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238492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Montgomery%20Flagg | James Montgomery Flagg | James Montgomery Flagg (June 18, 1877 – May 27, 1960) was an American artist, comics artist and illustrator. He worked in media ranging from fine art painting to cartooning, but is best remembered for his political posters, particularly his 1917 poster of Uncle Sam created for United States Army recruitment during World War I.
Life and career
Flagg was born on June 18, 1877 in Pelham, New York. He was enthusiastic about drawing from a young age, and had illustrations accepted by national magazines by the age of 12 years. By 14, he was a contributing artist for Life magazine, and the following year was on the staff of another magazine, Judge.
From 1894 through 1898, he attended the Art Students League of New York. He studied fine art in London and Paris from 1898 to 1900, after which he returned to the United States, where he produced countless illustrations for books, magazine covers, political and humorous cartoons, advertising, and spot drawings. Among his creations was a comic strip that appeared regularly in Judge from 1903 until 1907, about a tramp character titled Nervy Nat.
In 1915, he accepted commissions from Calkins and Holden to create advertisements for Edison Photo and Adler Rochester Overcoats but only on the condition that his name would not be associated with the campaign.
He created his most famous work in 1917, a poster to encourage recruitment in the United States Army during World War I. It showed Uncle Sam pointing at the viewer (inspired by a British recruitment poster showing Lord Kitchener in a similar pose) with the caption “I Want YOU for U.S. Army”. Flagg had first created the image for the July 6, 1916 cover of Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper with the headline “What Are You Doing for Preparedness?” Over four million copies of the poster were printed during World War I, and it was revived for World War II. Flagg used his own face for that of Uncle Sam (adding age and the white goatee), he said later, simply to avoid the trouble of arranging for a model. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt praised his resourcefulness for using his own face as the model. By some accounts though, Flagg had a neighbor, Walter Botts, pose for the piece.
At his peak, Flagg was reported to have been the highest-paid magazine illustrator in America. He worked for the Saturday Evening Post and Collier's which were two of the most popular U.S. journals. In 1946, Flagg published his autobiography, Roses and Buckshot. Apart from his work as an illustrator, Flagg painted portraits which reveal the influence of John Singer Sargent. Flagg's sitters included Mark Twain and Ethel Barrymore; his portrait of Jack Dempsey now hangs in the Great Hall of the National Portrait Gallery. In 1948, he appeared in a Pabst Blue Ribbon magazine ad which featured the illustrator working at an easel in his New York studio with a young lady standing at his side and a tray with an open bottle of Pabst and two filled glasses sat before them.
In Flagg’s later years, when his failing eyesight forced him to abandon his art, he often took out his frustrations on his friends and himself. He died on May 27, 1960, in New York City. He was interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.
Legacy
Fort Knox, Kentucky, has a parade field named for and dedicated to Flagg. It is called Flagg Field and located behind the Fort Knox Hotel. Fort Knox is also the home of U.S. Army Recruiting Command, which borders Flagg Field.
Flagg spent summers in Biddeford Pool, Maine, and his home, the James Montgomery Flagg House, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.
Gallery
Notes
Further reading
Flagg, James Montgomery. Roses and Buckshot. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1946.
Flagg, James Montgomery, and Susan E. Meyer. James Montgomery Flagg. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1974.
External links
James Montgomery Flagg on JVJ Publishing site
James Montgomery Flagg artwork can be viewed at American Art Archives web site
1877 births
1960 deaths
American cartoonists
American illustrators
American comics artists
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
American poster artists
People from Pelham, New York
Art Students League of New York alumni
Artists from New York City
Vanity Fair (British magazine) artists
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Members of The Lambs Club | [
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|
238493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse%20pressure%20gradient | Adverse pressure gradient | In fluid dynamics, an adverse pressure gradient occurs when the static pressure increases in the direction of the flow. Mathematically this is expressed as:
for a flow in the positive -direction.
This is important for boundary layers. Increasing the fluid pressure is akin to increasing the potential energy of the fluid, leading to a reduced kinetic energy and a deceleration of the fluid. Since the fluid in the inner part of the boundary layer is slower, it is more greatly affected by the increasing pressure gradient. For a large enough pressure increase, this fluid may slow to zero velocity or even become reversed causing a flow separation. This has very significant consequences in aerodynamics since flow separation significantly modifies the pressure distribution along the surface and hence the lift and drag characteristics.
Turbulent boundary layers tend to be able to sustain an adverse pressure gradient better than an equivalent laminar boundary layer. The more efficient mixing which occurs in a turbulent boundary layer transports kinetic energy from the edge of the boundary layer to the low momentum flow at the solid surface, often preventing the separation that would occur for a laminar boundary layer under the same conditions. This physical fact has led to a variety of schemes to actually produce turbulent boundary layers when boundary layer separation is dominant at high Reynolds numbers; the dimples on a golf ball, the fuzz on a tennis ball, or the seams on a baseball are good examples. Aeroplane wings are often engineered with vortex generators on the upper surface to produce a turbulent boundary layer.
See also
Flow separation
References
Ernst R. G. Eckert & Robert M. Drake Jr. (1959) Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill.
Hermann Schlichting (1960) Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill.
Fluid dynamics | [
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|
238495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Paschal%20Tach%C3%A9 | Étienne-Paschal Taché | Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché (5 September 1795 – 30 July 1865) was a Canadian doctor, politician, and Father of Confederation.
Life
Born in St. Thomas, Lower Canada, in 1795, the third son of Charles Taché and Geneviève Michon, Taché studied at the Séminaire de Québec until the War of 1812 when he joined the 5th Battalion of the Select Embodied Militia of the Canadian Militia as an ensign. He was later promoted to lieutenant and fought in the Chasseurs Canadiens. During the war, he started studying to become a doctor and continued his studies in Philadelphia after the war. He obtained his medical licence in 1819 and practised medicine in Montmagny.
Taché was a Patriote, although as a moderate he did not support armed rebellion. His house was searched in January 1839, after the Patriote Rebellion, although it proved to be fruitless and he escaped arrest.
Abandoning medicine, Taché was elected to the new Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1841 as a member from L'Islet, Canada East and held numerous posts in successive administrations, including, for a time, premier (1856–1857, 1864–1865) as well as Minister of Militia and Defence for the Province of Canada (1855 to 1860).
Taché actively participated in the debate on the potential creation of a Canadian confederation, defended proposals for the new form of government in part because it would serve to reaffirm Canada's link to the British Empire. At the Confederation Debates, he stated that "Confederation was imperative if Canadians 'desired to remain British and monarchical, and ... desired to pass our children these advantages. These ideas reflected the ideas of the conservative Parti bleu (with which Taché was associated).
An avid supporter of the British Crown, Taché expressed ideas of loyalty even before the debates of regarding the creation of Canada's confederation: "in 1848, he delivered his famous idea of French-Canadian loyalty to the British crown: ... 'we will never forget our allegiance till the last cannon which is shot on this continent in defence of Great Britain is fired by the hand of a French-Canadian. This can certainly explain why Taché worked with future Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and other significant characters who were Fathers of the Confederation and who shared similar views. Therefore, these alliances led to the Great Coalition of 1864 – 'a government led by Cartier, Brown and Macdonald under the premiership of a bleu elder statesman, Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché' - responsible for the Canadian Confederation. For this matter, Taché presided of over the Quebec City conference of 1864.
Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché's loyalty was even officially recognized as an "aide-de-camp to [ Queen Victoria ], [and] held the honorary rank of a Colonel in the army". Furthermore, he left an important legacy, not only regarding the formation of Canada, but also to the province of Quebec's heritage: "Taché is widely credited with coining the provincial motto of Quebec, later adopted by the French-speaking Royal 22nd Regiment [...]: ('I remember')."
Taché died at age 69 in Montmagny, and is buried there at St. Odilon Cemetery, where a marker from the national Historic Sites and Monuments Board marks his grave. A monument to him stands at 141 Taché Boulevard East in Montmagny.
He was designated a National Historic Person in 1937, and his home in Montmagny, Quebec, was designated a National Historic Site in 1990.
Family
On 18 July 1820, Taché married Sophie Baucher of Beaumont in Quebec City; they had two sons.
Both his brother Jean-Baptiste Taché and his nephew Joseph-Charles Taché were active in politics. The archbishop Alexandre-Antonin Taché was his nephew.
Honours
Taché was knighted in 1858 and appointed to the Order of St. Gregory the Great in 1862.
Notes
References
1795 births
1865 deaths
Physicians from Quebec
Canadian people of the War of 1812
Fathers of Confederation
Canadian Knights Bachelor
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada East
Members of the Legislative Council of the Province of Canada
Premiers of the Province of Canada
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) | [
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|
238503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Leonard%20Tilley | Samuel Leonard Tilley | Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley (May 8, 1818June 25, 1896) was a Canadian politician and one of the Fathers of Confederation. Tilley was descended from United Empire Loyalists on both sides of his family. As a pharmacist, he went into business as a druggist.
Personal life
Born in Gagetown, New Brunswick, Tilley was the son of storekeeper Thomas Morgan Tilley and Susan Ann Peters. He was a descendant of American loyalists on both sides of his family. On May 6, 1843 he married Julia Ann Hanford in Saint John, New Brunswick; they had eight children. Hanford died in 1862, leaving Tilley a widower. On October 22, 1867, he married Alice Starr Chipman in St. Stephen, New Brunswick; they had two children, including future New Brunswick premier Leonard Percy de Wolfe Tilley. Samuel Leonard Tilley died in 1896 on June 25.
Political career
Samuel Leonard Tilley entered politics as an activist in the temperance movement. As a result of the 1848 recession, caused in part by Britain's economic policies, he became an for responsible government. Tilley later joined the New Brunswick Colonial Association, which advocated for the colony's own control over its public expenses, the establishment of a public school system, government control of public works, and "honest government" in general.
First elected to the New Brunswick Assembly as a Liberal in 1850, he sat in opposition until the 1854 election swept the reformers to power. Tilley became Provincial Secretary in the government of Charles Fisher. In 1855 he persuaded the assembly to pass a prohibition law, but that proved a failure and was later repealed.
He attended each of the Charlottetown, London, and Quebec City Conferences as a supporter of Canadian Confederation. He served as premier of the colony of New Brunswick from 1861 until his government was defeated in the election of 1865. As premier, he supported the New Brunswick's entry into Confederation and the construction of an intercolonial railway.
A common tale states that Tilley was the originator of the word "Dominion" in Canada's name. The Fathers of Confederation had been discussing what to prefix Canada with, Kingdom of Canada being Macdonald's preference. During morning devotions, in St Andrew's in the backyard of his cousin, Dr Samuel Tilley GOVE, (the editor's great-great-grandfather, who also has the Psalter used by Tilley), before the two of them headed down the street to Church, Tilley read Psalm 72:8, which states "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth", and presented this inspiration to the others, being as their ambition was to stretch the new nation to the Pacific Ocean and from the St Lawrence River to the North Pole. "Dominion" had been used before, but Tilley pushed hard for it to be adopted in reference to Canada, despite Macdonald's preference.
The term led to the naming of the July 1 national holiday; however, the reference to a unique Canadian historical development was discarded in 1982 when "Canada Day", which had already been in use by most Canadians, was made official by an act of Parliament. In French, the date had long been known as la fête nationale (national feast or national birthday), a date which is often now applied to June 24 in Quebec, a date officially known as Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day.
Tilley entered federal politics with Confederation in 1867 and served in the federal cabinet as Minister of Customs. He became Minister of Finance in 1873 and served until the defeat of the government later that year. He was appointed the fourth Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick in 1873 and served until 1878. When Macdonald's Tories returned to power in 1878, Tilley was elected member for Saint John and again became minister of finance; while in that office he introduced protective tariffs which became the basis of Canadian financial policy. He served in cabinet until his retirement from politics in 1885, when he was again appointed the seventh Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick.
The Sir Leonard Tilley Building was named in his honour.
He is interred in the Fernhill Cemetery in Saint John, New Brunswick.
Family
Hon. Samuel Leonard Tilley, C.B., then Minister of Customs, married his second wife on October 20, 1867. Alice Starr Chipman was the daughter of ship owner (The Cedars) Zachariah Chipman and his wife Mary Eliza. The couple had two sons Herbert Chipman Tilley, born September 6, 1868, and Leonard Percy DeWolfe Tilley, born May 21, 1870. In July 1884, he and his wife were presented to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, at Osborne, by the Princess Louise. The couple were activists in the temperance movement. During the 13 years the couple lived at Government House, Fredericton no intoxicants were in use at their entertainments. Alice was instrumental in the founding of the Victoria College Hospital at Fredericton, New Brunswick. She helped found the Industrial School for Boys, the Nurses`Home, the Seamen`s Mission and the Home for Consumptives at Saint John, New Brunswick. The Chipman homestead in St. Stephen, New Brunswick was donated by the heirs of the estate in 1902 to found the Chipman Memorial Hospital. Alice was a founding member of the National Council of Women and served as President of the St John Local Council of Women.
Archives
There is a Samuel Leonard Tilley fonds at Library and Archives Canada.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Queens County Heritage
1818 births
1896 deaths
Canadian Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Canadian Ministers of Finance
Fathers of Confederation
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Canadian Companions of the Order of the Bath
Lieutenant Governors of New Brunswick
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from New Brunswick
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Premiers of New Brunswick
People of United Empire Loyalist descent
People from Queens County, New Brunswick
Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick MLAs
Canadian temperance activists
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Colony of New Brunswick people | [
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238507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazooka | Bazooka | Bazooka (/bəˈzuːkə/) is the common name for a man-portable recoilless anti-tank rocket launcher weapon, widely deployed by the United States Army, especially during World War II. Also referred to as the "Stovepipe", the innovative bazooka was among the first generation of rocket-propelled anti-tank weapons used in infantry combat. Featuring a solid-propellant rocket for propulsion, it allowed for high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warheads to be delivered against armored vehicles, machine gun nests, and fortified bunkers at ranges beyond that of a standard thrown grenade or mine. The universally-applied nickname arose from the M1 variant's vague resemblance to the musical instrument called a "bazooka" invented and popularized by 1930s U.S. comedian Bob Burns.
During World War II, the German armed forces captured several bazookas in early North Africa and Eastern Front encounters and soon reverse engineered their own version, increasing the warhead diameter to 8.8 cm (among other minor changes) and widely issuing it as the Raketenpanzerbüchse "Panzerschreck" ("rocket anti-armor rifle 'tank scare'"). Near the end of the war, the Japanese developed a similar weapon, the Type 4 70 mm AT Rocket Launcher, which featured a rocket propelled grenade of a different design.
The term "bazooka" still sees informal use as a generic term referring to any ground-to-ground shoulder-fired missile weapon (mainly rocket propelled grenade launchers or recoilless rifles), and as an expression that "heavy measures" are being taken.
History
Design and development
The development of the bazooka involved the development of two specific lines of technology: the rocket-powered weapon, and the shaped-charge warhead. It was also designed for easy maneuverability and access.
World War I
The rocket-powered weapon was the brainchild of Robert H. Goddard as a side project (under Army contract) of his work on rocket propulsion. Goddard, during his tenure at Clark University, and while working at Worcester Polytechnic Institute's magnetic lab and Mount Wilson Observatory (for security reasons), designed a tube-fired rocket for military use during World War I. He and his co-worker, Clarence N. Hickman, successfully demonstrated his rocket to the US Army Signal Corps at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, on November 6, 1918, but as the Compiègne Armistice was signed only five days later, further development was discontinued. The delay in the development of the bazooka was as a result of Goddard's serious bout with tuberculosis. Goddard continued to be a part-time consultant to the US government at Indian Head, Maryland, until 1923, but soon turned his focus to other projects involving rocket propulsion. Hickman later became head of the National Defense Research Committee in the 1940s where he guided rocket development for the war effort, including completing the development of the bazooka.
Shaped charge development
Shaped charge technology was developed in the US into a shaped charge hand grenade for use by infantry, effective at defeating up to 60 mm (2.4 in) of vehicle armor. The grenade was standardized as the M10. However, the M10 grenade weighed 3.5 lb (1.6 kg) and so was difficult to throw by hand, and was too heavy to be launched as a rifle grenade. The only practical way to use the weapon was for an infantryman to place it directly on the tank, an unlikely means of delivery in most combat situations. A smaller, less powerful, version of the M10, the M9, was then developed, which could be fired from a rifle. This resulted in the creation of a series of rifle grenade launchers, the M1 (Springfield M1903), the M2 (Enfield M1917), the M7 (M1 Garand), and the M8 (M1 carbine). However, a truly capable anti-tank weapon had yet to be found, and following the lead of other countries at the time, the U.S. Army prepared to evaluate competing designs for a more effective man-portable anti-tank weapon.
The combination of rocket motor and shaped charge warhead led to the Army's development of light antitank weapons.
Rocket-borne shaped charge weapons development
In 1942, U.S. Army colonel, Leslie Skinner, received the M10 shaped-charge grenade which was capable of stopping German tanks. He gave Lieutenant Edward Uhl the task of creating a delivery system for the grenade. Uhl created a small rocket, but needed to protect the firer from the rocket's exhaust. According to Uhl,
By late 1942, the improved Rocket Launcher, M1A1 was introduced. The forward hand grip was deleted, and the design simplified. The production M1A1 was 55 inches (1.37 m) long and weighed 12.75 pounds (5.8 kg).
The ammunition for the original M1 launcher was the M6, which was notoriously unreliable. The M6 was improved and designated M6A1, and the new ammunition was issued with the improved M1A1 launcher. After the M6, several alternative warheads were introduced. Many older M1 launchers were modified to M1A1 standards in July and August 1943, with batches of M6 rockets also being modified with the latest ignition systems to be able to be fired from the modified M1 launchers; these rockets were designated M6A2. The M6A3 rocket featured a blunt, rounded nose to lessen the chances of it ricocheting off of angled armor, and was meant to be fired from the M9, and later M9A1, launchers. Late in World War II, the M6A4 and M6A5 rockets with improved fuses were developed. These rockets arrived too late to see service during the war, but were used post-war.
The 2.36 inch (60 mm) smoke rocket M10 and its improved subvariants (M10A1, M10A2, M10A4) used the rocket motor and fin assembly of the M6A1, but replaced the anti-tank warhead with a white phosphorus (WP) smoke head. WP smoke not only acts as a visibility screen, but its burning particles can cause severe injuries to skin. The M10 was therefore used to mark targets, to blind enemy gunners or vehicle drivers, or to drive troops out of bunkers and dugouts. The 2.36-inch incendiary rocket T31 was an M10 variant with an incendiary warhead designed to ignite fires in enemy-held structures and unarmored vehicles, or to destroy combustible supplies, ammunition, and materiel; it was not often utilized.
