intelligence reports to all relevant government departments. For the first time, governments had access to peacetime, centralized independent intelligence and counterintelligence bureaucracy with indexed registries and defined procedures, as opposed to the more ad hoc methods used previously. Categories Collective counterintelligence is gaining information about an opponent's intelligence collection capabilities whose aim is at an entity. Defensive counterintelligence is thwarting efforts by hostile intelligence services to penetrate the service. Offensive counterintelligence is having identified an opponent's efforts against the system, trying to manipulate these attacks by either "turning" the opponent's agents into double agents or feeding them false information to report. Counterintelligence, counterterror, and government Many governments organize counterintelligence agencies separately and distinct from their intelligence collection services. In most countries the counterintelligence mission is spread over multiple organizations, though one usually predominates. There is usually a domestic counterintelligence service, usually part of a larger law enforcement organization such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States. The United Kingdom has the separate Security Service, also known as MI5, which does not have direct police powers but works closely with law enforcement especially Special Branch that can carry out arrests, do searches with a warrant, etc. The Russian Federation's major domestic security organization is the FSB, which principally came from the Second Chief Directorate and Third Chief Directorate of the USSR's KGB. Canada separates the functions of general defensive counterintelligence (contre-ingérence), security intelligence (the intelligence preparation necessary to conduct offensive counterintelligence), law enforcement intelligence, and offensive counterintelligence. Military organizations have their own counterintelligence forces, capable of conducting protective operations both at home and when deployed abroad. Depending on the country, there can be various mixtures of civilian and military in foreign operations. For example, while offensive counterintelligence is a mission of the US CIA's National Clandestine Service, defensive counterintelligence is a mission of the U.S. Diplomatic Security Service (DSS), Department of State, who work on protective security for personnel and information processed abroad at US Embassies and Consulates. The term counter-espionage is really specific to countering HUMINT, but, since virtually all offensive counterintelligence involves exploiting human sources, the term "offensive counterintelligence" is used here to avoid some ambiguous phrasing. Other countries also deal with the proper organization of defenses against Foreign Intelligence Services (FIS), often with separate services with no common authority below the head of government. France, for example, builds its domestic counterterror in a law enforcement framework. In France, a senior anti-terror magistrate is in charge of defense against terrorism. French magistrates have multiple functions that overlap US and UK functions of investigators, prosecutors, and judges. An anti-terror magistrate may call upon France's domestic intelligence service Direction générale de la sécurité intérieure (DGSI), which may work with the Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure (DGSE), foreign intelligence service. Spain gives its Interior Ministry, with military support, the leadership in domestic counterterrorism. For international threats, the National Intelligence Center (CNI) has responsibility. CNI, which reports directly to the Prime Minister, is staffed principally by which is subordinated directly to the Prime Minister's office. After the March 11, 2004 Madrid train bombings, the national investigation found problems between the Interior Ministry and CNI, and, as a result, the National Anti-Terrorism Coordination Center was created. Spain's 3/11 Commission called for this Center to do operational coordination as well as information collection and dissemination. The military has organic counterintelligence to meet specific military needs. Counterintelligence missions Frank Wisner, a well-known CIA operations executive said of the autobiography of Director of Central Intelligence Allen W. Dulles, that Dulles "disposes of the popular misconception that counterintelligence is essentially a negative and responsive activity, that it moves only or chiefly in reaction to situations thrust upon it and in counter to initiatives mounted by the opposition." Rather, he sees that can be most effective, both in information gathering and protecting friendly intelligence services, when it creatively but vigorously attacks the "structure and personnel of hostile intelligence services." Today's counterintelligence missions have broadened from the time when the threat was restricted to the foreign intelligence services (FIS) under the control of nation-states. Threats have broadened to include threats from non-national or trans-national groups, including internal insurgents, organized crime, and transnational based groups (often called "terrorists", but that is limiting). Still, the FIS term remains the usual way of referring to the threat against which counterintelligence protects. In modern practice, several missions are associated with counterintelligence from the national to the field level. Defensive analysis is the practice of looking for vulnerabilities in one's own organization, and, with due regard for risk versus benefit, closing the discovered holes. Offensive counterespionage is the set of techniques that at least neutralizes discovered FIS personnel and arrests them or, in the case of diplomats, expels them by declaring them persona non grata. Beyond that minimum, it exploits FIS personnel to gain intelligence for one's own side, or actively manipulates the FIS personnel to damage the hostile FIS organization. Counterintelligence force protection source operations (CFSO) are human source operations, conducted abroad that are intended to fill the existing gap in national-level coverage in protecting a field station or force from terrorism and espionage. Counterintelligence is part of intelligence cycle security, which, in turn, is part of intelligence cycle management. A variety of security disciplines also fall under intelligence security management and complement counterintelligence, including: Physical security Personnel security Communications security (COMSEC) Informations system security (INFOSEC) security classification Operations security (OPSEC) The disciplines involved in "positive security," measures by which one's own society collects information on its actual or potential security, complement security. For example, when communications intelligence identifies a particular radio transmitter as one used only by a particular country, detecting that transmitter inside one's own country suggests the presence of a spy that counterintelligence should target. In particular, counterintelligence has a significant relationship with the collection discipline of HUMINT and at least some relationship with the others. Counterintelligence can both produce information and protect it. All US departments and agencies with intelligence functions are responsible for their own security abroad, except those that fall under Chief of Mission authority. Governments try to protect three things: Their personnel Their installations Their operations In many governments, the responsibility for protecting these things is split. Historically, CIA assigned responsibility for protecting its personnel and operations to its Office of Security, while it assigned the security of operations to multiple groups within the Directorate of Operations: the counterintelligence staff and the area (or functional) unit, such as Soviet Russia Division. At one point, the counterintelligence unit operated quite autonomously, under the direction of James Jesus Angleton. Later, operational divisions had subordinate counterintelligence branches, as well as a smaller central counterintelligence staff. Aldrich Ames was in the Counterintelligence Branch of Europe Division, where he was responsible for directing the analysis of Soviet intelligence operations. US military services have had a similar and even more complex split. This kind of division clearly requires close coordination, and this in fact occurs on a daily basis. The interdependence of the US counterintelligence community is also manifest in its relationships with liaison services. The counterintelligence community cannot cut off these relationships because of concern about security, but experience has shown that it must calculate the risks involved. On the other side of the CI coin, counterespionage has one purpose that transcends all others in importance: penetration. The emphasis which the KGB places on penetration is evident in the cases already discussed from the defensive or security viewpoint. The best security system in the world cannot provide an adequate defense against it because the technique involves people. The only way to be sure that an enemy has been contained is to know his plans in advance and in detail. Moreover, only a high-level penetration of the opposition can tell you whether your own service is penetrated. A high-level defector can also do this, but the adversary knows that he defected and within limits can take remedial action. Conducting CE without the aid of penetrations is like fighting in the dark. Conducting CE with penetrations can be like shooting fish in a barrel. In the British service, the cases of the Cambridge Five, and the later suspicions about MI5 chief Sir Roger Hollis caused great internal dissension. Clearly, the British were penetrated by Philby, but it has never been determined, in any public forum, if there were other serious penetrations. In the US service, there was also significant disruption over the contradictory accusations about moles from defectors Anatoliy Golitsyn and Yuri Nosenko, and their respective supporters in CIA and the British Security Service (MI5). Golitsyn was generally believed by Angleton. George Kisevalter, the CIA operations officer that was the CIA side of the joint US-UK handling of Oleg Penkovsky, did not believe Angleton's theory that Nosenko was a KGB plant. Nosenko had exposed John Vassall, a KGB asset principally in the British Admiralty, but there were arguments Vassall was a KGB sacrifice to protect other operations, including Nosenko and a possibly more valuable source on the Royal Navy. Defensive counterintelligence Defensive counterintelligence starts by looking for places in one's own organization that could easily be exploited by foreign intelligence services (FIS). FIS is an established term of art in the counterintelligence community, and, in today's world, "foreign" is shorthand for "opposing." Opposition might indeed be a country, but it could be a transnational group or an internal insurgent group. Operations against a FIS might be against one's own nation, or another friendly nation. The range of actions that might be done to support a friendly government can include a wide range of functions, certainly including military or counterintelligence activities, but also humanitarian aid and aid to development ("nation building"). Terminology here is still emerging, and "transnational group" could include not only terrorist groups but also transnational criminal organization. Transnational criminal organizations include the drug trade, money laundering, extortion targeted against computer or communications systems, smuggling, etc. "Insurgent" could be a group opposing a recognized government by criminal or military means, as well as conducting clandestine intelligence and covert operations against the government in question, which could be one's own or a friendly one. Counterintelligence and counterterrorism analyses provide strategic assessments of foreign intelligence and terrorist groups and prepare tactical options for ongoing operations and investigations. Counterespionage may involve proactive acts against foreign intelligence services, such as double agents, deception, or recruiting foreign intelligence officers. While clandestine HUMINT sources can give the greatest insight into the adversary's thinking, they may also be most vulnerable to the adversary's attacks on one's own organization. Before trusting an enemy agent, remember that such people started out as being trusted by their own countries and may still be loyal to that country. Offensive counterintelligence operations Wisner emphasized his own, and Dulles', views that the best defense against foreign attacks on, or infiltration of, intelligence services is active measures against those hostile services. This is often called counterespionage: measures taken to detect enemy espionage or physical attacks against friendly intelligence services, prevent damage and information loss, and, where possible, to turn the attempt back against its originator. Counterespionage goes beyond being reactive and actively tries to subvert hostile intelligence service, by recruiting agents in the foreign service, by discrediting personnel actually loyal to their own service, and taking away resources that would be useful to the hostile service. All of these actions apply to non-national threats as well as to national organizations. If the hostile action is in one's own country or in a friendly one with co-operating police, the hostile agents may be arrested, or, if diplomats, declared persona non grata. From the perspective of one's own intelligence service, exploiting the situation to the advantage of one's side is usually preferable to arrest or actions that might result in the death of the threat. The intelligence priority sometimes comes into conflict with the instincts of one's own law enforcement organizations, especially when the foreign threat combines foreign personnel with citizens of one's country. In some circumstances, arrest may be a first step in which the prisoner is given the choice of co-operating or facing severe consequence up to and including a death sentence for espionage. Co-operation may consist of telling all one knows about the other service but preferably actively assisting in deceptive actions against the hostile service. Counterintelligence protection of intelligence services Defensive counterintelligence specifically for intelligence services involves risk assessment of their culture, sources, methods and resources. Risk management must constantly reflect those assessments, since effective intelligence operations are often risk-taking. Even while taking calculated risks, the services need to mitigate risk with appropriate countermeasures. FIS are especially able to explore open societies and, in that environment, have been able to subvert insiders in the intelligence community. Offensive counterespionage is the most powerful tool for finding penetrators and neutralizing them, but it is not the only tool. Understanding what leads individuals to turn on their own side is the focus of Project Slammer. Without undue violations of personal privacy, systems can be developed to spot anomalous behavior, especially in the use of information systems. Decision makers require intelligence free from hostile control or manipulation. Since every intelligence discipline is subject to manipulation by our adversaries, validating the reliability of intelligence from all collection platforms is essential. Accordingly, each counterintelligence organization will validate the reliability of sources and methods that relate to the counterintelligence mission in accordance with common standards. For other mission areas, the USIC will examine collection, analysis, dissemination practices, and other intelligence activities and will recommend improvements, best practices, and common standards. Intelligence is vulnerable not only to external but also to internal threats. Subversion, treason, and leaks expose vulnerabilities, governmental and commercial secrets, and intelligence sources and methods. The insider threat has been a source of extraordinary damage to US national security, as with Aldrich Ames, Robert Hanssen, and Edward Lee Howard, all of whom had access to major clandestine activities. Had an electronic system to detect anomalies in browsing through counterintelligence files been in place, Robert Hanssen's searches for suspicion of activities of his Soviet (and later Russian) paymasters might have surfaced early. Anomalies might simply show that an especially-creative analyst has a trained intuition possible connections and is trying to research them. Adding the new tools and techniques to [national arsenals], the counterintelligence community will seek to manipulate foreign spies, conduct aggressive investigations, make arrests and, where foreign officials are involved, expel them for engaging in practices inconsistent with their diplomatic status or exploit them as an unwitting channel for deception, or turn them into witting double agents. "Witting" is a term of intelligence art that indicates that one is not only aware of a fact or piece of information but also aware of its connection to intelligence activities. Victor Suvorov, the pseudonym of a former Soviet military intelligence (GRU) officer, makes the point that a defecting HUMINT officer is a special threat to walk-in or other volunteer assets of the country that he is leaving. Volunteers who are "warmly welcomed" do not take into consideration the fact that they are despised by hostile intelligence agents. The Soviet operational officer, having seen a great deal of the ugly face of communism, very frequently feels the utmost repulsion to those who sell themselves to it willingly. And when a GRU or KGB officer decides to break with his criminal organization, something which fortunately happens quite often, the first thing he will do is try to expose the hated volunteer. Counterintelligence force protection source operations Attacks against military, diplomatic, and related facilities are a very real threat, as demonstrated by the 1983 attacks against French and US peacekeepers in Beirut, the 1996 attack on the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia, 1998 attacks on Colombian bases and on U.S. embassies (and local buildings) in Kenya and Tanzania the 2000 attack on the USS Cole, and many others. The U.S. military force protection measures are the set of actions taken against military personnel and family members, resources, facilities and critical information, and most countries have a similar doctrine for protecting those facilities and conserving the potential of the forces. Force protection is defined to be a defense against deliberate attack, not accidents or natural disasters. Counterintelligence Force Protection Source Operations (CFSO) are human source operations, normally clandestine in nature, conducted abroad that are intended to fill the existing gap in national level coverage, as well as satisfying the combatant commander's intelligence requirements. Military police and other patrols that mingle with local people may indeed be valuable HUMINT sources for counterintelligence awareness, but are not themselves likely to be CFSOs. Gleghorn distinguishes between the protection of national intelligence services, and the intelligence needed to provide combatant commands with the information they need for force protection. There are other HUMINT sources, such as military reconnaissance patrols that avoid mixing with foreign personnel, that indeed may provide HUMINT, but not HUMINT especially relevant to counterintelligence. Active countermeasures, whether for force protection, protection of intelligence services, or protection of national security interests, are apt to involve HUMINT disciplines, for the purpose of detecting FIS agents, involving screening and debriefing of non-tasked human sources, also called casual or incidental sources. such as: walk-ins and write-ins (individuals who volunteer information) unwitting sources (any individual providing useful information to counterintelligence, who in the process of divulging such information may not know they are aiding an investigation) defectors and enemy prisoners of war (EPW) refugee populations and expatriates interviewees (individuals contacted in the course of an investigation) official liaison sources. Physical security is important, but it does not override the role of force protection intelligence... Although all intelligence disciplines can be used to gather force protection intelligence, HUMINT collected by intelligence and CI agencies plays a key role in providing indications and warning of terrorist and other force protection threats. Force protection, for forces deployed in host countries, occupation duty, and even at home, may not be supported sufficiently by a national-level counterterrorism organization alone. In a country, colocating FPCI personnel, of all services, with military assistance and advisory units, allows agents to build relationships with host nation law enforcement and intelligence agencies, get to know the local environments, and improve their language skills. FPCI needs a legal domestic capability to deal with domestic terrorism threats. As an example of terrorist planning cycles, the Khobar Towers attack shows the need for long-term FPCI. "The Hizballah operatives believed to have conducted this attack began intelligence collection and planning activities in 1993. They recognized American military personnel were billeted at Khobar Towers in the fall of 1994 and began surveillance of the facility, and continued to plan, in June 1995. In March 1996, Saudi Arabian border guards arrested a Hizballah member attempting plastic explosive into the country, leading to the arrest of two more Hizballah members. Hizballah leaders recruited replacements for those arrested, and continued planning for the attack." Defensive counterintelligence operations In U.S. doctrine, although not necessarily that of other countries, CI is now seen as primarily a counter to FIS HUMINT. In the 1995 US Army counterintelligence manual, CI had a broader scope against the various intelligence collection disciplines. Some of the overarching CI tasks are described as Developing, maintaining, and disseminating multidiscipline threat data and intelligence files on organizations, locations, and individuals of CI interest. This includes insurgent and terrorist infrastructure and individuals who can assist in the CI mission. Educating personnel in all fields of security. A component of this is the multidiscipline threat briefing. Briefings can and should be tailored, both in scope and classification level. Briefings could then be used to familiarize supported commands with the nature of the multidiscipline threat posed against the command or activity. More recent US joint intelligence doctrine restricts its primary scope to counter-HUMINT, which usually includes counter-terror. It is not always clear, under this doctrine, who is responsible for all intelligence collection threats against a military or other resource. The full scope of US military counterintelligence doctrine has been moved to a classified publication, Joint Publication (JP) 2-01.2, Counterintelligence and Human Intelligence Support to Joint Operations. More specific countermeasures against intelligence collection disciplines are listed below Counter-HUMINT Counter-HUMINT deals with both the detection of hostile HUMINT sources within an organization, or the detection of individuals likely to become hostile HUMINT sources, as a mole or double agent. There is an additional category relevant to the broad spectrum of counterintelligence: why one becomes a terrorist. The acronym MICE: Money Ideology Compromise (or coercion) Ego describes the most common reasons people break trust and disclose classified materials, reveal operations to hostile services, or join terrorist groups. It makes sense, therefore, to monitor trusted personnel for risks in these areas, such as financial stress, extreme political views, potential vulnerabilities for blackmail, and excessive need for approval or intolerance of criticism. With luck, problems in an employee can be caught early, assistance can be provided to correct them, and not only is espionage avoided, but a useful employee retained. Sometimes, the preventive and neutralization tasks overlap, as in the case of Earl Edwin Pitts. Pitts had been an FBI agent who had sold secret information to the Soviets, and, after the fall of the USSR, to the Russians. He was caught by an FBI false flag sting, in which FBI agents, posing as Russian FSB agents, came to Pitts with an offer to "reactivate" him. His activities seemed motivated by both money and ego over perceived bad treatment when he was an FBI agent. His sentence required him to tell the FBI all he knew of foreign agents. Ironically, he told them of suspicious actions by Robert Hanssen, which were not taken seriously at the time. Motivations for information and operations disclosure To go beyond slogans, Project Slammer was an effort of the Intelligence Community Staff, under the Director of Central Intelligence, to come up with characteristics of an individual likely to commit espionage against the United States. It "examines espionage by interviewing and psychologically assessing actual espionage subjects. Additionally, persons knowledgeable of subjects are contacted to better understand the subjects' private lives and how they are perceived by others while conducting espionage." According to a press report about Project Slammer and Congressional oversight of counterespionage, one fairly basic function is observing one's own personnel for behavior that either suggests that they could be targets for foreign HUMINT, or may already have been subverted. News reports indicate that in hindsight, red flags were flying but not noticed. In several major penetrations of US services, such as Aldrich Ames, the Walker ring or Robert Hanssen, the individual showed patterns of spending inconsistent with their salary. Some people with changed spending may have a perfectly good reason, such as an inheritance or even winning the lottery, but such patterns should not be ignored. Personnel in sensitive positions, who have difficulty getting along with peers, may become risks for being compromised with an approach based on ego. William Kampiles, a low-level worker in the CIA Watch Center, sold, for a small sum, the critical operations manual on the KH-11 reconnaissance satellite. To an interviewer, Kampiles suggested that if someone had noted his "problem"—constant conflicts with supervisors and co-workers—and brought in outside counseling, he might not have stolen the KH-11 manual. By 1997, the Project Slammer work was being presented at public meetings of the Security Policy Advisory Board. While a funding cut caused the loss of impetus in the mid-nineties, there are research data used throughout the security community. They emphasize the essential and multi-faceted motivational patterns underlying espionage. Future Slammer analyses will focus on newly developing issues in espionage such as the role of money, the new dimensions of loyalty and what seems to be a developing trend toward economic espionage. Counter-SIGINT (Signals Intelligence) Military and security organizations will provide secure communications, and may monitor less secure systems, such as commercial telephones or general Internet connections, to detect inappropriate information being passed through them. Education on the need to use secure communications, and instruction on using them properly so that they do not become vulnerable to specialized technical interception. Counter-IMINT (Imagery Intelligence) The basic methods of countering IMINT are to know when the opponent will use imaging against one's own side, and interfering with the taking of images. In some situations, especially in free societies, it must be accepted that public buildings may always be subject to photography or other techniques. Countermeasures include putting visual shielding over sensitive targets or camouflaging them. When countering such threats as imaging satellites, awareness of the orbits can guide security personnel to stop an activity, or perhaps cover the sensitive parts, when the satellite is overhead. This also applies to imaging on aircraft and UAVs, although the more direct expedient of shooting them down, or attacking their launch and support area, is an option in wartime. Counter-OSINT (Open-Source Intelligence) While the concept well precedes the recognition of a discipline of OSINT, the idea of censorship of material directly relevant to national security is a basic OSINT defense. In democratic societies, even in wartime, censorship must be watched carefully lest it violate reasonable freedom of the press, but the balance is set differently in different countries and at different times. The United Kingdom is generally considered to have a very free press, but there is the DA-Notice, formerly D-notice system. Many British journalists find that the system is used fairly, but there will always be arguments. In the specific context of counterintelligence, note that Peter Wright, a former senior member of the Security Service who left their service without his pension, moved to Australia before publishing his book Spycatcher. While much of the book was reasonable commentary, it revealed some specific and sensitive techniques, such as Operation RAFTER, a means of detecting the existence and setting of radio receivers. Counter-MASINT (Measurement and Signature Intelligence) MASINT is mentioned here for completeness, but the discipline contains so varied a range of technologies that a type-by-type strategy is beyond the current scope. One example, however, can draw on the Operation RAFTER technique revealed in Wright's book. With the knowledge that Radiofrequency MASINT was being used to pick up an internal frequency in radio receivers, it would be possible to design a shielded receiver that would not radiate the signal that RAFTER monitored. Theory of offensive counterintelligence Offensive techniques in current counterintelligence doctrine are principally directed against human sources, so counterespionage can be considered a synonym for offensive counterintelligence. At the heart of exploitation operations is the objective to degrade the effectiveness of an adversary's intelligence service or a terrorist organization. Offensive counterespionage (and counterterrorism) is done one of two ways, either by manipulating the adversary (FIS or terrorist) in some manner or by disrupting the adversary's normal operations. Defensive counterintelligence operations that succeed in breaking up a clandestine network by arresting the persons involved or by exposing their actions demonstrate that disruption is quite measurable and effective against FIS if the right actions are taken. If defensive counterintelligence stops terrorist attacks, it has succeeded. Offensive counterintelligence seeks to damage the long-term capability of the adversary. If it can lead a national adversary into putting large resources into protecting from a nonexistent threat, or if it can lead terrorists to assume that all of their "sleeper" agents in a country have become unreliable and must be replaced (and possibly killed as security risks), there is a greater level of success than can be seen from defensive operations alone, To carry out offensive counterintelligence, however, the service must do more than detect; it must manipulate persons associated with the adversary. The Canadian Department of National Defence makes some useful logical distinctions in its Directive on its National Counter-Intelligence Unit. The terminology is not the same as used by other services, but the distinctions are useful: "Counter-intelligence (contre-ingérence) means activities concerned with identifying and counteracting threats to the security of DND employees, CF members, and DND and CF property and information, that are posed by hostile intelligence services, organizations or individuals, who are or may be engaged in espionage, sabotage, subversion, terrorist activities, organized crime or other criminal activities." This corresponds to defensive counterintelligence in other services. "Security intelligence (renseignement de sécurité) means intelligence on the identity, capabilities and intentions of hostile intelligence services, organizations or individuals, who are or may be engaged in espionage, sabotage, subversion, terrorist activities, organized crime or other criminal activities." This does not (emphasis added) correspond directly to offensive counterintelligence, but is the intelligence preparation necessary to conduct offensive counterintelligence. The duties of the Canadian Forces National Counter-Intelligence Unit include "identifying, investigating and countering threats to the security of the DND and the CF from espionage, sabotage, subversion, terrorist activities, and other criminal activity; identifying, investigating and countering the actual or possible compromise of highly classified or special DND or CF material; conducting CI security investigations, operations and security briefings and debriefings to counter threats to, or to preserve, the security of DND and CF interests." This mandate is a good statement of a mandate to conduct offensive counterintelligence. DND further makes the useful clarification, "The security intelligence process should not be confused with the liaison conducted by members of the Canadian Forces National Investigation Service (CFNIS) for the purpose of obtaining criminal intelligence, as the collection of this type of information is within their mandate." Manipulating an intelligence professional, himself trained in counterintelligence, is no easy task, unless he is already predisposed toward the opposing side. Any effort that does not start with a sympathetic person will take a long-term commitment, and creative thinking to overcome the defenses of someone who knows he is a counterintelligence target and also knows counterintelligence techniques. Terrorists on the other hand, although they engage in deception as a function of security appear to be more prone to manipulation or deception by a well-placed adversary than are foreign intelligence services. This is in part due to the fact that many terrorist groups, whose members "often mistrust and fight among each other, disagree, and vary in conviction.", are not as internally cohesive as foreign intelligence services, potentially leaving them more vulnerable to both deception and manipulation. Further reading Johnson, William R. Thwarting Enemies at Home and Abroad: How to Be a Counterintelligence Officer (2009) Toward a Theory of CI See also Irregular warfare List of counterintelligence organizations FBI Counterintelligence Division SAEDA The Institute of World Politics X-2 Counter Espionage Branch References External links Types of espionage Intelligence analysis Military intelligence Espionage techniques	[ 0.33215853571891785, 0.06264965236186981, -0.6014519333839417, 0.31133848428726196, 0.007986477576196194, -0.16930945217609406, 0.5241432785987854, 0.34007853269577026, -0.23412202298641205, -0.011131608858704567, -1.0987141132354736, 0.4865615963935852, -0.5315954089164734, 0.27026525139808655, -0.2632474899291992, 0.0644742026925087, 0.49111464619636536, 0.7781624794006348, 0.7803521752357483, -0.027794472873210907, -0.20873166620731354, 0.02227533422410488, -0.4918610155582428, -0.2852952778339386, 0.16676610708236694, -0.30666491389274597, 0.26855453848838806, -0.15260182321071625, 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238031	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto%20Saves%20the%20Ship	Pluto Saves the Ship	"Pluto Saves the Ship" is a 51-page black-and-white comic book story scripted by writers Carl Barks, Jack Hannah and Nick George from a plot devised possibly by a publisher, and drawn by Disney animation layout artist Bruce Bushman. It was originally printed in Dell Comics' Large Feature Comics #7 in July 1942, and is one of the first American Disney comics ever made that was not reprinted from newspaper comic strips. It is Barks' first comic book work, and Pluto's first comic book adventure. This was followed in October 1942 by Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold, the Disney characters' first entry in Dell's Four Color anthology series. In the story, Pluto foils Nazi saboteurs on a Navy cruiser. Barks said later that "it was only a one-shot special designed to take advantage of the wartime jitters." Barks wrote the story with Jack Hannah and Nick George, fellow animators at the Disney Studio. The story was partly inspired by two Pluto cartoons that Barks worked on, Bone Trouble (1940) and The Army Mascot (1942). Barks only produced two stories that took place in the Mickey Mouse universe; the other is "The Riddle of the Red Hat" (Four Color #79, published August 1945). "Pluto Saves the Ship" has been reprinted in many European countries over the last few decades. The only time it's been reprinted in English was in The Carl Barks Library black and white hardcover collection, in 1988. It has not yet been revealed whether the story will be included in the Fantagraphics Books collection The Complete Carl Barks Disney Library. See also List of Disney comics by Carl Barks References External links Pluto Saves the Ship in Carl Barks guidebook Disney comics stories 1942 in comics Comics by Carl Barks Comics about dogs	[ -0.22173726558685303, 0.2919955551624298, -0.39036858081817627, 0.4637554883956909, 0.4798623025417328, 0.24229632318019867, -0.32678306102752686, 0.24805903434753418, -0.1334565281867981, 0.14771641790866852, -1.0211056470870972, -0.015019609592854977, -0.08299987763166428, -0.10444716364145279, 0.3379307985305786, -0.14600008726119995, -0.20664918422698975, 0.5979657173156738, -0.515140950679779, -0.46987342834472656, -0.1720455139875412, 0.06877759099006653, 0.3276970684528351, -0.7546971440315247, 0.1289091855287552, -0.20857155323028564, -0.06915536522865295, -0.07841823995113373, -0.43601810932159424, 0.7316519618034363, -0.1779901087284088, 0.12617243826389313, 0.04389366880059242, -0.26607123017311096, 0.5595479011535645, -0.48966407775878906, -0.6458525657653809, -0.005625355988740921, 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238033	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocution	Electrocution	Electrocution is death or severe injury by electric shock, electric current passing through the body. The word is derived from "electro" and "execution", but it is also used for accidental death. The term "electrocution" was coined in 1889 in the US just before the first use of the electric chair and originally referred only to electrical execution and not to accidental or suicidal electrical deaths. However, since no English word was available for non-judicial deaths due to electric shock, the word "electrocution" eventually took over as a description of all circumstances of electrical death from the new commercial electricity. Origins In the Netherlands in 1746 Pieter van Musschenbroek's lab assistant, Andreas Cuneus, received an extreme shock while working with a leyden jar, the first recorded injury from man-made electricity. By the mid-19th century high-voltage electrical systems came into use to power arc lighting for theatrical stage lighting and lighthouses leading to the first recorded accidental death in 1879 when a stage carpenter in Lyon, France, touched a 250-volt wire. The spread of arc light–based street lighting systems (which at the time ran at a voltage above 3,000 volts) after 1880 led to many people dying from coming in contact with these high-voltage lines, a strange new phenomenon which seemed to kill instantaneously without leaving a mark on the victim. This would lead to execution by electricity in the electric chair in the early 1890s as an official method of capital punishment in the U.S. state of New York, thought to be a more humane alternative to hanging. After an 1881 death in Buffalo, New York, caused by a high-voltage arc lighting system, Alfred P. Southwick sought to develop this phenomenon into a way to execute condemned criminals. Southwick, a dentist, based his device on the dental chair. The next nine years saw a promotion by Southwick, the New York state Gerry commission (which included Southwick) recommending execution by electricity, a June 4, 1888 law making it the state form of execution on January 2, 1889, and a further state committee of doctors and lawyers to finalize the details of the method used. The adoption of the electric chair became mixed up in the "war of currents" between Thomas Edison's direct current system and industrialist George Westinghouse's alternating current system in 1889 when noted anti-AC activist Harold P. Brown became a consultant to the committee. Brown pushed, with the assistance and sometimes collusion of Edison Electric and Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, for the successful adoption of alternating current to power the chair, an attempt to portray AC as a public menace and the "executioners' current". Etymology In May 1889 the state of New York sentenced its first criminal, a street merchant named William Kemmler, to be executed in their new form of capital punishment. Tabloid newspapers, trying to describe this new form of electrical execution, started settling on "electrocution," a portmanteau word derived from "electro" and "execution". It was not the only choice of word people were considering. The New York Times editorial column noted words such as "Westinghoused" (after the Westinghouse Electric alternating current equipment that was to be used), "Gerrycide" (after Elbridge Thomas Gerry, who headed the New York death penalty commission that suggested adopting the electric chair), and "Browned" (after anti-AC activist Harold P. Brown). Thomas Edison preferred the words dynamort, ampermort and electromort. The New York Times hated the word electrocution, describing it as being pushed forward by "pretentious ignoramuses". Medical aspects Fish & Geddes state: "Contact with 20 mA of current can be fatal". The health hazard of an electric current flowing through the body depends on the amount of current and the length of time for which it flows, not merely on the voltage. However, a high voltage is required to produce a high current through the body. This is due to the relatively high resistance of skin when dry, requiring a high voltage to pass through. The severity of a shock also depends on whether the path of the current includes a vital organ. Death can occur from any shock that carries enough sustained current to stop the heart. Low currents (70–700 mA) usually trigger fibrillation in the heart, which is reversible via defibrillator but is nearly always fatal without help. Currents as low as 30 mA AC or 300–500 mA DC applied to the body surface can cause fibrillation. Large currents (> 1 A) cause permanent damage via burns and cellular damage. References Bibliography Causes of death Electricity Injuries 1880s neologisms es:Electrocución	[ 0.33273130655288696, -0.05463026091456413, -0.3746926784515381, 0.2130947858095169, -0.3251318037509918, 0.13131442666053772, 0.8420096635818481, -0.1391114741563797, -0.7136605381965637, -0.34402963519096375, -0.23467902839183807, 0.020705118775367737, -0.625218391418457, 0.20912018418312073, -0.05878845974802971, 0.26450684666633606, 0.28675147891044617, 0.06995031237602234, -0.48160165548324585, -0.1658623069524765, -0.2544299066066742, -0.10908997058868408, 0.56915283203125, 0.32309243083000183, 0.25040727853775024, -0.17883431911468506, -0.2576977014541626, -0.28166672587394714, -0.2973509430885315, -0.15633870661258698, 0.26707878708839417, 0.07079838216304779, -0.29635393619537354, -0.47744953632354736, 0.22196117043495178, 0.1589643508195877, -0.39891374111175537, -0.7346892952919006, -0.5673509240150452, -0.3139021694660187, 0.27972814440727234, 0.28340187668800354, 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238039	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Shirley	Anne Shirley	Anne Shirley is a fictional character introduced in the 1908 novel Anne of Green Gables by L. M. Montgomery. Shirley is featured throughout the classic book series, which revolve around her life and family in 19th and 20th-century Prince Edward Island. Conception During the conception of Anne of Green Gables, Montgomery was inspired by notes she had made as a young girl about two siblings who were mistakenly sent an orphan girl instead of the boy they had requested, yet decided to keep her. She drew upon her own childhood experiences in rural Prince Edward Island, Canada. Montgomery used a photograph of Evelyn Nesbit, which she had clipped from New York's Metropolitan Magazine and put on the wall of her bedroom, as the model for the face of Anne Shirley and a reminder of her "youthful idealism and spirituality." Fictional character biography Anne's early life Anne Shirley was born in the fictional town of Bolingbroke, Nova Scotia to schoolteachers Walter and Bertha Shirley (née Willis). No specific birthdate is given, but references in later works suggest her date of birth is 5 March 1866 Anne was orphaned as an infant of three months, when her parents died of typhoid fever. Without any other relations, Anne was taken in by the Shirleys' housekeeper, Mrs. Thomas. After the death of her husband, Mr. Thomas, Anne lived with the troubled Hammond family for some years and was treated as little more than a servant until Mr. Hammond died, whereupon Mrs. Hammond divided her children amongst relatives and Anne was sent to the orphanage at Hopetown. She considered herself as "cursed" by twins — Mrs. Hammond had three sets of twins whom Anne helped raise. Arrival at Green Gables, Avonlea At the age of eleven, Anne was taken from the Hopetown orphanage to the neighbouring province of Prince Edward Island, which she regarded as her true home ever after. Unfortunately, she arrived by mistake — her sponsors, the siblings Matthew and Marilla Cuthbert, wanted to adopt a boy to help them on their farm, but the neighbour with whom they had sent the message was certain they had requested a girl instead. Matthew quickly became fascinated by the girl's good-hearted spirit, charming enthusiasm, and lively imagination, and wanted her to stay at Green Gables from the very first. Marilla's reaction was to send her back to the orphanage, but she was eventually won over by Anne's quirky joie de vivre — and by the fact that another woman, much harder than herself, was set to take Anne should Marilla decline to keep her. The American scholar Joseph Brennan noted that for Anne "all things are alive", as she imagines trees by the roadside welcoming her to Green Gables while a leaning plum tree makes her think that it is offering a veil just for her. Anne at one point says "Maples are such social things" and likes Lover's Lane because "...you can think out loud there without people calling you crazy." Anne has great powers of imagination, fed by books of poetry and romance, and a passion for "romantic" and beautiful names and places. When she sees a road lined with apple trees in bloom, she falls silent for a moment before naming the road the "White Way of Delight"; when spying a pond at the Barry homestead, she christens it the "Lake of Shining Waters." Anne had been starved of love at the orphanages she has lived at, and for her, Green Gables is the only home she has ever known. Anne's imaginative nature matches well with her passionate, warm side, full of bubbly optimism and enthusiasm. Anne has an impulsive nature which leads her into all sorts of "scrapes", and she alternates between being carried away with enthusiasm or being in the "depths of despair". One scholar Elizabeth Watson has observed a recurring theme, noting Anne's observations of sunsets mirror her own development. Under the White Way of Delight, Anne watches the sun set which is to her a glory where "a painted sunset sky shone like a great rose window at the end of a cathedral aisle". By the end of the novel, when Anne watches the sun set, it set across a backdrop of "flowers of quiet happiness", as Anne is slowly falling in love with Gilbert. Anne initially made a poor impression on the townsfolk of Avonlea with an outburst at the Cuthberts' neighbour, the outspoken gossip Mrs. Rachel Lynde, but this was amended by an equally impassioned apology. Anne soon became 'bosom friends' with a girl from a neighbouring farm, Diana Barry. Together with Matthew, Diana is Anne's "kindred spirit". The friendship was disrupted by the temporary enmity of Diana's mother, after Anne mistakenly made Diana drunk with Marilla's homemade currant wine, mistaking it for raspberry cordial. Anne was soon restored to Mrs. Barry's good graces by saving the life of Diana's little sister, Minnie May. Minnie May had an attack of the croup, which Anne was able to cure with a bottle of ipecac and knowledge acquired while caring for the numerous Hammond twins. Throughout her childhood, Anne continued to find herself in similar "scrapes", often through mistakes and misunderstandings, and no fault of her own. At one point Anne "admires to the point of nuttiness" an amethyst brooch, which she is falsely accused of stealing, a crime she has to confess to in order to attend a picnic. Anne tends to define herself in opposition to older people via humour, and forges a relationship with Marilla Cuthbert via humour. The dreamy and imaginative Anne asks that Marilla call her "Cordelia" and "Geraldine" as Anne likes to imagine herself as somebody that she is not. Anne also formed a complex relationship with Gilbert Blythe, who was two years older than Anne but studying at her level, having had his schooling interrupted when his father became ill. On their first meeting as schoolmates, Gilbert teased Anne with the nickname "Carrots". Anne, perceiving it as a personal insult due to sensitivity over her hair colour, became so angry that she broke her slate over his head. When her teacher punished her by making her stand in front of the class, and then later punishes her for tardiness by making her sit with "the boys", specifically Gilbert Blythe, Anne forms a long-lasting hatred of Gilbert Blythe. Anne tells Diana that "Gilbert Blythe has hurt me excruciatingly". Throughout Anne of Green Gables, Gilbert repeatedly displays admiration for Anne, but she coldly rebuffs him. Her grudge persisted even after he saved her from a near-disastrous reenactment of Tennyson's "Lancelot and Elaine" when her leaky boat sank into the pond. After this almost fatal accident, Gilbert pleaded with Anne to become his friend but she refused, although she soon came to regret it. For the rest of their school years in Avonlea, they competed as intellectual rivals for the top of the class, although the competition was entirely good-natured on Gilbert's side. However, Anne forms the "Story Club" at the age of 13, which she tells the story of two girls named Cordelia and Geraldine (both of which were aliases she had adopted earlier) who both love Bertram - a variant of Gilbert. The story ends with Cordelia pushing Geraldine into a river to drown with Bertram, which suggests subconsciously Anne is attracted to Gilbert. Near the end, Anne and Gilbert walk together to Green Gables, where Gilbert only-jokingly says: "You've thwarted destiny long enough." At the end of Anne of Green Gables, Anne looks out of her window admiring Avonlea as an "ideal world of dreams", through she sees a "bend in the road" thanks to Gilbert. Mrs. Lynde at the beginning of the book was the self-important busybody of Avonlea who dominated the community; at the end, the book hints that Anne will play the same role, but only much better in the years to come. Avonlea schoolteacher years Immediately after graduating from Avonlea's public school, Anne and Gilbert both went to Queen's Academy in Charlottetown, which trained them for teaching and university studies. They split the most prestigious prizes between themselves, and remained "enemies" all through their studies at Queen's. Anne's grades, especially in English, won her a scholarship to Redmond College, but Matthew's death and Marilla's failing eyesight near the end of Anne of Green Gables led Anne to defer her enrollment at Redmond so that she could stay to help at Green Gables. Gilbert had been appointed as the Avonlea schoolteacher for the following year, but as an act of kindness, he instead took the position at White Sands School and gave the Avonlea position to Anne. She thanked him for the sacrifice and they made amends, becoming friends at last after five years of intense rivalry. Anne reads some poetry by Virgil, but abandons the book as the beauty of sun-kissed summer day and her coming career as a teacher inspire a sense of happiness and unity with nature. In Anne of Avonlea, Marilla decided to take in her cousin's twin children, Davy and Dora (continuing Anne's "curse of twins"). However, Anne took to them, especially Davy, immediately. Anne learns to manage the twins via a mixture of good humour and understanding. Besides teaching, Anne joins the Village Improvement Society that works to demolish ugly abandoned houses, repaint the village and plant a garden at the crossroads. The mean-spirited neighbor Mr. Harrison attacks Anne as a "red-headed snippet" who sits around "reading yellow-covered novels". When a famous author Mrs. Morgan visits Avonlea, Anne greets her with a nose turned red owing to her mistakes in applying the wrong skin lotion as Anne goes to absurd lengths to be prepared to meet the world-famous Mrs. Morgan, which results in chaos, though all works out well in the end. Meeting Mrs. Morgan inspires Anne to try writing, where trapped in an abandoned hen-house, she writes out a dialogue between flowers and the birds in the garden. Another scrape occurs at her school, where Anne forces a student to throw a package into the school stove, unaware that the offending package were firecrackers. The following year, Rachel Lynde's husband Thomas died and Rachel moved in with Marilla at Green Gables, leaving Anne free to continue her education at Redmond College (based on Dalhousie University) in Kingsport, Nova Scotia. Anne was pleased because Gilbert would also be going to Redmond the following year. After the wedding of her friend Miss Lavendar, Anne first realized that there was a possibility that Gilbert felt more for her than friendship, and "The page of girlhood had been turned, as by an unseen finger, and the page of womanhood was before her with all its charm and mystery, its pain and gladness." Anne once again walks with Gilbert while the narrator notes, "Behind them the little stone house brooded among the shadows. It was lonely but not forsaken. It had not yet done with dreams and laughter and joy of life". Redmond College In Anne of the Island, Anne's academic and social life blossom at Redmond. Anne says at the beginning "I'm going to study and grow and learn about things". Anne visits the house where she was born, in Bolingbroke, and ponders deeply how her mother died young, but at least knew the joys of love. During her time at Redmond, Anne writes two stories, one of which is rejected, but turned by Diana into a successful story, and another which is dismissed because it has no plot. Anne's story "Averil's Atonement" is edited by Diana into a successful story that sells well, but Anne sees the final published version as a travesty that mangles her artistic vision. Seeking poetical inspiration, Anne spends her time alone on Victoria Island (significantly named after the queen-empress whose empire stretched around the world), Anne withdraws into her own world of fantasies amid a landscape "curtained with fine-spun, moonlit gloom, while the water laughed around her in a duet of brook and water". At the beginning of the novel, Anne and Gilbert, looking forward to a "splendid four years at Redmond" wander around to the Haunted Wood, to taste the "delicious apples" where "under tawny skin was white, white flesh, faintly veined with red; and besides their own proper apple taste, they had a certain wild, delightful tang". The Canadian scholar Elizabeth Waterson noted the "erotic" overtones to the scene of the apple tasting in the Haunted Wood, as sign of Anne's attraction to Gilbert of which she herself is not entirely aware. Anne's favorite hangout is Patty's Place, where she and her three best friends spent their evenings by a fireplace, three cats, two china dogs and a pot full of chrysanthemums that light up "through the golden gloom like creamy moons". Gilbert, who has always loved Anne, proposes to her, but she rejects him; at that time, Anne's vision of love is rooted deeply in sentimental fantasies and she does not recognize her closeness to Gilbert as love. Anne's calls Gilbert's marriage proposal "grotesque or-horrible". She believes that she will fall in love with her prince who would fit her childhood ideal of "tall, dark, and handsome". Feeling deeply disappointed, Gilbert distances himself from Anne. Anne "haughtily" refuses Charlie Sloane's offer of marriage. Anne later welcomes the courtship of the darkly handsome Roy Gardner whom she meets one rainy afternoon in the November of her junior year. After about a year and a half of courtship, he proposes in the park where they met, but Anne ends their relationship instead, realizing that she does not truly love him and he does not belong in her life. Anne reacts "wildly", "miserably" and "desperately" to his proposal. Anne quotes from a poem by Tennyson: "Love in sequel works with Fate, and draws the veil from hidden worth". After graduating from Redmond College with a B.A., Anne, now 22, returns to Avonlea and finds that life has moved on—her childhood friend Jane married a millionaire, and her best friend Diana Barry (now Diana Wright) has given birth to her firstborn. Anne still does not believe she is in love with Gilbert, but she is disappointed at the end of their friendship, and confused over her reaction to gossip that he is in love with Christine Stuart, a fellow Redmond student. Engagement to Gilbert Upon her return to Avonlea after staying with her friends Paul, Stephen, and Lavendar Irving at Echo Lodge, Anne learns that Gilbert is deathly ill with typhoid fever. Anne holds vigil in her room at Green Gables the night Gilbert's fever breaks, realizing then that she had always loved him, only when faced with the prospect of losing him. Once Gilbert recovers from his illness, he proposes again to Anne, and she accepts. Gilbert offers her an autumnal fantasy "of a home with a hearth-fire in it, a cat and a dog, the footsteps of friends -- and you!". It is explained that Christine had been engaged to someone else all along and Gilbert was only being friendly, having been asked by Christine's brother to watch over her. Anne's friend Phil Blake had written Gilbert, telling him to "try again", and he rapidly recovered after that, and took her advice. Anne and Gilbert once again walk in the "haunted meadows" as "king and queen in the bridal realm of love". Their engagement lasts for three years. Her engagement ring is noted to be a circlet of pearls rather than a diamond, a stone which Anne said always disappointed her because it wasn't the lovely purple she had dreamed of. Anne takes a job as a principal Island's second-largest town, Summerside, while Gilbert completes his three-year medical school course. During this time, Anne interacts with various eccentrics at both work and around the town. Significantly, Anne rises up to become the principal of the Summerside school, making her an equal with Gilbert. As both principal and a teacher, Anne has to deal with the difficult vice-principal Katherine Brooke, who goes out of her way to be rude to her. Brooke openly envies Anne's ability to have a jolie vie, and tries to drag her down at every chance. A mature Anne has now risen above her youthful "scrapes" and is motivated by a desire to help others, realizing that Brooke's nastiness is due to her own low self-esteem, and helps her find a job that better suits her than teaching. Marriage and motherhood Anne and Gilbert finally marry at Green Gables, the house Anne grew up in, and move to the village of Four Winds, P.E.I. There, they take up residence in a small house Anne dubs the "House of Dreams", and Gilbert takes over his uncle's medical practice in the nearby town of Glen St. Mary. Anne praises her "house of dreams" as "like a creamy seashell stranded on the harbour shore", which is surrounded by fir trees "enfolding secrets" while the lane leading to the house is full of blossoming trees. The house looks up to a harbour on one side and a shining brook in the valley below. Anne's major problem at the House of Dreams is helping her neighbour Leslie Moore, whose husband was left with brain damage after an accident, and who is as emotionally damaged as her husband is brain-damaged. Anne's first two children (one of whom dies in infancy) are born in the House of Dreams, before Anne and Gilbert and their growing family reluctantly move to larger quarters. In a moment of theological reflection, Anne questions if the death of her child is the "will of God", using phrases exploring the theodical question of death and pain in a universe presided by a just God that are identical to those Montgomery used in her diary after her second son was stillborn. After Anne's loss, she and Leslie bond as the two women share their stories of pain as they "talk it out", leading them to hold hands and declare: "We are both women-and friends forever". Anne and Gilbert live the rest of their lives in Glen St. Mary, in a large house they name Ingleside. They have a total of seven children between approximately 1895-1900: Joyce (or "Joy") (who dies very soon after her birth at the House of Dreams), James Matthew ("Jem"), Walter Cuthbert, twin girls Diana ("Di") and Anne ("Nan"), Shirley (the youngest son), and Bertha Marilla ("Rilla"). Anne is quite ill after the births of both Joyce and Shirley, but recovers both times. A major problem for Anne emerges when Gilbert's obnoxious Aunt Mary Maria visits and refuses to leave, tormenting Anne in various ways. Anne's children enjoy a happy, even idyllic childhood, spending much of their time playing and adventuring in a nearby hollow they name Rainbow Valley. Anne is a permissive mother who is never harsh on her children and does not object when they play hide-and-seek with the new minister's children in the cemetery. When a friend objects, Anne replies: "Why did they ever build that manse beside the graveyard in the first place?". Anne's children are often bullied by nasty children, requiring their mother to provide with much consolation. When Shirley reads about the theory of a Jocasta complex in one of Gilbert's medical journals together with a warning about mothers kissing their children, she says: "A man of course! No woman would ever write anything so silly and wicked". At one point, Anne tries to resume her writing career, publishing a very poetical obituary for a neighbour that is mocked as an "obitchery" by an ignorant, rude newspaper editor, though it is well received by everyone else. Anne herself has a comfortable life, with a live-in maid (Susan Baker) who effectively runs the household and is also Shirley's primary caregiver after Anne falls ill giving birth to him. Upon recovering, Anne says: "I find I go on living". After Anne recovers, she is involved in various ladies' committees in town, and travels to Europe with Gilbert for an extended tour of the European continent at one point, circa 1906. But the spectre of World War I in 1914 changes things, and all three Blythe boys (as well as the fiancés of Nan and Rilla) eventually volunteer to fight in the war. The Blythe family, which follows the war closely, soon becomes familiar with far-away places such as Calais, Mons, Lodz, Ypres, Belgrade, Amiens, Prezemysl, Gallipoli, Antwerp and Kut al Amara. The sensitive and poetic Walter, the second of Anne's sons to volunteer, is killed at Courcelette in 1916. Jem is listed as missing at the war's conclusion, but after an agonizing five months, eventually emerges alive, having escaped from a POW camp. Montgomery knew John McCrae, the author of the poem In Flanders Fields, and she modeled Walter partly on him. Anne the grandmother Anne's final appearance occurs in the collection The Blythes Are Quoted. In this work, which is somewhat darker in tone than the previous Anne books, we see brief glimpses of Anne in a number of short stories that are primarily about other inhabitants of Glen St. Mary, and are set from the pre-World War I era through to the beginning of World War II. The book also features a number of poems, which are separately credited to Anne and her son Walter (plus one that was started by Walter and completed by Anne after his death). We last see an older and wiser Anne, now in her mid-seventies, in the early days of World War II. "Mrs. Dr. Blythe", as she is often referred to, is a well-known, oft-discussed figure in Glen St. Mary, who is loved by some, though other residents express small-minded jealousy or envy of both Anne and her family. While Anne has mellowed from the days of her youth, she and Gilbert still engage in sly, good-natured teasing of each other. She has continued to indulge in her love of matchmaking, and also writes poetry. She is still married to Gilbert and is now a grandmother to at least five, three of whom are old enough to be enlist to fight in the war: Jem's sons Jem, Jr. and Walter, and Rilla's son Gilbert. Also mentioned are Nan's daughter Di, and a granddaughter named "Anne Blythe", who might be either Jem or Shirley's child Though Anne gives up writing short stories shortly after becoming a mother, she continues to write poems throughout her life. These poems are regularly shared with the rest of the family, who offer comments, criticism and encouragement. Anne's later work expressed deep difficulties with coming to terms with Walter's demise, and with the idea of war; several characters comment that neither Anne nor Gilbert were ever quite the same after Walter's death. Still, the couple are utterly devoted to each other and their family, and as the saga concludes, circa 1940, the Blythes remain pillars of their community who have enjoyed a 50-year marriage. Literary appearances In addition to Anne of Green Gables (1908), Anne is the central character of subsequent novels written by Montgomery: Anne of Avonlea (1909), Anne of the Island (1915), Anne's House of Dreams (1917), Anne of Windy Poplars (1936; UK title Anne of Windy Willows), and Anne of Ingleside (1939). Other books in the Anne series include Rainbow Valley (1919), which focuses on Anne's children during their childhood, and Rilla of Ingleside (1921), which focuses on Anne's youngest daughter during World War I. Anne also appears and is mentioned in Chronicles of Avonlea and Further Chronicles of Avonlea, though the bulk of the stories in these volumes are about other characters. In The Blythes Are Quoted (published in an abridged format as The Road to Yesterday and in a restored, unabridged edition in 2009), Anne is a peripheral character as a grandmother with several grandchildren, at least three of whom are preparing to enlist in the Canadian army during the opening days of World War II. These were among the last stories Montgomery wrote before her death in 1942. Anne Shirley also appears in Budge Wilson's Before Green Gables, a prequel to Anne of Green Gables authorized by the heirs of L.M. Montgomery. Based on background information from the original series, the book tells of the first 11 years of Anne Shirley's childhood, beginning with the brief happiness of Bertha and Walter Shirley's marriage before their early deaths. Film and television Anne Shirley has been portrayed by many actresses in numerous film, television, radio, and theatrical versions since 1919. She was played by Mary Miles Minter in Anne of Green Gables (1919) a silent film directed by William Desmond Taylor and released by Paramount Pictures. The film was heavily panned by Montgomery, who dismissed the Americanization of the story. Dawn O'Day starred in the subsequent RKO remake, Anne of Green Gables (1934), which garnered such commercial success that O'Day became permanently billed as Anne Shirley in the 1940 sequel and her future works. On television, Toby Tarnow starred in a musical adaption of Anne of Green Gables (1956) which aired on CBC Television. The BBC serial Anne of Green Gables (1972) and its sequel, Anne of Avonlea (1975), featured Kim Braden as the titular character. Megan Follows starred in television film Anne of Green Gables (1985), directed by Kevin Sullivan and produced by CBC. Follows reprised her role in Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel (1987) and Anne of Green Gables: The Continuing Story (2000). The series garnered critical acclaim, its accolades including a Peabody Award and Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program. Both Hannah Endicott-Douglas and Barbara Hershey starred Anne of Green Gables: A New Beginning (2008), also directed by Sullivan. Ella Ballentine portrayed Anne in L.M. Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables (2016) and its two sequels, Anne of Green Gables: The Good Stars (2017) and Anne of Green Gables: Fire & Dew (2017) which aired on YTV. Amybeth McNulty starred in the CBC/Netflix episodic drama Anne with an E (2017–2019), which garnered the Canadian Screen Award for Best Dramatic Series twice, and won McNulty the accolade for Best Lead Actress. Reception and legacy Lennie Goodings, a publisher for Virago Press, chose Anne as her favorite fictional character, stating, "The feisty, funny and above all unabashedly passionate Anne of Green Gables...[she] faces the world with absolutely nothing but the sheer force of her personality. I love her." Actress Christina Hendricks cites the character as the reason for dyeing her naturally blonde hair red since the age of 10. The British scholar Faye Hammill observed that such is the popularity of Shirley that she has overshadowed her creator, L.M Montgomery as license plates in Prince Edward Island bear the slogan "P.E.I Home of Anne of Green Gables" rather than "P.E.I Birthplace of L.M Montgomery". The actress Mary Miles Minter played Shirley in the 1919 film adaption of Anne of Green Gables later had her career ruined when the film director William Desmond Taylor was murdered in 1922, and her name came up as a suspect, through she was never charged. When Minter attempted a comeback as an advice columnist later in the 1920s, she used the pen-name Anne Shirley in an attempt to restore her wholesome image, which had been ruined by the Taylor murder scandal. The actress Dawn O'Day who played Shirley in the 1934 film adaption of Anne of Green Gables liked the character so much she legally changed her name to Anne Shirley. Montgomery during her youth had experiences of what she called "the flash"-moments of quiet contemplation of the beauty of nature when she was walking alone that gave her emotional ecstasy and what she regarded as the awareness of a higher spiritual power running through nature and her. Despite Montgomery's claim that Shirley was not autobiographical, the moments when Shirley experienced moments of a mystical communion with nature are almost word for word the same as Montgomery's descriptions of "the flash" in her diary. Much of the appeal of the Anne books was due to increased urbanization and industrialization in the early 20th century, which led many people to look back nostalgically to a romanticized rural idyll where people still lived the "simple life", which was precisely how publishers marketed the Anne books at the time. In Canada itself, many intellectuals tended to see modernity as a threatening phenomenon, and in turn linked the more unpleasant aspects of modernity to the United States, which was viewed at the time as a rapacious, bullying nation intent upon devouring its neighbors. Much of the appeal of the character of Anne to Canadian critics at the time was as a symbol of the wholesome, friendly quality of Canadian life, where people still retained traditional values, unlike American writers with their obsession with violence and sex in stories set in a depersonalized urban environment. Hammill observed that when some of the younger Canadian writers in the 1920s-30 attempted to ape American writers with unpleasant "realistic" stories focusing on sex and violence in the cities, they were denounced by the critics for their "American" stories with the obvious implication that such stories were not "Canadian". As urbanization gathered pace in the early 20th century, "regional literature" depicting life in rural regions gained popularity in the English-speaking world, and in the United States, Canadian literature was seen as a type of "regional literature" as Canada with its vast tracts of forests and farmland together with its British heritage, where the people were proud to be part of the British empire, which gave Canada a rather quaint image in the United States as a backward, rustic place, where the traditional values lived on. Having won their independence in the Revolutionary War, for Americans in the early 20th century it was almost incomprehensible that people in English-Canada should want to be part of the British empire, which gave Canada the image of a very conservative society in the United States in this era. Given these views of Canada, many Americans were inclined to share the Canadian view of Shirley as an iconic symbol of Canada. Brennan wrote the Anne books are determinedly Anglo-Canadian as French-Canadians hardly ever appear in the books. Brennan wrote: "Anne's dreams knew more of Tennyson's Camelot than of the rich culture of New France, of its voyageurs, its habitants, of heroines such as Maria Chapdelaine who appeared in Canadian letters (thanks to a young wander from France) when Montgomery's Anne had already firmly settled in home and motherhood. Avonlea was not Péribonka. Yet an artist in words-and Montgomery was that-should not be held at fault for silence about a culture so unlike her own". Brennan noted that the Anne books reflected the "quiet conservative society" that was Prince Edward Island in the Victorian age with the characters being Protestants of English and/or Scottish extraction, and Anne supporting the Conservatives "simply because her beloved Matthew voted Conservative". In 1912, Anne of Green Gables was translated into Polish and published in a pirate edition in Warsaw with the book being credited to "Anne Montgomery". The book was extremely popular in Poland and during the Second World War, the Armia Krajowa (AK) resistance group issued editions of the book to remind its members what they were fighting for. Even through there is nothing about Poland in the Anne books, the AK still saw her as a symbol of the humanist values that they were defending. For a time, Anne of Green Gables was banned in Communist Poland, and the book circulated in samizdat editions as Anne was seen as a symbol of individualism and an unwillingness to submit to authority, making her a popular heroine for those struggling against the Communist dictatorship. The Canadian scholar Mary Henley Rubio mentioned when visiting Warsaw in 1984, where she saw a version of Anne of Green Gables being performed in a local theater, and that when the audience learned she was from Canada, she found herself mobbed by the audience who all wanted her autograph as she came from the same land as their beloved Anne. Akage no An (Red Haired Anne), as Shirley is known in Japan, is an extremely popular cultural icon in that country. From the time of the Meiji Restoration until 1945, the Japanese educational system (which was run jointly by the Army and Navy ministries) was designed to indoctrinate the students into Bushido ("the way of the warrior") as the fierce warrior code of the Samurai is called as the purpose of schools in Japan from the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War II was to train the boys to be soldiers. The Japanese educational system unabashedly glorified war as the highest form of human activity and the idea that the Emperor of Japan was a living god, with the boys being taught it was the greatest honor to die for the Emperor while the girls were taught it was the greatest honor to have sons to die for the Emperor. Alongside the militarism of the educational system went a mood of marked xenophobia and outright racism with Japanese teachers during World War II telling their students that the Anglo-American "white devils" were cannibals whose favorite food was Asians. As part of the educational reforms during the American occupation (1945–52), it was decided that Japanese students needed something somewhat less militaristic and xenophobic to read than texts glorifying Bushido and Anne of Green Gables was made mandatory reading in Japanese schools in 1952. Additionally, as part of the educational reforms in Japan, there was an effort to reduce the previous rampant xenophobia that characterized Japanese teaching until 1945, and it was felt the wholesome, lovable character of Anne Shirley would provide Japanese students with an example of how people in the West were not "white devils" as their government had told them during the war. As there were many orphans left over from World War II in 1952 Japan, the character of Shirley instantly caught on in Japan and she has been one of the most loved characters in Japan since that time. Much of the appeal of Akage no An lies in her ability to rise above any situation due to her pluck and her willingness to challenge "that most formidable of Japanese dragons, the bossy older matron." Shirley is so popular in Japan that there is The Anne Academy in Fukuoka that teaches girls how to speak English with a Maritime accent while in Okayama there is The School of Green Gables, a nursing school that teaches young women how to behave like Shirley. Hanako Muraoka, the Japanese woman who translated Anne of Green Gables into Japanese, has become a celebrity in her own right solely for translating the book, and in 2014 NHK aired a television mini-series titled Hanako to Anne about Muraoka's life and her struggle to get Anne of Green Gables translated and published in Japan. Muraoka read Anne of Green Gables in 1939 and started translating the book the same year, but not until 1952 was her translation of Anne of Green Gables was finally published in Japan. Hanako to Anne which aired between March–September 2014 was a great rating success, getting an average of 22% viewership in the Kanto region (the most populous part of Japan), and caused a doubling of Japanese tourists to Prince Edward island. The series, which starred Yuriko Yoshitaka as Muraoka, suggested that there were many parallels between Muraoka's life and Anne's, and thus was a sort of retelling of Anne's life in the late Meiji, Taishō and early Shōwa periods of Japanese history. In 1993, a theme park called Canadian World opened in Hokkaido whose most popular attraction was a reproduction of Green Gables. In 2010, the Globe and Mail wrote: "It could almost be declared that Anne's true home isn't rural Prince Edward Island any more. It's Japan, where Lucy Maud Montgomery's tale of Anne and her pigtailed innocence remains so popular that it has become ingrained in the national consciousness since the book's original Japanese translation as Red-Haired Anne in 1952." In 2014, the Japanese diplomat Eiji Yamamoto told a journalist from the Toronto Star: "Even though she's an orphan, Anne is a free spirit, she says anything she wants. In the years after World War II, the Japanese people were poor. There were many orphans. And people had lost hope. They were anxious. Anne is an optimist. She helped people get courage." The Canadian scholar Janice Kulyk Keefer noted the character of Shirley as depicted in film and television is sanitised compared to the book, writing: Death, the bloody laws of nature, the tyranny of adults, violence-all poison the sweetness of ... Arcadia. And yet the idyllic vision is undercut by what we might call call 'meta-idylls', realized through the forces of magic, fantasy, mass-cultural cliche and language itself. Together, 'menace' and 'meta-idyll' produce subversive subtexts to each idyll. In 2019, Canadian publishing company Bradan Press crowdfunded a Scottish-Gaelic translation of Anne of Green Gables, titled Anna Ruadh, through the crowdfunding website Kickstarter. The book, expected to come out in 2020, will be the first Scottish-Gaelic translation of Anne of Green Gables. Notes References Busby, Brian (2003). Character Parts: Who's Really Who in CanLit, pages 235–237. Knopf. External links Lucy Maud Montgomery Resource Page Anne of Green Gables Electronic Text L.M. Montgomery Online This scholarly site includes a blog, an extensive bibliography of reference materials, and a complete filmography of all adaptations of Montgomery texts. Anne of Green Gables Centenary - This site includes information about the centenary anniversary of Lucy Maud Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables. Looking for Anne Trailer Anne Shirley Character- This page shares an insight on the character of Anne Shirley as played by Megan Follows in yesteryear classic Anne of Green Gables. 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238040	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingria	Ingria	Ingria is a historical region in European Russia. It lies along the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland, bordered by Lake Ladoga on the Karelian Isthmus in the north and by the River Narva on the border with Estonia in the west. The indigenous people of the region are the Orthodox Izhorians and the Votes. Ingria as a whole never formed a separate state, however North Ingria was briefly an independent state for just under two years in 1919-1920. The Ingrians, understood as the inhabitants of Ingria regardless of ethnicity, can hardly be said to have been a nation, although the Soviet Union recognized their "nationality"; as an ethnic group, the Ingrians proper, Izhorians, are close to extinction together with their language. This notwithstanding, many people still recognize their Ingrian heritage. Historic Ingria covers approximately the same area as the Gatchinsky, Kingiseppsky, Kirovsky, Lomonosovsky, Tosnensky, Volosovsky and Vsevolozhsky districts of modern Leningrad Oblast as well as the city of Saint Petersburg. The names of the region are: , or ; , Ingriya, , Izhora, or , Ingermanlandiya; ; or . History In the Viking era (late Iron Age), from the 750s onwards, Ladoga served as a bridgehead on the Varangian trade route to Eastern Europe. A Varangian aristocracy developed that would ultimately rule over Novgorod and Kievan Rus'. In the 860s, the warring Finnic and Slavic tribes rebelled under Vadim the Bold, but later asked the Varangians under Rurik to return and to put an end to the recurring conflicts between them. The Swedes referred to the ancient Novgorodian land of Vod as "Ingermanland", Latinized to "Ingria". Folk etymology traces its name to Ingegerd Olofsdotter, the daughter of the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung (995–1022). Upon her marriage to Yaroslav I the Wise, Grand Prince of Novgorod and Kiev, in 1019, she received the lands around Ladoga as a marriage gift. They were administered by Swedish jarls, such as Ragnvald Ulfsson, under the sovereignty of the Novgorod Republic. In the 12th century, Western Ingria was absorbed by the Republic. There followed centuries of frequent wars, chiefly between Novgorod and Sweden, and occasionally involving Denmark and Teutonic Knights as well. The Teutonic Knights established a stronghold in the town of Narva, followed by the Russian castle Ivangorod on the opposite side of the Narva River in 1492. With the consolidation of the Kievan Rus and the expansion of the Republic of Novgorod north, the indigenous Ingrians became Eastern Orthodox. Ingria became a province of Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 that ended the Ingrian War, fought between Sweden and Russia. After the Swedish conquest of the area in 1617 the Ingrian Finns, descendants of 17th-century Lutheran emigrants from present-day Finland, became the majority in Ingria. In 1710, following a Russian conquest, Ingria was designated as the Province of St. Petersburg. In the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden formally ceded Ingria to Russia. In 1927 the Soviet authorities designated the area as Leningrad Province. Deportations of the Ingrian Finns started in late 1920s, and Russification was nearly complete by the 1940s. In the modern era, Ingria forms the northwestern anchor of Russia—its "window" on the Baltic Sea—with Saint Petersburg as its centre. Swedish Ingria Although Sweden and Novgorod had fought for the Ingrian lands more or less since the Great Schism of 1054, the first actual attempt to establish Swedish dominion in Ingria appears to date from the early 14th century, when Sweden first founded the settlement of Viborg in Karelia and then the fortress Landskrona (built in 1299 or 1300) at the confluence of the Ohta and Neva rivers. However, Novgorod re-conquered Landskrona in 1301 and destroyed it. Ingria eventually became a Swedish dominion in the 1580s, but the Treaty of Teusina (1595) returned it to Russia in 1595. Russia in its turn ceded Ingria to Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbova (1617) after the Ingrian War of 1610-1617. Sweden's interest in the territory was mainly strategic: the area served as a buffer zone against Russian attacks on the Karelian Isthmus and on present-day Finland, then the eastern half of the Swedish realm; and Russian Baltic trade had to pass through Swedish territory. The townships of Ivangorod, Jama (now Kingisepp), Caporie (now Koporye) and Nöteborg (now Shlisselburg) became the centres of the four Ingrian counties (slottslän), and consisted of citadels, in the vicinity of which were small boroughs called hakelverk - before the wars of the 1650s mainly inhabited by Russian townspeople. The degree to which Ingria became the destination for Swedish deportees has often been exaggerated. Ingria remained sparsely populated. In 1664 the total population amounted to 15,000. Swedish attempts to introduce Lutheranism, which accelerated after an initial period of relative religious tolerance, met with repugnance on the part of the majority of the Orthodox peasantry, who were obliged to attend Lutheran services; converts were promised grants and tax reductions, but Lutheran gains were mostly due to voluntary resettlements by Finns from Savonia and Finnish Karelia (mostly from Äyräpää). The proportion of Lutheran Finns in Ingria (Ingrian Finns) comprised 41.1% in 1656, 53.2% in 1661, 55.2% in 1666, 56.9% in 1671 and 73.8% in 1695, the remainder being Russians, Izhorians and Votes. Ingermanland was to a considerable extent enfiefed to noble military and state officials, who brought their own Lutheran servants and workmen. However, a small number of Russian Orthodox churches remained in use until the very end of the Swedish dominion, and the forceful conversion of ethnic Russian Orthodox forbidden by law. Nyen became the main trading centre of Ingria, especially after Ivangorod dwindled, and in 1642 it was made the administrative centre of the province. In 1656 a Russian attack badly damaged the town, and the administrative centre moved to Narva. Russian Ingria In the early 18th century the area was reconquered by Russia in the Great Northern War after having been in Swedish possession for about 100 years. Near the location of the Swedish town Nyen, close to the Neva river's estuary at the Gulf of Finland, the new Russian capital Saint Petersburg was founded in 1703. Peter the Great raised Ingria to the status of a duchy with Prince Menshikov as its first (and last) duke. In 1708, Ingria was designated a governorate (Ingermanland Governorate in 1708–1710, Saint Petersburg Governorate in 1710–1914, Petrograd Governorate in 1914–1924, Leningrad Governorate in 1924–1927). In 1870, printing started of the first Finnish-language newspaper in Ingria, Pietarin Sanomat. Before that Ingria received newspapers mostly from Viborg. The first public library was opened in 1850 in Tyrö. The largest of the libraries, situated in Skuoritsa, had more than 2,000 volumes in the second half of the 19th century. In 1899 the first song festival in Ingria was held in Puutosti (Skuoritsa). By 1897 (year of the Russian Empire Census) the number of Ingrian Finns had grown to 130,413, and by 1917 it had exceeded 140,000 (45,000 in Northern Ingria, 52,000 in Central (Eastern) Ingria and 30,000 in Western Ingria, the rest in Petrograd). From 1868 Estonians began to migrate to Ingria as well. In 1897 the number of Estonians inhabiting the Saint Petersburg Governorate reached 64,116 (12,238 of them in Saint Petersburg itself); by 1926 it had increased to 66,333 (15,847 of them in Leningrad). As to Izhorians, in 1834 there were 17,800 of them, in 1897—21,000, in 1926—26,137. About 1000 Ingrians lived in the area ceded to Estonia under the Peace Treaty of Tartu (1920). Estonian Ingria Under the Russian-Estonian Peace Treaty of Tartu of 1920, a small part of West Ingria became part of the Republic of Estonia. In contrast to other parts of Ingria, Finnish culture blossomed in this area. This was to a large extent due to the work of Leander Reijo (also Reijonen or Reiju) from Kullankylä on the new border between Estonia and the Soviet Union, who was called "The King of Ingria" by the Finnish press. Finnish schools and a Finnish newspaper were started. A church was built in Kallivieri in 1920 and by 1928 the parish had 1,300 people. In 1945, after the Second World War, Estonian Ingria, then in the Soviet Union, became part of the Russian SFSR. Since Estonia reclaimed its independence in 1991, this territory has been disputed. As Russia does not recognize the Peace Treaty of Tartu, the area currently remains under Russian control. Soviet Ingria After the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia, the Republic of North Ingria (Pohjois Inkeri) declared its independence from Russia with the support of Finland and with the aim of incorporation into Finland. It ruled parts of Ingria from 1919 until 1920. With the Russian-Finnish Peace Treaty of Tartu it was re-integrated into Russia, but enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy. At its height in the 1920s, there were about 300 Finnish language schools and 10 Finnish language newspapers in Ingria. The First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union in 1926 recorded 114,831 Leningrad Finns, as Ingrian Finns were called. The 1926 census also showed that the Russian population of central Ingria outnumbered the Finnic peoples living there, but Ingrian Finns formed the majority in the districts along the Finnish border. In the early 1930s the Izhorian language was taught in the schools of the Soikinsky Peninsula and the area around the mouth of the Luga River. In 1928 collectivization of agriculture started in Ingria. To facilitate it, in 1929–1931, 18,000 people (4320 families), kulaks (independent peasants) from North Ingria, were deported to East Karelia, the Kola Peninsula as well as Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The situation for the Ingrian Finns deteriorated further when in the fall of 1934 the Forbidden Border Zone along the western border of the Soviet Union was established, where entrance was forbidden without special permission issued by the NKVD. It was officially only 7.5 km deep initially, but along the Estonian border it extended to as much as 90 km. The zone was to be free of Finnic and some other peoples, who were considered politically unreliable. On 25 March 1935, Genrikh Yagoda authorized a large-scale deportation targeting Estonian, Latvian and Finnish kulaks and lishentsy residing in the border regions near Leningrad. About 7,000 people (2,000 families) were deported from Ingria to Kazakhstan, Central Asia and the Ural region. In May and June 1936 the entire Finnish population of the parishes of Valkeasaari, Lempaala, Vuole and Miikkulainen near the Finnish border, 20,000 people, were resettled to the areas around Cherepovets and Siberia in the next wave of deportations. In Ingria they were replaced with people from other parts of the Soviet Union, mostly Russians but also Ukrainians and Tatars. In 1937 Lutheran churches and Finnish and Izhorian schools in Ingria were closed down and publications and radio broadcasting in Finnish and Izhorian were suspended. Both Ingrian Finnish and Izhorian populations all but disappeared from Ingria during the Soviet period. 63,000 fled to Finland during World War II, and were required back by Stalin after the war. Most became victims of Soviet population transfers and many were executed as "enemies of the people". The remainder, including some post-Stalin returnees (it was not until 1956 that some of the deported were allowed to return to their villages), were outnumbered by Russian immigration. The 1959 census recorded 1,062 Izhorians; in 1979 that number had fallen to 748, only 315 of them around the mouth of the Luga River and on the Soikinsky Peninsula. According to the Soviet census of 1989, there were 829 Izhorians, 449 of them in Russia (including other parts of the country) and 228 in Estonia. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, surviving Ingrian Finns and their Russified descendants have been allowed to emigrate to Finland. This has led to the birth of a sizable Russophone minority in Finland. See also Ingrian War Leningrad Oblast Saint Petersburg Governorate Tuutari (parish) References Further reading Kurs, Ott (1994). Ingria: The broken landbridge between Estonia and Finland. GeoJournal 33.1, 107–113. Kepsu, Kasper. 2017. The Unruly Buffer Zone: The Swedish province of Ingria in the late 17th century. Scandinavian Journal of History. 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238042	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-to-end%20principle	End-to-end principle	The end-to-end principle is a design framework in computer networking. In networks designed according to this principle, guaranteeing certain application-specific features, such as reliability and security, requires that they reside in the communicating end nodes of the network. Intermediary nodes, such as gateways and routers, that exist to establish the network, may implement these to improve efficiency but cannot guarantee end-to-end correctness. The essence of what would later be called the end-to-end principle was contained in the work of Paul Baran and Donald Davies on packet-switched networks in the 1960s. Louis Pouzin pioneered the use of the end-to-end strategy in the CYCLADES network in the 1970s. The principle was first articulated explicitly in 1981 by Saltzer, Reed, and Clark. The meaning of the end-to-end principle has been continuously reinterpreted ever since its initial articulation. Also, noteworthy formulations of the end-to-end principle can be found before the seminal 1981 Saltzer, Reed, and Clark paper. A basic premise of the principle is that the payoffs from adding certain features required by the end application to the communication subsystem quickly diminish. The end hosts have to implement these functions for correctness. Implementing a specific function incurs some resource penalties regardless of whether the function is used or not, and implementing a specific function in the network adds these penalties to all clients, whether they need the function or not. Concept The fundamental notion behind the end-to-end principle is that for two processes communicating with each other via some communication means, the reliability obtained from that means cannot be expected to be perfectly aligned with the reliability requirements of the processes. In particular, meeting or exceeding very high-reliability requirements of communicating processes separated by networks of nontrivial size is more costly than obtaining the required degree of reliability by positive end-to-end acknowledgments and retransmissions (referred to as PAR or ARQ). Put differently, it is far easier to obtain reliability beyond a certain margin by mechanisms in the end hosts of a network rather than in the intermediary nodes, especially when the latter are beyond the control of, and not accountable to, the former. Positive end-to-end acknowledgments with infinite retries can obtain arbitrarily high reliability from any network with a higher than zero probability of successfully transmitting data from one end to another. The end-to-end principle does not extend to functions beyond end-to-end error control and correction, and security. E.g., no straightforward end-to-end arguments can be made for communication parameters such as latency and throughput. In a 2001 paper, Blumenthal and Clark note: "[F]rom the beginning, the end-to-end arguments revolved around requirements that could be implemented correctly at the endpoints; if implementation inside the network is the only way to accomplish the requirement, then an end-to-end argument isn't appropriate in the first place." The end-to-end principle is closely related, and sometimes seen as a direct precursor, to the principle of net neutrality. History In the 1960s, Paul Baran and Donald Davies, in their pre-ARPANET elaborations of networking, made brief comments about reliability that capture the essence of the later end-to-end principle. To quote from a 1964 Baran paper, "Reliability and raw error rates are secondary. The network must be built with the expectation of heavy damage anyway. Powerful error removal methods exist." Similarly, Davies notes on end-to-end error control, "It is thought that all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control and that without difficulty this could be made to show up a missing packet. Because of this, loss of packets, if it is sufficiently rare, can be tolerated." The ARPANET was the first large-scale general-purpose packet switching network implementing several of the basic notions previously touched on by Baran and Davies. Davies had worked on simulation of datagram networks. Building on this idea, Louis Pouzin's CYCLADES network was the first to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself. Concepts implemented in this network influenced TCP/IP architecture. Applications ARPANET The ARPANET demonstrated several important aspects of the end-to-end principle. Packet switching pushes some logical functions toward the communication endpoints If the basic premise of a distributed network is packet switching, then functions such as reordering and duplicate detection inevitably have to be implemented at the logical endpoints of such a network. Consequently, the ARPANET featured two distinct levels of functionality: a lower level concerned with transporting data packets between neighboring network nodes (called Interface Message Processors or IMPs), and a higher level concerned with various end-to-end aspects of the data transmission. Dave Clark, one of the authors of the end-to-end principle paper, concludes: "The discovery of packets is not a consequence of the end-to-end argument. It is the success of packets that make the end-to-end argument relevant." No arbitrarily reliable data transfer without end-to-end acknowledgment and retransmission mechanisms The ARPANET was designed to provide reliable data transport between any two endpoints of the network much like a simple I/O channel between a computer and a nearby peripheral device. In order to remedy any potential failures of packet transmission normal ARPANET messages were handed from one node to the next node with a positive acknowledgment and retransmission scheme; after a successful handover they were then discarded, no source-to-destination re-transmission in case of packet loss was catered for. However, in spite of significant efforts, perfect reliability as envisaged in the initial ARPANET specification turned out to be impossible to providea reality that became increasingly obvious once the ARPANET grew well beyond its initial four-node topology. The ARPANET thus provided a strong case for the inherent limits of network-based hop-by-hop reliability mechanisms in pursuit of true end-to-end reliability. Trade-off between reliability, latency, and throughput The pursuit of perfect reliability may hurt other relevant parameters of a data transmissionmost importantly latency and throughput. This is particularly important for applications that value predictable throughput and low latency over reliabilitythe classic example being interactive real-time voice applications. This use case was catered for in the ARPANET by providing a raw message service that dispensed with various reliability measures so as to provide faster and lower latency data transmission service to the end hosts. TCP/IP Internet Protocol (IP) is a connectionless datagram service with no delivery guarantees. On the Internet, IP is used for nearly all communications. End-to-end acknowledgment and retransmission is the responsibility of the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) which sits on top of IP. The functional split between IP and TCP exemplifies the proper application of the end-to-end principle to transport protocol design. File transfer An example of the end-to-end principle is that of an arbitrarily reliable file transfer between two endpoints in a distributed network of a varying, nontrivial size: The only way two endpoints can obtain a completely reliable transfer is by transmitting and acknowledging a checksum for the entire data stream; in such a setting, lesser checksum and acknowledgment (ACK/NACK) protocols are justified only for the purpose of optimizing performancethey are useful to the vast majority of clients, but are not enough to fulfill the reliability requirement of this particular application. A thorough checksum is hence best done at the endpoints, and the network maintains a relatively low level of complexity and reasonable performance for all clients. Limitations The most important limitation of the end-to-end principle is that its basic premise, placing functions in the application endpoints rather than in the intermediary nodes, is not trivial to implement. An example of the limitations of the end-to-end principle exists in mobile devices, for instance with mobile IPv6. Pushing service-specific complexity to the endpoints can cause issues with mobile devices if the device has unreliable access to network channels. Further problems can be seen with a decrease in network transparency from the addition of network address translation (NAT), which IPv4 relies on to combat address exhaustion. With the introduction of IPv6, users once again have unique identifiers, allowing for true end-to-end connectivity. Unique identifiers may be based on a physical address, or can be generated randomly by the host. 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238043	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votic%20language	Votic language	Votic, or Votian (vaďďa tšeeli, maatšeeli), is the language spoken by the Votes of Ingria, belonging to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. Votic is spoken only in Krakolye and Luzhitsy, two villages in Kingiseppsky District in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, and is close to extinction. According to Arvo Survo, in 2021 Votic had only 4 native speakers and 100 people who had some knowledge of the language. History Votic is one of numerous Finnic varieties known from Ingria. Votic shares some similarities with and has acquired loanwords from the adjacent Ingrian language, but also has deep-reaching similarities with Estonian to the west, which is considered its closest relative. Some linguists, including Tiit-Rein Viitso and Paul Alvre, have claimed that Votic evolved specifically from northeastern dialects of ancient Estonian. Votic regardless exhibits several features that indicate its distinction from Estonian (both innovations such as the palatalisation of velar consonants and a more developed system of cases, and retentions such as vowel harmony). According to Estonian linguist Paul Ariste, Votic was distinct from other Finnic languages, such as Finnish and Estonian, as early as the 6th century AD and has evolved independently ever since. Isoglosses setting Votic apart from the other Finnic languages include: Loss of initial h Palatalization of k to before front vowels. This was a relatively late innovation, not found in Kreevin Votic or Kukkuzi Votic. Lenition of the clusters ps, ks to Lenition of the cluster st to geminate Features shared with Estonian and the other southern Finnic languages include: Loss of word-final n Shortening of vowels before h Introduction of from backing of e before a back vowel Development of o to in certain words (particularly frequent in Votic) Loss of after a sonorant (clusters lh nh rh) In the 19th century Votic was already declining in favour of Russian (there were around 1,000 speakers of the language by the start of the World War I). After the Bolshevik Revolution, under Lenin, Votic had a brief revival period, with the language being taught at local schools and the first-ever grammar of Votic (Jõgõperä/Krakolye dialect) being published. But after Joseph Stalin came into power, the language began to decline. World War II had a devastating effect on the Votic language, with the number of speakers considerably decreased as a result of military offensives, deliberate destruction of villages by Nazi troops, forced migration to the Klooga concentration camp in Estonia and to Finland under the Nazi government, and the Stalinist policy of "dispersion" immediately after the war against the families whose members had been sent to Finland under the Nazi government. Since then, the Votes have largely concealed their Votic identity, pretending to be Russians in the predominantly Russian environment. But they continued to use the language at home and when talking to family members and relatives. After the death of Stalin, the Votes were no longer mistreated and many of those who had been sent away returned to their villages. But the language had considerably declined and the number of bilingual speakers increased. Because Votic was stigmatised as a language of "uneducated villagers", Votic speakers avoided using it in public and Votic children were discouraged from using it even at home because, in the opinion of some local school teachers, it prevented them from learning to speak and write in Russian properly. Thus, in the second half of the 20th century there emerged a generation of young ethnic Votes whose first language was Russian and who understood Votic but were unable to speak it. Education There have been multiple attempts to have education in Votic. In 2003-2004 Votic courses were organized by Mehmet Muslimov. And also in 1995–1998 courses were in St. Petersburg which was also held by Mehmet Muslimov this course was attended by about 30 people. Then Mehmet Muslimov made many lessons for Votic into the internet for self study During 2010-2015 there was Votic courses established and about 10 people attended them. There are Votic events where studying material for Votic is given to people. During 2017 a studying book was made for Votic called "Vad'd'asõnakopittõja by Heinike Heinsoo and Nikita Djačkov which was made in Estonia. There was also a few lessons made by T.F. Prokopenko for little children in a school in a Votic village. Number of speakers In 1989, there were 62 speakers left, the youngest born in 1938. In its 24 December 2005 issue, The Economist wrote that there are only approximately 20 speakers left. In 2017, Votic was believed to have up to 8 native speakers. and in 2010 less than 70 people had knowledge of the language Dialects Three definite dialect groups of Votic are known: Western, the areas around the mouth of the Luga River Eastern, in villages around Koporye Krevinian, areas around the city of Bauska, Latvia The Western dialect area can be further divided into the Central dialects (spoken around the village of Kattila) and the Lower Luga dialects. Of these, only the Lower Luga dialect is still spoken. In 1848 it was estimated that of a total of 5,298 speakers of Votic, 3,453 (65%) spoke the western dialect, 1,695 (35%) spoke the eastern and 150 (3%) spoke the dialect of Kukkuzi. Kreevin had 12-15 speakers in 1810, the last records of Kreevin speakers are from 1846. The Kreevin dialect was spoken in an enclave in Latvia by descendants of Votic prisoners of war who were brought to the Bauska area of Latvia in the 15th century by the Teutonic order. The last known speaker of the eastern dialect died in 1960, in the village of Icäpäivä (Itsipino). A fourth dialect of Votic has often been claimed as well: the traditional language variety of the village of Kukkuzi. It shows a mix of features of Votic and neighboring Ingrian, and some linguists, e.g. Arvo Laanest have claimed that it is actually rather a dialect of Ingrian. The vocabulary and phonology of the dialect are largely Ingrian-based, but it shares some grammatical features with the main Votic dialects, probably representing a former Votic substratum. In particular, all phonological features that Votic shares specifically with Estonian (e.g. the presence of the vowel õ) are absent from the dialect. The Kukkuzi dialect has been declared to be dead since the 1970s, although three speakers have still been located in 2006. Orthography In the 1920s, the Votic linguist Dmitri Tsvetkov wrote a Votic grammar using a modified Cyrillic alphabet. The current Votic alphabet was created by Mehmet Muslimov in 2004: One may find different orthographies for Votic in descriptive work. Some use a modified Cyrillic alphabet, and others a Latin one. The transcriptions based on Latin have many similarities with those used in closely related Finnic languages, such as the use of č for . At least a couple of ways exist for indicating long vowels in Votic; placing a macron over the vowel (such as ā) as in Latvian, or as in written Estonian and Finnish, doubling the vowel (aa). Geminate consonants are generally represented with two characters. The representation of central vowels varies. In some cases the practice is to use e̮ according to the standards of Uralic transcription, while in other cases the letter õ is used, as in Estonian. Phonetics and phonology Vowels Votic has 10 vowel qualities, all of which can be long or short; represented in the following chart. The Votic ⟨õ⟩ /ɤ/ , however, is impressionistically a bit higher than the Estonian ⟨õ⟩, with the rest of the vowel inventory generally corresponding to the ones found in Estonian. In some central dialects, the long mid vowels have been diphthongized to , as in Finnish. Thus, tee 'road' is pronounced as tie. Votic also has a large inventory of diphthongs. Votic has a system of vowel harmony, rather similar to Finnish in its overall behavior: the vowels are divided in three groups, front-harmonic, back-harmonic and neutral. Words may generally not contain both front-harmonic and back-harmonic vowels; but both groups can combine with neutral vowels. The front-harmonic vowels are ä e ö ü; the corresponding back-harmonic vowels are a õ o u. Unlike Finnish, Votic only has a single neutral vowel, i. However, there are some exceptions with the behavior of o ö. Some suffixes including the vowel o do not harmonize (the occurrence of ö in non-initial syllables is generally a result of Finnish or Ingrian loan words), and similarly onomatopoetic words and loanwords are not necessarily subject to rules of vowel harmony. Consonants Notes: occurs only in eastern Votic, as a weak-grade counterpart to . Palatalised consonants are rare and normally allophonic, occurring automatically before or before a consonant that in turn is followed by . Phonemic palatalised consonants occur mostly as the result of a former following , usually as geminates. In other environments they are almost entirely found in loanwords, primarily from Russian. In some words in certain dialects, a palatalised consonant may become phonemic by the loss of the following vowel, such as esimein > eśmein. is affricated to in Kukkuzi Votic. only occurs in complementary distribution with . mainly as a result of loanwords from Russian, Ingrian, and Finnish dialects, or as an allophone of . Nearly all Votic consonants may occur as geminates. Also, Votic also has a system of consonant gradation, which is discussed in further detail in the consonant gradation article, although a large amount of alternations involve voicing alternations. Two important differences in Votic phonetics as compared to Estonian and Finnish is that the sounds and are actually fully fricatives, unlike Estonian and Finnish, in which they are approximants. Also, one possible allophone of is , ühsi is thus pronounced as IPA: . The lateral has a velarized allophone when occurring adjacent to back vowels. Voicing is not contrastive word-finally. Instead a type of sandhi occurs: voiceless are realized before words beginning with a voiceless consonant, voiced before voiced consonants (or vowels). Before a pause, the realization is voiceless lenis, ; the stops are here similar to the Estonian b d g. Thus: pre-pausal: "thief" before a voiceless consonant: "a thief comes" before a voiced consonant: "a thief takes" Grammar Votic is an agglutinating language much like the other Finnic languages. In terms of inflection on nouns, Votic has two numbers (singular, plural), and 16 cases: nominative, genitive, accusative (distinct for pronouns), partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, essive, exessive, abessive, comitative, terminative. Unlike Livonian, which has been influenced to a great extent by Latvian, Votic retained many of its Finnic characteristics. Although there are many loanwords from Russian, its phonological and grammatical influence on Votic is less marked than the Latvian influence on Livonian. In terms of verbs, Votic has six tenses and aspects, two of which are basic: present, imperfect; and the rest of which are compound tenses: present perfect, past perfect, future and future perfect. Votic has three moods (conditional, imperative, potential), and two 'voices' (active and passive). Caution however should be used with the term 'passive', with Finnic languages though as a result of the fact that it is more active and 'impersonal' (it has an oblique 3rd person marker, and so is not really 'passive'). Cases the word "boy" conjugated into cases. References Further reading External links Votian at Indigenous Minority Languages of Russia The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire Classification of Votian dialects at wikiversity Чернявский В. М. Vaďďa ceeli. Izeõpõttaja / Водский язык. Самоучитель. 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238057	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izhorians	Izhorians	The Izhorians (; ; ; sg. ižoralain, inkeroin, ižora, ingermans, ingers, ingrian, pl. ižoralaizet), along with the Votes, are a Finnic indigenous people native to Ingria. Small numbers can still be found in the western part of Ingria, between the Narva and Neva rivers in northwestern Russia. Although in English oftentimes sharing a common name with the Finns of Ingria, these two groups are distinct from one another History The history of the Izhorians is bound to the history of Ingria. It is supposed that shortly after 1000 AD the Izhorians moved from Karelia to the west and south-west. In 1478, the Novgorod Republic, where Ingrians had settled, was united with the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and some of the Izhorians were transferred to the east. The establishment of St Petersburg in 1703 had a great influence on Izhorian culture. World War II had the biggest impact on Izhorians, as devastating battles (such as the Siege of Leningrad) took place on their territory. In 1848, P. von Köppen counted 17,800 Izhorians, and by 1926 there were 26,137 Izhorians in the Russian SFSR. In the 1959 census, however, only 1,100 Izhorians were counted in the USSR. In 1989, 820 self-designated Izhorians, 302 of whom were speakers of the Ingrian language were registered. 449 Izhorians lived in the territory of the USSR. According to the 2002 Russian Census, there were 327 Izhorians in Russia, of whom 177 lived in Leningrad oblast and 53 in St Petersburg. There were also 812 Izhorians in Ukraine according to Ukrainian Census (2001) (more than in Russian Federation and Estonia altogether) and a further 358 Izhorians in Estonia. Language Their language, close to Karelian, is used primarily by members of the older generation. Izhorian (also called Ingrian), along with Finnish, Ludic, Karelian and Vepsian, belongs to the Northern Finnic group of the Uralic languages. In 1932–1937, a Latin-based orthography for the Izhorian language existed, taught in schools of the Soikinsky Peninsula and the area around the mouth of the Luga River. Several textbooks were published including a grammar of the language in 1936. However, in 1937 the Izhorian written language was abolished. Religion The Izhorians and the Votes are generally Eastern Orthodox, while the other Baltic Finns inhabitanting Ingria, the Ingrian Finns, are generally Lutheran. Some pre-Christian traditions exist also. References External links Izhorians in the Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire Estonian National Museum V. 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238058	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regaining%20Unconsciousness	Regaining Unconsciousness	Regaining Unconsciousness is an EP by NOFX, released prior to the release of The War on Errorism. Regaining Unconsciousness was the name of a song that appeared on The War on Errorism, although that song did not appear on this EP. All tracks appeared on The War on Errorism except for "Hardcore '84" and "Commercial,' which was a mock commercial for War on Errorism. The lyrics to Regaining Unconsciousness show strong similarities to the poem First they came ... by Martin Niemöller, written in 1946 about the rise of Nazism. CD release "Medio-core" "Idiots Are Taking Over" "Franco Un-American" "Hardcore '84" "Commercial" (unlisted) Vinyl (7") release Side a "Idiots Are Taking Over" Side b "Franco Un-American" "Hardcore '84" External links Regaining Unconsciousness at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed) NOFX EPs Fat Wreck Chords EPs 2003 EPs	[ 0.2581248879432678, -0.02492157556116581, 0.15204688906669617, 0.4323873817920685, -0.27689221501350403, 0.10059250891208649, 0.7642735838890076, -0.1952071636915207, -0.10205670446157455, -0.6725093722343445, 0.165567085146904, 0.726732075214386, -0.2990259826183319, 0.14694568514823914, 0.23271940648555756, 0.20135872066020966, 0.001966767478734255, 0.07635067403316498, -0.017234817147254944, -0.07721830904483795, 0.19309666752815247, -0.021481696516275406, 0.12491020560264587, -0.4525459408760071, -0.3440229892730713, 0.3540017008781433, -0.42680594325065613, 0.15122051537036896, -0.40171369910240173, -0.12568359076976776, -0.0474405400454998, 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238062	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lich	Lich	In fantasy fiction, a lich (; from the Old English , meaning "corpse") is a type of undead creature. Various works of fantasy fiction, such as Clark Ashton Smith's "The Empire of the Necromancers" (1932), had used lich as a general term for any corpse, animated or inanimate, before the term's specific use in fantasy role-playing games. The more recent use of the term lich for a specific type of undead creature originates from the 1976 Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game booklet Greyhawk, written by Gary Gygax and Rob Kuntz. Often such a creature is the result of a willful transformation, as a powerful wizard skilled in necromancy who seeks eternal life uses rare substances in a magical ritual to become undead. Unlike zombies, which are often depicted as mindless, liches are sapient, retaining their previous intelligence and magical abilities. Liches are often depicted as holding power over lesser undead soldiers and servants. Historical background Lich is an archaic English word for "corpse"; the gate at the lowest end of the cemetery where the coffin and funerary procession usually entered was commonly referred to as the lich gate. This gate was quite often covered by a small roof where part of the funerary service could be carried out. Liches are sometimes depicted using a magical device called a phylactery (from a Classical Greek word meaning amulet) to anchor their souls to the physical world so that if their body is destroyed they can rise again over and over, as long as the phylactery remains intact. In literature The lich developed from monsters found in earlier classic sword and sorcery fiction, which is filled with powerful sorcerers who use their magic to triumph over death. Many of Clark Ashton Smith's short stories feature powerful wizards whose magic enables them to return from the dead. Several stories by Robert E. Howard, such as the novella Skull-Face (1929) and the short story "Scarlet Tears", feature undying sorcerers who retain a semblance of life through mystical means, their bodies reduced to shriveled husks with which they manage to maintain inhuman mobility and active thought. Gary Gygax, one of the co-creators of Dungeons & Dragons, stated that he based the description of a lich included in the game on the short story "The Sword of the Sorcerer" (1969) by Gardner Fox. The term lich, used as an archaic word for corpse (or body), is commonly used in these stories. Ambrose Bierce's tale of possession "The Death of Halpin Frayser" features the word in its introduction, referring to a corpse. H. P. Lovecraft also used the word in "The Thing on the Doorstep" (published 1937) where the narrator refers to the corpse of his friend possessed by a sorcerer. Other imagery surrounding demiliches, in particular that of a jeweled skull, is drawn from the early Fritz Leiber story "Thieves' House". In popular culture In print Acererak is the final boss of the classic Dungeons and Dragons adventure module Tomb of Horrors; Acererak was also featured as the guardian of the Copper Key in the book Ready Player One by Ernest Cline. In the webcomic The Order of the Stick, the main villain Xykon is a lich. In the Harry Potter series, the main antagonist Voldemort commands armies of undead inferi and uses magical devices called horcruxes to store fragments of his soul in order to allow him to resurrect himself in the event that his body dies. Film and television In the Adventure Time television series, the main antagonist is an evil, powerful undead being known simply as "The Lich". He describes himself as an ancient, cosmic being who is the manifestation of the inevitable death of all things. Tabletop In the Dungeons & Dragons game, a lich is a spellcaster who seeks to defy death by magical means. Liches also appear in other fantasy settings that draw upon D&D for inspiration, such as: 13th Age Pathfinder Roleplaying Game Warhammer Fantasy Video games In the game Dota 2, Lich is one of the playable heroes. In the video game Enter the Gungeon, Lich is the final boss located in Bullet Hell. Liches are prominent in the Might and Magic series of video games, appearing primarily as enemies, but also as playable characters in several installments. They are equally prevalent in the spin-off series Heroes of Might and Magic, where they appear in most installments as recruitable creatures, but also as heroes. One of the most prolific liches in New World Computing's old continuity was Sandro, appearing in many titles and referenced in many more. The primary antagonist of Heroes of Might and Magic III: Restoration of Erathia is also a lich: the former king of Erathia raised by necromancers. Warcraft III and World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King features the continent of Northrend, the realm of the eponymous Lich King and his undead minions. Arthas Menethil, also known as the Lich King, one of the most prominent antagonists in Warcraft lore, appears as a raid boss in the Wrath of the Lich King expansion, as well as a playable character in the crossover video game Heroes of the Storm. In League of Legends, the champion Karthus embraced the gift of death and became a lich. The Baldur's Gate series of video games includes several liches, as powerful but optional boss fights. 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238071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lar%20Gand	Lar Gand	Lar Gand, known mainly as Mon-El (and alternatively as Valor and M'Onel), is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in association with the Legion of Super-Heroes, Superboy, and Superman. The character has been reinterpreted over the years, but in all versions, he serves as a hero with abilities similar to those of Superman, sometimes serving as a substitute for him. The character made his live-action debut in season 2 of the Arrowverse TV series Supergirl, played by Chris Wood as a regular character for several seasons. A character loosely patterned on Mon-El was previously adapted for the Legion of Super Heroes animated series. Publication history A precursor to the Lar Gand character appeared in the story "Superman's Big Brother", in Superman #80 (February 1953). He was named Halk Kar, and had a logo-less costume almost identical to Superman's, but with the red and blue colors reversed. He was created by Otto Binder and artist Al Plastino. Lar Gand first appeared in Superboy #89 and was created by Robert Bernstein and George Papp. Fictional character biography Halk Kar Halk Kar crash-lands on Earth in a rocketship and is rescued by Superman, who discovers that Halk Kar suffers from amnesia. Discovering that Halk Kar has a note from Jor-El (Superman's father) mentioning his son, Superman assumes that Halk Kar must not only be from his own planet Krypton, but he must be a son of Jor-El and thus also his own older brother. Superman quickly realizes that Halk Kar is less powerful than he is and – instead of subjecting him to embarrassment over the fact that he may be weaker than his younger brother – opts to use his own powers to cover for Halk Kar's deficiencies. This plan backfires, as Halk Kar begins to assume a superior attitude to Superman and even begins to make romantic advances on Superman's girlfriend, Lois Lane. Finally, Halk Kar recovers his memory, and explains that he is from the planet Thoron, which is in the same star system as Krypton. Years ago, while on a pioneer voyage into space, he landed on Krypton with his damaged rocketship. There he met Jor-El, who explained that Krypton's destruction was imminent and repaired Halk Kar's rocketship, sending him away with the note which had a map from Krypton to Earth on it. Krypton exploded shortly afterward, causing Halk Kar to be put into suspended animation until he drifted to Earth to meet Superman, the grown-up son of Jor-El referred to in the note. Halk Kar returns to Thoron in his repaired rocketship, leaving Superman with the experience of briefly having had a brother. Mon-El The Halk Kar plot was reused in Superboy #89 (June 1961), in a story set during Superman's career as Superboy, one that simply disregarded the history outlined in the original (a practice common at the time). The character's name was changed to Lar Gand, his homeworld was changed to Daxam, and he was made younger to roughly match Superboy's age. He was an explorer who had landed on Krypton, where Jor-El warned him of the planet's imminent destruction and gave him a map to Earth. He suffered amnesia upon landing on Earth, where he met Superboy. As he gained powers like Superboy, the hero concluded that he was a long-lost brother, and named him Mon-El: "Mon" because he landed on Earth on a Monday, and "El" for Superboy's own Kryptonian family name (although in 1964, Bob Rozakis wrote a letter to Adventure Comics in which he pointed out the existence of the alloy monel "which had characteristics similar to the hero of the same name"). He adopted a human secret identity (Bob Cobb) to integrate into Superboy's hometown of Smallville. The character was then shown to be immune to kryptonite, which is radioactively poisonous to all Kryptonians. Believing that Mon-El has been deceiving him, Superboy tries to trick him with a fake kryptonite meteor made of lead, which turns out to be Mon-El's one weakness. Furthermore, exposure to lead is irreversibly fatal to Daxamites, which Mon-El explains, having regained his memory. Guilt-ridden over inadvertently poisoning him, Superboy saves his life by sending him to the extradimensional Phantom Zone, where he would be able to observe things happening in the outside world, but as a phantom would not age and his lead poisoning would not progress. This provided for a means to use the character in contemporary stories set in the 30th century with the Legion of Super-Heroes. In these stories, Legion member Saturn Girl creates a temporary antidote to his lead poisoning, allowing him to be released from the Phantom Zone for brief periods of time, and he is considered an honorary Legionnaire. Brainiac 5 later creates a long-term antidote (which still requires periodic ingestion), and he becomes a full member. During his long career, he is written as one of the Legion's three most-powerful members along with Superboy and Ultra Boy, and serves two terms as leader. Mon-El apparently dies after failing to take a dose of Brainiac 5's anti-lead serum in a timely fashion. Eltro Gand, a distant descendant of his older brother, sacrificed his life force to restore Mon-El to life. After a long romantic relationship, he and fellow Legionnaire Shadow Lass become husband and wife. In 1985, DC Comics' revamp of their superhero universe Crisis on Infinite Earths removed Superman's adventures as "Superboy" from the character's history. Mon-El's character history remained unchanged, however, with his encounter with Superboy said to have taken place in a "pocket universe" created by the Time Trapper, a mysterious being living at the end of the universe. Severely injured and dependent on life-support equipment during a battle with the Time Trapper after Superboy's death, Mon-El dies during the Magic Wars which destroys much of the technology throughout the United Planets. The Time Trapper later revives him, hoping to use his body to preserve his own waning existence, but Mon-El kills him to prevent the Trapper from further manipulating events throughout history. This wipes Superboy's pocket universe out of existence, and alters the timeline. The Trapper's role and powers are usurped by his onetime underling Glorith, and Lar Gand is recast as Valor. Valor In the new "Glorithverse" reality, Lar Gand replaced the non-existent Superboy as the Legion's inspiration. As detailed in the story "The Legend of Valor" (Legion of Super-Heroes (vol. 4) Annual #2, 1991), Lar Gand would enjoy a heroic career in the 20th century as Valor, stopping a second Dominator-led invasion of Earth, freeing thousands of humans who had been experimented on by the Dominators and seeding them on a series of worlds between Dominion space and Earth as a "buffer zone" to prevent future invasions. These colonists had gained metahuman powers due to the experiments and would (by the time of the Legion), evolve into many of the worlds that would join the United Planets. After completing this task and an indefinite number of other 20th-century ventures, he would be placed in the Bgztl Buffer Zone by the time sorceress Glorith, to be rescued by the Legion in the 30th century. None of these events had otherwise been depicted in comics about the 20th century. In his new history, Lar Gand was inspired by his father's sacrifice in the crossover story Invasion! to become a hero. He briefly joins L.E.G.I.O.N., where Vril Dox II cures his lead poisoning. He plays a significant part in the Eclipso: The Darkness Within crossover, in which Superman gives him the name "Valor". A solo series Valor about the character lasted for 23 issues, beginning with Lar as an adventurous young man exploring the universe in a spaceship with a sentient A.I. called Babbage, encountering various aliens and civilizations. After #12 however, things became complex. Glorith had continued altering the timeline, inadvertently recreating the original Time Trapper in the process. Travelling back to when Lar Gand was a young man in another attempt to win his affection, she accidentally caused his death. Attempting to undo the damage this caused history, she called forth a duplicate Valor from the Legion's time (a second version of Valor created by the Time Trapper) to take his other self's place, "patched" into the 20th century timeline by Waverider. He was tasked with completing Valor's legendary feats such as stopping the Dominators' second invasion of Earth and seeding the U.P. worlds so that 30th century history would play out as it was supposed to transpire. However, history was playing out much earlier than it was supposed to which led to some changes in Valor's exploits. This was one of the many destabilizations of the timestream that eventually led to the 1994 "Zero Hour" storyline, and the "Legion Reboot". M'Onel The character appeared again following the "Zero Hour" reboot, in Superboy (vol. 4) #17. He was amnesiac, but had vague memories of his time with L.E.G.I.O.N. and the events of his own series. He was found by the loan shark of Superboy's agent and was tricked into fighting Superboy as the whole battle was being recorded for the purpose of betting on the winner. When Superboy saw that Valor was sick after he started to become weakened and more disoriented as a result of Vril Dox's anti-lead serum wearing off, Superboy placed him in the "Stasis Zone" (the Phantom Zone by another name), where he was trapped for a thousand years before being released by the Legion and a time-traveling Superboy, and injected with Brainiac 5's improved version of his ancestor's serum. To avoid the religious fervor his return would cause, the Legion kept secret the fact this new Legionnaire was the legendary Valor. He took the name M'Onel, which, Legion founder R. J. Brande claimed, was Martian for "He Who Wanders". M'Onel would become a key player in the following The Legion comic book series. With the rest of the Legionnaires, M'Onel is lost when Superboy (Kon-El) and the Teen Titans lose the Persuader's axe while trying to return to their own time. M'Onel attempts to hold the Legionnaires in a human chain, but is sucked into a vortex. Shikari is the only one who escapes when she is pulled free by the temporal currents. She arrives in a changed future, leading into the threeboot Legion of Super-Heroes comics. Resulting from the 2005–2006 "Infinite Crisis" storyline, time and space once again were realigned and altered, this incarnation of Mon-El and his exploits were thought to have been erased from the timeline. In Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds #2, this version of Mon-El resurfaced as well as his post-"Zero Hour" Legion teammates. 2004 "Threeboot" continuity The character was introduced again following another reboot of Legion history in 2004. In Supergirl and the Legion of Super-Heroes #23 (December 2006), Saturn Girl senses a telepathic call for help, which turns out to be Mon-El in the Phantom Zone, suffering from 1,000 years of sensory deprivation and dying from lead poisoning. He is confused as to who put him in the Phantom Zone, but remembers the "S" symbol and attacks Supergirl. Brainiac 5 makes an anti-toxin for the lead poisoning using kryptonite, but this wears off, requiring him to be returned to the Phantom Zone. It is revealed in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds that this future is not the future of New Earth but instead the future of Earth-Prime. The full actual past of this version of Mon-El is unknown, however he claimed to have known Supergirl and Superman in the past. Post-"Infinite Crisis" In conjunction with the crossover "Infinite Crisis", the nature of Daxam, and thus Mon-El, was heavily retconned. He became the remote descendant of a male human and Bal Gand, a female Daxamite who visited Earth during the height of the Maya culture. She returned to Daxam, rather than let her child be born as an apparent demigod on Earth, but programmed her spaceship to return him to Earth if Daxamite xenophobia made that necessary. Generations later, her descendant Lar Gand gives in to his suppressed instinct to escape the increasingly isolated Daxam and travel the stars, and is brought by his ancestor's ship to its pre-programmed destination: Earth, the Central American continent. February 2007's Action Comics Annual #10, gave a revised version of how Clark Kent met the character. It closely matches the 1960 story, but amnesiac Mon-El is poisoned when Clark tries to test whether he is Kryptonian with a piece of kryptonite, and the protective lead casing for the meteor both poisons him and restores his memories. He recalls that upon arriving at Earth, a sunspot storm ruptured his fuel cells, causing him to crash (and explaining how his ship missed Central America by thousands of miles, crash-landing in Smallville instead) and lose his memory. Clark again uses a portal to the Phantom Zone to put Mon-El in stasis until his lead poisoning can be cured. In Superman #685 (April 2009), Superman releases Mon-El from the Phantom Zone to save him from its collapse. Mon-El is cured of his lead poisoning by a cure left anonymously for him by the Legion. In the 21st century, he adopts the human alias of Clark's cousin "Jonathan Kent" from London, and acts as protector of Metropolis while Superman joins the off-Earth settlement of New Krypton, populated by refugees from the planet's destruction. He briefly joins the Metropolis Science Police, until he's captured by Sam Lane's Project 7734, who fake his death at the hand of Flamebird and Nightwing. Mon-El manages to escape, but ends up stranded in the Forlorn Dimension, helping Captain Atom to get free from the clutches of Mirabai, the evil queen of the Forlorn and Sam Lane's chief ally. Following his escape, Mon-El returns to Metropolis wearing a modified version of his red and blue costume (similar to the costume of the Golden Age Halk-Kar) complete with a Superman S-Shield over his left chest. He assists the Science Police in capturing Parasite. Mon-El also attempts to apprehend Bizarro, only to turn back after he escapes to Bizarro World. Upon returning home, Mon-El asks Superboy to reprogram Kellex, the android at the Fortress of Solitude, to repair the starship he came to Earth in. He also enters into a sexual relationship with Billi Harper, the Guardian's grandniece. Following a battle with Atomic Skull, Mon-El was invited to join the new Justice League of America at the invitation of Doctor Light (Kimiyo Hoshi). After helping to save New Krypton and seeding the UP worlds in accordance with time-loop instructions from the Legion, Mon-El, now near death having become immune to the lead poisoning antidote, is returned to the recreated Phantom Zone by Superman and Chameleon, where he remains until rescued by the Legion in 1,000 years. Whether his long isolation has caused memory loss or he is carefully avoiding a time paradox by never mentioning his 21st century adventures is unknown. In the final issue of War of the Supermen, it is revealed that Billi is pregnant, presumably with Mon-El's child. Post-"Infinite Crisis" Legion The events of the Infinite Crisis miniseries have also restored a close analogue of the Pre-Crisis Legion to continuity, as seen in The Lightning Saga story arc in Justice League of America and Justice Society of America, and in the Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes story arc in Action Comics. Mon-El is included in their number. In the latter story, it was revealed that Mon-El was banished back into the Phantom Zone by Earth Man. In the Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds miniseries, which follows after Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes, Mon-El is rescued from the Phantom Zone by his teammates. Upon leaving the Zone, Mon-El once again suffers the effects of lead poisoning, but as in the past, is inoculated with an antidote created by Brainiac 5. He and Shadow Lass are then sent on a mission to Oa to recruit the immortal Sodam Yat (the last Guardian of the Universe) into the war against Superboy-Prime and the Legion of Super-Villains. Mon-El forms a bond with the reluctant Yat as both a fellow Daxamite and as one who has outlived family and friends. Later on, he is chosen to become a Green Lantern by Dyogene. Before leaving, he told Shadow Lass that even though he is a GL, the Legion, Earth and his friends will always be his family. The New 52 In The New 52, a 2011 reboot of the DC Comics universe, Gand appears as the field leader of the Legion of Super-Heroes. It is further revealed that this version, as the entire Legion, is possibly the original one from before the Flashpoint event as they are even aware of these reality-altering events. In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock," Gand is among the Legion of Super-Heroes members who appear in the present after Doctor Manhattan undid the experiment that erased the Legion of Super-Heroes and the Justice Society of America. Powers and abilities Generally, the abilities of Lar Gand (and other Daxamites) are similar to those of Superman and other natives of the planet Krypton (super-strength; speed; flight; x-ray vision, heat vision, microscopic and telescopic vision powers; invulnerability; and super hearing), with two major exceptions: He is vulnerable to the inert element lead, rather than the radioactive element Kryptonite. The Daxamite weakness to lead has been described as an extreme anaphylactic reaction. Lar is kept alive only through regular ingestion of anti-lead serum, such as the one modified by Brainiac 5, or he will succumb to the lead already in his system. A side-effect of the serum prevents the radiation of a red star from robbing him of his powers, as it does with most Daxamites and Kryptonians. Lar Gand is considered to be the most powerful member of the Legion of Super-Heroes. In other media Television Animation The animated Legion of Super Heroes series featured a teenaged Legionnaire named Superman X (voiced by Yuri Lowenthal), who was conceptually based on Mon-El, Kon-El and the Eradicator, wearing an outfit with elements from all three heroes. Like Mon-El, Superman X lacked a weakness to Kryptonite and was treated like a brother by the real Superman. According to the series producer James Tucker, Superman X was specifically created to fill the role created for Mon-El after several Warner Bros. executives voiced opinions about Mon-El being "too similar" to Superman to work on a children's show. Mon El makes a cameo in the animated video film Justice League vs. the Fatal Five. Arrowverse Mon-El appears on the TV series Supergirl, starting in its second season, portrayed by Chris Wood. In this version, Mon-El is his real name. After crash landing on Earth, he awakes from a coma in "The Last Children of Krypton" and attacks Supergirl. They continue to be hostile toward one another due to an ancient feud between the Kryptonians and Daxamites. Supergirl later sympathetically reveals the fate of his home planet to him - it was severely damaged by the destruction of Krypton. The DEO releases Mon-El into Supergirl's custody, and she helps him integrate into society while trying to get him to use his powers for good, as she does. He adopts the name Mike Matthews and eventually becomes a bartender at an alien bar. Originally, Mon-El claimed he was a bodyguard of the Daxamite prince, but after starting a relationship with Supergirl, he is revealed to be the prince himself. During the conclusion of the episode "Exodus", Mon-El's parents appear. In "Star-Crossed", Mon-El's father (portrayed by Kevin Sorbo) is revealed to be named Lar Gand. He and his wife Rhea (portrayed by Teri Hatcher) are the monarchs of Daxam, and they have come to Earth to retrieve Mon-El. Mon-El reluctantly returns to them due to his mother's machinations in "Distant Sun". However, upon seeing the influence Supergirl has had on Mon-El, Lar Gand allows his son to return to Earth. Rhea later stabs and kills Lar Gand, and vows to reclaim her son. Rhea intends to conquer Earth and make it the new Daxamite homeworld. To get all the Daxamites to leave, Lena Luthor, as a last resort, resets her brother Lex Luthor's machine that can flood the Earth's atmosphere with traces of a substance from Kryptonite to Lead, making Earth uninhabitable for Daxamites, and some die, including Rhea. Kara tells Mon-El that she loves him before he gets into his spaceship and heads into deep space. On his journey, a mysterious portal opens in front of his ship, which Mon-El cannot avoid entering. In the third season, Mon-El returns in episode 7 ("Wake Up"). For Kara/ Supergirl, seven months have passed since she last saw him; however, for Mon-El, it has been seven years. Living in the 31st century, where he was cured of the lead sickness, he established the Legion, a planetary defense force, aimed at uniting the fractious worlds fighting one another. He used Kara's life of compassion, strength and sense of justice as inspiration and as an example for the other members to follow. Mon-El also married Imra Ardeen after he realized he would likely never see Kara again. In "Legion of Super Heroes," Mon-El, Imra and Brainiac 5 help Kara fight Reign. Mon-El later reveals to J'onn J'onzz that his marriage to Imra was originally a political one, meant to form a peaceful planetary alliance, and their feelings for one another grew into a loving relationship (as seen in "Both Sides Now"). By the end of the season, he has broken up with Imra and he and Winslow Schott Jr head one thousand years into the future to join the Legion. In the episode "It's a Super Life," Mon-El is shown in some of the alternate-timeline realities that Mister Mxyzptlk shows Kara. The first one has him and Lena falling in battle against Reign. Another reality, in which Supergirl and Lena didn't meet, has Mon-El acting as part of a resistance movement against Lena and her Hope-Bots. Mon-El appears in The Flash episode "Duet" (a crossover episode with Supergirl), also portrayed by Chris Wood. He and J'onn J'onzz of Earth-38 arrive on Earth-1 with a comatose Kara Danvers / Supergirl, in hope that Team Flash of S.T.A.R. Labs can revive her. They warn Barry Allen that the escaped prisoner, Music Meister, claimed he would be coming for him too. References External links A Hero History Of Mon-El at MajorSpoilers.com Mon-El at Supermanica Valor/M'Onel bio at cosmicteams.com Mon-El at Legion World Fictional bartenders Characters created by Robert Bernstein Characters created by George Papp DC Comics aliens DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds DC Comics characters with superhuman strength DC Comics extraterrestrial superheroes Fictional characters with superhuman senses DC Comics superheroes Comics characters introduced in 1961 Green Lantern Corps officers	[ -0.16259412467479706, -0.11593567579984665, -0.3861653804779053, 0.008067116141319275, -0.6179181337356567, 0.48056286573410034, 0.015015309676527977, 0.32781532406806946, -0.3590165972709656, 0.07860379666090012, -0.7958897352218628, 0.5348495244979858, -0.15231257677078247, 0.046443913131952286, 0.036515530198812485, 0.03455309197306633, 0.13796018064022064, 0.34183090925216675, -0.2762928009033203, -0.20288723707199097, 0.20955795049667358, 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238084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20Chinese	Middle Chinese	Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the Qieyun, a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The Swedish linguist Bernard Karlgren believed that the dictionary recorded a speech standard of the capital Chang'an of the Sui and Tang dynasties. However, based on the more recently recovered preface of the Qieyun, most scholars now believe that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late Northern and Southern dynasties period. This composite system contains important information for the reconstruction of the preceding system of Old Chinese phonology (early 1st millennium BC). The fanqie method used to indicate pronunciation in these dictionaries, though an improvement on earlier methods, proved awkward in practice. The mid-12th-century Yunjing and other rime tables incorporate a more sophisticated and convenient analysis of the Qieyun phonology. The rime tables attest to a number of sound changes that had occurred over the centuries following the publication of the Qieyun. Linguists sometimes refer to the system of the Qieyun as Early Middle Chinese and the variant revealed by the rime tables as Late Middle Chinese. The dictionaries and tables describe pronunciations in relative terms, but do not give their actual sounds. Karlgren was the first to attempt a reconstruction of the sounds of Middle Chinese, comparing its categories with modern varieties of Chinese and the Sino-Xenic pronunciations used in the reading traditions of neighbouring countries. Several other scholars have produced their own reconstructions using similar methods. The Qieyun system is often used as a framework for the study and description of various modern varieties of Chinese. With the exception of the Min dialects (including Hokkien), which show independent developments from Old Chinese, the primary branches of the Chinese family such as Mandarin (including Standard Chinese, based on the speech of Beijing), Yue (including Cantonese) and Wu (including Shanghainese) can be largely treated as divergent developments from it. The study of Middle Chinese also provides for a better understanding and analysis of Classical Chinese poetry, such as the study of Tang poetry. Sources The reconstruction of Middle Chinese phonology is largely dependent upon detailed descriptions in a few original sources. The most important of these is the Qieyun rime dictionary (601) and its revisions. The Qieyun is often used together with interpretations in Song dynasty rime tables such as the Yunjing, Qiyinlue, and the later Qieyun zhizhangtu and Sisheng dengzi. The documentary sources are supplemented by comparison with modern Chinese varieties, pronunciation of Chinese words borrowed by other languages (particularly Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese), transcription into Chinese characters of foreign names, transcription of Chinese names in alphabetic scripts (such as Brahmi, Tibetan and Uyghur), and evidence regarding rhyme and tone patterns from classical Chinese poetry. Rime dictionaries Chinese scholars of the Northern and Southern dynasties period were concerned with the correct recitation of the classics. Various schools produced dictionaries to codify reading pronunciations and the associated rhyme conventions of regulated verse. The Qieyun (601) was an attempt to merge the distinctions in six earlier dictionaries, which were eclipsed by its success and are no longer extant. It was accepted as the standard reading pronunciation during the Tang dynasty, and went through several revisions and expansions over the following centuries. The Qieyun is thus the oldest surviving rhyme dictionary and the main source for the pronunciation of characters in Early Middle Chinese (EMC). At the time of Bernhard Karlgren's seminal work on Middle Chinese in the early 20th century, only fragments of the Qieyun were known, and scholars relied on the Guangyun (1008), a much expanded edition from the Song dynasty. However, significant sections of a version of the Qieyun itself were subsequently discovered in the caves of Dunhuang, and a complete copy of Wang Renxu's 706 edition from the Palace Library was found in 1947. The rhyme dictionaries organize Chinese characters by their pronunciation, according to a hierarchy of tone, rhyme and homophony. Characters with identical pronunciations are grouped into homophone classes, whose pronunciation is described using two fanqie characters, the first of which has the initial sound of the characters in the homophone class and second of which has the same sound as the rest of the syllable (the final). The use of fanqie was an important innovation of the Qieyun and allowed the pronunciation of all characters to be described exactly; earlier dictionaries simply described the pronunciation of unfamiliar characters in terms of the most similar-sounding familiar character. The fanqie system uses multiple equivalent characters to represent each particular initial, and likewise for finals. The categories of initials and finals actually represented were first identified by the Cantonese scholar Chen Li in a careful analysis published in his Qièyùn kǎo (1842). Chen's method was to equate two fanqie initials (or finals) whenever one was used in the fanqie spelling of the pronunciation of the other, and to follow chains of such equivalences to identify groups of spellers for each initial or final. For example, the pronunciation of the character was given using the fanqie spelling , the pronunciation of was given as , and the pronunciation of was given as , from which we can conclude that the words , and all had the same initial sound. The Qieyun classified homonyms under 193 rhyme classes, each of which is placed within one of the four tones. A single rhyme class may contain multiple finals, generally differing only in the medial (especially when it is /w/) or in so-called chongniu doublets. Rhyme tables The Yunjing (c. 1150 AD) is the oldest of the so-called rime tables, which provide a more detailed phonological analysis of the system contained in the Qieyun. The Yunjing was created centuries after the Qieyun, and the authors of the Yunjing were attempting to interpret a phonological system that differed in significant ways from that of their own Late Middle Chinese (LMC) dialect. They were aware of this, and attempted to reconstruct Qieyun phonology as well as possible through a close analysis of regularities in the system and co-occurrence relationships between the initials and finals indicated by the fanqie characters. However, the analysis inevitably shows some influence from LMC, which needs to be taken into account when interpreting difficult aspects of the system. The Yunjing is organized into 43 tables, each covering several Qieyun rhyme classes, and classified as: One of 16 broad rhyme classes (shè), each described as either "inner" or "outer". The meaning of this is debated but it has been suggested that it refers to the height of the main vowel, with "outer" finals having an open vowel ( or ) and "inner" finals having a mid or close vowel. "open mouth" or "closed mouth", indicating whether lip rounding is present. "Closed" finals either have a rounded vowel (e.g. ) or rounded glide. Each table has 23 columns, one for each initial consonant. Although the Yunjing distinguishes 36 initials, they are placed in 23 columns by combining palatals, retroflexes, and dentals under the same column. This does not lead to cases where two homophone classes are conflated, as the grades (rows) are arranged so that all would-be minimal pairs distinguished only by the retroflex vs. palatal vs. alveolar character of the initial end up in different rows. Each initial is further classified as follows: Place of articulation: labials, alveolars, velars, affricates and sibilants, and laryngeals Phonation: voiceless, voiceless aspirated, voiced, nasal or liquid Each table also has 16 rows, with a group of 4 rows for each of the 4 tones of the traditional system in which finals ending in , or are considered to be entering tone variants of finals ending in , or rather than separate finals in their own right. The significance of the 4 rows within each tone is difficult to interpret, and is strongly debated. These rows are usually denoted I, II, III and IV, and are thought to relate to differences in palatalization or retroflexion of the syllable's initial or medial, or differences in the quality of similar main vowels (e.g. , , ). Other scholars view them not as phonetic categories but formal devices exploiting distributional patterns in the Qieyun to achieve a compact presentation. Each square in a table contains a character corresponding to a particular homophone class in the Qieyun, if any such character exists. From this arrangement, each homophone class can be placed in the above categories. Modern dialects and Sino-Xenic pronunciations The rime dictionaries and rime tables identify categories of phonetic distinctions, but do not indicate the actual pronunciations of these categories. The varied pronunciations of words in modern varieties of Chinese can help, but most modern varieties descend from a Late Middle Chinese koine and cannot very easily be used to determine the pronunciation of Early Middle Chinese. During the Early Middle Chinese period, large amounts of Chinese vocabulary were systematically borrowed by Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese (collectively known as Sino-Xenic vocabularies), but many distinctions were inevitably lost in mapping Chinese phonology onto foreign phonological systems. For example, the following table shows the pronunciation of the numerals in three modern Chinese varieties, as well as borrowed forms in Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese: Transcription evidence Although the evidence from Chinese transcriptions of foreign words is much more limited, and is similarly obscured by the mapping of foreign pronunciations onto Chinese phonology, it serves as direct evidence of a sort that is lacking in all the other types of data, since the pronunciation of the foreign languages borrowed from—especially Sanskrit and Gāndhārī—is known in great detail. For example, the nasal initials were used to transcribe Sanskrit nasals in the early Tang, but later they were used for Sanskrit unaspirated voiced initials , suggesting that they had become prenasalized stops in some northwestern Chinese dialects. Methodology The rime dictionaries and rime tables yield phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent. At the end of the 19th century, European students of Chinese sought to solve this problem by applying the methods of historical linguistics that had been used in reconstructing Proto-Indo-European. Volpicelli (1896) and Schaank (1897) compared the rime tables at the front of the Kangxi dictionary with modern pronunciations in several varieties, but had little knowledge of linguistics. Bernhard Karlgren, trained in transcription of Swedish dialects, carried out the first systematic survey of modern varieties of Chinese. He used the oldest known rime tables as descriptions of the sounds of the rime dictionaries, and also studied the Guangyun, at that time the oldest known rime dictionary. Unaware of Chen Li's study, he repeated the analysis of the fanqie required to identify the initials and finals of the dictionary. He believed that the resulting categories reflected the speech standard of the capital Chang'an of the Sui and Tang dynasties. He interpreted the many distinctions as a narrow transcription of the precise sounds of this language, which he sought to reconstruct by treating the Sino-Xenic and modern dialect pronunciations as reflexes of the Qieyun categories. A small number of Qieyun categories were not distinguished in any of the surviving pronunciations, and Karlgren assigned them identical reconstructions. Karlgren's transcription involved a large number of consonants and vowels, many of them very unevenly distributed. Accepting Karlgren's reconstruction as a description of medieval speech, Chao Yuen Ren and Samuel E. Martin analysed its contrasts to extract a phonemic description. Hugh M. Stimson used a simplified version of Martin's system as an approximate indication of the pronunciation of Tang poetry. Karlgren himself viewed phonemic analysis as a detrimental "craze". Older versions of the rime dictionaries and rime tables came to light over the first half of the 20th century, and were used by such linguists as Wang Li, Dong Tonghe and Li Rong in their own reconstructions. Edwin Pulleyblank argued that the systems of the Qieyun and the rime tables should be reconstructed as two separate (but related) systems, which he called Early and Late Middle Chinese, respectively. He further argued that his Late Middle Chinese reflected the standard language of the late Tang dynasty. The preface of the Qieyun recovered in 1947 indicates that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late Northern and Southern dynasties period (a diasystem). Most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions recorded, but that each distinction did occur somewhere. Several scholars have compared the Qieyun system to cross-dialectal descriptions of English pronunciations, such as John C. Wells's lexical sets, or the notation used in some dictionaries. Thus for example the words "trap", "bath", "palm", "lot", "cloth" and "thought" contain four different vowels in Received Pronunciation and three in General American; both these pronunciations (and many others) can be specified in terms of these six cases. Although the Qieyun system is no longer viewed as describing a single form of speech, linguists argue that this enhances its value in reconstructing earlier forms of Chinese, just as a cross-dialectal description of English pronunciations contains more information about earlier forms of English than any single modern form. The emphasis has shifted from precise sounds (phonetics) to the structure of the phonological system. Thus Li Fang-Kuei, as a prelude to his reconstruction of Old Chinese, produced a revision of Karlgren's notation, adding new notations for the few categories not distinguished by Karlgren, without assigning them pronunciations. This notation is still widely used, but its symbols, based on Johan August Lundell's Swedish Dialect Alphabet, differ from the familiar International Phonetic Alphabet. To remedy this, William H. Baxter produced his own notation for the Qieyun and rime table categories for use in his reconstruction of Old Chinese. All reconstructions of Middle Chinese since Karlgren have followed his approach of beginning with the categories extracted from the rime dictionaries and tables, and using dialect and Sino-Xenic data (and in some cases transcription data) in a subsidiary role to fill in sound values for these categories. Jerry Norman and Weldon South Coblin have criticized this approach, arguing that viewing the dialect data through the rime dictionaries and rime tables distorts the evidence. They argue for a full application of the comparative method to the modern varieties, supplemented by systematic use of transcription data. Phonology The traditional analysis of the Chinese syllable, derived from the fanqie method, is into an initial consonant, or "initial", ( ) and a final ( ). Modern linguists subdivide the final into an optional "medial" glide ( ), a main vowel or "nucleus" ( ) and an optional final consonant or "coda" ( ). Most reconstructions of Middle Chinese include the glides and , as well as a combination , but many also include vocalic "glides" such as in a diphthong . Final consonants , , , , , , and are widely accepted, sometimes with additional codas such as or . Rhyming syllables in the Qieyun are assumed to have the same nuclear vowel and coda, but often have different medials. Middle Chinese reconstructions by different modern linguists vary. These differences are minor and fairly uncontroversial in terms of consonants; however, there is a more significant difference as to the vowels. The most widely used transcriptions are Li Fang-Kuei's modification of Karlgren's reconstruction and William Baxter's typeable notation. Initials The preface of the Yunjing identifies a traditional set of 36 initials, each named with an exemplary character. An earlier version comprising 30 initials is known from fragments among the Dunhuang manuscripts. In contrast, identifying the initials of the Qieyun required a painstaking analysis of fanqie relationships across the whole dictionary, a task first undertaken by the Cantonese scholar Chen Li in 1842 and refined by others since. This analysis revealed a slightly different set of initials from the traditional set. Moreover, most scholars believe that some distinctions among the 36 initials were no longer current at the time of the rime tables, but were retained under the influence of the earlier dictionaries. Early Middle Chinese (EMC) had three types of stops: voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated. There were five series of coronal obstruents, with a three-way distinction between dental (or alveolar), retroflex and palatal among fricatives and affricates, and a two-way dental/retroflex distinction among stop consonants. The following table shows the initials of Early Middle Chinese, with their traditional names and approximate values: Old Chinese had a simpler system with no palatal or retroflex consonants; the more complex system of EMC is thought to have arisen from a combination of Old Chinese obstruents with a following and/or . Bernhard Karlgren developed the first modern reconstruction of Middle Chinese. The main differences between Karlgren and recent reconstructions of the initials are: The reversal of and . Karlgren based his reconstruction on the Song dynasty rime tables. However, because of mergers between these two sounds between Early and Late Middle Chinese, the Chinese phonologists who created the rime tables could rely only on tradition to tell what the respective values of these two consonants were; evidently they were accidentally reversed at one stage. Karlgren also assumed that the EMC retroflex stops were actually palatal stops based on their tendency to co-occur with front vowels and , but this view is no longer held. Karlgren assumed that voiced consonants were actually breathy voiced. This is now assumed only for LMC, not EMC. Other sources from around the same time as the Qieyun reveal a slightly different system, which is believed to reflect southern pronunciation. In this system, the voiced fricatives and are not distinguished from the voiced affricates and , respectively, and the retroflex stops are not distinguished from the dental stops. Several changes occurred between the time of the Qieyun and the rime tables: Palatal sibilants merged with retroflex sibilants. merged with (hence reflecting four separate EMC phonemes). The palatal nasal also became retroflex, but turned into a new phoneme rather than merging with any existing phoneme. The palatal allophone of () merged with () as a single laryngeal initial (). A new series of labiodentals emerged from labials in certain environments, typically where both fronting and rounding occurred (e.g. plus a back vowel in William Baxter's reconstruction, or a front rounded vowel in Chan's reconstruction). However, modern Min dialects retain bilabial initials in such words, while modern Hakka dialects preserve them in some common words. Voiced obstruents gained phonetic breathy voice (still reflected in the Wu Chinese varieties). The following table shows a representative account of the initials of Late Middle Chinese. The voicing distinction is retained in modern Wu and Old Xiang dialects, but has disappeared from other varieties. In Min dialects the retroflex dentals are represented with the dentals, while elsewhere they have merged with the retroflex sibilants. In the south these have also merged with the dental sibilants, but the distinction is retained in most Mandarin dialects. The palatal series of modern Mandarin dialects, resulting from a merger of palatal allophones of dental sibilants and velars, is a much more recent development, unconnected with the earlier palatal consonants. Finals The remainder of a syllable after the initial consonant is the final, represented in the Qieyun by several equivalent second fanqie spellers. Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain between one and four finals. Finals are usually analysed as consisting of an optional medial, either a semivowel, reduced vowel or some combination of these, a vowel, an optional final consonant and a tone. Their reconstruction is much more difficult than the initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class. The generally accepted final consonants are semivowels and , nasals , and , and stops , and . Some authors also propose codas and , based on the separate treatment of certain rhyme classes in the dictionaries. Finals with vocalic and nasal codas may have one of three tones, named level, rising and departing. Finals with stop codas are distributed in the same way as corresponding nasal finals, and are described as their entering tone counterparts. There is much less agreement regarding the medials and vowels. It is generally agreed that "closed" finals had a rounded glide or vowel , and that the vowels in "outer" finals were more open than those in "inner" finals. The interpretation of the "divisions" is more controversial. Three classes of Qieyun finals occur exclusively in the first, second or fourth rows of the rime tables, respectively, and have thus been labelled finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals are labelled division-III finals because they occur in the third row, but they may also occur in the second or fourth rows for some initials. Most linguists agree that division-III finals contained a medial and that division-I finals had no such medial, but further details vary between reconstructions. To account for the many rhyme classes distinguished by the Qieyun, Karlgren proposed 16 vowels and 4 medials. Later scholars have proposed numerous variations. Tones The four tones of Middle Chinese were first listed by Shen Yue around 500 AD. The first three, the "even" or "level", "rising" and "departing" tones, occur in open syllables and syllables ending with nasal consonants. The remaining syllables, ending in stop consonants, were described as the "entering" tone counterparts of syllables ending with the corresponding nasals. The Qieyun and its successors were organized around these categories, with two volumes for the even tone, which had the most words, and one volume each for the other tones. Karlgren interpreted the names of the first three tones literally as level, rising and falling pitch contours, respectively. However, the pitch contours of modern reflexes of these categories vary so widely that it is impossible to reconstruct Middle Chinese contours. The oldest known description of the tones is found in a Song dynasty quotation from the early 9th century Yuanhe Yunpu (no longer extant): "Level tone is sad and stable. Rising tone is strident and rising. Departing tone is clear and distant. Entering tone is straight and abrupt." In 880, the Japanese monk Annen described the even tone as "straight and low", the rising tone as "straight and high", and the departing tone as "slightly drawn out". The tone system of Middle Chinese is strikingly similar to those of its neighbours in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area—proto-Hmong–Mien, proto-Tai and early Vietnamese—none of which is genetically related to Chinese. Moreover, the earliest strata of loans display a regular correspondence between tonal categories in the different languages. In 1954, André-Georges Haudricourt showed that Vietnamese counterparts of the rising and departing tones corresponded to final and , respectively, in other (atonal) Austroasiatic languages. He thus argued that the Austroasiatic proto-language had been atonal, and that the development of tones in Vietnamese had been conditioned by these consonants, which had subsequently disappeared, a process now known as tonogenesis. Haudricourt further proposed that tone in the other languages, including Middle Chinese, had a similar origin. Other scholars have since uncovered transcriptional and other evidence for these consonants in early forms of Chinese, and many linguists now believe that Old Chinese was atonal. Around the end of the first millennium AD, Middle Chinese and the southeast Asian languages experienced a phonemic split of their tone categories. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late Tang Dynasty, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as the "upper" and "lower". When voicing was lost in most varieties (except in the Wu and Old Xiang groups and some Gan dialects), this distinction became phonemic, yielding up to eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables. Cantonese maintains these tones and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables, resulting in a total of nine tonal categories. However, most varieties have fewer tonal distinctions. For example, in Mandarin dialects the lower rising category merged with the departing category to form the modern falling tone, leaving a system of four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such syllables were reassigned to one of the other four tones. Changes from Old to Modern Chinese Middle Chinese had a structure much like many modern varieties (especially conservative ones such as Cantonese), with largely monosyllabic words, little or no derivational morphology, three tones, and a syllable structure consisting of initial consonant, glide, main vowel and final consonant, with a large number of initial consonants and a fairly small number of final consonants. Without counting the glide, no clusters could occur at the beginning or end of a syllable. Old Chinese, on the other hand, had a significantly different structure. There were no tones, a smaller imbalance between possible initial and final consonants, and many initial and final clusters. There was a well-developed system of derivational and possibly inflectional morphology, formed using consonants added onto the beginning or end of a syllable. The system is similar to the system reconstructed for proto-Sino-Tibetan and still visible, for example, in Classical Tibetan; it is also largely similar to the system that occurs in the more conservative Austroasiatic languages, such as modern Khmer (Cambodian). The main changes leading to the modern varieties have been a reduction in the number of consonants and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones (typically through a pan-East-Asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones and eliminated the distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants). That has led to a gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables. Standard Mandarin has only about 1,300 possible syllables, and many other varieties of Chinese even fewer (for example, modern Shanghainese has been reported to have only about 700 syllables). The result in Mandarin, for example, has been the proliferation of the number of two-syllable compound words, which have steadily replaced former monosyllabic words; most words in Standard Mandarin now have two syllables. Grammar The extensive surviving body of Middle Chinese (MC) literature of various types provides much source material for the study of MC grammar. Due to the lack of morphological development, grammatical analysis of MC tends to focus on the nature and meanings of the individual words themselves and the syntactic rules by which their arrangement together in sentences communicates meaning. See also Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese Notes References Citations Works cited See also List of Corrigenda. Further reading External links Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology, Guillaume Jacques Traditional Chinese Phonology, Guillaume Jacques Historical Chinese Phonology/Philology at Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects, Dylan W.H. Sung Note on Tang pronunciations in Unicode, using the simplification of Karlgren's system used by Hugh M. Stimson in his Fifty-Five T'ang Poems Middle Chinese readings for 9000 characters in Baxter's notation StarLing website reconstructing Middle Chinese and Old Chinese as well as intermediate forms EastLing form yielding Middle Chinese from character search Hugh Stimson's Middle Chinese reconstruction and kTang data from Unicode.	