The original M1 and M1A1 rocket launchers were equipped with simple fixed sights and used launch tubes without reinforcements. During the war, the M1A1 received a number of running modifications. The battery specification was changed to a larger, standard battery cell size, resulting in complaints of batteries getting stuck in the wood shoulder rest (the compartment was later reamed out to accommodate the larger cells). The M1 and M1A1 used a rear iron sight and a front rectangular "ladder" sight positioned at the muzzle. The vertical sides of the ladder sight were inscribed with graduations of 100, 200, 300, and 400 yards, with the user elevating the bazooka so the rear sight lined up with the selected "rung" on the front sight. On the M9, the ladder sight was replaced by the General Electric T43 aperture sight. Ranging was accomplished by looking through the rear sight's peep hole while rotating the assembly (which had graduations of 100, 200, and 300 yards) so it lined up with the blade positioned at the muzzle. In September 1944, during the production of the M9A1, the T43 sight was replaced by the Polaroid T90 optical reflector sight, which used an etched reticle for aiming. The T43 and T90 sights were interchangeable. Various types of blast deflectors were tried, and an additional strap iron shoulder brace was fitted to the M9 launcher.
The bazooka required special care when used in tropical or arctic climates or in severe dust or sand conditions. Rockets were not to be fired at temperatures below 0 °F or above 120 °F (−18 °C to +49 °C).
Field experience induced changes
In 1943, field reports of rockets sticking and prematurely detonating in M1A1 launch tubes were received by Army Ordnance at Ogden Arsenal and other production facilities. At the US Army's Aberdeen Proving Grounds, various metal collars and wire wrapping were used on the sheet metal launch tube in an effort to reinforce it. However, reports of premature detonation continued until the development of bore slug test gauges to ensure that the rocket did not catch inside the launch tube.
The original M6 and M6A1 rockets used in the M1 and M1A1 launchers had a pointed nose, which was found to cause deflection from the target at low impact angles. In late 1943, another 2.36-in rocket type was adopted, the M6A3, for use with the newly standardized M9 rocket launcher. The M6A3 was 19.4 inches (493 mm) long, and weighed 3.38 lb (1.53 kg). It had a blunted, more round nose to improve target effect at low angles, and a new circular fin assembly to improve flight stability. The M6A3 was capable of penetrating of armor plate.
Battery problems in the early bazookas eventually resulted in replacement of the battery-powered ignition system with a magneto sparker system operated through the trigger. A trigger safety was incorporated into the design that isolated the magneto, preventing misfires that could occur when the trigger was released and the stored charge prematurely fired the rocket. The final major change was the division of the launch tube into two discrete sections, with bayonet-joint attachments. This was done to make the weapon more convenient to carry, particularly for use by airborne forces. The final two-piece launcher was standardized as the M9A1. In September 1944, the fragile folding aperture sight was replaced by a Polaroid optical reflector sight However, the long list of incorporated modifications increased the launcher's tube length to 61 inches (1.55 m), with an overall empty weight of 14.3 lb (6.5 kg). From its original conception as a relatively light, handy, and disposable weapon, the final M9A1 launcher had become a heavy, clumsy, and relatively complex piece of equipment.
In October 1944, after receiving reports of inadequate combat effect of the M1A1 and M9 launchers and their M6A1 rockets, and after examining captured examples of the German 8.8 cm RPzB 43 and RPzB 54 Panzerschreck, the U.S. Ordnance Corps began development on a new, more powerful anti-tank rocket launcher, the 3.5-inch (90 mm) M20. However, the weapon's design was not completed until after the war and saw no action against an enemy until the Korean War.
In 1945, the U.S. Army's Chemical Warfare Service standardized improved chemical warfare rockets intended for the new M9 and M9A1 launchers, adopting the M26 gas rocket, a cyanogen chloride (CK)-filled warhead for the 2.36-in rocket launcher. CK, a deadly blood agent, was capable of penetrating the protective filter barriers in some gas masks, and was seen as an effective agent against Japanese forces (particularly those hiding in caves or bunkers), whose gas masks lacked the impregnants that would provide protection against the chemical reaction of CK. While stockpiled in US inventory, the CK rocket was never deployed or issued to combat personnel.
Aviation use
Following Operation Overlord in 1944, the military version of the slow-flying Piper J-3 Cub high-wing civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, began to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S. Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazookas attached to the lift struts, against German armored fighting vehicles.
Upon arriving in France in 1944, US Army major, Charles Carpenter, an Army aviator flying liaison and artillery-spotting lightplanes like the military version of the Piper J-3 Cub, the L-4 Grasshopper, was issued a new L-4H version during the concluding stages of "Overlord", taking this "light attack" role against German armor by himself. With a 150-pound pilot and no radio aboard, the L-4H had a combined cargo and passenger weight capacity of approximately 232 pounds. This margin allowed him to eventually mount a total of six bazookas, three per side on the lift struts as other L-4s had done.
Within a few weeks, Carpenter was credited with knocking out a German armored car and four tanks. Carpenter's plane was known as "Rosie the Rocketer", and his exploits were soon featured in numerous press accounts, including Stars and Stripes, the Associated Press, Popular Science, The New York Sun, and Liberty Magazine. Carpenter once told a reporter that his idea of fighting a war was to "attack, attack and then attack again". During the critical late-September Battle of Arracourt, Carpenter managed to achieve disabling hits on several German armored cars and two Panther tanks, along with killing or wounding a dozen or more enemy soldiers.
In the opening months of the Korean War, in August 1950, a joint US Navy and Marine Corps test used a newly-acquired Bell HTL-4 helicopter to test if a bazooka could be fired from a helicopter in flight. One of the larger, 3.5 inch, models of the Bazooka was chosen, and was mounted ahead and to the right of the helicopter to allow the door to remain clear. The bazooka was successfully tested, although it was discovered that it would require shielding for the engine compartment, which was exposed in the model 47 and other early helicopters. The helicopter itself belonged to HMX-1, a Marine experimental helicopter squadron.
Origin of the "bazooka" name
Shortly after the first prototype launcher and rockets had been tested by firing into the Potomac River, Skinner and Uhl took the new system to a competitive trial of various types of spigot mortar (at that time seen as the most promising way to deliver a shaped charge), which was held at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in May 1942. The new rocket launcher scored several hits on a moving tank while the five different mortars achieved none; this was a considerable achievement since the launcher's sights had been fabricated that morning from a wire coat hanger bent with a broken nail. The trial was being watched by various senior officers, among them the chief of research and engineering in the Ordnance Department, Major General Gladeon M. Barnes. Barnes was delighted by the performance of the system and fired it himself, but commented: "It sure looks like Bob Burns' bazooka". Bob Burns was a popular radio comedian, who used a novelty musical instrument which he had devised himself and called a "bazooka".
Operational use
World War II
In September 1942, a consignment of 600 M1 bazookas was shipped to Egypt for use by the British Army in the Western Desert campaign. In a demonstration to British commanders, a bazooka penetrated the frontal armor of a captured Panzer III; however it was decided that the desert terrain lacked the concealment required for such a short range weapon and it was not deployed in that theater. In November 1942 during Operation Torch, early production versions of the M1 launcher and M6 rocket were hastily supplied to some of the U.S. invasion forces during the landings in North Africa. On the night before the landings, Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower was shocked to discover from a subordinate that none of his troops had received any instruction in the use of the bazooka.
Initially supplied with the highly unreliable M6 rocket and without training for its operators, the M1 did not play a significant armed role in combat in the North African fighting, but did provide a German intelligence coup when some were captured by the Germans in early encounters with inexperienced U.S. troops. A U.S. general visiting the Tunisian front in 1943 after the close of combat operations could not find any soldiers who could report that the weapon had actually stopped an enemy tank. Further issue of the bazooka was suspended in May 1943.
During the Allied invasion of Sicily, small numbers of the M1A1 bazooka (using an improved rocket, the M6A1) were used in combat by U.S. forces. The M1A1 accounted for four medium German tanks and a heavy Tiger I, with the latter being knocked out by an improbable hit through the driver's vision slot.
When the existence of the bazooka was revealed to the American public, official press releases for the first two years stated that it "packed the wallop of a 155 mm cannon"—a great exaggeration.
In late 1942, numbers of early-production American M1 bazookas were captured by German troops from Red Army forces who had been given quantities of the bazooka under lend-lease. There were also examples captured during the Operation Torch invasions in the North African Campaign. The Germans promptly developed their own version of the weapon called the Panzerschreck, increasing the diameter of the warhead from 60 mm to 88 mm (2.4 to 3.5 in), which as a result, gave it significantly greater armor penetration. During U.S. trials of the M1, calls for a larger-diameter warhead had also been raised by some ordnance officers but were rejected. Later in the war, after participating in an armor penetration test involving a German Panther tank using both the Raketenpanzerbüchse, or RPzB 54 Panzerschreck and the U.S. M9 bazooka, Corporal Donald E. Lewis of the U.S. Army informed his superiors that the Panzerschreck was "far superior to the American bazooka": 'I was so favorably impressed [by the Panzerschreck] I was ready to take after the Krauts with their own weapon.'
The M1 bazooka fared much better on the rare occasions when it could be used against the much thinner armor typically fitted to the lower sides, undersides, and tops of enemy tanks. To hit the bottom of an enemy tank, the bazooka operator had to wait until the tank was surmounting a steep hill or other obstruction, while hitting the top armor usually necessitated firing the rocket from the upper story of a building or a similar, elevated, position. Even the heavy King Tiger tank only possessed hull and turret top armor of 44 mm ( in) thickness at best, capable of being pierced by the bazooka's shaped-charge rocket. During the 1944 Allied offensive in France, when some examples of liaison aircraft with the U.S. Army began to be experimentally field-armed, and were already flying with pairs or quartets of the American ordnance—and most notably used during the Battle of Arracourt—Major Charles "Bazooka Charlie" Carpenter mounted a battery of three M9 bazookas on the wing-to-fuselage struts on each side of his L-4 Grasshopper aircraft in order to attack enemy armor, and was credited with destroying six enemy tanks, including two Tiger I heavy tanks. In the hands of American infantry the bazooka still enjoyed rare successes against heavy Nazi armored fighting vehicles. In 1945, during the failed Operation Nordwind offensive, a bazooka team managed the unlikely achievement of destroying a Jagdtiger heavy tank destroyer, the most heavily armored fighting vehicle in World War Two. The team managed to do this by positioning themselves to get a shot at the massive vehicle's thinner side armor, scoring a direct hit on the ammunition bustle and causing a catastrophic kill. This incident shows that when correctly aimed at vulnerable points on vehicles the bazooka could still be effective against even the largest of armored vehicles, though it required significant skill to accomplish.
Despite the introduction of the M9 bazooka with its improved rocket—the M6A3—in late 1943, reports of the weapon's effectiveness against enemy armor decreased drastically in the latter stages of World War II. New German tanks with thicker and better-designed armor plate appeared, and Schürzen armor skirts, originally intended to defeat Soviet antitank rifles but that also proved effective in defeating the bazooka's shaped charge warhead, were fitted. This development forced bazooka operators to target less well-protected areas of the vehicle, such as the tracks, drive sprockets, road wheels, or engine compartment. In a letter dated May 20, 1944, Gen. George S. Patton stated to a colleague that "the purpose of the bazooka is not to hunt tanks offensively, but to be used as a last resort in keeping tanks from overrunning infantry. To insure this, the range should be held to around 30 yards."
In the Pacific campaign, as in North Africa, the original bazookas sent to combat often had reliability issues. The battery-operated firing circuit was easily damaged during rough handling, and the rocket motors often failed because of high temperatures and exposure to moisture, salt air, or humidity. With the introduction of the M1A1 and its more reliable rocket ammunition, the bazooka was effective against some fixed Japanese infantry emplacements such as small concrete bunkers and pillboxes. Against coconut and sand emplacements, the weapon was not always effective, as these softer structures often reduced the force of the warhead's impact enough to prevent detonation of the explosive charge. Later in the Pacific war, Army and Marine units often used the M2 flamethrower to attack such emplacements. In the few instances in the Pacific where the bazooka was used against tanks and armored vehicles, the rocket's warhead easily penetrated the thin armor plate used by the Japanese and destroyed the vehicle. Overall, the M1A1, M9, and M9A1 rocket launchers were viewed as useful and effective weapons during World War II, though they had been primarily employed against enemy emplacements and fixed fortifications, not as anti-tank weapons. General Dwight Eisenhower later described it as one of the four "tools of victory" which won World War II for the Allies (together with the atom bomb, Jeep and the C-47 Skytrain transport aircraft).
During the war, bazookas were lend-leased to the United Kingdom, Brazil, Canada, China, and Free French forces as well as the Soviet Union. Some were supplied to French maquis and Yugoslav partisans.
Korean War
The success of the more powerful German Panzerschreck caused the bazooka to be completely redesigned at the close of World War II. A larger, 3.5 in (89 mm) model was adopted, the M20 "super bazooka". Though bearing a superficial resemblance to the Panzerschreck, the M20 had greater effective range, penetrating capability and was nearly 20% lighter than its German counterpart. The M20 weighed 14.3 pounds (6.5 kg) and fired a hollow shaped-charge 9 lb (4 kg) M28A2 HEAT rocket when used in an anti-tank role. It was also operated by a two-man team and had a rate of fire of six shots per minute. As with its predecessor, the M20 could also fire rockets with either practice (M29A2) or WP smoke (T127E3/M30) warheads. Having learned from experience of the sensitivity of the bazooka and its ammunition to moisture and harsh environments, the ammunition for the new weapon was packaged in moisture-resistant packaging, and the M20's field manual contained extensive instructions on launcher lubrication and maintenance, as well as storage of rocket ammunition. When prepared for shipment from the arsenal, the weapon was protected by antifungal coatings over all electrical contacts, in addition to a cosmoline coating in the hand-operated magneto that ignited the rocket. Upon issue, these coatings were removed with solvent to ready the M20 for actual firing.
Budget cutbacks initiated by Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson in the years following World War II effectively canceled the intended widespread issue of the M20, and initial U.S. forces deploying to Korea were armed solely with the M9/M9A1 2.36-in. launcher and old stockpiled World War II inventories of M6A3 rocket ammunition. During the initial stages of the Korean War, complaints resurfaced over the ineffectiveness of the 2.36-inch M9 and M9A1 against Soviet-supplied enemy armor. In one notable incident, infantry blocking forces of the U.S. Army's Task Force Smith were overrun by 33 North Korean T-34-85 tanks despite repeatedly firing 2.36 inch rockets into the rear engine compartments of the vehicles. Additionally, ordnance authorities received numerous combat reports regarding the failure of the M6A3 warhead to properly detonate upon impact, eventually traced to inventories of rocket ammunition that had deteriorated from numerous years of storage in humid or salt air environments. Supplies of 3.5- in M20 launchers with M28A2 HEAT rocket ammunition were hurriedly airlifted from the United States to South Korea, where they proved very effective against the T-34 and other Soviet tanks. Large numbers of 2.36-inch bazookas that were captured during the Chinese Civil War were also employed by the Chinese forces against the American Sherman and Patton tanks, and the Chinese later reverse engineered and produced a copy of the M20 designated the Type 51. It is considered that the Communist-used bazookas destroyed more tanks than the UN bazookas did.
Vietnam War
The M20 was used in the early stages of the war in Vietnam by the U.S. Marines before gradually being phased out by the mid-1960s in favor of the M67 recoilless rifle and later, the M72 LAW rocket. The U.S. Army also used it in lesser quantity. While occasions to destroy enemy armored vehicles proved exceedingly rare, it was employed against enemy fortifications and emplacements with success. The M20 remained in service with South Vietnamese and indigenous forces until the late 1960s.
The Vietnam People's Army also developed their own bazooka under the management of Tran Dai Nghia. It was successfully test-fired in 1947. The anti-French Viet Minh received Chinese Type 51 bazookas. They were used by the Viet Cong as late as 1964.
Other conflicts
The Portuguese Armed Forces used quantities of M9A1 and M20 rocket launchers in their overseas provinces in Africa against Marxist guerrilla forces during the Portuguese Overseas War. The French Army also used the M9A1 and M20A1 launchers in various campaigns in Indochina, Korea, and Algeria. The M20A1 was replaced in the 1970s by the LRAC F1. Commonwealth armies also used the M20 and M20A1 under the name M20 Mk I and M20 Mk II. They were used until their replacement by the Carl Gustav L14A1. For instance, British Army used Super Bazookas during the Operation Vantage.
The Argentine Army fielded M20s during the Falklands War.
Variants
Rocket Launcher, M1 "bazooka"
First issued June 14, 1942 by Capt. L.A. Skinner
Used the M6 HEAT and M7 practice rockets (60 mm warhead).
Could penetrate up to 3 inches (76 mm) of armor
Velocity of
Overall length: .
Weight (unloaded): .
Rocket Launcher, M1A1 "bazooka"
Improved electrical system
Simplified design
Used the M6A1 HEAT and M7A1 practice rockets
Forward hand grip removed
Contact box removed
Supplanted the M1 in production beginning in July 1943
Overall length:
Weight (unloaded):
Rocket Launcher, M9 "bazooka"
Battery ignition replaced by trigger magneto
Could be disassembled into two halves for easier carrying
Metal instead of wooden furniture
Used the improved M6A3 HEAT, M7A3 practice, and M10 bursting smoke (white phosphorus) rockets (weight: 3.4 lbs., velocity: 265 feet per second)
Could penetrate up to 4 inches (102 mm) of armor
Supplanted the M1A1 in production beginning in October 1943
Overall length: fixed / disassembled
Weight (unloaded):
Rocket Launcher, M9A1 "bazooka"
An optical reflector sight replaced the iron sights beginning in September 1944. The M9A1 supplanted the M9 in production beginning in June 1944. It had an improved coupling mechanism for the launch tube; the overall length was and when folded. Unloaded weight was .
Rocket Launcher, M18 "bazooka"
Experimental version of the M9A1 made from aluminum alloy
Ordered in late summer 1945, canceled at war's end
Weight (unloaded):
Rocket Launcher, M20 "super bazooka"
Larger, 3.5 in (88.9 mm) caliber, warhead (Panzerschreck was 88 mm caliber)
Could penetrate up to 11 inches (280 mm) of armor
Extended range by about 150 m
Originally a larger version of the M9A1, designated M20 in late 1944
Entered active service just before the start of the Korean War
Rocket Launcher, M20A1 "super bazooka"
Product improved variant with improved connector latch assembly, entering production in 1952
Improved version of the M20
Rocket Launcher, M20B1 "super bazooka"
Lightweight version with barrels made of cast aluminum, other components simplified
Used as a supplement to the M20
Rocket Launcher, M20A1B1 "super bazooka"
M20B1 upgraded with M20A1 improvements
Rocket Launcher, M25 "three shot bazooka"
Experimental tripod mounted rocket launcher with overhead magazine circa 1955
RL-83 Blindicide
RL-83 Blindicide: An improved "bazooka" design of Belgian origin. Used by Belgian forces during the Congo Crisis and by the Swiss Army, Mexican Army and Israeli Army and various other armed forces.
The Blindicide was not a direct derivative of the M20 design, being smaller caliber (83 mm not 88.9 mm). The aluminium launch tube was externally reinforced with glass reinforced plastic.
The launch tube could be folded to just over half the opened length which made it far easier to carry into combat.