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238097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfarin	Warfarin	Warfarin, sold under the brand name Coumadin among others, is a medication that is used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner). It is commonly used to prevent blood clots such as deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, and to prevent stroke in people who have atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease or artificial heart valves. Less commonly it is used following ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and orthopedic surgery. It is generally taken by mouth, but may also be used by injection into a vein. The common side effect is bleeding. Less common side effects may include areas of tissue damage and purple toes syndrome. Use is not recommended during pregnancy. It is recommended that the effects of warfarin typically be monitored by checking prothrombin time (INR) every one to four weeks. Many other medications and dietary factors can interact with warfarin, either increasing or decreasing its effectiveness. The effects of warfarin may be reversed with phytomenadione (vitamin K1), fresh frozen plasma, or prothrombin complex concentrate. Warfarin decreases blood clotting by blocking an enzyme called vitamin K epoxide reductase that reactivates vitamin K1. Without sufficient active vitamin K1, clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X have decreased clotting ability. The anticlotting protein C and protein S are also inhibited, but to a lesser degree. A few days are required for full effect to occur, and these effects can last for up to five days. Additionally, because the mechanism involves enzymes such as VKORC1, patients on warfarin with polymorphisms of the enzymes may require adjustments in therapy to account if the genetic variant that they have is more readily inhibited by warfarin, thus requiring lower doses. Warfarin first came into large-scale commercial use in 1948 as a rat poison. Warfarin was formally approved for human use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat blood clots in 1954. In 1955, warfarin's reputation as a safe and acceptable treatment was bolstered when President Dwight D. Eisenhower received warfarin following a massive and highly publicized heart attack. Eisenhower's illness kickstarted a transformation in medicine where coronary artery disease, arterial plaques, and ischemic strokes were treated and prevented by using blood thinners such as warfarin. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Warfarin is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 50th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 14million prescriptions. Medical uses Warfarin is used to decrease the tendency for thrombosis, or as secondary prophylaxis (prevention of further episodes) in those individuals who have already formed a blood clot (thrombus). Warfarin treatment can help prevent formation of future blood clots and help reduce the risk of embolism (migration of a thrombus to a spot where it blocks blood supply to a vital organ). Warfarin is best suited for anticoagulation (clot formation inhibition) in areas of slowly running blood (such as in veins and the pooled blood behind artificial and natural valves), and in blood pooled in dysfunctional cardiac atria. Thus, common clinical indications for warfarin use are atrial fibrillation, the presence of artificial heart valves, deep venous thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism (where the embolized clots first form in veins). Warfarin is also used in antiphospholipid syndrome. It has been used occasionally after heart attacks (myocardial infarctions), but is far less effective at preventing new thromboses in coronary arteries. Prevention of clotting in arteries is usually undertaken with antiplatelet drugs, which act by a different mechanism from warfarin (which normally has no effect on platelet function). It can be used to treat people following ischemic strokes due to atrial fibrillation, though direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) may offer greater benefits. Dosing Dosing of warfarin is complicated because it is known to interact with many commonly used medications and certain foods. These interactions may enhance or reduce warfarin's anticoagulation effect. To optimize the therapeutic effect without risking dangerous side effects such as bleeding, close monitoring of the degree of anticoagulation is required by a blood test measuring an INR. During the initial stage of treatment, INR is checked daily; intervals between tests can be lengthened if the patient manages stable therapeutic INR levels on an unchanged warfarin dose. Newer point-of-care testing is available and has increased the ease of INR testing in the outpatient setting. Instead of a blood draw, the point of care test involves a simple finger prick. Maintenance dose Recommendations by many national bodies, including the American College of Chest Physicians, have been distilled to help manage dose adjustments. The maintenance dose of warfarin can fluctuate significantly depending on the amount of vitamin K1 in the diet. Keeping vitamin K1 intake at a stable level can prevent these fluctuations. Leafy green vegetables tend to contain higher amounts of vitamin K1. Green parts of members of the family Apiaceae, such as parsley, cilantro, and dill are extremely rich sources of vitamin K; cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and broccoli, as well as the darker varieties of lettuces and other leafy greens, are also relatively high in vitamin K1. Green vegetables such as peas and green beans do not have such high amounts of vitamin K1 as leafy greens. Certain vegetable oils have high amounts of vitamin K1. Foods low in vitamin K1 include roots, bulbs, tubers, and most fruits and fruit juices. Cereals, grains, and other milled products are also low in vitamin K1. Self-testing Anticoagulation with warfarin can also be monitored by patients at home. International guidelines on home testing were published in 2005. The guidelines stated: The consensus agrees that patient self-testing and patient self-management are effective methods of monitoring oral anticoagulation therapy, providing outcomes at least as good as, and possibly better than, those achieved with an anticoagulation clinic. All patients must be appropriately selected and trained. Currently available self-testing/self-management devices give INR results that are comparable with those obtained in laboratory testing. A 2006 systematic review and meta-analysis of 14 randomized trials showed home testing led to a reduced incidence of complications (thrombosis and major bleeding), and improved the time in the therapeutic range. Alternative anticoagulants In some countries, other coumarins are used instead of warfarin, such as acenocoumarol and phenprocoumon. These have a shorter (acenocoumarol) or longer (phenprocoumon) half-life, and are not completely interchangeable with warfarin. Several types of anticoagulant drugs offering the efficacy of warfarin without a need for monitoring, such as dabigatran, apixaban, edoxaban, and rivaroxaban, have been approved in a number of countries for classical warfarin uses. Complementing these drugs are reversal agents available for dabigatran (idarucizumab), and for apixaban, and rivaroxaban (andexanet alfa). Andexanet alfa is suggested for edoxaban, but use of it is considered off label due to limited evidence. A reversal agent for dabigatran, apixaban, edoxaban, and rivaroxaban is in development (ciraparantag). Contraindications All anticoagulants are generally contraindicated in situations in which the reduction in clotting that they cause might lead to serious and potentially life-threatening bleeds. This includes people with active bleeding conditions (such as gastrointestinal ulcers), or disease states with increased risk of bleeding (e.g., low platelets, severe liver disease, uncontrolled hypertension). For patients undergoing surgery, treatment with anticoagulants is generally suspended. Similarly, spinal or lumbar puncture (e.g., spinal injections, epidurals, etc.) carry increased risk so treatment is suspended prior to these procedures. Warfarin should not be given to people with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia until platelet count has improved or normalised. Warfarin is usually best avoided in people with protein C or protein S deficiency as these thrombophilic conditions increase the risk of skin necrosis, which is a rare but serious side effect associated with warfarin. Pregnancy Warfarin is contraindicated in pregnancy, as it passes through the placental barrier and may cause bleeding in the fetus; warfarin use during pregnancy is commonly associated with spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, neonatal death, and preterm birth. Coumarins (such as warfarin) are also teratogens, that is, they cause birth defects; the incidence of birth defects in infants exposed to warfarin in utero appears to be around 5%, although higher figures (up to 30%) have been reported in some studies. Depending on when exposure occurs during pregnancy, two distinct combinations of congenital abnormalities can arise. First trimester of pregnancy Usually, warfarin is avoided in the first trimester, and a low molecular weight heparin such as enoxaparin is substituted. With heparin, risk of maternal haemorrhage and other complications are still increased, but heparins do not cross the placental barrier, so do not cause birth defects. Various solutions exist for the time around delivery. When warfarin (or another 4-hydroxycoumarin derivative) is given during the first trimester—particularly between the sixth and ninth weeks of pregnancy—a constellation of birth defects known variously as fetal warfarin syndrome (FWS), warfarin embryopathy, or coumarin embryopathy can occur. FWS is characterized mainly by skeletal abnormalities, which include nasal hypoplasia, a depressed or narrowed nasal bridge, scoliosis, and calcifications in the vertebral column, femur, and heel bone, which show a peculiar stippled appearance on X-rays. Limb abnormalities, such as brachydactyly (unusually short fingers and toes) or underdeveloped extremities, can also occur. Common nonskeletal features of FWS include low birth weight and developmental disabilities. Second trimester and later Warfarin administration in the second and third trimesters is much less commonly associated with birth defects, and when they do occur, are considerably different from fetal warfarin syndrome. The most common congenital abnormalities associated with warfarin use in late pregnancy are central nervous system disorders, including spasticity and seizures, and eye defects. Because of such later pregnancy birth defects, anticoagulation with warfarin poses a problem in pregnant women requiring warfarin for vital indications, such as stroke prevention in those with artificial heart valves. According to the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP), warfarin may be used in lactating women who wish to breast-feed their infants. Available data does not suggest that warfarin crosses into the breast milk. Similarly, INR levels should be checked to avoid adverse effects. Adverse effects Bleeding The only common side effect of warfarin is bleeding. The risk of severe bleeding is small but definite (a typical yearly rate of 1–3% has been reported), and any benefit needs to outweigh this risk when warfarin is considered. All types of bleeding occur more commonly, but the most severe ones are those involving the brain (intracerebral hemorrhage/hemorrhagic stroke) and the spinal cord. Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range (due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions). This risk increases greatly once the INR exceeds 4.5. A number of risk scores exist to predict bleeding in people using warfarin and similar anticoagulants. A commonly used score (HAS-BLED) includes known predictors of warfarin-related bleeding: uncontrolled high blood pressure (H), abnormal kidney function (A), previous stroke (S), known previous bleeding condition (B), previous labile INR when on anticoagulation (L), elderly as defined by age over 65 (E), and drugs associated with bleeding (e.g., aspirin) or alcohol misuse (D). While their use is recommended in clinical practice guidelines, they are only moderately effective in predicting bleeding risk and do not perform well in predicting hemorrhagic stroke. Bleeding risk may be increased in people on hemodialysis. Another score used to assess bleeding risk on anticoagulation, specifically Warfarin or Coumadin, is the ATRIA score, which uses a weighted additive scale of clinical findings to determine bleeding risk stratification. The risks of bleeding are increased further when warfarin is combined with antiplatelet drugs such as clopidogrel, aspirin, or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Warfarin necrosis A rare but serious complication resulting from treatment with warfarin is warfarin necrosis, which occurs more frequently shortly after commencing treatment in patients with a deficiency of protein C. Protein C is an innate anticoagulant that, like the procoagulant factors whose synthesis warfarin inhibits, requires vitamin K-dependent carboxylation for its activity. Since warfarin initially decreases protein C levels faster than the coagulation factors, it can paradoxically increase the blood's tendency to coagulate when treatment is first begun (many patients when starting on warfarin are given heparin in parallel to combat this), leading to massive thrombosis with skin necrosis and gangrene of limbs. Its natural counterpart, purpura fulminans, occurs in children who are homozygous for certain protein C mutations. Osteoporosis After initial reports that warfarin could reduce bone mineral density, several studies demonstrated a link between warfarin use and osteoporosis-related fracture. A 1999 study in 572 women taking warfarin for deep venous thrombosis, risk of vertebral fracture and rib fracture was increased; other fracture types did not occur more commonly. A 2002 study looking at a randomly selected selection of 1,523 patients with osteoporotic fracture found no increased exposure to anticoagulants compared to controls, and neither did stratification of the duration of anticoagulation reveal a trend towards fracture. A 2006 retrospective study of 14,564 Medicare recipients showed that warfarin use for more than one year was linked with a 60% increased risk of osteoporosis-related fracture in men; there was no association in women. The mechanism was thought to be a combination of reduced intake of vitamin K (a vitamin necessary for bone health) and inhibition by warfarin of vitamin K-mediated carboxylation of certain bone proteins, rendering them nonfunctional. Purple toe syndrome Another rare complication that may occur early during warfarin treatment (usually within 3 to 8 weeks of commencement) is purple toe syndrome. This condition is thought to result from small deposits of cholesterol breaking loose and causing embolisms in blood vessels in the skin of the feet, which causes a blueish-purple colour and may be painful. It is typically thought to affect the big toe, but it affects other parts of the feet as well, including the bottom of the foot (plantar surface). The occurrence of purple toe syndrome may require discontinuation of warfarin. Calcification Several studies have also implicated warfarin use in valvular and vascular calcification. No specific treatment is available, but some modalities are under investigation. Overdose The major side effect of warfarin use is bleeding. Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range (due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions). Many drug interactions can increase the effect of warfarin, also causing an overdose. For people who need rapid reversal of warfarin – such as due to serious bleeding – or who need emergency surgery, the effects of warfarin can be reversed with vitamin K, prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC), or fresh frozen plasma (FFP). Generally, 4-factor PCC can be given more quickly than FFP, the amount needed is a smaller volume of fluid than FFP, and does not require ABO blood typing. Administration of PCCs result in rapid hemostasis, similar to that of FFP; namely, with comparable rates of thromboembolic events, but with reduced rates of volume overload. Blood products should not be routinely used to reverse warfarin overdose, when vitamin K could work alone. While PCC has been found in lab tests to be better than FFP, when rapid reversal is needed, as of 2018, it was unclear whether there is a difference in outcomes such as death or disability. Details on reversing warfarin are provided in clinical practice guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. For people with an international normalized ratio (INR) between 4.5 and 10.0, a small dose (about 1000 mcg = one milligram) of oral vitamin K is sufficient. When warfarin is being given and INR is in therapeutic range, simple discontinuation of the drug for five days is usually enough to reverse the effect and cause INR to drop below 1.5. Interactions Warfarin interacts with many commonly used drugs, and the metabolism of warfarin varies greatly between patients. Some foods have also been reported to interact with warfarin. Apart from the metabolic interactions, highly protein bound drugs can displace warfarin from serum albumin and cause an increase in the INR. This makes finding the correct dosage difficult, and accentuates the need of monitoring; when initiating a medication that is known to interact with warfarin (e.g., simvastatin), INR checks are increased or dosages adjusted until a new ideal dosage is found. When taken with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), warfarin increases the risk for gastrointestinal bleeding. This increased risk is due to the anti-platelet effect of NSAIDs as well as the possible damage to the gastrointestinal mucosa. Many commonly used antibiotics, such as metronidazole or the macrolides, will greatly increase the effect of warfarin by reducing the metabolism of warfarin in the body. Other broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce the amount of the normal bacterial flora in the bowel, which make significant quantities of vitamin K1, thus potentiating the effect of warfarin. In addition, food that contains large quantities of vitamin K1 will reduce the warfarin effect. Thyroid activity also appears to influence warfarin dosing requirements; hypothyroidism (decreased thyroid function) makes people less responsive to warfarin treatment, while hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) boosts the anticoagulant effect. Several mechanisms have been proposed for this effect, including changes in the rate of breakdown of clotting factors and changes in the metabolism of warfarin. Excessive use of alcohol is also known to affect the metabolism of warfarin and can elevate the INR and thus increase the risk of bleeding. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) product insert on warfarin states that alcohol should be avoided. The Cleveland Clinic suggests that when taking warfarin one should not drink more than "one beer, 6 oz of wine, or one shot of alcohol per day". Warfarin also interacts with many herbs and spices, some used in food (such as ginger and garlic) and others used purely for medicinal purposes (such as ginseng and Ginkgo biloba). All may increase bleeding and bruising in people taking warfarin; similar effects have been reported with borage (starflower) oil. St. John's Wort, sometimes recommended to help with mild to moderate depression, reduces the effectiveness of a given dose of warfarin; it induces the enzymes that break down warfarin in the body, causing a reduced anticoagulant effect. Between 2003 and 2004, the UK Committee on Safety of Medicines received several reports of increased INR and risk of haemorrhage in people taking warfarin and cranberry juice. Data establishing a causal relationship is still lacking, and a 2006 review found no cases of this interaction reported to the FDA; nevertheless, several authors have recommended that both doctors and patients be made aware of its possibility. The mechanism behind the interaction is still unclear. Chemistry X-ray crystallographic studies of warfarin show that it exists in tautomeric form, as the cyclic hemiketal, which is formed from the 4-hydroxycoumarin and the ketone in the 3-position substituent. However, the existence of many 4-hydroxycoumadin anticoagulants (for example phenprocoumon) that possess no ketone group in the 3-substituent to form such a structure, suggests that the hemiketal must tautomerise to the 4-hydroxy form in order for warfarin to be active. Stereochemistry Warfarin contains a stereocenter and consists of two enantiomers. This is a racemate, i.e., a 1: 1 mixture of ( R ) – and the ( S ) – form: Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics Warfarin consists of a racemic mixture of two active enantiomers—R- and S- forms—each of which is cleared by different pathways. S-warfarin is 2–5 times more potent than the R-isomer in producing an anticoagulant response. Both the enantiomers of warfarin undergo CYP-mediated metabolism by many different CYPs to form 3',4',6,7,8 and 10-hydroxy warfarin metabolites, major being 7-OH warfarin formed from S-warfarin by CYP2C9 and 10-OH warfarin from R-warfarin by CYP3A4. Warfarin is slower-acting than the common anticoagulant heparin, though it has a number of advantages. Heparin must be given by injection, whereas warfarin is available orally. Warfarin has a long half-life and need only be given once a day. Heparin can also cause a prothrombotic condition, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (an antibody-mediated decrease in platelet levels), which increases the risk for thrombosis. It takes several days for warfarin to reach the therapeutic effect since the circulating coagulation factors are not affected by the drug (thrombin has a half-life time of days). Warfarin's long half-life means that it remains effective for several days after it is stopped. Furthermore, if given initially without additional anticoagulant cover, it can increase thrombosis risk (see below). Mechanism of action While warfarin is one of several drugs popularly referred to as a "blood thinner", this is a misnomer since it does not affect the viscosity of blood. Warfarin inhibits the vitamin K-dependent synthesis of biologically active forms of the clotting factors II, VII, IX and X, as well as the regulatory factors protein C, protein S, and protein Z. Other proteins not involved in blood clotting, such as osteocalcin, or matrix Gla protein, may also be affected. The precursors of these factors require gamma carboxylation of their glutamic acid residues to allow the coagulation factors to bind to phospholipid surfaces inside blood vessels, on the vascular endothelium. The enzyme that carries out the carboxylation of glutamic acid is gamma-glutamyl carboxylase. The carboxylation reaction will proceed only if the carboxylase enzyme is able to convert a reduced form of vitamin K (vitamin K hydroquinone) to vitamin K epoxide at the same time. The vitamin K epoxide is in turn recycled back to vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone by another enzyme, the vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR). Warfarin inhibits vitamin K epoxide reductase (specifically the VKORC1 subunit), thereby diminishing available vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in the tissues, which decreases the carboxylation activity of the glutamyl carboxylase. When this occurs, the coagulation factors are no longer carboxylated at certain glutamic acid residues, and are incapable of binding to the endothelial surface of blood vessels, and are thus biologically inactive. As the body's stores of previously produced active factors degrade (over several days) and are replaced by inactive factors, the anticoagulation effect becomes apparent. The coagulation factors are produced, but have decreased functionality due to undercarboxylation; they are collectively referred to as PIVKAs (proteins induced [by] vitamin K absence), and individual coagulation factors as PIVKA-number (e.g., PIVKA-II). When warfarin is newly started, it may promote clot formation temporarily. This is because the level of protein C and protein S are also dependent on vitamin K activity. Warfarin causes decline in protein C levels in first 36 hours. In addition, reduced levels of protein S lead to a reduction in activity of protein C (for which it is the co-factor) and therefore reduced degradation of factor Va and factor VIIIa. Although loading doses of warfarin over 5 mg also produce a precipitous decline in factor VII, resulting in an initial prolongation of the INR, full antithrombotic effect does not take place until significant reduction in factor II occurs days later. The haemostasis system becomes temporarily biased towards thrombus formation, leading to a prothrombotic state. Thus, when warfarin is loaded rapidly at greater than 5 mg per day, it is beneficial to co-administer heparin, an anticoagulant that acts upon antithrombin and helps reduce the risk of thrombosis, with warfarin therapy for four to five days, in order to have the benefit of anticoagulation from heparin until the full effect of warfarin has been achieved. Pharmacogenomics Warfarin activity is determined partially by genetic factors. Polymorphisms in two genes (VKORC1 and CYP2C9) play a particularly large role in response to warfarin. VKORC1 polymorphisms explain 30% of the dose variation between patients: particular mutations make VKORC1 less susceptible to suppression by warfarin. There are two main haplotypes that explain 25% of variation: low-dose haplotype group (A) and a high-dose haplotype group (B). VKORC1 polymorphisms explain why African Americans are on average relatively resistant to warfarin (higher proportion of group B haplotypes), while Asian Americans are generally more sensitive (higher proportion of group A haplotypes). Group A VKORC1 polymorphisms lead to a more rapid achievement of a therapeutic INR, but also a shorter time to reach an INR over 4, which is associated with bleeding. CYP2C9 polymorphisms explain 10% of the dose variation between patients, mainly among Caucasian patients as these variants are rare in African American and most Asian populations. These CYP2C9 polymorphisms do not influence time to effective INR as opposed toVKORC1, but does shorten the time to INR >4. Despite the promise of pharmacogenomic testing in warfarin dosing, its use in clinical practice is controversial. In August 2009, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services concluded that "the available evidence does not demonstrate that pharmacogenomic testing of CYP2C9 or VKORC1 alleles to predict warfarin responsiveness improves health outcomes in Medicare beneficiaries." A 2014 meta-analysis showed that using genotype-based dosing did not confer benefit in terms of time within therapeutic range, excessive anticoagulation (as defined by INR greater than 4), or a reduction in either major bleeding or thromboembolic events. History In the early 1920s, there was an outbreak of a previously unrecognized cattle disease in the northern United States and Canada. Cattle were haemorrhaging after minor procedures, and on some occasions spontaneously. For example, 21 out of 22 cows died after dehorning, and 12 out of 25 bulls died after castration. All of these animals had bled to death. In 1921, Frank Schofield, a Canadian veterinary pathologist, determined that the cattle were ingesting moldy silage made from sweet clover, and that this was functioning as a potent anticoagulant. Only spoiled hay made from sweet clover (grown in northern states of the US and in Canada since the turn of the century) produced the disease. Schofield separated good clover stalks and damaged clover stalks from the same hay mow, and fed each to a different rabbit. The rabbit that had ingested the good stalks remained well, but the rabbit that had ingested the damaged stalks died from a haemorrhagic illness. A duplicate experiment with a different sample of clover hay produced the same result. In 1929, North Dakota veterinarian Lee M. Roderick demonstrated that the condition was due to a lack of functioning prothrombin. The identity of the anticoagulant substance in spoiled sweet clover remained a mystery until 1940. In 1933 Karl Paul Link and his lab of chemists working at the University of Wisconsin set out to isolate and characterize the haemorrhagic agent from the spoiled hay. It took five years before Link's student Harold A. Campbell recovered 6 mg of crystalline anticoagulant. Next, Link's student Mark A. Stahmann took over the project and initiated a large-scale extraction, isolating 1.8 g of recrystallized anticoagulant in about 4 months. This was enough material for Stahmann and Charles F. Huebner to check their results against Campbell's, and to thoroughly characterize the compound. Through degradation experiments they established that the anticoagulant was 3,3'-methylenebis-(4-hydroxycoumarin), which they later named dicoumarol. They confirmed their results by synthesizing dicoumarol and proving in 1940 that it was identical to the naturally occurring agent. Dicoumarol was a product of the plant molecule coumarin (not to be confused with Coumadin, a later tradename for warfarin). Coumarin is now known to be present in many plants, and produces the notably sweet smell of freshly cut grass or hay and plants like sweet grass; in fact, the plant's high content of coumarin is responsible for the original common name of "sweet clover", which is named for its sweet smell, not its bitter taste. They are present notably in woodruff (Galium odoratum, Rubiaceae), and at lower levels in licorice, lavender, and various other species. The name coumarin comes from the French pronunciation of coumarou, the Indian name for the tree of the tonka bean, which notably contains a high concentration of coumarin. However, coumarins themselves do not influence clotting or warfarin-like action, but must first be metabolized by various fungi into compounds such as 4-hydroxycoumarin, then further (in the presence of naturally occurring formaldehyde) into dicoumarol, in order to have any anticoagulant properties. Over the next few years, numerous similar chemicals (specifically 4-hydroxycoumarins with a large aromatic substituent at the 3 position) were found to have the same anticoagulant properties. The first drug in the class to be widely commercialized was dicoumarol itself, patented in 1941 and later used as a pharmaceutical. Karl Link continued working on developing more potent coumarin-based anticoagulants for use as rodent poisons, resulting in warfarin in 1948. The name "warfarin" stems from the acronym WARF, for Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation + the ending -arin indicating its link with coumarin. Warfarin was first registered for use as a rodenticide in the US in 1948, and was immediately popular. Although warfarin was developed by Link, the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation financially supported the research and was assigned the patent. After an incident in 1951, in which an army inductee attempted suicide with multiple doses of warfarin in rodenticide but recovered fully after presenting to a Naval Hospital and being treated with vitamin K (by then known as a specific antidote), studies began in the use of warfarin as a therapeutic anticoagulant. It was found to be generally superior to dicoumarol, and in 1954 was approved for medical use in humans. An early recipient of warfarin was US President Dwight Eisenhower, who was prescribed the drug after having a heart attack in 1955. The exact mechanism of action remained unknown until it was demonstrated, in 1978, that warfarin inhibits the enzyme epoxide reductase, and hence interferes with vitamin K metabolism. It has been posited that Lavrenty Beria and I. V. Khrustalyov conspired to use warfarin to poison Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Warfarin is tasteless and colourless, and produces symptoms similar to those that Stalin exhibited. Pest control Rodents Coumarins (4-hydroxycoumarin derivatives) are used as rodenticides for controlling rats and mice in residential, industrial, and agricultural areas. Warfarin is both odorless and tasteless, and is effective when mixed with food bait, because the rodents will return to the bait and continue to feed over a period of days until a lethal dose is accumulated (considered to be 1 mg/kg/day over about six days). It may also be mixed with talc and used as a tracking powder, which accumulates on the animal's skin and fur, and is subsequently consumed during grooming. The for warfarin is 50–500mg/kg for a single dose, after 5–7 days. 1mg/kg for repeated daily doses for 5 days, after 5–8 days. The IDLH value is 100 mg/m3 (warfarin; various species). The use of warfarin itself as a rat poison is now declining, because many rat populations have developed resistance to it, and poisons of considerably greater potency are now available. Resistance is due to an autosomal dominant on chromosome 1 in Norway rats. This has arisen independently and become fixed several times around the world. Other 4-hydroxycoumarins used as rodenticides include coumatetralyl and brodifacoum, which is sometimes referred to as "super-warfarin", because it is more potent, longer-acting, and effective even in rat and mouse populations that are resistant to warfarin. Unlike warfarin, which is readily excreted, newer anticoagulant poisons also accumulate in the liver and kidneys after ingestion. However, such rodenticides may also accumulate in birds of prey and other animals that eat the poisoned rodents or baits. Vampire bats Warfarin is used to cull vampire bat populations in areas where human–wildlife conflict is a concern. Vampire bats are captured with mist nets and coated with a combination of petroleum jelly and warfarin. The bat returns to its roost and other members of the roost become poisoned as well by ingesting the warfarin after reciprocal grooming. Suspected vampire bat roosts may also be coated in the warfarin solution, though this kills other bat species and remains in the environment for years. The efficacy of killing vampire bats to reduce rabies transmission is questionable, however; a study in Peru showed that culling programs did not lead to lower transmission rates of rabies to livestock and humans. Occupational safety People can be exposed to warfarin in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin absorption, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for warfarin exposure in the workplace as 0.1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 100 mg/m3, warfarin is immediately dangerous to life and health. It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities. Names Warfarin is a derivative of dicoumarol, an anticoagulant originally discovered in spoiled sweet clover. Dicoumarol, in turn, is from coumarin, a sweet-smelling but coagulation-inactive chemical found in "sweet" clover and tonka beans (also known as cumaru from which coumarin's name derives). The name warfarin stems from its discovery at the University of Wisconsin, incorporating the acronym for the organization that funded the key research, WARF for the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation and the ending -arin, indicating its link with coumarin. The drug is marketed under many brand and generic names including Aldocumar, Anasmol, Anticoag, Befarin, Cavamed, Cicoxil, Circuvit, Cofarin, Coumadin, Coumadine, Cumar, Farin, Foley, Haemofarin, Jantoven, Kovar, Lawarin, Maforan, Marevan, Marfarin, Marivanil, Martefarin, Morfarin, Orfarin, Panwarfin, Scheme, Simarc, Varfarin, Varfarins, Varfine, Waran, Warcok, Warf, Warfareks, Warfarin, Warfarina, Warfarine, Warfarinum, Warfen, Warfin, Warik, Warin, Warlin, and Zyfarin. Research Long-term use of VKOR inhibitors as anticoagulation therapy was associated with lower cancer incidence. References Further reading External links Historical information on warfarin from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards 4-Hydroxycoumarins Anticoagulant rodenticides Coumarin drugs Teratogens World Health Organization essential medicines Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate	[ -0.1610536277294159, 0.3686407804489136, 0.4119986891746521, -0.6923673748970032, -0.361032098531723, -0.12967900931835175, 0.3585205674171448, -0.20442919433116913, -0.2637921869754791, -0.2617871165275574, -0.3224656283855438, 0.8379042744636536, -0.24924816191196442, 0.3972947597503662, 0.4002853333950043, 0.8305123448371887, 0.17400021851062775, 0.7013234496116638, 0.19928263127803802, -0.5539122819900513, -0.48312070965766907, -0.29932111501693726, 0.45278000831604004, -0.18138441443443298, 0.15598854422569275, -0.03468630462884903, 0.27523013949394226, 0.5946568250656128, 0.03639459237456322, 0.04768070951104164, 0.3044687807559967, 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238104	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20MacKay	Peter MacKay	Peter Gordon MacKay (born September 27, 1965) is a Canadian lawyer and politician. He was a Member of Parliament from 1997 to 2015 and has served as Minister of Justice and Attorney General (2013–2015), Minister of National Defence (2007–2013), and Minister of Foreign Affairs (2006–2007) in the Cabinet of Canada under Prime Minister Stephen Harper. MacKay was the final leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada (PC Party), and he agreed to merge the party with Stephen Harper's Canadian Alliance in 2003, forming the Conservative Party of Canada and making MacKay one of the co-founders of the current conservative wing of Canadian politics. The son of Canadian politician and Minister of Public Works Elmer MacKay, MacKay received his undergraduate degree from Carleton University and his law degree from Dalhousie University. MacKay represented the riding of Pictou—Antigonish—Guysborough from 1997 to 2004, and the riding of Central Nova from 2004 until 2015, when he decided not to run in that year's federal election. With the defeat of the Conservatives in the 2015 federal election, he was considered a potential candidate to succeed Stephen Harper as permanent leader of the party. Between 2015 and 2020, he was a partner with Baker McKenzie at their Toronto office. On January 15, 2020, MacKay announced his candidacy for the 2020 Conservative leadership race. He was defeated by former veterans affairs minister Erin O’Toole on the third ballot of the leadership vote. Since the race, he moved back to Nova Scotia and is now a senior counsel with the law firm McInnes Cooper, and a strategic advisor with Deloitte Canada. Early life and career Peter MacKay was born in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia. His father, Elmer MacKay, is a former PC cabinet minister, lumber businessman, and lawyer. His mother, Eirene Macha MacKay (née Delap; 1938–2017), was a psychologist and peace activist; through her, Peter MacKay is descended from James Alexander, 3rd Earl of Caledon and James Grimston, 1st Earl of Verulam. MacKay grew up in Wolfville, Nova Scotia with his three siblings. He graduated from Horton High School in Greenwich, Nova Scotia, and then went on to graduate with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Acadia University/Carleton University in 1987. MacKay then studied law at Dalhousie University and was called to the Nova Scotia Bar in June 1991. He worked for Thyssen Henschel, a steel producer, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and in Düsseldorf and Kassel, Germany. In 1993, MacKay accepted an appointment as Crown Attorney for the Central Region of Nova Scotia. He prosecuted cases at all levels, including youth and provincial courts as well as the Supreme Court of Canada. MacKay has publicly stated that the major impetus for his entry into federal politics was his frustrations with the shortcomings in the justice system, particularly his perception that the courts do not care about the impact crime has on victims. Member of Parliament MacKay was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada in the June 2, 1997 federal election for Pictou—Antigonish—Guysborough, a riding in northeastern Nova Scotia. He was one of a handful of newly elected "Young Turk" PC MPs (including John Herron, André Bachand and Scott Brison), who were under 35 years old when elected and were considered the future leadership material that might restore the ailing Tories to their glory days. In his first term of office, MacKay served as Justice Critic and House Leader for the Progressive Conservative parliamentary caucus. MacKay was the PC member of the Board of Internal Economy and the Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights. He also acted as an associate member of the Standing Committees on Canadian Heritage, Finance and the sub-committee on the Study of Sport. Peter MacKay served as PC Party House Leader from September 23, 1997, to September 12, 2001. MacKay was re-elected in the 2000 federal election and was frequently touted by the media as a possible successor to PC Party leader Joe Clark. Many of his initial supporters referred to his strong performances in the House of Commons and magnetism as key attributes that would make him a popular leader. MacKay has been voted the "sexiest male MP in the House of Commons" by the Hill Times (a Parliament Hill newspaper) for six years in a row. When asked in a 2001 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation documentary on the resurgence of the PC Party if he would ever consider running for the PC leadership, MacKay quipped, "If there's one thing I've learned in politics it's 'never say never.' Jean Charest taught me that." In August 2001, he was one of several PC MPs to engage in open cooperation talks with disaffected Canadian Alliance MPs in Mont-Tremblant, Quebec. Eventually a union of sorts was created between the PCs and the newly formed Democratic Representative Caucus (DRC). MacKay was appointed House Leader of the new PC-DR Parliamentary Coalition Caucus when it was formally recognized as a political body on September 10, 2001. The PC-DR initiative collapsed in April 2002, raising questions about Clark's leadership. Clark announced his impending resignation as party leader at the PC Party's bi-annual convention held in Edmonton, Alberta in August 2002. MacKay's name was one of the first to be raised as a possible leadership contender. 2003 Progressive Conservative leadership race MacKay was largely seen as the assumed victor of the race from the outset of the leadership contest. Ultimately, his candidacy was helped by the absence of so-called "dream candidates" such as provincial Progressive Conservative Premiers Bernard Lord, Mike Harris and Ralph Klein who did not run for the leadership. MacKay formally launched his leadership campaign in his hometown of New Glasgow in January 2003. From the onset of the campaign, MacKay insisted that his primary goal upon assuming the leadership would be the rebuilding the fractured conservative movement from within the PC tent. For much of the race, MacKay was the clear front-runner. Several opponents, including former PC Party Treasurer Jim Prentice, social conservative candidate Craig Chandler, and Red Tory Nova Scotia MP Scott Brison, painted MacKay as a status quo or "establishment" candidate who could effectively question the Prime Minister. MacKay's campaign was largely based on his leadership skills and a national organization rather than on policies or new directions. MacKay is largely viewed by political analysts as a Red Tory. He voted in favour of same-sex marriage in 2006. Leadership convention MacKay entered the first ballot of the PC leadership convention held on May 31, 2003 with roughly 41% of the delegates supporting him. However, on the second ballot, MacKay's support dropped to 39%. On the third ballot, MacKay's support reached 45% but many of his supporters were convinced that he had hit his popular peak. Some analysts noted that the eliminated third-place challenger David Orchard drew his 25% bulk of delegate supporters largely from the Western prairie provinces. Orchard was prepared to speak with either MacKay or Prentice to determine if a deal could be reached over some of the issues that he raised during the leadership campaign. As the results of the third ballot were called, MacKay's campaign manager, PC Senator Noël Kinsella, hastily arranged a backroom meeting between MacKay, Orchard, and their campaign advisors. During the meeting, MacKay reached a deal with his rival, and Orchard emerged from the room urging his delegates to support MacKay. Press officials immediately demanded to know what had inspired Orchard's surprise move. Orchard repeatedly referred to a "gentleman's agreement" made between himself and MacKay that had led to his qualified support. MacKay won the final ballot with nearly 65% of the delegates supporting him. For the next few weeks, the specific details of the "Orchard deal" remained vague: a secret between MacKay, Orchard, and their advisors. However, it was eventually revealed that the "Orchard deal" promised a review of the PC Party's policies on the North American Free Trade Agreement, no merger or joint candidates with the Canadian Alliance, and a promise to redouble efforts to rebuild the national status of the Progressive Conservative Party. The agreement also included re-examining the PC Party's policies on government subsidies for national railways and preserving the environment. The deal also requested that MacKay "clean up" the party's head office and specifically requested that the party's National Director be fired. Further evidence later revealed Scott Brison's cellphone number written in the margins of the note for some unexplained reason. In an attempt to heal internal rifts after the convention, MacKay edited out the number. After Brison defected to the Liberal party, however, MacKay revealed the original copy. The agreement prompted much outrage and controversy amongst United Alternative supporters and was ribaldly referred to by CA MP Jason Kenney as "a deal with the Devil". At first, MacKay seemed to be willing to adhere to the deal. In June, several Clark-appointed personnel were let go from the party's main office and MacKay appointed new experienced staff whose loyalties were more closely linked to himself and former Prime Minister and PC Party leader Brian Mulroney. MacKay also appointed a couple of low level staff workers who had been supportive of David Orchard's leadership bid. In July, MacKay struck up a "Blue Ribbon PC Policy Review Panel", made up of conservative MPs, Senators, and Orchard himself, that was to be chaired by MP Bill Casey, in order to reexamine the party's policies on NAFTA. The committee was scheduled to hold talks across the country and make a report to the leader by January 2004. By mid-July, political opponents and fellow Tories began attacking MacKay over the "Orchard deal." MacKay's conservative rival Stephen Harper suggested that the PC Party had hit rock-bottom when its policies and directions would be beholden to a "prairie socialist." The secretive nature of the deal also led to concerns from within the party's headquarters and constituency associations. David Orchard was seen by many within the party as an "outsider" who was attempting to turn the Progressive Conservative Party into the "Prairie Co-operative Party". Some felt that MacKay's credibility and leadership were undermined by the deal and that electoral expectations were low for the upcoming election that was expected to occur in less than a year's time. Rex Murphy noted in a Globe and Mail column that MacKay's leadership arrived "stillborn" and that, perhaps for the first time in recent memory, a party immediately emerged from a leadership convention grievously weakened and even less united than when it entered the convention. Conservative party merger Public musings that the divided PCs would be marginalized in a future election between a relatively stable western-based CA under Stephen Harper and the massively popular Paul Martin Liberals (although Jean Chrétien remained the Liberal leader until November 2003, he had announced he would not run again), MacKay encouraged talks between high-profile members of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservatives. On October 15, 2003, the merger talks culminated in MacKay and Alliance leader Stephen Harper signing an Agreement in Principle on the establishment of the Conservative Party of Canada, whereby the Progressive Conservatives and the Canadian Alliance would merge to form a new Conservative Party of Canada. While MacKay was roundly criticized in some Red Tory circles for permitting a union under his watch, MacKay's efforts to sell the merger to the PC membership were successful: 90.4% of the party's elected delegates supported the deal in a vote on December 6, 2003. Some PC caucus members refused to accept the merger: long-time MP and former Prime Minister Joe Clark continued to sit as a "Progressive Conservative" for the remainder of the Parliament, as did MPs John Herron and André Bachand, while Scott Brison left the new party to join the Liberal Party in December 2003. In January 2004, several Senators left the party to sit as independents or "Progressive Conservatives". MacKay announced on January 13, 2004, that he would not run for the leadership of the new Conservative Party. On March 22, he was named deputy leader of the new party by newly elected leader Stephen Harper. He was easily re-elected in the June 28, 2004 federal election in the newly redistributed riding of Central Nova. On September 29, 2005, the Premier of Nova Scotia, John Hamm, announced his intention to resign. There was speculation that MacKay would return to the province to pursue provincial politics and enter the Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia leadership race to become the Premier. MacKay would have been considered a front-runner in the race; however, he decided to remain with the Federal Conservatives. The Liberal government lost a motion of non-confidence on November 28, 2005. In the resulting January 2006 election, the Conservative Party was elected with a minority government. He did retain his seat by a comfortable margin. Government Minister of Foreign Affairs Following the Conservative victory in the 2006 election, Prime Minister Stephen Harper named MacKay as Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister for the Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency; he was also tasked to be the political minister for both his home province, and for neighbouring Prince Edward Island, just as his father Elmer had done between 1988 and 1993. During the first mandate, his biggest issue was the Lebanon–Israel–Hezbollah crisis that occurred in July 2006. The government decided to evacuate thousands of Canadians from Lebanon to safer locations and many back to Canada. MacKay responded to critics saying that the process was slow, that the boats (those which were used to evacuate) had limited capacity. MacKay's statements in support of the Israelis during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict created a national debate in Canada, especially among Arabs and Muslim Canadians who opposed MacKay's position. During this period MacKay and the Conservative Party of Canada joined the Bush Administration in opposing the United Nations' call for a ceasefire. It was also during this period that MacKay made a controversial statement in which he referred to Hezbollah as a "cancer" in Lebanon. Hezbollah is formally recognized by the government of Canada as a terrorist organization. On October 19, 2006, during a debate on the Conservative Party's clean air plan, MP Mark Holland said that a Liberal colleague, David McGuinty asked MacKay about the impact of pollution on humans and animals by asking, "What about your dog?". This referred to MacKay posing for photographs on a farm with his neighbour's dog following his break-up with Belinda Stronach. MacKay then allegedly pointed to Stronach's vacant chair and replied "You already have her." Holland lodged a complaint with the Commons Speaker and demanded an apology from MacKay. Stronach has said that the comment was disrespectful to both herself and Canadian women, and has herself asked for an apology. MacKay has denied referring to Stronach as a "dog". The alleged comment was not heard by Speaker of the House Peter Milliken and it was not recorded in the official Hansard. Afterwards, Milliken and his staff said that they could not hear the remarks on the tape recording. Minister of National Defence On August 14, 2007, Stephen Harper shuffled MacKay from Foreign Affairs to Defence, replacing Gordon O'Connor. On November 6, 2007, while attending a meeting at Forward Operating Base Wilson, 20 kilometres west of Kandahar City, Mackay was unharmed as two rockets struck the base at about 11 a.m. local time. Mackay described the incident: "There was an explosion. It was a loud bang", said MacKay. "When it happened, we heard the explosion, we heard the whistle overhead, we were told to get down and we did." The incident happened on the same day that a suicide bomber detonated an explosive in Baghlan in the northeastern part of the country killing at least 75 including several politicians. While Taliban insurgents were suspected of being behind the bombing, it was not believed to be related to the attack in Kandahar. In 2008, MacKay announced a broad exhaustive and very expensive program to upgrade the Canadian military's equipment, spending over $400 billion over 25 years. Unlike every previous spending announcement of its kind, no "white paper" or detailed breakdown of this number was available nor was any claimed to exist. This led to widespread speculation that an election was coming. Stephen Harper did in fact declare Parliament "dysfunctional" in August 2008 and called on Governor General of Canada Michaëlle Jean to dissolve parliament for the 2008 federal election. In July 2010, MacKay was accused of inappropriately using public funds when he combined the use of a Canadian Cormorant military helicopter for both a search and rescue demonstration, and to transport the minister from a private fishing camp in Newfoundland to Gander Airport. The cost of this to taxpayers was approximately $16,000. MacKay, then the Minister of National Defence, defended his use of the military helicopter stating, "Three days into the visit I participated in a search and rescue demonstration with 103 squadron 9 Wing Gander. I shortened my stay by a day to take part in that demonstration". In 2009, he undertook two days of basic military training as part of CBC Television's Make the Politician Work. On June 5, 2012, it was revealed that a widely publicized 2010 news conference announcing Conservative plans to buy 65 F-35 Stealth Fighters had cost $47,000. Documents provided to parliament by Peter Mackay indicated that Lockheed Martin had delivered the F-35 mockup used in the photo-op for free, and that the cost was primarily for services to support the news conference and one hundred invited guests. Minister of Justice and Attorney General On July 15, 2013, the cabinet was shuffled, and Mackay became the Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada, replacing Rob Nicholson, who took over the defence portfolio. On March 5, 2014, MacKay generated controversy when, in response to opposition Liberal MP Kevin Lamoureux, he tossed documents purporting to concern the issue of missing and murdered Aboriginal women onto the floor of the House of Commons. The following week, he apologized to the Commons for his outburst. Out of Parliament 2015–present On May 29, 2015, MacKay announced that he would not be a candidate in the 2015 federal election. In February 2016, MacKay joined law firm Baker McKenzie as a partner. MacKay's family now resides in The Beaches area of Toronto. On November 17, 2017, MacKay said he had not ruled out the possibility of running for the leadership of the Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative Party. After the Conservative defeat in the 2015 election, MacKay was considered a potential candidate to succeed former Prime Minister Stephen Harper as permanent leader of the Conservative Party. On September 12, 2016, MacKay announced he would not seek the Conservative party leadership. On January 15, 2020, MacKay announced his intention to run for the 2020 Conservative Party of Canada leadership race. Cielo Waste Solutions Corp.(CSE:CMC) announced the appointment of former cabinet minister the Hon. Peter MacKay, P.C., Q.C. to its Board of Directors effective April 8, 2021. The Hon. Peter MacKay has over two decades of public service and private sector work. Mr. MacKay will provide strategic advice and invaluable guidance on government and public services industry practice, infrastructure, economic development and will represent Cielo as a catalyst to Cielo’s growth moving forward. 2020 Conservative leadership race On October 10, 2019, The Globe and Mail reported that MacKay supporters were preparing to launch a leadership bid should Conservative Party leader Andrew Scheer fail to secure a government in the 2019 federal election. MacKay responded to questions by saying that he was "not [aware]" of Conservatives backers organizing a campaign, and that he was "doing everything I can to help Andrew and support him and his team. I’m not entertaining that at all.” On December 12, 2019, Scheer announced he was resigning as Conservative party leader, but would stay on until a new leader was chosen. On January 15, 2020, MacKay announced his intention to run for the 2020 Conservative Party of Canada leadership race. After weeks of speculation, MacKay tweeted from his Twitter account: "I'm in. Stay tuned." He officially launched his campaign on January 25, 2020 at the Nova Scotia Museum of Industry in Stellarton, Nova Scotia. On January 26, 2020, a Washington Post columnist posted a comparison of Peter MacKay's campaign logo and that of personal finance blog Maple Money, which started comparisons to the previous Canadian Energy Centre trademark issues. MacKay was defeated by Erin O’Toole on the third ballot of the leadership vote. After the vote, it was revealed that MacKay spent $124,000 on security during the campaign in response to numerous death threats that were lodged against him and his family. Personal life MacKay was chosen as "Canada's Sexiest Male MP" by The Hill Times from 1999–2007 and 2009, coming in second in 2008 to Maxime Bernier. His former longtime girlfriend was Lisa Michelle Merrithew, daughter of former Mulroney cabinet minister Gerald Merrithew. They reportedly ended their relationship in 2004. He then was romantically linked to fellow MP Belinda Stronach in published reports. In an interview in the Toronto Star on January 8, 2005, Stronach confirmed that she and MacKay were dating. Stronach, elected as a Conservative in the 2004 election, crossed the floor to the Liberal Party on May 17, 2005. On May 18, 2005, MacKay told the CBC that his relationship with Stronach was indeed over, and that it had come as a surprise to him that she had crossed the floor. According to Don Martin, a National Post columnist who wrote a biography, Belinda: the Political and Private Life of Belinda Stronach in September 2006, MacKay reacted "with volcanic fury" when he learned about her defection. On November 26, 2005, the National Post revealed that Mackay and Sophie Desmarais of the billionaire Power Corporation family were dating. By September 2006, MacKay's romantic life was again in the papers, with The New York Times reporting on gossip about his alleged involvement with United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. The New York Times described him as "Tall, athletic, young, blond", and having "a tan and the build of someone who spends his time on the rugby field, not holed up reading G-8 communiqués." MacKay had been seen in public dating Jana Juginovic, director of programming at CTV News Channel, after having kept their relationship private for many months. They attended the annual Black & White Opera Soirée together at the National Arts Centre in Ottawa on February 21, 2009. MacKay's engagement to Juginovic was announced on November 1, 2009. MacKay and Juginovic later called off the engagement in June 2010. On January 4, 2012, MacKay married Nazanin Afshin-Jam, an Iranian-born former beauty queen, in a ceremony in Mexico. Afshin-Jam holds degrees in international relations and political science. She is co-founder and president of Stop Child Executions, a human rights group whose aim is to focus world attention on the plight of young people on death row in Iran. The couple has two sons, Kian Alexander MacKay, born April 1, 2013, and Caledon Cyrus MacKay, born July 28, 2018 as well as one daughter, Valentia Makaja MacKay, born September 30, 2015. In his spare time, MacKay has served on many volunteer boards including New Leaf and Tearmann House. He has also been active in Big Brothers Big Sisters, the Pictou County Senior Rugby Club and the YMCA. A sports enthusiast, MacKay was active in local rugby, baseball, football and hockey teams in Pictou County, Nova Scotia. He played for the Nova Scotia Keltics rugby union club. Electoral record External links Former campaign site References 1965 births Acadia University alumni Canadian Ministers of Foreign Affairs Canadian monarchists Canadian prosecutors Canadian Queen's Counsel Canadian people of Scottish descent Canadian rugby union players Conservative Party of Canada MPs Schulich School of Law alumni Defence ministers of Canada Lawyers in Nova Scotia Living people Members of the 28th Canadian Ministry Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Nova Scotia Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada People from Kings County, Nova Scotia People from New Glasgow, Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs	[ 0.019325552508234978, 0.3957121968269348, -0.4636610150337219, -0.2557002902030945, 0.33334115147590637, 0.96044921875, 0.4618667662143707, -0.2947484850883484, -0.06212705373764038, -0.027468262240290642, -0.08652888238430023, 0.8639302849769592, -0.18037302792072296, -0.04812515899538994, 0.0634431391954422, 0.7355421781539917, 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238112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanology	Volcanology	Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena (volcanism). The term volcanology is derived from the Latin word vulcan. Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire. A volcanologist is a geologist who studies the eruptive activity and formation of volcanoes and their current and historic eruptions. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, especially active ones, to observe volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions; there is currently no accurate way to do this, but predicting eruptions, like predicting earthquakes, could save many lives. Modern volcanology In 1841, the first volcanological observatory, the Vesuvius Observatory, was founded in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Seismic observations are made using seismographs deployed near volcanic areas, watching out for increased seismicity during volcanic events, in particular looking for long period harmonic tremors, which signal magma movement through volcanic conduits. Surface deformation monitoring includes the use of geodetic techniques such as leveling, tilt, strain, angle and distance measurements through tiltmeters, total stations and EDMs. This also includes GNSS observations and InSAR. Surface deformation indicates magma upwelling: increased magma supply produces bulges in the volcanic center's surface. Gas emissions may be monitored with equipment including portable ultra-violet spectrometers (COSPEC, now superseded by the miniDOAS), which analyzes the presence of volcanic gases such as sulfur dioxide; or by infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR). Increased gas emissions, and more particularly changes in gas compositions, may signal an impending volcanic eruption. Temperature changes are monitored using thermometers and observing changes in thermal properties of volcanic lakes and vents, which may indicate upcoming activity. Satellites are widely used to monitor volcanoes, as they allow a large area to be monitored easily. They can measure the spread of an ash plume, such as the one from Eyjafjallajökull's 2010 eruption, as well as SO2 emissions. InSAR and thermal imaging can monitor large, scarcely populated areas where it would be too expensive to maintain instruments on the ground. Other geophysical techniques (electrical, gravity and magnetic observations) include monitoring fluctuations and sudden change in resistivity, gravity anomalies or magnetic anomaly patterns that may indicate volcano-induced faulting and magma upwelling. Stratigraphic analyses includes analyzing tephra and lava deposits and dating these to give volcano eruption patterns, with estimated cycles of intense activity and size of eruptions. History Volcanology has an extensive history. The earliest known recording of a volcanic eruption may be on a wall painting dated to about 7,000 BCE found at the Neolithic site at Çatal Höyük in Anatolia, Turkey. This painting has been interpreted as a depiction of an erupting volcano, with a cluster of houses below shows a twin peaked volcano in eruption, with a town at its base (though archaeologists now question this interpretation). The volcano may be either Hasan Dağ, or its smaller neighbour, Melendiz Dağ. Greco-Roman philosophy The classical world of Greece and the early Roman Empire explained volcanoes as sites of various gods. Greeks considered that Hephaestus, the god of fire, sat below the volcano Etna, forging the weapons of Zeus. The Greek word used to describe volcanoes was etna, or hiera, after Heracles, the son of Zeus. The Roman poet Virgil, in interpreting the Greek mythos, held that the giant Enceladus was buried beneath Etna by the goddess Athena as punishment for rebellion against the gods; the mountain's rumblings were his tormented cries, the flames his breath and the tremors his railing against the bars of his prison. Enceladus' brother Mimas was buried beneath Vesuvius by Hephaestus, and the blood of other defeated giants welled up in the Phlegrean Fields surrounding Vesuvius. The Greek philosopher Empedocles (c. 490-430 BCE) saw the world divided into four elemental forces, of Earth, Air, Fire and Water. Volcanoes, Empedocles maintained, were the manifestation of Elemental Fire. Plato contended that channels of hot and cold waters flow in inexhaustible quantities through subterranean rivers. In the depths of the earth snakes a vast river of fire, the Pyriphlegethon, which feeds all the world's volcanoes. Aristotle considered underground fire as the result of "the...friction of the wind when it plunges into narrow passages." Wind played a key role in volcano explanations until the 16th century. Lucretius, a Roman philosopher, claimed Etna was completely hollow and the fires of the underground driven by a fierce wind circulating near sea level. Ovid believed that the flame was fed from "fatty foods" and eruptions stopped when the food ran out. Vitruvius contended that sulfur, alum and bitumen fed the deep fires. Observations by Pliny the Elder noted the presence of earthquakes preceded an eruption; he died in the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE while investigating it at Stabiae. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, gave detailed descriptions of the eruption in which his uncle died, attributing his death to the effects of toxic gases. Such eruptions have been named Plinian in honour of the two authors. Renaissance observations Nuées ardentes were described from the Azores in 1580. Georgius Agricola argued the rays of the sun, as later proposed by Descartes had nothing to do with volcanoes. Agricola believed vapor under pressure caused eruptions of 'mointain oil' and basalt. Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) witnessed eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by the burning of sulfur, bitumen and coal. Johannes Kepler considered volcanoes as conduits for the tears and excrement of the Earth, voiding bitumen, tar and sulfur. Descartes, pronouncing that God had created the Earth in an instant, declared he had done so in three layers; the fiery depths, a layer of water, and the air. Volcanoes, he said, were formed where the rays of the sun pierced the earth. Science wrestled with the ideas of the combustion of pyrite with water, that rock was solidified bitumen, and with notions of rock being formed from water (Neptunism). Of the volcanoes then known, all were near the water, hence the action of the sea upon the land was used to explain volcanism. Interaction with religion and mythology Tribal legends of volcanoes abound from the Pacific Ring of Fire and the Americas, usually invoking the forces of the supernatural or the divine to explain the violent outbursts of volcanoes. Taranaki and Tongariro, according to Māori mythology, were lovers who fell in love with Pihanga, and a spiteful jealous fight ensued. Māori will not to this day live between Tongariro and Taranaki for fear of the dispute flaring up again. In the Hawaiian religion, Pele ( Pel-a; ) is the goddess of volcanoes and a popular figure in Hawaiian mythology. Pele was used for various scientific terms as for Pele's hair, Pele's tears, and Limu o Pele (Pele's seaweed). A volcano on the Jovian moon Io is also named Pele. Saint Agatha is patron saint of Catania, close to mount Etna, and an important highly venerated (till today) example of virgin martyrs of Christian antiquity. In 253 CE, one year after her violent death, the stilling of an eruption of Mt. Etna was attributed to her intercession. Catania was however nearly completely destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Etna in 1169, and over 15,000 of its inhabitants died. Nevertheless, she was invoked again for the 1669 Etna eruption and, for an outbreak danginering Nicolosi in 1886. The way she is invoked and dealt with in Italian Folk religion, a sort of quid pro quo way approach to saints, has been related (in the tradition of James Frazer) to earlier pagan believes. In 1660 the eruption of Vesuvius rained twinned pyroxene crystals and ash upon the nearby villages. The crystals resembled the crucifix and this was interpreted as the work of Saint Januarius. In Naples, the relics of St Januarius are paraded through town at every major eruption of Vesuvius. The register of these processions and the 1779 and 1794 diary of Father Antonio Piaggio allowed British diplomat and amateur naturalist Sir William Hamilton to provide a detailed chronology and description of Vesuvius' eruptions. Notable volcanologists Plato (428–348 BC) Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) Pliny the Younger (61 – ) George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) James Hutton (1726–1797) Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801) George Julius Poulett Scrope (1797–1876) Giuseppe Mercalli (1850–1914) Thomas Jaggar (1871–1953), founder of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Haroun Tazieff (1914–1998), advisor to the French Government and Jacques Cousteau George P. L. Walker (1926–2005), pioneering volcanologist who transformed the subject into a quantitative science Haraldur Sigurdsson (born 1939), Icelandic volcanologist and geochemist Katia and Maurice Krafft (1942–1991 and 1946–1991, respectively), died at Mount Unzen in Japan, 1991 David A. Johnston (1949–1980), killed during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens Harry Glicken (1958–1991), died at Mount Unzen in Japan, 1991 Gallery See also Global Volcanism Program GNS Science (formerly the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences) (in New Zealand) Igneous rock Important publications in volcanology Kiyoo Mogi, developer of the Mogi model of volcano deformation Tephrochronology Volcano Number Volcanism References External links European Volcanological Society United States Geological Survey- Volcanic Hazards Program Volcano Live- What is a volcanologist? 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238114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real%20life	Real life	Real life is a phrase used originally in literature to distinguish between the real world and fictional, virtual or idealized worlds, and in acting to distinguish between performers and the characters they portray. More recently, it has become a popular term on the Internet to describe events, people, activities, and interactions occurring offline; or otherwise not primarily through the medium of the Internet. It is also used as a metaphor to distinguish life in a vocational setting as opposed to an academic one, or adulthood and the adult world as opposed to childhood or adolescence. As distinct from fiction When used to distinguish from fictional worlds or universes against the consensus reality of the reader, the term has a long history: In her 1788 work, Original Stories from Real Life; with Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections, and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness, author Mary Wollstonecraft employs the term in her title, representing the work's focus on a middle-class ethos which she viewed as superior to the court culture represented by fairy tales and the values of chance and luck found in chapbook stories for the poor. As phrased by Gary Kelly, writing about the work, "The phrase 'real life' strengthens 'original', excluding both the artificial and the fictional or imaginary." Similarly, the phrase can be used to distinguish an actor from a character, e.g. "In real life, he has a British accent" or "In real life, he lives in Los Angeles." There is a related but slightly distinct usage among role-players and historical reenactors, to distinguish the fantasy or historical context from the actual world and the role-player or actor from the character, e.g. "What do you do in real life?" or "Where do you live in real life?" As distinct from the Internet On the Internet, "real life" refers to life offline. Online, the initialism "IRL" stands for "in real life", with the meaning "not on the Internet". For example, while Internet users may speak of having "met" someone that they have contacted via online chat or in an online gaming context, to say that they met someone "in real life" is to say that they encountered them at a physical location. Some, arguing that the Internet is part of real life, prefer to use "away from the keyboard" (AFK), e.g. the documentary TPB AFK. Some sociologists engaged in the study of the Internet have predicted that someday, a distinction between online and offline worlds may seem "quaint", noting that certain types of online activity, such as sexual intrigues, have already made a full transition to complete legitimacy and "reality". Related terminology The initialism "RL" stands for "real life" and "IRL" for "in real life." For example, one can speak of "meeting IRL" someone whom one has met online, such as in "LMIRL" ("let's meet in real life"). It may also be used to express an inability to use the Internet for a time due to "RL problems". Some internet users use the idioms "face time", "meatspace", or "meat world", which contrast with the term "cyberspace". "Meatspace" has appeared in the Financial Times and in science fiction literature. Some early uses of the term include a post to the Usenet newsgroup austin.public-net in 1993 and an article in The Seattle Times about John Perry Barlow in 1995. The term entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 2000. See also Brick and mortar business Face time Face-to-face Lifelike experience Online and offline Reality Virtual reality In Real Life, a TV reality show for kids Original Stories from Real Life, children's literature References External links Meatspace from the Jargon File. 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238115	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heparin	Heparin	Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is a medication and naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan. Since heparins depend on the activity of antithrombin, they are considered anticoagulants. Specifically it is also used in the treatment of heart attacks and unstable angina. It is given by injection into a vein or under the skin. Other uses include inside test tubes and kidney dialysis machines. Common side effects include bleeding, pain at the injection site, and low blood platelets. Serious side effects include heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Greater care is needed in those with poor kidney function. Heparin is contraindicated for suspected cases of vaccine-induced pro-thrombotic immune thrombocytopenia (VIPIT) secondary to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, as heparin may further increase the risk of bleeding in an anti-PF4/heparin complex autoimmune manner, in favor of alternative anticoagulant medications (such as argatroban or danaparoid). Heparin appears to be relatively safe for use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Heparin is produced by basophils and mast cells in all mammals. The discovery of heparin was announced in 1916. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. A fractionated version of heparin, known as low molecular weight heparin, is also available. History Heparin was discovered by Jay McLean and William Henry Howell in 1916, although it did not enter clinical trials until 1935. It was originally isolated from dog liver cells, hence its name (hepar or "ήπαρ" is Greek for "liver"; hepar + -in). McLean was a second-year medical student at Johns Hopkins University, and was working under the guidance of Howell investigating pro-coagulant preparations, when he isolated a fat-soluble phosphatide anticoagulant in canine liver tissue. In 1918, Howell coined the term 'heparin' for this type of fat-soluble anticoagulant. In the early 1920s, Howell isolated a water-soluble polysaccharide anticoagulant, which he also termed 'heparin', although it was different from the previously discovered phosphatide preparations. McLean's work as a surgeon probably changed the focus of the Howell group to look for anticoagulants, which eventually led to the polysaccharide discovery. In the 1930s, several researchers were investigating heparin. Erik Jorpes at Karolinska Institutet published his research on the structure of heparin in 1935, which made it possible for the Swedish company Vitrum AB to launch the first heparin product for intravenous use in 1936. Between 1933 and 1936, Connaught Medical Research Laboratories, then a part of the University of Toronto, perfected a technique for producing safe, nontoxic heparin that could be administered to patients, in a saline solution. The first human trials of heparin began in May 1935, and, by 1937, it was clear that Connaught's heparin was safe, easily available, and effective as a blood anticoagulant. Prior to 1933, heparin was available in small amounts, was extremely expensive and toxic, and, as a consequence, of no medical value. Medical use Heparin acts as an anticoagulant, preventing the formation of clots and extension of existing clots within the blood. While heparin itself does not break down clots that have already formed (unlike tissue plasminogen activator), it allows the body's natural clot lysis mechanisms to work normally to break down clots that have formed. Heparin is generally used for anticoagulation for the following conditions: Acute coronary syndrome, e.g., NSTEMI Atrial fibrillation Deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism Cardiopulmonary bypass for heart surgery ECMO circuit for extracorporeal life support Hemofiltration Indwelling central or peripheral venous catheters Heparin and its low-molecular-weight derivatives (e.g., enoxaparin, dalteparin, tinzaparin) are effective in preventing deep vein thromboses and pulmonary emboli in people at risk, but no evidence indicates any one is more effective than the other in preventing mortality. In angiography, 2 to 5 units/mL of unfractionated heparin saline flush is used to prevent the clotting of blood in guidewires, sheaths, and catheters, thus preventing thrombus from dislodging from these devices into the circulatory system . Adverse effects A serious side-effect of heparin is heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), caused by an immunological reaction that makes platelets a target of immunological response, resulting in the degradation of platelets, which causes thrombocytopenia. This condition is usually reversed on discontinuation, and in general can be avoided with the use of synthetic heparins. Also, a benign form of thrombocytopenia is associated with early heparin use, which resolves without stopping heparin. Two non-hemorrhagic side-effects of heparin treatment are known. The first is elevation of serum aminotransferase levels, which has been reported in as many as 80% of patients receiving heparin. This abnormality is not associated with liver dysfunction, and it disappears after the drug is discontinued. The other complication is hyperkalemia, which occurs in 5 to 10% of patients receiving heparin, and is the result of heparin-induced aldosterone suppression. The hyperkalemia can appear within a few days after the onset of heparin therapy. More rarely, the side-effects alopecia and osteoporosis can occur with chronic use. As with many drugs, overdoses of heparin can be fatal. In September 2006, heparin received worldwide publicity when three prematurely born infants died after they were mistakenly given overdoses of heparin at an Indianapolis hospital. Contraindications Heparin is contraindicated in those with risk of bleeding (especially in people with uncontrolled blood pressure, liver disease, and stroke), severe liver disease, or severe hypertension. Antidote to heparin Protamine sulfate has been given to counteract the anticoagulant effect of heparin (1 mg per 100 units of heparin that had been given over the past 6 hours). It may be used in those who overdose on heparin or to reverse heparin's effect when it is no longer needed. Physiological function Heparin's normal role in the body is unclear. Heparin is usually stored within the secretory granules of mast cells and released only into the vasculature at sites of tissue injury. It has been proposed that, rather than anticoagulation, the main purpose of heparin is defense at such sites against invading bacteria and other foreign materials. In addition, it is observed across a number of widely different species, including some invertebrates that do not have a similar blood coagulation system. It is a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan. It has the highest negative charge density of any known biological molecule. Evolutionary conservation In addition to the bovine and porcine tissue from which pharmaceutical-grade heparin is commonly extracted, it has also been extracted and characterized from: Turkey Whale Dromedary camel Mouse Humans Lobster Fresh water mussel Clam Shrimp Mangrove crab Sand dollar Atlantic salmon Zebra fish The biological activity of heparin within species 6–11 is unclear and further supports the idea that the main physiological role of heparin is not anticoagulation. These species do not possess any blood coagulation system similar to that present within the species listed 1–5. The above list also demonstrates how heparin has been highly evolutionarily conserved, with molecules of a similar structure being produced by a broad range of organisms belonging to many different phyla. Pharmacology In nature, heparin is a polymer of varying chain size. Unfractionated heparin (UFH) as a pharmaceutical is heparin that has not been fractionated to sequester the fraction of molecules with low molecular weight. In contrast, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) has undergone fractionation for the purpose of making its pharmacodynamics more predictable. Often either UFH or LMWH can be used; in some situations one or the other is preferable. Mechanism of action Heparin binds to the enzyme inhibitor antithrombin III (AT), causing a conformational change that results in its activation through an increase in the flexibility of its reactive site loop. The activated AT then inactivates thrombin, factor Xa and other proteases. The rate of inactivation of these proteases by AT can increase by up to 1000-fold due to the binding of heparin. Heparin binds to AT via a specific pentasaccharide sulfation sequence contained within the heparin polymer: GlcNAc/NS(6S)-GlcA-GlcNS(3S,6S)-IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S) The conformational change in AT on heparin-binding mediates its inhibition of factor Xa. For thrombin inhibition, however, thrombin must also bind to the heparin polymer at a site proximal to the pentasaccharide. The highly negative charge density of heparin contributes to its very strong electrostatic interaction with thrombin. The formation of a ternary complex between AT, thrombin, and heparin results in the inactivation of thrombin. For this reason, heparin's activity against thrombin is size-dependent, with the ternary complex requiring at least 18 saccharide units for efficient formation. In contrast, antifactor Xa activity via AT requires only the pentasaccharide-binding site. This size difference has led to the development of low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) and fondaparinux as anticoagulants. Fondaparinux targets anti-factor Xa activity rather than inhibiting thrombin activity, with the aim of facilitating a more subtle regulation of coagulation and an improved therapeutic index. It is a synthetic pentasaccharide, whose chemical structure is almost identical to the AT binding pentasaccharide sequence that can be found within polymeric heparin and heparan sulfate. With LMWH and fondaparinux, the risk of osteoporosis and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is reduced. Monitoring of the activated partial thromboplastin time is also not required and does not reflect the anticoagulant effect, as APTT is insensitive to alterations in factor Xa. Danaparoid, a mixture of heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and chondroitin sulfate can be used as an anticoagulant in patients having developed HIT. Because danaparoid does not contain heparin or heparin fragments, cross-reactivity of danaparoid with heparin-induced antibodies is reported as less than 10%. The effects of heparin are measured in the lab by the partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), one of the measures of the time it takes the blood plasma to clot. Partial thromboplastin time should not be confused with prothrombin time, or PT, which measures blood clotting time through a different pathway of the coagulation cascade. Administration Heparin is given parenterally because it is not absorbed from the gut, due to its high negative charge and large size. It can be injected intravenously or subcutaneously (under the skin); intramuscular injections (into muscle) are avoided because of the potential for forming hematomas. Because of its short biologic half-life of about one hour, heparin must be given frequently or as a continuous infusion. Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas LMWH has a half-life of four to five hours. The use of LMWH has allowed once-daily dosing, thus not requiring a continuous infusion of the drug. If long-term anticoagulation is required, heparin is often used only to commence anticoagulation therapy until an oral anticoagulant e.g. warfarin takes effect. The American College of Chest Physicians publishes clinical guidelines on heparin dosing. Natural degradation or clearance Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas low-molecular-weight heparin's half-life is about four times longer. Lower doses of heparin have a much shorter half-life than larger ones. Heparin binding to macrophage cells is internalized and depolymerized by the macrophages. It also rapidly binds to endothelial cells, which precludes the binding to antithrombin that results in anticoagulant action. For higher doses of heparin, endothelial cell binding will be saturated, such that clearance of heparin from the bloodstream by the kidneys will be a slower process. Chemistry Heparin structure Native heparin is a polymer with a molecular weight ranging from 3 to 30 kDa, although the average molecular weight of most commercial heparin preparations is in the range of 12 to 15 kDa. Heparin is a member of the glycosaminoglycan family of carbohydrates (which includes the closely related molecule heparan sulfate) and consists of a variably sulfated repeating disaccharide unit. The main disaccharide units that occur in heparin are shown below. The most common disaccharide unit is composed of a 2-O-sulfated iduronic acid and 6-O-sulfated, N-sulfated glucosamine, IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S). For example, this makes up 85% of heparins from beef lung and about 75% of those from porcine intestinal mucosa. Not shown below are the rare disaccharides containing a 3-O-sulfated glucosamine (GlcNS(3S,6S)) or a free amine group (GlcNH3+). Under physiological conditions, the ester and amide sulfate groups are deprotonated and attract positively charged counterions to form a heparin salt. Heparin is usually administered in this form as an anticoagulant. GlcA = β--glucuronic acid, IdoA = α--iduronic acid, IdoA(2S) = 2-O-sulfo-α--iduronic acid, GlcNAc = 2-deoxy-2-acetamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS(6S) = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α--glucopyranosyl-6-O-sulfate One unit of heparin (the "Howell unit") is an amount approximately equivalent to 0.002 mg of pure heparin, which is the quantity required to keep 1 ml of cat's blood fluid for 24 hours at 0 °C. Three-dimensional structure The three-dimensional structure of heparin is complicated because iduronic acid may be present in either of two low-energy conformations when internally positioned within an oligosaccharide. The conformational equilibrium is influenced by sulfation state of adjacent glucosamine sugars. Nevertheless, the solution structure of a heparin dodecasaccharide composed solely of six GlcNS(6S)-IdoA(2S) repeat units has been determined using a combination of NMR spectroscopy and molecular modeling techniques. Two models were constructed, one in which all IdoA(2S) were in the 2S0 conformation (A and B below), and one in which they are in the 1C4 conformation (C and D below). However, no evidence suggests that changes between these conformations occur in a concerted fashion. These models correspond to the protein data bank code 1HPN. In the image above: A = 1HPN (all IdoA(2S) residues in 2S0 conformation) Jmol viewer B = van der Waals radius space filling model of A C = 1HPN (all IdoA(2S) residues in 1C4 conformation) Jmol viewer D = van der Waals radius space filling model of C In these models, heparin adopts a helical conformation, the rotation of which places clusters of sulfate groups at regular intervals of about 17 angstroms (1.7 nm) on either side of the helical axis. Depolymerization techniques Either chemical or enzymatic depolymerization techniques or a combination of the two underlie the vast majority of analyses carried out on the structure and function of heparin and heparan sulfate (HS). Enzymatic The enzymes traditionally used to digest heparin or HS are naturally produced by the soil bacterium Pedobacter heparinus (formerly named Flavobacterium heparinum). This bacterium is capable of using either heparin or HS as its sole carbon and nitrogen source. To do so, it produces a range of enzymes such as lyases, glucuronidases, sulfoesterases, and sulfamidases. The lyases have mainly been used in heparin/HS studies. The bacterium produces three lyases, heparinases I (), II (no EC number assigned) and III () and each has distinct substrate specificities as detailed below. The lyases cleave heparin/HS by a beta elimination mechanism. This action generates an unsaturated double bond between C4 and C5 of the uronate residue. The C4-C5 unsaturated uronate is termed ΔUA or UA. It is a sensitive UV chromophore (max absorption at 232 nm) and allows the rate of an enzyme digest to be followed, as well as providing a convenient method for detecting the fragments produced by enzyme digestion. Chemical Nitrous acid can be used to chemically depolymerize heparin/HS. Nitrous acid can be used at pH 1.5 or at a higher pH of 4. Under both conditions, nitrous acid effects deaminative cleavage of the chain. At both 'high' (4) and 'low' (1.5) pH, deaminative cleavage occurs between GlcNS-GlcA and GlcNS-IdoA, albeit at a slower rate at the higher pH. The deamination reaction, and therefore chain cleavage, is regardless of O-sulfation carried by either monosaccharide unit. At low pH, deaminative cleavage results in the release of inorganic SO4, and the conversion of GlcNS into anhydromannose (aMan). Low-pH nitrous acid treatment is an excellent method to distinguish N-sulfated polysaccharides such as heparin and HS from non N-sulfated polysacchrides such as chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate not being susceptible to nitrous acid cleavage. Detection in body fluids Current clinical laboratory assays for heparin rely on an indirect measurement of the effect of the drug, rather than on a direct measure of its chemical presence. These include activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and antifactor Xa activity. The specimen of choice is usually fresh, nonhemolyzed plasma from blood that has been anticoagulated with citrate, fluoride, or oxalate. Other functions Test tubes, vacutainers, and capillary tubes that use the lithium salt of heparin (lithium heparin) as an anticoagulant are usually marked with green stickers and green tops. Heparin has the advantage over EDTA of not affecting levels of most ions. However, the concentration of ionized calcium may be decreased if the concentration of heparin in the blood specimen is too high. Heparin can interfere with some immunoassays, however. As lithium heparin is usually used, a person's lithium levels cannot be obtained from these tubes; for this purpose, royal-blue-topped (and dark green-topped) vacutainers containing sodium heparin are used. Heparin-coated blood oxygenators are available for use in heart-lung machines. Among other things, these specialized oxygenators are thought to improve overall biocompatibility and host homeostasis by providing characteristics similar to those of native endothelium. The DNA binding sites on RNA polymerase can be occupied by heparin, preventing the polymerase from binding to promoter DNA. This property is exploited in a range of molecular biological assays. Common diagnostic procedures require PCR amplification of a patient's DNA, which is easily extracted from white blood cells treated with heparin. This poses a potential problem, since heparin may be extracted along with the DNA, and it has been found to interfere with the PCR reaction at levels as low as 0.002 U in a 50 μL reaction mixture. Heparin has been used as a chromatography resin, acting as both an affinity ligand and an ion exchanger. Its polyanionic structure can mimic nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, making it useful for purification of nucleic acid-binding proteins including DNA and RNA polymerases and transcription factors. Heparin's specific affinity for VSV-G, a viral envelope glycoprotein often used to pseudotype retroviral and lentiviral vectors for gene therapy, allows it to be used for downstream purification of viral vectors. Heparin is being trialed in a nasal spray form as prophylaxis against COVID-19 infection. Furthermore its reported from trials that due to anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and its anti-clot'ing effects its inhalation could improve at a 70% rate on patients that were actively struck by a COVID-19 infection. Society and culture Contamination recalls Considering the animal source of pharmaceutical heparin, the numbers of potential impurities are relatively large compared with a wholly synthetic therapeutic agent. The range of possible biological contaminants includes viruses, bacterial endotoxins, transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) agents, lipids, proteins, and DNA. During the preparation of pharmaceutical-grade heparin from animal tissues, impurities such as solvents, heavy metals, and extraneous cations can be introduced. However, the methods employed to minimize the occurrence and to identify and/or eliminate these contaminants are well established and listed in guidelines and pharmacopoeias. The major challenge in the analysis of heparin impurities is the detection and identification of structurally related impurities. The most prevalent impurity in heparin is dermatan sulfate (DS), also known as chondroitin sulfate B. The building-block of DS is a disaccharide composed of 1,3-linked N-acetyl galactosamine (GalN) and a uronic acid residue, connected via 1,4 linkages to form the polymer. DS is composed of three possible uronic acid (GlcA, IdoA or IdoA2S) and four possible hexosamine (GalNAc, Gal- NAc4S, GalNAc6S, or GalNAc4S6S) building-blocks. The presence of iduronic acid in DS distinguishes it from chrondroitin sulfate A and C and likens it to heparin and HS. DS has a lower negative charge density overall compared to heparin. A common natural contaminant, DS is present at levels of 1–7% in heparin API, but has no proven biological activity that influences the anticoagulation effect of heparin. In December 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recalled a shipment of heparin because of bacterial growth (Serratia marcescens) in several unopened syringes of this product. S. marcescens can lead to life-threatening injuries and/or death. 2008 recall due to adulteration in drug from China In March 2008, major recalls of heparin were announced by the FDA due to contamination of the raw heparin stock imported from China. According to the FDA, the adulterated heparin killed nearly 80 people in the United States. The adulterant was identified as an "over-sulphated" derivative of chondroitin sulfate, a popular shellfish-derived supplement often used for arthritis, which was intended to substitute for actual heparin in potency tests. According to the New York Times: "Problems with heparin reported to the agency include difficulty breathing, nausea, vomiting, excessive sweating and rapidly falling blood pressure that in some cases led to life-threatening shock". Use in homicide In 2006, Petr Zelenka, a nurse in the Czech Republic, deliberately administered large doses to patients, killing seven, and attempting to kill ten others. Overdose issues In 2007, a nurse at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center mistakenly gave the 12-day-old twins of actor Dennis Quaid a dose of heparin that was 1,000 times the recommended dose for infants. The overdose allegedly arose because the labeling and design of the adult and infant versions of the product were similar. The Quaid family subsequently sued the manufacturer, Baxter Healthcare Corp., and settled with the hospital for $750,000. Prior to the Quaid accident, six newborn babies at Methodist Hospital in Indianapolis, Indiana, were given an overdose. Three of the babies died after the mistake. In July 2008, another set of twins born at Christus Spohn Hospital South, in Corpus Christi, Texas, died after an accidentally administered overdose of the drug. The overdose was due to a mixing error at the hospital pharmacy and was unrelated to the product's packaging or labeling. , the exact cause of the twins' death was under investigation. In March 2010, a two-year-old transplant patient from Texas was given a lethal dose of heparin at the University of Nebraska Medical Center. The exact circumstances surrounding her death are still under investigation. Production Pharmaceutical-grade heparin is derived from mucosal tissues of slaughtered meat animals such as porcine (pig) intestines or bovine (cattle) lungs. Advances to produce heparin synthetically have been made in 2003 and 2008. In 2011, a chemoenzymatic process of synthesizing low molecular weight heparins from simple disaccharides was reported. Research As detailed in the table below, the potential is great for the development of heparin-like structures as drugs to treat a wide range of diseases, in addition to their current use as anticoagulants. – indicates that no information is available As a result of heparin's effect on such a wide variety of disease states, a number of drugs are indeed in development whose molecular structures are identical or similar to those found within parts of the polymeric heparin chain. References Further reading External links History of heparin Chemical substances for emergency medicine Glycosaminoglycans Heparins World Health Organization essential medicines Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Aldols	[ 0.03875429183244705, 0.38204699754714966, 0.25611522793769836, -0.42486608028411865, -0.4117698669433594, -0.05209538713097572, 0.02551904134452343, -0.3723502457141876, 0.14584840834140778, 0.14406748116016388, -0.5486778020858765, 0.5793683528900146, -0.3635728359222412, 0.4323727488517761, 0.18574729561805725, 0.5333666205406189, 0.7888155579566956, 0.7684826254844666, -0.004725467413663864, -0.42637139558792114, -0.26157867908477783, -0.1954265683889389, 0.20166678726673126, -0.40876305103302, 0.4774746000766754, -0.2348042130470276, -0.068819560110569, -0.08298658579587936, 0.11789964884519577, -0.2034616619348526, -0.03083071857690811, 0.6351242661476135, 0.3490945100784302, -0.18692362308502197, 0.11380166560411453, 0.5158047676086426, 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238116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20bicarbonate	Potassium bicarbonate	Potassium hydrogencarbonate (also known by potassium bicarbonate or potassium acid carbonate) is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula KHCO3. It is a white solid. Production and reactivity It is manufactured by treating an aqueous solution of potassium carbonate with carbon dioxide: K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 KHCO3 Decomposition of the hydrogencarbonate occurs between : 2 KHCO3 → K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O This reaction is employed to prepare high purity potassium carbonate. Uses Food and drink This compound is a source of carbon dioxide for leavening in baking. It can substitute for baking soda (sodium hydrogencarbonate) for those with a low-sodium diet, and it is an ingredient in low-sodium baking powders. As an inexpensive, nontoxic base, it is widely used in diverse application to regulate pH or as a reagent. Examples include as buffering agent in medications, an additive in winemaking. Potassium hydrogencarbonate is often found added to club soda to improve taste, and to soften the effect of effervescence. Fire extinguishers Potassium hydrogencarbonate is used as a fire suppression agent ("BC dry chemical") in some dry chemical fire extinguishers, as the principal component of the Purple-K dry chemical, and in some applications of condensed aerosol fire suppression. It is the only dry chemical fire suppression agent recognized by the U.S. National Fire Protection Association for firefighting at airport crash rescue sites. It is about twice as effective in fire suppression as sodium hydrogencarbonate. Agriculture Potassium hydrogencarbonate has widespread use in crops, especially for neutralizing acidic soil. Potassium hydrogencarbonate is an effective fungicide against powdery mildew and apple scab, allowed for use in organic farming. Potassium hydrogencarbonate is a contact killer for Spanish moss when mixed 1/4 cup per gallon. History The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus meaning "aerated salt", first used in the nineteenth century, refers to both potassium hydrogencarbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate. References External links Potassium Bicarbonate Handbook OMRI Potassium Bicarbonate Safety Data sheet - potassium bicarbonate Potassium compounds Acid salts Fire suppression agents	[ -0.1822894662618637, 1.0525989532470703, 0.1191868931055069, -0.0127252833917737, -0.5272414088249207, -0.15276095271110535, 0.31297335028648376, 0.11252893507480621, 0.3001856207847595, 0.25017592310905457, -0.26105809211730957, -0.18223480880260468, -0.6801508069038391, 0.8231484889984131, 0.6848201155662537, 0.9220201969146729, 1.0668361186981201, 0.884152352809906, -0.04876657947897911, -0.6934896111488342, 0.2706839442253113, 0.03638194128870964, 0.11472854018211365, -0.42656058073043823, 0.43801000714302063, 0.2096647173166275, 0.21832449734210968, -0.06530872732400894, 0.010478478856384754, -0.2075626254081726, 0.17681379616260529, 0.4260585308074951, -0.03866846486926079, 0.2769012451171875, 0.8495656251907349, 0.5572007894515991, 0.09856312721967697, -0.29943445324897766, -0.08541958779096603, 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238117	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard%20Woolf	Leonard Woolf	Leonard Sidney Woolf (; – ) was a British political theorist, author, publisher, and civil servant. He was married to author Virginia Woolf. Early life Woolf was born in London in 1880 the third of ten children of Solomon Rees Sidney Woolf (known as Sidney Woolf), a barrister and Queen's Counsel, and Marie (née de Jongh). His family was Jewish. After his father died in 1892, Woolf was sent to board at Arlington House School near Brighton, Sussex. From 1894 to 1899, he attended St Paul's School, and in 1899 he won a classical scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected to the Cambridge Apostles. Other contemporary members included Lytton Strachey, John Maynard Keynes, G. E. Moore, and E. M. Forster. Thoby Stephen (his future wife's brother) was friendly with the Apostles, though not a member himself. Woolf was awarded his BA in 1902, but stayed there for another year to study for the Civil Service examinations held then. In October 1904, Woolf moved to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to become a cadet in the Ceylon Civil Service, in Jaffna and later Kandy, and by August 1908 was named an assistant government agent in the Southern Province, where he administered the District of Hambantota. Woolf returned to England in May 1911 for a year's leave. Instead, however, he resigned in early 1912 and that same year married Virginia Stephen. Leonard and Virginia Woolf lived at 17 The Green Richmond starting from October 1914. In early March 1915, the couple moved to nearby Hogarth House, Paradise Road. In 1919, the Woolfs purchased the Round House in Pipe Passage, Lewes. The same year, they discovered Monk's House in nearby Rodmell, which both she and Leonard favoured because of its orchard and garden. She then bought Monk's House and sold the Round House. Together, Leonard and Virginia Woolf became influential in the Bloomsbury Group, which also included various other former Apostles. In December 1917, Woolf became one of the co-founders of the 1917 Club, which met in Gerrard Street, Soho. Writing After marriage, Woolf turned to writing and published his first novel, The Village in the Jungle (1913), which is based on his years in Ceylon. A series of books followed at roughly bi-annual intervals. On the introduction of conscription in 1916, during the First World War, Woolf was rejected for military service on medical grounds, and turned to politics and sociology. He joined the Labour Party and the Fabian Society, and became a regular contributor to the New Statesman. In 1916, he wrote International Government, proposing an international agency to enforce world peace. As his wife's mental health worsened, Woolf devoted much of his time to caring for her (he himself suffered from depression). In 1917, the Woolfs bought a small hand-operated printing press and with it they founded the Hogarth Press. Their first project was a pamphlet, hand-printed and bound by themselves. Within ten years the Press had become a full-scale publishing house, issuing Virginia's novels, Leonard's tracts and, among other works, the first edition of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land. Woolf continued as the main director of the Press until his death. His wife suffered from severe bouts of mental illness throughout her life, until her suicide by drowning in 1941. Later, Leonard fell in love with a married artist, Trekkie Parsons. In 1919, Woolf became editor of the International Review. He also edited the international section of the Contemporary Review from 1920 to 1922. He was literary editor of The Nation and Athenaeum, generally referred to simply as The Nation, from 1923 to 1930), and joint founder and editor of The Political Quarterly from 1931 to 1959), and for a time he served as secretary of the Labour Party's advisory committees on international and colonial questions. In 1960, Woolf revisited Ceylon and was surprised at the warmth of the welcome he received, and even the fact that he was still remembered. Woolf accepted an honorary doctorate from the then-new University of Sussex in 1964 and in 1965 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. He declined the offer of Companion of Honour (CH) in the Queen's Birthday Honours list in 1966. Family Among his nine siblings, Bella Woolf was also an author. His brother Cecil Nathan Sidney Woolf was the author of Poems (published 1918); Cecil was killed in World War I in 1917. His dissertation Bartolus of Sassoferrato, his Position in the History of Medieval Political Thought was expanded to a book published by Cambridge University Press in 1913 in collaboration with his brother Philip. Philip and Cecil also translated Stendhal's On Love (Duckworth, 1915). Death Woolf died on 14 August 1969 from a stroke. He was cremated and his ashes were buried alongside his wife's beneath an elm tree in his beloved garden at Monk's House, Rodmell, Sussex. The tree subsequently blew down and Woolf's remains have since been marked by a bronze bust. His papers are held by the University of Sussex at the Falmer campus. Works The Village in the Jungle – 1913 The Wise Virgins – 1914 (Republished in 2003 by Persephone Books) International Government – 1916 The Future of Constantinople – 1917 The Framework of a Lasting Peace - 1917 Cooperation and the Future of Industry – 1918 Economic Imperialism – 1920 Empire and Commerce in Africa – 1920 Socialism and Co-operation – 1921 International co-operative trade – 1922 Fear and Politics – 1925 Essays on Literature, History, Politics – 1927 Hunting the Highbrow – 1927 Imperialism and Civilization – 1928 After the Deluge (Principia Politica), 3 vols. – 1931, 1939, 1953 Quack! Quack! – 1935 Barbarians at the Gate – 1939 The War for Peace – 1940 A Calendar of Consolation – selected by Leonard Woolf, 1967 Autobiographical works Published in America as Also . Also (1977), (1967), Eland (2015). Also Published in America as Biographical works on Woolf De Silva, Prabhath: Leonard Woolf as a Judge in Ceylon: A British Civil Servant as a Judge in the Hambantota District of Colonial Sri Lanka (1908–1911). Neptune Publications (Pvt) Ltd, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka (2nd edition 2016). Edited excerpt of book available at Review of book with details about Leonard Woolf available at Related works and cultural references In 1982, a film version in Sinhala of Woolf's novel, Village in the Jungle, called Bæddegama was released. It featured Arthur C. Clarke in the role of Woolf. A film version of Michael Cunningham's 1998 Pulitzer Prize winning novel, The Hours, was released in 2002, starring Nicole Kidman as Virginia Woolf. The part of Leonard Woolf was played by Stephen Dillane. In 2005, a book titled Woolf in Ceylon was published by author Christopher Ondaatje. This is an unusual "in-the-footsteps of" book by the elder brother of novelist Michael Ondaatje. It is possibly that Leonard Wolf, Claudia's father in the video game Silent Hill 3 is named after Woolf. See also Trekkie Parsons References External links The Leonard Woolf fonds at the Victoria University Library at the University of Toronto consists of correspondence from Woolf to Ellen Alderm, 1935, and Mrs. Easdale, 1935, 1964–1968, primarily re submissions to Hogarth Press "Stories of the East by Leonard Woolf" via Discovering Literature at the British Library Frederic Spotts collection of papers on the letters of Leonard Woolf at the Mortimer Rare Book Collection, Smith College Special Collections 1880 births 1969 deaths Bloomsbury Group English Jews English memoirists Publishers (people) from London Stephen-Bell family British Jewish writers People educated at St Paul's School, London Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Members of the Fabian Society Jewish socialists British civil servants in Ceylon Sri Lankan Jews Sri Lankan people of English descent 20th-century English novelists Virginia Woolf Jewish British politicians Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates 20th-century 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238118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotted%20dick	Spotted dick	Spotted dick (also known as "spotted dog" or "railway cake") is a traditional British steamed pudding, historically made with suet and dried fruit (usually currants or raisins) and often served with custard. Non-traditional variants include recipes that replace suet with other fats (such as butter), or that include eggs to make something similar to a sponge pudding or cake. Etymology "Spotted" is a clear reference to the dried fruit in the pudding (which resemble spots). "Dick" and "dog" were dialectal terms widely used for pudding, from the same etymology as "dough" (i.e., the modern equivalent name would be "spotted pudding"). In late 19th century Huddersfield, for instance, a glossary of local terms described: "Dick, plain pudding. If with treacle sauce, treacle dick." History The dish is first attested in Alexis Soyer's The modern Housewife or ménagère, published in 1849, in which he described a recipe for "Plum Bolster, or Spotted DickRoll out two pounds of paste ... have some Smyrna raisins well washed". The name "spotted dog" first appeared in 1855, in C.M. Smith's "Working-men's Way in the World" where it was described as a "very marly species of plum-pudding". This name, along with "railway cake", is most common in Ireland where it is made more similar to a soda bread loaf with the addition of currants. The Pall Mall Gazette reported in 1892 that "the Kilburn Sisters ... daily satisfied hundreds of dockers with soup and Spotted Dick". The name has long been a source of amusement and double entendres; reportedly restaurant staff in the Houses of Parliament decided to rename it "Spotted Richard" so it was “less likely to cause a stir”. See also Clootie dumpling, a similar Scottish Traditional Pudding Figgy duff (pudding), a bag pudding from Newfoundland Poutchine au sac, Métis bag pudding from Western Canada List of fruit dishes List of steamed foods References Bibliography External links Alexis Soyer's original 1849 recipe for Spotted Dick British puddings English cuisine Custard desserts Steamed foods Fruit dishes	[ -0.4395219087600708, 0.16605694591999054, 0.007610794622451067, -0.5614448189735413, 0.0416308268904686, 0.6370869874954224, 0.3682571351528168, 0.7821804881095886, -0.5965031981468201, 0.07736571878194809, -0.585364043712616, 0.05342879518866539, -0.2223341315984726, 0.07791996002197266, -0.4176742732524872, 0.4437244236469269, 1.097000002861023, -0.007643490098416805, -0.11297892779111862, -0.29695117473602295, -0.04907647892832756, -0.28768178820610046, -0.47919604182243347, -0.34507423639297485, 0.835740327835083, 0.06972508877515793, 0.33909866213798523, -0.12043912708759308, 0.1874433159828186, 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238122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20carbonate	Potassium carbonate	Potassium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula K2CO3. It is a white salt, which is soluble in water. It is deliquescent, often appearing as a damp or wet solid. Potassium carbonate is mainly used in the production of soap and glass. History Potassium carbonate is the primary component of potash and the more refined pearl ash or salts of tartar. Historically, pearl ash was created by baking potash in a kiln to remove impurities. The fine, white powder remaining was the pearl ash. The first patent issued by the US Patent Office was awarded to Samuel Hopkins in 1790 for an improved method of making potash and pearl ash. In late 18th-century North America, before the development of baking powder, pearl ash was used as a leavening agent for quick breads. Production Potassium carbonate is prepared commercially by the reaction potassium hydroxide with carbon dioxide: 2 KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O From the solution crystallizes the sesquihydrate K2CO3·H2O ("potash hydrate"). Heating this solid above gives the anhydrous salt. In an alternative method, potassium chloride is treated with carbon dioxide in the presence of an organic amine to give potassium bicarbonate, which is then calcined: 2 KHCO3 → K2CO3 + H2O + CO2 Applications (historically) for soap, glass, and dishware production as a mild drying agent where other drying agents, such as calcium chloride and magnesium sulfate, may be incompatible. It is not suitable for acidic compounds, but can be useful for drying an organic phase if one has a small amount of acidic impurity. It may also be used to dry some ketones, alcohols, and amines prior to distillation. in cuisine, where it has many traditional uses. It is an ingredient in the production of grass jelly, a food consumed in Chinese and Southeast Asian cuisines, as well as Chinese hand-pulled noodles and mooncakes. It is also used to tenderize tripe. German gingerbread recipes often use potassium carbonate as a baking agent, although in combination with hartshorn. Use of potassium carbonate must be limited to a certain amount to prevent harm, and should not be used without guidance. in the alkalization of cocoa powder to produce Dutch process chocolate by balancing the pH (i.e., reduce the acidity) of natural cocoa beans; it also enhances aroma. The process of adding potassium carbonate to cocoa powder is usually called "Dutching" (and the products referred to as Dutch-processed cocoa powder), as the process was first developed in 1828 by Dutchman Coenraad Johannes van Houten. as a buffering agent in the production of mead or wine. in antique documents, it is reported to have been used to soften hard water. as a fire suppressant in extinguishing deep-fat fryers and various other B class-related fires. in condensed aerosol fire suppression, although as the byproduct of potassium nitrate. as an ingredient in welding fluxes, and in the flux coating on arc-welding rods. as an animal feed ingredient to satisfy the potassium requirements of farmed animals such as broiler breeder chickens. as an acidity regulator in Swedish snus snuff tobacco References Bibliography A Dictionary of Science, Oxford University Press, New York, 2004 External links International Chemical Safety Card 1588 Carbonates Leavening agents Potassium compounds 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238124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disseminated%20intravascular%20coagulation	Disseminated intravascular coagulation	Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is a condition in which blood clots form throughout the body, blocking small blood vessels. Symptoms may include chest pain, shortness of breath, leg pain, problems speaking, or problems moving parts of the body. As clotting factors and platelets are used up, bleeding may occur. This may include blood in the urine, blood in the stool, or bleeding into the skin. Complications may include organ failure. Relatively common causes include sepsis, surgery, major trauma, cancer, and complications of pregnancy. Less common causes include snake bites, frostbite, and burns. There are two main types: acute (rapid onset) and chronic (slow onset). Diagnosis is typically based on blood tests. Findings may include low platelets, low fibrinogen, high INR, or high D-dimer. Treatment is mainly directed towards the underlying condition. Other measures may include giving platelets, cryoprecipitate, or fresh frozen plasma. Evidence to support these treatments, however, is poor. Heparin may be useful in the slowly developing form. About 1% of people admitted to hospital are affected by the condition. In those with sepsis, rates are between 20% and 50%. The risk of death among those affected varies from 20 to 50%. Signs and symptoms In DIC, the underlying cause usually leads to symptoms and signs, and DIC is discovered on laboratory testing. The onset of DIC can be sudden, as in endotoxic shock or amniotic fluid embolism, or it may be insidious and chronic, as in cancer. DIC can lead to multiorgan failure and widespread bleeding. Causes DIC can occur in the following conditions: Cancer: solid tumors and blood cancers (particularly acute promyelocytic leukemia) Complications of pregnancy: abruptio placentae, pre-eclampsia or eclampsia, amniotic fluid embolism, retained intrauterine fetal demise, septic abortion, postpartum hemorrhage Massive tissue injury: trauma, burn, hyperthermia, rhabdomyolysis, surgery Infection: bacterial (Gram-negative or Gram-positive), viral, fungal, or protozoan Transfusion reaction: ABO incompatibility Allergic or toxic reaction: snake venom Hemangioma: Kasabach–Merritt syndrome Aortic aneurysm Liver disease, HELLP syndrome, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, hemolytic uremic syndrome, and malignant hypertension may mimic DIC but originate via other pathways. Pathophysiology Under homeostatic conditions, the body is maintained in a finely tuned balance of coagulation and fibrinolysis. The activation of the coagulation cascade yields thrombin that converts fibrinogen to fibrin; the stable fibrin clot being the final product of hemostasis. The fibrinolytic system then functions to break down fibrinogen and fibrin. Activation of the fibrinolytic system generates plasmin (in the presence of thrombin), which is responsible for the lysis of fibrin clots. The breakdown of fibrinogen and fibrin results in polypeptides called fibrin degradation products (FDPs) or fibrin split products (FSPs). In a state of homeostasis, the presence of plasmin is critical, as it is the central proteolytic enzyme of coagulation and is also necessary for the breakdown of clots, or fibrinolysis. In DIC, the processes of coagulation and fibrinolysis are dysregulated, and the result is widespread clotting with resultant bleeding. Regardless of the triggering event of DIC, once initiated, the pathophysiology of DIC is similar in all conditions. One critical mediator of DIC is the release of a transmembrane glycoprotein called tissue factor (TF). TF is present on the surface of many cell types (including endothelial cells, macrophages, and monocytes) and is not normally in contact with the general circulation, but is exposed to the circulation after vascular damage. For example, TF is released in response to exposure to cytokines (particularly interleukin 1), tumor necrosis factor, and endotoxin. This plays a major role in the development of DIC in septic conditions. TF is also abundant in tissues of the lungs, brain, and placenta. This helps to explain why DIC readily develops in patients with extensive trauma. Upon exposure to blood and platelets, TF binds with activated factor VIIa (normally present in trace amounts in the blood), forming the extrinsic tenase complex. This complex further activates factor IX and X to IXa and Xa, respectively, leading to the common coagulation pathway and the subsequent formation of thrombin and fibrin. The release of endotoxin is the mechanism by which Gram-negative sepsis provokes DIC. In acute promyelocytic leukemia, treatment causes the destruction of leukemic granulocyte precursors, resulting in the release of large amounts of proteolytic enzymes from their storage granules, causing microvascular damage. Other malignancies may enhance the expression of various oncogenes that result in the release of TF and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), which prevents fibrinolysis. Excess circulating thrombin results from the excess activation of the coagulation cascade. The excess thrombin cleaves fibrinogen, which ultimately leaves behind multiple fibrin clots in the circulation. These excess clots trap platelets to become larger clots, which leads to microvascular and macrovascular thrombosis. This lodging of clots in the microcirculation, in the large vessels, and in the organs is what leads to the ischemia, impaired organ perfusion, and end-organ damage that occurs with DIC. Coagulation inhibitors are also consumed in this process. Decreased inhibitor levels will permit more clotting so that a positive feedback loop develops in which increased clotting leads to more clotting. At the same time, thrombocytopenia occurs and this has been attributed to the entrapment and consumption of platelets. Clotting factors are consumed in the development of multiple clots, which contributes to the bleeding seen with DIC. Simultaneously, excess circulating thrombin assists in the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, resulting in fibrinolysis. The breakdown of clots results in an excess of FDPs, which have powerful anticoagulant properties, contributing to hemorrhage. The excess plasmin also activates the complement and kinin systems. Activation of these systems leads to many of the clinical symptoms that patients experiencing DIC exhibits, such as shock, hypotension, and increased vascular permeability. The acute form of DIC is considered an extreme expression of the intravascular coagulation process with a complete breakdown of the normal homeostatic boundaries. DIC is associated with a poor prognosis and a high mortality rate. There has been a recent challenge however to the basic assumptions and interpretations of the pathophysiology of DIC. A study of sepsis and DIC in animal models has shown that a highly expressed receptor on the surface of hepatocytes, termed the Ashwell-Morell receptor, is responsible for thrombocytopenia in bacteremia and sepsis due to Streptococcus pneumoniae (SPN) and possibly other pathogens. The thrombocytopenia observed in SPN sepsis was not due to increased consumption of coagulation factors such as platelets, but instead was the result of this receptor's activity enabling hepatocytes to ingest and rapidly clear platelets from circulation. By removing prothrombotic components before they participate in the coagulopathy of DIC, the Ashwell-Morell receptor lessens the severity of DIC, reducing thrombosis and tissue necrosis, and promoting survival. The hemorrhage observed in DIC and among some tissues lacking this receptor may therefore be secondary to increased thrombosis with loss of the mechanical vascular barrier. Activation of the intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation pathways causes excess thrombus formation in the blood vessels. Consumption of coagulation factors due to extensive coagulation in turn causes bleeding. Diagnosis The diagnosis of DIC is not made on a single laboratory value, but rather the constellation of laboratory markers and a consistent history of an illness known to cause DIC. Laboratory markers consistent with DIC include: Characteristic history (this is important because severe liver disease can essentially have the same laboratory findings as DIC) Prolongation of the prothrombin time (PT) and the activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) reflect the underlying consumption and impaired synthesis of the coagulation cascade. Fibrinogen level was initially thought to be useful in the diagnosis of DIC but because it is an acute phase reactant, it will be elevated due to the underlying inflammatory condition. Therefore, a normal (or even elevated) level can occur in over 57% of cases. A low level, however, is more consistent with the consumptive process of DIC. A rapidly declining platelet count High levels of fibrin degradation products, including D-dimer, are found owing to the intense fibrinolytic activity stimulated by the presence of fibrin in the circulation. The peripheral blood smear may show fragmented red blood cells (known as schistocytes) due to shear stress from thrombi. However, this finding is neither sensitive nor specific for DIC A diagnostic algorithm has been proposed by the International Society of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. This algorithm appears to be 91% sensitive and 97% specific for the diagnosis of overt DIC. A score of 5 or higher is compatible with DIC and it is recommended that the score is repeated daily, while a score below 5 is suggestive but not affirmative for DIC and it is recommended that it is repeated only occasionally: It has been recommended that a scoring system be used in the diagnosis and management of DIC in terms of improving outcome. Presence of an underlying disorder known to be associated with DIC (no=0, yes=2) Global coagulation results Platelet count (> 100k = 0, < 100k = 1, < 50k = 2) Fibrin degradation products such as D-Dimer (no increase = 0, moderate increase = 2, strong increase = 3) Prolonged prothrombin time (< 3 sec = 0, > 3 sec = 1, > 6 sec = 2) Fibrinogen level (> 1.0g/L = 0; < 1.0g/L = 1) Treatment Treatment of DIC is centered on treating the underlying condition. Transfusions of platelets or fresh frozen plasma can be considered in cases of significant bleeding, or those with a planned invasive procedure. The target goal of such transfusion depends on the clinical situation. Cryoprecipitate can be considered in those with a low fibrinogen level. Treatment of thrombosis with anticoagulants such as heparin is rarely used due to the risk of bleeding. Recombinant human activated protein C was previously recommended in those with severe sepsis and DIC, but drotrecogin alfa has been shown to confer no benefit and was withdrawn from the market in 2011. Recombinant factor VII has been proposed as a "last resort" in those with severe hemorrhage due to obstetric or other causes, but conclusions about its use are still insufficient. Prognosis Prognosis varies depending on the underlying disorder, and the extent of the intravascular thrombosis (clotting). The prognosis for those with DIC, regardless of cause, is often grim: between 20% and 50% of patients will die. DIC with sepsis (infection) has a significantly higher rate of death than DIC associated with trauma. Epidemiology DIC is observed in approximately 1% of academic hospital admissions. DIC occurs at higher rates in people with bacterial sepsis (83%), severe trauma (31%), and cancer (6.8%). References Coagulopathies Intensive care medicine Medical emergencies Oncological emergencies Vascular-related cutaneous conditions Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate	[ 0.29702574014663696, 0.2562654912471771, 0.06225083768367767, -0.3092959523200989, -0.08044999092817307, -0.09823013842105865, 0.24989767372608185, 0.4262835681438446, -0.1521945297718048, -0.511833906173706, -0.4904235899448395, 0.32536637783050537, -0.8180421590805054, 0.23978453874588013, 0.42710092663764954, 0.4221108853816986, 0.69136643409729, 0.6639310121536255, -0.031686048954725266, -0.11542780697345734, -0.06324616819620132, -0.33003950119018555, 0.5548477172851562, 0.39318370819091797, -0.06987152248620987, -0.01912039890885353, -0.11118795722723007, -0.026661137118935585, 0.06753828376531601, -0.49346697330474854, 0.972981870174408, 0.793853223323822, 0.34743309020996094, -0.6494994759559631, 0.0805826261639595, 0.2107672542333603, 0.05804549157619476, -0.7445838451385498, -0.5969647765159607, 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238125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIC	DIC	DIC may refer to: Biology and chemistry Diisopropylcarbodiimide, a reagent in organic chemistry Disseminated intravascular coagulation, a pathological activation of coagulation (blood clotting) mechanisms Dissolved inorganic carbon, the sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution Companies D.I.C. (department store), a New Zealand department store chain DIC Corporation, a Japanese chemical company DIC Entertainment, a former film and television production company Dic Press, an imprint of VDM Publishing devoted to the reproduction of Wikipedia content Deposit Insurance Corporation of Japan Dubai International Capital, a private equity company Technology Differential interference contrast microscopy, an illumination technique in optical microscopy Digital image correlation, an optical method that employs tracking and image registration techniques Digital integrating computer, a digital implementation of a Differential Analyzer Dependency injection container, a dependency management technique in software development. Other Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran), an Indian political party Deviance information criterion, a diagnostic statistic used in Bayesian model selection Dicyclic group Diploma of Imperial College, awarded by Imperial College London Drive-In Classics, a Canadian television station Drunk in charge, a drink driving crime in the United Kingdom Dubai Industrial City, a dedicated industrial city Dubai Internet City, an information technology park See also DIK Dick (disambiguation)	[ 0.42968660593032837, 0.29961442947387695, -0.004580274224281311, 0.05245773121714592, -0.10080647468566895, -0.19091938436031342, -0.3544694781303406, -0.06330113857984543, 0.3508240580558777, -0.1081920862197876, -0.5664565563201904, 0.6081415414810181, -0.3891132175922394, 0.40480539202690125, 0.3923167884349823, 0.691647469997406, 0.6712091565132141, 0.7694329619407654, -0.047584813088178635, -0.4169691801071167, -0.4194898009300232, -0.04980238154530525, -0.14534525573253632, -0.10008585453033447, 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238127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted%20pyramid%20%28journalism%29	Inverted pyramid (journalism)	The inverted pyramid is a metaphor used by journalists and other writers to illustrate how information should be prioritised and structured in prose (e.g., a news report). It is a common method for writing news stories and has wide adaptability to other kinds of texts, such as blogs, editorial columns and marketing factsheets. It is a way to communicate the basics about a topic in the initial sentences. The inverted pyramid is taught to mass communication and journalism students, and is systematically used in English-language media. The inverted or upside-down pyramid can be thought of as a triangle pointing down. The widest part at the top represents the most substantial, interesting, and important information that the writer means to convey, illustrating that this kind of material should head the article, while the tapering lower portion illustrates that other material should follow in order of diminishing importance. It is sometimes called a summary news lead style, or bottom line up front (BLUF). The opposite, the failure to mention the most important, interesting or attention-grabbing elements of a story in the opening paragraphs, is called burying the lede. Purpose Other styles are also used in news writing, including the "anecdotal lead," which begins the story with an eye-catching tale or anecdote rather than the central facts; and the Q&A, or question-and-answer format. The inverted pyramid may also include a "hook" as a kind of prologue, typically a provocative quote, question, or image, to entice the reader into committing to reading the full story. This format is valued for two reasons. First, readers can leave the story at any point and understand it, even if they do not have all the details. Second, it conducts readers through the details of the story by the end. This system also means that information less vital to the reader's understanding comes later in the story, where it is easier to edit out for space or other reasons. This is called "cutting from the bottom." Rather than petering out, a story may end with a "kicker"—a conclusion, perhaps call to action—which comes after the pyramid. This is particularly common in feature style articles. History Historians disagree about when the form was created. Many say the invention of the telegraph sparked its development by encouraging reporters to condense material, to reduce costs, or to hedge against the unreliability of the telegraph network. Studies of 19th-century news stories in American newspapers, however, suggest that the form spread several decades later than the telegraph, possibly because the reform era's social and educational forces encouraged factual reporting rather than more interpretive narrative styles. Chip Scanlan's essay on the form includes this frequently cited example of telegraphic reporting: Who, when, where, why, what, and how are addressed in the first paragraph. As the article continues, the less important details are presented. An even more pyramid-conscious reporter or editor would move two additional details to the first two sentences: That the shot was to the head, and that it was expected to prove fatal. The transitional sentence about the Grants suggests that less-important facts are being added to the rest of the story. Other news outlets such as the Associated Press did not use this format when covering the assassination, instead adopting a chronological organization. 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238129	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate%20massage	Prostate massage	Prostate massage is the massage or stimulation of the male prostate gland for medical purposes or sexual stimulation. The prostate takes part in the sexual response cycle, and is essential for the production of semen. Due to its proximity to the anterior rectal wall, it can be stimulated from the anterior wall of the rectum or externally via the perineum. Medical uses Digital rectal examination Prostate massage is part of the digital rectal examination (DRE) routinely given to men by urologists in order to look for nodules of prostate cancer and to obtain an expressed prostatic secretion (EPS) specimen for microscopy and microbiological culture to screen for prostatitis. Therapy for prostatitis In the late 1990s, a small number of doctors tried prostate massage in conjunction with antibiotics for the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis with uncertain results. In recent trials, however, prostate massage was not shown to improve outcomes compared to antibiotics alone. As a consequence of these findings, prostate massage is not officially sanctioned in medicine for the treatment of any medical disorder today. Prostatic massage should never be performed on patients with acute prostatitis, because the infection can spread elsewhere in the body if massage is performed. History Once the most popular therapeutic maneuver used to treat prostatitis, it was abandoned as primary therapy in the 1960s. In the late 1990s the ineffectiveness of drug treatments for chronic prostatitis led to a brief resurgence of interest in prostate massage. In a recent trial, however, prostate massage was not shown to improve outcomes compared to antibiotics alone. The practice is still used in some parts of China. Risks Vigorous prostate massage has been documented to have injurious consequences: periprostatic hemorrhage, cellulitis, septicaemia, possible disturbance and metastasis of prostate cancer to other parts of the body, and hemorrhoidal flare-up, and rectal fissures. Electroejaculation Electroejaculation is a procedure in which nerves are stimulated via an electric probe, which is inserted into the rectum adjacent to the prostate. The stimulus voltage stimulates nearby nerves, resulting in contraction of the pelvic muscles and ejaculation. It is most commonly encountered in animal husbandry for the purpose of collecting semen samples for testing or breeding. Some devices are used under general anesthesia on humans who have certain types of anejaculation. Electroejaculation may also be used for posthumous sperm retrieval in humans. Electroejaculation is a different procedure from manual prostate massage. As a sexual practice General Prostate massage is also used as an erotic massage for sexual stimulation, often in order to reach orgasm. It is possible for some men to achieve orgasms through prostate stimulation alone. Stimulation may be achieved by use of one or more fingers or by using sex toys designed to bring pressure to the anterior wall of the rectum at the location of the gland. The prostate is sometimes referred to as the "male G-spot" or "P-spot". Some men can achieve orgasm through stimulation of the prostate gland, such as prostate massage or receptive anal intercourse, and men who report the sensation of prostate stimulation often give descriptions similar to females' accounts of G-spot stimulation. Prostate stimulation can produce a stronger, more powerful, and "deeper" orgasm than solely penile stimulation, described by some men as more widespread, intense, and enduring, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. However, all male orgasms, including those by penile stimulation, involve muscular contractions in the prostate gland. Prostate massage may be practiced between sexual partners, either as a discrete activity or during other sexual acts stimulating the penis for example. The increasing availability (online via the Internet) of purpose-designed, safe and hygienic sex toys and devices aimed at prostate stimulation may encourage sexual experimentation and incorporation into sex play. The use of a finger for anal penetration and prostate stimulation can enhance a man's orgasm or vary the sensations experienced during sexual arousal. The finger of the prostate massager is introduced into the rectum through the anus and the prostate gland is gently massaged via the anterior (front) wall of the rectum. In some individuals or for some massagers the correct location of the prostate may be slightly too deep or the finger too short to reach easily. Prostate massage can be performed individually or with the help of a partner. Prostate massage may also be used in long-term orgasm denial play, for the purpose of relieving immediate need for orgasm without impacting general feelings of arousal. For this purpose it is often referred to as milking. There are safety matters relating to prostate stimulation and anal penetration. It is strongly recommended that plenty of lubricant be used with prostate massagers to prevent rectal lining damage. A smaller instrument or finger may be introduced gradually to minimize the discomfort that some may feel. Massagers may be used with or without a condom; however, because of the bacteria found in the rectum, if a condom is not used, it is very important to clean the tool with soap before use in another orifice or by a partner. Receiving anal stimulation may cause feelings of having to defecate. More often than not, this is just a sensation that the stimulation causes and may take some getting used to. Equipment A prostate massager is a device for massaging the prostate gland. The shape of a prostate massager is similar to a finger, since prostate massages are traditionally given digitally (for example, via fingering). They usually have a slightly curved head to effectively massage the prostate. Lubricant is usually necessary before inserting anything into the anus and helps to avoid injury to the rectal mucosa (lining). Caution should be exercised when a prostate massager is used because of the sensitivity of the prostate. Correct use involves a medium to light repetitive massage, or circular motion—the device being used to administer the massage should not be used too vigorously or without care, since this may lead to injury. Prostate massage equipment ranges from dildos to butt plugs. When used in sexual practice, prostate massagers are commonly referred to as "prostate toys", "prostate sex toys", and "anal toys". These prostate massagers are inserted into the rectum through the anus and are intended to stimulate the prostate by simple massaging or vibrating. They are used during foreplay by many couples. Prostate dildos are similar to vaginal dildos, but they tend to be more curved, slimmer and with a softer texture. Some of the new prostate dildos on the market are driven by batteries and offer vibration at the tip; the speed or intensity of which may be changed depending on the subject's personal preference. Unlike vaginal dildos, the anal prostate massager has a flared end to prevent it from being fully inserted and 'lost' inside the rectum. Some men prefer butt plugs, which are easy to use, can be inserted freely and left in place while the man's hands are free for other sexual activities such as masturbation. Anal plugs also come in various shapes, sizes and designs and are not commonly intended to stimulate the prostate. Newer, more angled models (second generation) of prostate massagers have been developed to provide a more direct and thorough massage of the prostate gland. These new devices feature a more curved shape and are slightly longer than the originals. They commonly have a narrow neck and a flared end to avoid losing them in the rectum. While many massagers rely upon the body's own natural muscular contractions of the anal sphincter and anal wall to stimulate the prostate, some of the newer models come with vibrators built into them to increase sexual pleasure. 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238133	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20%28band%29	Protein (band)	Protein was an American punk, alternative, post-grunge, metal band, formed in 1994 in San Francisco, California, United States. Forming their first band after they were kicked out of a San Francisco-area high school, vocalist/guitarist Josh Zee (the son of a professional folksinger) and drummer Dan Thompson, played for several years in various local bands before forming the grungy alternative pop band, Protein, in 1994. The duo played several shows before replacing their part-time bassist with Russ Violet, and made a good showing at a San Francisco music-industry showcase in 1996. Signed to Sony's Work subsidiary, Protein released their debut album, Ever Since I Was a Kid, in 1997. A second album, Songs About Cowgirls, was released in 1999. They toured extensively throughout the U.S. on "The Warped Tour" and also toured Europe and Japan as part of MTV Asia Summer Fest. Members Josh Zee - Guitars/Vocals Russ Violet - Bass Dan (Danny) Thompson - Drums/Vocals Solo work After their release from Sony in 2000, the members of the band moved onto other projects: Josh Zee moved to the San Francisco Bay Area, where he met and collaborated with Teal Collins to form The Mother Truckers, a band that fused Southern rock, country, and blues. They then moved the band to Austin, Texas in 2005 and spent a decade, procuring a residency and grew a sizeable fanbase and released four albums: Something Worth Dying For, Broke, Not Broken, Let's All Go To Bed, and Van Tour. The Mother Truckers toured across the United States and Europe, performing with acts such as Willie Nelson, Merle Haggard, George Jones, Shooter Jennings, The Supersuckers, among others. Russ Violet joined the San Francisco-based group The Monolith to record and release the 2004 album Here Comes The Monolith. Dan Thompson joined Zee as drummer for The Mother Truckers from 2004 to 2007. During this time, he played with other musicians such as Les Claypool of Primus, Mark Rivera (Billie Joel), Vince Neil, Jakob Dylan, and Doug Grean. In 2008, he played drums for Scott Weiland on his solo album, "Happy" in Galoshes, touring the United States, and performing on TV shows such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, and Last Call with Carson Daly. In 2010, he joined The Alan Parsons Live Project. 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238139	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-sharp	C-sharp	C-sharp, C♯, or C# may refer to: C♯ (musical note) C-sharp major, a musical scale C-sharp minor, a musical scale C# (programming language), a programming language pronounced as "C-sharp"	[ -0.22894006967544556, 0.16051186621189117, -0.16424471139907837, -0.04810462146997452, -0.4597637951374054, 0.12295947223901749, 0.022143958136439323, 0.47854748368263245, -0.12937426567077637, -0.16493496298789978, -0.3291507959365845, 0.8484704494476318, -0.2826303243637085, 0.46644213795661926, 0.2862909436225891, 0.8453865051269531, 0.8829184174537659, -0.21331313252449036, -0.6458127498626709, -0.27350178360939026, -0.16385941207408905, -0.2931240499019623, 0.5121648907661438, -0.4271745979785919, 0.2984098494052887, 0.26910191774368286, -0.15699627995491028, 0.3878350853919983, -0.21681833267211914, 0.020112235099077225, -0.16345429420471191, 0.7456075549125671, 0.415313184261322, -0.29186785221099854, -0.3297046720981598, 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238142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melee	Melee	A melee ( or , French: mêlée ) or pell-mell is disorganized hand-to-hand combat in battles fought at abnormally close range with little central control once it starts. In military aviation, a melee has been defined as "[a]n air battle in which several aircraft, both friend and foe, are confusingly intermingled". History of the term In the 1579 translation of Plutarch's Lives of the noble Grecians and Romanes, Sir Thomas North uses the term '' to refer to a disorganized retreat. The phrase was later used in its current spelling in Shakespeare's Richard III, 1594: The phrase comes from the French expression pêle-mêle, a rhyme based on the old French mesler, meaning to mix or mingle. The French term melee was first used in English in c. 1640 (also derived from the old French mesler, but the Old French stem survives in medley and meddle). Lord Nelson described his tactics for the Battle of Trafalgar as inducing a "pell mell battle" focused on engagements between individual ships where the superior morale and skill of the Royal Navy would prevail. The destroyer night action of the second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 13 November 1942, was so chaotic, and the opposing ships so intermingled, that an officer on later likened it to "a barroom brawl after the lights had been shot out". See also Chance medley Close-quarters combat Combat Galley tactics Melee (gaming) Melee weapon Notes References Military science	[ -0.4313077926635742, -0.19446948170661926, -0.5844038724899292, -0.07610832899808884, -0.538057804107666, -0.11867041885852814, 0.6263030171394348, 0.2929087281227112, 0.04026370868086815, -0.37370359897613525, -0.5392038822174072, 0.37698352336883545, -0.027246026322245598, -0.23101921379566193, 0.016483183950185776, 0.4233691990375519, -0.08038695156574249, -0.12432920187711716, -0.02436968870460987, 0.3053869307041168, -0.46662160754203796, -0.23376116156578064, -0.015542273409664631, 0.41062894463539124, 0.44998300075531006, -0.009570534341037273, 0.32759612798690796, 0.4222550094127655, -0.012834039516746998, -0.25731387734413147, 0.06842011958360672, 0.6398915648460388, 0.08141548931598663, -0.5886949896812439, -0.2754225432872772, -0.2339656800031662, -0.5118998885154724, 0.14578820765018463, 0.03025093860924244, -0.6935111284255981, 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238143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20L.%20Austin	J. L. Austin	John Langshaw Austin (26 March 1911 – 8 February 1960) was a British philosopher of language and leading proponent of ordinary language philosophy, perhaps best known for developing the theory of speech acts. Austin pointed out that we use language to do things as well as to assert things, and that the utterance of a statement like "I promise to do so-and-so" is best understood as doing something — making a promise — rather than making an assertion about anything. Hence the name of one of his best-known works How to Do Things with Words. Austin, in providing his theory of speech acts, makes a significant challenge to the philosophy of language, far beyond merely elucidating a class of morphological sentence forms that function to do what they name. Austin's work ultimately suggests that all speech and all utterance is the doing of something with words and signs, challenging a metaphysics of language that would posit denotative, propositional assertion as the essence of language and meaning. Life Austin was born in Lancaster, England, the second son of Geoffrey Langshaw Austin (1884–1971), an architect, and Mary Hutton Bowes-Wilson (1883–1948; née Wilson). In 1921 the family moved to Scotland, where Austin's father became the secretary of St Leonards School, St Andrews. Austin was educated at Shrewsbury School in 1924, earning a scholarship in Classics, and went on to study Classics at Balliol College, Oxford in 1929. In 1930 he received a First in Classical Moderations (Greek and Latin) and in the following year won the Gaisford Prize for Greek prose. In finals in 1933 he received a First in Literae Humaniores (Philosophy and Ancient History). Literae Humaniores introduced him to serious philosophy and gave him a lifelong interest in Aristotle. He undertook his first teaching position in 1935, as fellow and tutor at Magdalen College, Oxford. Austin's early interests included Aristotle, Kant, Leibniz, and Plato (especially the Theaetetus). His more contemporary influences included especially G. E. Moore, John Cook Wilson and H. A. Prichard. The contemporary influences shaped their views about general philosophical questions on the basis of careful attention to the more specific judgements we make. They took our specific judgements to be more secure than more general judgements. It's plausible that some aspects of Austin's distinctive approach to philosophical questions derived from his engagement with the last three. During World War II Austin served in the British Intelligence Corps. It has been said of him that, "he more than anybody was responsible for the life-saving accuracy of the D-Day intelligence" (reported in Warnock 1963: 9). Austin left the army with the rank of lieutenant colonel and was honored for his intelligence work with an OBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire), the French Croix de guerre, and the U.S. Officer of the Legion of Merit. After the war Austin became White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at Oxford, as a Professorial Fellow of Corpus Christi College. Publishing little, his influence would largely make itself felt through his teaching in lectures and tutorials and, especially, his famous 'Saturday morning meetings'. Austin visited Harvard and Berkeley in the mid-fifties, in 1955 delivering the William James Lectures at Harvard that would become How to Do Things With Words, and offering a seminar on excuses whose material would find its way into "A Plea for Excuses". It was at this time that he met and befriended Noam Chomsky. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1956 to 1957. Austin died, shortly after being diagnosed with lung cancer, at the age of 48. At the time of his death, he was developing a semantic theory based on sound symbolism, using the English gl-words as data. Work How to Do Things with Words How to Do Things with Words (1955/1962) is perhaps Austin's most influential work. In contrast to the positivist view, he argues, sentences with truth-values form only a small part of the range of utterances. After introducing several kinds of sentences which he asserts are neither true nor false, he turns in particular to one of these kinds of sentences, which he calls performative utterances or just "performatives". These he characterises by two features: Again, though they may take the form of a typical indicative sentence, performative sentences are not used to describe (or "constate") and are thus not true or false; they have no truth-value. Second, to utter one of these sentences in appropriate circumstances is not just to "say" something, but rather to perform a certain kind of action. He goes on to say that when something goes wrong in connection with a performative utterance it is, as he puts it, "infelicitous", or "unhappy" rather than false. The action which is performed when a 'performative utterance' is issued belongs to what Austin later calls a speech-act (more particularly, the kind of action Austin has in mind is what he subsequently terms the illocutionary act). For example, if you say "I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth," and the circumstances are appropriate in certain ways, then you will have done something special, namely, you will have performed the act of naming the ship. Other examples include: "I take this man as my lawfully wedded husband," used in the course of a marriage ceremony, or "I bequeath this watch to my brother," as occurring in a will. In all three cases the sentence is not being used to describe or state what one is 'doing', but being used to actually 'do' it. After numerous attempts to find more characteristics of performatives, and after having met with many difficulties, Austin makes what he calls a "fresh start", in which he considers "more generally the senses in which to say something may be to do something, or in saying something we do something". For example: John Smith turns to Sue Snub and says 'Is Jeff's shirt red?’, to which Sue replies 'Yes'. John has produced a series of bodily movements which result in the production of a certain sound. Austin called such a performance a phonetic act, and called the act a phone. John's utterance also conforms to the lexical and grammatical conventions of English—that is, John has produced an English sentence. Austin called this a phatic act, and labels such utterances phemes. John also referred to Jeff's shirt, and to the colour red. To use a pheme with a more or less definite sense and reference is to utter a rheme, and to perform a rhetic act. Note that rhemes are a sub-class of phemes, which in turn are a sub-class of phones. One cannot perform a rheme without also performing a pheme and a phone. The performance of these three acts is the performance of a locution—it is the act of saying something. John has therefore performed a locutionary act. He has also done at least two other things. He has asked a question, and he has elicited an answer from Sue. Asking a question is an example of what Austin called an illocutionary act. Other examples would be making an assertion, giving an order, and promising to do something. To perform an illocutionary act is to use a locution with a certain force. It is an act performed in saying something, in contrast with a locution, the act of saying something. Eliciting an answer is an example of what Austin calls a perlocutionary act, an act performed by saying something. Notice that if one successfully performs a perlocution, one also succeeds in performing both an illocution and a locution. In the theory of speech acts, attention has especially focused on the illocutionary act, much less on the locutionary and perlocutionary act, and only rarely on the subdivision of the locution into phone, pheme and rheme. How to Do Things With Words is based on lectures given at Oxford between 1951 and 1954, and then at Harvard in 1955. Performative utterance According to J. L. Austin, "performative utterance" refers to a not truth-valuable action of "performing", or "doing" a certain action. For example, when people say "I promise to do so and so", they are generating the action of making a promise. In this case, without any flaw (the promise is flawlessly fulfilled), the "performative utterance" is "happy", or to use J. L. Austin's word, "felicitous"; if on the other hand, one fails to do what he or she promised, it can be "unhappy", or "infelicitous". Notice that performative utterance is not truth-valuable, which means nothing said can be judged based on truth or falsity. There are four types of performatives according to Austin: explicit, implicit, primitive, and inexplicit. "How to Do Things With Words", edited by J. O. Urmson and Marina Bissau, records Austin's lectures on this topic. In this book, Austin offers examples for each type of performative mentioned above. For explicit performative, he mentioned "I apologize", "I criticize" (Page 83), which are so explicit to receivers that it would not make sense for someone to ask "Does he really mean that?". Inexplicit performatives are the opposite, where the receiver will have understandable doubts. For a primary performative, the example Austin gave is "I shall be there". Compared with explicit performatives, there is uncertainty in implicit performatives. People might ask if he or she is promising to be there with primary performatives, however, this uncertainty is not strong enough as in explicit performatives. Most examples given are explicit because they are easy to identify and observe, and identifying other performatives requires comparison and contrast with explicit performatives. Sense and Sensibilia In the posthumously published Sense and Sensibilia (the title is Austin's own, and wittily echoes the title of Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austen's first book, just as his name echoes hers), Austin criticizes the claims put forward by A. J. Ayer's The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge (1940), and to a lesser extent, H. H. Price's Perception (1932) and G. J. Warnock's Berkeley (1953), concerning the sense-data theory. He states that perceptual variation, which can be attributed to physical causes, does not involve a figurative disconnect between sense and reference, due to an unreasonable separation of parts from the perceived object. Central to his argument, he shows that "there is no one kind of thing that we 'perceive' but many different kinds, the number being reducible if at all by scientific investigation and not by philosophy" (Austin 1962a, 4). Austin argues that Ayer fails to understand the proper function of such words as "illusion", "delusion", "hallucination", "looks", "appears" and "seems", and uses them instead in a "special way...invented by philosophers." According to Austin, normally these words allow us to express reservations about our commitment to the truth of what we are saying, and that the introduction of sense-data adds nothing to our understanding of or ability to talk about what we see. As an example, Austin examines the word 'real' and contrasts the ordinary meanings of that word based on everyday language and the ways it is used by sense-data theorists. In order to determine the meaning of 'real' we have to consider, case by case, the ways and contexts in which it is used. By observing that it is (i) a substantive-hungry word that is sometimes a (ii) adjuster-word, as well as a (iii) dimension-word and (iv) a word whose negative use "wears the trousers," Austin highlights its complexities. Only by doing so, according to Austin, can we avoid introducing false dichotomies. Philosophical Papers Austin's papers were collected and published posthumously as Philosophical Papers by J. O. Urmson and Geoffrey Warnock. The book originally contained ten papers, two more being added in the second edition and one in the third. His paper Excuses has had a massive impact on criminal law theory. Chapters 1 and 3 study how a word may have different, but related, senses. Chapters 2 and 4 discuss the nature of knowledge, focusing on performative utterance. Chapters 5 and 6 study the correspondence theory, where a statement is true when it corresponds to a fact. Chapters 6 and 10 concern the doctrine of speech acts. Chapters 8, 9, and 12 reflect on the problems that language encounters in discussing actions and considering the cases of excuses, accusations, and freedom. "Are there A Priori Concepts?" This early paper contains a broad criticism of Idealism. The question set dealing with the existence of a priori concepts is treated only indirectly, by dismissing the concept of concept that underpins it. The first part of this paper takes the form of a reply to an argument for the existence of Universals: from observing that we do use words such as "grey" or "circular" and that we use a single term in each case, it follows that there must be a something that is named by such terms—a universal. Furthermore, since each case of "grey" or "circular" is different, it follows that universals themselves cannot be sensed. Austin carefully dismantles this argument, and in the process other transcendental arguments. He points out first that universals are not "something we stumble across", and that they are defined by their relation to particulars. He continues by pointing out that, from the observation that we use "grey" and "circular" as if they were the names of things, it simply does not follow that there is something that is named. In the process he dismisses the notion that "words are essentially proper names", asking "...why, if 'one identical' word is used, must there be 'one identical object' present which it denotes". In the second part of the article, he generalizes this argument against universals to address concepts as a whole. He points out that it is "facile" to treat concepts as if they were "an article of property". Such questions as "Do we possess such-and-such a concept" and "how do we come to possess such-and-such a concept" are meaningless, because concepts are not the sort of thing that one possesses. In the final part of the paper, Austin further extends the discussion to relations, presenting a series of arguments to reject the idea that there is some thing that is a relation. His argument likely follows from the conjecture of his colleague, S. V. Tezlaf, who questioned what makes "this" "that". "The Meaning of a Word" The Meaning of a Word is a polemic against doing philosophy by attempting to pin down the meaning of the words used, arguing that 'there is no simple and handy appendage of a word called "the meaning of the word (x)"'. Austin warns us to take care when removing words from their ordinary usage, giving numerous examples of how this can lead to error. "Other Minds" In Other Minds, one of his most highly acclaimed pieces, Austin criticizes the method that philosophers have used since Descartes to analyze and verify statements of the form "That person S feels X." This method works from the following three assumptions: (1) We can know only if we intuit and directly feel what he feels. (2) It is impossible to do so. (3) It may be possible to find strong evidence for belief in our impressions. Although Austin agrees with (2), quipping that "we should be in a pretty predicament if I did", he found (1) to be false and (3) to be therefore unnecessary. The background assumption to (1), Austin claims, is that if I say that I know X and later find out that X is false, I did not know it. Austin believes that this is not consistent with the way we actually use language. He claims that if I was in a position where I would normally say that I know X, if X should turn out to be false, I would be speechless rather than self-corrective. He gives an argument that this is so by suggesting that believing is to knowing as intending is to promising— knowing and promising are the speech-act versions of believing and intending respectively. "A Plea for Excuses" A Plea for Excuses is both a demonstration by example, and a defense of the methods of ordinary language philosophy, which proceeds on the conviction that: "...our common stock of words embodies all the distinctions men have found worth drawing, and the connections they have found worth marking, in the lifetime of many generations: these surely are likely to be more numerous, more sound, since they have stood up to the long test of survival of the fittest, and more subtle, at least in all ordinary and reasonable practical matters, than any that you or I are likely to think up in our armchair of an afternoon—the most favourite alternative method." An example of such a distinction Austin describes in a footnote is that between the phrases "by mistake" and "by accident". Although their uses are similar, Austin argues that with the right examples we can see that a distinction exists in when one or the other phrase is appropriate. Austin proposes some curious philosophical tools. For instance, he uses a sort of word game for developing an understanding of a key concept. This involves taking up a dictionary and finding a selection of terms relating to the key concept, then looking up each of the words in the explanation of their meaning. This process is iterated until the list of words begins to repeat, closing in a "family circle" of words relating to the key concept. Austin, Wittgenstein and Ryle Austin occupies a place in philosophy of language alongside the Cantabrigian Wittgenstein and Austin's fellow Oxonian Gilbert Ryle in staunchly advocating the examination of the way words are ordinarily used in order to elucidate meaning and by this means avoid philosophical confusion. Unlike many ordinary language philosophers, however, Austin disavowed any overt indebtedness to Wittgenstein's later philosophy. Quotes "The theory of truth is a series of truisms" - Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. xxiv (1950). Philosophical Papers, p. 121, Oxford University Press, second edition (1970) "Sentences are not as such either true or false" - Sense and Sensibilia (1962), p. 111 "Going back into the history of a word, very often into Latin, we come back pretty commonly to pictures or models of how things happen or are done. These models may be fairly sophisticated and recent, as is perhaps the case with 'motive' or 'impulse', but one of the commonest and most primitive types of model is one which is apt to baffle us through its very naturalness and simplicity." - A Plea for Excuses (1956) Published in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 1956-7. Transcribed into hypertext by Andrew Chrucky, 23 August 2004. "A sentence is made up of words, a statement is made in words.... Statements are made, words or sentences are used." Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. xxiv (1950) - Philosophical Papers, p. 120, Oxford University Press, second edition (1970) "We walk along the cliff, and I feel a sudden impulse to push you over, which I promptly do: I acted on impulse, yet I certainly intended to push you over, and may even have devised a little ruse to achieve it; yet even then I did not act deliberately, for I did not (stop to) ask myself whether to do it or not." - Philosophical Papers, "The Meaning of a Word," p. 195, Oxford University Press, second edition (1970). "You are more than entitled not to know what the word 'performative' means. It is a new word and an ugly word, and perhaps it does not mean anything very much. But at any rate there is one thing in its favor, it is not a profound word." - "Performative Utterances." Philosophical Papers, p. 233, Oxford University Press, second edition (1970). "Let us distinguish between acting intentionally and acting deliberately or on purpose, as far as this can be done by attending to what language can teach us." - Philosophical Papers, "Three Ways of Spilling Ink," p. 273, Oxford University Press, second edition (1970). "Usually it is uses of words, not words in themselves, that are properly called 'vague.'" - Sense and Sensibilia, p. 126, Oxford University Press (1962). "But then we have to ask, of course, what this class comprises. We are given, as examples, 'familiar objects'--chairs, tables, pictures, books, flowers, pens, cigarettes; the expression 'material thing' is not here (or anywhere else in Ayer's text) further defined. But does the ordinary man believe that what he perceives is (always) something like furniture, or like these other 'familiar objects'—moderate-sized specimens of dry goods?" - Sense and Sensibilia, p. 8, Oxford University Press (1962). During a lecture at Columbia University attended by American philosopher Sidney Morgenbesser, Austin made the claim that although a in English implies a positive meaning, there is no language in which a double positive implies a negative. To which Morgenbesser responded in a dismissive tone, "Yeah, yeah." (Some have quoted it as "Yeah, right.") Publications Books Authored Philosophical Papers, 1961, 1970, 1979, (eds. J. O. Urmson and G. J. Warnock), Oxford: Oxford University Press. (= Austin 1979) How to Do Things with Words: The William James Lectures delivered at Harvard University in 1955, 1962 (eds. J. O. Urmson and Marina Sbisà), Oxford: Clarendon Press. Sense and Sensibilia, 1962 (ed. G. J. Warnock), Oxford: Clarendon Press. Translated The Foundations of Arithmetic. A logico-mathematical enquiry into the concept of number (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1950) by Gottlob Frege, Translation J. L. Austin. UIN: BLL01001320611. Papers and articles 1930s–1940s, "The Line and the Cave in Plato's Republic," reconstructed from notes by J. O. Urmson, in Austin 1979. 1939ms/1967, "Agathon and Eudaimonia in the Ethics of Aristotle," in J. M. E. Moravcsik (ed.), Aristotle, New York: Doubleday. Reprinted in Austin 1979. 1939, "Are There A Priori Concepts?" Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 18: 83–105. Reprinted in Austin 1979. ms1940, "The Meaning of Words," in Austin 1979. 1946, "Other Minds," Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 20: 148–187. Reprinted in Austin 1979. 1950, "Truth," Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 24: 111–128. Reprinted in Austin 1979. 1953, "How to Talk—some simple ways" Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 53: 227–246. Reprinted in Austin 1979. 1954ms, "Unfair to Facts," in Austin 1979. 1956a, "Ifs and Cans," Proceedings of the British Academy. Reprinted in Austin 1979. 1956b, "Performative Utterances," corrected transcript of an unscripted radio talk delivered in the Third Programme of the BBC. In Austin 1979. 1957, "A Plea for Excuses: The Presidential Address", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 57: 1–30. Reprinted in Austin 1979. 1958, "Pretending" Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 32: 261–278. Reprinted in Austin 1979. 1962, "Performatif-Constatif," in Cahiers de Royaumont, Philosophie No. IV, La Philosophie Analytique, Les Editions de Minuit. Translated in 1963 as"Performative-Constative" by G. J. Warnock, in C. E. Caton ed., Philosophy and Ordinary Language, University of Illinois Press. 1966, "Three Ways of Spilling Ink", L. W. Forguson (ed.), The Philosophical Review, 75 (4): 427–440. Reprinted in Austin 1979. See also Epistemology Linguistics Performative turn Pragmatics Semantics Adolf Reinach Word References Further reading Berlin, I. et al., (ed.) (1973) Essays on J.L. Austin, Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Cavell, S. (1990), The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality, and Tragedy, New York: Oxford University Press. (The major work by one of Austin's most prominent heirs. Takes ordinary language approaches to issues of skepticism, but also makes those approaches a subject of scrutiny). Fann, K.T., ed. (1969), Symposium on J.L. Austin, New York: Humanities Press. Friggieri, Joe (1993), " Linguaggio e azione. Saggio su J. L. Austin", Milano: Vita e Pensiero Friggieri, Joe (1991), "Actions and Speech Actions: In the Philosophy of J. L. Austin", Msida: Mireva Publications Garvey, Brian, ed. (2004), J. L. Austin on Language, Palgrave, Houndmills (UK). (Includes Remembering J. L. Austin by Austin's younger sister, Ann Lendrum, and Recollections of J. L. Austin by John Searle). Gustafsson, M. and Sørli, R. (2011), "The Philosophy of J. L. Austin".Oxford: Oxford University Press. (New anthology of philosophical essays on Austin's work). Kirkham, R. (1992, reprinted 1995), Theories of Truth: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. . (Chapter 4 contains a detailed discussion of Austin's theory of truth). Passmore, J. (1966), A Hundred Years of Philosophy, rev. ed. New York: Basic Books. (Chapter 18 includes a perceptive exposition of Austin's philosophical project). Pitcher, G. (1973), "Austin: a personal memoir" in Essays on J.L. Austin, ed. Berlin, I. et al. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Putnam, H. (1999), "The Importance of Being Austin: The Need of a 'Second Näivetē'" Lecture Two in The Threefold Cord: Mind, Body, and World New York: Columbia University Press. (In arguing for "naive realism", Putnam invokes Austin's handling of sense-data theories and their reliance on arguments from perceptual illusion in Sense and Sensibilia, which Putnam calls "one of the most unjustly neglected classics of analytics philosophy"). Searle, J. (1969), Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Searle's has been the most notable of attempts to extend and adjust Austin's conception of speech acts). Searle, J. (1979), Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Soames, S. (2005), Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume II: The Age of Meaning. Princeton: Princeton UP. (Contains a large section on ordinary language philosophy, and a chapter on Austin's treatment of skepticism and perception in Sense and Sensibilia). Warnock, G. J. (1969) "John Langshaw Austin, a biographical sketch", in Symposium on J. L. Austin, K.T. Fann (ed), New York: Humanities Press. Warnock, G. J. (1979), Philosophical Papers, Oxford: OUP (Clarendon Paperbacks), Warnock, G. J. (1973), "Saturday Mornings" in Essays on J.L. Austin I. Berlin et al. (ed) Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Warnock, G. J. (1992), J. L. Austin, London: Routledge. External links J. L. Austin The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "J. L. Austin: A return to common sense" TLS Online 'Footnotes to Plato''' article by Guy Longworth (on 'Austin's view that philosophers fail to understand everyday speech'). "Guy Longworth on J.L. Austin and Ordinary Language" Philosophy Bites'' (audio) interview. Lecture and Q&A session by J. L. Austin in Sweden (October 1959), uploaded by Harvard Philosophy Department to YouTube 1911 births 1960 deaths 20th-century British male writers 20th-century British non-fiction writers 20th-century British philosophers 20th-century essayists Action theorists Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Analytic philosophers Aristotelian philosophers British Army personnel of World War II British essayists British ethicists British logicians British male non-fiction writers Deaths from cancer in England Deaths from lung cancer Epistemologists History of logic Intelligence Corps officers Literacy and society theorists Metaphysicians Moral philosophers Officers of the Order of the British Empire Ontologists Ordinary language philosophy People educated at Shrewsbury School People from Lancaster, Lancashire Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of language Philosophers of linguistics Philosophers of logic Philosophers of mind Philosophy writers Presidents of the Aristotelian Society White's 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238145	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20medieval%20weapons	List of medieval weapons	The following is a list of Wikipedia articles of the types of weapons that were in use during the post-classical historical period (roughly between the mid 1st to mid 2nd millennia AD). Offensive weapons Melee weapons Trauma and cleaving weapons Battle axe Bec de corbin Bludgeon Club Flail Flanged mace Horseman's pick Mace Morning star Quarterstaff Shestopyor, Pernach War hammer Swords and hilt weapons Swords can have single or double bladed edges or even edgeless. The blade can be curved or straight. Arming sword Dagger Estoc Falchion Katana Knife Longsword Rapier Sabre or Saber (Most sabers belong to the renaissance period, but some sabers can be found in the late medieval period) Shortsword Ulfberht (Frankish) Spears and polearms Ahlspiess Bardiche Bec de Corbin Bill Glaive Goedendag Guisarme Halberd Lance Lochaber axe Lucerne hammer Man catcher Military fork Partisan Pike Plançon a picot Ranseur Sovnya Spetum Swordstaff Voulge War scythe War hammer Ranged weapons Bows Longbows Daikyu English longbow Welsh longbow Recurved bows Hungarian bow Perso-Parthian bow Short bows and reflex bows Gungdo Hankyu Mongol bow Turkish bow Crossbows Arbalest Crossbow Repeating crossbow Skane lockbow Stone bow Flamethrowers Byzantine flamethrower Pen Huo Qi flamethrower Gunpowder firearms Arquebuses Arquebus Istinggar arquebus Java arquebus Jiaozhi arquebus Tanegashima arquebus Torador arquebus Blunderbuss Hand cannons Baton a feu Bedil tumbak Hand cannon Huo Qiang lance hand cannon Heilongjiang hand cannon Huo Chong Meriam kecil Petronel San Yan Chong three barrel hand cannon Shou Chong Tu Huo Qiang Muskets Che Dian Chong Musket Xun Lei Chong spear five barrel revolver musket Musketoon Pistol Bajozutsu Wall gun Jingal Slings Kestros Sling Stave sling Throwing weapons Chakram Francisca Kunai Nzappa zap Shuriken Throwing knife Throwing spear Siege weapons Ballista Battering ram Bombards Bombard Byzantine bombard Dardanelles bombard Dulle Griet Faule Grete Faule Mette Grose Bochse Mons Meg Orban bombard Pumhart von Steyr Cannons Abus Basilisk Byzantine fire tube Cannon Cetbang Chongtong Culverin Ekor lotong Falconet Fauconneau Hu Dun Pao cannon Korean cannon Lantaka Lela Pierrier a boite Pot de fer Prangi Saker Tarasnice Veuglaire Wankou Chong Xanadu cannon Xi Xia Mortar Organ gun Petrary weapons Catapult Hu Dun Pao trebuchet Mangonel Onager Trebuchet Rocket powered weapons Byzantine rocket launcher Huo Che rocket arrow launcher Hwacha rocket arrow launcher Siege tower Warships Caravel Carrack Cog Fire ship Galleon Galley Hellburners Junk Longship Lou chuan (Baby ship) Qiao chuan (Banana ship) Turtle ship Animals in war Camels in warfare Dogs in warfare Elephants in warfare Horses in warfare Courser Destrier Rouncey Defensive weapons Armor While armor is not technically a weapon, its use was driven by weapon technology and was a driving force in weapon development. Gambeson Gauntlet Lamellar armour Mail Shield Fortifications Medieval fortifications also developed in connection with the weapons that opposed them. Bailey Barbican Battlement Castle Citadel City wall Curtain wall Drawbridge Fortified tower Gate Keep Moat Motte-and-bailey Murder-hole Palisade Portcullis See also List of medieval military technologies List of premodern combat weapons Military technology and equipment References Medieval	[ 0.16429023444652557, 0.39453646540641785, -0.6811206340789795, 0.12030244618654251, -0.39846912026405334, 0.2947118282318115, 0.9656819701194763, -0.14683496952056885, -0.44856029748916626, -0.09335760027170181, -0.08306456357240677, 0.3838061988353729, 0.11198262870311737, 0.26280906796455383, -0.0866120383143425, 0.5029001832008362, -0.04990597441792488, 0.1850108504295349, 0.20788434147834778, -0.1707276701927185, -0.23430633544921875, 0.0037507019005715847, 0.6605944633483887, 0.0006733837653882802, 0.3639143109321594, -0.13063421845436096, 0.3539043068885803, 0.06365805119276047, 0.12549760937690735, -0.11700177937746048, 0.013269811868667603, 0.5567117929458618, -0.5503779649734497, 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238146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrophilia	Neutrophilia	Neutrophilia (also called neutrophil leukocytosis or occasionally neutrocytosis) is leukocytosis of neutrophils, that is, a high number of neutrophils in the blood. Because neutrophils are the main type of granulocytes, mentions of granulocytosis often overlap in meaning with neutrophilia. The opposite of neutrophilia is neutropenia. Causes Neutrophils are the primary white blood cells that respond to a bacterial infection, so the most common cause of neutrophilia is a bacterial infection, especially pyogenic infections. Neutrophils are also increased in any acute inflammation, so will be raised after a heart attack, other infarct or burns. Some drugs, such as prednisone, have the same effect as cortisol and adrenaline (epinephrine), causing marginated neutrophils to enter the blood stream. A neutrophilia might also be the result of a malignancy. Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML or chronic myeloid leukaemia) is a disease where the blood cells proliferate out of control. These cells may be neutrophils. Neutrophilia can also be caused by appendicitis and splenectomy. Primary neutrophilia can additionally be a result of leukocyte adhesion deficiency. "Left shift" A "left shift" refers to the presence of increased proportions of younger, less well differentiated neutrophils and neutrophil-precursor cells in the blood. This generally reflects early or premature release of myeloid cells from the bone marrow, the site where neutrophils are generated. A severe neutrophilia with left shift is referred to as a leukemoid reaction. The leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP) score, which refers to the amount of alkaline phosphatase per neutrophil, will increase. In a severe infection, toxic granulation changes happen to the neutrophils. This can resemble Pelger-Huet anomaly. 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238150	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furnace%20%28central%20heating%29	Furnace (central heating)	A furnace (American English), referred to as a heater or boiler in British English, is an appliance used to generate heat for all or part of a building. Furnaces are mostly used as a major component of a central heating system. Furnaces are permanently installed to provide heat to an interior space through intermediary fluid movement, which may be air, steam, or hot water. Heating appliances that use steam or hot water as the fluid are normally referred to as a residential steam boilers or residential hot water boilers. The most common fuel source for modern furnaces in North America and much of Europe is natural gas; other common fuel sources include LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), fuel oil, wood and in rare cases coal. In some areas electrical resistance heating is used, especially where the cost of electricity is low or the primary purpose is for air conditioning. Modern high-efficiency furnaces can be up to 98% efficient and operate without a chimney, with a typical gas furnace being about 80% efficient. Waste gas and heat are mechanically ventilated through either metal flue pipes or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes that can be vented through the side or roof of the structure. Fuel efficiency in a gas furnace is measured in AFUE (Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency). Other meanings of the term furnace, which are not dealt with in this article, are discussed at "Metallurgical furnace" and "Industrial furnace" (metalworks such as smelting, and other industrial applications such as in chemical plants). Etymology The name derives from Latin word fornax, which means oven. Categories Furnaces can be classified into four general categories, based on efficiency and design, natural draft, forced-air, forced draft, and condensing. Natural draft The first category of furnaces is natural draft, atmospheric burner furnaces. These furnaces consisted of cast-iron or riveted-steel heat exchangers built within an outer shell of brick, masonry, or steel. The heat exchangers were vented through brick or masonry chimneys. Air circulation depended on large, upwardly pitched pipes constructed of wood or metal. The pipes would channel the warm air into floor or wall vents inside the home. This method of heating worked because warm air rises. The system was simple, had few controls, a single automatic gas valve, and no blower. These furnaces could be made to work with any fuel simply by adapting the burner area. They have been operated with wood, coke, coal, trash, paper, natural gas, fuel oil as well as whale oil for a brief period at the turn of the century. Furnaces that used solid fuels required daily maintenance to remove ash and "clinkers" that accumulated in the bottom of the burner area. In later years, these furnaces were adapted with electric blowers to aid air distribution and speed moving heat into the home. Gas and oil-fired systems were usually controlled by a thermostat inside the home, while most wood and coal-fired furnaces had no electrical connection and were controlled by the amount of fuel in the burner and position of the fresh-air damper on the burner access door. Forced-air The second category of furnace is the forced-air having atmospheric burner style with a cast-iron or sectional steel heat exchanger. Through the 1950s and 1960s, this style of furnace was used to replace the big, natural draft systems, and was sometimes installed on the existing gravity duct work. The heated air was moved by blowers which were belted driven and designed for a wide range of speeds. These furnaces were still big and bulky compared to modern furnaces, and had heavy-steel exteriors with bolt-on removable panels. Energy efficiency would range anywhere from just over 50% to upward of 65% AFUE. This style furnace still used large, masonry or brick chimneys for flues and was eventually designed to accommodate air-conditioning systems. Forced draft The third category of furnace is the forced draft, mid-efficiency furnace with a steel heat exchanger and multi-speed blower. These furnaces were physically much more compact than the previous styles. They were equipped with combustion air blowers that would pull air through the heat exchanger which greatly increased fuel efficiency while allowing the heat exchangers to become smaller. These furnaces may have multi-speed blowers and were designed to work with central air-conditioning systems. Condensing The fourth category of furnace is the high-efficiency, or condensing furnace. High-efficiency furnaces can achieve from 89% to 98% fuel efficiency. This style of furnace includes a sealed combustion area, combustion draft inducer and a secondary heat exchanger. Because the heat exchanger removes most of the heat from the exhaust gas, it actually condenses water vapor and other chemicals (which form a mild acid) as it operates. The vent pipes are normally installed with PVC pipe versus metal vent pipe to prevent corrosion. The draft inducer allows for the exhaust piping to be routed vertically or horizontally as it exits the structure. The most efficient arrangement for high-efficiency furnaces includes PVC piping that brings fresh combustion air from the outside of the home directly to the furnace. Normally the combustion air (fresh air) PVC is routed alongside the exhaust PVC during installation and the pipes exit through a sidewall of the home in the same location. High efficiency furnaces typically deliver a 25% to 35% fuel savings over a 60% AFUE furnace. Types of furnace Single-stage A single-stage furnace has only one stage of operation, it is either on or off. This means that it is relatively noisy, always running at the highest speed, and always pumping out the hottest air at the highest velocity. One of the benefits to a single-stage furnace is typically the cost for installation. Single-stage furnaces are relatively inexpensive since the technology is rather simple. However, the simplicity of single-stage gas furnaces come at the cost of blower motor noise and mechanical inefficiency. The blower motors on these single-stage furnaces consume more energy overall because regardless of the heating requirements of the space, the fan and blower motors operate at a fixed-speed. Due to its One-Speed operation, a single-stage furnace is also called a single-speed furnace. Two-stage A two-stage furnace has to do two stage full speed and half (or reduced) speed. Depending on the demanded heat, they can run at a lower speed most of the time. They can be quieter, move the air at less velocity, and will better keep the desired temperature in the house. Modulating A modulating furnace can modulate the heat output and air velocity nearly continuously, depending on the demanded heat and outside temperature. This means that it only works as much as necessary and therefore saves energy. Heat distribution The furnace transfers heat to the living space of the building through an intermediary distribution system. If the distribution is through hot water (or other fluid) or through steam, then the furnace is more commonly called a boiler. One advantage of a boiler is that the furnace can provide hot water for bathing and washing dishes, rather than requiring a separate water heater. One disadvantage to this type of application is when the boiler breaks down, neither heating nor domestic hot water are available. Air convection heating systems have been in use for over a century. Older systems rely on a passive air circulation system where the greater density of cooler air causes it to sink into the furnace area below, through air return registers in the floor, and the lesser density of warmed air causes it to rise in the ductwork; the two forces acting together to drive air circulation in a system termed 'gravity-fed'. The layout of these 'octopus’ furnaces and their duct systems is optimized with various diameters of large dampered ducts. By comparison, most modern "warm air" furnaces typically use a fan to circulate air to the rooms of house and pull cooler air back to the furnace for reheating; this is called forced-air heat. Because the fan easily overcomes the resistance of the ductwork, the arrangement of ducts can be far more flexible than the octopus of old. In American practice, separate ducts collect cool air to be returned to the furnace. At the furnace, cool air passes into the furnace, usually through an air filter, through the blower, then through the heat exchanger of the furnace, whence it is blown throughout the building. One major advantage of this type of system is that it also enables easy installation of central air conditioning, simply by adding a cooling coil at the outlet of the furnace. Air is circulated through ductwork, which may be made of sheet metal or plastic "flex" duct, and is insulated or uninsulated. Unless the ducts and plenum have been sealed using mastic or foil duct tape, the ductwork is likely to have a high leakage of conditioned air, possibly into unconditioned spaces. Another cause of wasted energy is the installation of ductwork in unheated areas, such as attics and crawl spaces; or ductwork of air conditioning systems in attics in warm climates. See also Forced-air gas Jetstream furnace Outdoor wood-fired boiler Masonry heater Notes Reference Fireplaces Residential heating appliances Industrial processes Firing techniques es:Horno es:Estufa (calefacción) sv:Masugn	[ 0.5053187012672424, 0.44152113795280457, -0.16608986258506775, 0.03451647609472275, 0.2923896908760071, 0.16438250243663788, -0.0048237815499305725, -0.03743825852870941, -0.2960968315601349, -0.5063585042953491, -0.6244074106216431, -0.06737671792507172, 0.04759331792593002, 0.7435868382453918, -0.5685985088348389, 0.1372833400964737, 0.4230838119983673, 0.5108997821807861, -0.49094703793525696, -0.04914078116416931, -0.3632792532444, -0.02734411507844925, 0.40342018008232117, 0.2570400536060333, -0.04309036210179329, -0.12235616892576218, -0.06546205282211304, -0.39525124430656433, 0.05092139169573784, 0.31422722339630127, 0.09457962214946747, 0.29759126901626587, 0.30355367064476013, -0.797609806060791, 0.5140650868415833, -0.17181731760501862, 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238153	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holddown	Holddown	Holddown works by having each router start a timer when they first receive information about a network that is unreachable. Until the timer expires, the router will discard any subsequent route messages that indicate the route is in fact reachable. It can solve the case where multiple routers are connected indirectly. There are realistic scenarios where split horizon and split horizon with poisoned reverse can do nothing. In other words, a holddown keeps a router from receiving route updates until the network appears to be stable—until either an interface stops changing state (flapping) or a better route is learned. Holddowns are usually implemented with timers. If the router detects that a network is unreachable, the timer is started. The router will then wait a preset number of seconds until the network is stable. When the timer expires, the router will then receive its routing updates from other routers. For example, in RIP the default holddown timer is set to 180 seconds. References Routing protocols	[ -0.12928403913974762, -0.04305610805749893, 0.21163630485534668, 0.03902565687894821, 0.2702341377735138, -0.7000961303710938, 0.38686519861221313, 0.11238361895084381, -0.2007245123386383, -0.07133360952138901, -0.6879534125328064, 0.528364896774292, -0.23749977350234985, 0.04177102819085121, -0.1417684406042099, 0.1120116114616394, 0.6228294372558594, 0.1402377039194107, -0.15208204090595245, -0.6332306861877441, 0.1928144246339798, -0.13504862785339355, 0.027078041806817055, -0.3841138780117035, -0.13146837055683136, 0.06531680375337601, -0.225106343626976, -0.0028578874189406633, -0.1567077934741974, 0.23268133401870728, 0.0728684663772583, 0.12775766849517822, -0.17039872705936432, 0.072381891310215, 0.25587108731269836, 0.42704707384109497, 0.17638714611530304, 0.20261318981647491, -0.20282147824764252, -0.27769735455513, -0.45462268590927124, -0.2976036071777344, 0.3430565893650055, 0.3332667052745819, -0.1257660686969757, -0.22850920259952545, 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238156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Ewing	Patrick Ewing	Patrick Aloysius Ewing (born August 5, 1962) is a Jamaican-American basketball coach and former professional player who is the head coach of the Georgetown University men's team. He played most of his career as the starting center for the New York Knicks of the National Basketball Association (NBA) before ending his playing career with brief stints with the Seattle SuperSonics and Orlando Magic. Ewing played center for Georgetown for four years—in three of which the team reached the NCAA Championship Game. ESPN in 2008 designated him the 16th-greatest college basketball player of all time. He had a seventeen-year NBA career, predominantly playing for the New York Knicks, where he was an eleven-time all-star and named to seven All-NBA teams. The Knicks appeared in the NBA Finals twice (1994 and 1999) during his tenure. He won Olympic gold medals as a member of the 1984 and 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball teams. Ewing was selected as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 and as one of the 75 Greatest Players in NBA History in 2021. He is a two-time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts (in 2008 for his individual career, and in 2010 as a member of the 1992 Olympic team). Additionally he was inducted into the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame as a member of the "Dream Team" in 2009. His number 33 was retired by the Knicks in 2003. He is regarded by many as one of the greatest centers of all time. Early life Ewing was born August 5, 1962, in Kingston, Jamaica to Carl and Dorothy Ewing. He was born one day before Jamaica declared independence. As a child, he excelled at cricket and soccer. In 1975, 12-year-old Ewing moved to the United States and joined his family in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Ewing learned to play basketball at Cambridge Rindge and Latin School with the help of John Fountain. With only a few years of playing experience, Ewing developed into one of the best high school players in the country, and among the most intimidating forces ever seen at the level given his size and athleticism. Due to his stature and the team's dominance, Ewing was subject to taunts and jeers from hostile away crowds. Once rival fans even rocked the team bus when Ewing's squad arrived to play an away game. In order to prepare for college, Ewing joined the MIT-Wellesley Upward Bound Program. College career As a senior in high school, Ewing signed a letter of intent to play for coach John Thompson at Georgetown University. Ewing made his announcement in Boston, in a room full of fans who were hoping for him to play for local schools Boston College or Boston University; when Ewing announced his decision to play at Georgetown, the fans left the room. During his recruitment, Ewing was very close to signing a letter of intent to play for Dean Smith and the University of North Carolina, however, while on his recruiting visit, he witnessed a nearby rally for the Ku Klux Klan, which dissuaded him from going there. Ewing made six recruiting visits in all; he also visited UCLA and Villanova. As a freshman during the 1981–82 season, Ewing became one of the first college players to start and star on the varsity team as a freshman. That year, Ewing led the Hoyas to their second Big East Tournament title in school history and a #1 seed in the NCAA Tournament. In the tournament, the Hoyas advanced to their first Final Four since 1943, where they defeated the University of Louisville 50–46, to set up a showdown in the NCAA Final against North Carolina. In one of the most star-studded championship games in NCAA history, Ewing was called for goaltending five times in the first half (later revealed to be intentional at the behest of coach John Thompson), setting the tone for the Hoyas and making his presence felt. The Hoyas led late in the game, but a shot by future NBA superstar Michael Jordan gave North Carolina the lead. Georgetown still had a chance at winning the game in the final seconds, but Freddy Brown mistakenly threw a bad pass directly to opposing player James Worthy. For the 1982–83 season, Ewing and the Hoyas began the season as the second-seeded ranked team in the country. An early-season showdown with #1 ranked Virginia and their star center Ralph Sampson was dubbed the "Game of the Decade". Virginia's veteran team won, 68–63, but Ewing at one point slam-dunked right over Sampson, a play which established Ewing as a dominating "big man". The Hoyas posted a 22–10 record for the season and made another NCAA Tournament appearance, but Georgetown was defeated in the second round of the tournament by Memphis State. This would be the only season in Ewing's Georgetown career where they did not make it at least as far as the National Championship game. In the 1983–84 season, Ewing led Georgetown to the Big East regular-season championship, the Big East Tournament championship and another #1 seed in the NCAA Tournament. Also, he was named the Big East Player of the Year. The Hoyas ultimately advanced to the Final Four for the third time in school history (and second time with Ewing) to face Kentucky, a team which had never lost a national semifinal game and was led by the "Twin Towers", Sam Bowie and Melvin Turpin. Georgetown was able to turn an early 12 point deficit into a 53–40 win to advance to the National Championship game. In the final, the Hoyas faced the University of Houston, led by future Hall of Fame center Hakeem Olajuwon. Ewing and Georgetown prevailed with an 84–75 victory, giving the school its first and only NCAA Championship in school history. Ewing was named the tournament's Most Outstanding Player. For the 1984–85 season, Ewing's senior year, Georgetown was ranked #1 in the nation for the majority of the campaign. Ewing was again named the Big East Player of the Year and the team won the Big East tournament title yet again. They entered the NCAA tournament as the #1 overall seed of the East Region, where they wound up advancing to another Final Four, their third in four years. In the National Semifinal game, Georgetown faced their Big East rivals, St. John's and Chris Mullin, the fourth meeting between the schools that year. The Hoyas easily defeated the Redmen 77–59, setting up a matchup with another Big East rival in unranked Villanova for the title. An overwhelming favorite going into the game, Georgetown was upset by the Wildcats 66–64, who shot a record 78.6 percent (22 of 28) from the floor, denying Ewing and Georgetown back-to-back titles. At the conclusion of the season, Ewing was awarded the Naismith Player of the Year Award and the Associated Press Player of the Year. Ewing's four-year college career is cited as one of the most successful college runs of all time. Among his many accomplishments, he helped Georgetown reach the final game of the NCAA Tournament three out of four years, win three Big East Tournament titles, four Big East Defensive Player of the Year awards and was named a first-team All-American three times. He also left a cultural impact on the sport in a variety of ways. He was one of the first freshmen to not only start for but lead a major college basketball team, something unheard of back in his era. Also, he developed a habit of wearing a short-sleeved T-shirt underneath his jersey, which started a fashion trend among young athletes that lasts to this day. NBA career New York Knicks Ewing was expected to be the top pick in the 1985 NBA draft. The team that selected him would be making history by doing so. From 1966 until 1984, the NBA draft was conducted similarly to the NFL draft, where teams are awarded draft positions based on winning percentage. The difference was that instead of the team with the lowest percentage automatically being awarded the top pick, the NBA held a coin toss between the teams with the worst records in each conference and the winner of the coin toss selected first with the loser automatically picking second. This practice tended to encourage teams to purposely lose games in order to improve their draft position and potentially get into the coin toss. The only way two teams from the same conference could have the first two picks would have been if one of the two aforementioned teams traded their pick to another team (as the Indiana Pacers had done with what eventually became the number-two pick in the previous year's draft). Beginning with the 1985 draft, the NBA handled matters differently. Every team that qualified for the playoffs received positions based on their winning percentage, and the teams that did not were placed in a lottery. In the first lottery, the NBA did not determine the positions as they do now. In this case, the seven teams that did not qualify for the playoffs were each given an equal chance to get the top pick. Each team had its name and logo put in an envelope, and the envelopes were placed into a hopper and spun to shuffle them. Once done, Commissioner David Stern then drew an envelope from inside to determine who would pick first. In a move that would create controversy for years to come, the envelope Stern drew was the one belonging to the New York Knicks. They drafted Ewing, as expected, beginning a 15-year relationship. They then signed him to a 10-year, $32 million contract, a contract which The New York Times years later described as "a tremendous contract at that time or any time." Although injuries marred his first year in the league, he was voted NBA Rookie of the Year and named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team after averaging 20 points, 9 rebounds, and 2 blocks per game. Soon after he was considered one of the premier centers in the league. Ewing enjoyed a successful career; eleven times named an NBA All-Star, once named to the All-NBA First Team, six times a member of the All-NBA Second Team, and named to the NBA All-Defensive Second Team three times. He was a member of the original Dream Team at the 1992 Olympic Games. He was also given the honor of being named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History. In the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals, the Knicks played the defending NBA champion Chicago Bulls and Michael Jordan. Ewing was unstoppable in Game 1, finishing with 34 points, 16 rebounds, and 6 blocks, and the Knicks beat Chicago 94–89. The Knicks were facing elimination in Game 6 when Ewing had one of the greatest games of his career. The team trailed 3–2 in the series, and Ewing was limited physically by a bad ankle sprain, but he helped the Knicks beat the Bulls 100–86 by scoring 27 points. NBC announcer Marv Albert called it a "Willis Reed-type performance", but the Knicks were ultimately eliminated in Game 7 in a blowout, 110–81. In an April 14, 1993 game, between the Knicks and the Charlotte Hornets, the Ewing suffered a moment of embarrassment when Muggsy Bogues, a point guard for the Hornets, managed to block his shot. The team looked like it was going to advance to the NBA Finals when they took a 2–0 lead over Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls. Both teams battled well, each winning on its home court in the first 4 games. However, the Bulls stunned the Ewing-led Knicks, winning Game 5 in New York 97–94 after Ewing's teammate, Charles Smith, was repeatedly blocked down low by Bulls defenders on the game's final possession. The Bulls would go on to win Game 6 96–88 and then claim their third straight NBA title. This would be one more season in which Ewing had to deal with no championships, despite the fact that the Knicks had the best regular-season record in the Eastern Conference at 60–22 and had the second-best record in the NBA, behind the Phoenix Suns, who were 62–20. With Jordan out of the league, 1993–94 was considered a wide-open year in the NBA, and Ewing had declared that 1994 would be the Knicks' year. He was a main contributor to the Knicks' run to the 1994 NBA Finals, in which the Knicks—in the Finals for the first time since 1973—lost in the final seconds of Games 6 and 7 to Hakeem Olajuwon's Houston Rockets. The Knicks, with Ewing leading them, had to survive a grueling trek through the playoffs simply to reach the Finals. They defeated the Bulls and Scottie Pippen in seven games in the 1994 Eastern Conference Semifinals (all seven games were won by the home team), and defeated Reggie Miller's Indiana Pacers in the Conference Finals, which also took seven games to decide. In the Finals, the Knicks stole Game 2 in Houston, but could not hold court at home, dropping Game 3 at the Garden. The Knicks then won the next two games to return to Houston ahead 3–2. However, the Rockets won the next two games. Ewing made the most of his playoff run by setting a record for most blocked shots in a Finals series with 30 (later broken by Tim Duncan in 2003 with 32). He also set an NBA Finals record for most blocked shots in a single game, with 8 (surpassed by Dwight Howard in 2009). The following year, a potential game-tying finger roll by Ewing rimmed out in the dwindling seconds of Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals, resulting in a loss to the Indiana Pacers. In the 1995–96 season, Ewing and the Knicks were eliminated in the Eastern Conference Semifinals in five games by the record-setting 1995–96 Bulls, who won 72 games that year en route to their fourth championship. In the 1997 playoffs, the Knicks faced the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. Ewing was involved in a Game 5 brawl where both teams' benches got involved. The Knicks, who were up 3–1 in the series going into Game 5, lost the next three games and were eliminated. In the next season, Ewing's career almost came to an end due to an injury. On December 20, 1997, in a game against the Milwaukee Bucks at the Bradley Center, Ewing was fouled by Andrew Lang while attempting a dunk. Ewing fell awkwardly and landed with all of his weight on his shooting hand. The result was a severely damaged wrist, with Ewing suffering a displaced fracture, a complete dislocation of the lunate bone, and torn ligaments. These injuries required emergency surgery to prevent nerve damage, and it was said that Ewing suffered injuries that were usually reserved for victims of vehicular accidents. Ewing, who had only missed 20 games in the previous ten seasons, missed the remaining 56 games of the season. However, he was able to rehabilitate the injury faster than expected and as the playoffs began, Ewing was talking about returning. The Heat and Knicks met in the playoffs for the second straight year. This time, the two teams met up in the first round of the playoffs. The series went to a decisive fifth game, but the Knicks avenged their loss to Miami the year before by beating the Heat in Miami 98–81. Ewing returned for Game 2 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Pacers. His presence was not enough, however, as the Knicks fell to the Pacers in five games. The following season, Ewing and the Knicks qualified as the East's eighth seed in a lockout-shortened season. Although battling an achilles tendon injury, Ewing led the Knicks to another victory over the Heat in the first round, 3–2. In the series-clinching Game 5, he scored 22 points and grabbed 11 rebounds. They followed that up by sweeping the Atlanta Hawks, and defeated the Pacers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, despite Ewing's injury finally forcing him out of action. However, the Knicks could not complete their Cinderella run, as they lost in the Finals to the San Antonio Spurs, 4–1. In Ewing's final season with the Knicks in 1999–2000, the team finished as the third seed in the East behind the Pacers and Heat. The team advanced to the Conference Finals again, sweeping the Toronto Raptors and beating the Heat for the third straight year in seven games, but could not defeat the Pacers and fell in six games. In his last year with the Knicks, Ewing had a game-winning slam dunk over Alonzo Mourning in Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals to lead the Knicks to the Eastern Conference Finals. During his final season with the Knicks, Ewing played in his 1,000th NBA game, finishing his Knick career with a franchise-record 1,039 games played in a Knick uniform (he is the only player to play 1,000 games with the Knicks). After the Knicks In 2000, he left the Knicks as part of a trade to the Seattle SuperSonics. In the trade, the Knicks sent Ewing to Seattle and Chris Dudley to Phoenix, and received Glen Rice, Luc Longley, Travis Knight, Vladimir Stepania, Lazaro Borrell, Vernon Maxwell, two first-round draft picks (from the Los Angeles Lakers and Seattle) and two second-round draft picks from Seattle. After a year with the SuperSonics and another with the Orlando Magic, he announced his retirement on September 18, 2002. After that season, he took a job as an assistant coach with the Washington Wizards. In 1,183 games over 16 seasons, Ewing averaged 21.0 points, 9.8 rebounds, and 2.4 blocks per game, and averaged better than a 50% shooting percentage. As of 2021, Ewing was ranked 23rd on the NBA scoring list with 24,815 points. In 2001, Ewing testified in part of the Atlanta's Gold Club prostitution and fraud federal trial. The owner, Thomas Sicignano, testified that he arranged for dancers to have sex with professional athletes. Ewing admitted that he went to the club, where he received oral sex twice. Ewing was never charged with a crime. Ewing played 1,039 games for the Knicks. On February 28, 2003, his jersey number 33 was retired by the team in a large ceremony at Madison Square Garden. For the first time ever, Ewing represented the Knicks during the NBA draft lottery on May 14, 2019. They got the third overall pick in the 2019 NBA draft. Awards and honors Rookie of the Year (1986) All-NBA First Team (1990) All-NBA Second Team (1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1997) NBA All-Defensive Second Team (1988, 1989, 1992) 11-time All-Star; One of 50 Greatest Players in NBA History (1996) 2-time Olympic gold medalist (1984, 1992) 3-time All-American (1983–1985) NCAA Basketball Tournament Most Outstanding Player (1984) Naismith College Player of the Year (1985). AP College Player of the Year (1985) NABC Player of the Year (1985) Sporting News College Player of the Year (1985) Adolph Rupp Trophy (1985) No. 33 retired for the New York Knicks Basketball Hall of Fame inductee (in 2008 as an individual and 2010 as a member of the Dream Team) NBA 75th Anniversary Team (2021) Ewing was a defensive stalwart throughout his basketball career, although he often had difficulty placing on the NBA All-Defensive Team due to the defensive prowess of his contemporaries Hakeem Olajuwon and David Robinson. In 1993, he led the NBA with 789 defensive rebounds. He was top ten in field goal percentage eight times, top ten in rebounds per game and total rebounds eight times, top ten in points and points per game eight times, and top ten in blocks per game for 13 years. In 1999, Ewing became the 10th player in NBA history to record 22,000 points and 10,000 rebounds. NBA career statistics Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1985–86 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 50 \|\| 50 \|\| 35.4 \|\| .474 \|\| .000 \|\| .739 \|\| 9.0 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 20.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1986–87 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 63 \|\| 63 \|\| 35.0 \|\| .503 \|\| .000 \|\| .713 \|\| 8.8 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 21.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1987–88 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 82 \|\| 82 \|\| 31.0 \|\| .555 \|\| .000 \|\| .716 \|\| 8.2 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 23.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1988–89 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 80 \|\| 80 \|\| 36.2 \|\| .567 \|\| .000 \|\| .746 \|\| 9.3 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 3.5 \|\| 22.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1989–90 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 82 \|\| 82 \|\| 38.6 \|\| .551 \|\| .250 \|\| .775 \|\| 10.9 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 28.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1990–91 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 81 \|\| 81 \|\| 38.3 \|\| .514 \|\| .000 \|\| .745 \|\| 11.2 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 26.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1991–92 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 82 \|\| 82 \|\| 38.4 \|\| .522 \|\| .167 \|\| .738 \|\| 11.2 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 24.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1992–93 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 81 \|\| 81 \|\| 37.1 \|\| .503 \|\| .143 \|\| .719 \|\| 12.1 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 24.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1993–94 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 79 \|\| 79 \|\| 37.6 \|\| .496 \|\| .286 \|\| .765 \|\| 11.2 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 24.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1994–95 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 79 \|\| 79 \|\| 37.0 \|\| .503 \|\| .286 \|\| .750 \|\| 11.0 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 23.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1995–96 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 76 \|\| 76 \|\| 36.6 \|\| .466 \|\| .143 \|\| .761 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 2.1 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 22.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1996–97 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 78 \|\| 78 \|\| 37.0 \|\| .488 \|\| .222 \|\| .754 \|\| 10.7 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 22.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1997–98 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 26 \|\| 26 \|\| 32.6 \|\| .504 \|\| .000 \|\| .720 \|\| 10.2 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .6 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 20.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1998–99 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 38 \|\| 38 \|\| 34.2 \|\| .435 \|\| .000 \|\| .706 \|\| 9.9 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 17.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1999–00 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 62 \|\| 62 \|\| 32.8 \|\| .435 \|\| .000 \|\| .731 \|\| 9.7 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 15.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2000–01 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Seattle \| 79 \|\| 79 \|\| 26.7 \|\| .430 \|\| .000 \|\| .685 \|\| 7.4 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 9.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2001–02 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Orlando \| 65 \|\| 4 \|\| 13.9 \|\| .444 \|\| .000 \|\| .701 \|\| 4.0 \|\| .5 \|\| .3 \|\| .7 \|\| 6.0 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 1,183 \|\| 1,122 \|\| 34.3 \|\| .504 \|\| .152 \|\| .740 \|\| 9.8 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 21.0 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|All-Star \| 9 \|\| 3 \|\| 17.8 \|\| .537 \|\| .000 \|\| .692 \|\| 6.7 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 11.8 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1988 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 4 \|\| 4 \|\| 38.3 \|\| .491 \|\| .000 \|\| .864 \|\| 12.8 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 18.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1989 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 37.8 \|\| .486 \|\| \|\| .750 \|\| 10.0 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 19.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1990 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 39.5 \|\| .521 \|\| .500 \|\| .823 \|\| 10.5 \|\| 3.1 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 29.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1991 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 3 \|\| 3 \|\| 36.7 \|\| .400 \|\| \|\| .778 \|\| 10.0 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 16.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1992 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 12 \|\| 12 \|\| 40.2 \|\| .456 \|\| .000 \|\| .740 \|\| 11.1 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .6 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 22.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1993 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 15 \|\| 15 \|\| 40.3 \|\| .512 \|\| 1.000 \|\| .638 \|\| 10.9 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 25.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1994 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 25 \|\| 25 \|\| 41.3 \|\| .437 \|\| .364 \|\| .740 \|\| 11.7 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 21.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1995 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 11 \|\| 11 \|\| 36.3 \|\| .513 \|\| .333 \|\| .686 \|\| 9.6 \|\| 2.5 \|\| .5 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 19.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1996 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 8 \|\| 8 \|\| 41.0 \|\| .474 \|\| .500 \|\| .651 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .1 \|\| 3.1 \|\| 21.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1997 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 39.7 \|\| .527 \|\| .000 \|\| .643 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .3 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 22.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1998 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 4 \|\| 4 \|\| 33.0 \|\| .357 \|\| \|\| .593 \|\| 8.0 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 14.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1999 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 11 \|\| 11 \|\| 31.5 \|\| .430 \|\| \|\| .593 \|\| 8.7 \|\| .5 \|\| .6 \|\| .7 \|\| 13.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2000 \| style="text-align:left;"\|New York \| 14 \|\| 14 \|\| 32.9 \|\| .418 \|\| \|\| .697 \|\| 9.5 \|\| .4 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 14.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2002 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Orlando \| 4 \|\| 0 \|\| 16.8 \|\| .320 \|\| .000 \|\| .588 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 6.5 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 139 \|\| 135 \|\| 37.5 \|\| .469 \|\| .348 \|\| .718 \|\| 10.3 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 20.2 Coaching career From 2003 through 2006, Ewing was an assistant with the Houston Rockets, before resigning to spend more time with his family. On July 3, 2007, Ewing was one of four assistants hired to serve under first-year Orlando Magic head coach Stan Van Gundy for the 2007–08 season. Ewing was a key factor in the Magic's run to the 2009 NBA Finals, where they lost to the Los Angeles Lakers. He correctly predicted a win in Game 7 of the second round against the defending champion Boston Celtics. Later in the playoffs, Ewing saw Magic captain Dwight Howard set a new NBA Finals record for most blocked shots in a single Finals game, with nine in Game 4, surpassing the previous record of eight by Ewing himself in Game 5 of the 1994 Finals. In 2010, Ewing finally got the opportunity to coach his son Patrick Ewing Jr. in the 2010 summer league. Ewing Jr. played for the Magic. In 2013, Ewing became an assistant coach with the Charlotte Bobcats (now Charlotte Hornets). On November 8, 2013, Ewing became the Bobcats' interim head coach due to regular head coach Steve Clifford having heart surgery. He lost his first game 101–91 against his former team, the Knicks. On April 3, 2017, Ewing was hired as head coach of his former college team, the Georgetown Hoyas. In his first season as head coach, the Hoyas were 15–15 (5–13 in the Big East). The season ended without any postseason tournament play. In Ewing's second season, Georgetown was 19–14, and finished tied in third place in the Big East with a 9–9 record. The Hoyas were awarded a bid into the National Invitational Tournament, their first postseason tournament since 2015. James Akinjo was named the Big East Rookie of the Year, and fellow freshmen Mac McClung and Josh Leblanc joined him on the All-Freshman Team. In Ewing's fourth season, he led the Hoyas to the 2021 Big East Conference Tournament championship as the eighth seed in the tournament. They defeated the first-seeded Villanova Wildcats in the quarterfinals. In the championship game, Georgetown defeated the second-seeded Creighton Bluejays 73–48, and qualified for the 2021 NCAA Division I Basketball Tournament. This marked Georgetown's first NCAA tournament appearance since the 2014–15 season, breaking their longest NCAA drought in the modern era. Head coaching record Other work Ewing interned in the office of Senator Bob Dole during multiple summers in college. Ewing was in the 1996 movie Space Jam as himself, one of five NBA players whose talent was stolen (along with Charles Barkley, Shawn Bradley, Larry Johnson, and Muggsy Bogues). Ewing had a brief appearance, again as himself, in the movie Senseless starring Marlon Wayans. Ewing made cameos as himself in the sitcoms Spin City, Herman's Head, Mad About You, and Webster. Most recently, he appeared in a 2009 ad for Snickers, suggesting that those who eat the candy bar might "get dunked on by Patrick Chewing". He also made a silent cameo as the Angel of Death in The Exorcist III. He co-wrote In the Paint, a painting how-to book for children. In 2014, Ewing and sports agent David Falk announced a $3.3 million donation to the John R. Thompson, Jr. Intercollegiate Athletics Center under construction at Georgetown University. The amount is a reference to Ewing's number, 33. Endorsements Ewing's first sneaker endorsement was with Adidas in 1986. In 1991, Next Sports signed a licensing deal to release footwear under Ewing's name in the United States under a new company, Ewing Athletics, which would operate until 1996. In 2012, David Goldberg and his company GPF Footwear LLC successfully teamed up with Ewing to resurrect the old Ewing Athletics line, and bring it back into stores, capitalizing on the current retro trend in the footwear market. Personal life Ewing was married to Rita Williams from 1990 to 1998. He has three children, including Patrick Ewing Jr. After friend and rival NBA center Alonzo Mourning was diagnosed with a kidney ailment in 2000, Ewing promised that he would donate one of his kidneys to Mourning if he ever needed one. In 2003, Ewing was tested for kidney compatibility with Mourning, but Mourning's cousin was found to be the better match. Patrick Ewing Jr. transferred to his father's alma mater, Georgetown University, after two years at Indiana University. Patrick Jr. wore the same jersey number that his father wore, #33. He was drafted by the Sacramento Kings in the second round with the 43rd pick of the 2008 NBA draft, but was then traded to the New York Knicks, his father's old team. He did not make the Knicks' final roster, however, and has spent most of his career in the NBA Development League and Europe. See also Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 2,000 points and 1,000 rebounds References External links Patrick Ewing entry at NBA Encyclopedia Season-by-season notes (1985–2000) 1962 births Living people All-American college men's basketball players American men's basketball coaches American men's basketball players Basketball coaches from Massachusetts Basketball players at the 1982 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four Basketball players at the 1984 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four Basketball players at the 1984 Summer Olympics Basketball players at the 1985 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four Basketball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics Basketball players from Massachusetts Cambridge Rindge and Latin School alumni Centers (basketball) Charlotte Bobcats assistant coaches Charlotte Hornets assistant coaches Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball coaches Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball players Houston Rockets assistant coaches Jamaican emigrants to the United States Jamaican men's basketball players McDonald's High School All-Americans Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association players from Jamaica National Basketball Association players with retired numbers National Basketball Players Association presidents National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame inductees New York Knicks draft picks New York Knicks players Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball Orlando Magic assistant coaches Orlando Magic players Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball) People with acquired American citizenship Seattle SuperSonics players Sportspeople from Cambridge, Massachusetts Sportspeople from Kingston, Jamaica United States men's national basketball team players Washington Wizards assistant coaches	[ -0.5986833572387695, -0.04579151049256325, -0.17422927916049957, -0.4637063145637512, 0.4551468789577484, 0.29050034284591675, 0.2014501392841339, 0.512992799282074, -0.3689672648906708, -0.2507026791572571, 0.05019557103514671, 0.5691369771957397, -0.22236010432243347, -0.42285507917404175, 0.23752562701702118, -0.0899643748998642, 0.18619519472122192, 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238157	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan%20Sakai	Stan Sakai	is a Japanese-born American cartoonist and comic book creator. He is best known as the creator of the comic series Usagi Yojimbo. Biography He began his career by lettering comic books (notably Groo the Wanderer by Sergio Aragonés and Mark Evanier) and wrote and illustrated The Adventures of Nilson Groundthumper and Hermy; a comic series with a medieval setting, influenced by Sergio Aragonés' Groo the Wanderer. The characters first appeared in Albedo #1 in 1984, and they were subsequently featured in issues of Critters, Grimjack, Amazing Heroes and Furrlough. Sakai became famous with the creation of Usagi Yojimbo, the epic saga of Miyamoto Usagi, a samurai rabbit living in late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth-century Japan. First published in 1984, the comic continues to this day, with Sakai as the lone author and nearly sole artist (Tom Luth serves as the main colorist on the series, and Sergio Aragonés has made two small contributions to the series: the story "Broken Ritual" is based on an idea by Aragonés, and he served as a guest inker for the black-and-white version of the story "Return to Adachi Plain" that is featured in the Volume 11 trade paperback edition of Usagi Yojimbo). He also created a futuristic spinoff series Space Usagi. His favorite movie is Satomi Hakkenden (1959). The Japanese American National Museum in Los Angeles's Little Tokyo presented an exhibit entitled "Year of the Rabbit: Stan Sakai's Usagi Yojimbo" from July 9 through October 30, 2011. Sakai wrote and illustrated the story "I'm Not in Springfield Anymore!" for Bart Simpson's Treehouse of Horror #7 and illustrated the back cover of Treehouse of Horror #6. Sakai was the artist for Riblet, the back-up feature in the trade paperback of Stupid, Stupid Rat Tails. In 2013, Sakai illustrated the limited comic book series 47 Ronin, an adaptation of the famed story of the 47 Ronin written by Dark Horse Comics Publisher Mike Richardson and with Lone Wolf and Cub writer Kazuo Koike as an editorial consultant. The seventh episode of the 2012 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series' fifth season, "Yojimbo", was written by Sakai and features Miyamoto Usagi, who has appeared in a few TMNT shows to date. In 2020, it was revealed that Sakai will serve as an executive producer on the upcoming Netflix original CGI animated series Samurai Rabbit: The Usagi Chronicles, which is based on "Usagi Yojimbo". Awards 1990 Parents' Choice Award for "Skillful weaving of facts and legends into his work" 1991 Inkpot Award from Comic-Con International: San Diego for "Lifetime Achievement in the Field of Cartooning" 1996 Eisner Award for "Best Letterer" (Groo and Usagi Yojimbo) 1996 Eisner Award for "Talent Deserving of Wider Recognition" (Usagi Yojimbo) 1999 Eisner Award for "Best Serialized Story" (Usagi Yojimbo "Grasscutter") 1999 Haxtur Award for "Best Short Story [in Spain]" (Usagi Yojimbo "Noodles" [Spanish Edition]) 2000 Haxtur Award for "Best Script [in Spain]" (Usagi Yojimbo's "Grasscutter" [Spanish Edition]) 2001 Ursa Major Award for "Best Anthropomorphic Comic Book or Strip" 2002 National Cartoonists Society Comic Book Division Awards (Usagi Yojimbo) 2002 Ursa Major Award for "Best Anthropomorphic Comic Book or Strip" 2003 Ursa Major Award for "Best Anthropomorphic Comic Book" 2003 La Plumilla de Plata (Silver Inkpen Award) in Mexico for his lifetime achievements and contributions to comic books. 2004 Ursa Major Award for "Best Anthropomorphic Other Literary Work" (The Art of Usagi Yojimbo) and "Best Anthropomorphic Comic Book" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2005 Ursa Major Award for "Best Anthropomorphic Comic Book" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2007 Harvey Award for "Best Letterer" 2011 Cultural Ambassador Award 2012 Eisner Award for "Best Lettering" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2014 Inkwell Award for The All-in-One Award (47 Ronin, DHP, and Mouse Guard) 2015 Eisner Award for "Best Lettering" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2016 Harvey Award for "Best Cartoonist" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2018 Eisner Award for "Best Lettering" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2020 Eisner Award for "Best Archival Collection/Project" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2020 Eisner Award for "Best Lettering" 2020 Ringo Award for "Best Cartoonist" (Usagi Yojimbo) 2020 Ringo Award for "Best Presentation" (Grasscutter Artist Select) 2020 Ringo Award for "Best Single Issue or Story" (Usagi Yojimbo #6) From 1993 through 2005, Stan Sakai has received twenty-one Eisner Award nominations. He has also been nominated for the Comics Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1999 and 2000. In 2020, Sakai was inducted into the Eisner Award Hall of Fame. Bibliography Usagi Yojimbo Other works 47 Ronin (2014, Dark Horse) – collects #1–5, story by Mike Richardson, colors by Lovern Kindzierski, and letters by L. Lois Buhalis and Tom Orzechowski The Adventures of Nilson Groundthumper and Hermy (2014, Dark Horse) – collect stories from Albedo Anthropomorphics #1 and #5; Critters Special #1; Critters #5, 16, and 27; Usagi Yojimbo (vol. 1) #19; Usagi Yojimbo Color Special #1–3; Usagi Yojimbo (vol. 2) #9; and Dark Horse Presents (vol. 2) #30; colors by Ryan Hill and Tom Luth Notes References External links Stan Sakai's official website Usagi Yojimbo's official website Sakai's LiveJournal page Comic Book Awards Almanac Stan Sakai – Video interview by the Japanese American National Museum, Discover Nikkei project (September 28, 2010) Usagi Yojimbo 1953 births Living people American comics artists American comics writers Comic book letterers Eisner Award winners Eisner Award winners for Best Letterer/Lettering American people of Japanese descent Mirage Studios People from Kyoto	[ -0.7129101157188416, -0.256928026676178, -0.4830082952976227, -0.15665596723556519, -0.6287323236465454, 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238159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TVA%20%28disambiguation%29	TVA (disambiguation)	TVA, the Tennessee Valley Authority, is an entity providing various services in the southern United States since its establishment in 1933. TVA may also refer to: Businesses and organizations Tibetan Volunteers for Animals Toronto Vegetarian Association Groupe TVA, Inc., a Canadian communications company Television Televisão Abril, now Vivo TV, a Brazilian television service provider TV Aichi, a Japanese television station TVA (Albania), a defunct television station based in Tirana TVA (Andorra), a television broadcaster TVA (Canadian TV network), a French-language television network TVA Vicenza, an Italian television channel Other uses Taxe sur la valeur ajoutée, the French term for Value added tax Telephone VoIP adapter Time Variance Authority, a fictional organization in the Marvel Comics Time Variance Authority (Marvel Cinematic Universe), the Marvel Cinematic Universe counterpart Transverse abdominal muscle Tubulovillous adenoma, a type of intestinal polyp TVA v. Hill, a Supreme Court case filed under the Endangered Species Act See also	[ 0.48883548378944397, 0.04192769527435303, 0.27282074093818665, -0.15496565401554108, 0.42454394698143005, 0.24540945887565613, 0.09741798043251038, 0.07086224108934402, -0.40029609203338623, 0.2626335322856903, 0.11233620345592499, 0.6593250036239624, -0.5559853315353394, 0.34675484895706177, -0.7450035810470581, 0.25771260261535645, 0.7395254373550415, 0.2012639194726944, 0.21652281284332275, -0.17093251645565033, -0.4315219819545746, 0.09126102924346924, 0.491666704416275, -0.4121575653553009, -0.28766003251075745, -0.2216830551624298, 0.16761621832847595, 0.21236342191696167, 0.1964041292667389, 0.5916576385498047, -0.06980255991220474, -0.03588520362973213, 0.25383248925209045, -0.10380497574806213, -0.35020148754119873, 0.33739539980888367, 0.0970713421702385, -0.34250083565711975, -0.39061489701271057, -0.3478948473930359, -0.36439457535743713, -0.2959076762199402, -0.2446586787700653, 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238174	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20sea%20lion	Japanese sea lion	The Japanese sea lion (Zalophus japonicus) (, Korean:강치,바다사자) was an aquatic mammal that became extinct in the 1970s. It was considered to be a subspecies of the related California sea lion (Z. californianus) until 2003. They inhabited the Sea of Japan, especially around the coastal areas of the Japanese Archipelago and the Korean Peninsula. They generally bred on sandy beaches which were open and flat, but sometimes in rocky areas. They were hunted commercially in the 1900s, leading to their extinction. Taxonomy Prior to 2003, it was considered to be a subspecies of California sea lion as Zalophus californianus japonicus. However, it was subsequently reclassified as a separate species. DNA analysis in 2007 estimated that the divergence point between the two sea lions took place around 2 million years ago (mya) in the early Pleistocene. Several taxidermied specimens can be found in Japan and in the National Museum of Natural History, Leiden, the Netherlands, bought by Philipp Franz von Siebold. The British Museum possesses a pelt and four skull specimens. Description Male Japanese sea lions were dark grey, reaching lengths of and weighed about . Females were significantly smaller at long and weighed about with a lighter grey colour than the males. Distribution and habitat Japanese sea lions were found along the northwest Pacific coastline, specifically in Japan, Korea, southern Kamchatka Peninsula, and the Sakhalin Island. However, they may not have existed in Kamchatka, with their northernmost range extending only to the Kuril Islands. Sightings of individual Japanese sea lions still persist in Korea, but these are probably misidentified Steller's sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus). The only reliable report may have been of an individual shot at Moneron Island in 1949. Old Korean accounts also describe that the sea lion and spotted seal (Phoca largha) were found in broad area containing the BoHai Sea, the Yellow Sea, and Sea of Japan. The sea lions and seals left relevant place names all over the coast line of Japan, such as Ashika-iwa (海驢岩 or 海鹿岩, sea lion rock) and Ashika-jima (海獺島 or 海鹿島, sea lion island), and Cape Inubō (犬吠埼, dog-barking point) because of their howls to compared to dog's barking. Bones of Z. japonicus dating to 3500–2000 BC were found in the Shell Mound in Dongsam-dong, Busan. Genetic evidence confirms the former presence of Z. japonicus on the Liancourt rocks. They usually resided on flat, open, and sandy beaches, but rarely in rocky areas. Their preference was to rest in caves. Exploitation and extinction Many bones of the Japanese sea lion have been excavated from shell middens from the Jōmon period in Japan while an 18th-century encyclopedia, Wakan Sansai Zue, describes that the meat was not tasty and they were only used to render oil for oil lamps. Valuable oil was extracted from the skin, its internal organs were used to make expensive medicine, and its whiskers and skin were used as pipe cleaners and leather goods, respectively. At the turn of the 20th century, they were captured for use in circuses. Harvest records from Japanese commercial fishermen in the early 1900s show that as many as 3,200 sea lions were harvested at the turn of the century, and overhunting caused harvest numbers to fall drastically to 300 sea lions by 1915 and to a few dozen sea lions by the 1930s. Japanese commercial harvest of Japanese sea lions ended in the 1940s when the species became virtually extinct. In total, Japanese trawlers harvested as many as 16,500 sea lions, enough to cause their extinction. Submarine warfare during World War II is even believed to have contributed to their habitat destruction. The most recent sightings of Z. japonicus are from the 1970s, with the last confirmed record being a juvenile specimen captured in 1974 off the coast of Rebun Island, northern Hokkaido. There were a few unconfirmed sightings in 1983 and 1985. The last credible documentation was made in 1951 on the Liancourt Rocks reporting 50 to 60 animals. In any case, it was one of the most recent marine mammal extinctions to occur, alongside the Caribbean monk seal which went extinct at around the same time. Attempted revival In 2007, the South Korean Ministry of Environment announced that South Korea, North Korea, Russia, and China will collaborate on bringing back sea lions to the Sea of Japan, starting with a search for any Japanese sea lions that might still be alive. The National Institute of Environmental Research of Korea was commissioned to conduct feasibility research for this project. If the animal cannot be found, the South Korean government plans to relocate California sea lions from the United States. The South Korean Ministry of Environment supports the effort because of the symbolism, national concern, the restoration of the ecological system, and possible ecotourism. Post-extinction claimed sightings or vagrant records Sightings of single sea lions of unclear identities have been reported at Iwami, Tottori in July 2003, and on Koshikijima Islands in March, 2016. Both animals were positively identified as Otariidae based on photographs, but their identities are unclear. References External links Zalophus Extinct carnivorans Extinct animals of Japan Mammal extinctions since 1500 Extinct mammals of Asia Species made extinct by human activities 1974 in the environment Mammals of Japan Mammals of Korea Mammals of Russia Pinnipeds of Asia Mammals described in 1866 Taxa named by Wilhelm Peters	[ -0.2797616124153137, -0.23062799870967865, -1.032129168510437, -0.08053257316350937, -0.662729024887085, 0.31146863102912903, 0.7852109670639038, -0.18024292588233948, -0.6098957061767578, 0.2774502635002136, 0.13709411025047302, -0.04363975301384926, -0.5582652688026428, 0.05361383035778999, -0.30810144543647766, -0.09540367126464844, 0.5329262018203735, 0.4146019220352173, 0.1564389020204544, -0.21474123001098633, -0.5090546011924744, -0.498211532831192, 0.05965357646346092, -0.3181547224521637, 0.23204344511032104, -0.09625150263309479, 0.6762378811836243, 0.8010485172271729, 0.851878821849823, -0.25984835624694824, 0.14418187737464905, 0.5575157403945923, 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238175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace%20Silver	Horace Silver	Horace Ward Martin Tavares Silver (September 2, 1928 – June 18, 2014) was an American jazz pianist, composer, and arranger, particularly in the hard bop style that he helped pioneer in the 1950s. After playing tenor saxophone and piano at school in Connecticut, Silver got his break on piano when his trio was recruited by Stan Getz in 1950. Silver soon moved to New York City, where he developed a reputation as a composer and for his bluesy playing. Frequent sideman recordings in the mid-1950s helped further, but it was his work with the Jazz Messengers, co-led by Art Blakey, that brought both his writing and playing most attention. Their Horace Silver and the Jazz Messengers album contained Silver's first hit, "The Preacher". After leaving Blakey in 1956, Silver formed his own quintet, with what became the standard small group line-up of tenor saxophone, trumpet, piano, bass, and drums. Their public performances and frequent recordings for Blue Note Records increased Silver's popularity, even through changes of personnel. His most successful album was Song for My Father, made with two iterations of the quintet in 1963 and 1964. Several changes occurred in the early 1970s: Silver disbanded his group to spend more time with his wife and to concentrate on composing; he included lyrics in his recordings; and his interest in spiritualism developed. The last two of these were often combined, resulting in commercially unsuccessful releases such as The United States of Mind series. Silver left Blue Note after 28 years, founded his own record label, and scaled back his touring in the 1980s, relying in part on royalties from his compositions for income. In 1993, he returned to major record labels, releasing five albums before gradually withdrawing from public view because of health problems. As a player, Silver transitioned from bebop to hard bop by stressing melody rather than complex harmony, and combined clean and often humorous right-hand lines with darker notes and chords in a near-perpetual left-hand rumble. His compositions similarly emphasized catchy melodies, but often also contained dissonant harmonies. Many of his varied repertoire of songs, including "Doodlin'", "Peace", and "Sister Sadie", became jazz standards that are still widely played. His considerable legacy encompasses his influence on other pianists and composers, and the development of young jazz talents who appeared in his bands over the course of four decades. Early life Silver was born on September 2, 1928, in Norwalk, Connecticut. His mother, Gertrude, was from Connecticut; his father, John Tavares Silver, was born on the island of Maio, Cape Verde, and emigrated to the United States as a young man. She was a maid and sang in a church choir; he worked for a tire company. Horace had a much older half-brother, Eugene Fletcher, from his mother's first marriage, and was the third child for his parents, after John, who lived to 6 months, and Maria, who was stillborn. Silver began playing the piano in his childhood and had classical music lessons. His father taught him the folk music of Cape Verde. At the age of 11 Silver became interested in becoming a musician, after hearing the Jimmie Lunceford orchestra. His early piano influences included the styles of boogie-woogie and the blues, the pianists Nat King Cole, Thelonious Monk, Bud Powell, Art Tatum, and Teddy Wilson, as well as some jazz horn players. Silver graduated from St. Mary's Grammar School in 1943. From ninth grade he played Lester Young-influenced tenor saxophone in the Norwalk High School band and orchestra. Silver played gigs locally on both piano and tenor saxophone while still at school. He was rejected for military service by a draft board examination that concluded that he had an excessively curved spine, which also interfered with his saxophone playing. Around 1946 he moved to Hartford, Connecticut to take up a regular job as pianist in a nightclub. Later life and career 1950–55 Silver's break came in 1950, when his trio backed saxophonist Stan Getz at a club in Hartford: Getz liked Silver's band and recruited them to tour with him. The saxophonist also gave Silver his recording debut, in December 1950, for a quartet date. After about a year, Silver was replaced as pianist in Getz's band and he moved to New York City. There, working as a freelance, he quickly built a reputation, based on his compositions and bluesy playing. He worked for short periods with tenor saxophonists Lester Young and Coleman Hawkins, before meeting altoist Lou Donaldson, with whom he developed his bebop understanding. Donaldson made his first recording on Blue Note Records in 1952, with Silver on piano, Gene Ramey on bass and Art Taylor on drums. Later that year, another Blue Note quartet session was booked for Donaldson, with Art Blakey replacing Taylor, but the saxophonist withdrew and producer–owner Alfred Lion offered Silver the studio time for a trio recording. Most of the tracks recorded at it were Silver originals, and he went on to stay with Blue Note as a leader for the following 28 years. Silver was also busy recording as a sideman. In 1953, he was pianist on sessions led by Sonny Stitt, Howard McGhee, and Al Cohn, and, the following year, he played on albums by Art Farmer, Miles Davis, Milt Jackson and others. Silver won the Down Beat critics' new star award for piano players in 1954, and appeared at the first Newport Jazz Festival, substituting for John Lewis in the Modern Jazz Quartet. Silver's early 1950s recordings demonstrate that Powell was a major pianistic influence, but this had waned by the middle of the decade. In New York, Silver and Blakey co-founded the Jazz Messengers, a cooperatively-run group that initially recorded under various leaders and names. Their first two studio recordings, with Hank Mobley on tenor saxophone, Kenny Dorham on trumpet, and Doug Watkins on bass, were made in late 1954 and early 1955 and were released as two 10-inch albums under Silver's name, then soon thereafter as the 12-inch Horace Silver and the Jazz Messengers. This album contained Silver's first hit, "The Preacher". Unusually in Silver's career, recordings of concert performances were also released at this time, involving quintets at Birdland (1954) and the Café Bohemia (1955). This set of studio and concert recordings was pivotal in the development and defining of hard bop, which combined elements of blues, gospel, and R&B, with bebop-based harmony and rhythm. The new, funky hard bop was commercially popular, and helped to establish Blue Note as a successful business. 1956–69 Silver's final recordings with the Jazz Messengers were in May 1956. Later that year, he left Blakey after one and a half years, in part because of the heroin use prevalent in the band, which Silver did not want to be involved in. Soon after leaving, Silver formed his own long-term quintet, after receiving offers of work from club owners who had heard his albums. The first line-up was Mobley (tenor saxophone), Farmer (trumpet), Watkins (bass), and Louis Hayes (drums). The quintet, with various line-ups, continued to record, helping Silver to build his reputation. He wrote almost all of the material the band played; one of these, "Señor Blues", "officially put Horace Silver on the map", in the view of critic Scott Yanow. In concert, Silver "won over the crowds through his affable personality and all-action approach. He crouched over the piano as the sweat poured out, with his forelock brushing the keys and his feet pounding." After more than a dozen sideman recording sessions in 1955 and a similar number in 1956–57, Silver's appearance on Sonny Rollins, Vol. 2 in April 1957 was his last for another leader, as he opted to concentrate on his own band. For several years from the late 1950s, this contained Junior Cook (tenor saxophone), Blue Mitchell (trumpet), Gene Taylor (bass), and either Hayes or Roy Brooks (drums). Their first album was Finger Poppin', in 1959. Silver's tour of Japan early in 1962 led to the album The Tokyo Blues, recorded later that year. By the early 1960s, Silver's quintet had influenced numerous bandleaders and was among the most popular performers at jazz clubs. They also released singles, including "Blowin' the Blues Away", "Juicy Lucy", and "Sister Sadie", for jukebox and radio play. This quintet's sixth and final album was Silver's Serenade, in 1963. Around this time, Silver composed music for a television commercial for the drink Tab. Early in 1964, Silver visited Brazil for three weeks, an experience he credited with increasing his interest in his heritage. In the same year, he created a new quintet, featuring Joe Henderson on tenor saxophone and Carmell Jones on trumpet. This band recorded most of Silver's best-known album, Song for My Father, which reached No. 95 on the Billboard 200 in 1965, and was added to the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999. Recordings and personnel changes – sometimes expanding the band to a sextet – continued in the mid-1960s. In 1966, The Cape Verdean Blues charted at No. 130. The liner notes to the album Serenade to a Soul Sister (1968) included lyrics (written but not sung), indicating a new interest for Silver. His quintet, by then including saxophonist Bennie Maupin, trumpeter Randy Brecker, bassist John Williams, and drummer Billy Cobham, toured parts of Europe in October and November 1968, sponsored by the U.S. government. They also recorded one of Silver's last quintet albums for Blue Note, You Gotta Take a Little Love. The Penguin Guide to Jazz'''s retrospective summary of Silver's main Blue Note recordings was that they were of a consistently high standard: "each album yields one or two themes that haunt the mind, each usually has a particularly pretty ballad, and they all lay back on a deep pile of solid riffs and workmanlike solos." 1970–80 At the end of 1970, Silver broke up his regular band, to concentrate on composing and to spend more time with his wife. He had met Barbara Jean Dove in 1968 and married her two years later. They had a son, Gregory. Silver also became increasingly interested in spiritualism from the early 1970s. Silver included lyrics in more of his compositions at this point, although these were sometimes regarded as doggerel or proselytizing. The first album to contain vocals, That Healin' Feelin' (1970), was commercially unsuccessful and Silver had to insist on the support of Blue Note executives to continue releasing music of the same, new style. They agreed to a further two albums that contained vocals and Silver on an RMI electric keyboard; the three were later compiled as The United States of Mind, but were soon dropped from the catalog. Silver reformed a touring band in 1973. This contained brothers Michael and Randy Brecker. Around this time, according to saxophonist Dave Liebman, Silver's reputation among aspiring young jazz musicians was that he was "a little – not commercial, but not quite the real deal [in jazz]." Silver and his family decided to move to California around 1974, after a burglary at their New York City apartment while they were in Europe. The couple divorced in the mid-1970s. In 1975, he recorded Silver 'n Brass, the first of five Silver 'n albums, which had other instruments added to the quintet. The personnel in his band continued to change, and continued to contain young musicians who made telling contributions. One of these was trumpeter Tom Harrell, who stayed from 1973 to 1977. Silver's pattern in the late 1970s was to tour for six months a year. His final Blue Note album was Silver 'n Strings, recorded in 1978 and 1979. His stay was the longest in the label's history. By Silver's account, he left Blue Note after its parent company was sold and the new owners were not interested in promoting jazz. In 1980, he formed the record label Silveto, "dedicated to the spiritual, holistic, self-help elements in music", he commented. Silver also formed Emerald at the same time, a label for straight-ahead jazz, but it was short-lived. 1981–98 The first Silveto release was Guides to Growing Up in 1981, which contained recitations from actor and comedian Bill Cosby. Silver stated in the same year that he had reduced his touring to four months a year, so that he could spend more time with his son. This also meant that he had to audition for new band members on an annual basis. He continued to write lyrics for his new albums, although these were not always included on the recordings themselves. The song titles reflected his spiritual, self-help thinking; for example, Spiritualizing the Senses from 1983 included "Seeing with Perception" and "Moving Forward with Confidence". The next albums were There's No Need to Struggle (1983) and The Continuity of Spirit (1985). His band for performances in the UK and elsewhere in 1987 included trumpeter Dave Douglas and saxophonist Vincent Herring. Douglas reported that Silver seldom gave direct verbal guidelines about the music, preferring to lead through playing. A revival of interest in more traditional forms of jazz in the 1980s largely passed Silver by, and his albums on Silveto were not critical successes. Its last release was Music to Ease Your Disease, in 1988. By the early 1990s Silver did not often play at jazz festivals, but his need to tour was limited, as he received steady royalties from his songbook.Rockin' with Rachmaninoff, a musical work featuring dancers and narration, written by Silver and choreographed and directed by Donald McKayle, was staged in Los Angeles in 1991. A recording of the work was released on Bop City Records in 2003. After a decade of trying to make his independent label work, Silver abandoned it in 1993, and signed to Columbia Records. This also signalled a return to mostly instrumental releases. The first of these, It's Got to Be Funky, was a rare big band album. Silver came close to dying soon after its release: he was hospitalized with a previously undiagnosed blood clot problem, but went on to record Pencil Packin' Papa, containing a six-piece brass section, in 1994. That year, he also played as a guest on Dee Dee Bridgewater's album Love and Peace: A Tribute to Horace Silver. Silver received a National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters award in 1995, and in the following year was added to Down Beats Jazz Hall of Fame and received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music. He moved from Columbia to Impulse! Records, where he made the septet The Hardbop Grandpop (1996) and the quintet A Prescription for the Blues (1997). The former was nominated for two Grammy Awards: as an album for best instrumental performance, individual or group; and for Silver's solo on "Diggin' on Dexter". He was again unwell in 1997, so was unable to tour to promote his records. His final studio recording was made in the following year – Jazz Has a Sense of Humor, for Verve Records. One continuation from his early career was that Silver recorded his own compositions for his later albums and they were typically new, rather than re-workings of previous releases. 1999–2014 Silver performed in public for the first time in four years in 2004, appearing with an octet at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York. He was not often seen in public after this. In 2005, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences awarded him its President's Merit Award. In 2006, Let's Get to the Nitty Gritty: The Autobiography of Horace Silver, was published by the University of California Press. A 2008 release, Live at Newport '58, from a Silver concert fifty years earlier, reached the top ten of Billboards jazz chart. In 2007, it was revealed that Silver had Alzheimer's disease. He died of natural causes in New Rochelle, New York, on June 18, 2014, aged 85. He was survived by his son. Playing style Silver's early recordings displayed "a crisp, chipper but slightly wayward style, idiosyncratic enough to take him out of the increasingly stratified realms of bebop". In contrast to the more elaborate bebop piano, he stressed straightforward melodies rather than complex harmonies, and included short riffs and motifs that came and went over the course of a solo. While his right hand provided cleanly played lines, his left added bouncy, darker notes and chords in a near-perpetual rumble. Silver "always played percussively, rarely suggesting excessive force on the keys but mustering a crisp [...] sound." His fingering was idiosyncratic, but this added to the individuality of his pianism, particularly to the authenticity of the blues facets of his playing. The Penguin Guide to Jazz gave the overall assessment that "Blues and gospel-tinged devices and percussive attacks give his methods a more colourful style, and a generous good humour gives all his records an upbeat feel." Part of the humor was Silver's predilection for quoting other pieces of music in his own playing. Writer and academic Thomas Owens stated that characteristics of Silver's solos were: "the short, simple phrases that all derive from the three-beat figure ♩ ♩ \| ♩, or a variant of it; the pianist's 'blue fifth' (those rapid slurs up to [... a flattened fifth]); and the low tone cluster used strictly as a rhythmic punctuation". He also employed blues and minor pentatonic scales. Music journalist Marc Myers observed that "Silver's advantage was pianistic grace and a keen awareness that by resolving dark, minor-passages in airy, ascending and descending major-key chord configurations, the result could produce an exciting and uplifting feeling." In his accompanying of a soloing saxophonist or trumpeter, Silver was also distinctive: "Rather than reacting to the soloist's melody and waiting for melodic holes to fill, he typically plays background patterns similar to the background riffs that saxes or brasses play behind soloists in big bands." Compositions Early in his career, Silver composed contrafacts and blues-based melodies (including "Doodlin'" and "Opus de Funk"). The latter was "a typical Silver creation: advanced in its harmonic structure and general approach but with a catchy tune and finger-snapping beat." His innovative incorporation of gospel and blues sounds into jazz compositions took place while they were also being added to rock 'n' roll and R&B pieces. Silver soon expanded the range and style of his writing, which grew to include "funky groove tunes, gentle mood pieces, vamp songs, outings in 3/4 and 6/8 time, Latin workouts of various stripes, up-tempo jam numbers, and examples of almost any and every other kind of approach congruent with the hard bop aesthetic." An unusual case is "Peace", a ballad that prioritizes a calm mood over melodic or harmonic effects. Owens observed that "Many of his compositions contain no folk blues or gospel music elements, but instead have highly chromatic melodies supported by richly dissonant harmonies". The compositions and arrangements were also designed to make Silver's typical line-up sound larger than a quintet. Silver himself commented that inspiration came from multiple sources: "I'm inspired by nature and by some of the people I meet and some of the events that take place in my life. I'm inspired by my mentors. I'm inspired by various religious doctrines. [...] Many of my songs are impressed on my mind just before I wake up. Others I get from just doodlin' around on the piano". He also wrote that, "when I wake up with a melody in my head, I jump right out of bed before I forget it and run to the piano and my tape recorder. I play the melody with my right hand and then harmonize it with my left. I put it down on my tape recorder, and then I work on getting a bridge or eightbar release for the tune." Influence and legacy Silver was among the most influential jazz musicians of his lifetime. Grove Music Online describes his legacy as at least fourfold: as a pioneer of hard bop; as a user of what became the archetypal quintet instrumentation of tenor saxophone, trumpet, piano, bass, and drums; as a developer of young musicians who went on to become important players and bandleaders; and for his skill as a composer and arranger. Silver was also an influence as a pianist: his first Blue Note recording as leader "redefined the jazz piano, which up until then was largely modeled on the dexterity and relentless attack of Bud Powell", in Myers' words. As early as 1956, Silver's piano playing was described by Down Beat as "a key influence on a large segment of modern jazz pianists." This went on to include Ramsey Lewis, Les McCann, Bobby Timmons, and Cecil Taylor, who was impressed by Silver's aggressive style. Silver's legacy as a composer may be greater than as a pianist, because his works, many of which are jazz standards, continue to be performed and recorded worldwide. As a composer, he led a return to an emphasis on melody, observed critic John S. Wilson: for a long time, jazz musicians had written contrafacts of great technical complexity, but "Silver wrote originals that were not only actually original but memorably melodic, presaging a gradual return to melodic creativity among writing jazzmen." Discography Notes ReferencesBibliography'Further reading Silver, Horace (1995). The Art of Small Jazz Combo Playing''. Hal Leonard. . External links Horace Silver Discography at the Hard Bop Home Page Listening In: An Interview with Horace Silver by Bob Rosenbaum, Los Angeles, December 1981 (PDF file) "The Dozens: Twelve Essential Horace Silver Recordings" by Bill Kirchner 1928 births 2014 deaths African-American jazz pianists American jazz bandleaders American jazz composers American jazz pianists American male jazz composers American male pianists American musicians of Cape Verdean descent Bebop pianists Blue Note Records artists Columbia Records artists Hard bop pianists The Jazz Messengers members Jazz musicians from New York (state) Mainstream jazz pianists Musicians from New Rochelle, New York Musicians from New York City Musicians from Norwalk, Connecticut Soul-jazz pianists Norwalk High School (Connecticut) alumni African-American Catholics	[ -0.004499124828726053, 0.47684580087661743, -0.9860798120498657, 0.09302084892988205, 0.09656164050102234, 0.18573160469532013, 0.04263553395867348, 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238177	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minga%20y%20Petraca	Minga y Petraca	Minga y Petraca (later known as Minga y Tomasa) was a television show produced in Puerto Rico by Antonio "El Gangster" Sanchez since 1992 up until early 2005 on Telemundo Puerto Rico, channel 2. Sanchez and actor Johnny Ray Rodríguez played Minga and Petraca (respectively), two middle aged, mustached "ladies" who dedicate themselves to reading such magazines as Vea, Teve Guia and other popular Puerto Rican gossip magazines. They commented on the stories published, making fun of the articles. After reading magazine articles, they would get into comedic situations with their friends, husbands and families. Their husbands have never actually been shown on the show, only their voices are heard. Minga and Petraca are from the Santurce area of San Juan. Minga y Petraca reached such popularity in Puerto Rico that there was even a CD released with the two characters as main stars. The song Estoy Escriquillá!! (loosely translated into I'm tired) was a big hit during Christmas of 1993 on Puerto Rico's radio. Ray moved to the United States and with that, he took his character of Petraca. Sanchez decided that "the show must go on", and changed the show's name to Minga y Tomasa. He hired a new actor, Alex Soto, to play Minga'''s new friend, Tomasa. Ray flies to Puerto Rico on and off to tape shows, and his character Petraca is now a visitor from the United States to Minga. In March 2005, the show was cancelled because Telemundo wanted to open a new telenovela spot at 9:00 p.m., so axed all sitcoms and programs in that time slot, only leaving Sanchez's No Te Duermas, as a daily show. In January 2008, the Minga character got new life as part of a weekly segment on Minga's Tokchou (Minga's Talk Show in Spanglish).'' In her segment, male guests dress as females while female guests dress as males. On February 27, 2011, a Minga y Petraca reunion show aired on Telemundo Puerto Rico. 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238181	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbs%20free%20energy	Gibbs free energy	In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy (or Gibbs energy) is a thermodynamic potential that can be used to calculate the maximum reversible work that may be performed by a thermodynamic system at a constant temperature and pressure. The Gibbs free energy measured in joules in SI) is the maximum amount of non-expansion work that can be extracted from a thermodynamically closed system (one that can exchange heat and work with its surroundings, but not matter). This maximum can be attained only in a completely reversible process. When a system transforms reversibly from an initial state to a final state, the decrease in Gibbs free energy equals the work done by the system to its surroundings, minus the work of the pressure forces. The Gibbs energy (symbol ) is also the thermodynamic potential that is minimized when a system reaches chemical equilibrium at constant pressure and temperature. Its derivative with respect to the reaction coordinate of the system vanishes at the equilibrium point. As such, a reduction in is necessary for a reaction to be spontaneous at constant pressure and temperature. The Gibbs free energy, originally called available energy, was developed in the 1870s by the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs. In 1873, Gibbs described this "available energy" as The initial state of the body, according to Gibbs, is supposed to be such that "the body can be made to pass from it to states of dissipated energy by reversible processes". In his 1876 magnum opus On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a graphical analysis of multi-phase chemical systems, he engaged his thoughts on chemical-free energy in full. If the reactants and products are all in their thermodynamic standard states, then the defining equation is written as . Overview According to the second law of thermodynamics, for systems reacting at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (or any other fixed temperature and pressure), there is a general natural tendency to achieve a minimum of the Gibbs free energy. A quantitative measure of the favorability of a given reaction at constant temperature and pressure is the change ΔG (sometimes written "delta G" or "dG") in Gibbs free energy that is (or would be) caused by the reaction. As a necessary condition for the reaction to occur at constant temperature and pressure, ΔG must be smaller than the non-pressure-volume (non-PV, e.g. electrical) work, which is often equal to zero (hence ΔG must be negative). ΔG equals the maximum amount of non-PV work that can be performed as a result of the chemical reaction for the case of reversible process. If analysis indicates a positive ΔG for a reaction, then energy — in the form of electrical or other non-PV work — would have to be added to the reacting system for ΔG to be smaller than the non-PV work and make it possible for the reaction to occur. One can think of ∆G as the amount of "free" or "useful" energy available to do work. The equation can be also seen from the perspective of the system taken together with its surroundings (the rest of the universe). First, one assumes that the given reaction at constant temperature and pressure is the only one that is occurring. Then the entropy released or absorbed by the system equals the entropy that the environment must absorb or release, respectively. The reaction will only be allowed if the total entropy change of the universe is zero or positive. This is reflected in a negative ΔG, and the reaction is called an exergonic process. If two chemical reactions are coupled, then an otherwise endergonic reaction (one with positive ΔG) can be made to happen. The input of heat into an inherently endergonic reaction, such as the elimination of cyclohexanol to cyclohexene, can be seen as coupling an unfavourable reaction (elimination) to a favourable one (burning of coal or other provision of heat) such that the total entropy change of the universe is greater than or equal to zero, making the total Gibbs free energy difference of the coupled reactions negative. In traditional use, the term "free" was included in "Gibbs free energy" to mean "available in the form of useful work". The characterization becomes more precise if we add the qualification that it is the energy available for non-pressure-volume work. (An analogous, but slightly different, meaning of "free" applies in conjunction with the Helmholtz free energy, for systems at constant temperature). However, an increasing number of books and journal articles do not include the attachment "free", referring to G as simply "Gibbs energy". This is the result of a 1988 IUPAC meeting to set unified terminologies for the international scientific community, in which the removal of the adjective "free" was recommended. This standard, however, has not yet been universally adopted. The name "free enthalpy" has also been used for G in the past. History The quantity called "free energy" is a more advanced and accurate replacement for the outdated term affinity, which was used by chemists in the earlier years of physical chemistry to describe the force that caused chemical reactions. In 1873, Josiah Willard Gibbs published A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces, in which he sketched the principles of his new equation that was able to predict or estimate the tendencies of various natural processes to ensue when bodies or systems are brought into contact. By studying the interactions of homogeneous substances in contact, i.e., bodies composed of part solid, part liquid, and part vapor, and by using a three-dimensional volume-entropy-internal energy graph, Gibbs was able to determine three states of equilibrium, i.e., "necessarily stable", "neutral", and "unstable", and whether or not changes would ensue. Further, Gibbs stated: In this description, as used by Gibbs, ε refers to the internal energy of the body, η refers to the entropy of the body, and ν is the volume of the body... Thereafter, in 1882, the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz characterized the affinity as the largest quantity of work which can be gained when the reaction is carried out in a reversible manner, e.g., electrical work in a reversible cell. The maximum work is thus regarded as the diminution of the free, or available, energy of the system (Gibbs free energy G at T = constant, P = constant or Helmholtz free energy F at T = constant, V = constant), whilst the heat given out is usually a measure of the diminution of the total energy of the system (internal energy). Thus, G or F is the amount of energy "free" for work under the given conditions. Until this point, the general view had been such that: "all chemical reactions drive the system to a state of equilibrium in which the affinities of the reactions vanish". Over the next 60 years, the term affinity came to be replaced with the term free energy. According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term "affinity" by the term "free energy" in much of the English-speaking world. Definitions The Gibbs free energy is defined as which is the same as where: U is the internal energy (SI unit: joule), p is pressure (SI unit: pascal), V is volume (SI unit: m3), T is the temperature (SI unit: kelvin), S is the entropy (SI unit: joule per kelvin), H is the enthalpy (SI unit: joule). The expression for the infinitesimal reversible change in the Gibbs free energy as a function of its "natural variables" p and T, for an open system, subjected to the operation of external forces (for instance, electrical or magnetic) Xi, which cause the external parameters of the system ai to change by an amount dai, can be derived as follows from the first law for reversible processes: where: μi is the chemical potential of the i-th chemical component. (SI unit: joules per particle or joules per mole) Ni is the number of particles (or number of moles) composing the i-th chemical component. This is one form of Gibbs fundamental equation. In the infinitesimal expression, the term involving the chemical potential accounts for changes in Gibbs free energy resulting from an influx or outflux of particles. In other words, it holds for an open system or for a closed, chemically reacting system where the Ni are changing. For a closed, non-reacting system, this term may be dropped. Any number of extra terms may be added, depending on the particular system being considered. Aside from mechanical work, a system may, in addition, perform numerous other types of work. For example, in the infinitesimal expression, the contractile work energy associated with a thermodynamic system that is a contractile fiber that shortens by an amount −dl under a force f would result in a term f dl being added. If a quantity of charge −de is acquired by a system at an electrical potential Ψ, the electrical work associated with this is −Ψ de, which would be included in the infinitesimal expression. Other work terms are added on per system requirements. Each quantity in the equations above can be divided by the amount of substance, measured in moles, to form molar Gibbs free energy. The Gibbs free energy is one of the most important thermodynamic functions for the characterization of a system. It is a factor in determining outcomes such as the voltage of an electrochemical cell, and the equilibrium constant for a reversible reaction. In isothermal, isobaric systems, Gibbs free energy can be thought of as a "dynamic" quantity, in that it is a representative measure of the competing effects of the enthalpic and entropic driving forces involved in a thermodynamic process. The temperature dependence of the Gibbs energy for an ideal gas is given by the Gibbs–Helmholtz equation, and its pressure dependence is given by or more conveniently as its chemical potential: In non-ideal systems, fugacity comes into play. Derivation The Gibbs free energy total differential with respect to natural variables may be derived by Legendre transforms of the internal energy. The definition of G from above is . Taking the total differential, we have Replacing dU with the result from the first law gives The natural variables of G are then p, T, and {Ni}. Homogeneous systems Because S, V, and Ni are extensive variables, an Euler integral allows easy integration of dU: Because some of the natural variables of G are intensive, dG may not be integrated using Euler integrals as is the case with internal energy. However, simply substituting the above integrated result for U into the definition of G gives a standard expression for G: This result applies to homogeneous, macroscopic systems, but not to all thermodynamic systems. Gibbs free energy of reactions The system under consideration is held at constant temperature and pressure, and is closed (no matter can come in or out). The Gibbs energy of any system is and an infinitesimal change in G, at constant temperature and pressure yields: By the first law of thermodynamics, a change in the internal energy U is given by where is energy added as heat, and is energy added as work. The work done on the system may be written as , where is the mechanical work of compression/expansion done on the system and is all other forms of work, which may include electrical, magnetic, etc. Assuming that only mechanical work is done, and the infinitesimal change in G is: The second law of thermodynamics states that for a closed system, and so it follows that: This means that for a system which is not in equilibrium, its Gibbs energy will always be decreasing, and when it is in equilibrium (i.e. no longer changing), the infinitesimal change dG will be zero. In particular, this will be true if the system is experiencing any number of internal chemical reactions on its path to equilibrium. In electrochemical thermodynamics When electric charge dQ is passed in an electrochemical cell the emf ℰ yields a thermodynamic work term that appears in the expression for the change in Gibbs energy: where G is the Gibbs' free energy, S is the entropy, V is the system volume, P is its pressure and T is its absolute temperature. The combination (ℰ, Q) is an example of a conjugate pair of variables. At constant pressure the above relationship produces a Maxwell relation that links the change in open cell voltage with temperature T (a measurable quantity) to the change in entropy S when charge is passed isothermally and isobarically. The latter is closely related to the reaction entropy of the electrochemical reaction that lends the battery its power. This Maxwell relation is: If a mole of ions goes into solution (for example, in a Daniell cell, as discussed below) the charge through the external circuit is: where n0 is the number of electrons/ion, and F0 is the Faraday constant and the minus sign indicates discharge of the cell. Assuming constant pressure and volume, the thermodynamic properties of the cell are related strictly to the behavior of its emf by: where ΔH is the enthalpy of reaction. The quantities on the right are all directly measurable. Useful identities to derive the Nernst equation During a reversible electrochemical reaction at constant temperature and pressure, the following equations involving the Gibbs free energy hold: (see chemical equilibrium), (for a system at chemical equilibrium), (for a reversible electrochemical process at constant temperature and pressure), (definition of E°), and rearranging gives which relates the cell potential resulting from the reaction to the equilibrium constant and reaction quotient for that reaction (Nernst equation), where , Gibbs free energy change per mole of reaction, , Gibbs free energy change per mole of reaction for unmixed reactants and products at standard conditions (i.e. 298K, 100kPa, 1M of each reactant and product), , gas constant, , absolute temperature, , natural logarithm, , reaction quotient (unitless), , equilibrium constant (unitless), , electrical work in a reversible process (chemistry sign convention), , moles of electrons transferred in the reaction, , Faraday constant (charge per mole of electrons), , cell potential, , standard cell potential. Moreover, we also have: which relates the equilibrium constant with Gibbs free energy. This implies that at equilibrium and Standard energy change of formation The standard Gibbs free energy of formation of a compound is the change of Gibbs free energy that accompanies the formation of 1 mole of that substance from its component elements, at their standard states (the most stable form of the element at 25 °C and 100 kPa). Its symbol is ΔfG˚. All elements in their standard states (diatomic oxygen gas, graphite, etc.) have standard Gibbs free energy change of formation equal to zero, as there is no change involved. ΔfG = ΔfG˚ + RT ln Qf, where Qf is the reaction quotient. At equilibrium, ΔfG = 0, and Qf = K, so the equation becomes ΔfG˚ = −RT ln K, where K is the equilibrium constant. Graphical interpretation by Gibbs Gibbs free energy was originally defined graphically. In 1873, American scientist Willard Gibbs published his first thermodynamics paper, "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids", in which Gibbs used the two coordinates of the entropy and volume to represent the state of the body. In his second follow-up paper, "A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces", published later that year, Gibbs added in the third coordinate of the energy of the body, defined on three figures. In 1874, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell used Gibbs' figures to make a 3D energy-entropy-volume thermodynamic surface of a fictitious water-like substance. Thus, in order to understand the concept of Gibbs free energy, it may help to understand its interpretation by Gibbs as section AB on his figure 3, and as Maxwell sculpted that section on his 3D surface figure. See also Bioenergetics Calphad (CALculation of PHAse Diagrams) Critical point (thermodynamics) Electron equivalent Enthalpy-entropy compensation Free entropy Gibbs–Helmholtz equation Grand potential Non-random two-liquid model (NRTL model) – Gibbs energy of excess and mixing calculation and activity coeffients Spinodal – Spinodal Curves (Hessian matrix) Standard molar entropy Thermodynamic free energy UNIQUAC model – Gibbs energy of excess and mixing calculation and activity coeffients Notes and references External links IUPAC definition (Gibbs energy) Gibbs free energy calculator Gibbs energy – Florida State University Gibbs Free Energy – Eric Weissteins World of Physics Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy – www.2ndlaw.oxy.edu Gibbs Free Energy – Georgia State University Gibbs Free Energy Java Applet – University of California, Berkeley Using Gibbs Free Energy for prediction of chemical driven material ageing Topological Analysis of the Gibbs Energy Function (Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium Correlation Data). Including a Thermodinamic Review and a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for Surfaces/Tie-lines/Hessian matrix analysis – University of Alicante (Reyes-Labarta et al. 2015–18) Physical quantities State functions Thermodynamic free energy	[ 0.09875643998384476, -0.4973432421684265, -0.010993842966854572, -0.15164300799369812, -0.055405210703611374, 0.08821561932563782, 0.06150953471660614, -0.5708910822868347, -0.10162050276994705, -0.6318680047988892, -0.32339346408843994, 0.7681370973587036, -0.6349818110466003, 0.5445826053619385, 0.3948695659637451, 0.5111563205718994, 0.5914667844772339, 0.25677618384361267, -0.15051594376564026, -0.14264598488807678, 0.050362542271614075, 0.44145533442497253, 0.49823737144470215, -0.32938241958618164, 0.29022741317749023, -0.6309546232223511, 0.091881163418293, -0.15085159242153168, 0.33480972051620483, 0.6295928359031677, -0.3812534809112549, 1.1068615913391113, -0.35206088423728943, 0.24446476995944977, 0.1040562316775322, 0.11729207634925842, 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238183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hancock%27s%20Half%20Hour	Hancock's Half Hour	Hancock's Half Hour was a BBC radio comedy, and later television comedy series, broadcast from 1954 to 1961 and written by Ray Galton and Alan Simpson. The series starred Tony Hancock, with Sidney James; the radio version also co-starred, at various times, Moira Lister, Andrée Melly, Hattie Jacques, Bill Kerr and Kenneth Williams. The final television series, renamed simply Hancock, starred Hancock alone. Ten scripts (nine TV, one radio) were written but never recorded for a variety of reasons. The unused radio script for The Counterfeiter was finally recorded in 2019 with Kevin R. McNally as Tony Hancock. Comedian Tony Hancock starred in the show, playing an exaggerated and much poorer version of his own character and lifestyle, Anthony Aloysius St John Hancock, a down-at-heel comedian living at the dilapidated 23 Railway Cuttings in East Cheam. The series was influential in the development of the situation comedy, with its move away from radio variety towards a focus on character development. The radio version was produced by Dennis Main Wilson for most of its run. After Main Wilson departed for his television career, his role was taken by Tom Ronald. The television series was produced by Duncan Wood. The distinctive tuba-based theme tune was composed by Angela Morley, then known by her original name, Wally Stott. Radio series Development The radio series broke with the variety tradition which was then dominant in British radio comedy, highlighting a new genre: the sitcom or situation comedy. Instead of the traditional variety mix of sketches, guest stars and musical interludes, the show's humour derived from characters and situations developed in a half-hour storyline. This then relatively novel format, of what was in effect a single sketch each week lasting the entire half-hour (though in the radio version James and the others sometimes played different roles), was reflected in the show's title, which aptly described the series as Hancock's "half-hour". Roger Wilmut, in his 1978 biography of Tony Hancock as a performer, credits two British radio comedy shows, already running in 1954, with establishing an uninterrupted 30-minute sitcom format: A Life of Bliss, written by Godfrey Harrison and starring George Cole, and Life with the Lyons, a programme heavily based on the US tradition of sitcoms; he therefore dismisses the notion that Galton and Simpson invented the genre. The comedy gradually shifted to observation, with a less strong emphasis on a narrative. The playlet "Look Back in Hunger" (spoofing John Osborne's Look Back in Anger) in the episode "The East Cheam Drama Festival" from the fifth series, showed that writers Galton and Simpson were in touch with developments in the British theatre, in the use of sighs and silent pauses, something Osborne's style had in common with the plays of Harold Pinter, whose work began to emerge towards the end of the series' run. In addition, the measured pacing of the episodes was unusual in an era of fast-talking radio comedians, such as Ted Ray, who typically used a machine-gun style of delivery to fill every single second of airtime. Setting Hancock's character had various addresses, but by the third radio series he had arrived at 23 Railway Cuttings, East Cheam. Sometimes this was portrayed as a council house, but occasionally there was a private landlord. In a few early episodes Hancock owned the house, and later this became the norm. The house changed to accommodate the cast: in some episodes it appeared to be a two-bedroom terraced house, with Kerr as Hancock's lodger; but in series four and five it had at least three bedrooms, as Miss Pugh was also resident in some episodes. In others she 'came round' each day, presumably from her own domicile. Railway Cuttings and East Cheam were fictitious, but Cheam is a real town, once in Surrey, today part of the London Borough of Sutton in Greater London. The whole area is smart and expensive, and by creating 'Railway Cuttings, East Cheam' Galton and Simpson created an address for a snob who wanted to live in a 'posh' area, but could only afford the 'cheap end' (which in reality does not exist). In those days recordings of the radio shows were not commercially available, so the audience had to rely entirely on memory for details of who lived where or who did what in the show. Commissioning of series in the UK was then closer to American practice with extensive runs not unknown, but in this case, with only two writers. Continuity in the idiom was yet to develop, and details changed to suit each episode. The domestic situation varied, but Hancock usually portrayed a 'resting' or hopeless down-at-heel actor and/or comedian (though some episodes showed him having runs of success, while some episodes depict him pursuing professional careers as fantasies), James was always on the fiddle in some way, Kerr gradually became dim and virtually unemployable (although he had started out as a fast-talking American-style Australian), and Hancock's 'secretary', Miss Pugh, had such a loose job description that in one celebrated episode she had cooked the Sunday lunch. At times the scripts would reflect topical realities of British life, such as the reintroduction of petrol rationing from November 1956 to March 1957 (during the Suez Crisis) in 'The Stolen Petrol' and a strike by members of the trade union ASLEF (Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen) from 28 May to 14 June 1955 which involved a railway strike in 'The Rail Strike'. With the notable exception of Drop the Dead Donkey decades later, sitcoms rarely contained such topical references. Radio series cast Anthony Aloysius St John Hancock, principal character. The comedy actor Sidney James (as he was then billed) played Sid (full name Sidney Balmoral James), a criminally-inclined confidant of Hancock, who usually succeeded in conning him each week. Bill Kerr appeared as Hancock's Australian lodger (full name William Montmorency Beaumont Kerr), a character who became noticeably dim-witted in the later shows. Often refers to Hancock as "tub". Kenneth Williams, taking his first job in comedy, provided the funny voices for all the minor characters in the show each week. Williams left after the first recording session for the sixth series. Moira Lister appeared in the first series, before being replaced by Andrée Melly for the next two; both women played love interest for Hancock's character, in essentially 'straight' roles. In the fourth and fifth series Hattie Jacques provided comedy in the female role as the harridan Griselda Pugh, who was Hancock's secretary and Sid's occasional girlfriend. By this time, Hancock's difficulties with women had become part of the characterisation. Among the well-known actors who appeared in the series were Hugh Lloyd, Patricia Hayes, Dick Emery, Warren Mitchell, John Le Mesurier and Richard Wattis. Also appearing were Pat Coombs, Rolf Harris, Burt Kwouk, credited as 'Burd Kwouk', and Anne Reid. Episodes of the radio series were included in 20 underground radio stations of the BBC's Wartime Broadcasting Service (WTBS), designed to provide information and morale-boosting broadcasts for 100 days after a nuclear attack. Radio series episodes Most of the radio episodes were recorded between one day and three weeks in advance of broadcast, except for Series 6 which was mostly recorded during a three-week period in June 1959 in order to avoid clashing with the recording of Series 5 of the television show. Galton and Simpson never gave titles to any of their Hancock scripts, for radio or television; this was usually left to the girl who filed the scripts at their office, who gave them names that were a reminder of what the script was about. So when Roger Wilmut came to write his book Tony Hancock – Artiste (first published 1978) he took the liberty of inventing titles where necessary and these titles, a combination of the file names and Wilmut's own, have become the accepted ones ever since, with the approval of Galton and Simpson and the BBC. The regular cast members generally played "themselves", in that the characters were called by the actor's real name (although the English actress Andrée Melly – sister of George – played a French character). However, there were exceptions: Kenneth Williams played a series of unnamed characters referred to in the scripts—but not on air—as "Snide". He also played the very occasional roles of Edwardian Fred (a criminal associate of Sid's) and Hancock's Vicar, as well as various other characters. In the episode "The Emigrant" he is allowed to break the fourth wall and refer to himself as "that bloke with the funny voice". Hattie Jacques played Griselda Pugh, Hancock's secretary, with the exception of the episode ‘The East Cheam Drama Festival’ where she played herself. Alan Simpson played an unnamed man in early episodes who listened patiently to Hancock's long-winded stories. His lines would frequently be restricted to simply "Yes", "Really?", "Mm-hmm", or "I see". These performers are present in the series as indicated below. Two lost episodes of the radio series—"The Blackboard Jungle" (series 3) and "The New Secretary" (series 4)—were recovered in 2002 from off-air home recordings made by listener Vic Rogers. Series 1 (1954–1955) 16 episodes, 2 November 1954 – 15 February 1955 Regular cast: Tony Hancock, Bill Kerr, Moira Lister, Sid James, Alan Simpson (uncredited) Guest Stars: Gerald Campion (episode 1), Dora Bryan (episode 10), Paul Carpenter (episode 10), Brian Johnston (episode 12), Raymond Baxter (episode 12) The First Night Party The Diamond Ring † The Idol The Boxing Champion The Hancock Festival † The New Car The Department Store Santa † Christmas at Aldershot † The Christmas Eve Party † Cinderella Hancock A Trip To France The Monte Carlo Rally A House on the Cliff The Sheikh The Marriage Bureau † The End of the Series Episodes 2, 5, 7, 8, 9 and 15 no longer exist. However, in April 2014 the BBC re-recorded "The Hancock Festival", selected by and recorded in the presence of Galton and Simpson, with Kevin McNally as Tony Hancock. The episode aired in November 2014, the sixtieth anniversary of its first airing. "The Marriage Bureau" was re-recorded in September 2015 and broadcast on 7 December 2015. "The Department Store Santa" was re-recorded on 3 September 2017 and broadcast in December 2018 as the first part of a fourth series of The Missing Hancocks. On 24 September 2017 "Christmas at Aldershot" was re-recorded for broadcast on Christmas Day 2019 along with "The Christmas Eve Party" which was broadcast on 21 December 2021. "The Diamond Ring" was re-recorded on 11 January 2019 and broadcast (in keeping with its Guy Fawkes theme) on 5 November 2019. Two no longer extant episodes (5 and 15) feature the only Hancock guest appearances by Spike Milligan and Peter Sellers, respectively. Three of Hancock's co-stars in the first series were born in South Africa. Episode 10 features a reverse of the normal situation as Tony is living in a house owned by Bill rather than Bill living in Tony's House. Series 2 (1955) 12 episodes, 17 April – 2 July 1955 Regular cast: Harry Secombe (Episodes 1–4), Tony Hancock (Episodes 4–12), Bill Kerr, Sid James, Andrée Melly, Kenneth Williams, Alan Simpson (uncredited) A Holiday in France † The Crown Jewels † The Race Horse † A Visit To Swansea † The Holiday Camp The Chef That Died of Shame Prime Minister Hancock † The Rail Strike The Television Set The Three Sons † The Marrow Contest The Matador † Episodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10 and 12 (more than half the series, including all four of Harry Secombe's guest appearances) no longer exist. However, in April 2014 the BBC re-recorded "The Matador", selected by and recorded in the presence of Galton and Simpson with Kevin McNally as Tony Hancock, for broadcast around the sixtieth anniversary of its first airing.) On 2 December 2016 the BBC re-recorded "A Holiday in France" followed by "The Race Horse" and "The Crown Jewels" with Andy Secombe as his late father Harry. On 13 January 2019 "Prime Minister Hancock" was re-recorded for broadcast on 18 December that year. Also re-recorded was "A Visit To Swansea" which featured Tony being forced to go and thank Harry Secombe who'd returned to Wales. The episode was littered with references to how good Secombe had been. Shortly before the series was due to be recorded Hancock walked out on a theatre performance suffering from "nervous exhaustion" and flew to Rome. Harry Secombe was brought in at short notice to replace Hancock and starred in the first three episodes, and made a guest appearance in the fourth. Hancock himself returned for the fourth episode and completed the series as scheduled. Had Hancock not returned for the 4th episode, then Galton and Simpson planned to continue with Harry Secombe replacing Tony Hancock with the series renamed Secombe's Half Hour. Series 3 (1955–1956) 20 episodes, 19 October 1955 – 29 February 1956 Regular cast: Tony Hancock, Bill Kerr, Sid James, Andrée Melly, Kenneth Williams, Alan Simpson (uncredited). The Pet Dog The Jewel Robbery The Bequest The New Neighbour † The Winter Holiday † The Blackboard Jungle The Red Planet † The Diet A Visit To Russia † The Trial of Father Christmas † Cinderella Hancock (a new production of the 10th of the 1st series) † The New Year Resolutions Hancock's Hair The Student Prince The Breakfast Cereal † How Hancock Won The War The Newspaper † The Greyhound Track The Conjurer The Test Match Episodes 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15 and 17 no longer exist. Only a short extract from episode 12 survives; this plus episodes 8 and 16 only survive in poor sound quality. However, in April 2014 the BBC re-recorded "The New Neighbour", "The Breakfast Cereal" and "The Newspaper", selected by and recorded in the presence of Galton and Simpson, with Kevin McNally as Tony Hancock. The episodes were broadcast in October & November 2014 to celebrate the sixtieth anniversary of their first airing. Episode 4 was rerecorded in August 2016. On 21 July 2015 the BBC re-recorded "The Red Planet" and "How Hancock Won The War" for broadcast in November as part of the second series of "The Missing Hancocks" on Radio 4. "A Visit To Russia" and "The Trial of Father Christmas" were re-recorded in September 2015 for broadcast in December. It was also announced by producer Neil Pearson that the Missing Hancocks will run for four series and re-record all of the missing episodes. On 3 September 2017 the BBC re-recorded "The Winter Holiday" for broadcast in the fourth series. Episode 11 of the third series was supposed to be a new episode called "The Counterfeiter", about Bill Kerr being forced to get a job, but the script went unused and a new version of "Cinderella Hancock" was recorded in its place. On 11 January 2019, the cast of The Missing Hancocks recorded the episode for the first time at the BBC Radio Theatre. It was broadcast as an episode of The Missing Hancocks on 1 January 2020. "The New Year Resolutions" was re-recorded on 13 January 2019 for broadcast on 31 December 2020. Series 4 (1956–1957) 20 episodes, 14 October 1956 – 24 February 1957 Regular cast: Tony Hancock, Sid James, Hattie Jacques (debut in Episode 5), Bill Kerr, Kenneth Williams. Back From Holiday The Bolshoi Ballet Sid James's Dad The Income Tax Demand The New Secretary Michelangelo 'Ancock Anna and the King of Siam Cyrano De Hancock The Stolen Petrol The Espresso Bar Hancock's Happy Christmas The Diary The 13th of the Series Almost A Gentleman The Old School Reunion The Wild Man of the Woods Agricultural 'Ancock Hancock in the Police The Emigrant The Last of the McHancocks - with James Robertson Justice All episodes still exist. Series 5 (1958) 20 episodes, 21 January – 3 June 1958 Regular cast: Tony Hancock, Sid James, Hattie Jacques, Bill Kerr, Kenneth Williams. The New Radio Series - includes reference to series 3 of the TV series which had just finished. The Scandal Magazine - with John Vere The Male Suffragettes The Insurance Policy The Publicity Photograph The Unexploded Bomb Hancock's School Around the World in Eighty Days The Americans Hit Town The Election Candidate Hancock's Car The East Cheam Drama Festival The Foreign Legion Sunday Afternoon at Home The Grappling Game The Junkman Hancock's War The Prize Money The Threatening Letters The Sleepless Night All episodes still exist. Welcome to London was broadcast live on 3 August 1958 on the BBC Light Programme from the London Coliseum to commemorate the Cardiff British Empire and Commonwealth Games. It features a nine-minute sketch with Hancock, James and Kerr. A recording of the whole 90-minute programme was discovered in the collection of Bob Monkhouse after his death. The Hancock sketch has been broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra. Christmas Special "Bill and Father Christmas" Cast: Tony Hancock, Sid James, Hattie Jacques, Bill Kerr, Warren Mitchell Special remake series for BBC Transcription Services (1958) 4 episodes, recorded 23–30 November 1958 Regular cast: Tony Hancock, Sid James, Hattie Jacques, Bill Kerr, Kenneth Williams. The 13th of the Month (remake of 'The 13th of the series', 13th of 4th series) The script was re-written so that the plot did not hinge on it being the 13th of a series as broadcast. The New Secretary (remake of 5th of 4th series) Hattie Jacques's arrival is presented in flashback, so the show can be placed anywhere in a series. The Ballet Visit (remake of 'The Bolshoi Ballet' 2nd of 4th series) Ballet company changed to The Covent Garden Ballet, to avoid topical reference to 1956 visit to London by the Bolshoi Ballet. The Election Candidate (remake of 10th of 5th series) Hancock now stands for the local Independent party instead of the East Cheam Liberal party as he did in the original. These episodes are remakes for overseas sales, rewritten to remove any topical or UK-specific references. All episodes still exist, for many years the TS version of "The New Secretary" was the only version known to exist until an off-air audio recording of the original version was found in 2002. Series 6 (1959) 14 episodes, 29 September – 29 December 1959 Regular cast: Tony Hancock, Sid James, Bill Kerr (except episode 13), Kenneth Williams (episodes 1 and 2 only) Regular guest stars: Patricia Hayes (episodes 1, 2, 4 and 12); Warren Mitchell (episodes 3, 5, 8, 9 and 11); Hugh Morton (episodes 3, 5, 7, 10, 13); Wilfred Babbage (episodes 4, 6, 7, 10, 13); Other guest stars: Noel Dryden (episode 1); Anne Lancaster (episode 4, 14); Liz Fraser (episode 4); Raymond Glendenning (episode 5); Lillian Grasson (episode 6); Fraser Kerr (episodes 6, 11); Lee Crutchley (episode 6); Harry Towb (episode 7); Mavis Villiers (episode 9); Errol McKinnon (episode 9); Jack Watson (episode 10, 14); Fenella Fielding (episode 11); Joan Frank (episode 12); Frank Partington (episode 13); impressionist Peter Goodwright (episode 14); Jerry Stovin (episode 14); Ronald Wilson (episode 14); The Smugglers The Childhood Sweetheart The Last Bus Home The Picnic The Gourmet The Elopement Fred's Pie Stall The Waxwork Sid's Mystery Tours The Fete The Poetry Society Hancock in Hospital (a.k.a. Visiting Day) The Christmas Club The Impersonator (a.k.a.The Impressionist) All episodes still exist. Television series The television version began in 1956 under the same name and with the same writers, produced for the BBC by Duncan Wood. The television and radio versions alternated until 1959, when the final radio series and the fifth television series were both broadcast during the autumn season. Only Sid James transferred from the radio series, although Kenneth Williams and Hattie Jacques each made a couple of appearances. The television version drew on a stock company of actors, who played different supporting characters in each episode. Semi-regulars included Liz Fraser, John Le Mesurier, Hugh Lloyd, Arthur Mullard and John Vyvyan. The final television series, broadcast in 1961, was retitled Hancock, as it was shortened from a half-hour to 25 minutes. For this final series Sid James was no longer in the cast, as Hancock had become frustrated with the format. Some of the most celebrated episodes of the TV series were produced in this final series, including "The Blood Donor", "The Radio Ham", "The Bedsitter" and "The Bowmans". Hancock's character was relocated to Earl's Court for this series. Some episodes of the radio series and telerecordings of some episodes from the third and fourth television series were destroyed. No episodes are known to survive from the first series of the TV show. The surviving radio episodes, which often exist only in edited versions that have been cut for overseas sale to commercial radio stations, were released as CD box sets between 2000 and 2003 (see below). In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, Hancock's Half Hour was placed 24th. In 1962, the show became the first imported programme to win a Jacob's Award following its transmission on Telefís Éireann, the Republic of Ireland's national TV station. In 1956 and 1957 Hancock had starred in two series of a sketch show made by Associated-Rediffusion for ITV television, which were broadcast either side of his first television series on the BBC. In 1972 a Norwegian TV show called Fleksnes Fataliteter aired for the first time. It was based on scripts from Hancock's Half Hour. The show became trilingual, as it usually starred both Swedish and Norwegian actors, and was broadcast in Sweden and Norway as well as Denmark. In 2016, "The New Neighbour" was restaged as part of the BBC's Landmark Sitcom Season commemorating the 60th anniversary of the television sitcom. Television series cast Sid James was a regular in series 1–6. (He does not appear in episodes 1 and 2 of series 2.) Kenneth Williams appeared in every episode of series 2, playing a variety of characters. Hattie Jacques appeared throughout series 2, in all episodes except the first, playing a variety of characters. Patricia Hayes appeared very occasionally in series 4–6 as Mrs Cravatte, Hancock's maid. Television series episodes Series 1 (1956) 6 episodes, broadcast live, every 2 weeks, 7 July – 14 September 1956. No recordings exist. Series 2 (1957) 6 episodes, broadcast live, every 2 weeks, 1 April – 10 June 1957. "The Alpine Holiday" exists on a telerecording. Series 3 (1957) 12 regular episodes, broadcast live, 9 September – 23 December 1957. Episodes 5, 9, 10, 11 and 12 exist on telerecordings. Series 4 (1958–1959) 13 episodes; episodes 1–4 pre-recorded as telerecordings, 5–13 live, broadcast 26 December 1958 – 27 March 1959 (skipping 27 February). Episodes 1, 3, 4, 11 and 12 exist as telerecordings. Episodes 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 exist as off-air audio recordings of variable quality. Episode 13 remains missing. Series 5 (1959) 10 episodes, pre-recorded on videotape, broadcast 25 September – 27 November 1959. The entire series exists on telerecordings. Series 6 (1960) 10 episodes, pre-recorded on videotape, broadcast 19 February – 6 May 1960. The entire series exists as telerecordings. Also a trailer made for Australian TX of this series exists. Series 7 (1961) 6 episodes, pre-recorded on videotape, broadcast 26 May – 30 June 1961. Shortened to 25 minutes per episode and retitled Hancock. This is the only series Sid James does not appear in. The entire series exists on telerecordings. One script for Hancock's Half Hour/Hancock was not used: "The Diplomat" (but it was instead published in Richard Webbers' book 50 years of Hancock's Half Hour in 2004). Chronological listing of Hancock's radio and television broadcasts, 1954–1961 Hancock's Half Hour, radio Series 1: 2 November 1954 – 15 February 1955 Hancock's Half Hour, radio Series 2: 17 April – 2 July 1955 Hancock's Half Hour, radio Series 3: 10 October 1955 – 29 February 1956 The Tony Hancock Show, Series 1 (Associated-Rediffusion for ITV): 4 April – 1 June 1956 Hancock's Half Hour, television Series 1: 7 July – 14 September 1956 Hancock's Half Hour, radio Series 4: 14 October 1956 – 24 February 1957 The Tony Hancock Show, Series 2: 16 November 1956 – 25 January 1957 Hancock's Half Hour, television Series 2: 1 April – 10 June 1957 Hancock's Half Hour, television Series 3: 9 September – 23 December 1957 Hancock's Half Hour, radio Series 5: 1 January – 3 June 1958 Hancock's Half Hour, television Series 4: 26 December 1958 – 27 March 1959 Hancock's Half Hour, television Series 5: 25 September – 27 November 1959 Hancock's Half Hour, radio Series 6: 29 September – 29 December 1959 Hancock's Half Hour, television Series 6: 19 February – 6 May 1960 Hancock, television Series 7: 26 May – 30 June 1961 Information on series dates taken from the book Tony Hancock: Artiste (1978) by Roger Wilmut, Eyre Methuen (subsequent reprints in 1983 and 1986 contain additional details). Information on lost radio episodes taken from the CD box sets (BBC Worldwide, 2000–2003). Commercial releases Four episodes of the TV series were re-recorded before studio audiences, in the style of radio programmes, and released on LP format, two by Pye on the 1961 album Hancock ("The Blood Donor" and "The Radio Ham") and two by Decca on the 1965 album It's Hancock ("The Missing Page" and "The Reunion Party"), which was reissued as The World of Tony Hancock in 1975. The re-recordings entailed the rewriting of a number of visual gags; for instance, at the end of the TV version of "The Radio Ham", Hancock smashes his radio equipment, whereas in the LP version he holds an on-air auction for it. These recordings have been reissued several times on LP, cassette and CD, and have also appeared on comedy compilation CDs. BBC Records released an LP titled Hancock featuring the original TV soundtracks of two episodes, "The Lift" and "Twelve Angry Men." The episode "The Lift" was taken from the separate magnetic soundtrack of the telerecording, with the opening non-dialogue sequence omitted and one extra line of dialogue added: "Watch that door button... Oh my God!" as recorded by Hugh Lloyd on 24/08/76 and edited in. "Twelve Angry Men" was from the optical soundtrack of the telerecording, with theme and incidental music omitted, a few lines of dialogue edited out and pauses shortened. The LP credits the theme music to Angela Morley, even though the music was omitted, and the episodes were recorded when she was still called Wally Stott. There have been six LPs released of substantially complete radio episodes. The first was by Pye Records in 1960 entitled This is Hancock containing "The Wild Man of The Woods" and "Sunday Afternoon At Home." The other five were by BBC Records, released as Hancock's Half Hour: "The Poetry Society" and "Sid's Mystery Tours", released in 1980; "The Americans Hit Town" and "The Unexploded Bomb" in 1981; "The Scandal Magazine" and "The Last of the McHancocks" in 1982; "The Sleepless Night" and "Fred's Pie Stall" in 1983; and finally "Hancocks War" and "The Christmas Club" in 1984. These five LPs were also released on audio cassette at the same time. Also, a number of comedy-themed LPs, EPs and 7-inch singles have been released over the years which have featured short extracts from various radio episodes. The radio series of Hancock's Half Hour was first released on cassette by the BBC as part of their Radio Collection series of audio cassettes in the late 1980s. The first three volumes were re-issues of the five LPs from the 1980s plus the LP of television soundtracks from 1976. Because only 10 volumes were made with four episodes each, and because a number of episodes were later returned from homemade off-air recordings by listeners, a release of the radio series was never completed on cassette. In 2000, the episodes still remaining from Series 1 of the radio series were released as a box set on CD. Series 2–6 followed throughout the next three years. The series has also been given three compilation CDs. The television series of Hancock's Half Hour was first released on VHS/Betamax in 1985 under BBC Enterprises (now Worldwide) in an incomplete form. A Laserdisc of Volume One was also issued under catalogue number BBCL 7004. Six videos were released, each containing three episodes and were mainly drawn from the last three series. The next video release was not to be for another nine years, and that was "The Very Best of Hancock," a compilation including all episodes from the final series but excluding the last, "The Succession: Son and Heir." In 1996, a video was released containing the first three remaining episodes. Two later videos were released in 1997, and another featuring "The Train Journey" was released in 1999. In 1992 "Hancock: The Australian TV Series in Colour" was released, compiled from the three episodes of the 1968 Australian series completed before Hancock's death. This was released on VHS in both the UK and Australia. The first DVD to be released was in 2001, which was a re-release of "The Very Best of Hancock" video. The next DVD was to be released in 2004, containing the first five episodes and the rarely seen "Hancock's Forty-Three Minutes." However, 2 Entertain released a box set in 2007 called The Tony Hancock Collection, containing every existing episode and new bonus features, including Hancock's interview in the Face to Face from 1960. In June and August 2009, six off-air audio recordings of lost TV episodes from Series 4 were unearthed, though they had been knocking around the bootleg market for some time; however, two of them are very poor quality. The six episodes were: "Underpaid or Grandad's S.O.S.", "The Flight of the Red Shadow", "The Horror Serial", "Matrimony – Almost", "The Beauty Contest" and "The Wrong Man". In 2009, the surviving radio episodes were repeated weekly on the digital network BBC Radio 7, chronologically sequenced. References External links The Tony Hancock Appreciation Society The Tony Hancock Archives Encyclopedia of Television Old Time Radio Network with 78 Hancock Episodes 1956 British television series debuts 1961 British television series endings 1950s British sitcoms 1960s British sitcoms BBC Radio comedy programmes BBC television sitcoms Jacob's Award winners Lost BBC episodes Television shows set in London Black-and-white British television shows English-language television shows Radio programs adapted into television shows Television series based on radio series Television series created by Ray Galton Television series created by Alan Simpson	[ 0.06981820613145828, 0.6205909848213196, -0.3716394603252411, -0.6026431322097778, -0.2826068699359894, 0.29739317297935486, -0.027854211628437042, -0.3982633948326111, -0.13269999623298645, 0.07480543851852417, -0.31625083088874817, 0.15263731777668, -0.2383211851119995, 0.14953859150409698, -0.13425709307193756, 0.09344042092561722, 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238184	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela%20Morley	Angela Morley	Angela Morley (10 March 192414 January 2009) was an English composer and conductor who, as Wally Stott, became a familiar household name to BBC Radio listeners in the 1950s. She attributed her entry into composing and arranging largely to the influence and encouragement of the Canadian light music composer Robert Farnon. Morley transitioned in 1972 and thereafter lived openly as a transgender woman. Later in life, she lived in Scottsdale, Arizona. Morley won three Emmy Awards for her work in music arrangement. These were in the category of Outstanding Music Direction, in 1985, 1988 and 1990, for Christmas in Washington and two television specials starring Julie Andrews. Morley also received eight Emmy nominations for composing music for television series such as Dynasty and Dallas. She was twice nominated for an Academy Award in the category of Best Original Song Score: first for The Little Prince (1974), a nomination shared with Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe, and Douglas Gamley; and second for The Slipper and the Rose (1976), which Morley shared with Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman. She was the first openly transgender person to be nominated for an Academy Award. Early life and education Morley was born in Leeds, Yorkshire on 10 March 1924 under the name of Walter "Wally" Stott. Morley's father was a watchmaker who played the ukulele-banjo, and the family lived above their jewellery shop. Morley's mother also sang. Morley was a fan of dance music before being able to read the labels on the records, listening notably to Jack Payne and Henry Hall as a child, and began learning the piano at the age of eight on a Challen upright piano. Morley's father died of angina in 1933 at the age of 39, after which the family moved to Swinton and Morley ceased piano lessons. Morley then tried playing violin at age 10 and the accordion at age 11, including in competitions, before choosing the clarinet and alto saxophone as primary instruments, taking clarinet lessons and playing in the school orchestra. Morley then played in the semi-professional band led by Bert Clegg in Mexborough. As a mostly self-taught musician able to sight-read, Morley left school at age 15 to tour with Archie's Juvenile Band, earning a weekly wage of 10 shillings, and also worked as a projectionist. Morley's mentor at this time was the pianist Eddie Taylor. Morley continued to play saxophone in British dance bands during the period of World War II, joining the Oscar Rabin Band as lead alto in 1941, at age 17. With this band, Morley began writing arrangements for pay and made a recording debut with the tracks "Waiting for Sally" and "Love in Bloom". Morley later joined Geraldo's band, which performed for BBC Radio several times a week, in 1942 or 1944. With Geraldo's band Morley gained experience arranging for bands of many sizes and styles. Morley studied harmony and musical composition in London with the British-Hungarian composer Mátyás Seiber and conducting with the German conductor Walter Goehr. Morley's early work was also influenced by Robert Farnon and Bill Finegan. Career Pre-transition work At the age of 26, Morley stopped playing in bands to instead work solely as a writer, composer, and arranger, and would go on to work in recording, radio, television, and film. Morley was originally a composer of light music or easy listening, best known for pieces such as the jaunty "Rotten Row" and "A Canadian in Mayfair", the latter dedicated to Robert Farnon. Morley also worked with the Chappell Recorded Music Library and Reader's Digest. Morley is known for writing the theme tune, with its iconic tuba partition, and incidental music for Hancock's Half Hour in both its radio and television incarnations, and was also the musical director for The Goon Show from the third series in 1952 to the last show in 1960, conducting the BBC Dance Orchestra. At this time, Morley was known to work quickly and would sometimes write music for The Goon Show the same day of recording, which consisted of two full-band arrangements per week and incidental music. Another short but remembered theme composed by Morley was the 12-note-long "Ident Zoom-2", written for Lew Grade's Associated TeleVision (ATV), in use from the introduction of colour television in 1969, until the demise of ATV in 1981. By 1953, Morley was also scoring films for the Associated British Picture Corporation under music director Louis Levy. In 1953, Morley became musical director for the British section of Philips Records, arranging for and accompanying the company's artists alongside producer Johnny Franz. Morley notably worked with Frankie Vaughan on "The Garden of Eden" in 1957. In 1958, Morley began an association with Welsh singer Shirley Bassey, including work for Bassey's recordings of "The Banana Boat Song" (1957), "As I Love You" (1958), which reached no. 1 in the UK Singles Chart in January 1959, and "Kiss Me Honey Kiss Me" (1958). Morley was the head of an orchestra and a chorale at this team, releasing records as "Wally Stott and His Orchestra" and "The Wally Stott Chorale" respectively. Morley also worked with artists such as Noël Coward and Dusty Springfield and on the first four solo albums by Scott Walker. The next hits Morley worked on were Robert Earl's "I May Never Pass this Way Again" and Frankie Vaughan's "Tower of Strength". In 1962 and 1963, Morley arranged the United Kingdom entries for the Eurovision Song Contest, "Ring-A-Ding Girl" and "Say Wonderful Things", both sung by Ronnie Carroll. The former was conducted on the Eurovision stage in Luxembourg. Morley was also credited with a rhythmic drum solo in the 1960 horror film Peeping Tom, which a dancer plays on a tape recorder. In 1961, Morley provided the orchestral accompaniments for a selection of choral arrangements made by Norman Luboff for an RCA album that was recorded in London's Walthamstow Town Hall. The New Symphony Orchestra (an ad hoc recording ensemble) was conducted by Leopold Stokowski, and the choir of professional British singers, as rehearsed by Luboff, performed such favourites as "Deep River", Handel's "Largo", Bach's "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring", Rachmaninoff's "Vocalise", under the album's title Inspiration (also later reissued on a BMG Classics CD). In 1962, Morley arranged and conducted the RCA Red Seal debut album Romantic Italian Songs for Italian-born tenor Sergio Franchi, and later did the arrangements and conducting for Franchi's 1963 RCA album, Women in My Life. Some of Morley's other notable works in the years before transitioning include the composition and arrangement for the films The Looking Glass War, released in 1970, and When Eight Bells Toll, released in 1971. Morley stepped back from the music and film industry between 1970 and 1972 in order privately to undergo gender transition. During this time, Morley studied clarinet chamber music at the Watford School of Music for eighteen months. Work as Angela Morley After transitioning to living publicly as a woman in 1972, Morley continued to work in music, now using the name Angela Morley professionally. Due to worries about how she would be received publicly as a transgender woman, she declined opportunities to appear on television, such as on The Last Goon Show of All in 1972, though she continued to work with many of her previous colleagues. She had to be persuaded by Franz to continue conducting because of the scrutiny she might face. One of her first projects upon her return to public life was as an orchestrator on Jesus Christ Superstar. She then orchestrated, arranged, and aided in the composition of the music for the final musical film collaboration of Lerner and Loewe, The Little Prince, released in 1974. Her contribution to the film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Music, Scoring Original Song Score and/or Adaptation and she travelled to California for the award ceremony. Morley was also the composer, conductor, arranger and orchestrator for the Sherman Brothers' musical film adaptation of the Cinderella story, The Slipper and the Rose: The Story of Cinderella in 1976, however she was only credited as conductor and arranger. She was again nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Music, Original Song Score and Its Adaptation or Best Adaptation Score for this film along with the Sherman Brothers and again was present at the award ceremony. Though initially reluctant, citing lack of preparation and unfamiliarity with the novel, Morley wrote most of the score for the animated Watership Down film, released in 1978. She had to work quickly based on work drafted by Malcolm Williamson, then Master of the Queen's Music, who left the project. At this time, she was a regular guest conductor of the BBC Radio Orchestra and BBC Big Band. Work in the United States Following the success of Watership Down, Morley lived for a time in Brentwood, Los Angeles, where she began working for Warner Bros. She permanently relocated to Los Angeles in 1979 and began working primarily on American television soundtracks, including those of Dynasty, Dallas, Cagney & Lacey, Wonder Woman, and Falcon Crest, working with the music departments of major production companies, including Warner Bros., Paramount Pictures, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Universal Pictures and 20th Century Fox Television. Thanks to a mutual friend, Herbert W. Spencer, Morley collaborated with John Williams throughout the 1970s and 1980s, arranging for the Boston Pops Orchestra under Williams' direction and working on films such as Star Wars, Superman, The Empire Strikes Back, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Hook, Home Alone, Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, and Schindler's List, though in an uncredited capacity. She also collaborated with André Previn, Lionel Newman, Miklós Rózsa, and Richard Rodney Bennett. Later, she would work with soloists such as Yo-Yo Ma and Itzhak Perlman. She was nominated six times for Emmy Awards for composing and won three times for music direction, notably of two Julie Andrews television specials. Morley continued to work in television until 1990. She relocated again to Scottsdale, Arizona in 1994, where she recorded two CDs with the John Wilson Orchestra. She also lectured at the University of Southern California on film scoring and founded the Chorale of the Alliance française of Greater Phoenix. Her last film credit was for the Disney film The Hunchback of Notre Dame II in 2002, where she worked as an additional orchestrator and composer of additional music. Personal life Morley was a transgender woman and began transitioning to live openly as a woman in 1970, at the age of 46. According to her friend and colleague Max Geldray, she struggled with her gender identity throughout her life, and according to her wife, Christine Parker, Morley probably tried hormone replacement therapy at some point before they met. Morley underwent sex reassignment surgery in Casablanca in June 1970 and publicly came out as a woman in 1972. She chose the new surname Morley as it was her grandmother's maiden name. Morley was twice married. Her first wife, Beryl Stott, was a singer and choral arranger who founded the Beryl Stott Singers, also known as the Beryl Stott Chorus or Beryl Stott Group. Beryl Stott died prior to Morley's gender transition. Morley met Christine Parker, also a singer, in London, and they married on 1 June 1970. Parker was a major support to Morley through her transition. Morley stated that: "It was only because of her love and support that I then was able to deal with the trauma, and begin to think about crossing over that terrifying gender border." The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1979 following the success of Watership Down, and owned a house in the San Fernando Valley. They moved to Scottsdale, Arizona in 1994. Morley died in Scottsdale on 14 January 2009 at the age of 84, as a result of complications of a fall and a heart attack. , Parker was still living in Scottsdale. Morley had two children with her first wife Beryl Stott: a daughter, Helen, who predeceased her in 1967, and a son, Bryan, who was living . She also had grandchildren and great-grandchildren at the time of her passing. Morley had many friendships with fellow musicians and industry colleagues. While working on The Goon Show, she made the acquaintance of Peter Sellers, and would eventually share fond memories of him to his biographer Ed Sikov. She and Max Geldray continued to be good friends following her transition. She also noted that she was lifelong friends with Herbert W. Spencer from 1955, while working on Gentlemen Marry Brunettes, until his death in 1992. Death Morley died in Scottsdale, Arizona on 14 January 2009 at the age of 84. Her death was a result of complications of a fall and a heart attack. Her death was almost exactly 50 years since her no. 1 hit with Shirley Bassey, "As I Love You". Legacy Morley's talent was noted by many of her peers. Arranger Tony Osborne said that she was "at the top of the range [...] second only to Robert Farnon, and it was a pretty close run thing at that", while Scott Walker compared working with Morley to working with Frederick Delius. Morley was interviewed for the biography of her Goon Show colleague Peter Sellers by his biographer Ed Sikov prior to the book's publication in 2002. When asked by Sikov how she should be identified in the book, she told him: "It’s a judgment you’ll have to make and I’ll have to accept". Sikov chose to refer to her as Wally Stott in the context of her past work but as Angela Morley in the present; most posthumous writing about her follows a similar pattern. In 2015, BBC Radio 4 produced a radio drama about Morley, 1977, which was written by Sarah Wooley. 1977 is a semi-fictional account of the year in which Morley was enlisted to complete composition of the musical soundtrack to the film Watership Down in three weeks, after Master of the Queen's Music Malcolm Williamson left the project. The radio drama, starring Rebecca Root, was rebroadcast in 2018. Morley's work has been compared to that of Wendy Carlos, given that they were both transgender women composing film scores in the same time period, though they never met; notably, the composer and researcher Jack Curtis Dubowsky analysed and compared their careers and styles in a chapter of his book Intersecting Film, Music, and Queerness. As a prominent and early transgender woman working in film, Morley has also been compared to trans women in the film industry who came out in later years, such as Lana Wachowski. In this vein, the film scholar Laura Horak promotes a broader view of the term "filmmaker" when it comes to transgender and gender variant individuals in film history, noting that: Horak includes Morley among her selected list of trans and gender variant filmmakers as a composer, noting in particular her work on The Little Prince and Watership Down alongside the film works of other transgender and gender variant people in Classical Hollywood cinema such as Dorothy Arzner and Christine Jorgensen. Morley is commemorated by a Rainbow Plaque placed by Leeds Pride at the entrance to the BBC Leeds building, and also by a blue plaque at her birthplace in Kirkstall. Genre Morley's work was influenced by a number of genres and styles. She initially played in British dance bands, and spent much of her career composing music that was labelled as light and easy listening, as well as film scores and television soundtracks. Light music and easy listening were generally not taken seriously or given much respect at the time that Morley was composing, which Dubowsky credits partially to misogyny, due to the genre's association with femininity. Dubowsky acknowledges that the genre has been seen as derivative, bourgeois, and (in America) racially exclusionary, but calls for the genre and Morley's work to be reconsidered for its influence on film music and the technical skill required in its production. He also, in the conclusion to his chapter on Morley and Wendy Carlos, questions whether Morley was drawn to light music for its perceived feminine qualities. Beyond her light and easy listening work, Morley collaborated with many kinds of artists at Philips Records, from folk music to rock and roll, produced her own recordings of music from Christmas music to show tunes, and later focused her attention on orchestral, classical and choral arrangements that went beyond the scope of light music and easy listening. Morley credited her eventual turn away from film scores to technological changes: tape recording, new types of microphones, and the advent of stereophonic sound had reached the wider music industry, but not film. She wrote that "to go to a cinema to hear one’s latest score was absolute torture." Nevertheless, she continued to work intermittently in film until 2002. Characteristics of her compositions Her music for The Goon Show stood out as having "a jazz flavour, rather than the standard comedy-show music of that time." From some of her earliest composition works, Morley used instruments to represent characters, such as the tuba notes in the theme to Hancock's Half Hour which represented Tony Hancock. While Morley was working with Johnny Franz at Philips Records, Robert Earl noted that Morley and Franz "didn't believe in fade-out endings so all those ballads end on big notes". Her work on film scores is noted for her "mastery of orchestration and gift for evoking moods and atmospheres" (in reference to The Slipper and the Rose and Watership Down) and "her strengths in swing, classical, and romantic period styles" (in reference to Watership Down). For Watership Down, Morley created a character theme for Kehaar, voiced by Zero Mostel. On "Kehaar's Theme", Dubowsky notes the influence of Claude Debussy and comments that: He also notes that "Kehaar's Theme" incorporates polyrhythms and has an emphasis on string instruments, and that it draws from many of the genres Morley worked in: "classical, swing, jazz, light music, concert music, and film scoring". Speaking more broadly about the Watership Down score, Dubowsky also notes the effectiveness of "Violet's Gone" and "Venturing Forth". Selected discography Credited as Wally Stott Noël Coward, I'll See You Again (1954), Philips (as arranger) London Pride (1958), Philips Christmas by the Fireside (1959), Marble Arch Records Diana Dors, Swingin Dors (1960), Pye (as arranger) Roy Castle, Castlewise (1961), Philips (as arranger) Susan Maughan, Sentimental Susan (1964), Philips (as arranger) Harry Secombe, Film Favourites (1964), Philips (as arranger) Harry Secombe, Italian Serenade (1966), Philips (as arranger) Scott Walker, Scott (1967), Philips (as arranger) Shirley Bassey, Love For Sale (1968), Philips (as arranger) Scott Walker, Scott 2 (1969), Philips (as arranger) Scott Walker, Scott 3 (1969), Philips (as arranger) Spellbound (2008), Vocalion Records (reissue) Credited as Angela Morley The Slipper and the Rose (1976), MCA Records/EMI Records Watership Down (1978), CBS Records Soft Lights and Sweet Music: the Scores of Angela Morley (2001), Vocalion Records The Film and Television Music of Angela Morley (2003), Vocalion Records Selected filmography The Heart of a Man (1959) The Lady Is a Square (1959) Peeping Tom (1960). Credited for the drum solo played on a tape-recorder during a dance routine. The Looking Glass War (1970) Captain Nemo and the Underwater City (1969) When Eight Bells Toll (1971) The Little Prince (1974) – Oscar nomination The Slipper and the Rose (1976) – Oscar nomination Watership Down (1978) Awards and honours Awards 1985: 37th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction for Christmas in Washington (with Ian Fraser and Billy Byers) 1988: 40th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction for Julie Andrews: The Sound of Christmas (with Ian Fraser, Chris Boardman, and Alexander Courage) 1990: 42nd Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction for Julie Andrews in Concert (Great Performances) (with Ian Fraser, Billy Byers, Chris Boardman, Bob Florence, and J. Hill) Nominations 1975: 47th Academy Awards - Academy Award for Best Scoring: Original Song Score and Adaptation or Scoring: Adaptation for The Little Prince (with Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe, and Douglas Gamley) 1978: 50th Academy Awards - Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and Its Adaptation or Adaptation Score for The Slipper and the Rose: The Story of Cinderella (with Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman) 1980: 32nd Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction for The Big Show episode "Steve Lawrence and Don Rickles" (with Nick Perito, Joe Lipman, and Peter Myers) 1984: 36th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for Emerald Point N.A.S. episode "The Homecoming" 1985: 37th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for Dynasty episode "Triangles" 1986: 38th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for Dynasty episode "The Subpoenas" 1987: 39th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for Dallas episode "A Death in the Family" 1987: 39th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction for Liberty Weekend: Opening Ceremonies (with Ian Fraser, Chris Boardman, Ralph Burns, Alexander Courage, and J. Hill) 1988: 40th Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for Dallas episode "Hustling" 1989: 41st Primetime Emmy Awards - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for Blue Skies episode "The White Horse" See also List of LGBT firsts by year List of LGBT Academy Award winners and nominees Footnotes References Further reading External links Official website Biography at the Robert Farnon Society 1924 births 2009 deaths 20th-century classical composers 20th-century English composers 20th-century saxophonists Emmy Award winners English emigrants to the United States English film score composers English music arrangers English classical saxophonists English jazz saxophonists Eurovision Song Contest conductors Women classical composers Women film score composers LGBT musicians from England Light music composers Musicians from Leeds Transgender and transsexual women musicians 20th-century English women musicians 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238190	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle%20of%20fifths	Circle of fifths	In music theory, the circle of fifths is a way of organizing the 12 chromatic pitches as a sequence of perfect fifths. If C is chosen as a starting point, the sequence is: C, G, D, A, E, B (=C), F (=G), C (=D), A, E, B, F. Continuing the pattern from F returns the sequence to its starting point of C. This order places the most closely related key signatures adjacent to one another. It is usually illustrated in the form of a circle. Definition The circle of fifths organizes pitches in a sequence of perfect fifths, generally shown as a circle with the pitches (and their corresponding keys) in a clockwise progression. Musicians and composers often use the circle of fifths to describe the musical relationships between pitches. Its design is helpful in composing and harmonizing melodies, building chords, and modulating to different keys within a composition. Using the system of just intonation, a perfect fifth consists of two pitches with a frequency ratio of 3:2, but generating a twelve perfect fifths in this way does not result in a return to the pitch class of the starting note. To adjust for this, instruments are generally tuned with the equal temperament system. Twelve equal-temperament fifths lead to a note exactly seven octaves above the initial tone—this results in a perfect fifth that is equivalent to seven equal-temperament semitones. The top of the circle shows the key of C Major, with no sharps or flats. Proceeding clockwise, the pitches ascend by fifths. The key signatures associated with those pitches also change: the key of G has one sharp, the key of D has 2 sharps, and so on. Similarly, proceeding counterclockwise from the top of the circle, the notes change by descending fifths and the key signatures change accordingly: the key of F has one flat, the key of B has 2 flats, and so on. Some keys (at the bottom of the circle) can be notated either in sharps or in flats. Starting at any pitch and ascending by a fifth generates all twelve tones before returning to the beginning pitch class (a pitch class consists of all of the notes indicated by a given letter regardless of octave—all "C"s, for example, belong to the same pitch class). Moving counterclockwise, the pitches descend by a fifth, but ascending by a perfect fourth will lead to the same note an octave higher (therefore in the same pitch class). Moving counter-clockwise from C could be thought of as descending by a fifth to F, or ascending by a fourth to F. Structure and use Diatonic key signatures Each of the twelve pitches can serve as the tonic of a major or minor key, and each of these keys will have a diatonic scale associated with it. The circle diagram shows the number of sharps or flats in each key signature, with the major key indicated by a capital letter and the minor key indicated by a lower-case letter. Major and minor keys that have the same key signature are referred to as relative major and relative minor of one another. Modulation and chord progression Tonal music often modulates to a new tonal center whose key signature differs from the original by only one flat or sharp. These closely-related keys are a fifth apart from each other and are therefore adjacent in the circle of fifths. Chord progressions also often move between chords whose roots are related by perfect fifth, making the circle of fifths useful in illustrating the "harmonic distance" between chords. The circle of fifths is used to organize and describe the harmonic function of chords. Chords can progress in a pattern of ascending perfect fourths (alternately viewed as descending perfect fifths) in "functional succession". This can be shown "...by the circle of fifths (in which, therefore, scale degree II is closer to the dominant than scale degree IV)". In this view the tonic is considered the end point of a chord progression derived from the circle of fifths. According to Richard Franko Goldman's Harmony in Western Music, "the IV chord is, in the simplest mechanisms of diatonic relationships, at the greatest distance from I. In terms of the [descending] circle of fifths, it leads away from I, rather than toward it." He states that the progression I–ii–V–I (an authentic cadence) would feel more final or resolved than I–IV–I (a plagal cadence). Goldman concurs with Nattiez, who argues that "the chord on the fourth degree appears long before the chord on II, and the subsequent final I, in the progression I–IV–viio–iii–vi–ii–V–I", and is farther from the tonic there as well. (In this and related articles, upper-case Roman numerals indicate major triads while lower-case Roman numerals indicate minor triads.) Circle closure in non-equal tuning systems Using the exact 3:2 ratio of frequencies to define a perfect fifth (just intonation) does not quite result in a return to the pitch class of the starting note after going around the circle of fifths. Equal temperament tuning produces fifths that return to a tone exactly seven octaves above the initial tone and makes the frequency ratio of each half step the same. An equal-tempered fifth has a frequency ratio of 27/12:1 (or about 1.498307077:1), approximately two cents narrower than a justly tuned fifth at a ratio of 3:2. Ascending by justly tuned fifths fails to close the circle by an excess of approximately 23.46 cents, roughly a quarter of a semitone, an interval known as the Pythagorean comma. In Pythagorean tuning, this problem is solved by markedly shortening the width of one of the twelve fifths, which makes it severely dissonant. This anomalous fifth is called the wolf fifth – a humorous reference to a wolf howling an off-pitch note. The quarter-comma meantone tuning system uses eleven fifths slightly narrower than the equally tempered fifth, and requires a much wider and even more dissonant wolf fifth to close the circle. More complex tuning systems based on just intonation, such as 5-limit tuning, use at most eight justly tuned fifths and at least three non-just fifths (some slightly narrower, and some slightly wider than the just fifth) to close the circle. Other tuning systems use up to 53 tones (the original 12 tones and 42 more between them) in order to close the circle of fifths. History Some sources imply that Pythagoras invented the circle of fifths in the sixth century B.C. but there is no proof of this. Pythagoras was primarily concerned with the theoretical science of harmonics and is credited with having devised a system of tuning based upon the interval of a fifth, but did not tune more than eight notes, and left no written records of his work. In the late 1670s Ukrainian composer and theorist Nikolay Diletsky wrote a treatise on composition entitled Grammatika, "the first of its kind, aimed at teaching a Russian audience how to write Western-style polyphonic compositions." It taught how to write kontserty, polyphonic a cappella works usually based on liturgical texts and created by putting together musical sections with contrasting rhythm, meter, melodic material and vocal groupings. Diletsky intended his treatise to be a guide to composition using rules of music theory. The first circle of fifths appears in the Grammatika and it was used for students as a composition tool. Use In musical pieces from the Baroque music era and the Classical era of music and in Western popular music, traditional music and folk music, when pieces or songs modulate to a new key, these modulations are often associated with the circle of fifths. In practice, compositions rarely make use of the entire circle of fifths. More commonly, composers make use of "the compositional idea of the 'cycle' of 5ths, when music moves consistently through a smaller or larger segment of the tonal structural resources which the circle abstractly represents." The usual practice is to derive the circle of fifths progression from the seven tones of the diatonic scale, rather from the full range of twelve tones present in the chromatic scale. In this diatonic version of the circle, one of the fifths is not a true fifth: it is a tritone (or a diminished fifth), e.g. between F and B in the "natural" diatonic scale (i.e. without sharps or flats). Here is how the circle of fifths derives, through permutation from the diatonic major scale: And from the (natural) minor scale: The following is the basic sequence of chords that can be built over the major bass-line: And over the minor: Adding sevenths to the chords creates a greater sense of forward momentum to the harmony: Baroque era According to Richard Taruskin, Arcangelo Corelli was the most influential composer to establish the pattern as a standard harmonic "trope": "It was precisely in Corelli's time, the late seventeenth century, that the circle of fifths was being 'theorized' as the main propellor of harmonic motion, and it was Corelli more than any one composer who put that new idea into telling practice." The circle of fifths progression occurs frequently in the music of J. S. Bach. In the following, from Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen, BWV 51, even when the solo bass line implies rather than states the chords involved: Handel uses a circle of fifths progression as the basis for the Passacaglia movement from his Harpsichord suite No. 6 in G minor. Baroque composers learnt to enhance the "propulsive force" of the harmony engendered by the circle of fifths "by adding sevenths to most of the constituent chords." "These sevenths, being dissonances, create the need for resolution, thus turning each progression of the circle into a simultaneous reliever and re-stimulator of harmonic tension... Hence harnessed for expressive purposes." Striking passages that illustrate the use of sevenths occur in the aria "Pena tiranna" in Handel's 1715 opera Amadigi di Gaula: – and in Bach's keyboard arrangement of Alessandro Marcello's Concerto for Oboe and Strings. Nineteenth century During the nineteenth century, composers made use of the circle of fifths to enhance the expressive character of their music. Franz Schubert's poignant Impromptu in E flat major, D 899, contains such a passage: – as does the Intermezzo movement from Mendelssohn's String Quartet No.2: Robert Schumann's evocative "Child falling asleep" from his Kinderszenen springs a surprise at the end of the progression: the piece ends on an A minor chord, instead of the expected tonic E minor. In Wagner's opera, Götterdämmerung, a cycle of fifths progression occurs in the music which transitions from the end of the prologue into the first scene of Act 1, set in the imposing hall of the wealthy Gibichungs. "Status and reputation are written all over the motifs assigned to Gunther", chief of the Gibichung clan: Ravel's Pavane for a Dead Infanta, uses the cycle of fifths to evoke Baroque harmony to convey regret and nostalgia for a past era. The composer described the piece as "an evocation of a pavane that a little princess (infanta) might, in former times, have danced at the Spanish court.": Jazz and popular music The enduring popularity of the circle of fifths as both a form-building device and as an expressive musical trope is evident in the number of "standard" popular songs composed during the twentieth century. It is also favored as a vehicle for improvisation by jazz musicians. Bart Howard, "Fly Me to the Moon" Jerome Kern, "All the Things You Are" Ray Noble, "Cherokee." Many jazz musicians have found this particularly challenging as the middle eight progresses so rapidly through the circle, "creating a series of II–V–I progressions that temporarily pass through several tonalities." Kosmo, Prevert and Mercer, "Autumn Leaves" The Beatles, "You Never Give Me Your Money" Mike Oldfield, "Incantations" Carlos Santana, "Europa (Earth's Cry Heaven's Smile)" Gloria Gaynor, "I Will Survive" Pet Shop Boys, "It's a Sin" Donna Summer, "Love to Love you, Baby" Related concepts Diatonic circle of fifths The diatonic circle of fifths is the circle of fifths encompassing only members of the diatonic scale. Therefore, it contains a diminished fifth, in C major between B and F. See structure implies multiplicity. The circle progression is commonly a circle of fifths through the diatonic chords, including one diminished chord. A circle progression in C major with chords I–IV–viio–iii–vi–ii–V–I is shown below. Chromatic circle The circle of fifths is closely related to the chromatic circle, which also arranges the twelve equal-tempered pitch classes in a circular ordering. A key difference between the two circles is that the chromatic circle can be understood as a continuous space where every point on the circle corresponds to a conceivable pitch class, and every conceivable pitch class corresponds to a point on the circle. By contrast, the circle of fifths is fundamentally a discrete structure, and there is no obvious way to assign pitch classes to each of its points. In this sense, the two circles are mathematically quite different. However, the twelve equal-tempered pitch classes can be represented by the cyclic group of order twelve, or equivalently, the residue classes modulo twelve, . The group has four generators, which can be identified with the ascending and descending semitones and the ascending and descending perfect fifths. The semitonal generator gives rise to the chromatic circle while the perfect fifth gives rise to the circle of fifths. Relation with chromatic scale The circle of fifths, or fourths, may be mapped from the chromatic scale by multiplication, and vice versa. To map between the circle of fifths and the chromatic scale (in integer notation) multiply by 7 (M7), and for the circle of fourths multiply by 5 (P5). Here is a demonstration of this procedure. Start off with an ordered 12-tuple (tone row) of integers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) representing the notes of the chromatic scale: 0 = C, 2 = D, 4 = E, 5 = F, 7 = G, 9 = A, 11 = B, 1 = C, 3 = D, 6 = F, 8 = G, 10 = A. Now multiply the entire 12-tuple by 7: (0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, 77) and then apply a modulo 12 reduction to each of the numbers (subtract 12 from each number as many times as necessary until the number becomes smaller than 12): (0, 7, 2, 9, 4, 11, 6, 1, 8, 3, 10, 5) which is equivalent to (C, G, D, A, E, B, F, C, G, D, A, F) which is the circle of fifths. Note that this is enharmonically equivalent to: (C, G, D, A, E, B, G, D, A, E, B, F). Enharmonic equivalents and theoretical keys The key signatures found on the bottom of the circle of fifths diagram, such as D major, are often written one way in flats and in another way using sharps. These keys are easily interchanged using enharmonic equivalents. Enharmonic means that the notes sound the same, but are written differently. For example, the key signature of D major, with five flats, contains the same sounding notes, enharmonically, as C major (seven sharps). After C comes the key of G (following the pattern of being a fifth higher, and, coincidentally, enharmonically equivalent to the key of A). The "eighth sharp" is placed on the F, to make it F. The key of D, with nine sharps, has another sharp placed on the C, making it C. The same is true for key signatures with flats; The key of E (four sharps) is equivalent to the key of F (again, one fifth below the key of C, following the pattern of flat key signatures). The last flat is placed on the B, making it B. Such keys with double accidentals in the key signatures are called theoretical keys: the appearance of their key signatures is extremely rare, but they are sometimes tonicised in the course of a work (particularly if the home key was already heavily sharped or flatted). There does not appear to be a standard on how to notate theoretical key signatures: The default behaviour of LilyPond (pictured above) writes all single sharps (flats) in the circle-of-fifths order, before proceeding to the double sharps. This is the format used in John Foulds' A World Requiem, Op. 60, which ends with the key signature of G major (exactly as displayed above, pp. 153ff.) The sharps in the key signature of G major here proceed C, G, D, A, E, B, F. The single sharps or flats at the beginning are sometimes repeated as a courtesy, e.g. Max Reger's Supplement to the Theory of Modulation, which contains D minor key signatures on pp. 42–45. These have a B at the start and also a B at the end (with a double-flat symbol), going B, E, A, D, G, C, F, B. The convention of LilyPond and Foulds would suppress the initial B. Sometimes the double signs are written at the beginning of the key signature, followed by the single signs. For example, the F key signature is notated as B, E, A, D, G, C, F. This convention is used by Victor Ewald, by the program Finale (software), and by some theoretical works. See also Approach chord Sonata form Well temperament Circle of fifths text table Pitch constellation Multiplicative group of integers modulo n Notes References Further reading D'Indy, Vincent (1903). Cours de composition musicale. Paris: A. Durand et fils. Lester, Joel. Between Modes and Keys: German Theory, 1592–1802. 