The Blindicide rocket had another major difference from the "super bazooka" in that it was mechanically fired with a percussion cap system, the launcher having a simple mechanical hammer with a firing pin, that was cocked by the loader. There were two safety levers, one on the aimer's pistol grip, and another at the rear of the launch tube for the protection of the loader.
Because no electrical connection had to be made between rocket and launcher, reload time was faster than for the "super bazooka" and a good team could fire off six rockets per minute.
Blindicide rockets were designed to spin in flight, six of the rocket's exhaust ports were angled to impart spin. While spinning the rocket improved accuracy, centrifugal forces acting on the explosive jet tended to spread the jet, impacting the thickness of armor that it could penetrate.
3.5 in Hydroar M20A1B1 Rocket Launcher
Brazil, manufactured by Hydroar SA—improved 3.5 M20A1B1. A hand grip with solid state firing circuit powered by two AA cells replaced the U.S.-designed hand grip with magneto trigger.
88.9 mm Instalaza M65
Developed by Instalaza for use by the Spanish Army, the M65 was an improved version of the M20 "super bazooka". It used an improved ignition method and new ammunition types. The available ammunition used were the CHM65 (HEAT), MB66 (dual-purpose), and FIM66 (smoke) shells. Older versions were designated M53 and M58.
Specifications
M1
Length: 54 in (137 cm)
Caliber: 2.36 in (60 mm)
Weight: 13 lb (5.9 kg)
Warhead: M6 or M6A2 shaped charge (3.5 lb, 1.59 kg)
Range
Maximum: 400 yards (370 m)
Effective: (claimed) 150 yards (140 m)
Crew: 2, operator and loader
M1A1
Length: 54 in (137 cm)
Caliber: 2.36 in (60 mm)
Weight: 12.75 lb (5.8 kg)
Warhead: M6A1 shaped charge (3.5 lb, 1.59 kg)
Range
Maximum: 400 yards (370 m)
Effective: (claimed) 150 yards (140 m)
Crew: 2, operator and loader
M9/M9A1
Length: 61 in (155 cm)
Caliber: 2.36 in (60 mm)
Weight: 14.3 lb (6.5 kg)
Warhead: M6A3 shaped charge (3.5 lb, 1.59 kg)
Range
Maximum: 400–500 yards (370–460 m)
Effective: (claimed) 120 yards (110 m)
Crew: 2, operator and loader (M9 and M9A1)
M20A1/A1B1
Length (when assembled for firing): 60 in (1,524 mm)
Caliber: 3.5 in (90 mm)
Weight (unloaded): M20A1: 14.3 lb (6.5 kg); M20A1B1: 13 lb (5.9 kg)
Warhead: M28A2 HEAT (9 lb) or T127E3/M30 WP (8.96 lb)
Range
Maximum: 1000 yd (913 m)
Effective (stationary target/moving target): 300 yd (270 m) / 200 yd (180 m)
Crew: 2, operator and loader
Users
: Super bazooka, replaced by AT4
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: RL-83., super bazooka acquired from Pakistan in 1971
: RL-83
: Super bazooka
: Bazooka and Super Bazooka
: Bazooka and Super Bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka During the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the anti-Castrist Brigade 2506 used 2.36-in bazookas against Castro's T-34s.
: Super bazooka
: Bazooka and Super Bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
Iraq: Super bazooka
: M20A1
: M20A1 and RL-83 variants
: JGSDF used super bazookas, replaced by the Carl Gustav recoilless rifles
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka M20
: M9A1 and M20 super bazooka
: Used captured M1s as 6 cm Raketenpanzerbüchse 788 (a)
: The M9A1 was used for a short period of time by the Dutch Army as the Raketwerper 2,36 inch. It served from the beginning of the 1950s to the end of the 1960s with the Landmacht as an instructional weapon, with the Troepenmacht in Suriname (TRIS, troop force in Surinam, part of the Landmacht), and the Nederlands Detachement Verenigde Naties (N.D.V.N.), Dutch Detachment United Nations) in 1950–1951 during the Korean War. During the Korean War, the 2.36-inch bazooka was replaced by the 3.5-inch M20. Although it replaced the M9A1 in 1951 with the N.D.V.N., the weapon was not introduced into the Landmacht until 1954. The M20 and M20B1 were later replaced by the 66 mm LAW in 1968, but the bazooka remained in inventory for reservists, mobilisation, and other non-priority uses until 1989.
: Super bazooka M20
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Large numbers of 2.36-inch and 3.5-inch bazookas were captured by the Chinese communists during the Chinese Civil War and Korean War. China also copied the 3.5-inch as the Type 51—with a projectile 90 mm in diameter. The Type 51 can fire captured 3.5-inch projectiles (i.e. 90 mm), but 3.5-inch super bazookas cannot load projectiles made for the Type 51.
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Bazooka, super bazooka
: M9A1 and M20A1 variants
: Bazooka
: M20 bazooka and improved designs (M53, M58 and M65).
: Super bazooka as Raketgevär 46, entered service concurrently with the Carl Gustaf 8.4cm recoilless rifle as the bazooka was war tested and the Carl was untried. The bazooka was later completely replaced by the Carl Gustaf
: Super bazooka as คจตถ. 3.5 นิ้ว in Royal Thai Army, replaced by Type 69 RPG
: Super bazooka
: Super bazooka
: Bazooka and super bazooka
: Type 51 bazooka, used by Viet Minh and Viet Cong
: Super bazooka
See also
Bazooka Joe
List of U.S. Army weapons by supply catalog designation (Group B)
Type 4 70 mm AT Rocket Launcher
Citations
General bibliography
.
External links
"How the Bazooka Team Stops Them"—December 1943 Popular Science article on the early M1 Bazooka with rare photos
Anti-Tank Rocket M6 Bazooka
90th Infantry Division Preservation Group page on Bazookas and Equipment
"New GI Weapons", Popular Science, October 1950—see pages 98 and 99
American inventions
Anti-tank rockets of the United States
Anti-tank weapons
Military equipment introduced in the 1940s
Weapons of the Philippine Army
World War II infantry weapons of the United States | [
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|
238508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead%28II%29%20nitrate | Lead(II) nitrate | Lead(II) nitrate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Pb(NO3)2. It commonly occurs as a colourless crystal or white powder and, unlike most other lead(II) salts, is soluble in water.
Known since the Middle Ages by the name plumbum dulce, the production of lead(II) nitrate from either metallic lead or lead oxide in nitric acid was small-scale, for direct use in making other lead compounds. In the nineteenth century lead(II) nitrate began to be produced commercially in Europe and the United States. Historically, the main use was as a raw material in the production of pigments for lead paints, but such paints have been superseded by less toxic paints based on titanium dioxide. Other industrial uses included heat stabilization in nylon and polyesters, and in coatings of photothermographic paper. Since around the year 2000, lead(II) nitrate has begun to be used in gold cyanidation.
Lead(II) nitrate is toxic and must be handled with care to prevent inhalation, ingestion and skin contact. Due to its hazardous nature, the limited applications of lead(II) nitrate are under constant scrutiny.
History
Lead nitrate was first identified in 1597 by the alchemist Andreas Libavius, who called the substance plumbum dulce, meaning "sweet lead", because of its taste. It is produced commercially by reaction of metallic lead with concentrated nitric acid in which it is sparingly soluble. It has been produced as a raw material for making pigments such as chrome yellow (lead(II) chromate, PbCrO4) and chrome orange (basic lead(II) chromate, Pb2CrO5) and Naples yellow. These pigments were used for dyeing and printing calico and other textiles. It has been used as an oxidizer in black powder and together with lead azide in special explosives.
Production
Lead nitrate is produced by reaction of lead(II) oxide with concentrated nitric acid:
PbO + 2 HNO3(concentrated) → Pb(NO3)2↓ + H2O
It may also be obtained evaporation of the solution obtained by reacting metallic lead with dilute nitric acid.
Pb + 4 HNO3 → Pb(NO3)2 + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O
Solutions and crystals of lead(II) nitrate are formed in the processing of lead–bismuth wastes from lead refineries.
Structure
The crystal structure of solid lead(II) nitrate has been determined by neutron diffraction. The compound crystallizes in the cubic system with the lead atoms in a face-centred cubic system. Its space group is Pa3Z=4 (Bravais lattice notation), with each side of the cube with length 784 picometres.
The black dots represent the lead atoms, the white dots the nitrate groups 27 picometres above the plane of the lead atoms, and the blue dots the nitrate groups the same distance below this plane. In this configuration, every lead atom is bonded to twelve oxygen atoms (bond length: 281 pm). All N–O bond lengths are identical, at 127 picometres.
Research interest in the crystal structure of lead(II) nitrate was partly based on the possibility of free internal rotation of the nitrate groups within the crystal lattice at elevated temperatures, but this did not materialise.
Chemical properties and reactions
Lead nitrate decomposes on heating, a property that has been used in pyrotechnics . It is soluble in water and dilute nitric acid.
Basic nitrates are formed in when alkali is added to a solution. Pb2(OH)2(NO3)2 is the predominant species formed at low pH. At higher pH Pb6(OH)5(NO3) is formed. The cation [Pb6O(OH)6]4+ is unusual in having an oxide ion inside a cluster of 3 face-sharing PbO4 tetrahedra.
There is no evidence for the formation of the hydroxide, Pb(OH)2, in aqueous solution below pH 12.
Solutions of lead nitrate can be used to form co-ordination complexes. Lead(II) is a hard acceptor; it forms stronger complexes with nitrogen and oxygen electron-donating ligands. For example, combining lead nitrate and pentaethylene glycol (EO5) in a solution of acetonitrile and methanol followed by slow evaporation produced the compound [Pb(NO3)2(EO5)]. In the crystal structure for this compound, the EO5 chain is wrapped around the lead ion in an equatorial plane similar to that of a crown ether. The two bidentate nitrate ligands are in trans configuration. The total coordination number is 10, with the lead ion in a bicapped square antiprism molecular geometry.
The complex formed by lead nitrate with a bithiazole bidentate N-donor ligand is binuclear. The crystal structure shows that the nitrate group forms a bridge between two lead atoms. One interesting aspect of this type of complexes is the presence of a physical gap in the coordination sphere; i.e., the ligands are not placed symmetrically around the metal ion. This is potentially due to a lead lone pair of electrons, also found in lead complexes with an imidazole ligand.
Applications
Lead nitrate has been used as a heat stabiliser in nylon and polyesters, as a coating for photothermographic paper, and in rodenticides.
Heating lead nitrate is convenient means of making nitrogen dioxide
2 Pb(NO3)2 → 2 PbO + 4 NO2 + O2
In the gold cyanidation process, addition of lead(II) nitrate solution improves the leaching process. Only limited amounts (10 to 100 milligrams lead nitrate per kilogram gold) are required.
In organic chemistry, it may be used in the preparation of isothiocyanates from dithiocarbamates. Its use as a bromide scavenger during SN1 substitution has been reported.
Safety
Lead(II) nitrate is toxic, and ingestion may lead to acute lead poisoning, as is applicable for all soluble lead compounds. All inorganic lead compounds are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as probably carcinogenic to humans (Category 2A). They have been linked to renal cancer and glioma in experimental animals and to renal cancer, brain cancer and lung cancer in humans, although studies of workers exposed to lead are often complicated by concurrent exposure to arsenic. Lead is known to substitute for zinc in a number of enzymes, including δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (porphobilinogen synthase) in the haem biosynthetic pathway and pyrimidine-5′-nucleotidase, important for the correct metabolism of DNA and can therefore cause fetal damage.
References
External links
Material Safety Data Sheets
MSDS for lead nitrate, PTCL, Oxford University
MSDS for lead nitrate, Science Stuff Inc
MSDS for lead nitrate, Iowa State University
IARC Group 2A carcinogens
Lead(II) compounds
Nitrates
Oxidizing agents | [
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|
238511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domr%C3%A9my-la-Pucelle | Domrémy-la-Pucelle | Domrémy-la-Pucelle (, ; ) is a commune in the Vosges department in Grand Est in northeastern France.
The village, originally named Domrémy, is the birthplace of Joan of Arc. It has since been renamed Domrémy-la-Pucelle after Joan's nickname, ("the Maid of Orléans").
Geography
Domrémy is positioned along the Upper Meuse Valley, north of the town of Coussey. The village land includes a small wooded hill to the west of the houses, which rises to a height of 407 metres (1335'), known as the Domrémy Wood. This overlooks the small adjacent settlement of Les Roises.
History
Domrémy and Greux were exempted from taxes "forever" by Charles VII in 1429. It was the sole request made of the king by Joan of Arc when Charles asked her how he could show her his appreciation for seeing him crowned; Joan felt that taxes burdened the villagers. Moreover, he wished to do a good deed for her success in fighting the English during the Hundred Years' War. Taxes were imposed upon Domrémy and Greux again during the French Revolution; the residents have paid taxes since.
Until 1766, Domrémy was part of the Duchy of Bar (within a section of the duchy which owed fealty to the Crown of France although the other half of the duchy was part of the Holy Roman Empire). In that year, the Duchy, part of which had become a fief of the Kingdom of France in 1301, escheated to the crown fully upon the death of its last duke, Stanisław Leszczyński.
Demographics
Gallery
See also
Communes of the Vosges department
References
External links
Domrémy-la-Pucelle official website
Communes of Vosges (department) | [
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238512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomew%20Roberts | Bartholomew Roberts | Bartholomew Roberts (17 May 1682 – 10 February 1722), born John Roberts, was a Welsh pirate and the most successful pirate of the Golden Age of Piracy (measured by vessels captured), taking over 400 prizes in his career. Roberts raided ships off the Americas and the West African coast between 1719 and 1722; he is also noted for creating his own Pirate Code, and adopting an early variant of the Skull and Crossbones flag.
Roberts' infamy and success saw him become known as The Great Pyrate and eventually as Black Bart (), and made him a popular subject for writers of both fiction and non-fiction. To this day, Roberts continues to feature in novels, films and video games (such as Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag) as well as inspire fictional characters (such as the Dread Pirate Roberts).
Early life
He was born John Roberts in 1682 in Casnewydd Bach, between Fishguard and Haverfordwest in Pembrokeshire, Wales. His father was most likely George Roberts. It is unclear why Roberts changed his name from John to Bartholomew, but pirates often adopted aliases. He may have chosen his first name after the well-known buccaneer Bartholomew Sharp. He was thought to have gone to sea when he was 13 in 1695, but there is no further record of him until 1718, when he was mate of a Barbados sloop.
In 1719, Roberts was second mate on the slave ship Princess under Captain Abraham Plumb. In early June that year, the Princess was anchored at Anomabu (then spelled Annamaboa, which is situated along the Gold Coast of West Africa, present-day Ghana) when she was captured by pirates. The pirates were in two vessels, Royal Rover and Royal James, and were led by captain Howell Davis. Davis, like Roberts, was a Welshman, originally from Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire. Roberts and several other of the crew of the Princess were forced to join the pirates.
Davis quickly discovered Roberts' abilities as a navigator and took to consulting him. He was also able to confide information to Roberts in the Welsh language, thereby keeping it hidden from the English and international crewmen. Roberts is said to have been reluctant to become a pirate at first, but soon came to see the advantages of this new lifestyle. Captain Charles Johnson reports him as saying:
Life as a pirate
Commander or commoner?
In the merchant navy, Roberts' wage was less than £4 per month and he had no chance of promotion to captaincy.
A few weeks after Roberts' capture, Royal James had to be abandoned because of worm damage. Royal Rover headed for the island of Príncipe. Davis hoisted the flags of a British man-of-war and was allowed to enter the harbour. After a few days, Davis invited the governor to lunch on board his ship, intending to hold him hostage for a ransom. Davis had to send boats to collect the governor, and he was invited to call at the fort for a glass of wine first. The Portuguese had discovered that their visitors were pirates. They ambushed Davis' party on its way to the fort, shooting Davis dead.
A new captain had to be elected. Davis' crew was divided into "Lords" and "Commons", and it was the "Lords" who had the right to propose a name to the remainder of the crew. Within six weeks of his capture, Roberts was elected captain. This was unusual, especially as he had objected to serving on the vessel. Historians believe he was elected for his navigational abilities and his personality, which history reflects was outspoken and opinionated.
Roberts' first act as captain was to lead the crew back to Príncipe to avenge the death of Captain Davis. Roberts and his crew landed on the island in the darkness of night, killed a large portion of the male population, and stole all items of value that they could carry away. Soon afterwards, he captured a Dutch Guineaman, then two days later a British ship called Experiment. The pirate ship took on water and provisions at Anamboe, where a vote was taken on whether the next voyage should be to the East Indies or to Brazil. The vote was for Brazil.
The combination of bravery and success that marked this adventure cemented most of the crew's loyalty to Roberts. They concluded that he was "pistol proof" and that they had much to gain by staying with him.
Brazil and the Caribbean July 1719 – May 1720
Roberts and his crew crossed the Atlantic and watered and boot-topped their ship on the uninhabited island of Ferdinando. They spent about nine weeks off the Brazilian coast but saw no ships. They were about to leave for the West Indies when they encountered a fleet of 42 Portuguese ships in the Todos os Santos' Bay, waiting for two men-of-war of 70 guns each to escort them to Lisbon. Roberts took one of the vessels and ordered her master to point out the richest ship in the fleet. He pointed out Sagrada Familia, a ship of 40 guns and a crew of 170, which Roberts and his men boarded and captured. Sagrada Familia contained 40,000 gold moidores and jewellery designed for the King of Portugal, including a cross set with diamonds.
Rover next headed for Devil's Island off the coast of Guiana to spend the booty. A few weeks later, they headed for the River Surinam where they captured a sloop. After they sighted a brigantine, Roberts took 40 men to pursue it in the sloop, leaving Walter Kennedy in command of Rover. The sloop became wind-bound for eight days, and when Roberts and his crew finally returned to their ship, they discovered that Kennedy had sailed off with Rover and what remained of the loot. Roberts and his crew renamed their sloop Fortune and agreed on new articles, now known as a pirate code, which they swore on a Bible to uphold.
In late February 1720, they were joined by French pirate Montigny la Palisse in another sloop, Sea King. The inhabitants of Barbados equipped two well-armed ships, Summerset and Philipa, to try to put an end to the pirate menace. On 26 February, they encountered the two pirate sloops. Sea King quickly fled, and Fortune broke off the engagement after sustaining considerable damage and was able to escape. Roberts headed for Dominica to repair the sloop, with twenty of his crew dying of their wounds on the voyage. There were also two sloops from Martinique out searching for the pirates, and Roberts swore vengeance against the inhabitants of Barbados and Martinique. He had a new flag made with a drawing of himself holding a flaming sword and standing upon 2 skulls, one labelled ABH (A Barbadian's Head) and the other AMH (A Martiniquian's Head).