1990. Miller, Michael. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Music Theory, 2nd ed. [Indianapolis, IN]: Alpha, 2005. . Purwins, Hendrik (2005)."Profiles of Pitch Classes: Circularity of Relative Pitch and Key—Experiments, Models, Computational Music Analysis, and Perspectives". Ph.D. thesis. Berlin: Technische Universität Berlin. Purwins, Hendrik, Benjamin Blankertz, and Klaus Obermayer (2007). "Toroidal Models in Tonal Theory and Pitch-Class Analysis". in: Computing in Musicology 15 ("Tonal Theory for the Digital Age"): 73–98. External links Decoding the Circle of Vths Interactive Circle of Fifths Interactive circle of fifths for guitarists Harmony Musical keys Tonality	[ 0.11412304639816284, 0.03527602553367615, -0.15314286947250366, 0.1796416938304901, -0.21722610294818878, 0.21213077008724213, 0.19976770877838135, -0.3296287953853607, -0.46118083596229553, -0.47932109236717224, -0.11815059930086136, 0.16676494479179382, 0.13022242486476898, 0.749640166759491, -0.04479975998401642, 0.5572224259376526, 0.9970006346702576, -0.34907644987106323, -0.6051785945892334, -0.3806030750274658, -0.10676492005586624, 0.1512714922428131, 0.4840030372142792, -0.4996168613433838, 0.3408571481704712, 0.11520060896873474, -0.3630581498146057, 0.3041188716888428, 0.48115813732147217, 0.3356456458568573, 0.05762966722249985, 0.6890878081321716, 0.37148648500442505, -0.518509566783905, 0.1964384764432907, -0.5570982098579407, -0.15767468512058258, -0.2668019235134125, -0.23291680216789246, -0.923356831073761, 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238192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2027	U.S. Route 27	U.S. Route 27 (US 27) is a north–south United States Highway in the southern and midwestern United States. The southern terminus is at US 1 in Miami, Florida. The northern terminus is at Interstate 69 (I-69) in Fort Wayne, Indiana. From Miami it goes up the center of Florida, then west to Tallahassee, Florida, and north through such cities and towns as Columbus, Georgia; Rome, Georgia; Chattanooga, Tennessee; Lexington, Kentucky; Cincinnati, Ohio; Oxford, Ohio; Richmond, Indiana; and Fort Wayne, Indiana. It once extended north through Lansing, Michigan, to Cheboygan, Mackinaw City, and for about three years as far as St. Ignace. US 27 was first signed in 1926, replacing what had been the western route of the Dixie Highway in many states. Route description Florida In Florida, US 27 has been designated the Claude Pepper Memorial Highway by the Florida Legislature. It was named after long-time Florida US Senator and congressman Claude Pepper. The stretch running from Miami to South Bay was originally designated the Thomas E. Will Memorial Highway by the Florida Legislature in 1937 when that portion was known as Florida State Road 26. Will, the founder of Okeelanta, Florida, had been instrumental in getting the state to build the road from Miami to the area south of Lake Okeechobee. Nearly the entire length of US 27 in Florida is a divided highway. US 27 begins as North 36th Street in Midtown Miami, heading west from US 1 for before turning northwest to pass under the western terminus of the Airport Expressway (State Road 112, SR 112). It then proceeds northwest for five miles (8 km) as South Okeechobee Road, parallel to the Miami Canal, forming the southwest boundary of the city of Hialeah. After an interchange with the Palmetto Expressway (SR 826), it continues northwest as North Okeechobee Road for five miles (8 km) before an interchange with the Homestead Extension of the Florida Turnpike (SR 821). After another four miles (6 km), the highway curves to the north and, after passing the northern terminus of Krome Avenue (SR 997), crosses into Broward County. In Broward County, the highway passes protected wetlands and heavy duty power lines on the west and the outer reaches of the suburban communities of Pembroke Pines and Weston on the east. US 27 then reaches an interchange with I-75 and Alligator Alley before curving to the northwest toward South Bay and Lake Okeechobee. The highway skirts the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee and then heads west at Clewiston, before making a sharp turn to the north towards Moore Haven. The road then proceeds in a northerly direction toward the central Florida communities of Lake Placid, Sebring, Avon Park, and Lake Wales. Widening of US 27 to a six-lane highway continues in Polk County. The following sections have been completed and are open to six lanes of traffic: SR 60 to SR 540 in Lake Wales SR 542 in Dundee to north of I-4 in Davenport North of I-4, US 27 contains un-numbered interchanges with US 192 and then County Road 474 (CR 474) in Citrus Ridge, SR 50 in Clermont, and SR 19 south of Howey-in-the-Hills, which also includes a southbound interchange with Florida's Turnpike. The northbound Turnpike interchange can be found further northwest. US 441 later joins US 27 in Leesburg and US 301 in Belleview, only for the road to break away from both in Ocala. US 27 resumes its status as its own route until it reaches Williston and joins US 41. This concurrency continues northward until US 41 reaches High Springs, and joins US 441. US 27 heads west along the unsigned SR 20 towards Perry and joins US 19 until US 19 breaks away in Capps, but not before resuming a westward direction. In Tallahassee, the road becomes Apalachee Parkway, a major east–west thoroughfare. Constructed in 1957, the Apalachee Parkway starts at Monroe Street in front of the Florida State Capitol building. It has a short expressway section just east of the capitol, then is a busy four-lane surface boulevard with service roads for the next few miles, passing the Governor's Square Mall and many state office buildings. Past Tallahassee, US 27 finally resumes its northwesterly direction. The highway goes through Havana before entering Georgia. Georgia In Georgia, US 27 has been designated the Martha Berry Highway by the Georgia State Legislature. It was named after Martha Berry, founder of Berry College in Rome. US 27 is a designated Governor's Road Improvement Program (GRIP) developmental highway corridor which will eventually be widened to four lanes (mostly divided) from the Florida state line to the Tennessee state line. All of US 27 in Georgia is concurrent with Georgia State Route 1. Tennessee In Chattanooga, a portion of US 27 was once signed as I-124. Though the designation still exists, it is no longer signed as such. In and around the Chattanooga area, US 27 is sometimes referred to as Corridor J, the designation of a road in the Appalachian Development Highway System between Chattanooga and London, Kentucky, intended to follow the route of US 27. Throughout its approximately stretch between Chattanooga and Harriman, US 27 traverses a valley between the Tennessee River to the east and the Cumberland Plateau to the west. The plateau's Walden Ridge escarpment is frequently visible to the west. From Chattanooga, the highway passes through Soddy-Daisy. Here, it intersects State Route 111 (SR 111), which veers northwestward across the Plateau into Middle Tennessee. US 27 continues through Sale Creek and Graysville before reaching Dayton. At Dayton, it intersects SR 30, which connects Dayton with Pikeville to the west and Decatur to the east, and SR 60, which connects Dayton with Cleveland to the southeast. US 27 continues northward through Evensville before arriving at Spring City. At Spring City, it intersects SR 68, which connects the area to Crossville, atop the plateau to the west. From here, US 27 enters Roane County, running concurrently with US 70 going through the city of Rockwood. After US 70 splits to the east, US 27 runs concurrently with SR 61 through Harriman, where it is crossed by I-40. During this stretch, it forms part of the Harvey H. Hannah Memorial Highway, and is signed as such. Just beyond Harriman, near the DeArmond community, US 27 ascends the Cumberland Plateau, and continues northward across the plateau for its remaining or so in Tennessee. In Morgan County, the highway passes through Wartburg and Sunbright. At Elgin, it intersects SR 52, which connects the area with the historic village of Rugby, Tennessee, and Fentress County to the west. Beyond Elgin, US 27 passes through Robbins, Huntsville, and Helenwood before reaching Oneida in Scott County. In Oneida, US 27 intersects SR 297, which continues westward into the Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area. A short time later, US 27 intersects with SR 456, which continues to Tennessee State Route 63. After coming to a stop, it then makes a sharp left turn to go through downtown Oneida. After a further , it then reaches Winfield. Winfield is the last sizable town that US 27 passes through in Tennessee before it reaches the community of Isham on the Kentucky border. Kentucky US 27 enters Kentucky near Whitley City. The first major town it goes through is Somerset, followed by Stanford, Lancaster, Nicholasville, and Lexington, where it begins a concurrency with US 68 that continues to Paris. US 27 continues north from there through Cynthiana, Falmouth, Alexandria, Highland Heights, Fort Thomas, Southgate, and Newport before crossing into Ohio at Cincinnati via Taylor-Southgate Bridge. From its junction with Interstate 471 in Highland Heights through Campbell County, it is a four-lane highway with a center turn lane for both directions of traffic. Near the "welcome to Alexandria" sign at KY 536, US 27 becomes a divided four-lane highway with a grass median. It is currently being constructed as such for the rest of its length from 536 through southern Campbell county. Currently, US 27 is under-going a widening project near Garrard CR 1355 to HWY 34. The road will become a four lane into Lexington. Ohio US 27 crosses into Ohio and Downtown Cincinnati via the Taylor–Southgate Bridge. US 27 follows Mehring Way, Central Avenue, Ezzard Charles Drive and Central Parkway through Downtown Cincinnati. US 27 briefly duplexes with I-75, exiting at I-74 for another brief duplex before exiting onto Colerain Avenue. US 27 then continues Northwest eventually to Oxford, and then reaches the Indiana border another 6 miles northwest at College Corner. Overall, US 27 is in Ohio for 40.6 miles: 18.5 miles in Hamilton County and another 22.1 miles in Butler County. Indiana US 27 enters the southeastern part of Indiana south of the town of Liberty. At Liberty, US 27 turns north, paralleling the Ohio state line. It intersects I-70 at Richmond, Indiana, and continues north to Decatur. US 33 joins US 27 just south of Decatur and the two routes share a northwesterly alignment on a divided surface highway from Decatur to I-469 south of Fort Wayne. US 33 turns west and follows I-469, while US 27 continues north into downtown Fort Wayne as Clinton Street. North of downtown, US 27 follows Lima Road to its terminus at I-69/US 30 (Lima Road continues north from this point as SR 3). History Originally, the southern terminus of US 27 was in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1928, the route was extended south to Chattanooga, Tennessee, then to Tallahassee, Florida in 1934. In 1949, it was extended to its current terminus in Miami. At its northern end, US 27 originally terminated at Cheboygan, Michigan. In 1937, the route was extended concurrently with US 23 to Mackinaw City, where it ended at the Michigan State Auto Ferry Dock along with US 23 and US 31. After the completion of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957, US 27 was extended across the bridge to the current intersection of I-75 and US 2 near St. Ignace. In 1961, what became I-75 was completed, enabling the roadway to be designated as I-75. At the same time, US 27 was truncated to an interchange with I-75 six miles (10 km) south of Grayling. In 2002, the northern terminus was moved to its current location. From Grayling to I-69 near Lansing, the road is now designated US 127. US 27 signs were removed from I-69 between Lansing and Fort Wayne in 2001. Officially, the current northern terminus is at the junction of I-69, US 30, and SR 3, but heading north on I-69 one will still see US 27 shields on some of the older overhead signs heading to the I-469 interchange on the northern edge of Fort Wayne. Indiana On March 9, 2007, legislation was introduced in the Indiana House of Representatives to designate US 27 as historic highway. Richmond, one of the cities US 27 passes through, would have two historic highways passing through it. The original National Road (US 40) runs through Richmond. Michigan US 27 was one of the highways in Michigan to carry the TO I-75 designation when I-75 was being constructed. The at-grade routing of US 27 in Michigan has been largely superseded by I-75, which follows a roughly similar route and in some places actually replaced the older highway. From Lansing north to I-75, the former US 27 is now US 127; from Lansing south to Fort Wayne, US 27 was replaced by I-69. In many places the route markers and the highway itself serve to connect local communities bypassed by the Interstate Highway. Major intersections Florida in Miami in Miami in Weston south-southeast of Sebring. The highways travel concurrently to east of West Frostproof. in Haines City in Davenport in Four Corners in Leesburg. The highways travel concurrently to Ocala. in Belleview. The highways travel concurrently to Ocala. in Ocala in Williston. The highways travel concurrently to High Springs. east of Branford. The highways travel concurrently to Branford. in Perry in Perry. US 19/US 27 travel concurrently to Capps. in Tallahassee in Tallahassee in Tallahassee Georgia in Bainbridge. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Cusseta. The highways travel concurrently to Columbus. in Fort Benning in Columbus southeast of LaGrange in LaGrange in LaGrange. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Bremen in Bremen in Cedartown. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Six Mile. The highways travel concurrently to Rome. Tennessee in Chattanooga. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Chattanooga in Chattanooga. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Chattanooga south-southwest of Rockwood. The highways travel concurrently into Rockwood. in Harriman Kentucky in Stanford in Lexington. The highways travel concurrently to Paris. in Lexington. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Lexington in Lexington in Paris in Cynthiana. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Highland Heights on the Fort Thomas–Southgate city line Ohio in Cincinnati. The highways travel concurrently through the city. in Cincinnati in Cincinnati in Cincinnati in Cincinnati in Bevis Indiana in Richmond in Richmond in Lynn in Decatur. The highways travel concurrently to south-southeast of Fort Wayne. in Decatur. The highways travel concurrently through the city. south-southeast of Fort Wayne in Fort Wayne in Fort Wayne Related routes U.S. Route 127 U.S. Route 227 References External links Endpoints of US 27 United States Numbered Highway System U.S. Highways in Ohio Interstate 75 Interstate 69 Roads with a reversible lane	[ -0.08481995016336441, 0.5498555302619934, 0.33419743180274963, -0.22010475397109985, 0.12318247556686401, 0.46909382939338684, 0.7341168522834778, 0.46445879340171814, 0.30825111269950867, -0.2565867304801941, -0.18246546387672424, -0.019501447677612305, -0.2970781922340393, 0.6072668433189392, -0.34866786003112793, 0.7441443204879761, -0.3781205713748932, 0.5265892148017883, 0.39882683753967285, -0.6090683937072754, -0.23622046411037445, 0.5831740498542786, 0.13068576157093048, -0.7835006713867188, -0.3010614216327667, 0.17211201786994934, -0.5433138608932495, -0.3583116829395294, -0.6205929517745972, 0.23214498162269592, 0.06143362447619438, -0.0876896008849144, 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238193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WKAQ-TV	WKAQ-TV	WKAQ-TV, virtual channel 2 (UHF digital channel 28), is a dual Telemundo/NBC owned-and-operated television station licensed to San Juan, Puerto Rico. The station is owned by the Telemundo Station Group subsidiary of NBCUniversal. WKAQ-TV's studios are located on Avenida Eleanor Roosevelt in San Juan near Hiram Bithorn Stadium, and its transmitter is located on Cerro la Santa in Cayey near the Bosque Estatal de Carite mountain reserve. WTIN-TV (channel 2.11) in Ponce and WNJX-TV (channel 2.12) in Mayagüez, branded on-air as Telemundo West, operate as full-time satellites of WKAQ-TV, which rebroadcast the station's programming to the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico under an affiliation agreement with Hemisphere Media Group (owner of parent station WAPA-TV, channel 4). WKAQ-TV formerly operated WOLE-TV (channel 12) in Aguadilla and WORA-TV (channel 5) in Mayagüez as satellite stations. WKAQ-TV also has three low-power translator facilities: W09AT-D in Fajardo, W28EH-D in Adjuntas and W28EQ-D in Utuado. WKAQ-TV also simulcasts the signal of New York City sister station WNBC with the branding of NBC Puerto Rico. History WKAQ-TV first signed on March 28, 1954, as the first television station in Puerto Rico. The station was founded by Ángel Ramos, owner of El Mundo (The World) and Puerto Rico's first licensed radio station, WKAQ. Ramos wanted to maintain a consistent branding inter-proprietorially using the "mundo" theme, and decided to brand WKAQ-TV as Telemundo ("Tele-World"). Ramos had tried to obtain a television station license as early as the mid-1940s, but due to a licensing freeze for all new American television stations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), Ramos had to wait until 1954. Initially, WKAQ-TV was affiliated with CBS until 1967.<ref name="Broadcasting">[https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1967/1967-BC-YB.pdf Broadcasting Yearbook, 1967 p. 100]</ref> WKAQ began broadcasting in color in 1968. During the station's history, WKAQ-TV battled fiercely with WAPA-TV to become the highest-rated in Puerto Rico, in great part due to influence from Ramón Rivero (better known as Diplo), the most famous and influential comedian of Puerto Rico, who was under an exclusive contract with Ángel Ramos, and who, in 1954 produced the first comedy/variety show for WKAQ-TV, La Taberna India, followed by La Farándula Corona. During the 1970s and 1980s, WKAQ-TV (then branded as Telemundo Canal 2) was a major producer of Puerto Rican Spanish soap operas. The station was also known by its "fingers" logo, a bold number 2 with a left-handed silhouette raising two fingers, replacing the negative space within the "2" numeral, which was used from 1976 to 1992. During this time, it called itself "El canal de los dedos" ("The channel of the fingers"). WKAQ-TV has produced and broadcast recognized local shows such as El Show de las 12, La Gente Joven de Menudo, En Casa de Juanma y Wiwi, Los Kakucómicos, Teatrimundo, Musicomedia, El Show de Chucho, Telecine de la Noche con Manolo Urquiza, Noche de Gala, Estudio Alegre, La Pensión de Doña Tere, El Show de Nydia Caro, No te Duermas, Marcano El Show, Con lo que Cuenta este País, Videoteces, Súper Sábado, Fantástico, El Tío Nobel, Telecómicas, Al Grano con Zervigón, Ahora Podemos Hablar and Dame un Break. It also produced famous telenovelas such as El Hijo de Ángela María, Tomiko, Cristina Bazán, El Ídolo, Viernes Social, La Verdadera Eva, Rojo Verano, Modelos S.A., Coralito, and Tanairi. Professional Wrestling also aired as well such as the World Wrestling Council in the early 1980s, Americas Wrestling Federation in the early 1990s, International Wrestling Association (Puerto Rico) Impacto Total and Zona Caliente and WWF Shotgun Saturday Night and Metal (1998–2001). When Telemundo spun-off in 1987, the station started branding itself as "Telemundo Puerto Rico" (before, WKAQ-TV had branded itself as either "Telemundo" or just "Canal 2"). Since then, WKAQ-TV has since then become one of Telemundo's flagship stations, as well as the recognized original "Telemundo". It has been highly criticized that because of the station's affiliation to the Telemundo network, locally produced programming has been traded for "enlatados", or foreign Spanish programming such as Mexican and Venezuelan telenovelas. To avoid this criticism, in 2006, WKAQ-TV aired the first Puerto Rican written and produced telenovela in 15 years: Dueña y Señora. To the general population, WKAQ-TV is still known simply as "Telemundo", and it is branded as such to this day. In 2005, WKAQ-TV became a superstation when NBC Universal reformatted its entertainment-based subscription channel Telemundo Internacional into Telemundo Puerto Rico. The channel aired WKAQ-produced programs such as No te Duermas and TVO, as well as the station's news program, Telenoticias. Telemundo Puerto Rico was aimed at Puerto Ricans and other Caribbean communities living in the mainland United States. The superstation feed, however, was reverted to Telemundo Internacional in early 2008. On October 9, 2007, NBC Universal announced that they had put WKAQ-TV up for sale, following its acquisition of Oxygen Media. However, NBC Universal took the station off the market on December 21. On August 25, 2008, WKAQ-TV, in co-production with the Telemundo network, launched the morning news and lifestyle show Levántate from its San Juan studios. The station also began to air a local teen drama series, Zona Y, which achieved success in the Puerto Rican teen market. On April 23, 2009, WKAQ-TV became the first commercial station in Puerto Rico to begin broadcasting its programming in high definition with its telecast of the Billboard Latin Music Awards. On June 28, 2019, WKAQ-TV entered into an agreement with Hemisphere Media Group (owner of WAPA-TV, channel 4) to broadcast Telemundo on subchannels of WTIN-TV in Ponce and WNJX-TV in Mayagüez, after WORA-TV announced that it would disaffiliate from the network by December 31. Telemundo will rebroadcast the main signal on its 24-hour schedule, except on Sundays, if WAPA chooses, and its multicast channel Punto 2 on digital subchannels 2.11 / 2.12 and 2.21 / 2.22. The new stations will use the Telemundo West branding. Liberty–NBCU carriage dispute On April 4, 2019, at 6 p.m., NBCUniversal became involved in a retransmission consent dispute with Liberty, resulting in the removal of WKAQ-TV and NBCUniversal's cable networks from Liberty's Puerto Rico channel lineup. WKAQ and the NBCU cable networks were restored on April 7, after the two sides reached a new agreement. Digital television Digital channels The station's digital signal is multiplexed: Analog-to-digital conversion WKAQ-TV shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 2, on June 12, 2009, the official date in which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 28. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 2. News operation WKAQ-TV currently broadcasts 27½ hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with five hours each on Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays; 4½ hours on Tuesdays; and 1½ hours each on Saturdays and Sundays). Telenoticias is the name of WKAQ-TV's newscasts created by Evelio Otero, its first news anchor and original announcer when Telemundo went on the air. Otero proposed the name to Ángel Ramos, who approved it on the spot. The newscast began in 1954 and it was the first local television program in Puerto Rico. In the 1960s, a renewed edition of Telenoticias began with different anchors. For more than twenty years, Telenoticias only had two editions: an early evening newscast at 5 p.m. and a late evening newscast at 11 p.m. However, in 2002, a weekend edition was introduced, which (like its weekday counterparts) aired at 5 and 11 p.m. In 2003, the station debuted a weekday morning newscast called Telemundo por la Mañana with Charito Fraticelli, Silverio Pérez, Lourdes Collazo, Miguel Ramos and panel experts. In the 1990s, Telenoticias used "Telemundo 1992 News Theme" as the main theme music for its newscasts; this was replaced later by "Telemundo News Theme." In 2005, the newscasts began to use the production theme "Raw Power" from Network Music. In 2006, as part of the "NBC Universal 2.0" restructuring, WKAQ-TV laid off 60 to 80 staffers, including some Telenoticias anchors and reporters. In addition, the morning, midday and weekend editions of Telenoticias were canceled. On January 8, 2007, Telenoticias debuted a new set, new graphics and new music. In September 2011, NBCUniversal announced that it would relaunch the 11 a.m. and weekend evening editions of Telenoticias in early 2012, as a condition by the FCC to approve the sale of a controlling stake in the company to Philadelphia-based cable provider and telecommunications company Comcast, requiring NBCUniversal's NBC and Telemundo owned-and-operated stations to increase the amount of locally produced programming. On May 29, 2014, just months after cancellation of Univision Puerto Rico's weekend newscast, WKAQ-TV announced it was going to bring back the weekend newscast. Then on May 31, a weekend newscast premiered, titled Telenoticias Fin de semana. Hoy Día Puerto Rico In December 2020, WKAQ announced that it would be relaunching its morning news operation with the launching of a new morning program set to debut in February 2021. On January 5, 2021, it was announced that Ivonne Orsini and Ramon "Gato" Gomez, who at the time worked with rival station WAPA, would be jumping to Telemundo to host the morning show. On January 13, 2021, it was announced that Orisini and Gomez would also be joined by former Senator Zoe Laboy (who at the time was also working at WAPA) for a political analysis segment. Finally, on January 19, 2021, during an interview with Día a Día, it was announced that weekend anchor Grenda Rivera and meteorologist Elizabeth Robaina would also be joining the show to host a news segment and a weather/traffic segment respectively. During this interview it was also revealed the show would be title Hoy Día Puerto Rico (utilizing the same brand of the national Telemundo morning show) and that it would have a magazine style format running from 8 to 10 a.m. on weekdays.Hoy Día Puerto Rico premiered on February 15, 2021, emanating live from the Sandra Zaiter Studio (Studio 8) at WKAQ-TV. The inaugural broadcast featured a special interview with Puerto Rican Governor Pedro Pierluisi and the introduction of special contributors Desiree Lowry and Suzette Baco who would be returning with recurring weekly segments on the broadcasts. Notable current on-air staff José Esteves – general assignment reporter Zugey Lamela – anchor/reporter Raymond Arrieta – Día a Día, Raymond y sus Amigos Carlos Díaz Olivo – political analyst Dagmar – Día a Día Nelson del Valle - Día a Día Alexandra Fuentes – Alexandra a las 12 Monica Pastrana – Raymond y sus Amigos Alejandro García Padilla – political analyst Thomas Rivera Schatz - political analyst Zoe Laboy – political analyst Hoy Día Puerto Rico Manuel Natal Albelo - political analyst Juan Dalmau - political analyst Ivonne Orsini – host Hoy Día Puerto Rico René Monclova – Raymond y sus AmigosNotable former on-air staff Aníbal González Irizarry (deceased) Ramón Enrique Torres (now at WTCV) Johanna Rosaly Silverio Pérez Junior Abrams Jay Fonseca (now at WAPA-TV) Translator stations WKAQ-TV can be seen across Puerto Rico on the following stations: Problems and possible Telemundo integration Since the beginning of the Telemundo network, WKAQ had been operated semi-independently from the network. This allowed the station to continue to focus on local productions, with network programming utilized as filler. This had often led to Telemundo network programs not airing on the same timeframe as on the mainland, with telenovelas often falling months behind. However, years of declining ratings and local cancellations have led to unconfirmed rumors and speculation that WKAQ may become a standard Telemundo station, dropping all local programming except for Telenoticias. WKAQ's problems began during the early 2000s, when its ratings declined significantly, mostly due to the entrance of Univision into the Puerto Rican market through WLII. Since then, local shows produced by WKAQ, such as El Gran Bejuco and Dame Un Break, that competed against Univision network offerings have slipped in the ratings, as viewers turned away from WKAQ in favor of Univision. As WKAQ's ratings continued to decline, the station began laying off staff, including Paquito Cordero, one of the most prominent producers on Puerto Rican television. His layoff led to the cancellation of El Show de las Doce, the oldest program in Puerto Rican television outside of local news programming. Many other local programs have also been canceled since then, replaced with Telemundo network programming. Currently, WKAQ has very few non-news local programming remaining. The most recent local program to be canceled was No te Duermas, the second longest-running local program after El Show de las Doce. The few attempts made at new, locally produced programming have achieved little success, often being canceled after only a few months. Nevertheless, the station has recently become the leading station on the island in terms of viewership against WLII and WAPA, with its telenovela block dominating in the 7 to 10 p.m. time period. Additionally, since January 2009, WKAQ has aired Lost on weeknights at 10:00 p.m., leading that time slot. Also, Día a Día has seen an increase in viewership in its 11:00 a.m. time slot, and a local teen drama Zona Y has been a great success in the teen market in Puerto Rico. WKAQ also regained the rights to the local Miss Universe pageant, after the Miss Universe organization dismissed Magali Febles as the owner to the franchise. The organization named Luisito Vigoreaux, Desiree Lowry, and Telemundo Puerto Rico in charge of the pageant. Telemundo kept some elemental concepts, but a more direct approach is gained. (The rights to Miss Universe Puerto Rico would be eventually lost to WAPA in April 2015.) On January 12, 2010, a new gossip show named Dando Candela began airing, with some members from WLII's former Anda Pal Cará section "El Avispero". Alexandra Fuentes, Saudi Rivera, Papo Brenes, and Harold Rosario, along with producer Soraya Sánchez, moved to Telemundo after being fired by Univision. In the premiere show, Pedro Juan Figueroa (formerly of Hector Marcano's Qué Suerte, and now at Lo Sé Todo from WAPA-TV) joined the show. It has had some controversy, but the program helped WKAQ compete with WAPA-TV's gossip show SuperXclusivo (featuring former Telemundo talent Kobbo Santarrosa and his puppet La Comay). After over 10 years on the air, Dando Candela was canceled in March 2020 due to production issues brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic. Return to local programming After years struggling to compete with rival WAPA and the possibility of undergoing a full integration with the mainland feed of Telemundo, WKAQ-TV has managed to return to producing local programming which in turn has lifted the channel from obscurity. As of March 2021, WKAQ-TV produces 10½ hours daily of local programming on Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays; while on Tuesdays, the station produces 12½ hours of local programming. Some of the current shows include Hoy Dia Puerto Rico, Dia a Dia, Raymond y Sus Amigos and local newscasts Telenoticias which expanded to two hours in January 2020 and positioned itself as the leading newscast in Puerto Rico beating WAPA's NotiCentro in the same timeslot. Current WKAQ-TV local programmingHoy Dia Puerto Rico: Morning show hosted by Ivonne Orsini and Ramon "Gato" Gomez airing weekdays at 8am.Telenoticias: Local Newscasts airing at 11am, 4pm, 5pm and 10pm on weekdays, 11pm on tuesdays and 5pm and 10pm on weekends. Alexandra a las 12: Daily talk show hosted by Alexandra Fuentes airing weekdays at 11:30 am. Día a Día con Raymond y Dagmar: Afternoon variety show featuring interviews and sketches hosted by Raymond Arrieta, Dagmar and Gil Marie Lopez airing weekdays at 1pm. Puerto Rico Gana (Puerto Rico Wins): Game show hosted by Alex DJ airing Sundays, Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays at 6pm. Raymond y Sus Amigos (Raymond and Friends): Sketch comedy show hosted by Raymond Arrieta airing Tuesdays at 8pm.Rayos X (X Rays) (Formerly Jay y sus Rayos X): Investigative journalism program featuring political analysis, airing Tuesdays at 10pm. Initially hosted by Jay Fonseca until his exit from the station in 2021. References Doña Bárbara arrasa en la encuesta de Media Fax Primera Hora'' - June 28, 2009 External links Mass media in San Juan, Puerto Rico Television pioneers KAQ-TV Television channels and stations established in 1954 1954 establishments in Puerto Rico Telemundo Station Group NBC network affiliates	[ -0.035934917628765106, -0.3526131212711334, 0.2410590946674347, -0.28701865673065186, 0.08439785242080688, 0.1583642214536667, 0.6884162425994873, 0.03861622139811516, 0.15475159883499146, -0.19202056527137756, 0.012442130595445633, 0.7231705188751221, -0.5911681056022644, -0.16345959901809692, -0.5324311852455139, 0.5650147199630737, 0.7533465027809143, 0.5673568248748779, 0.3622002601623535, -0.8299670815467834, -0.3178713321685791, -0.19891729950904846, 0.4974696934223175, 0.5816299915313721, -0.3734584450721741, 0.17794129252433777, 0.4394800066947937, 0.4254603981971741, 0.10625049471855164, 0.3969060480594635, 0.10692134499549866, 0.09939123690128326, 0.38708189129829407, 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238196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20heron	Grey heron	The grey heron (Ardea cinerea) is a long-legged wading bird of the heron family, Ardeidae, native throughout temperate Europe and Asia and also parts of Africa. It is resident in much of its range, but some populations from the more northern parts migrate southwards in autumn. A bird of wetland areas, it can be seen around lakes, rivers, ponds, marshes and on the sea coast. It feeds mostly on aquatic creatures which it catches after standing stationary beside or in the water or stalking its prey through the shallows. Standing up to tall, adults weigh from . They have a white head and neck with a broad black stripe that extends from the eye to the black crest. The body and wings are grey above and the underparts are greyish-white, with some black on the flanks. The long, sharply pointed beak is pinkish-yellow and the legs are brown. The birds breed colonially in spring in "heronries", usually building their nests high in trees. A clutch of usually three to five bluish-green eggs is laid. Both birds incubate the eggs for around 25 days, and then both feed the chicks, which fledge when 7-8 weeks old. Many juveniles do not survive their first winter, but if they do, they can expect to live for about 5 years. In Ancient Egypt, the deity Bennu was depicted as a heron in New Kingdom artwork. In Ancient Rome, the heron was a bird of divination. Roast heron was once a specially prized dish; when George Neville became Archbishop of York in 1465, 400 herons were served to the guests. Description The grey heron is a large bird, standing up to tall and measuring long with a wingspan. The body weight can range from . The plumage is largely ashy-grey above, and greyish-white below with some black on the flanks. Adults have the head and neck white with a broad black supercilium that terminates in the slender, dangling crest, and bluish-black streaks on the front of the neck. The scapular feathers are elongated and the feathers at the base of the neck are also somewhat elongated. Immature birds lack the dark stripe on the head and are generally duller in appearance than adults, with a grey head and neck, and a small, dark grey crest. The pinkish-yellow beak is long, straight and powerful, and is brighter in colour in breeding adults. The iris is yellow and the legs are brown and very long. The main call is a loud croaking "fraaank", but a variety of guttural and raucous noises is heard at the breeding colony. The male uses an advertisement call to encourage a female to join him at the nest, and both sexes use various greeting calls after a pair bond has been established. A loud, harsh "schaah" is used by the male in driving other birds from the vicinity of the nest and a soft "gogogo" expresses anxiety, as when a predator is nearby or a human walks past the colony. The chicks utter loud chattering or ticking noises. Taxonomy and evolution Herons are a fairly ancient lineage and first appeared in the fossil record in the Paleogene period; very few fossil herons have been found, though. By seven million years ago (the late Miocene), birds closely resembling modern forms and attributable to modern genera had appeared. Herons are members of the family Ardeidae, and the majority of extant species are in the subfamily Ardeinae and known as true or typical herons. This subfamily includes the herons and egrets, the green herons, the pond herons, the night herons, and a few other species. The grey heron belongs in this subfamily and is placed in the genus Ardea, which also includes the cattle egret and the great egret. The grey heron was first described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, who gave it the name Ardea cinerea. The scientific name comes from Latin ardea "heron", and cinerea , "ash-grey" (from cineris ashes). Four subspecies are recognised: A. c. cinerea – Linnaeus, 1758: nominate, found in Europe, Africa, western Asia A. c. jouyi – Clark, 1907: found in eastern Asia A. c. firasa – Hartert, 1917: found in Madagascar A. c. monicae – Jouanin & Roux, 1963: found on islands off Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania. It is closely related and similar to the North American great blue heron (Ardea herodias), which differs in being larger, and having chestnut-brown flanks and thighs, and to the cocoi heron (Ardea cocoi) from South America with which it forms a superspecies. Some authorities believe that the subspecies A. c. monicae should be considered a separate species. It has been known to hybridise with the great egret (Ardea alba), the little egret (Egretta garzetta), the great blue heron and the purple heron (Ardea purpurea). The Australian white-faced heron is often incorrectly called a grey heron. In Ireland, the grey heron is often colloquially called a "crane". Distribution and habitat The grey heron has an extensive range throughout most of the Palearctic realm. The range of the nominate subspecies A. c. cinerea extends to 70° N in Norway and 66°N in Sweden, but otherwise its northerly limit is around 60°N across the rest of Europe and Asia eastwards as far as the Ural Mountains. To the south, its range extends to northern Spain, France, central Italy, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Iraq, Iran, India, The Maldives and Myanmar (Burma). It is also present in Africa south of the Sahara Desert, the Canary Islands, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and many of the Mediterranean Islands. It is replaced by A. c. jouyi in eastern Siberia, Mongolia, eastern China, Hainan, Japan, and Taiwan. In Madagascar and the Aldabra Islands, the subspecies A. c. firasa is found, while the subspecies A. c. monicae is restricted to Mauritania and offshore islands. Over much of its range, the grey heron is resident, but birds from the more northerly parts of Europe migrate southwards, some remaining in Central and Southern Europe, others travelling on to Africa south of the Sahara Desert. The grey heron is also known to be vagrant in the Caribbean, Bermuda, Iceland, Greenland, the Aleutian Islands, and Newfoundland, with a few confirmed sightings in other parts of North America including Nova Scotia and Nantucket. Within its range, the grey heron can be found anywhere with suitable watery habitat that can supply its food. The water body needs to be either shallow enough, or have a shelving margin in it, which it can wade. Although most common in the lowlands, it also occurs in mountain tarns, lakes, reservoirs, large and small rivers, marshes, ponds, ditches, flooded areas, coastal lagoons, estuaries, and the sea shore. It sometimes forages away from water in pasture, and it has been recorded in desert areas, hunting for beetles and lizards. Breeding colonies are usually near feeding areas, but exceptionally may be up to away, and birds sometimes forage as much as from the nesting site. Behaviour The grey heron has a slow flight, with its long neck retracted (S-shaped). This is characteristic of herons and bitterns, and distinguishes them from storks, cranes, and spoonbills, which extend their necks. It flies with slow wing-beats and sometimes glides for short distances. It sometimes soars, circling to considerable heights, but not as often as the stork. In spring, and occasionally in autumn, birds may soar high above the heronry and chase each other, undertake aerial manoeuvres or swoop down towards the ground. The birds often perch in trees, but spend much time on the ground, striding about or standing still for long periods with an upright stance, often on a single leg. Diet and feeding Grey herons are apex predator in the aquatic ecosystems. Fish, amphibians, small mammals, and insects are taken in shallow water with the heron's long bill. It has also been observed catching and killing juvenile birds such as ducklings, and occasionally takes birds up to the size of a water rail. It may stand motionless in the shallows, or on a rock or sandbank beside the water, waiting for prey to come within striking distance. Alternatively, it moves slowly and stealthily through the water with its body less upright than when at rest and its neck curved in an "S". It is able to straighten its neck and strike with its bill very quickly. Small fish are swallowed head first, and larger prey and eels are carried to the shore where they are subdued by being beaten on the ground or stabbed by the bill. They are then swallowed, or have hunks of flesh torn off. For prey such as small mammals and birds or ducklings, the prey is held by the neck and either drowned, suffocated, having its neck snapped with the heron's beak or by being bludgeoned against the ground or a nearby rock, before being swallowed whole. The bird regurgitates pellets of indigestible material such as fur, bones and the chitinous remains of insects. The main periods of hunting are around dawn and dusk, but it is also active at other times of day. At night it roosts in trees or on cliffs, where it tends to be gregarious. Breeding This species breeds in colonies known as heronries, usually in high trees close to lakes, the seashore, or other wetlands. Other sites are sometimes chosen, and these include low trees and bushes, bramble patches, reed beds, heather clumps and cliff ledges. The same nest is used year after year until blown down; it starts as a small platform of sticks but expands into a bulky nest as more material is added in subsequent years. It may be lined with smaller twigs, strands of root or dead grasses, and in reed beds, it is built from dead reeds. The male usually collects the material, while the female constructs the nest. Breeding activities take place between February and June. When a bird arrives at the nest, a greeting ceremony occurs in which each partner raises and lowers its wings and plumes. In continental Europe, and elsewhere, nesting colonies sometimes include nests of the purple heron and other heron species. Courtship involves the male calling from his chosen nesting site. On the arrival of the female, both birds participate in a stretching ceremony, in which each bird extends its neck vertically before bringing it backwards and downwards with the bill remaining vertical, simultaneously flexing its legs, before returning to its normal stance. The snapping ceremony is another behaviour where the neck is extended forward, the head is lowered to the level of the feet, and the mandibles are vigorously snapped together. This may be repeated 20-40 times. When the pairing is settled, the birds may caress each other by attending to the other bird's plumage. The male may then offer the female a stick, which she incorporates into the nest. At this, the male becomes excited, further preening the female and copulation takes place. The clutch of eggs usually numbers three to five, though as few as two and as many as seven eggs have been recorded. The eggs have a matt surface and are greenish-blue, averaging . The eggs are normally laid at two-day intervals and incubation usually starts after the first or second egg has been laid. Both birds take part in incubation and the period lasts about 25 days. Both parents bring food for the young. At first, the chicks seize the adult's bill from the side and extract regurgitated food from it. Later, the adult disgorges the food at the nest and the chicks squabble for possession. They fledge at 7-8 weeks. Usually, a single brood is raised each year, but two broods have been recorded. The oldest recorded bird lived for 23 years, but the average life expectancy in the wild is about 5 years. Only about a third of juveniles survive into their second year, many falling victim to predation. City life Grey herons have the ability to live in cities where habitats and nesting space are available. In the Netherlands, it has established itself over the past decades in great numbers in urban environments. In cities such as Amsterdam, they are ever present and well adapted to modern city life. They hunt as usual, but also visit street markets and snackbars. Some individuals make use of people feeding them at their homes or share the catch of recreational fishermen. Similar behaviour on a smaller scale has been reported in Ireland. Garden ponds stocked with ornamental fish are attractive to herons, and may provide young birds with a learning opportunity on how to catch easy prey. Herons have been observed visiting water enclosures in zoos, such as spaces for penguins, otters, pelicans, and seals, and taking food meant for the animals on display. Predators and parasites Being large birds with powerful beaks, grey herons have few predators as adults, but the eggs and young are more vulnerable. The adult birds do not usually leave the nest unattended, but may be lured away by marauding crows or kites. A dead grey heron found in the Pyrenees is thought to have been killed by an otter. The bird may have been weakened by harsh winter weather causing scarcity of its prey. A study suggested that Central European grey herons host 29 species of parasitic worms. The dominant species consisted of Apharyngostrigea cornu (67% prevalence), Posthodiplostomum cuticola (41% prevalence), Echinochasmus beleocephalus (39% prevalence), Uroproctepisthmium bursicola (36% prevalence), Neogryporhynchus cheilancristrotus (31% prevalence), Desmidocercella numidica (29% prevalence), and Bilharziella polonica (5% prevalence). Juvenile grey herons were shown to host fewer species, but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adult herons. Of the digenean flatworms found in Central European grey herons, 52% of the species likely infected their definitive hosts outside Central Europe itself, in the premigratory, migratory, or wintering quarters, despite the fact that a substantial proportion of grey herons does not migrate to the south. In human culture In Ancient Egypt, the bird deity Bennu, associated with the sun, creation, and rebirth, was depicted as a heron in New Kingdom artwork. In Ancient Rome, the heron was a bird of divination that gave an augury (sign of a coming event) by its call, like the raven, stork, and owl. Roast heron was once a specially prized dish in Britain for special occasions such as state banquets. For the appointment of George Neville as Archbishop of York in 1465, 400 herons were served to the guests. Young birds were still being shot and eaten in Romney Marsh in 1896. Two grey herons feature in a stained-glass window of the church in Selborne, Hampshire. The English surnames Earnshaw, Hernshaw, Herne, and Heron all derive from the heron, the suffix -shaw meaning a wood, referring to a place where herons nested. References External links grey heron grey heron Birds of Africa Birds of Eurasia grey heron grey heron Articles containing video clips Birds of Nepal ga:Corr réisc	[ 0.20712065696716309, 0.028706392273306847, -0.5489895939826965, -0.4055137038230896, 0.039068713784217834, 0.8384622931480408, 0.4391155242919922, 0.6738613843917847, -0.9598506689071655, -0.2381923943758011, -0.2959024906158447, 0.014792149886488914, -0.47575104236602783, 0.07803139835596085, -0.2774278521537781, 0.7067233920097351, 0.024313049390912056, 0.3479664623737335, 0.8208897709846497, -0.69081711769104, -0.3215782642364502, -0.5691322684288025, 0.041421081870794296, -0.549111008644104, 0.19773328304290771, 0.05588056892156601, 0.4241286814212799, 0.5065927505493164, -0.09740520268678665, 0.24956202507019043, 0.31950101256370544, 0.39180731773376465, 0.4833100736141205, 0.19181397557258606, 0.3194747865200043, -0.04256412386894226, -0.08638889342546463, -0.4000709056854248, -0.4153755009174347, 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238198	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhoda	Rhoda	Rhoda is an American television sitcom created by James L. Brooks and Allan Burns starring Valerie Harper that originally aired on CBS for five seasons from September 9, 1974, to December 9, 1978. The first spin-off of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Harper reprised her role as Rhoda Morgenstern, a spunky and flamboyantly fashioned young woman seen as unconventional by the standards of her Jewish family from New York City. Rhoda begins as the character returns to New York where she soon meets and marries Joe Gerard (David Groh). The series' third season chronicled the characters' separation and Rhodas later seasons revolved mainly around the character's misadventures as a single divorcée. Main co-stars included Julie Kavner as Rhoda's sister Brenda alongside Nancy Walker as their mother Ida Morgenstern. Other co-stars throughout the series included Lorenzo Music as Rhoda and Brenda's scarcely seen doorman Carlton, Harold Gould as their father Martin Morgenstern, Ron Silver as their neighbor Gary Levy, Ray Buktenica as Brenda's boyfriend and later fiancé Benny Goodwin, and Kenneth McMillan as Rhoda's boss Jack Doyle. A large ratings success during its first two seasons, Rhoda'''s viewership suffered following the creative decision to dissolve the marriage of Rhoda and Joe as series creators Brooks and Burns believed that the title character had lost her "edge" as a married woman. The series' later seasons failed to recapture the commercial success it had initially enjoyed and CBS ultimately cancelled Rhoda midway through its fifth season in 1978, leaving several unaired episodes that later appeared in syndication. Rhoda was the recipient of two Golden Globe Awards and two Primetime Emmy Awards, and was filmed Friday evenings in front of a live studio audience at CBS Studio Center, Stage 14 in Studio City, Los Angeles, California. Synopsis The series opens with the pilot episode featuring Rhoda Morgenstern traveling from her home in Minneapolis to New York City, where she was born and raised, for a two-week vacation, staying with her younger sister, Brenda (Julie Kavner). While there, she meets Joe Gerard (David Groh), a handsome divorcé who owns a wrecking company and has a ten-year-old son, Donny, whom Brenda babysits. Following Brenda's prompting, Rhoda and Joe meet and develop an instant attraction to each other which leads to their dating nightly for the duration of her vacation. After an argument about their feelings for each other, Joe asks Rhoda to stay in New York City, which she does, initially moving in with Brenda at 332 E. 64th Street (however, actual exterior shots are of 332 East 84th Street, between 1st and 2nd Avenues on the southeast end of the block). Brenda, a bank teller, is an insecure person with low self-esteem with dating problems, similar to how Rhoda herself had experienced difficulty in dating in Minneapolis in the early years of The Mary Tyler Moore Show. The first episode of Season 1, entitled "Joe", aired on CBS on Monday, September 9, 1974, at 9:30 PM. and immediately set a record by being the first and only (at the time) television series ever to achieve a number-one Nielsen rating for its premiere pilot episode, defeating the ABC ratings juggernaut, Monday Night Football in the process. Rhoda and Brenda soon realize that the small studio apartment can't hold them both, so Rhoda moves in with their parents Ida (Nancy Walker) and Martin (Harold Gould) at their apartment in The Bronx. Ida and Martin are the stereotypical Jewish parents. Ida is overbearing, overprotective, benevolently manipulative, and desperate to ensure her daughters find good husbands. Martin is her dutiful, mild-mannered husband. Ida initially goes to great lengths to baby her daughter. When it becomes apparent Rhoda is sliding into a rut by occupying her childhood bedroom, Ida forces her to move out for her own good. As the weeks go by, the relationship between Joe and Rhoda quickly blossoms. By the sixth episode, "Pop Goes the Question", an insecure Rhoda asks Joe where their relationship is heading. His response is to invite Rhoda to move in with him. After some careful thought, and consultation with her sister and father, Rhoda accepts Joe's invitation, but within minutes of moving in decides that rather than living together out of wedlock she prefers to be married. Rhoda attempts to convince Joe that they are very compatible and would be a happily married couple. After some hesitation, Joe agrees and a wedding is planned. Rhoda's wedding Eight weeks into the series on Monday, October 28, 1974, Rhoda and Joe were married in a special hour-long episode which broke several television records. Heavily publicized, it became the highest-rated television episode of the 1970s, a record it held until the miniseries Roots claimed that title in 1977. Additionally, on the night of its airing it had become the second most-watched television episode of all time, surpassed only by the birth of Little Ricky on I Love Lucy in 1953. It was watched by more than 52 million Americans, over half of the US viewing audience. At the conclusion of the episode, Monday Night Football host Howard Cosell joked on ABC that he had not been invited to the wedding, and welcomed viewers back to the game. Hundreds of "wedding parties" were held by fans across the United States on the night of the episode to celebrate the television wedding, and within days the CBS-TV studios were inundated with wedding gifts sent in by fans for the fictional Joe and Rhoda Gerard. The episode was overwhelmingly praised by critics, widely touted as a "television phenomenon", "unlike anything that had happened on television for nearly twenty years", and garnered Harper her fourth Emmy award in 1975. Vogue magazine reported that people across the country had pulled off the road checking into motels, and friends canceled dinner invitations (feigning illness), just to watch Rhoda's wedding. The wedding episode featured guest appearances by many of the main characters from The Mary Tyler Moore Show, including Mary Richards (Mary Tyler Moore), Lou Grant (Edward Asner), Murray Slaughter (Gavin MacLeod), Georgette Franklin (Georgia Engel), and Phyllis Lindstrom (Cloris Leachman). The only major characters who didn't attend were Ted Baxter (Ted Knight) and Sue Ann Nivens (Betty White). In The Mary Tyler Moore Show episode "The New Sue Ann", airing Saturday, October 26, 1974, two days before "Rhoda's Wedding", the characters frequently discuss the upcoming event and buy wedding gifts. At the end of the episode Murray and Lou leave the TV station to drive Mary to the airport. During "Rhoda's Wedding" it is revealed that on a lark Lou and Murray decided to fly to New York with Mary to surprise Rhoda; her frequent nemesis, Phyllis, who intentionally had not been invited, nonetheless flew in for the wedding, and Mary and Rhoda's friend, Georgette, who drove from Minneapolis. During the episode, Phyllis asks for the opportunity to participate in the wedding and is appointed the responsibility to pick up Rhoda at Brenda's Manhattan apartment and drive her to her parents' apartment in the Bronx where the ceremony is being held. The self-absorbed and forgetful Phyllis neglects to keep her promise. This forces Rhoda to take the subway, running through the streets of Manhattan and the Bronx fully regaled in her wedding dress and veil and dashing into her parents' apartment building in one of the most memorable moments in the history of series television. In a state of shock, Ida refuses Phyllis's profuse apologies saying "I'll kill you". Phyllis begs everyone in the room to forgive her, but the only one who does is Georgette, who then suggests to Phyllis that she leave before Rhoda arrives. The episode also features special closing credits, showing additional footage of Rhoda (Harper) running down a Manhattan street in her wedding dress and veil accompanied by an alternative version of the theme song played to the tune of Mendelssohn's Wedding March. Developments Seasons 1 and 2 (1974–1976) For the remainder of the first and second seasons, the show focuses on Rhoda and Joe's new married life. The two move into a penthouse suite in the same building as Brenda. Rhoda advances in her career as a window dresser by opening up a small window dressing business called "Windows by Rhoda" with her old high school friend Myrna Morgenstein (Barbara Sharma). Rhoda uses her own maiden surname "Morgenstern" in her professional dealings as a window dresser and her married surname "Gerard" in her personal life. During this period, the show was a massive ratings hit on Monday nights, staying near the top of the ratings in both seasons, even faring better than its parent, The Mary Tyler Moore Show. In early seasons, the closing credits of the series featured Rhoda on a New York street trying to imitate Mary Tyler Moore's trademark hat toss, but the cap slips from Rhoda's hand before she can throw it. Upon moving from The Mary Tyler Moore Show to her own eponymous series, Rhoda's Jewish religious and ethnic background seemed to fade as she was no longer unique, and would be surrounded by a host of New Yorkers of different religions and ethnicities. Throughout the tenure of Rhoda Morgenstern's character being featured on The Mary Tyler Moore Show, her “Jewish-ness” was discussed on several episodes. Such episodes included: "Some of My Best Friends are Rhoda" from which the subject of anti-Semitism was covered; “Enter Rhoda’s Parents” from which Rhoda's parents renewed their wedding vows by a rabbi; and "A Girl's Best Mother Is Not Her Friend", in which Ida wanted to fix Mary up with an eligible bachelor, a man whom she'd deemed inappropriate for Rhoda, as he wasn't Jewish. This candid expression of “Jewish-ness” changed however when Rhoda was spun off in 1974. During the first season of Rhoda, the representation of Rhoda Morgenstern altered from her parent show to fit a more mainstream audience: she was trimmer, more confident, and less “Jewish”. Throughout the first season, there were scant references about Rhoda's “Jewish-ness”. Moreover, there was even a Christmas episode with no mention of the character's Jewish background entitled, "Guess What I Got You for the Holidays". Thus, the creation of Rhoda's own series stifled the representation of “Jewish-ness” – as Charlotte Brown, the executive producer of Rhoda, conveyed in an interview the display of “Jewish-ness”, “was just ‘set dressing’ – Ida's brisket, her plastic on the furniture". Ironically, although Harper and Walker achieved great popularity playing characters of the Jewish faith and ethnicity, in real life, neither actress was Jewish. In the first season of Rhoda, Mary Tyler Moore made five guest appearances as Mary Richards to help with the transition of Rhoda moving from Minneapolis to New York City, getting married, and establishing her new life. The episodes Moore appeared in were: the premiere episode "Joe"; the sixth installment "Pop Goes The Question"; the two-part hour- long episode "Rhoda's Wedding" – which also featured other characters from The Mary Tyler Moore Show such as Lou Grant (Edward Asner), Murray Slaughter (Gavin MacLeod), Georgette Franklin (Georgia Engel), and Phyllis Lindstrom (Cloris Leachman) – and the season finale "Along Comes Mary". During the second season, Moore made no appearances on Rhoda, but Valerie Harper and David Groh were briefly featured as Rhoda and Joe Gerard on The Mary Tyler Moore Shows eleventh installment of the sixth season "Mary Richards Falls in Love". Season 3 (1976–1977) In the first episode of the third season during a particularly dramatic scene Joe leaves Rhoda and the two remain separated for the entire season, with Groh appearing in only nine of the season's episodes. A few weeks later, they mutually agree to see a marriage counselor where Joe reveals to a stunned Rhoda that he had never wanted to be married, and that he married her only because she had pressured him into it after he had invited her to live with him. Audiences were equally stunned and deserted the program in droves. Although the producers believed the plot development was essential, the fan response to Rhoda and Joe's separation was overwhelmingly negative and hostile. CBS was inundated with thousands of angry letters protesting the plot development, "Rhoda" and "Joe" received sympathy cards and letters of condolence, with Groh later reporting that he had received hate mail for as much as a year after the season had ended. This sentiment would translate into a steep ratings decline during the course of the season and the show ranked #25 for the 1976–77 season (falling from #7 the year before). Though Ida appears in the opening episode ("The Separation"), both she and Martin are absent for the remainder of the season, explained as traveling across the country in an RV. In reality, Nancy Walker departed the program to headline two short-lived ABC series: The Nancy Walker Show, and Blansky's Beauties; and Harold Gould left to star in his own ABC show, The Feather and Father Gang. To help fill in the void left by Walker and Gould, the producers hired comedian Anne Meara as Rhoda's new friend, Sally Gallagher, a middle-aged divorcee who works as an airline stewardess. Viewers did not warm to Meara and her character lasted only one season. With Rhoda and Joe now separated, they soon move out of their apartment. Joe moves to another building while Rhoda trades apartments with downstairs neighbor Gary Levy (Ron Silver), a jean-store owner who soon strikes-up a platonic friendship with Rhoda. Stories initially center on Rhoda and Joe's attempts to work through their differences. As the season progresses, however, Joe is seen less frequently and episodes show Rhoda coping with her single status or feature Brenda themed stories. Ultimately, they never reconcile and Joe is never seen again after this season. Johnny Venture (Michael DeLano), a lounge singer, becomes an occasional suitor/friend whom Rhoda begrudgingly tolerates. Meanwhile, Brenda, no longer overweight but still with self-esteem problems, finally finds a steady boyfriend in enthusiastic roller-skater and toll-booth worker Benny Goodwin (Ray Buktenica), who is, initially, constantly assumed to be the son of great big band conductor/musician, Benny Goodman. She also occasionally dates neighbor Gary Levy as well as continuing her casual relationship with immature accordion player Nick Lobo. During the third season of Rhoda, Mary Tyler Moore made her final guest appearance as Mary Richards in the eighteenth installment "The Ultimatum". Also that year, Valerie Harper appeared as Rhoda, along with Cloris Leachman as Phyllis, on the final episode of The Mary Tyler Moore Show entitled "The Last Show". Season 4 (1977–1978) For the fourth season, Rhoda re-emerged with a new, slimmer look. (Before the season started, Valerie Harper went on a liquid protein diet, which was quite controversial at the time, and dropped 40 pounds.) Rhoda's divorce is finalized and she resumes use of her maiden name "Morgenstern" full-time (from this point on, neither her ex-husband, Joe Gerard, nor Rhoda's friend from the previous season, Sally Gallagher, are ever mentioned again). The show then centers on her role as a thirty-something divorcée, rarely dating and focusing on her career. Ida and Martin come home after a year's absence from their lengthy cross-country trip (in reality, both Nancy Walker's and Harold Gould's attempts at new series the previous year had failed). Brenda continues to date Gary Levy and Benny Goodwin, one more than the other. Meanwhile, Rhoda's career is undergoing a transition. Seeking a career change, she finds a job at the Doyle Costume Company. There she works for the gruff Jack Doyle (Kenneth McMillan), a man with similarities to Lou Grant. Season 4 ranked higher than season 3 in the ratings (finishing at #21 for the year), but Rhoda never regained the popularity it had achieved during its first two seasons on television. Season 5 (September–December 1978) In September, 1978, the show underwent additional changes for the fifth and final season. Rhoda sported a new longer frizzy-permed hairstyle, which she kept pulled back in a small ponytail for part of the season. Ida and Martin go through a separation of their own; Martin then goes to Florida to find himself. He returns after several episodes but Ida wants to be wooed back, leading to dating and other romantic rituals between the two. Brenda and Benny get engaged to be married, with their wedding planned for later in the season (though this would ultimately not happen, due to Rhoda's abrupt mid-season cancellation). Gary Levy does not return for this season; it is mentioned near the season's start episode 3 that he has moved to Chicago. A new co-worker, Tina Molinari (Nancy Lane), joins Rhoda and Jack at the costume shop, having appeared in several season 4 episodes as an employee at Gary's jeans store. At this time, the series, along with the Norman Lear sitcom Good Times, was moved to Saturday nights, with Rhoda airing at 8:00 P.M. and Good Times at 8:30 P.M. Competing against NBC's popular police series CHiPs, the ratings for both programs declined drastically. CBS canceled Rhoda in December 1978—midway through its fifth season—with four episodes remaining unaired, though these episodes later aired in syndication. The show ended its final season ranked at #95 out of 114 shows. Good Times was pulled from the CBS schedule in December and returned in the spring of 1979 on Wednesday nights at 8:30 P.M. It finished its sixth season, but its ratings did not improve, with the show ranked at #91. Within a few months, CBS also canceled it. Cast Main Valerie Harper– Rhoda Morgenstern Gerard Julie Kavner– Brenda Morgenstern David Groh– Joe Gerard (seasons 1–3) Nancy Walker– Ida Morgenstern (seasons 1–2, 4–5) Harold Gould– Martin Morgenstern (seasons 1–2, 4–5) Ron Silver– Gary Levy (seasons 3–4) Ray Buktenica– Benny Goodwin (seasons 3–5) Kenneth McMillan– Jack Doyle (seasons 4–5) Lorenzo Music– Carlton, the doorman (voice only) Recurring characters Carlton, the drunken doorman in Rhoda's building, is played by Lorenzo Music (who would later voice Garfield). He is often heard on the intercom, but almost never seen, only his arm occasionally appearing from doors. In the third-season episode "H-e-e-e-r-e's Johnny" he is seen from the back after hitching a cab ride with Rhoda and her friends, and in the episode "What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?" is shown dancing and conversing with Queenie Smith while wearing a gorilla mask. Ruth Gordon played Carlton's mother in the Season 2 episode "Kiss Your Epaulets Goodbye" Justin Culp, Joe's wrecking company field employee, is played by Scoey Mitchlll. Mae, the office bookkeeper at Joe's wrecking company, appears prominently in two episodes during the first season and is played by actress-comedian Cara Williams (of Pete and Gladys). Rhoda's girlfriends over the years include: Alice Barth (Candice Azzara); Myrna Morgenstein (Barbara Sharma), whom Rhoda had sat behind in high school when in alphabetical order in home room; Susan Alborn (Beverly Sanders), another friend from high school; and Sally Gallagher (Anne Meara), aka "Big Sally," a divorced airline stewardess who befriends Rhoda and accompanies her in the singles scene. (Meara's husband Jerry Stiller also appears in one episode as Sally's ex-husband.) Brenda's boyfriend in early episodes is accordionist Nick Lobo (Richard Masur). Lenny Fiedler, Brenda's third cousin whom she dates occasionally, is played by actor Wes Stern. Lenny appears frequently throughout the first two seasons. Sandy Franks, Brenda's friend and colleague at the bank at which she works, is played by actress Melanie Mayron. She is featured in a few episodes during the 1975–76 season. Shortly following her separation from Joe, Rhoda begins an on-again, off-again romance with conceited Las Vegas entertainer Johnny Venture (Michael Delano), who appeared in 11 episodes (1976–78). Joe's friend Charlie Burke (whom Rhoda finds annoying) is played by Valerie Harper's then-husband, actor Richard Schaal (who also appears in several episodes of The Mary Tyler Moore Show as at least three different characters and as a regular in the first season of Phyllis). Guest stars Actors featured in guest-starring roles on Rhoda include Robert Alda, René Auberjonois, Frank Converse, Norman Fell, Jack Gilford, Ruth Gordon, Eileen Heckart, Howard Hesseman, Judd Hirsch, Anne Jackson, Linda Lavin, Tim Matheson, Melanie Mayron, John Ritter, Doris Roberts, David Ogden Stiers, Jerry Stiller, Joan Van Ark, Vivian Vance, and Henry Winkler. Some, like Heckart and Vance, were well-known performers, while the appearance of others, like Mayron and Hesseman, preceded their own shows or roles that brought them to prominence. Syndication In 1979, Rhoda began airing in syndication to local stations, and was originally syndicated by Victory Television from 1979 to 1987. From 1981 to 1988, reruns of the show aired on WGN-TV in Chicago. In 1990, reruns of Rhoda aired on Ha!. In 1996, Nick at Nite began airing reruns of Rhoda. On July 8, 2013, Rhoda began airing on MeTV at 9:30PM Eastern Time. In the UK, it aired sporadically & in a late night, weekday slot on BBC1. Home media DVD releases On April 21, 2009, Shout! Factory released the first season of Rhoda on DVD in Region 1, which was the year of the show's 35th anniversary. The release also includes a "Remembering Rhoda" featurette, as well as the original one-hour version of "Rhoda's Wedding", as opposed to the two-part edited version that aired in syndication. 15 of the season's 24 episodes are the edited-for-syndication versions taken from poor quality masters, while the other 9 episodes (including the Wedding episode) are the unedited network versions. A review on DVDTalk also states some of the edited episodes being time compressed. Because the series premiere in the DVD set is the syndicated version, Mary Tyler Moore's appearance at the beginning of the episode is not included. However, the full version of the pilot can be viewed at The Paley Center for Media in New York and Los Angeles. Footage from the missing scene is even included in the end credits to the series premiere. Season two and Season three episodes were released unedited. Season four was released on September 21, 2010, as a Shout! Factory select title, available exclusively through their online store. Season 4 was re-released as a general retail release on August 15, 2017. Season five was released by Shout! Factory on October 17, 2017. ♦—Shout! Factory Exclusives title, sold exclusively through Shout's online store VHS releases A two-tape set, Rhoda—Volumes 1 & 2 containing two episodes on each cassette, was released by MTM Home Video in July 1992.The Very Best of Rhoda, a four-tape boxed-set containing the best episodes from each season, was released by MTM Home Video on April 28, 1998. Reception Ratings Awards Emmy Awards: Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series—Valerie Harper, 1975 Outstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series—Julie Kavner, 1978 Golden Globe Awards: Best TV Show, Musical/Comedy—1975 Best TV Actress, Musical/Comedy—Valerie Harper, 1975 Collectively, Rhoda garnered a total of 17 Emmy nominations and 7 Golden Globe nominations. Animated spin-off and cast reunions An animated TV pilot titled Carlton Your Doorman, a proposed spin-off of the Carlton, the doorman character (voiced by Lorenzo Music), was broadcast May 21, 1980 on CBS. Although the episode won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program, it was never picked up by the network as a series. Despite never having reunited in-character on a TV special or movie, some of the cast members of Rhoda have gotten together over the years on the following daytime talk-shows: On November 21, 1984, Valerie Harper, Julie Kavner and Nancy Walker reunited to reminisce about the series on the syndicated Hour Magazine (with Gary Collins) in which they hosted a week-long series dedicated to TV reunion shows. In May 1996, Valerie Harper, David Groh and Harold Gould (with a voice-over cameo from Lorenzo Music as Carlton, the Doorman) reunited on Sally Jessy Raphael to talk about the show's best moments as reruns of Rhoda began airing on Nick at Nite. Author Julius C. Burnett (author of "Rhoda Revisited"; see below) also appeared briefly in the segment. Interesting episodic facts from Burnett's book were used during a voiceover at the beginning of each episode of Nick at Nites reruns of the series. Books In 1975, Scholastic Books published All About "Rhoda", a non-fiction paperback about the development of the series and the character. The book features interviews with Harper and Groh, and 32 black-and-white photos. All About "Rhoda" was referenced in an episode of The Kids in the Hall during a sketch in which the character Buddy Cole (played by Scott Thompson) identified it as the book he would most want to have with him if he was stranded on a desert island. Julius C. Burnett wrote Rhoda Revisited'', which summarized the series (with a foreword by Valerie Harper) was released by Ju-Ju & Co. Entertainment LLC on December 21, 2010. References External links 1974 American television series debuts 1978 American television series endings 1970s American sitcoms American television spin-offs Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners CBS original programming English-language television shows Jewish comedy and humor Television series about Jews and Judaism Television series created by James L. 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238199	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%27s%20law	Henry's law	In physical chemistry, Henry's law is a gas law that states that the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure above the liquid. The proportionality factor is called Henry's law constant. It was formulated by the English chemist William Henry, who studied the topic in the early 19th century. In his publication about the quantity of gases absorbed by water, he described the results of his experiments: An example where Henry's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression, leading to decompression sickness. An everyday example is given by one's experience with carbonated soft drinks, which contain dissolved carbon dioxide. Before opening, the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide, at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. After the bottle is opened, this gas escapes, moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower, resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of the solution. Background Charles Coulston Gillispie states that John Dalton "supposed that the separation of gas particles one from another in the vapor phase bears the ratio of a small whole number to their interatomic distance in solution. Henry's law follows as a consequence if this ratio is a constant for each gas at a given temperature." Applications of Henry's law In production of carbonated beverages Under high pressure, solubility of increases. On opening the bottle to atmospheric pressure, solubility decreases and the gas bubbles are released from the liquid. For climbers or people living at high altitude Concentration of in the blood and tissues is so low that they feel weak and are unable to think properly, a condition called hypoxia. In underwater diving Gas is breathed at the ambient pressure which increases with depth due to the hydrostatic pressure. Solubility of gases increase at depth in accordance with Henry's law, so the body tissues take on more gas over time until saturated for the depth and vice versa. When ascending the diver is decompressed and the solubility of the gases dissolved in the tissues decreases accordingly. If the supersaturation is too great, bubbles may form and grow, and the presence of these bubbles can cause blockages in capillaries, or distortion in the more solid tissues which can cause damage known as decompression sickness. To avoid this injury the diver must ascend slow enough that the excess dissolved gas is carried away by the blood and released into the lung gas. Fundamental types and variants of Henry's law constants There are many ways to define the proportionality constant of Henry's law, which can be subdivided into two fundamental types: One possibility is to put the aqueous phase into the numerator and the gaseous phase into the denominator ("aq/gas"). This results in the Henry's law solubility constant . Its value increases with increased solubility. Alternatively, numerator and denominator can be switched ("gas/aq"), which results in the Henry's law volatility constant . The value of decreases with increased solubility. There are several variants of both fundamental types. This results from the multiplicity of quantities that can be chosen to describe the composition of the two phases. Typical choices for the aqueous phase are molar concentration (), molality (), and molar mixing ratio (). For the gas phase, molar concentration () and partial pressure () are often used. It is not possible to use the gas-phase mixing ratio () because at a given gas-phase mixing ratio, the aqueous-phase concentration depends on the total pressure and thus the ratio is not a constant. To specify the exact variant of the Henry's law constant, two superscripts are used. They refer to the numerator and the denominator of the definition. For example, refers to the Henry solubility defined as . Henry's law solubility constants H Henry solubility defined via concentration (Hcp) Atmospheric chemists often define the Henry solubility as . Here is the concentration of a species in the aqueous phase, and is the partial pressure of that species in the gas phase under equilibrium conditions. The SI unit for is mol/(m3·Pa); however, often the unit M/atm is used, since is usually expressed in M (1M = 1 mol/dm3) and in atm (1atm = 101325Pa). The dimensionless Henry solubility Hcc The Henry solubility can also be expressed as the dimensionless ratio between the aqueous-phase concentration of a species and its gas-phase concentration : . For an ideal gas, the conversion is where is the gas constant, and is the temperature. Sometimes, this dimensionless constant is called the water–air partitioning coefficient . It is closely related to the various, slightly different definitions of the Ostwald coefficient , as discussed by Battino (1984). Henry solubility defined via aqueous-phase mixing ratio (Hxp) Another Henry's law solubility constant is . Here is the molar mixing ratio in the aqueous phase. For a dilute aqueous solution the conversion between and is: , where is the density of water and is the molar mass of water. Thus . The SI unit for is Pa−1, although atm−1 is still frequently used. Henry solubility defined via molality (Hbp) It can be advantageous to describe the aqueous phase in terms of molality instead of concentration. The molality of a solution does not change with , since it refers to the mass of the solvent. In contrast, the concentration does change with , since the density of a solution and thus its volume are temperature-dependent. Defining the aqueous-phase composition via molality has the advantage that any temperature dependence of the Henry's law constant is a true solubility phenomenon and not introduced indirectly via a density change of the solution. Using molality, the Henry solubility can be defined as Here is used as the symbol for molality (instead of ) to avoid confusion with the symbol for mass. The SI unit for is mol/(kg·Pa). There is no simple way to calculate from , since the conversion between concentration and molality involves all solutes of a solution. For a solution with a total of solutes with indices , the conversion is: where is the density of the solution, and are the molar masses. Here is identical to one of the in the denominator. If there is only one solute, the equation simplifies to Henry's law is only valid for dilute solutions where and . In this case the conversion reduces further to and thus The Bunsen coefficient α According to Sazonov and Shaw, the dimensionless Bunsen coefficient is defined as "the volume of saturating gas, V1, reduced to T° = 273.15 K, p° = 1 bar, which is absorbed by unit volume V2* of pure solvent at the temperature of measurement and partial pressure of 1 bar." If the gas is ideal, the pressure cancels out, and the conversion to is simply , with = 273.15K. Note, that according to this definition, the conversion factor is not temperature-dependent. Independent of the temperature that the Bunsen coefficient refers to, 273.15K is always used for the conversion. The Bunsen coefficient, which is named after Robert Bunsen, has been used mainly in the older literature. The Kuenen coefficient S According to Sazonov and Shaw, the Kuenen coefficient is defined as "the volume of saturating gas V(g), reduced to T° = 273.15 K, p° = bar, which is dissolved by unit mass of pure solvent at the temperature of measurement and partial pressure 1 bar." If the gas is ideal, the relation to is , where is the density of the solvent, and = 273.15 K. The SI unit for is m3/kg. The Kuenen coefficient, which is named after Johannes Kuenen, has been used mainly in the older literature, and IUPAC considers it to be obsolete. Henry's law volatility constants KH The Henry volatility defined via concentration (K) A common way to define a Henry volatility is dividing the partial pressure by the aqueous-phase concentration: The SI unit for is Pa·m3/mol. The Henry volatility defined via aqueous-phase mixing ratio (K) Another Henry volatility is The SI unit for is Pa. However, atm is still frequently used. The dimensionless Henry volatility K The Henry volatility can also be expressed as the dimensionless ratio between the gas-phase concentration of a species and its aqueous-phase concentration In chemical engineering and environmental chemistry, this dimensionless constant is often called the air–water partitioning coefficient Values of Henry's law constants A large compilation of Henry's law constants has been published by Sander (2015). A few selected values are shown in the table below: Temperature dependence When the temperature of a system changes, the Henry constant also changes. The temperature dependence of equilibrium constants can generally be described with the van 't Hoff equation, which also applies to Henry's law constants: where is the enthalpy of dissolution. Note that the letter in the symbol refers to enthalpy and is not related to the letter for Henry's law constants. Integrating the above equation and creating an expression based on at the reference temperature = 298.15 K yields: The van 't Hoff equation in this form is only valid for a limited temperature range in which does not change much with temperature (around 20K of variations). The following table lists some temperature dependencies: Solubility of permanent gases usually decreases with increasing temperature at around room temperature. However, for aqueous solutions, the Henry's law solubility constant for many species goes through a minimum. For most permanent gases, the minimum is below 120 °C. Often, the smaller the gas molecule (and the lower the gas solubility in water), the lower the temperature of the maximum of the Henry's law constant. Thus, the maximum is at about 30 °C for helium, 92 to 93 °C for argon, nitrogen and oxygen, and 114 °C for xenon. Effective Henry's law constants The Henry's law constants mentioned so far do not consider any chemical equilibria in the aqueous phase. This type is called the intrinsic, or physical, Henry's law constant. For example, the intrinsic Henry's law solubility constant of formaldehyde can be defined as In aqueous solution, formaldehyde is almost completely hydrated: H2CO + H2O <=> H2C(OH)2 The total concentration of dissolved formaldehyde is Taking this equilibrium into account, an effective Henry's law constant can be defined as For acids and bases, the effective Henry's law constant is not a useful quantity because it depends on the pH of the solution. In order to obtain a pH-independent constant, the product of the intrinsic Henry's law constant and the acidity constant is often used for strong acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl): Although is usually also called a Henry's law constant, it is a different quantity and it has different units than . Dependence on ionic strength (Sechenov equation) Values of Henry's law constants for aqueous solutions depend on the composition of the solution, i.e., on its ionic strength and on dissolved organics. In general, the solubility of a gas decreases with increasing salinity ("salting out"). However, a "salting in" effect has also been observed, for example for the effective Henry's law constant of glyoxal. The effect can be described with the Sechenov equation, named after the Russian physiologist Ivan Sechenov (sometimes the German transliteration "Setschenow" of the Cyrillic name Се́ченов is used). There are many alternative ways to define the Sechenov equation, depending on how the aqueous-phase composition is described (based on concentration, molality, or molar fraction) and which variant of the Henry's law constant is used. Describing the solution in terms of molality is preferred because molality is invariant to temperature and to the addition of dry salt to the solution. Thus, the Sechenov equation can be written as where is the Henry's law constant in pure water, is the Henry's law constant in the salt solution, is the molality-based Sechenov constant, and is the molality of the salt. Non-ideal solutions Henry's law has been shown to apply to a wide range of solutes in the limit of infinite dilution (x → 0), including non-volatile substances such as sucrose. In these cases, it is necessary to state the law in terms of chemical potentials. For a solute in an ideal dilute solution, the chemical potential depends only on the concentration. For non-ideal solutions, the activity coefficients of the components must be taken into account: , where for a volatile solute; c° = 1 mol/L. For non-ideal solutions, the activity coefficient γc depends on the concentration and must be determined at the concentration of interest. The activity coefficient can also be obtained for non-volatile solutes, where the vapor pressure of the pure substance is negligible, by using the Gibbs-Duhem relation: By measuring the change in vapor pressure (and hence chemical potential) of the solvent, the chemical potential of the solute can be deduced. The standard state for a dilute solution is also defined in terms of infinite-dilution behavior. Although the standard concentration c° is taken to be 1 mol/l by convention, the standard state is a hypothetical solution of 1 mol/l in which the solute has its limiting infinite-dilution properties. This has the effect that all non-ideal behavior is described by the activity coefficient: the activity coefficient at 1 mol/l is not necessarily unity (and is frequently quite different from unity). All the relations above can also be expressed in terms of molalities b rather than concentrations, e.g.: where for a volatile solute; b° = 1 mol/kg. The standard chemical potential μm°, the activity coefficient γm and the Henry's law constant KH,b all have different numerical values when molalities are used in place of concentrations. Solvent mixtures Henry's law solubility constant for a gas 2 in a mixture M of two solvents 1 and 3 depends on the individual constants for each solvent, and according to: Where , are the molar ratios of each solvent in the mixture and a13 is the interaction parameter of the solvents from Wohl expansion of the excess chemical potential of the ternary mixtures. A similar relationship can be found for the volatility constant , by remembering that and that, both being positive real numbers, , thus: For a water-ethanol mixture, the interaction parameter a13 has values around for ethanol concentrations (volume/volume) between 5% and 25% . Miscellaneous In geochemistry In geochemistry, a version of Henry's law applies to the solubility of a noble gas in contact with silicate melt. One equation used is where C is the number concentrations of the solute gas in the melt and gas phases, β = 1/kBT, an inverse temperature parameter (kB is the Boltzmann constant), µE is the excess chemical potentials of the solute gas in the two phases. Comparison to Raoult's law Henry's law is a limiting law that only applies for "sufficiently dilute" solutions, while Raoult's law is generally valid when the liquid phase is almost pure or for mixtures of similar substances. The range of concentrations in which Henry's law applies becomes narrower the more the system diverges from ideal behavior. Roughly speaking, that is the more chemically "different" the solute is from the solvent. For a dilute solution, the concentration of the solute is approximately proportional to its mole fraction x, and Henry's law can be written as This can be compared with Raoult's law: where p* is the vapor pressure of the pure component. At first sight, Raoult's law appears to be a special case of Henry's law, where KH = p*. This is true for pairs of closely related substances, such as benzene and toluene, which obey Raoult's law over the entire composition range: such mixtures are called ideal mixtures. The general case is that both laws are limit laws, and they apply at opposite ends of the composition range. The vapor pressure of the component in large excess, such as the solvent for a dilute solution, is proportional to its mole fraction, and the constant of proportionality is the vapor pressure of the pure substance (Raoult's law). The vapor pressure of the solute is also proportional to the solute's mole fraction, but the constant of proportionality is different and must be determined experimentally (Henry's law). In mathematical terms: Raoult's law: Henry's law: Raoult's law can also be related to non-gas solutes. 