Newfoundland and the Caribbean June 1720 – April 1721
Fortune next headed northwards towards Newfoundland, raiding Canso, Nova Scotia, and capturing a number of ships around Cape Breton and the Newfoundland banks. Roberts raided the harbour of Ferryland, capturing a dozen vessels. On 21 June, he attacked the larger harbour of Trepassey, sailing in with black flags flying. In the harbour he discovered 22 merchant ships and 150 fishing ships. All of these vessels were abandoned by their panic-stricken captains and crews, and the pirates were masters of Trepassey without any resistance being offered. Roberts had captured all 22 merchant ships, but was angered by the cowardice of the captains who had fled their ships. Every morning he had a gun fired and the captains were forced to attend Roberts on board his ship; they were told that anyone who was absent would have his ship burnt. One brig from Bristol was taken over by the pirates to replace the sloop Fortune and fitted out with 16 guns. When the pirates left in late June, all the other vessels in the harbour were set on fire. During July, Roberts captured nine or ten French ships and commandeered one of them, fitting her with 26 cannons and changing her name to Good Fortune. With this more powerful ship, the pirates captured many more vessels before heading south for the West Indies, accompanied by Montigny la Palisse's sloop, which had rejoined them.
In September 1720, Good Fortune was careened and repaired at the island of Carriacou before being renamed Royal Fortune, the first of several ships to be given this name by Roberts. In late September, Royal Fortune and Fortune headed for the island of St. Christopher's and entered Basse Terra Road, flying black flags and with their drummers and trumpeters playing. They sailed in among the ships in the Road, all of which promptly struck their flags. The next landfall was at the island of St. Bartholomew, where the French governor allowed the pirates to remain for several weeks to carouse. By 25 October, they were at sea again off St. Lucia, where they captured up to 15 French and English ships in the next three days. Among the captured ships was Greyhound, whose chief mate James Skyrme joined the pirates. He later became captain of Roberts' consort, Ranger.
During this time, Roberts reportedly caught Florimond Hurault de Montigny, the Governor of Martinique, who was sailing aboard a 52-gun French warship. The Governor was caught and promptly hanged on the yardarm of his own ship, which the pirates converted into the new Royal Fortune. According to Konstam and Rickman, this reported capture was an embellishment by Captain Charles Johnson in his A General History of the Pyrates.
By the spring of 1721, Roberts' depredations had almost brought seaborne trade to a standstill in the West Indies. Royal Fortune and Good Fortune therefore set sail for West Africa. On 18 April, Thomas Anstis, the commander of Good Fortune, left Roberts in the night and continued to raid shipping in the Caribbean, with future captains John Fenn and Brigstock Weaver aboard. Royal Fortune continued towards Africa.
West Africa April 1721 – January 1722
By late April, Roberts was at the Cape Verde islands. Royal Fortune was found to be leaky and abandoned there. The pirates transferred to Sea King, which was renamed Royal Fortune. The new Royal Fortune made landfall off the Guinea coast in early June, near the mouth of the Senegal River. Two French ships, one of 10 guns and one of 16 guns, gave chase, but were captured by Roberts. Both ships were commandeered. One, Comte de Toulouse, was renamed Ranger, while the other was named Little Ranger and used as a storeship. Thomas Sutton was made captain of Ranger and James Skyrme captain of Little Ranger.
Roberts next headed for Sierra Leone, arriving on 12 June. Here he was told by retired pirate John "Old Crackers" Leadstone that two Royal Navy ships, and , had left at the end of April, planning to return before Christmas. On 8 August, he captured two large ships at Point Cestos, now River Cess in Liberia. One of these was the frigate Onslow, transporting soldiers bound for Cape Coast (Cabo Corso) Castle. A number of the soldiers wished to join the pirates, and they were eventually accepted, however they only received a quarter of a pirates pay because they were not sailors most of their lives. Onslow was converted to become the fourth Royal Fortune. In November and December, the pirates careened their ships and relaxed at Cape Lopez and the island of Annobón. Sutton was replaced by Skyrme as captain of Ranger.
They captured several vessels in January 1722, then sailed into Ouidah (Whydah) harbour with black flags flying. The eleven ships at anchor there immediately struck their colours, but were restored to their owners after a ransom of eight pounds of gold dust per ship was paid. When the master of one of the ships refused these terms, Roberts had his crew climb aboard the ship and set her on fire. The captured vessels were slave ships, and the one set on fire had around eighty enslaved Africans on board. They perished either as a result of the fire or by drowning or shark attack after jumping overboard.
Death in battle
On 5 February 1722, Captain Chaloner Ogle of HMS Swallow came upon the pirate ships Royal Fortune, Ranger, and Little Ranger careening at Cape Lopez. Swallow veered away to avoid a shoal, making the pirates think that she was a fleeing merchant ship; some sources claim Ogle spotted Roberts' ships and turned Swallow as a ruse. Ranger departed in pursuit, commanded by James Skyrme. Once out of earshot of the other pirates, Swallow opened her gun ports and opened fire. Ten pirates were killed and Skyrme had his leg taken off by a cannonball, but he refused to leave the deck. Eventually, Ranger was forced to strike her colors, and the surviving crew were captured.
On 10 February, Swallow returned to Cape Lopez and found Royal Fortune still there. On the previous day, Roberts had captured Neptune, and many of his crew were drunk and unfit for duty just when he needed them most. At first, the pirates thought that the approaching ship was Ranger returning, but a deserter from Swallow recognized her and informed Roberts while he was breakfasting with Captain Hill, the master of Neptune. As he usually did before action, he dressed himself in his finest clothes:
The pirates' plan was to sail past Swallow, which meant exposing themselves to one broadside. Once past, they would have a good chance of escaping. However, the helmsman failed to keep Royal Fortune on the right course, and Swallow was able to approach to deliver a second broadside. Captain Roberts was killed by grapeshot, which struck him in the throat while he stood on the deck. Before his body could be captured by Ogle, Roberts's wish to be buried at sea with all his arms and ornaments on (a request he had repeated in life) was fulfilled by his crew, who weighed his body down and threw it overboard after wrapping it in his ship's sail. It was never found.
Roberts's death shocked the pirate world, as well as the Royal Navy. The local merchants and civilians had thought him invincible, and some considered him a hero.
Aftermath
The battle continued for another two hours until Royal Fortunes mainmast fell and the pirates signaled for quarter. One member of the crew, John Philips, tried to reach the magazine with a lighted match to blow up the ship, but was prevented by two men. Only three pirates had been killed in the battle, including Roberts. A total of 272 pirates serving under Roberts had been captured during the battle; of these, 65 were former African slaves that Roberts had emancipated, and they were sold back into slavery. The remainder were taken to Cape Coast Castle, apart from those who died on the voyage back. 54 were condemned to death, of whom 52 were hanged and two reprieved. Another twenty were allowed to sign indentures with the Royal African Company; Burl comments that they "exchanged an immediate death for a lingering one". Seventeen men were sent to the Marshalsea prison in London for trial, where some were acquitted and released.
Of the captured pirates who told their place of birth, 42% were from Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset, and another 19% from London. There were smaller numbers from northern England and from Wales, and another quarter from a variety of countries including Ireland, Scotland, the West Indies, the Netherlands, and Greece.
Captain Chaloner Ogle was rewarded with a knighthood, the only British naval officer to be honoured specifically for his actions against pirates. He also profited financially, taking gold dust from Roberts' cabin, and he eventually became an admiral.
This battle proved a turning point in the war against the pirates, and many consider the death of Roberts to mark the end of the Golden Age of Piracy.
Pirate Code
As recorded by Captain Charles Johnson regarding the articles of Bartholomew Roberts:
Personal characteristics
Most of the information on Roberts comes from the book A General History of the Pyrates, published a few years after Roberts' death. The original 1724 title page credits one Captain Charles Johnson as the author. (The book is often printed under the byline of Daniel Defoe on the assumption that "Charles Johnson" is a pseudonym, but there is no proof that Defoe is the author, and the matter remains in dispute.) Johnson devotes more space to Roberts than to any of the other pirates in his book, describing him as:
Roberts is commonly described as wearing a red waistcoat with scarlet breeches and a scarlet flamingo plume. The red costume may have been to disguise any blood in battle or as a demonstration of his disregard for anonymity. Roberts also wore a large diamond cross which was reputedly the property of the King of Portugal.
After his exploits in Newfoundland, a state Governor from New England commented that "one cannot with-hold admiration for his bravery and courage". He hated cowardice, and when the crews of 22 ships in Trepassey harbour fled without firing a shot he was angry at their failure to defend their ships.
Roberts was the archetypal pirate captain in his love of fine clothing and jewelry, but he had some traits unusual in a pirate, notably a preference for drinking tea rather than rum. He is often described as a teetotaler and a Sabbatarian, but there is no proof of this. He certainly disliked drunkenness while at sea, yet it appears that he drank beer. Ironically, Roberts' final defeat was facilitated by the drunkenness of his crew. The Sabbatarian claim arises from the fact that musicians were not obliged to play on the Sabbath – this may merely have been intended to ensure the musicians a day's rest, as they were otherwise obliged to play whenever the crew demanded.
Black Bart was not as cruel to prisoners as some pirates such as Edward Low and Francis Spriggs, but did not treat them as well as did Samuel Bellamy, Howell Davis, or Edward England. Roberts sometimes gave gifts to cooperative captains and crews of captured ships, such as pieces of jewelry or items of captured cargo. He would sometimes ill-use prisoners if he felt that the crew demanded it, but:
Popular culture
Notes
Citations
References
Botting, Douglas (1978) The Pirates. Time-Life Books.
Burl, Aubrey (2006) Black Barty: Bartholomew Roberts and his pirate crew 1718–1723. Sutton Publishing.
Cawthorne, Nigel (2005) Pirates: an Illustrated History. Capella.
Cordingly, David (1999) Life Among the Pirates: the Romance and the Reality. Abacus.
Johnson, Charles (1724). A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates (1998 ed.). Conway Maritime Press. .
Rediker, Marcus (2004) Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age. Beacon Press.
Richards, Stanley (1966) Black Bart. Christopher Davies.
Sanders, Richard (2007), If a Pirate I Must Be ... The True Story of "Black Bart," King of the Caribbean Pirates. Aurum Press, Ltd.
Stevenson, Robert Louis (1994) Treasure Island Puffin Books.
Yount, Lisa (2002) Pirates. Lucent Books.
External links
World History Encyclopedia - Bartholomew Roberts
PiratesInfo.com biography
Biography of Bartholomew Roberts
BBC Article (Welsh)
Famous Welsh Article
1682 births
1722 deaths
17th-century Welsh people
18th-century Welsh people
18th-century pirates
Burials at sea
People from Pembrokeshire
Welsh pirates
Deaths by firearm in international waters
People who died at sea
British slave traders
People captured by pirates
Canadian pirates
Caribbean pirates | [
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|
238513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphysodon%20discus | Symphysodon discus | Symphysodon discus, the red discus or Heckel discus, is a species of cichlid native to the Amazon Basin, where found in the lower Rio Negro, upper Uatumã, Nhamundá, Trombetas and Abacaxis.
This species is essentially restricted to blackwater habitats with a high temperature of and low pH of 4.2–5.2.
This species grows to a length of SL.
This species can also be found in the aquarium trade.
Parental care
Small fry of this fish feed on the mucus secreted by their parents.
References
External links
Cichlid fish of South America
Fish described in 1840
Mucous feeding fish
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|
238517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kip%20Thorne | Kip Thorne | Kip Stephen Thorne (born June 1, 1940) is an American theoretical physicist known for his contributions in gravitational physics and astrophysics. A longtime friend and colleague of Stephen Hawking and Carl Sagan, he was the Richard P. Feynman Professor of Theoretical Physics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) until 2009 and is one of the world's leading experts on the astrophysical implications of Einstein's general theory of relativity. He continues to do scientific research and scientific consulting, most notably for the Christopher Nolan film Interstellar. Thorne was awarded the 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics along with Rainer Weiss and Barry C. Barish "for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves".
Life and career
Thorne was born on June 1, 1940, in Logan, Utah. His father, D. Wynne Thorne (1908–1979), was a professor of soil chemistry at Utah State University, and his mother, Alison (née Comish; 1914–2004), was an economist and the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in economics from Iowa State College. Raised in an academic environment, two of his four siblings also became professors. Thorne's parents were members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and raised Thorne in the LDS faith, though he now describes himself as atheist. Regarding his views on science and religion, Thorne has stated: "There are large numbers of my finest colleagues who are quite devout and believe in God .... There is no fundamental incompatibility between science and religion. I happen to not believe in God."
Thorne rapidly excelled at academics early in life, winning recognition in the Westinghouse Science Talent Search as a senior at Logan High School. He received his B.S. degree from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 1962, and his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1965 under the supervision of John Archibald Wheeler with a doctoral dissertation entitled "Geometrodynamics of Cylindrical Systems".
Thorne returned to Caltech as an associate professor in 1967 and became a professor of theoretical physics in 1970, becoming one of the youngest full professors in the history of Caltech at age 30. He became the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor in 1981, and the Feynman Professor of Theoretical Physics in 1991. He was an adjunct professor at the University of Utah from 1971 to 1998 and Andrew D. White Professor at Large at Cornell University from 1986 to 1992. In June 2009, he resigned his Feynman Professorship (he is now the Feynman Professor of Theoretical Physics, Emeritus) to pursue a career of writing and movie making. His first film project was Interstellar, on which he worked with Christopher Nolan and Jonathan Nolan.
Throughout the years, Thorne has served as a mentor and thesis advisor for many leading theorists who now work on observational, experimental, or astrophysical aspects of general relativity. Approximately 50 physicists have received Ph.D.s at Caltech under Thorne's personal mentorship.
Thorne is known for his ability to convey the excitement and significance of discoveries in gravitation and astrophysics to both professional and lay audiences. His presentations on subjects such as black holes, gravitational radiation, relativity, time travel, and wormholes have been included in PBS shows in the U.S. and on the BBC in the United Kingdom.
Thorne and Linda Jean Peterson married in 1960. Their children are Kares Anne and Bret Carter, an architect. Thorne and Peterson divorced in 1977. Thorne and his second wife, Carolee Joyce Winstein, a professor of biokinesiology and physical therapy at USC, married in 1984.
Research
Thorne's research has principally focused on relativistic astrophysics and gravitation physics, with emphasis on relativistic stars, black holes and especially gravitational waves. He is perhaps best known to the public for his controversial theory that wormholes can conceivably be used for time travel. However, Thorne's scientific contributions, which center on the general nature of space, time, and gravity, span the full range of topics in general relativity.
Gravitational waves and LIGO
Thorne's work has dealt with the prediction of gravitational wave strengths and their temporal signatures as observed on Earth. These "signatures" are of great relevance to LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory), a multi-institution gravitational wave experiment for which Thorne has been a leading proponent – in 1984, he cofounded the LIGO Project (the largest project ever funded by the NSF) to discern and measure any fluctuations between two or more 'static' points; such fluctuations would be evidence of gravitational waves, as calculations describe. A significant aspect of his research is developing the mathematics necessary to analyze these objects. Thorne also carries out engineering design analyses for features of the LIGO that cannot be developed on the basis of experiment and he gives advice on data analysis algorithms by which the waves will be sought. He has provided theoretical support for LIGO, including identifying gravitational wave sources that LIGO should target, designing the baffles to control scattered light in the LIGO beam tubes, and – in collaboration with Vladimir Braginsky's (Moscow, Russia) research group – inventing quantum nondemolition designs for advanced gravity-wave detectors and ways to reduce the most serious kind of noise in advanced detectors: thermoelastic noise. With Carlton M. Caves, Thorne invented the back-action-evasion approach to quantum nondemolition measurements of the harmonic oscillators – a technique applicable both in gravitational wave detection and quantum optics.
On February 11, 2016, a team of four physicists representing the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, announced that in September 2015, LIGO recorded the signature of two black holes colliding 1.3 billion light-years away. This recorded detection was the first direct observation of the fleeting chirp of a gravitational wave and confirmed an important prediction of Einstein's general theory of relativity.
Black hole cosmology
While he was studying for his Ph.D. in Princeton University, his mentor John Wheeler gave him an assignment problem for him to think over: find out whether or not a cylindrical bundle of repulsive magnetic field lines will implode under its own attractive gravitational force. After several months wrestling with the problem, he proved that it was impossible for cylindrical magnetic field lines to implode.
Why is it that a cylindrical bundle of magnetic field lines will not implode, while spherical stars will implode under their own gravitational force? Thorne tried to explore the theoretical ridge between the two phenomena. He found out eventually that the gravitational force can overcome all interior pressure only when an object has been compressed in all directions. To express this realization, Thorne proposed his hoop conjecture, which describes an imploding star turning into a black hole when the critical circumference of the designed hoop can be placed around it and set into rotation. That is, any object of mass M around which a hoop of circumference can be spun must be a black hole.
As a tool to be used in both enterprises, astrophysics and theoretical physics, Thorne and his students have developed an unusual approach, called the "membrane paradigm", to the theory of black holes and used it to clarify the "Blandford-Znajek" mechanism by which black holes may power some quasars and active galactic nuclei.
Thorne has investigated the quantum statistical mechanical origin of the entropy of a black hole. With his postdoc Wojciech Zurek, he showed that the entropy of a black hole is the logarithm of the number of ways that the hole could have been made.
With Igor Novikov and Don Page, he developed the general relativistic theory of thin accretion disks around black holes, and using this theory he deduced that with a doubling of its mass by such accretion a black hole will be spun up to 0.998 of the maximum spin allowed by general relativity, but not any farther. This is probably the maximum black-hole spin allowed in nature.
Wormholes and time travel
Thorne and his co-workers at Caltech conducted scientific research on whether the laws of physics permit space and time to be multiply connected (can there exist classical, traversable wormholes and "time machines"?). With Sung-Won Kim, Thorne identified a universal physical mechanism (the explosive growth of vacuum polarization of quantum fields), that may always prevent spacetime from developing closed timelike curves (i.e., prevent backward time travel).
With Mike Morris and Ulvi Yurtsever, he showed that traversable wormholes can exist in the structure of spacetime only if they are threaded by quantum fields in quantum states that violate the averaged null energy condition (i.e. have negative renormalized energy spread over a sufficiently large region). This has triggered research to explore the ability of quantum fields to possess such extended negative energy. Recent calculations by Thorne indicate that simple masses passing through traversable wormholes could never engender paradoxes – there are no initial conditions that lead to paradox once time travel is introduced. If his results can be generalized, they would suggest that none of the supposed paradoxes formulated in time travel stories can actually be formulated at a precise physical level: that is, that any situation in a time travel story turns out to permit many consistent solutions.
Relativistic stars, multipole moments and other endeavors
With Anna Żytkow, Thorne predicted the existence of red supergiant stars with neutron-star cores (Thorne–Żytkow objects). He laid the foundations for the theory of pulsations of relativistic stars and the gravitational radiation they emit. With James Hartle, Thorne derived from general relativity the laws of motion and precession of black holes and other relativistic bodies, including the influence of the coupling of their multipole moments to the spacetime curvature of nearby objects, as well as writing down the Hartle-Thorne metric, an approximate solution which describes the exterior of a slowly and rigidly rotating, stationary and axially symmetric body.