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238202	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple%20heron	Purple heron	The purple heron (Ardea purpurea) is a wide-ranging species of wading bird in the heron family, Ardeidae. The scientific name comes from Latin ardea "heron", and purpureus, "coloured purple". It breeds in Africa, central and southern Europe, and southern and eastern Asia. The Western Palearctic populations migrate between breeding and wintering habitats whereas the African and tropical-Asian populations are primarily sedentary, except for occasional dispersive movements. It is similar in appearance to the more common grey heron but is slightly smaller, more slender and has darker plumage. It is also a more evasive bird, favouring densely vegetated habitats near water, particularly reed beds. It hunts for a range of prey including fish, rodents, frogs and insects, either stalking them or standing waiting in ambush. Purple herons are colonial breeders and build a bulky nest out of dead reeds or sticks close to the water' edge among reeds or in dense vegetation. About five bluish-green eggs are laid and are incubated by both birds. The young hatch about four weeks later and fledge six weeks after that. The International Union for Conservation of Nature notes that the global population trend is downwards, largely because of the drainage of wetlands, but assesses the purple heron's conservation status as being of "least concern". Description The purple heron is a large bird, in length with a standing height from and a wingspan. However, it is slender for its size, weighing only . It is somewhat smaller than the grey heron, from which it can be distinguished by its darker reddish-brown plumage, and, in adults, its darker grey back. Adults have the forehead and the crown of the head black, with a dark stripe down the back of the neck that terminates in a slender, dangling crest. This is shorter than the crest of the grey heron and does not exceed . The sides of the head and the neck are buffish chestnut, with dark streaks and lines down either side of the whole the neck. The mantle is oily brown and the upper scapular feathers are elongated but not the lower ones. The rest of the upper parts and the tail are brownish grey. The front of the neck is paler than the sides and there are some elongated feathers at the base of the neck which are streaked with white, chestnut and black. The breast is chestnut brown, with some blackening at the side, and the belly and under-tail coverts are black. The brownish-yellow beak is long, straight and powerful, and is brighter in colour in breeding adults. The iris is yellow and the legs are brown at the front and yellowish behind. The call is a harsh "frarnk", but is quieter and more high-pitched than that of the grey heron. It is generally a less noisy bird, though similar guttural sounds are heard emanating from the heronry. It is also less robust, and appears somewhat hollow-chested. Its head and neck are more slender and snake-like than the grey heron and its toes much longer. Unlike that bird, it often adopts a posture with its neck extending obliquely, and even nestlings tend to use this stance. Taxonomy There are three or four subspecies: A. p. purpurea – Linnaeus, 1766: nominate, found in Africa, Europe north to the Netherlands, and southwestern Asia east to Kazakhstan. A. p. bournei – de Naurois, 1966: Bourne's heron. Found in the Cape Verde Islands (included in purpurea by some authors, but treated as a distinct species Ardea bournei by some others). A. p. madagascariensis – van Oort, 1910: found in Madagascar. A. p. manilensis – Meyen, 1834: found in Asia from the Indian Subcontinent east to the Philippines and Indonesia, and north to Primorsky Krai, Russia. Distribution and habitat The purple heron has a mostly palaearctic distribution and breeds in Europe, Asia and Africa. The range of the western race extends from Portugal eastwards across much of central and southern Europe and parts of North Africa as far as Lake Balkhash in Kazakhstan. In Africa, the bird breeds in Senegal, down the east coast of Africa and in Madagascar. The eastern race extends from the Indian Subcontinent, eastwards to eastern China and the Philippines, and northwards to the basins of the Amur River and the Ussuri River at about 49°N. The southern race is restricted to Madagascar, and a small population of purple herons on the Cape Verde Islands is regarded as a separate race by some authorities. Between August and October, birds of the western population migrate southwards to tropical Africa, returning northwards in March. Purple herons often overshoot their normal range on their return, and are vagrants to northern Europe including Britain. The eastern population is largely resident, though some birds from the northern part of the range fly southwards to Korea, Thailand and Malaysia. The African birds are resident. The purple heron inhabits marshes, lagoons and lakes surrounded by dense vegetation. It may frequent mangrove swamps on the coast but it usually chooses freshwater habitats, particularly locations with reed beds (Phragmites). It also visits mudflats, river banks, ditches and canals. In the Cape Verde Islands, it is more likely to be seen in the open, on arid slopes. Behaviour Flight is slow, with the neck retracted and the legs extending a long way behind the tail. This is characteristic of herons and bitterns, and distinguishes them from storks, cranes and spoonbills, which extend their necks in flight. It is a secretive bird, spending less time out in the open than the grey heron and tending to skulk in reed beds. Its long toes mean it can walk on floating vegetation, and it sometimes walks over bushes in the same way, not making any attempt to grip the branches. It seldom perches in trees, preferring more terrestrial sites to rest. It is most active at dawn and dusk, roosting with other birds in the middle of the day and at night, but increasing its diurnal activity while rearing young. It feeds in shallow water, grabbing its prey with its powerful beak. It will often wait motionless for prey, or slowly stalk its victim. The diet consists mainly of fish, small mammals and amphibians, but nestling birds, snakes, lizards, crustaceans, water snails, insects and spiders are also eaten. Terrestrial beetles are the commonest insect prey, followed by water beetles and aquatic larvae, with grasshoppers, dragonflies, bees and flies also being consumed. The purple heron usually breeds in colonies but sometimes the nests are solitary. It sometimes associates with other species such as the goliath heron (Ardea goliath) or grey heron at multi-species nesting colonies. The site chosen is generally in reed beds, canebrakes or low bushes close to large lakes or other extensive wetlands. It builds a bulky nest of dead reeds, sticks or whatever is available, carelessly pulling the material together. The eggs are bluish-green, averaging . The clutch is usually four or five eggs, with occasionally seven or eight eggs being laid, though these large clutches may have resulted from two females laying in the same nest. The eggs are laid at intervals of three days, and incubation may begin with the first egg, or start when the clutch is complete. Both parents share the incubation, which lasts between 24 and 28 days, and the care of the young. When an adult brings food, its beak is dragged down by the chicks and it regurgitates food from the crop onto the nest, or the young may take food directly from the beak. The young fledge at about six weeks and become independent at two months. They then disperse widely. Status There are estimated to be a total of between 270,000 and 570,000 purple herons in the world and the population is probably decreasing slowly. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern" because the rate of decline is insufficient to justify rating it in a more threatened category. The chief threat the bird faces is drainage and disturbance of its wetland habitats, particularly destruction of the reed beds. The purple heron is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. References External links Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Purple Heron – The Atlas of Southern African Birds purple heron purple heron Birds of Africa Birds of Eurasia purple heron Birds of Nepal Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus	[ -0.03435468301177025, 0.003949854522943497, -0.8972297310829163, -0.09255284070968628, -0.1690983921289444, 0.900696337223053, 0.4246005713939667, 0.5575809478759766, -0.7167887687683105, -0.322709858417511, -0.19603338837623596, 0.21198780834674835, -0.5961877107620239, 0.1868560016155243, -0.13690818846225739, 0.687378466129303, -0.08570672571659088, 0.4365413188934326, 1.0485247373580933, -0.7397063970565796, -0.2556716501712799, -0.5641092658042908, 0.10223686695098877, -0.6136972904205322, 0.23313553631305695, 0.03325720131397247, 0.0675768032670021, 0.3284962475299835, 0.15532167255878448, 0.22240358591079712, 0.27800706028938293, 0.6643995046615601, 0.5621255040168762, 0.009906281717121601, 0.4705183804035187, 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238204	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an%27s%20Code	Dušan's Code	Dušan's Code (, Dušanov zakonik, known historically as Закон благовјернаго цара Стефана – Law of the pious Emperor Stefan) is a compilation of several legal systems that was enacted by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia in 1349. It was used in the Serbian Empire and the succeeding Serbian Despotate. It is considered an early constitution, or close to it; an advanced set of laws which regulated all aspects of life. Background On 16 April 1346 (Easter), Dušan convoked a huge assembly at Skopje, attended by the Serbian Archbishop Joanikije II, the Archbishop of Ochrid Nikolaj I, the Bulgarian Patriarch Simeon and various religious leaders of Mount Athos. The assembly and clerics agreed on, and then ceremonially performed the raising of the autocephalous Serbian Archbishopric to the status of Serbian Patriarchate. The Archbishop from then on was titled Serbian Patriarch, although one document called him Patriarch of Serbs and Greeks, with the seat at the Monastery of Peć. The first Serbian Patriarch Joanikije II now solemnly crowned Dušan as "Emperor and autocrat of Serbs and Romans" (Greek ). History The Code was promulgated at a state council on 21 May 1349 in Skopje, the capital of the Serbian Empire. The foreword is as follows: "We enact this Law by our Orthodox Synod, by His Holiness the Patriarch Kir Joanikije together with all the Archbishops and Clergy, small and great, and by me, the true-believing Emperor Stefan, and all the Lords, small and great, of this our Empire". In the Charter, which accompanied the Code, it said: "It is my desire to enact certain virtues and truest of laws of the Orthodox faith to be adhered to and observed". Emperor Dušan added a series of articles to it in 1353 or 1354, at a council in Serres. This second part was half the size and at times cited issues from the first part, referring it to the "first Code". It had a total of 201 articles. Four of them (79, 123, 152, 153), regarding various subjects, refers to the authority of the "Law of the Sainted King" (i.e. Stefan Uroš II Milutin of Serbia, r. 1282–1321, Dušan's grandfather), which suggests that Milutin had issued a code whose text has not survived. Dušan's Code was thus a supplement to Milutin's code, as well as a supplement to the various Church law codes that also had authority in Serbia; in particular the Nomocanon of Saint Sava (Zakonopravilo), enacted in 1219 with the establishment of the Serbian Orthodox Church and Serbian Kingdom. The Syntagma Canonum, written in 1335 by Matthew Blastares, had been translated into Serbian and had received legal authority by 1349, and its articles had influenced the text of the Code. Dušan's Code was heavily influenced by Byzantine law – nearly half of its articles reflect some influence, often modified for Serbia. The code had many articles concerning the Church, which reflects Byzantine Church law; Byzantine civil law codes, especially the late-9th-century compilation by Basil I and Leo VI, also influenced the code. Scholars A. Solovjev and Soulis conclude that the Council of 1349 issued a three-part comprehensive legal document, since most early manuscripts of the Code also contain two other texts: The first part was an abridgement of the Syntagma, the second part was the so-called "Code of Justinian" (a short compilation of Byzantine legal rules, mostly taken from the Farmer's Law, not to be confused with the Code that is part of the Corpus Juris Civilis), and the third part was always Dušan's Code itself. According to Fine, there is a possibility that the Code was written to supplement the first two parts, by adding items that were not covered, rather than to build a comprehensive legal system. Composition The first part, the Syntagma, was an encyclopedic legal collection, provided in alphabetical order. It drew from religious and secular law; ecclesiastical articles made up a majority of the Byzantine original. The version of Dušan's manuscripts contained only a third of the original Greek version; it omitted most of the ecclesiastical material and contained mainly secular articles; Serbia already had an ecclesiastical code in St. Sava's Nomocanon. The secular articles of the abridged Serbian version of the Syntagma were drawn chiefly from Basil I's law code and the Novella's of Emperors who succeeded him; they focused on laws governing contracts, loans, inheritance, marriage, dowries etc. as well as on matters of criminal law. The second part, the Law of Justinian, was actually a shortened version of the 8th-century Farmer's Law, a code settling problems and disputes among peasants within a village. The third part, Dušan's Code, added what was not covered in the other two parts and specific Serbian situations. Since aspects of civil and criminal law were well covered in the two parts, Dušan's articles concerned with public law and legal procedures. The Code also provided more material on actual punishments; in which there is a strong Byzantine influence, with executions and mutilations frequently replacing Serbia's traditional fines. It touched on crimes or insults and their punishment; settlement of civil suits (including ordeals and selection and role of juries); court procedure and judicial jurisdictions (defining which cases to be judged by which bodies among Church courts, the Emperor's court, courts of the Emperor's circuit judges, and judgement by a nobleman); and rights and obligations, including the right to freely carry out commerce (articles 120, 121), tax obligations (summary tax and timeframe to pay), grazing rights and their violation, service obligations to the Emperor, exemption from state dues (usually for the Church), obligations associated with land, and the obligation of the Church to perform charity. The code also defined the different types of landholding (specifying the various rights and obligations that went with various categories of land), the rights of inheritance, the position of slaves, and the position of serfs. It defined the labor dues serfs owed to their lords (article 68) but also gave them the right to lay plaint against their master before the Emperor's court (article l39). The code also noted the special privileges of foreign communities (e.g. the Saxons). Many articles regarded the Church's status, thus supplementing the existing canon law texts. The Church received a very privileged position, on the whole, though it was given the duty of charity in no uncertain terms: "And in all churches the poor shall be fed ... and should any one fail to feed them, be he Metropolitan, bishop, or abbot, he shall be deprived of his office" (article 28). The code also banned simony. A clear-cut separation of Church and state was established in most matters, allowing Church courts to judge the Church's people and prohibiting the nobility from interfering with Church property and Church matters. Dušan's Code did not look favorably upon the Catholic Church, though he, as his predecessors, was friendly and respectable to foreign Catholics (Saxons and coastal merchants). He referred to the Roman Catholic Church as the "Latin heresy" and to its adherents as "half believers." He prohibited proselytism by Catholics among the Orthodox, Orthodox conversions to Catholicism, and mixed marriages between Catholics and Orthodox unless the Catholic converted to Orthodoxy. He also had articles strongly penalizing "heretics" (Bogomils). Only the Orthodox were called Christians. The code defined and allowed court procedure, jurisdictions, and punishment to depend upon the social class of the individual involved, supporting the existing class structure. Articles touched on the status in society and in court of clergy, nobility, commoners, serfs, slaves, Albanians and Vlachs (the latter two for their pastoralist lifestyle, than for ethnic reasons), and foreigners. The Code also guaranteed the authority and income of the state; it contained articles on taxes, obligations associated with land, and services and hospitality owed to the Emperor and his agents. Greek, "Latin" or Italian, Ragusan, Bulgarian, Vlach, Albanian and Serbian merchants can freely trade without interference and in transit they are free to transfer their goods. The Code also maintained law and order, not limiting itself against crime and insults, but also gave responsibility to specific communities; it stated the existing custom that each territory was responsible and liable for keeping order; e.g. a frontier lord was responsible for defending his border: "if any foreign army come and ravish the land of the Emperor, and again return through their land, those frontier lords shall pay all [the people] through whose territory they [the army] came." (Article 49). The control of brigands, a constant problem in the Balkans, was also widely addressed in articles 126, 145, 146, 158 and 191. Article 145 says: "In whatsoever village a thief or brigand be found, that village shall be scattered and the brigand shall be hanged forthwith ... and the headmen of the village shall be brought before me [the Emperor] and shall pay for all the brigand or thief hath done from the beginning and shall be punished as a thief and a brigand." and continues in article 146, "also prefects and lieutenants and bailiffs and reeves and headmen who administer villages and mountain hamlets. All these shall be punished in the manner written above [article 145] if any thief or brigand be found in them." And article 126 states, "lf there be a robbery or theft on urban land around a town, let the neighborhood pay for it all." And finally article 158 requires that the localities bordering on an uninhabited hill jointly supervise that region and pay for damage from any robbery occurring there. Fine concludes that these articles demonstrate a weakness in the state's maintaining of order in rural and border areas, which caused it to pass responsibility down to local inhabitants, by threatening them with penalties, the state hoped to force the locality to assume this duty. Another reason for the strictness of the articles towards the locality was the belief that the brigand could not survive without local support, shelter, and food. Thus the brigand was seen as a local figure, locally supported, preying on strangers. As a result, the allegedly supporting locality shared his guilt and deserved to share the punishment. The strict articles were therefore intended to discourage a community from aiding brigands. The monarch had wide autocratic powers, but was surrounded and advised by a permanent council of magnates and prelates. The court, chancellery and administration were rough copies of those of Constantinople. The Code named the administrative hierarchy as following: "lands, cities, župas and krajištes", the župas and krajištes were one and the same, with the župas on the borders were called krajištes ("frontier march"). The župa consisted of villages, and their status, rights and obligations were regulated in the constitution. The ruling nobility possessed hereditary allodial estates, which were worked by dependent sebri, the equivalent of Greek paroikoi; peasants owing labour services, formally bound by decree. The earlier title of župan was abolished and replaced with the Greek kephale (kefalija, "head, master"). The legal transplanting is notable with the articles 171 and 172, which regulated juridical independence, taken from Basilika (book VII, 1, 16–17). Peasants Dušan's Code is one of few sources on the position of Serbia's peasants. Legacy The code continued as the constitution under the rule of Dušan's son, Stefan Uroš V, and during the fall of the Serbian Empire, it was used in all provinces. It was officially used in the successor state, Serbian Despotate, until its annexation by the Ottoman Empire in 1459. The code was used as a reference for Serbian communities under Turkish rule, which exercised considerable legal autonomy in civil cases. The code was used in the Serbian autonomical areas under the Republic of Venice, like Grbalj and Paštrovići. Noel Malcolm has argued that an article in Dušan's Code can be considered speculatively as an early attempt to clamp down on the self-administered Albanian customary law of the mountains (Kanun), and if so, this would be an early evidence that such customary laws were in effect. According to Serbian authors T. O. Oraovac and S. S. Djurić, Dušan's Code also served as the base of the Kanun of Lek Dukagjini, however, most scholars agree that, although there are some similarities between these two sets of law, that conclusion is far-fetched. Soon after the institution of Dušan's Code in Albanian life the Turkish invaders conquered the greater part of the Balkans, and instead of Dušan's Code customary law and several other patriarchal structures of social organisation were thereafter revived, in particular among the Albanians. The town of Shkodra had for example, before Dušan's Code, its own customary laws and rules (Statutes of Scutari). Dušan's Code regulated all social spheres, thus it is considered the second oldest preserved constitution of Serbia. The original manuscript is not preserved, but around twenty copies of the transcript, ranging from the 14th to the 18th century, remain. Manuscripts The Popović family from Dvorane, which generated 18 or 21 generations of village priests, were important in the preservation of medieval Serbian literature: they had the Charter of Our Lady of Ljeviš, written by Serbian King Stefan Dečanski (r. 1321–1331), in their direct property; the Russian consul in Prizren, Jastrebov, found it at the house of the last descendant of the family, Jovan Dvoranac Popović in Prizren, who gave it to the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. It is believed that one of the forefathers of the family was the elder of the Saint Archangels Monastery (Dušan's endowment) near Prizren, and that he during the Ottoman times managed to transfer the valuable texts to the church in his village of Dvorane. In 1779, priest Partenije Popović became a monk of the Saint Mark Koriški Monastery, to where he brought several important books. In 1859, Prizren teacher Nikola Musulin found the Dušan's Code there, and in 1860 the Saint Archangels Charter was found in the St. Nicholas Church in the village of Koriša. Today 24 manuscripts of Dusan's Code are known. The oldest extant is the Struga manuscript from 1373; which is not preserved in full; only 100 articles remain. The Athos and Studenica manuscripts date from around 1418. The Hilandar, Bistrica and Prizren manuscripts, which have the most complete texts, date to the 15th century. The Rakovac manuscript, dating to around 1700, comprises only the last 12 articles and the Emperor's comments. Quotes On the Law Further commandeth our Imperial Majesty: Should our Imperial Majesty write a letter Out of wrath, or out of love Or out of mercy for any one, And should such a letter contravene the Code And be at variance with the law and justice As set down in the Code, The judges Shall not comply therewith But shall judge And act withal as justice commandenth. On Poor Women Any poor woman unable to litigate Or defend herself shall choose an attorney Who shall speak on her behalf. The poorest hemp-spinstress shall be as free as a priest shall. On Prisoners Whoso escapeth from prison to the Imperial Court, be he a serf of the Crown, or of the Church, or of a nobleman, shall by the act itself be set free; should he be bearing any gifts for the man to whom he hath escaped, he shall return them to the man from whom he hath escaped. Whoso escapeth from the prison at our Imperial Court to the patriarchal court shall be set free; also shall be set free any man who escapeth from the patriarchal prison to the Imperial Court. Also, should any one give shelter to a man from a foreign land, and that man be a fugitive from his master or from justice holding our imperial letter of clemency, said letter shall not be contested; should he hold no such letter, he shall be returned wherefrom he hath escaped. See also Medieval Serbian law References Sources (Public Domain) Soloviev, Alexander Selected Monuments of Serbian Law from the 12th to 15th centuries (1926) Legislation of Stefan Dušan, Emperor of Serbs and Greeks (1928) Dušan's Code in 1349 and 1354 (1929) Golijan, Dragan, and Vladan Stanković. "Dušan’s Code-The Act Constitutional Nature And Foundation Of The Serbian State." International Journal of Economics & Law 13 (2015): 30–34. External links THE CODE OF SERBIAN TSAR STEPHAN DUSHAN, by Radoman Stankovic 1340s in law 1350s in law 14th century in Serbia Byzantine law Defunct constitutions Legal history of Serbia Medieval documents of Serbia Medieval legal codes Medieval legal codes of Serbia Medieval Serbia Serbian books Serbian Despotate Serbian Empire Serbian law Serbian manuscripts South Slavic manuscripts Stefan Dušan Feudalism in Serbia Cyrillic manuscripts 1349 in Europe	[ 0.038416940718889236, 0.32689738273620605, 0.07483310997486115, -0.26608186960220337, -0.012791317887604237, 0.4185916483402252, 0.8424344062805176, -0.6357375979423523, 0.106478750705719, -0.3583923578262329, 0.33086103200912476, 0.21808277070522308, -0.8138186931610107, -0.11770204454660416, -0.4069802463054657, 0.1704261302947998, 0.669326663017273, 0.15129026770591736, 0.07329190522432327, -0.2944590747356415, -0.3553290069103241, 0.29994088411331177, 0.1458711326122284, 0.17575691640377045, 0.3730214536190033, 0.15620772540569305, 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238209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltong	Biltong	Biltong is a form of dried, cured meat that originated in Southern African countries (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Namibia, Botswana and Zambia). Various types of meat are used to produce it, ranging from beef to game meats such as ostrich or kudu. The cut may also vary, either fillets of meat cut into strips following the grain of the muscle, or flat pieces sliced across the grain. It is related to beef jerky in that they are both spiced, dried meats; however, the typical ingredients, taste and production processes may differ. The word biltong is from the Dutch bil ("buttock") and tong ("strip" or "tongue"). Origins Meat preservation as a survival technique dates back to ancient times. European seafarers preserved meat for their long journeys by curing it in salt or brine. European settlers (Dutch, German, Portuguese, French) who arrived in southern Africa in the early 17th century used vinegar in the curing process, as well as saltpetre (potassium nitrate). The potassium nitrate kills Clostridium botulinum, the deadly bacterium that causes botulism, while the acidity of the vinegar inhibits its growth. According to the World Health Organization, C. botulinum will not grow in acidic conditions (pH less than 4.6); therefore the toxin will not be formed in acidic foods. The antimicrobial properties of certain spices have also been drawn upon since ancient times. The spices introduced to biltong by the Dutch include pepper, coriander, and cloves. In January 2017, a research group at the University of Beira Interior in Portugal published a study on the antimicrobial properties of coriander oil (coriander being one of the main spices in the most basic of biltong recipes) against 12 bacterial strains, and found that 10 of the 12 strains of bacteria were killed with a relatively mild concentration of coriander oil (1.6%). In the two strains that were not effectively killed, Bacillus cereus and Enterococcus faecalis, the coriander oil reduced their growth significantly. The need for food preservation in South Africa was pressing. Building up herds of livestock took a long time, but with game in abundance in South Africa, traditional methods were called upon to preserve the meat of large African animals, such as the eland, in the warm climate. Iceboxes and refrigerators had not been invented yet. Biltong as it is today evolved from the dried meat carried by wagon-travelling Voortrekkers, who needed stocks of durable food as they migrated from the Cape Colony north and north-eastward (away from British rule) into the interior of Southern Africa during the Great Trek. The meat was prepared with vinegar and spices then hung to be air-dried for a fortnight during the winter, when the colder temperatures further inhibited bacterial and fungal growth. Once suitably dried the biltong was ready for packing in cloth bags which allowed air circulation to help prevent mould. Ingredients The most common ingredients of biltong are: Meat Black pepper Coriander Salt Vinegar Modern-day ingredients sometimes added include: balsamic vinegar or malt vinegar, sugar, dry ground chili peppers, nutmeg, paprika, lemon juice, garlic, bicarbonate of soda, Worcestershire sauce, onion powder, and saltpetre. Meat Prior to the introduction of refrigeration, the curing process was used to preserve all kinds of meat in South Africa. However, biltong is most commonly made today from beef, primarily because of its widespread availability and lower cost relative to game. For the finest cuts, fillet, sirloin, or steaks cut from the hip, such as topside or silverside are used. Other cuts can be used, but are not as high in quality. Biltong can also be made from: Chicken, simply referred to as chicken biltong Fish in this case, known as bokkoms (shark biltong can also be found in South Africa). Bokkoms should not be confused with other cured fish such as dried angelfish and dried snoek. Game such as kudu, springbok and wildebeest Ostrich meat (bright red, often resembling game) Preparation Traditionally biltong was only made during the cold winter months when the risk of bacterial growth and mold would be at a minimum. Some recipes require the meat to be marinated in a vinegar solution (grape vinegar is traditional but balsamic and cider also work very well) for a few hours, then the vinegar is poured off before the meat is flavoured with salt and spices. The spice mix is sprinkled liberally over the meat and rubbed in. Saltpetre is optional and can be added as an extra preservative (necessary only for wet biltong that is not going to be frozen). The meat should then be left for a further few hours (or refrigerated overnight) and any excess liquid poured off before the meat is hung in the dryer. Other recipes, which were handed down from generation to generation, require the biltong to be left overnight in the vinegar, salt, and spice solution (between 12 and 24 hours). The spice mix traditionally consists of equal amounts of rock salt, whole coriander (slightly roasted), roughly ground black pepper, and brown sugar. The vinegar serves as a primary inhibitor of Clostridium botulinum bacteria, according to the World Health Organization, while the salt, coriander, pepper, and cloves all have antimicrobial properties. Drying Traditionally biltong was made during the cold winters of the South African Highveld for best results. The cold, dry air typically dried out the biltong much more effectively, and in the best possible food safety environment. Mould and bacterial risk are at a natural minimum, and thicker biltong cuts can be hung to dry slowly for a richer texture, fuller flavor and dark colour. Heat has only been introduced into the process in recent years, and traditional biltong makers maintain that heat makes for an inferior end result. Due to increased risk of bacterial and fungal growth, the heated method, such as that used in cardboard or wooden biltong boxes (urban) or climate-controlled dry rooms (commercial), cannot be used without the addition of nitrates or nitrites (curing salts). Depending on the spices used, a variety of flavours may be produced. Biltong can also be made in colder climates by using an electric lamp to dry the meat, but care must be taken to ventilate, as mould can begin to form on the meat. A traditional slow dry will deliver a medium cure in about four days. An electric fan-assisted oven set to 40–70 °C (100–160 °F), with the door open a fraction to let out moist air, can dry the meat in approximately four hours. Although oven dried is ready to eat a day or two after preparation, traditional biltong makers still consider slow dried meat to be safer and of superior quality. Comparison to jerky Biltong differs from jerky in four distinct ways: The meat used in biltong is often much thicker due to the slower drying time in dry air conditions; typically biltong meat is cut in strips approximately 1" (25 mm) wide – but can be thicker. Jerky is normally very thin meat. The vinegar, salt and spices in biltong, together with the drying process, cure the meat as well as adding texture and flavour. Jerky is traditionally dried with salt but without vinegar. Jerky is often smoked; biltong is rarely smoked. Biltong normally does not contain any sugar additives, while jerky most of the time has. Retail Biltong is a common product in Southern African butcheries and grocery stores, and can be bought in the form of wide strips (known as stokkies, meaning "little sticks"). It is also sold in plastic bags, sometimes shrink-wrapped, and may be either finely shredded or sliced as biltong chips. There are also specialised retailers that sell biltong. These shops may sell biltong as "wet" (moist), "medium" or "dry". Additionally, some customers prefer it with a lot of fat, while others prefer it as lean as possible. Eating While biltong is usually eaten as a snack, it can also be diced up into stews, or added to muffins or pot bread. Biltong-flavoured potato crisps have also been produced, and there are cheese spreads with biltong flavour. Finely shredded biltong is eaten on slices of bread and in sandwiches. Biltong can be used as a teething aid for babies. Biltong is a high-protein food. Often, 200 g of beef are required to make 100 g of biltong, and the process of making biltong preserves most of the protein content. Some biltong can have up to 67% protein content. Worldwide Biltong's popularity has spread to many other countries with large South African populations - Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, the United States, and India. Biltong is also produced within South African expatriate communities across the globe, for example in Germany, Ireland and even South Korea. Biltong produced in South Africa may not be imported into Britain, according to rules governing the importation of meat-based products from non-EU countries laid down by HM Customs and Excise and its successor HM Revenue and Customs, thus it is made in the UK. In the United States, biltong is relatively rare as beef jerky has been traditionally the more popular dried meat snack. Within the last five years, biltong has begun a small emergence within the United States, particularly from South African immigrants who have brought their local culture and foods with them. Due to concerns related to the presence of foot-and-mouth disease in South Africa, the United States Department of Agriculture requires a meat inspection certificate issued by a South African government authority to accompany imports of biltong. See also Similar foods Foods similar to biltong include: References Dried meat History of South Africa Snack foods Afrikaans words and phrases South African cuisine	[ 0.4329201579093933, -0.0885745957493782, -0.46085256338119507, -0.3080415427684784, -0.28820183873176575, 0.6060725450515747, 0.26380863785743713, 0.5119296312332153, -0.4945428669452667, -0.319533109664917, -0.04364306852221489, 0.054341841489076614, -0.7819654941558838, 0.35337570309638977, -0.14829884469509125, 0.30739590525627136, 0.7088811993598938, 0.25991469621658325, 0.4362928569316864, -0.5831600427627563, -0.16292549669742584, -0.9645861387252808, -0.2372140884399414, 0.004285890609025955, 0.7146934866905212, 0.4688127040863037, 0.8138138055801392, 0.4063710868358612, 0.2965501844882965, -0.09863327443599701, 0.4405921399593353, 0.45844516158103943, 0.2714923024177551, -0.0744330883026123, 0.5151432752609253, 0.7394757270812988, 0.30967745184898376, -0.45703616738319397, -0.6043237447738647, 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238212	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormal%20psychology	Abnormal psychology	Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which could possibly be understood as a mental disorder. Although many behaviors could be considered as abnormal, this branch of psychology typically deals with behavior in a clinical context. There is a long history of attempts to understand and control behavior deemed to be aberrant or deviant (statistically, functionally, morally or in some other sense), and there is often cultural variation in the approach taken. The field of abnormal psychology identifies multiple causes for different conditions, employing diverse theories from the general field of psychology and elsewhere, and much still hinges on what exactly is meant by "abnormal". There has traditionally been a divide between psychological and biological explanations, reflecting a philosophical dualism in regard to the mind-body problem. There have also been different approaches in trying to classify mental disorders. Abnormal includes three different categories; they are subnormal, supernormal and paranormal. The science of abnormal psychology studies two types of behaviors: adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. Behaviors that are maladaptive suggest that some problem(s) exist, and can also imply that the individual is vulnerable and cannot cope with environmental stress, which is leading them to have problems functioning in daily life in their emotions, mental thinking, physical actions and talks. Behaviors that are adaptive are ones that are well-suited to the nature of people, their lifestyles and surroundings, and to the people that they communicate with, allowing them to understand each other. Clinical psychology is the applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand, and treat psychological conditions in clinical practice. The theoretical field known as abnormal psychology may form a backdrop to such work, but clinical psychologists in the current field are unlikely to use the term abnormal in reference to their practice. Psychopathology is a similar term to abnormal psychology but has more of an implication of an underlying pathology (disease process), and as such is a term more commonly used in the medical specialty known as psychiatry. History Humors Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.E.), hypothesized that the body and mind become unwell when the vital fluids in the body become unbalanced. These fluids include black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. Too much phlegm causes a person to be fatigued, too much black bile causes depression, yellow bile causes a quick temper, and too much blood causes optimism, cheerfulness, and confidence. Asylums The act of placing mentally ill individuals in a separate facility known as an asylum dates to 1547, when King Henry VIII of England established the St. Mary of Bethlehem asylum in London. This hospital, nicknamed Bedlam, was famous for its deplorable conditions. Asylums remained popular throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance era. These early asylums were often in miserable conditions. Patients were seen as a "burden" to society, locked away and treated almost like beasts to be dealt with rather than patients needing treatment. However, many of the patients received helpful medical treatment. There was scientific curiosity into abnormal behavior although it was rarely investigated in the early asylums. Inmates in these early asylums were often put on display for profit as they were viewed as less than human. The early asylums were basically modifications of the existing criminal institutions. In the late 18th century the idea of humanitarian treatment for the patients gained much favor due to the work of Philippe Pinel in France. He pushed for the idea that the patients should be treated with kindness and not the cruelty inflicted on them as if they were animals or criminals. His experimental ideas such as removing the chains from the patients were met with reluctance. The experiments in kindness proved to be a great success, which helped to bring about a reform in the way mental institutions would be run. Institutionalization would continue to improve throughout the 19th and 20th century due to work of many humanitarians such as Dorethea Dix, and the mental hygiene movement which promoted the physical well-being of the mental patients. "Dix more than any other figure in the nineteenth century, made people in America and virtually all of Europe aware that the insane were being subjected to incredible abuses." Through this movement millions of dollars were raised to build new institutions to house the mentally ill. Mental hospitals began to grow substantially in numbers during the 20th century as care for the mentally ill increased in them. By 1939, there were over 400,000 patients in state mental hospitals in the USA. Hospital stays were normally quite long for the patients, with some individuals being treated for many years. These hospitals, while better than the asylums of the past, were still lacking in the means of effective treatment for the patients. Even though the reform movement had occurred, patients were often still met with cruel and inhumane treatment. Things began to change in the year 1946 when Mary Jane Ward published the influential book titled The Snake Pit, which was made into a popular movie of the same name. The book called attention to the conditions which mental patients faced and helped to spark concern in the general public to create more humane mental health care in these overcrowded hospitals. In this same year the National Institute of Mental Health was also created which provided support for the training of hospital employees and research into the conditions which afflicted the patients. During this period the Hill-Burton Acts was also passed which was a program that funded mental health hospitals. Along with the Community Health Services Act of 1963, the Hill-Burton Acts helped with the creation of outpatient psychiatric clinics, inpatient general hospitals, and rehabilitation and community consultation centers. Deinstitutionalisation In the late twentieth century, however, a large number of mental hospitals were closed due to lack of funding and overpopulation. In England for example only 14 of the 130 psychiatric institutions that had been created in the early 20th century remained open at the start of the 21st century. In 1963, President John F. Kennedy launched the community health movement in the United States as a "bold new approach" to mental health care, aimed at coordinating mental health services for citizens in mental health centers. In the span of 40 years, the United States was able to see an about 90 percent drop in the number of patients in Psychiatric hospitals. This trend was not only in England and the United States but worldwide with countries like Australia having too many mentally ill patients and not enough treatment facilities. Recent studies have found that the prevalence of mental illness has not decreased significantly in the past 10 years, and has in fact increased in frequency regarding specific conditions such as anxiety and mood disorders. This led to a large number of the patients being released while not being fully cured of the disorder they were hospitalized for. This became known as the phenomenon of deinstitutionalization. This movement had noble goals of treating the individuals outside of the isolated mental hospital by placing them into communities and support systems. Another goal of this movement was to avoid the potential negative adaptations that can come with long-term hospital confinements. Many professionals for example were concerned that patients would find permanent refuge in mental hospitals which would take them up when the demands of everyday life were too difficult. However, the patients moved to the community living have not fared well typically, as they often speak of how they feel "abandoned" by the doctors who used to treat them. It also has had the unfortunate effect of placing many of the patients in homelessness. Many safe havens for the deinstitutionalized mentally ill have been created, but it is nevertheless estimated that around 26.2% of people who are currently homeless have some form of a mental illness. The placing of these individuals in homelessness is of major concern to their wellbeing as the added stress of living on the streets is not beneficial for the individual to recover from the particular disorder with which they are afflicted. In fact while some of the homeless who are able to find some temporary relief in the form of shelters, many of the homeless with a mental illness "lack safe and decent shelter". Explaining abnormal behaviour People have tried to explain and control abnormal behavior for thousands of years. Historically, there have been three main approaches to abnormal behavior: the supernatural, biological, and psychological traditions. Abnormal psychology revolves around two major paradigms for explaining mental disorders, the psychological paradigm and the biological paradigm. The psychological paradigm focuses more on the humanistic, cognitive and behavioral causes and effects of psychopathology. The biological paradigm includes theories that focus more on physical factors, such as genetics and neurochemistry. Supernatural explanations In the first supernatural tradition, also called the demonological method, abnormal behaviors are attributed to agents outside human bodies. According to this model, abnormal behaviors are caused by demons, spirits, or the influences of moon, planets, and stars. During the Stone Age, trepanning was performed on those who had mental illness to literally cut the evil spirits out of the victim's head. Conversely, Ancient Chinese, Ancient Egyptians, and Hebrews believed that these were evil demons or spirits and advocated exorcism. By the time of the Greeks and Romans, mental illnesses were thought to be caused by an imbalance of the four humors, leading to draining of fluids from the brain. During the Medieval period, many Europeans believed that the power of witches, demons, and spirits caused abnormal behaviors. People with psychological disorders were thought to be possessed by evil spirits that had to be exorcised through religious rituals. If exorcism failed, some authorities advocated steps such as confinement, beating, and other types of torture to make the body uninhabitable to witches, demons, and spirits. The belief that witches, demons, and spirits are responsible for the abnormal behavior continued into the 15th century. Swiss alchemist, astrologer, and physician Paracelsus (1493–1541), on the other hand, rejected the idea that abnormal behaviors were caused by witches, demons, and spirits and suggested that people's mind and behaviors were influenced by the movements of the moon and stars. This tradition is still alive today. Some people, especially in the developing countries and some followers of religious sects in the developed countries, continue to believe that supernatural powers influence human behaviors. In Western academia, the supernatural tradition has been largely replaced by the biological and psychological traditions. Supernatural traditions Throughout time, societies have proposed several explanations of abnormal behavior within human beings. Beginning in some hunter-gatherer societies, animists have believed that people demonstrating abnormal behavior are possessed by malevolent spirits. This idea has been associated with trepanation, the practice of cutting a hole into the individual's skull in order to release the malevolent spirits. Although it has been difficult to define abnormal psychology, one definition includes characteristics such as statistical infrequency. A more formalized response to spiritual beliefs about abnormality is the practice of exorcism. Performed by religious authorities, exorcism is thought of as another way to release evil spirits who cause pathological behavior within the person. In some instances, individuals exhibiting unusual thoughts or behaviors have been exiled from society or worse. Perceived witchcraft, for example, has been punished by death. Two Catholic Inquisitors wrote the Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for "The Hammer Against Witches"), which was used by many Inquisitors and witch-hunters. It contained an early taxonomy of perceived deviant behavior and proposed guidelines for prosecuting deviant individuals. Biological explanations In the biological tradition, psychological disorders are attributed to biological causes and in the psychological tradition, disorders are attributed to faulty psychological development and to social context. The medical or biological perspective holds the belief that most or all abnormal behavior can be attributed to a medical factor; assuming all psychological disorders are diseases. The Greek physician Hippocrates, who is considered to be the father of Western medicine, played a major role in the biological tradition. Hippocrates and his associates wrote the Hippocratic Corpus between 450 and 350 BC, in which they suggested that abnormal behaviors can be treated like any other disease. Hippocrates viewed the brain as the seat of consciousness, emotion, intelligence, and wisdom and believed that disorders involving these functions would logically be located in the brain. These ideas of Hippocrates and his associates were later adopted by Galen, the Roman physician. Galen extended these ideas and developed a strong and influential school of thought within the biological tradition that extended well into the 18th century. Medical: Kendra Cherry states: "The medical approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness. This perspective emphasizes understanding the underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic inheritance, related physical disorders, infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments are often pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction with some other type of psychotherapy." Psychological explanations According to Sigmund Freud's structural model, the Id, Ego and Superego are three theoretical constructs that define the way an individual interacts with the external world as well as responding to internal forces The Id represents the instinctual drives of an individual that remain unconscious; the superego represents a person's conscience and their internalization of societal norms and morality, and finally the ego serves to realistically integrate the drives of the id with the prohibitions of the super-ego. Lack of development in the Superego, or an incoherently developed Superego within an individual, will result in thoughts and actions that are irrational and abnormal, contrary to the norms and beliefs of society. Irrational beliefs Irrational beliefs that are driven by unconscious fears, can result in abnormal behavior. Rational emotive therapy helps to drive irrational and maladaptive beliefs out of one's mind. Sociocultural influences The term sociocultural refers to the various circles of influence on the individual ranging from close friends and family to the institutions and policies of a country or the world as a whole. Discriminations, whether based on social class, income, race, and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal behaviour. Multiple causality The number of different theoretical perspectives in the field of psychological abnormality has made it difficult to properly explain psychopathology. The attempt to explain all mental disorders with the same theory leads to reductionism (explaining a disorder or other complex phenomena using only a single idea or perspective). Most mental disorders are composed of several factors, which is why one must take into account several theoretical perspectives when attempting to diagnose or explain a particular behavioral abnormality or mental disorder. Explaining mental disorders with a combination of theoretical perspectives is known as multiple causality. The diathesis–stress model emphasizes the importance of applying multiple causality to psychopathology by stressing that disorders are caused by both precipitating causes and predisposing causes. A precipitating cause is an immediate trigger that instigates a person's action or behavior. A predisposing cause is an underlying factor that interacts with the immediate factors to result in a disorder. Both causes play a key role in the development of a psychological disorder. For example, high neuroticism antedates most types of psychopathology. Recent concepts of abnormality Statistical abnormality – when a certain behavior/characteristic is relevant to a low percentage of the population. However, this does not necessarily mean that such individuals are suffering from mental illness (for example, statistical abnormalities such as extreme wealth/attractiveness) Psychometric abnormality – Psychometric abnormality implicates abnormality as a deviation from a statistically determined norm, such as the population average IQ of 100. In this case, an IQ score less than about 70–75 may define someone as having a learning disability and suggests they will have some difficulties coping with life. However, the problems associated with a low IQ differ widely across individuals depending on their life circumstances. So, even when an individual is defined as psycho-metrically 'abnormal', this tells us little about their actual condition or problems. Furthermore, if one takes the other end of the IQ spectrum, a deviation of 30 points above the mean is generally not considered to be abnormal or to indicate the presence of mental health problems. Deviant behavior – this is not always a sign of mental illness, as mental illness can occur without deviant behavior, and such behavior may occur in the absence of mental illness. Combinations – including distress, dysfunction, distorted psychological processes, inappropriate responses in given situations and causing/risking harm to oneself. Examples There is a wide range of mental disorders that are considered to be forms of Abnormal Psychology. These include, but are not limited to: Schizophrenia Schizophrenia can be described as a disorder that causes extreme loss of touch with reality. The Psychotic nature of schizophrenia manifests itself through delusions, as well as auditory and visual hallucinations. Schizophrenia is known to have a genetic etiology, as well as other biological components such as brain disruptions in the prenatal development period. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by high amounts of inattention and hyperactive impulsiveness. Inattentive symptoms include not listening, careless errors, disorganization, loss of items, easily distracted, and forgetfulness. Symptoms of hyperactive impulsiveness include fidgeting, talking excessively, and interrupting others. Antisocial personality disorder Antisocial personality disorder can be described as a cluster of personality traits that lead to specific outcomes and violate the rights of other people. These personality traits include callousness, deceitfulness, remorselessness, lack of empathy, manipulativeness, impulsiveness, and grandiosity. Additional traits may include superficial charm, sexual promiscuousness, and pathological lying. Dissociative identity disorder Dissociative identity disorder (DID) involves one individual having multiple personalities. Those with DID are described as having multiple selves that each have their own consciousness and awareness. DID has two main etiologies, which are the post-traumatic and socio-cognitive models. The post-traumatic model states that DID is caused by inescapable past trauma, such as child abuse. The child dissociates and forms alternate personalities as a coping mechanism in response to the current trauma. Even when the trauma ends, the personalities continue to disrupt the person's life longitudinally. The socio cognitive model states that people implicitly act as if they have multiple personalities and this is done to align with cultural norms. Social anxiety disorder Those with social anxiety disorder (SAD) have a very intense fear of social situations. This fear stems from the belief that the person will be evaluated negatively, or embarrass themselves. SAD is also considered to be one of the more disabling mental disorders. Symptoms of this disorder include fear in most, if not all social situations. SAD can develop after a traumatic and/or embarrassing experience has occurred while the person was being observed by other people. Generalized anxiety disorder Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by a constant, chronic state of worry and anxiety that is related to a large variety of situations, and is difficult to control. Additional symptoms may include irritability, fatigue, concentration difficulties, and restlessness. Specific phobia Individuals with specific phobias have an extreme fear and avoidance of various objects or situations. Specifically, fears become phobias when there is excessive and unreasonable fear that is disproportionate to the culture that the individual is in. Examples of specific phobias include, but are not limited to, phobias of school, blood, Injury, needles, small animals, and heights. Post-traumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is described as a failure to overcome traumatic experiences. PTSD can manifest a large variety of symptoms including, but not limited to Nightmares, flashbacks, avoidance and/or physiological reactions related to stimuli regarding the trauma, shame, guilt, anger, hypervigilance, and social withdrawal. PTSD symptoms can arise due to various experiences that involve actual or threatened violence, injury, or death. Firsthand experience, witnessing, or learning about traumatic experiences can possibly lead to the development of PTSD. Approaches Somatogenic – abnormality is seen as a result of biological disorders in the brain. This approach has led to the development of radical biological treatments, e.g. lobotomy. Psychogenic – abnormality is caused by psychological problems. Psychoanalytic (Freud), Cathartic, Hypnotic and Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) treatments were all derived from this paradigm. This approach has, as well, led to some esoteric treatments: Franz Mesmer used to place his patients in a darkened room with music playing, then enter it wearing a flamboyant outfit and poke the "infected" body areas with a stick. Classification DSM-5 The standard abnormal psychology and psychiatry reference book in North America is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association. The current version of the book is known as the DSM-5. It lists a set of disorders and provides detailed descriptions on what constitutes a mental disorder. The DSM-5 identifies three key elements that must be present to constitute a mental disorder. These elements include: Symptoms that involve disturbances in behavior, thoughts, or emotions. Symptoms associated with personal distress or impairment. Symptoms that stem from internal dysfunctions (i.e. specifically having biological and/or psychological roots). The DSM-5 uses three main sections to organize its contents. These sections include I,II, and III. Section I includes the introduction, use, and basics of the DSM-5. Section II includes diagnostic criteria and codes. Section III includes emerging measures and models. Section I (DSM-5 Basics) Section I of the DSM-5 briefly prefaces purpose, content, structure, and use. This includes basics, introductions and cautionary statements for forensic use. Information is also given about the revision and review processes as well as the DSM-5's goals to harmonize with the ICD-11. An explanation regarding the change from the previous multi-axial classification system to the current three section system is also included here. Section II (Diagnostic Criteria and Codes) Section II of the DSM-5 Contains a wide range of diagnostic criteria and codes used for establishing, and diagnosing the vast amount of abnormal psychological constructs. This sections replaced the bulk of the axis system in the previous DSM versions and includes the following categories: Diagnostic Criteria and codes Neurodevelopmental Disorders Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders Bipolar and related Disorders Depressive Disorders Anxiety Disorders Obsessive-Compulsive and related Disorders Trauma and Stressor related disorders Dissociative Disorders Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders Feeding and eating Disorders Elimination Disorders Sleep Wake Disorders Sexual Dysfunctions Gender Dysphoria Disruptive, Impulse control, and Conduct Disorders Substance related and addictive Disorders Neurocognitive Disorders Personality Disorders Paraphilic Disorders Medication induced movement disorders and effects of medication. Other Mental disorders and additional Codes These categories are used to organize the various Abnormal psychological concepts based on their similarity. Section III (Emerging Measures and Models) Section III of the DSM-5 contains the various methods and strategies that are used to make clinical decisions, understand culture, and explore emerging diagnoses. ICD-10 The major international nosologic system for the classification of mental disorders can be found in the International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision (ICD-10). The ICD-10 has been used by World Health Organization (WHO) Member States since 1994. Chapter five covers some 300 mental and behavioral disorders. The ICD-10's chapter five has been influenced by APA's DSM-IV and there is a great deal of concordance between the two. Beginning in January 2022, the ICD-11 will replace the ICD-10 in WHO member states. WHO maintains free access to the ICD-10 Online. Below are the main categories of disorders: F00–F09 Organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders F10–F19 Mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance use F20–F29 Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders F30–F39 Mood [affective] disorders F40–F48 Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders F50–F59 Behavioral syndromes associated with physiological disturbances and physical factors F60–F69 Disorders of adult personality and behavior F70–F79 Mental retardation F80–F89 Disorders of psychological development F90–F98 Behavioral and emotional disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence F99 Unspecified mental disorder ICD-11 The ICD-11 is the most recent version of the International Classification of Diseases. The Mental, behavioral, or Neurodevelopmental disorders section highlights forms of abnormal psychology. Mental, behavioral, or Neurodevelopmental disorders 6A00-6A0Z Neurodevelopmental disorders 6A20-6A2Z Schizophrenia or other primary psychotic disorders 6A40-6A4Z Catatonia 6A60-6A8Z Mood Disorders 6B00-6B0Z Anxiety or fear related disorders 6B20-6B2Z Obsessive-compulsive or related disorders 6B40-6B4Z Disorders specifically associated with stress 6B60-6B6Z Dissociative disorders 6B80-6B8Z Feeding or eating disorders 6C00-6C0Z Elimination Disorders 6C20-6C2Z Disorders of bodily distress or bodily experience Disorders due to substance use or addictive behaviors 6C70-6C7Z Impulse control disorders 6C90-6C9Z Disruptive behavior or dissocial disorders 6D10-6E68 personality disorders and related traits 6D30-6D3Z Paraphilic disorders 6D50-6D5Z Factitious disorders 6D70-6E0Z Neurocognitive disorders 6E20-6E2Z Mental or behavioral disorders associated with pregnancy, childbirth or the puerperium 6E40.0-6E40.Z (6E40) Psychological or behavioral factors affecting disorders or diseases classified elsewhere 6E60-6E6Z secondary mental or behavioral syndromes associated with disorders or diseases classified elsewhere Perspectives of abnormal psychology Psychologists may use different perspectives to try to get better understanding on abnormal psychology. Some of them may just concentrate on a single perspective. But the professionals prefer to combine two or three perspectives together in order to get significant information for better treatments. Behavioral – the perspective focus on observable behaviors Medical – the perspective focus on biological causes on mental illness Cognitive – the perspective focus on how internal thoughts, perceptions and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders Cause Genetics Investigated through family studies, mainly of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins, often in the context of adoption. Monozygotic twins should be more likely than dizygotic twins to have the same disorder because they share 100% of their genetic material, whereas dizygotic twins share only 50%. For many disorders, this is exactly what research shows. But given that monozygotic twins share 100% of their genetic material, it may be expected of them to have the same disorders 100% of the time, but in fact they have the same disorders only about 50% of the time These studies allow calculation of a heritability coefficient. Genetic vulnerabilities (Diathesis stress Model) Biological causal factors Neurotransmitter [imbalances of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and GABA (Gamma aminobutyric acid)] and hormonal imbalances in the brain Constitutional liabilities [physical handicaps and temperament] Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity Physical deprivation or disruption [deprivation of basic physiological needs] Socio-cultural factors Effects of urban/rural dwelling, gender and minority status on state of mind Generalizations about cultural practices and beliefs may fail to capture the diversity that exists within and across cultural groups, so we must be extremely careful not to stereotype individuals of any cultural group Experiences with child physical and or sexual abuse. Encounters with environments that involve actual or threatened death Systemic factors Family systems Negatively Expressed Emotion playing a part in schizophrenic relapse and anorexia nervosa. Biopsychosocial factors Illness dependent on stress "triggers". Therapies Psychoanalysis (Freud) Psychoanalytic theory is heavily based on the theory of the neurologist Sigmund Freud. These ideas often represented repressed emotions and memories from a patient's childhood. According to psychoanalytic theory, these repressions cause the disturbances that people experience in their daily lives and by finding the source of these disturbances, one should be able to eliminate the disturbance itself. This is accomplished by a variety of methods, with some popular ones being free association, hypnosis, and insight. The goal of these methods is to induce a catharsis or emotional release in the patient, which should indicate that the source of the problem has been tapped and it can then be helped. Freud's psychosexual stages also played a key role in this form of therapy, as he would often believe that problems the patient was experiencing were due to them becoming stuck or "fixated" in a particular stage. Dreams also played a major role in this form of therapy as Freud viewed dreams as a way to gain insight into the unconscious mind. Patients were often asked to keep dream journals to bring in for discussion during the next therapy session. There are many potential problems associated with this style of therapy, including resistance to the repressed memory or feeling, and negative transference onto the therapist. Psychoanalysis was carried on by many after Freud, including his daughter Ana Freud and Jacques Lacan. These and many others have gone on to elaborate on Freud's original theory and to add their own take on defense mechanisms or dream analysis. While psychoanalysis has fallen out of favor to more modern forms of therapy it is still used by some clinical psychologists to varying degrees. Behavioral therapy (Wolpe) Behavior therapy relies on the principles of behaviorism, such as involving classical and operant conditioning. Behaviorism arose in the early 20th century due to the work of psychologists such as James Watson and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism states that all behaviors humans do is because of a stimulus and reinforcement. While this reinforcement is normally for good behavior, it can also occur for maladaptive behavior. In this therapeutic view, the patients maladaptive behavior has been reinforced which will cause the maladaptive behavior to be repeated. The goal of the therapy is to reinforce less maladaptive behaviors so that with time these adaptive behaviors will become the primary ones in the patient. Humanistic therapy (Rogers) Humanistic therapy aims to achieve self-actualization (Carl Rogers, 1961). In this style of therapy, the therapist will focus on the patient themselves as opposed to the problem which the patient is afflicted with. The goal of this therapy is, by treating the patient as "human" instead of client, to get to the source of the problem and resolve the problem in an effective manner. Humanistic therapy has been on the rise in recent years and has been associated with numerous positive benefits. It is considered to be one of the core elements needed therapeutic effectiveness and a significant contributor to not only the well being of the patient but society as a whole. Some say that all of the therapeutic approaches today draw from the humanistic approach in some regard and that humanistic therapy is the best way for treat a patient. Humanistic therapy can be used on people of all ages; however, it is very popular among children in its variant known as "play therapy". Cognitive behavioural therapy (Ellis and Beck) Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) aims to influence thought and cognition (Beck, 1977). This form of therapy relies on not only the components of behavioral therapy as mentioned before, but also the elements of cognitive psychology. This relies on not only the clients behavioral problems that could have arisen from conditioning, but also their negative schemas and distorted perceptions of the world around them. These negative schemas may cause distress in the life of the patient; for example, the schemas may give them unrealistic expectations for how well they should perform at their job, or how they should look physically. When these expectations are not met it will often result in maladaptive behaviors such as depression, obsessive compulsions, and anxiety. With CBT, the goal is to change the schemas that are causing the stress in a person's life and replace them with more realistic ones. Once the negative schemas have been replaced, it will hopefully cause a remission of the patients symptoms. CBT is considered particularly effective in the treatment of depression and has even been used lately in group settings. It is felt that using CBT in a group setting aids in giving its members a sense of support and decreasing the likelihood of them dropping out of therapy before the treatment has had time to work properly. CBT has been found to be an effective treatment for many patients even those who do not have diseases and disorders typically thought of as psychiatric ones. For example, patients with the disease multiple sclerosis have found a lot of help using CBT. The treatment often helps the patients cope with the disorder they have and how they can adapt to their new lives without developing new problems such as depression or negative schemas about themselves. According to RAND, therapies are difficult to provide to all patients in need. A lack of funding and understanding of symptoms provides a major roadblock that is not easily avoided. Individual symptoms and responses to treatments vary, creating a disconnect between patient, society and care givers/professionals. Play therapy (Humanistic) Children are often sent to therapy due to outbursts that they have in a school or home setting; the theory is that by treating the child in a setting that is similar to the area that they are having their disruptive behavior, the child will be more likely to learn from the therapy and have an effective outcome. In play therapy, the clinicians will "play" with their client, usually with toys, or a tea party. Playing is the typical behavior of a child and therefore playing with the therapist will come as a natural response to the child. In playing together the clinician will ask the patient questions, but due to the setting, the questions seem less intrusive and therapeutic and more like a normal conversation. This should help the patient realize issues they have and confess them to the therapist with less difficulty than they may experience in a traditional counselling setting. Play therapy involves a therapist observing a child, as the child plays with toys and interacts with their surrounding environment. The therapist plays an observational, as well as an interactional role in the intervention. This process allows for the child to enact their problems through play, and speak more comfortably with the therapist. Although somewhat controversial, due to data that suggests a lack of effectiveness in children older than 10 years old, play therapy has been shown to be a valuable treatment. This therapy is particularly useful for younger children under the age of 10, who are consciously aware of their environment. Play therapy is important, seeing as many therapeutic interventions that are effective for adults have shown to be less effective for children. Family systems therapies Family systems therapies are based on the belief that children's problems revolve around problems that occur within the family. Family systems therapy attempts to improve the relations between multiple people involved in specific families via therapeutic intervention. For the best effect, it is recommended that the entire family be included in the therapy. The treatments include family management skill development and child-parent attachment development. These interventions help to improve family functioning. Family management skill development (Family systems therapy) Family management skills can be taught by family therapists, and include methods such as improving supervision, disciplinary practices, and creating environments that allow for positive interactions between parents and children. Child-parent attachment development (Family systems therapy) Child-parent attachment development involves altering or creating relationships between parents and children in attempts to create secure bases for the child and to facilitate trust, independence, and positive perceptions of family relationships. These goals are often achieved by creating understanding regarding behaviors, creating opportunities for attachment, and increasing the family's ability to think about their history and relationships. 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238214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu%20Zhihui	Wu Zhihui	Wu Zhihui (Woo Chih-hui, ; 25 March 1865 – 30 October 1953), also known as Woo Tsin-hang or Wu Shi-Fee, was a Chinese linguist and philosopher who was the chairman of the 1912–13 Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation that created Zhuyin (based on Zhang Binglin's work) and standardized Guoyu pronunciation. Wu became an anarchist during his stay in France in the first decade of the 20th century, along with Li Shizeng, Zhang Renjie, and Cai Yuanpei. With them, he was known as one of the strongly anti-communist "Four Elders" of the Nationalist Party in the 1920s. Career Born into a poor family in Wujin, Jiangsu province as Wu Tiao (), Wu Zhihui was an outstanding student, passing the challenging Juren examination in 1891. He served at the Nanyang College Preparatory School Hall (now the Shanghai Nanyang Model High School). In 1903 in the Subao newspaper, Wu criticized the Qing government and derided then ruling Empress Dowager Cixi as a "withered old hag" and a "whore." After this incident, Wu fled by way of Hong Kong to London. His official status enabled him to travel and live in Scotland and France. He attended university lectures in Edinburgh. In 1903, he went to Paris, where he renewed his friendship with Li Shizeng, the son of a high official he had met in Beijing, and with Zhang Renjie, well-connected son of a prosperous merchant. Although Wu was their elder by more than a decade, the three young scholars, although well-versed in the Confucian philosophy which dominated Chinese thought, were impressed by the doctrines of anarchism which flourished in France. Together with Li and Zhang, he formed the Shijie She (World Society), which became a center of anarchist thought and recruitment for several decades. Together they joined the Tongmenghui, the precursor to the Chinese Nationalist Party (GMD), in 1905. Wu declared himself an anarchist the next year. He later founded influential revolutionary organizations like the Society to Advance Morality and supervised radical journals like New Era and Labor, China's first syndicalist magazine. He promoted science, rationalism, language reform, and the abolition of marriage. His ideas were revolutionary, but he estimated that it would take 3,000 years to achieve his vision of a utopian society. Wu was instrumental in the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement in France. Among his students were a large group of anarchists – and future communists. Return to China and allegiance to Kuomintang Soon after their return in 1912, Wu, Li, Zhang Ji, and Wang Jingwei organized The Society to Advance Morality (Jinde hui, ), also known as the "Eight Nots," or "Eight Prohibitions Society (八不會 Babu hui). Wu felt that the new Republic must not be menaced by the social decadence of the late Qing, evils which ranged from mah-jong and stag parties to taking second wives. True to its anarchist principles, there was no president or officers, no regulations or means to enforce them, and no dues or fines. Each level of membership, however, had increasingly rigorous requirements. "Supporting members," the lowest level, agreed not to visit prostitutes and not to gamble. "General members" agreed in addition not to take concubines. The next higher level further agreed not to become government officials — "Someone has to watch over officials" — not to become members of parliament, and not to smoke. Finally, the highest level also promised to abstain from alcohol and meat. While declining to hold office, Wu did accept Cai Yuanpei's offer join the commission on language reform, beginning work on a phonetic system for writing which would replace regional dialects. This work eventually resulted in the Guoyu Zhuyin fuhao system which is widely used today. In June 1913, Wu was one of the founders of the journal Public Opinion () When in 1913 Sun Yat-sen's Second Revolution failed, Wu and Li Shizeng for safety returned to France. Li and Wu founded the University of Lyon-France and launched the Work-Study movement. In the 1920s, along with Li Shizeng, Zhan Renjie, and Cai Yuanpei, was one of the so-called "Four Elders" of the GMD and led the anti-communist campaign which drove leftists and communists from the party and supported Chiang Kai-shek. In accordance with his anarchist principles, Wu Zhihui declined any government office. In 1943, National Government Chairman Lin Sen died in provisional wartime capital of Chongqing, Chiang Kai-shek inviting Wu to be the new president, but Wu declined, citing "three no's": I usually wear very casual clothes, but the heads of state wear tuxedos. I would feel uncomfortable. My ugly face, like a big shock. My people love to laugh. To see something funny makes me laugh, When foreign diplomats deliver credentials, I could not help but laugh. This would not be decent. In 1946, Wu was elected to the National Assembly, which drew up a new constitution. He administered the oath of office to Chiang Kai-shek in May 1948, shortly before the government left the mainland for Taiwan. He moved to Taiwan and was the teacher of Chiang Kai-shek's son, Chiang Ching-kuo. He died in Taipei at the age of 88. Chiang Ching-kuo carried out Wu's directive that his ashes be lowered into the sea off the island of Quemoy. Legacy and reputation He was also respected for his various styles of calligraphy, which is evident in the design of Zhuyin; all of its symbols have the strokes and essence of calligraphy. Works 吳稚暉先生集(Collected Works of Mr. Wu Chih-hui) Footnotes References and further reading , chapter 4: "Mockery". "Wu Chih-hui," in , pp. 416–419. Available at The Anarchist Library. . "Mr. Wu Chih-hui," in , pp. 185–186. 1865 births 1953 deaths Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Artists from Changzhou Chinese anarchists Chinese anti-communists Chinese expatriates in France Chinese Nationalists Linguists from China Members of Academia Sinica Members of the Kuomintang People of the 1911 Revolution Philosophers from Jiangsu Politicians from Changzhou Qing dynasty philosophers Republic of China calligraphers Republic of China philosophers Republic of China politicians from Jiangsu Scientists from Changzhou Taiwanese people from Jiangsu Tongmenghui members Writers from Changzhou	[ -0.07305854558944702, 0.42703065276145935, -0.8203911185264587, -0.2309519201517105, -0.4979964792728424, 0.8815785050392151, 0.25789356231689453, -0.12218017131090164, 0.17925414443016052, -0.37920138239860535, -0.327236145734787, -0.000139411014970392, 0.2905147075653076, -0.15936784446239471, -0.6128717064857483, -0.21861302852630615, 0.6589443683624268, -0.42899492383003235, 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