Thorne has also theoretically predicted the existence of universally antigravitating "exotic matter" – the element needed to accelerate the expansion rate of the universe, keep traversable wormhole "Star Gates" open and keep timelike geodesic free float "warp drives" working. With Clifford Will and others of his students, he laid the foundations for the theoretical interpretation of experimental tests of relativistic theories of gravity – foundations on which Will and others then built. , Thorne was interested in the origin of classical space and time from the quantum foam of quantum gravity theory.
Publications
Thorne has written and edited books on topics in gravitational theory and high-energy astrophysics. In 1973, he co-authored the textbook Gravitation with Charles Misner and John Wheeler; that according to John C. Baez and Chris Hillman, is one of the great scientific books of all time and has inspired two generations of students. In 1994, he published Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy, a book for non-scientists for which he received numerous awards. This book has been published in six languages, and editions in Chinese, Italian, Czech, and Polish are in press. In 2014, Thorne published The Science of Interstellar in which he explains the science behind Christopher Nolan's film Interstellar; Nolan wrote the foreword to the book. In September 2017, Thorne and Roger D. Blandford published Modern Classical Physics: Optics, Fluids, Plasmas, Elasticity, Relativity, and Statistical Physics, a graduate-level textbook covering the six major areas of physics listed in the title.
Thorne's articles have appeared in publications such as:
Scientific American,
McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Technology, and
Collier's Encyclopedia among others.
Thorne has published more than 150 articles in scholarly journals.
Honors and awards
Thorne has been elected to:
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1972)
the National Academy of Sciences,
the Russian Academy of Sciences, and
the American Philosophical Society.
He has been recognized by numerous awards including:
the American Institute of Physics Science Writing Award in Physics and Astronomy,
the Phi Beta Kappa Science Writing Award,
the American Physical Society's Lilienfeld Prize,
the German Astronomical Society's Karl Schwarzschild Medal (1996),
the Robinson Prize in Cosmology from the University of Newcastle, England,
the Sigma Xi: The Scientific Research Society's Common Wealth Awards for Science and Invention, and
the California Science Center's California Scientist of the Year Award (2003).
the Albert Einstein Medal in 2009 from the Albert Einstein Society, Bern, Switzerland
the UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal from UNESCO (2010)
the Special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics (2016)
the Gruber Prize in Cosmology (2016)
the Shaw Prize (2016) (together with Ronald Drever and Rainer Weiss).
the Kavli Prize in Astrophysics (2016) (together with Ronald Drever and Rainer Weiss).
the Tomalla Prize (2016) for extraordinary contributions to general relativity and gravity.
the Georges Lemaître Prize (2016)
the Harvey Prize (2016) (together with Ronald Drever and Rainer Weiss).
the Smithsonian Magazine American Ingenuity Award for Physical Sciences (2016)
the Princess of Asturias Award (2017) (jointly with Rainer Weiss and Barry Barish).
the Nobel Prize in Physics (2017) (jointly with Rainer Weiss and Barry Barish)
the Lewis Thomas Prize (2018)
the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (2019)
He has been a Woodrow Wilson Fellow, Danforth Fellow, Guggenheim Fellow, and Fulbright Fellow. He has also received the honorary degree of doctor of humane letters from Claremont Graduate University and an honorary doctorate from the Physics Department of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
He was elected to hold the Lorentz chair for the year 2009 Leiden University, the Netherlands.
Thorne has served on:
the International Committee on General Relativity and Gravitation,
the Committee on US-USSR Cooperation in Physics, and
the National Academy of Sciences' Space Science Board, which has advised NASA and Congress on space science policy.
Kip Thorne was selected by Time magazine in an annual list of the 100 most influential people in the American world in 2016.
Adaptation in media
Thorne contributed ideas on wormhole travel to Carl Sagan for use in his novel Contact.
Thorne and his friend, producer Lynda Obst, also developed the concept for the Christopher Nolan film Interstellar. He also wrote a tie-in book, The Science of Interstellar. Thorne later advised Nolan on the physics of his movie Tenet.
In Larry Niven's novel Rainbow Mars, the time travel technology used in the novel is based on the wormhole theories of Thorne, which in the context of the novel was when time travel first became possible, rather than just fantasy. As a result, any attempts to travel in time prior to Thorne's development of wormhole theory results in the time traveller entering a fantastic version of reality, rather than the actual past.
In the film The Theory of Everything, Thorne was portrayed by actor Enzo Cilenti.
Thorne played himself in the episode of The Big Bang Theory entitled "The Laureate Accumulation", episode 18 of season 12.
Partial bibliography
Misner, Charles W., Thorne, K. S. and Wheeler, John Archibald, Gravitation 1973, (W H Freeman & Co)
Thorne, K. S., in 300 Years of Gravitation, (Eds.) S. W. Hawking and W. Israel, 1987, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press), Gravitational Radiation.
Thorne, K. S., Price, R. H. and Macdonald, D. M., Black Holes, The Membrane Paradigm, 1986, (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press).
Friedman, J., Morris, M. S., Novikov, I. D., Echeverria, F., Klinkhammer, G., Thorne, K. S. and Yurtsever, U., Physical Review D., 1990, (in press), Cauchy Problem in Spacetimes with Closed Timelike Curves.
Thorne, K. S. and Blandford, R. D., Modern Classical Physics: Optics, Fluids, Plasmas, Elasticity, Relativity, and Statistical Physics, 2017, (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
See also
Polchinski's paradox
Notes
References
External links
Home Page
Crunch Time
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Living people
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Particle physicists
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UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal recipients
University of Utah faculty
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Kavli Prize laureates in Astrophysics
Albert Einstein Medal recipients | [
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|
238521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ride | Ride | Ride may refer to:
People
MC Ride, a member of Death Grips
Sally Ride (1951–2012), American astronaut
William Ride (19262011), Australian zoologist
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
Ride (1998 film), a 1998 comedy by Millicent Shelton
Ride, a 2004 short film by Stephen Sinclair
Ride (2009 film), a Telugu film
Ride (2012 film), an American short music film.
Ride (2014 film), an American drama film starring Helen Hunt
Ride (2018 film), a 2018 film with American actress Bella Thorne
Games
Ride (video game), 2015 video game
Tony Hawk: Ride, a video game
Music
Albums
Ride (Billy Crawford album)
Ride (EP), by Ride
Ride (Shelly Fairchild album)
Ride (Godspeed album)
Ride (Jo Hikk album)
Ride (Boney James album)
Ride (Loreen album)
Ride (Oysterband album)
Ride (Jamie Walters album)
R.I.D.E. (pronounced "Ride"), album by Trick Pony
Ride, by NaNa
Songs
"Ride" (Ace Hood song), 2018
"Ride" (Baker Boy song), featuring Yirrmal, 2021
"Ride" (Ciara song), 2010
"Ride" (Lana Del Rey song), 2012
"Ride" (Lenny Kravitz song), 2018
"Ride" (Martina McBride song), 2008
"Ride" (SoMo song), 2013
"Ride" (Twenty One Pilots song), 2015
"Ride" (the Vines song), 2004
"Ride" (ZZ Ward song), featuring Gary Clark Jr., 2017
"Ride!", by Dee Dee Sharp, 1963
"Ride", a contemporary concert band piece composed by Samuel Hazo
"Ride", an instrumental from Bond's album Shine
"Ride", by Beautiful Creatures, from the album Beautiful Creatures
"Ride", by Caravan, from the album Caravan
"Ride", by Cary Brothers, from the album Who You Are
"Ride", by Chase Rice, from the album Ignite the Night
"Ride", by Shea Couleé from the album Couleé-D
"Ride", by The Dandy Warhols, from the album Dandys Rule OK
"Ride", by Deepsky, from the album In Silico
"Ride", by Empire of the Sun, from the album Two Vines
"Ride", by Liz Phair, from the album whitechocolatespaceegg
"Ride", by Max Ehrich, written for the film Walk. Ride. Rodeo.
"Ride", by Rob Zombie, from the album Educated Horses
"Ride", by Robyn Hitchcock, from the album Perspex Island
"Ride", by Royce da 5'9", from the album Independent's Day
"Ride", by Sir Mix-a-Lot, from the album Chief Boot Knocka
"Ride", by Trace Adkins, from the album Dangerous Man
"Ride", by Usher, from the album Confessions
Other uses in music
Ride (band), English rock band
Ride, musical improvisation, common in early jazz
Ride cymbal, the standard cymbal in most drum kits
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Ride (TV series), a drama TV series on YTV and Nickelodeon
Ride, a 2002 novel by David Walton
RIDE: A Review Journal for Digital Editions and Resources, a peer-reviewed academic journal published by the Institut für Dokumentologie und Editorik
Other uses
Amusement ride
Bridleway, or ride, a track through woodland for horse riders
Reduce Impaired Driving Everywhere, a sobriety-testing program used by Canadian police
Rhode Island Department of Education
Ride quality, how well a vehicle copes with uneven surfaces
Road Improvement and Development Effort, a highway program in South Carolina
Rural Institute for Development Education, an NGO based in Tamil Nadu, India
See also
Midnight Ride (disambiguation)
Rider (disambiguation)
Rides (disambiguation)
Riding (disambiguation)
The Ride (disambiguation) | [
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|
238522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh%20test | Marsh test | The Marsh test is a highly sensitive method in the detection of arsenic, especially useful in the field of forensic toxicology when arsenic was used as a poison. It was developed by the chemist James Marsh and first published in 1836. The method continued to be used, with improvements, in forensic toxicology until the 1970s.
Arsenic, in the form of white arsenic trioxide , was a highly favored poison, being odourless, easily incorporated into food and drink, and before the advent of the Marsh test, untraceable in the body. In France, it came to be known as ("inheritance powder"). For the untrained, arsenic poisoning will have symptoms similar to cholera.
Precursor methods
The first breakthrough in the detection of arsenic poisoning was in 1775 when Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered a way to change arsenic trioxide to garlic-smelling arsine gas (AsH3), by treating it with nitric acid (HNO3) and combining it with zinc.
As2O3 + 6 Zn + 12 HNO3 → 2 AsH3 + 6 Zn(NO3)2 + 3 H2O
In 1787, German physician (1739-1805) discovered that if arsenic trioxide were heated in the presence of carbon, the arsenic would sublime. This is the reduction of As2O3 by carbon:
2 As2O3 + 3 C → 3 CO2 + 4 As
In 1806, Valentin Rose took the stomach of a victim suspected of being poisoned and treated it with potassium carbonate (K2CO3), calcium oxide (CaO) and nitric acid. Any arsenic present would appear as arsenic trioxide and then could be subjected to Metzger's test.
However, the most common test (and used even today in water test kits) was discovered by Samuel Hahnemann. It would involve combining a sample fluid with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the presence of hydrochloric acid (HCl). A yellow precipitate, arsenic trisulfide (As2S3) would be formed if arsenic was present.
Circumstances and methodology
Even so, these tests have proven not to be sensitive enough. In 1832, a certain John Bodle was brought to trial for poisoning his grandfather by putting arsenic in his coffee. James Marsh, a chemist working at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, was called by the prosecution to try to detect its presence. He performed the standard test by passing hydrogen sulfide through the suspect fluid. While Marsh was able to detect arsenic, the yellow precipitate did not keep very well, and, by the time it was presented to the jury, it had deteriorated. The jury was not convinced, and John Bodle was acquitted.
Angered and frustrated by this, especially when John Bodle confessed later that he indeed killed his grandfather, Marsh decided to devise a better test to demonstrate the presence of arsenic. Taking Scheele's work as a basis, he constructed a simple glass apparatus capable of not only detecting minute traces of arsenic but also measuring its quantity. Adding a sample of tissue or body fluid to a glass vessel with zinc and acid would produce arsine gas if arsenic was present, in addition to the hydrogen that would be produced regardless by the zinc reacting with the acid. Igniting this gas mixture would oxidize any arsine present into arsenic and water vapor. This would cause a cold ceramic bowl held in the jet of the flame to be stained with a silvery-black deposit of arsenic, physically similar to the result of Metzger's reaction. The intensity of the stain could then be compared to films produced using known amounts of arsenic. Not only could minute amounts of arsenic be detected (as little as 0.02 mg), the test was very specific for arsenic. Although antimony (Sb) could give a false-positive test by forming stibine (SbH3) gas which decomposes on heating to form a similar black deposit, it would not dissolve in a solution of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), while arsenic would. Bismuth (Bi), which also gives a false positive by forming bismuthine (BiH3), similarly can be distinguished by how it resists attack by both NaOCl and ammonium polysulfide (the former attacks As, and the latter attacks Sb).
Specific reactions involved
The Marsh test treats the sample with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc. Even if there are minute amounts of arsenic present, the zinc reduces the trivalent arsenic (As3+ ). Here are the two half-reactions:
Oxidation: Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e−
Reduction: As2O3 + 12 e− + 6 H+ → 2 As3− + 3 H2O
Overall, we have this reaction:
As2O3 + 6 Zn + 6 H+ → 2 As3− + 6 Zn2+ + 3 H2O
In an acidic medium, is protonated to form arsine gas (AsH3), so adding sulphuric acid (H2SO4) to each side of the equation we get:
As2O3 + 6 Zn + 6 H+ + 6 H2SO4 → 2 As3− + 6 H2SO4 + 6 Zn2+ + 3 H2O
As the As3− combines with the H+ to form arsine:
As2O3 + 6 Zn + 6 H+ + 6 H2SO4 → 2 AsH3 + 6 ZnSO4 + 3 H2O + 6 H+
By eliminating the common ions:
As2O3 + 6 Zn + 6 H2SO4 → 2 AsH3 + 6 ZnSO4 + 3 H2O
First notable application
Although the Marsh test was efficacious, its first publicly documented use—in fact, the first time evidence from forensic toxicology was ever introduced—was in Tulle, France in 1840 with the celebrated Lafarge poisoning case. Charles Lafarge, a foundry owner, was suspected of being poisoned with arsenic by his wife Marie. The circumstantial evidence was great: it was shown that she bought arsenic trioxide from a local chemist, supposedly to kill rats which infested their home. In addition, their maid swore that she had mixed a white powder into his drink. Although the food was found to be positive for the poison using the old methods as well as the Marsh test, when the husband's body was exhumed and tested, the chemists assigned to the case were not able to detect arsenic. Mathieu Orfila, the renowned toxicologist retained by the defense and an acknowledged authority of the Marsh test, examined the results. He performed the test again, and demonstrated that the Marsh test was not at fault for the misleading results, but, rather, that those who performed it did it incorrectly. Orfila thus proved the presence of arsenic in Lafarge's body using the test. As a result of this, Marie was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Effects
The case proved to be controversial, for it divided the country into factions who were convinced or otherwise of Mme. Lafarge's guilt; nevertheless, the impact of the Marsh test was great. The French press covered the trial and gave the test the publicity it needed to give the field of forensic toxicology the legitimacy it deserved, although in some ways it trivialized it: actual Marsh test assays were conducted in salons, public lectures and even in some plays that recreated the Lafarge case.
The existence of the Marsh test also served a deterrent effect: deliberate arsenic poisonings became rarer because the fear of discovery became more prevalent.
In fiction
Marsh test is used in Bill Bergson Lives Dangerously to prove that a certain chocolate is poisoned with arsenic.
Lord Peter Wimsey’s manservant Bunter uses Marsh’s test in Strong Poison to demonstrate that the culprit was secretly in possession of arsenic.
In Alan Bradley's As Chimney Sweepers Come To Dust, 12-year old sleuth and chemistry genius Flavia de Luce uses the Marsh test to determine that arsenic was the murderer's weapon.
In the first episode of the 2017 BBC television series Taboo a mirror test, referencing the Marsh test, is used to verify the protagonist's father was killed via arsenic poisoning. However, as the setting of the series is between 1814-1820, the test's appearance is anachronistic.
In the episode "The King Came Calling" of the first season of Ripper Street, police surgeon Homer Jackson (Matthew Rothenberg) performs Marsh's test on the contents of a poisoning victim and determines that the fatal poison was antimony, not arsenic, since the chemical residue deposited by the flames does not dissolve in sodium hypochlorite.
See also
James Marsh
Nascent hydrogen
Devarda's alloy
Arsine
Stibine
Bismuthine
References
External links
Arsenic
Toxicology tests
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|
238523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen | Sigmaringen | Sigmaringen is a town in southern Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg. Situated on the upper Danube, it is the capital of the Sigmaringen district.
Sigmaringen is renowned for its castle, Schloss Sigmaringen, which was the seat of the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1850 and is still owned by the Hohenzollern family.
Geography
Sigmaringen lies in the Danube valley, surrounded by wooded hills south of the Swabian Alb and around 40 km north of Lake Constance.
The surrounding towns are Winterlingen (in the district of Zollernalb) and Veringenstadt in the north, Bingen, Sigmaringendorf, and Scheer in the east, Mengen, Krauchenwies, Inzigkofen, and Meßkirch in the south, and Leibertingen, Beuron, and Stetten am kalten Markt in the west.
The town is made up of the following districts: Sigmaringen town center, Gutenstein, Jungnau, Laiz, Oberschmeien, and Unterschmeien.
History
Sigmaringen was first documented in 1077 and was part of the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1850, after which it became the Prussian Province of Hohenzollern.
Prehistory and early history
The history of settlement in the territory of the present town of Sigmaringen dates back to the Paleolithic.
Middle Ages
In the 11th century, the end of the Early Middle Ages, the first castle was built on the rock that protected the valley. The first written reference dates from 1077, when King Rudolf of Rheinfelden tried in vain to conquer Sigmaringen castle. The city was officially founded in 1250. In 1325, it was sold to Ulrich III, Count of Württemberg. In 1460 and 1500, the castle was rebuilt into a chateau. About the county of Werdenberg Sigmaringen came in 1535 to the high noble family of the Hohenzollern.
Modern times
In 1632, the Swedes occupied the castle during the Thirty Years' War.
From 1806 to 1849, Sigmaringen was the capital of the sovereign Principality Hohenzollern and residence of the princes of Hohenzollern.
As a result of the Sigmaringen Revolution of 1848, the Princes of Hechingen and Sigmaringen abdicated, whereby both principalities fell to Prussia in 1850. From 1850 to 1945, Sigmaringen was the seat of the Prussian Government for the Province of Hohenzollern. Karl Anton von Hohenzollern was 1858-1862 Prime Minister of Prussia.
From 1914 to 1918, around 150 men from the town lost their lives during World War I.
In the Nazi era, a Gestapo office was located in Sigmaringen. From 1937, it belonged to Stuttgart's Gestapo.
Between 1934 and 1942, more than 100 men were sterilized because of "hereditary diseases". On 12 December 1940, during the Nazi medical experiments known as the "T4", 71 mentally handicapped and mentally ill patients became the victims of Nazi injustice. These men and women were deported to the Grafeneck Euthanasia Centre, where they were killed as "unworthy of life". After the closure of Grafeneck in December 1940, a further deportation to the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre occurred on 14 March 1941.
Vichy French enclave (1944–1945)
On September 7 1944, following the Allied invasion of France, Philippe Pétain and members of the Vichy government cabinet were relocated to Germany. A city-state ruled by the government in exile headed by Fernand de Brinon was established at Sigmaringen. There were three embassies in the city-state, representing each of Vichy-France's allies: Germany, Italy, and Japan.
French writers Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Lucien Rebatet and Roland Gaucher, fearing for their lives because of their political and anti-Semitic writings, fled along with the Vichy government to Sigmaringen. Céline's novel D'un château l'autre (English: Castle to Castle) describes the fall of Sigmaringen. The city was taken by Free French forces on April 22, 1945. Pétain returned to France, where he stood trial for treason.
Religions
The following religions are present in Sigmaringen:
Catholic Church
Evangelische Landeskirche in Württemberg
Evangelische Militärkirchengemeinde
Pentecostalism
Jehovah's Witnesses
New Apostolic Church
Transportation infrastructure
Three railways meet in Sigmaringen, the Ulm–Sigmaringen railway leading to Ulm, the Tübingen–Sigmaringen railway from Tübingen to Aulendorf and connecting to the Tuttlingen–Inzigkofen railway to Tuttlingen, and the Engstingen–Sigmaringen railway operated by the Hohenzollerische Landesbahn.
Sigmaringen lies in the serving area of Verkehrsverbund Neckar-Alb-Donau (NALDO).
Notable residents
Sigmaringen was the birthplace of Saint Fidelis of Sigmaringen, a Roman Catholic martyr of the Counter-Reformation in Switzerland, and Ferdinand of Romania, King of Romania. It was one of the residences of deceased Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, the late representative of the house, who was the first in the line of succession to the throne of Romania, by Salic law. Frederick Miller, founder of the Miller Brewing Company, was living in Sigmaringen during the start of his brewing career.
People who worked locally
Louis-Ferdinand Céline (1894–1961), pro-Nazi and antisemitic French writer, fled in 1944 to Sigmaringen, along with several members of the Vichy government.
Lucien Rebatet (1903–1972), pro-Nazi and antisemitic French writer, fled in 1944 to Sigmaringen, along with several members of the Vichy government.
Winfried Kretschmann (born 1948), politician, Minister-President of Baden-Württemberg (The Greens), lives in the district of Laiz.
Notable people
Rosina Gräf genannt Nellin (born in Sigmaringen, died 1577) not guilty in fire as witch
Richard Lauchert (1825–1868), painter and professor
Theodor Bilharz (1825–1862), physician and scientist
Carol I of Romania (1839-1914), King of Romania
Ferdinand I of Romania (1865-1927), King of Romania
Max Giese (1879–1935), contractor, inventor of the concrete pump
Josef Henselmann (1898–1987), sculptor and longtime head of the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich
Franz Gog (1907–1980), a member of the state parliament in Württemberg-Hohenzollern and later Baden-Württemberg, was a judge in Sigmaringen
Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1932–2016), art historian and museum director
Hermann Schwörer (1922-2017), lawyer, entrepreneur and politician (CDU), was a recipient of the Medal of Merit of the State of Baden-Württemberg as of 1998
Karl Lehmann (1936-2018), Cardinal and Bishop of Mainz, from 1987 to 2008 chairman of the German Bishops' Conference
Lothar Späth (1937–2016), politician (CDU), former Prime Minister of Baden-Württemberg
Dietmar Schlee (1938-2002), politician (CDU), holder of the Medal of Merit of the State of Baden-Württemberg since 1989
Norbert Lins (born 1977), politician (CDU), Member of the European Parliament, looks after the administrative district of Tübingen
Pascal Wehrlein (born 1994), Formula 1 racing driver
Bibliography
References
External links
Official website
Sigmaringen castle
Populated places on the Danube
Towns in Baden-Württemberg
Vichy France
Sigmaringen (district)
Province of Hohenzollern | [
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|
238524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Company | London Company | The London Company, officially known as the Virginia Company of London, was a division of the Virginia Company with responsibility for colonizing the east coast of America between latitudes 34° and 41° N.
History
Origins
The territory granted to the London Company included the eastern coast of America from the 34th parallel (Cape Fear) north to the 41st parallel (in Long Island Sound). As part of the Virginia Company and Colony, the London Company owned a large portion of Atlantic and inland Canada. The company was permitted by its charter to establish a settlement within this area. The portion of the company's territory north of the 38th parallel was shared with the Plymouth Company, with the stipulation that neither company found a colony within 100 miles (161 km) of the other.
The London Company made landfall on 26 April 1607, at the southern edge of the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, which they named Cape Henry, near present-day Virginia Beach. Deciding to move the encampment, on 4 May 1607 they established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River about upstream from its mouth at the Chesapeake Bay. Later in 1607, the Plymouth Company established its Popham Colony in present-day Maine, but it was abandoned after about a year. By 1609, the Plymouth Company had dissolved. As a result, the charter for the London Company was adjusted with a new grant that extended from "sea to sea" of the previously-shared area between the 38th and the 40th parallels. It was amended in 1612 to include the new territory of the Somers Isles (or Bermuda).
The London Company struggled financially, especially with labor shortages in its Virginia colony. Its profits improved after sweeter strains of tobacco than the native variety were cultivated and successfully exported from Virginia as a cash crop beginning in 1612. By 1619 a system of indentured service was fully developed in the colony; the same year the home government passed a law that prohibited the commercial growing of tobacco in England. In 1624, the company lost its charter, and Virginia became a royal colony.
A spin-off, The London Company of The Somers Isles (fully the Company of the City of London for the Plantacion of The Somers Isles, but generally referred to as The Somers Isles Company), operated until 1684.
In Renaissance England, wealthy merchants were eager to find investment opportunities, so they established several companies to trade in various parts of the world. Each company was made up of investors, known as "adventurers", who purchased shares of company stock. The Crown granted a charter to each company with a monopoly to explore, settle, or trade with a particular region of the world. Profits were shared among the investors according to the amount of stock that each owned. More than 6,300 Englishmen invested in joint-stock companies between 1585 and 1630, trading in Russia, Turkey, Africa, the East Indies, the Mediterranean, and North America.
Founding
Investors in the Virginia Company hoped to profit from the natural resources of the New World. In 1606 Captain Bartholomew Gosnold obtained of King James I a charter for two companies. The first, the Virginia Company of London (now known generally as the "London Company"), covered what are now Maryland, Virginia and Carolina, between Latitude 34° and Latitude 41° North. Gosnold's principal backers were Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, Edward Wingfield and Richard Hakluyt.
The second company, the Plymouth Company of London (today known as the "Plymouth Company"), was empowered to settle as far as 45° North, encompassing what are present day Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England.
The Company paid all the costs of establishing each colony, and in return controlled all land and resources there, requiring all settlers to work for the Company.
The first leader of the Virginia Company in England was its treasurer, Sir Thomas Smythe, who arranged the 1609 charter. He had been governor of the East India Company since 1603 and continued with one break until 1620.
In an extensive publicity campaign, Wingfield, Gosnold and a few others, circulated pamphlets, plays, sermons and broadsides throughout England to raise interest in New World investments. Investors could buy stock individually or in groups. Almost 1,700 people purchased shares, including men of different occupations and classes, wealthy women, and representatives of institutions such as trade guilds, towns and cities. Proceeds from the sale of stock were used to help finance the costs of establishing overseas settlements, including paying for ships and supplies and recruiting and outfitting laborers. A single share of stock in the Virginia Company cost 12 pounds 10 shillings, the equivalent of more than six months' wages for an ordinary working man.
The largest single investor was Thomas West, Lord de la Warre, who served as the first governor of Virginia between 1610 and 1618. (The English colonists named the Delaware River and Native American Lenape tribe, called the Delaware Indians, after him.)
The business of the company was the settlement of the Virginia colony, supported by a labour force of voluntary transportees under the customary indenture system. In exchange for 7 years of labor for the company, the company provided passage, food, protection, and land ownership (if the worker survived).
First expedition
In December 1606, the Virginia Company's three ships, containing 105 men and boys as passengers and 39 crew members, set sail from Blackwall, London and made landfall on 26 April 1607 at the southern edge of the mouth of what they named the James River on the Chesapeake Bay. They named this shore as Cape Henry. They were attacked by Native Americans, and the settlers moved north. On 14 May 1607, these first settlers selected the site of Jamestown Island, further upriver and on the northern shore, as the place to build their fort.
In addition to survival, the early colonists were expected to make a profit for the owners of the Virginia Company. Although the settlers were disappointed that gold did not wash up on the beach and gems did not grow in the trees, they realised there was great potential for wealth of other kinds in their new home. Early industries, such as glass manufacture, pitch and tar production for naval stores, and beer and wine making took advantage of natural resources and the land's fertility. From the outset, settlers thought that the abundance of timber would be the primary leg of the economy, as Britain's forests had long been felled. The seemingly inexhaustible supply of cheap American timber was to be the primary enabler of England's (and then Britain's) rise to maritime (merchant and naval) supremacy. However, the settlers could not devote as much time as the Virginia Company would have liked to developing commodity products for export. They were too busy trying to survive.
Within the three-sided fort erected on the banks of the James, the settlers quickly discovered that they were, first and foremost, employees of the Virginia Company of London, following instructions of the men appointed by the Company to rule them. In exchange, the laborers were armed, and received clothes and food from the common store. After seven years, they were to receive land of their own. The gentlemen, who provided their own armor and weapons, were to be paid in land, dividends or additional shares of stock.
Initially, the colonists were governed by a president and seven-member council selected by the King. Leadership problems quickly erupted. Jamestown's first two leaders coped with varying degrees of success with sickness, assaults by Native Americans, poor food and water supplies, and class strife. Many colonists were ill-prepared to carve out a new settlement on a frontier. When Captain John Smith became Virginia's third president, he proved the strong leader that the colony needed. Industry flourished and relations with Chief Powhatan's people improved.
Instructions
After so many failed colonizing attempts in the 16th century such as the Roanoke Colony, and with the ascension of King James to the throne of England on 24 March 1603, the effort to colonize was renewed, but this time in the form of joint-stock companies, which did not involve the king's treasury, also known as the public treasury. Thus it became, from a royal perspective at least, a largely risk-free endeavor. Although a profit-driven enterprise, the king was motivated by international rivalry and the propagation of religion, and the individuals who ventured to the New World were motivated by a chance to improve their economic and social standing.
Thus King James awarded a patent to a group of investors which included detailed instructions for everything from where to place watchmen and with how many, to where to plant. It instructed Christopher Newport, captain of the Susan Constant, and Bartholomew Gosnold, captain of the Godspeed and leader of the expedition of three ships, on their duties upon reaching the land they named Virginia. There were no instructions for administration or governance.
The Charter of 1606
The First Virginia Charter established provisions for governance of the colony. It was to be governed by a colonial council, which proved ineffective. A governor, Lord De La Warr, was dispatched in 1610 to provide firmer governance of the colony. The council back in London whose directives and interests Lord De La Warr represented was composed of knights, gentlemen and merchants who had invested in the company. This charter also limited the jurisdiction of the Virginia Company of London to 100 miles from the seaboard and from 38 degrees to 45 degrees latitude north.
Charter of 1609
In 1609, the Virginia Company received its Second Charter, which allowed the Company to choose its new governor from amongst its shareholders. Investment boomed as the Company launched an intensive recruitment campaign. Over 600 colonists set sail for Virginia between March 1608 and March 1609.
Sir Thomas Gates, Virginia's deputy governor, bound for the colony in the Third Supply aboard the Sea Venture, was shipwrecked in Bermuda, along with the Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, Captain Newport, and 147 other settlers and seamen. When Gates finally arrived to take up his new post in 1610, with most of the survivors of the Sea Venture (on two new ships built in Bermuda, the Deliverance and the Patience), he found that only 60 of the original 214 colonists had survived the infamous "Starving Time" of 1609–1610. Most of these were dying or ill. Despite the abundance of food which Gates' expedition brought from Bermuda (which had necessitated the building of two ships), it was clear the colony was not yet self-sufficient and could not survive.
The survivors of Jamestown were taken aboard the Deliverance and the Patience, and the colony was abandoned. Gates intended to transport all the settlers back to England, but the fortuitous arrival of another relief fleet, bearing Governor Lord De la Warre, granted Jamestown a reprieve. All the settlers were put ashore again, and Sir George Somers returned to Bermuda aboard the Patience to obtain more food. (Somers died there, and his nephew, Matthew Somers, the captain of the Patience, sailed the vessel to Lyme Regis in England, instead, to claim his inheritance).
Charter of 1612
The third Virginia Charter or Charter of 1612, was essentially the same as the Charter of 1609, with the difference being territorial jurisdiction, expanding it to the Atlantic Islands like Bermuda and from “sea to sea”. In domestic correspondence written by John Chamberlaine to The Right Honorable Sir Dudley Carlton, Knight, His Maties (sic. ie., Majesty's) Ambassador at Venice dated 12 February 1612, Chamberlaine wrote:
This is also quoted in BERMUDA under the SOMMER ISLANDS COMPANY 1612–1684 by A. C. Hollis Hallett:
Administration of the Somers Isles, alias Islands of Bermuda, was in fact transferred in 1615 to a spin-off of the London Company titled the Company of the City of London for the Plantacion of The Somers Isles, which administered that colony until losing its royal charter in 1684. Bermuda remained strongly linked to Virginia (the nearest English territory to it until Carolina Colony was settled from Bermuda in 1670 under William Sayle), however, until the American War of Independence, when rebel General George Washington of Virginia would address a letter to the people of Bermuda seeking their aid in the war:
By this Charter, neither the stock issue of 1609 nor the authorized lottery system, mitigated the shortage of cash flow.
The "Great Charter"
This was an ordinance and constitution that proceeded from a set of instructions issued in 1618 to the governor and the Council of Virginia known as An Ordinance and Constitution of the Virginia Company in England 24 July 1621. This document replaced military law with common law, and provided for land ownership for settlers living in the colony. It is also of great significance for it provides governance independent of the Crown. An assembly took place in a church composed of Governor Sir George Yeardley and 22 select men representing seven regions. They then organized into a legislative body, establishing a precedent for self-governance, a pivotal point in American history.
Collapse and dissolution
After 1620, with growing demand for tobacco on the continent, the Company arranged to sell Virginia tobacco in the Netherlands, but the next year and despite company pleas to maintain the privilege of freedom of trade, the Privy Council forbade the export of any product of Virginia to a foreign country until the commodities had been landed in England, and English duties had been paid. By 1621, the Company was in trouble; unpaid dividends and increased use of lotteries had made future investors wary. The Company debt was now over £9,000. Worried Virginians were hardly reassured by the advice of pragmatic Treasurer Sandys, who warned that the Company "cannot wish you to rely on anything but yourselves." In March 1622, the Company's and the colony's situation went from dire to disastrous when, during the Indian massacre of 1622, the Powhatan confederacy killed one-quarter of the European population of the Virginia colony.
When the Crown and company officials proposed a fourth charter, severely reducing the Company's ability to make decisions in the governing of Virginia, subscribers rejected it. King James I forthwith changed the status of Virginia in 1624, taking control of it as a royal colony to be administered by a governor appointed by the King. However, the government's colonial policy of export restrictions did not change. The Crown approved the election of a Virginia Assembly in 1627. This form of government, with governor and assembly, would oversee the colony of Virginia until 1776, excepting only the years of the English Commonwealth.
Bermuda had been separated from the Virginia Company in 1614, when the Crown briefly took over its administration. In 1615, the shareholders of the Virginia Company created a new company, the Somers Isles Company, which continued to operate Bermuda. It was subsequently, also known officially as The Somers Isles (for the Admiral of the Virginia Company, Sir George Somers) until being dissolved in 1684 and made a royal colony. Meetings were held at town hall to discuss the distribution of the tobacco.
Native American relationships
The instructions issued to Sir Thomas Gates, on 20 November 1608, called for a forcible conversion of Native Americans to Anglicanism and their subordination to the colonial administration. The records of the company record a discussion during one of its first meetings about publishing a justification of their business enterprise methods to "give adventurers, a clearness and satisfaction", a public debate where Catholics and neutrals might attack them. Whereas Catholic arguments would be in support of Spanish legal claims to the New World under the Treaty of Tordesillas, it was feared that the neutral "pen-adversaries" might "cast scruples into our conscience" by "criticising the lawfulness of the plantation." It was decided to forego such a publication of a justification.
In 1608, Sir Edward Coke, in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice, offered a ruling in Calvin's Case that went beyond the issue at hand: whether a Scotsman could seek justice at an English Court. Coke distinguished between aliens from nations at war with England and friendly aliens, those from nations in league with England. Friendly aliens could have recourse to English courts. But he also ruled that with "all infidels" (i.e. those from non-Christian nations), there could be no peace, and a state of perpetual hostility would exist between them and Christians.
In 1609, the company issued instructions to settlers to kidnap Native American children so as to educate them with English values and religion. These instructions also sanctioned attacking the Iniocasoockes, the cultural leaders of the local Powhatans. Only after Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr arrived in 1610, was the Company able to commence a war against the Powhatan with the First Anglo-Powhatan War. De La Warr was replaced by Sir Thomas Dale, who continued the war, which continued until a truce was made with the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe in 1614.
The military offensive was accompanied by a propaganda war: Alderman Robert Johnson published Nova Britannia, in 1609, which compared Native Americans to wild animals--"heardes of deere in a forest". While it did portray the Powhatan as peace-loving, it threatened to deal with any who resisted conversion to Anglicanism as enemies of their country. (Johnson was the son-in-law of Sir Thomas Smythe, treasurer of the Company in London and leader of its "court" faction.)
The Company began to turn a profit after 1612, when planting a couple of new varieties of tobacco yielded a product that appealed more to English tastes than the native tobacco. Tobacco became the commodity crop of the colony, and settlers were urged to cultivate more. The colony struggled with labor shortages as mortality was high.
In 1622, the Second Anglo-Powhatan War erupted. Its origins are disputed. English apologists for the company say that Opchanacanough initiated the war. Robert Williams, a 21st-century Native American law professor, argues that Opchanacanough had secured concessions from Governor Yeardley which the company would not accept. Thus, Opchanacanough's attack, on 18 April 1622, may have been a pre-emptive attempt to defeat the colony before reinforcements arrived.
In about a day, the Powhatan killed 350 of 1,240 colonists, destroying some outlying settlements. The Virginia Company quickly published an account of this attack. It was steeped in Calvinist theology of the time: the massacre was the work of Providence in that it was justification for the destruction of the Powhatan, and building English settlements over their former towns. New orders from the London Company directed a "perpetual war without peace or truce" "to root out from being any longer a people, so cursed a nation, ungrateful to all benefitte, and incapable of all goodnesses." Within two years, the Crown took over the territory in 1624 as a royal colony.
See also
List of trading companies
References
Further readingThe Three Charters of the Virginia Company of London edited and introduction by Samuel M. Bemiss, published by Virginia's 350th Anniversary Celebration Corp, 1957, Williamsburg, Virginia. Dissolution of the Virginia Company: The Failure of a Colonial Experiment by Wesley Frank Craven, published by Oxford University Press, 1932, New YorkThe Virginia Company of London, 1606-1624, by Wesley Frank Craven, published by University Press of Virginia, 1957, Charlottesville, Virginia. The First Seventeen Years: Virginia, 1607-1624, by Charles E. Hatch Jr. History of the Virginia Company of London with Letters to and from the First Colony Never Before Printed, by Edward D. Neill, originally published by Joel Munsell, 1869, Albany, New York, reprinted by Brookhaven Press Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Heart of A New Nation, by David A. Price, published by Alfred A. Knopf, 2003, New York
External links
London Company nowadays (founded in 1994, not related in any way other than the name)
List of original settlers Jamestown Rediscovery
1606 Charter of the Virginia Company of London
National Park Service brief
Daily Republican: The Virginia Company
Library of Congress images of manuscript and printed editions of the Records of the Virginia Company of London''
The Anglo-Powhatan Wars
Richmond Times Dispatch: Virginia's roots reach to Bermuda
The Virginia Company of London, 1606-1624 - Free ebook from manybooks.net
1606 establishments in England
1624 disestablishments in England
17th century in Bermuda
Colonial Virginia
English colonization of the Americas
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238525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsine | Arsine | Arsine (IUPAC name: arsane) is an inorganic compound with the formula AsH3. This flammable, pyrophoric, and highly toxic pnictogen hydride gas is one of the simplest compounds of arsenic. Despite its lethality, it finds some applications in the semiconductor industry and for the synthesis of organoarsenic compounds. The term arsine is commonly used to describe a class of organoarsenic compounds of the formula AsH3−xRx, where R = aryl or alkyl. For example, As(C6H5)3, called triphenylarsine, is referred to as "an arsine".
General properties
At its standard state, arsine is a colorless, denser-than-air gas that is slightly soluble in water (20% at 20 °C) and in many organic solvents as well. Whereas arsine itself is odorless, owing to its oxidation by air, it is possible to smell a slight garlic or fish-like scent when the compound is present above 0.5ppm. This compound is kinetically stable: at room temperature it decomposes only slowly. At temperatures of ca. 230 °C, decomposition to arsenic and hydrogen is sufficiently rapid to be the basis of the Marsh Test (see below). Similar to stibine, the decomposition of arsine is autocatalytic, as the arsenic freed during the reaction acts as a catalyst for the same reaction. Several other factors, such as humidity, presence of light and certain catalysts (namely alumina) facilitate the rate of decomposition.
AsH3 is a pyramidal molecule with H–As–H angles of 91.8° and three equivalent As–H bonds, each of 1.519 Å length.
Discovery and synthesis
AsH3 is generally prepared by the reaction of As3+ sources with H− equivalents.
4 AsCl3 + 3 NaBH4 → 4 AsH3 + 3 NaCl + 3 BCl3
As reported in 1775, Carl Scheele reduced arsenic(III) oxide with zinc in the presence of acid. This reaction is a prelude to the Marsh test, described below.
Alternatively, sources of As3− react with protonic reagents to also produce this gas. Zinc arsenide and sodium arsenide are suitable precursors:
Zn3As2 + 6 H+ → 2 AsH3 + 3 Zn2+
Na3As + 3 HBr → AsH3 + 3 NaBr
Reactions
The understanding of the chemical properties of AsH3 is well developed and can be anticipated based on an average of the behavior of lighter pnictogen counterparts, such as PH3 and SbH3.
Thermal decomposition
Typical for a heavy hydride (e.g., SbH3, H2Te, SnH4), AsH3 is unstable with respect to its elements. In other words, AsH3 is stable kinetically but not thermodynamically.
2 AsH3 → 3 H2 + 2 As
This decomposition reaction is the basis of the Marsh Test described below, which detects the elemental As.
Oxidation
Continuing the analogy to SbH3, AsH3 is readily oxidized by concentrated O2 or the dilute O2 concentration in air:
2 AsH3 + 3 O2 → As2O3 + 3 H2O
Arsine will react violently in presence of strong oxidizing agents, such as potassium permanganate, sodium hypochlorite, or nitric acid.
Precursor to metallic derivatives
AsH3 is used as a precursor to metal complexes of "naked" (or "nearly naked") As. Illustrative is the dimanganese species [(C5H5)Mn(CO)2]2AsH, wherein the Mn2AsH core is planar.
Gutzeit test
A characteristic test for arsenic involves the reaction of AsH3 with Ag+, called the Gutzeit test for arsenic. Although this test has become obsolete in analytical chemistry, the underlying reactions further illustrate the affinity of AsH3 for "soft" metal cations. In the Gutzeit test, AsH3 is generated by reduction of aqueous arsenic compounds, typically arsenites, with Zn in the presence of H2SO4. The evolved gaseous AsH3 is then exposed to AgNO3 either as powder or as a solution. With solid AgNO3, AsH3 reacts to produce yellow Ag4AsNO3, whereas AsH3 reacts with a solution of AgNO3 to give black Ag3As.
Acid-base reactions
The acidic properties of the As–H bond are often exploited. Thus, AsH3 can be deprotonated:
AsH3 + NaNH2 → NaAsH2 + NH3
Upon reaction with the aluminium trialkyls, AsH3 gives the trimeric [R2AlAsH2]3, where R = (CH3)3C. This reaction is relevant to the mechanism by which GaAs forms from AsH3 (see below).
AsH3 is generally considered non-basic, but it can be protonated by superacids to give isolable salts of the tetrahedral species [AsH4]+.
Reaction with halogen compounds
Reactions of arsine with the halogens (fluorine and chlorine) or some of their compounds, such as nitrogen trichloride, are extremely dangerous and can result in explosions.
Catenation
In contrast to the behavior of PH3, AsH3 does not form stable chains, although H2As–AsH2 and even H2As–As(H)–AsH2 have been detected. The diarsine is unstable above −100 °C.
Applications
Microelectronics applications
AsH3 is used in the synthesis of semiconducting materials related to microelectronics and solid-state lasers. Related to phosphorus, arsenic is an n-dopant for silicon and germanium. More importantly, AsH3 is used to make the semiconductor GaAs by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) at 700–900 °C:
Ga(CH3)3 + AsH3 → GaAs + 3 CH4
For microelectronic applications, arsine can be provided via a sub-atmospheric gas source. In this type of gas package, the arsine is adsorbed on a solid microporous adsorbent inside a gas cylinder. This method allows the gas to be stored without pressure, significantly reducing the risk of an arsine gas leak from the cylinder. With this apparatus, arsine is obtained by applying vacuum to the gas cylinder valve outlet. For semiconductor manufacturing, this method is feasible, as processes such as ion implantation operate under high vacuum.
Chemical warfare
Since before WWII AsH3 was proposed as a possible chemical warfare weapon. The gas is colorless, almost odorless, and 2.5 times denser than air, as required for a blanketing effect sought in chemical warfare. It is also lethal in concentrations far lower than those required to smell its garlic-like scent. In spite of these characteristics, arsine was never officially used as a weapon, because of its high flammability and its lower efficacy when compared to the non-flammable alternative phosgene. On the other hand, several organic compounds based on arsine, such as lewisite (β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine), adamsite (diphenylaminechloroarsine), Clark 1 (diphenylchloroarsine) and Clark 2 (diphenylcyanoarsine) have been effectively developed for use in chemical warfare.
Forensic science and the Marsh test
AsH3 is also well known in forensic science because it is a chemical intermediate in the detection of arsenic poisoning. The old (but extremely sensitive) Marsh test generates AsH3 in the presence of arsenic. This procedure, published in 1836 by James Marsh, is based upon treating an As-containing sample of a victim's body (typically the stomach contents) with As-free zinc and dilute sulfuric acid: if the sample contains arsenic, gaseous arsine will form. The gas is swept into a glass tube and decomposed by means of heating around 250–300 °C. The presence of As is indicated by formation of a deposit in the heated part of the equipment. On the other hand, the appearance of a black mirror deposit in the cool part of the equipment indicates the presence of antimony (the highly unstable SbH3 decomposes even at low temperatures).
The Marsh test was widely used by the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th; nowadays more sophisticated techniques such as atomic spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma, and x-ray fluorescence analysis are employed in the forensic field. Though neutron activation analysis was used to detect trace levels of arsenic in the mid 20th century, it has since fallen out of use in modern forensics.
Toxicology
The toxicity of arsine is distinct from that of other arsenic compounds. The main route of exposure is by inhalation, although poisoning after skin contact has also been described. Arsine attacks hemoglobin in the red blood cells, causing them to be destroyed by the body.
The first signs of exposure, which can take several hours to become apparent, are headaches, vertigo, and nausea, followed by the symptoms of haemolytic anaemia (high levels of unconjugated bilirubin), haemoglobinuria and nephropathy. In severe cases, the damage to the kidneys can be long-lasting.
Exposure to arsine concentrations of 250 ppm is rapidly fatal: concentrations of 25–30 ppm are fatal for 30 min exposure, and concentrations of 10 ppm can be fatal at longer exposure times. Symptoms of poisoning appear after exposure to concentrations of 0.5 ppm. There is little information on the chronic toxicity of arsine, although it is reasonable to assume that, in common with other arsenic compounds, a long-term exposure could lead to arsenicosis.
It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.
Occupational exposure limits
See also
Cacodylic acid
Cacodyl oxide
Devarda's alloy, also used to produce arsine in the lab
List of highly toxic gases
Marsh test, first used to analyze AsH3
James Marsh, invented in 1836 the test now bearing his name
Stibine
Scheele's Green, a pigment popularly used in the early 19th century
References
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0222
IARC Monograph "Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds"
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Data on arsine from Air Liquide
Arsenic(−III) compounds
IARC Group 1 carcinogens
Industrial gases
Metal hydrides
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|
238526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Universe%20in%20a%20Nutshell | The Universe in a Nutshell | The Universe in a Nutshell is a 2001 book about theoretical physics by Stephen Hawking. It is generally considered a sequel and was created to update the public concerning developments since the multi-million-copy bestseller A Brief History of Time was published in 1988.
Content
In it Hawking explains to a general audience various matters relating to the Lucasian professor's work, such as Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem and P-branes (part of superstring theory in quantum mechanics). He tells the history and principles of modern physics. He seeks to "combine Einstein's General Theory of Relativity and Richard Feynman's idea of multiple histories into one complete unified theory that will describe everything that happens in the universe."
Awards
The Universe in a Nutshell is winner of the Aventis Prizes for Science Books 2002.
See also
Roger Penrose
Kip Thorne
Physical cosmology
Positivism
List of textbooks on classical and quantum mechanics
List of books on general relativity
References
2001 books
Popular physics books
Books by Stephen Hawking
Cosmology books | [
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|
238527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elimination%20reaction | Elimination reaction | An elimination reaction is a type of organic reaction in which two substituents are removed from a molecule in either a one- or two-step mechanism. The one-step mechanism is known as the E2 reaction, and the two-step mechanism is known as the E1 reaction. The numbers refer not to the number of steps in the mechanism, but rather to the kinetics of the reaction: E2 is bimolecular (second-order) while E1 is unimolecular (first-order). In cases where the molecule is able to stabilize an anion but possesses a poor leaving group, a third type of reaction, E1CB, exists. Finally, the pyrolysis of xanthate and acetate esters proceed through an "internal" elimination mechanism, the Ei mechanism.
E2 mechanism
The E2 mechanism, where E2 stands for bimolecular elimination involves a one-step mechanism in which carbon-hydrogen and carbon-halogen bonds break to form a double bond (C=C Pi bond).
The specifics of the reaction are as follows:
E2 is a single step elimination, with a single transition state.
It is typically undergone by primary substituted alkyl halides, but is possible with some secondary alkyl halides and other compounds.
The reaction rate is second order, because it's influenced by both the alkyl halide and the base (bimolecular).
Because the E2 mechanism results in the formation of a pi bond, the two leaving groups (often a hydrogen and a halogen) need to be antiperiplanar. An antiperiplanar transition state has staggered conformation with lower energy than a synperiplanar transition state which is in eclipsed conformation with higher energy. The reaction mechanism involving staggered conformation is more favorable for E2 reactions (unlike E1 reactions).
E2 typically uses a strong base. It must be strong enough to remove a weakly acidic hydrogen.
In order for the pi bond to be created, the hybridization of carbons needs to be lowered from sp3 to sp2.
The C-H bond is weakened in the rate determining step and therefore a primary deuterium isotope effect much larger than 1 (commonly 2-6) is observed.
E2 competes with the SN2 reaction mechanism if the base can also act as a nucleophile (true for many common bases).
An example of this type of reaction in scheme 1 is the reaction of isobutylbromide with potassium ethoxide in ethanol. The reaction products are isobutene, ethanol and potassium bromide.
E1 mechanism
E1 is a model to explain a particular type of chemical elimination reaction. E1 stands for unimolecular elimination and has the following specifications
It is a two-step process of elimination: ionization and deprotonation.
Ionization: the carbon-halogen bond breaks to give a carbocation intermediate.
deprotonation of the carbocation.
E1 typically takes place with tertiary alkyl halides, but is possible with some secondary alkyl halides.
The reaction rate is influenced only by the concentration of the alkyl halide because carbocation formation is the slowest step, as known as the rate-determining step. Therefore, first-order kinetics apply (unimolecular).
The reaction usually occurs in the complete absence of a base or the presence of only a weak base (acidic conditions and high temperature).
E1 reactions are in competition with SN1 reactions because they share a common carbocationic intermediate.
A secondary deuterium isotope effect of slightly larger than 1 (commonly 1 - 1.5) is observed.
There is no antiperiplanar requirement. An example is the pyrolysis of a certain sulfonate ester of menthol:
Only reaction product A results from antiperiplanar elimination. The presence of product B is an indication that an E1 mechanism is occurring.
It is accompanied by carbocationic rearrangement reactions
An example in scheme 2 is the reaction of tert-butylbromide with potassium ethoxide in ethanol.
E1 eliminations happen with highly substituted alkyl halides for two main reasons.
Highly substituted alkyl halides are bulky, limiting the room for the E2 one-step mechanism; therefore, the two-step E1 mechanism is favored.
Highly substituted carbocations are more stable than methyl or primary substituted cations. Such stability gives time for the two-step E1 mechanism to occur.
If SN1 and E1 pathways are competing, the E1 pathway can be favored by increasing the heat.
Specific features :
Rearrangement possible
Independent of concentration and basicity of base
Competition among mechanisms
The reaction rate is influenced by the reactivity of halogens, iodide and bromide being favored. Fluoride is not a good leaving group, so eliminations with fluoride as the leaving group have slower rates than other halogens .
There is a certain level of competition between the elimination reaction and nucleophilic substitution. More precisely, there are competitions between E2 and SN2 and also between E1 and SN1. Substitution generally predominates and elimination occurs only during precise circumstances. Generally, elimination is favored over substitution when
steric hindrance around the α-carbon increases.
a stronger base is used.
temperature increases (increase entropy)
the base is a poor nucleophile. Bases with steric bulk, (such as in Potassium tert-butoxide), are often poor nucleophiles.
An example of Elimination predominating substitution is visible from a special case of Williamson synthesis. When 3° haloalkane is reacts with an alkoxide, due to strong basic character of the alkoxide and less reactivity of 3° group towards SN2, an alkene will be formed instead of the expected ether with a 3° group.
In one study the kinetic isotope effect (KIE) was determined for the gas phase reaction of several alkyl halides with the chlorate ion. In accordance with an E2 elimination the reaction with t-butyl chloride results in a KIE of 2.3. The methyl chloride reaction (only SN2 possible) on the other hand has a KIE of 0.85 consistent with a SN2 reaction because in this reaction type the C-H bonds tighten in the transition state. The KIE's for the ethyl (0.99) and isopropyl (1.72) analogues suggest competition between the two reaction modes.
Elimination reactions other than β-elimination
β-Elimination, with loss of electrofuge and nucleofuge on vicinal carbons, is by far the most common type of elimination. The ability to form a stable product containing a C=C or C=X bond, as well as orbital alignment considerations, strongly favors β-elimination over other elimination processes. However, other types are known, generally for systems where β-elimination cannot occur.
The next most common type of elimination reaction is α-elimination. For a carbon center, the result of α-elimination is the formation of a carbene, which includes "stable carbenes" such as carbon monoxide or isocyanides. For instance, α-elimination the elements of HCl from chloroform (CHCl3) in the presence of strong base is a classic approach for the generation of dichlorocarbene, :CCl2, as a reactive intermediate. On the other hand, formic acid undergoes α-elimination to afford the stable products water and carbon monoxide under acidic conditions. α-Elimination may also occur on a metal center, one particularly common result of which is lowering of both the metal oxidation state and coordination number by 2 units in a process known as reductive elimination. (Confusingly, in organometallic terminology, the terms α-elimination and α-abstraction refer to processes that result in formation of a metal-carbene complex. In these reactions, it is the carbon adjacent to the metal that undergoes α-elimination.)
In certain special cases, γ- and higher eliminations to form three-membered or larger rings is also possible in both organic and organometallic processes. For instance, certain Pt(II) complexes undergo γ- and δ-elimination to give metallocycles. More recently, γ-silyl elimination of a silylcyclobutyl tosylate has been used to prepare strained bicyclic systems.
History
Many of the concepts and terminology related to elimination reactions were proposed by Christopher Kelk Ingold in the 1920s.
See also
E1cB-elimination reaction
References
External links
Olefination reactions
Reaction mechanisms | [
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|
238528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen%20dioxide | Nitrogen dioxide | Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula . It is one of several nitrogen oxides. is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year for use primarily in the production of fertilizers. At higher temperatures it is a reddish-brown gas. It can be fatal if inhaled in large quantity. Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic, bent molecule with C2v point group symmetry.
Properties
Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown gas above with a pungent, acrid odor, becomes a yellowish-brown liquid below , and converts to the colorless dinitrogen tetroxide () below .
The bond length between the nitrogen atom and the oxygen atom is 119.7 pm. This bond length is consistent with a bond order between one and two.
Unlike ozone, O3, the ground electronic state of nitrogen dioxide is a doublet state, since nitrogen has one unpaired electron, which decreases the alpha effect compared with nitrite and creates a weak bonding interaction with the oxygen lone pairs. The lone electron in also means that this compound is a free radical, so the formula for nitrogen dioxide is often written as •.
The reddish-brown color is a consequence of preferential absorption of light in the blue region of the spectrum (400 – 500 nm), although the absorption extends throughout the visible (at shorter wavelengths) and into the infrared (at longer wavelengths). Absorption of light at wavelengths shorter than about 400 nm results in photolysis (to form NO + O, atomic oxygen); in the atmosphere the addition of O atom so formed to O2 results in ozone formation.
Preparation and reactions
Nitrogen dioxide typically arises via the oxidation of nitric oxide by oxygen in air:
2 NO + → 2
Nitrogen dioxide is formed in most combustion processes using air as the oxidant. At elevated temperatures nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide:
+ → 2
In the laboratory, can be prepared in a two-step procedure where dehydration of nitric acid produces dinitrogen pentoxide, which subsequently undergoes thermal decomposition:
2 → +
2 → 4 +
The thermal decomposition of some metal nitrates also affords :
2 → 2 PbO + 4 +
Alternatively, reduction of concentrated nitric acid by metal (such as copper).
4 + Cu → + 2 + 2
Or finally by adding concentrated nitric acid over tin, hydrated stannic oxide is produced as byproduct.
4 HNO3 + Sn → H2O + H2SnO3 + 4 NO2
Main reactions
Basic thermal properties
exists in equilibrium with the colourless gas dinitrogen tetroxide ():
2
The equilibrium is characterized by , which is exothermic. NO2 is favored at higher temperatures, while at lower temperatures, N2O4 predominates. can be obtained as a white solid with melting point −11.2 °C. NO2 is paramagnetic due to its unpaired electron, while N2O4 is diamagnetic.
The chemistry of nitrogen dioxide has been investigated extensively. At 150 °C, decomposes with release of oxygen via an endothermic process ():
2 → 2 NO +
As an oxidizer
As suggested by the weakness of the N–O bond, is a good oxidizer. Consequently, it will combust, sometimes explosively, with many compounds, such as hydrocarbons.
Hydrolysis
It hydrolyses to give nitric acid and nitrous acid:
2 () + → +
This reaction is one step in the Ostwald process for the industrial production of nitric acid from ammonia. This reaction is negligibly slow at low concentrations of NO2 characteristic of the ambient atmosphere, although it does proceed upon NO2 uptake to surfaces. Such surface reaction is thought to produce gaseous HNO2 (often written as HONO) in outdoor and indoor environments.
Formation from decomposition of nitric acid
Nitric acid decomposes slowly to nitrogen dioxide by the overall reaction:
4 → 4 + 2 +
The nitrogen dioxide so formed confers the characteristic yellow color often exhibited by this acid.
Conversion to nitrates
is used to generate anhydrous metal nitrates from the oxides:
MO + 3 → + NO
Conversion to nitrites
Alkyl and metal iodides give the corresponding nitrites:
2 + 2 → 2 +
+ 4 → + 2
Ecology
is introduced into the environment by natural causes, including entry from the stratosphere, bacterial respiration, volcanos, and lightning. These sources make a trace gas in the atmosphere of Earth, where it plays a role in absorbing sunlight and regulating the chemistry of the troposphere, especially in determining ozone concentrations.
Uses
is used as an intermediate in the manufacturing of nitric acid, as a nitrating agent in manufacturing of chemical explosives, as a polymerization inhibitor for acrylates, as a flour bleaching agent, and as a room temperature sterilization agent. It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket fuel, for example in red fuming nitric acid; it was used in the Titan rockets, to launch Project Gemini, in the maneuvering thrusters of the Space Shuttle, and in unmanned space probes sent to various planets.
Human-caused sources and exposure
For the general public, the most prominent sources of are internal combustion engines burning fossil fuels. Outdoors, can be a result of traffic from motor vehicles.
Indoors, exposure arises from cigarette smoke, and butane and kerosene heaters and stoves.
Workers in industries where is used are also exposed and are at risk for occupational lung diseases, and NIOSH has set exposure limits and safety standards. Agricultural workers can be exposed to arising from grain decomposing in silos; chronic exposure can lead to lung damage in a condition called "Silo-filler's disease".
Historically, nitrogen dioxide was also produced by atmospheric nuclear tests, and was responsible for the reddish colour of mushroom clouds.
Toxicity
Gaseous diffuses into the epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the respiratory epithelium and dissolves. There, it chemically reacts with antioxidant and lipid molecules in the ELF. The health effects of are caused by the reaction products or their metabolites, which are reactive nitrogen species and reactive oxygen species that can drive bronchoconstriction, inflammation, reduced immune response, and may have effects on the heart.
Acute harm due to exposure is only likely to arise in occupational settings. Direct exposure to the skin can cause irritations and burns. Only very high concentrations of the gaseous form cause immediate distress: 100–200 ppm can cause mild irritation of the nose and throat, 250–500 ppm can cause edema, leading to bronchitis or pneumonia, and levels above 1000 ppm can cause death due to asphyxiation from fluid in the lungs. There are often no symptoms at the time of exposure other than transient cough, fatigue or nausea, but over hours inflammation in the lungs causes edema.
For skin or eye exposure, the affected area is flushed with saline. For inhalation, oxygen is administered, bronchodilators may be administered, and if there are signs of methemoglobinemia, a condition that arises when nitrogen-based compounds affect the hemoglobin in red blood cells, methylene blue may be administered.
It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and it is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.
Health effects of exposure
Even small day-to-day variations in can cause changes in lung function.
Chronic exposure to can cause respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. creates ozone which causes eye irritation and exacerbates respiratory conditions, leading to increased visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory issues, especially asthma.
The effects of toxicity on health have been examined using questionnaires and in-person interviews in an effort to understand the relationship between and asthma. The influence of indoor air pollutants on health is important because the majority of people in the world spend more than 80% of their time indoors. The amount of time spent indoors depends upon on several factors including geographical region, job activities, and gender among other variables. Additionally, because home insulation is improving, this can result in greater retention of indoor air pollutants, such as . With respect to geographic region, the prevalence of asthma has ranged from 2 to 20% with no clear indication as to what's driving the difference. This may be a result of the "hygiene hypothesis" or "western lifestyle" that captures the notions of homes that are well insulated and with fewer inhabitants. Another study examined the relationship between nitrogen exposure in the home and respiratory symptoms and found a statistically significant odds ratio of 2.23 (95% CI: 1.06, 4.72) among those with a medical diagnosis of asthma and gas stove exposure.
A major source of indoor exposure to is the use of gas stoves for cooking or heating in homes. According to the 2000 census, over half of US households use gas stoves and indoor exposure levels of are, on average, at least three times higher in homes with gas stoves compared to electric stoves with the highest levels being in multifamily homes. Exposure to is especially harmful for children with asthma. Research has shown that children with asthma who live in homes with gas stoves have greater risk of respiratory symptoms such as wheezing, cough and chest tightness. Additionally, gas stove use was associated with reduced lung function in girls with asthma, although this association was not found in boys. Using ventilation when operating gas stoves may reduce the risk of respiratory symptoms in children with asthma.
In a cohort study with inner-city minority African American Baltimore children to determine if there was a relationship between and asthma for children aged 2 to 6 years old, with an existing medical diagnosis of asthma, and one asthma related visit, families of lower socioeconomic status were more likely to have gas stoves in their homes. The study concluded that higher levels of within a home were linked to a greater level of respiratory symptoms among the study population. This further exemplifies that toxicity is dangerous for children.
Environmental effects
Interaction of and other with water, oxygen and other chemicals in the atmosphere can form acid rain which harms sensitive ecosystems such as lakes and forests. Elevated levels of can also harm vegetation, decreasing growth, and reduce crop yields.
Avoiding toxicity
While using a gas stove, it is advised to also use ventilation. Studies show that in homes with gas stoves, if ventilation is used while using gas stoves, then children have lower odds of asthma, wheezing and bronchitis as compared to children in homes that never used ventilation. If venting is not possible, then replacing gas stoves with electric stove could be another option. Replacing gas stoves with electric ranges could greatly reduce the exposure to indoor NO2 and improve the respiratory function of children with asthma. It is important to keep gas stoves and heaters in good repair so they are not polluting extra NO2. 2015 International Residential Code that requires that vent hoods are used for all stoves and set standards for residential buildings. This requires that all range hoods have a vent that discharges outside. You can also prevent NO2 exposure by avoiding cigarette smoking and not idling your car whenever possible.
Environmental limits
The U.S. EPA has set safety levels for environmental exposure to at 100 ppb, averaged over one hour, and 53 ppb, averaged annually. As of February 2016, no area of the US was out of compliance with these limits and concentrations ranged between 10 and 20 ppb, and annual average ambient NO2 concentrations, as measured at area-wide monitors, have decreased by more than 40% since 1980.
However, concentrations in vehicles and near roadways are appreciably higher than those measured at monitors in the current network. In fact, in-vehicle concentrations can be 2–3 times higher than measured at nearby area-wide monitors. Near-roadway (within about ) concentrations of NO2 have been measured to be approximately 30 to 100% higher than concentrations away from roadways. Individuals who spend time on or near major roadways can experience short-term NO2 exposures considerably higher than measured by the current network. Approximately 16% of U.S. housing units are located within of a major highway, railroad, or airport (approximately 48 million people). Studies show a connection between breathing elevated short-term NO2 concentrations, and increased visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory issues, especially asthma. NO2 exposure concentrations near roadways are of particular concern for susceptible individuals, including asthmatics, children, and the elderly.
For limits in other countries see the table in the Ambient air quality criteria article.
See also
Dinitrogen tetroxide
Nitric oxide (NO) – pollutant that is short lived because it converts to in the presence of ozone
Nitrite
Nitrous oxide () – "laughing gas", a linear molecule, isoelectronic with but with a nonsymmetric arrangement of atoms (NNO)
Nitryl
References
Cited sources
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0930
National Pollutant Inventory – Oxides of nitrogen fact sheet
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
WHO-Europe reports: Health Aspects of Air Pollution (2003) (PDF) and "Answer to follow-up questions from CAFE (2004) (PDF)
Nitrogen Dioxide Air Pollution
Current global map of nitrogen dioxide distribution
A review of the acute and long term impacts of exposure to nitrogen dioxide in the United Kingdom IOM Research Report TM/04/03
Nitrogen oxides
Bleaches
Hazardous air pollutants
Smog
Free radicals
Food additives
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238534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonesome%20Dove | Lonesome Dove | Lonesome Dove is a 1985 Western novel by American writer Larry McMurtry. It is the first published book of the Lonesome Dove series, but the third installment in the series chronologically.
The story revolves around the relationships between several retired Texas Rangers and their adventures driving a cattle herd from Texas to Montana. Set in the closing years of the Old West, the novel explores themes of old age, death, unrequited love, and friendship.
The novel was a bestseller and won the 1986 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. In 1989, it was adapted as a TV miniseries starring Tommy Lee Jones and Robert Duvall, which won both critical and popular acclaim. McMurtry went on to write a sequel, Streets of Laredo (1993), and two prequels, Dead Man's Walk (1995) and Comanche Moon (1997), all of which were also adapted as TV series.
Origins
Following the success of The Last Picture Show in 1971, Peter Bogdanovich was keen to collaborate with McMurtry on a Western. Their original script was welcomed by the studio, but disliked by the actors McMurtry and Bogdanovich had in mind: Jimmy Stewart, Henry Fonda, and John Wayne. According to McMurtry, the script languished in development hell for 12 years before he bought the rights back for $35,000, to adapt the story as a novel. He spent several years working on it intermittently, between writing Cadillac Jack (1983) and The Desert Rose, and eventually submitted it to his publishers in 1984.
Plot
It is the late 1870s. Captain Woodrow F. Call and Captain Augustus "Gus" McCrae, two famous retired Texas Rangers, run the Hat Creek Cattle Company and Livery Emporium in the small Texas border town of Lonesome Dove. Working with them are Joshua Deets, an excellent black tracker and scout from their Ranger days; Pea Eye Parker, another former Ranger who is loyal and reliable but unintelligent; Bolivar, a retired Mexican bandit who works as their cook; and Newt Dobbs, a 17-year-old boy whose mother was a prostitute named Maggie and whose father is widely thought by the outfit to be Call, though Call has never acknowledged this.
Jake Spoon, another former Ranger, arrives in Lonesome Dove after an absence of more than 10 years, during which he has traveled widely across the United States. He reveals that he is on the run, having accidentally shot a dentist in Fort Smith, Arkansas. The dentist's brother happened to be the town's sheriff, July Johnson.
Reunited with Gus and Call, Jake's description of the Montana Territory inspires Call to gather a herd of cattle and drive them north, to begin the first cattle ranch north of the Yellowstone River. Call, who has grown listless in retirement, is attracted to the romantic notion of settling pristine country. Gus is less enthusiastic but changes his mind when reminded that the love of his life, Clara, lives on the Platte River near Ogallala, Nebraska, which would be on the route to Montana. The Hat Creek outfit rustles thousands of cattle from across the border in Mexico and recruits local cowboys in preparation for the drive.
Ironically, Jake Spoon soon decides not to go at all, having made himself comfortable with the town's only prostitute, Lorena Wood, who is smitten with him after he promises to take her to San Francisco. At Lorena's insistence, however, she and Jake ultimately trail along behind the cattle drive.
In Fort Smith, the young and inexperienced sheriff, July Johnson, reluctantly departs town on the trail of Jake Spoon, taking his 12-year-old stepson Joe with him. July's wife Elmira, who regrets her recent marriage to him, leaves shortly afterwards to search for her former lover Dee Boot. Inept deputy sheriff Roscoe Brown is sent after July to inform him of her disappearance, and has many misadventures and strange encounters through Arkansas and Texas, assisted by a young girl named Janey, who escapes from sexual slavery to accompany him. Roscoe eventually reunites with July and Joe when they rescue him and Janey from bandits in Texas.
As the cattle drive moves north through Texas, the Hat Creek company encounters dust storms, dangerous river crossings, and many other adventures. Jake tires of Lorena and abandons her to go gambling in Austin. Left alone, she is abducted by an Indian bandit named Blue Duck, a notorious and mercilessly vicious old nemesis of the Texas Rangers. Gus goes in pursuit, and while traveling along the Canadian River he encounters July's group. Gus and July attack Blue Duck's bandit encampment, killing the bandits and rescuing Lorena; however, Blue Duck has already made his escape, having murdered Roscoe, Joe, and Janey in the process. A devastated July continues his journey in search of Elmira, while Gus and Lorena return to the cattle drive. Lorena has been repeatedly raped and, suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, is frightened of interacting with anybody other than Gus. The two of them, still following the cattle drive north, sleep in a tent some distance behind the other cowboys.
Meanwhile, Jake Spoon is in Fort Worth. Hearing that July Johnson has been looking for him, Jake leaves Texas in a hurry in the company of the Suggs brothers, whom he soon realizes are cruel bandits. Jake becomes increasingly alarmed by the brothers' actions as they travel north into Kansas; the gang progresses from robbery to cold-blooded murder, but Jake is too frightened and outnumbered to either kill them or escape. When the gang attacks a trail boss known to Gus and Call, the former Rangers of the Hat Creek outfit go in pursuit of them. The ex-Rangers are dismayed when they apprehend the Suggs brothers and find Jake alongside them. Jake pleads with his former comrades that he had no choice but to go along with things for fear of his own life, but Gus and Call stand firm that he has "crossed a line", and they solemnly hang him alongside the Suggs brothers. Newt, who had idolized Jake as a child, is left deeply upset.
Meanwhile, Elmira, pregnant with July's child, has come into the company of a rough buffalo hunter named Zwey, a simple man who seems to believe he is now "married" to her. Arriving in Nebraska, they come across the horse ranch of Clara Allen, Gus' former lover, whose husband Bob has become a brain-damaged invalid after being kicked in the head by a mustang. Clara delivers Elmira's baby son, but Elmira and Zwey leave almost immediately afterwards for Ogallala.
Dee Boot is held in the Ogallala jail, scheduled to be hanged for his accidental murder of a young boy; Elmira collapses while speaking to him, and Boot is hanged while she recuperates in a doctor's house, leaving her heartbroken and depressed. July arrives at Clara's ranch, learns what has transpired, and goes to see her, but Elmira refuses to speak to him. Shortly afterwards she orders Zwey to take her east, back towards St. Louis. Anguished and heartbroken, July feels compelled to follow her, but at Clara's insistence he remains at the ranch with her family and his son instead, whom Clara has named Martin. Word later reaches them that Elmira and Zwey were killed by Sioux.
The Hat Creek outfit arrives in Nebraska, and Gus takes Lorena, Call, and Newt to visit Clara. Lorena, who has fallen in love with Gus, fears that Gus will abandon her for Clara. Clara is happy to see Gus but has no desire to rekindle their romance; however, she takes in Lorena, whose post-traumatic stress is easing and who quickly feels comfortable with Clara and her daughters. Gus, rebuffed by Clara and no longer Lorena's sole caretaker, decides to continue on the cattle drive and see the journey to Montana through to its end.
In Wyoming, several horses are stolen by half-starved Indians. Call, Gus, and Deets chase after them, and Deets is killed in the ensuing confrontation by the group's only remaining brave. Shortly afterwards Gus informs Newt that Call is his father, something Newt has always dreamed of, but he is too upset by Deets' death to give it much thought.
After a desperate crossing through the arid basins of Wyoming, the cattle drive arrives in Montana, which proves as lush and beautiful as Jake had described. Scouting ahead of the main herd, Gus and Pea Eye are attacked by Blood Indians, and Gus is badly wounded by two arrows to the leg. Besieged in a makeshift dugout in the bank of the Musselshell River for several days, Gus' wounds become infected, and his health declines. After a heavy rain he sends Pea Eye down the swollen river to seek help, but Pea Eye loses his clothing, boots, gun, and food in the river and stumbles naked and unarmed for a 100-mile walk across the plains. Starving, delirious, and suffering from exposure, he is discovered by the rest of the cowboys on the verge of death. Call then sets out alone to rescue Gus.
Meanwhile, feverish and dying, Gus leaves the river shortly after Pea Eye, taking his chances and escaping the Indians. He makes it to Miles City, Montana, and collapses unconscious, waking to find that a doctor has sawed off his gangrenous leg. His other leg is also infected, but Gus refuses to let the doctor amputate it. Call arrives in Miles City and fruitlessly tries to convince Gus to have his other leg removed in order to save his life; Gus, however, would rather die than be an invalid. Gus asks Call to bury him in an orchard in Texas where he used to picnic with Clara, and Call begrudgingly agrees. After writing letters to Clara and Lorena, and urging Call to accept Newt as his son, Gus dies of blood poisoning. Call leaves Gus' body in storage in Miles City, intending to return him to Texas after the winter. He continues north with the cattle drive, despondent over losing his closest friend.
Eventually, the remaining members of the Hat Creek outfit establish a ranch in the fertile and ungrazed wilderness between the Missouri River and the Milk River. Call suffers from depression all winter, no longer caring about the cattle drive or the ranch, and contemplating what to do about Newt. Before leaving in the spring, he puts Newt in charge of the ranch and gives him his horse, his rifle, and his family watch, but still cannot bring himself to publicly acknowledge the boy as his son. Newt is inwardly upset but accepts the gifts nonetheless. Call, ashamed of himself, leaves the ranch.
Call retrieves Gus' body, packed in a coffin with salt and charcoal, and begins the long journey south in an old buggy. In Nebraska, he gives Gus' letters to Clara and Lorena, and explains that Gus has left his half of the cattle interests to Lorena. Lorena is devastated by Gus' death and refuses to open her letter; standing silently by his coffin day and night, she suddenly faints. Clara considers the journey a whimsical folly typical of Gus and urges Call to bury him on her ranch instead, but Call refuses, having given Gus his word. Clara tells Call she despises him as a "vain coward" for refusing to claim Newt as his son, and he leaves Nebraska haunted by her condemnation.
The story of the cowboy transporting his dead friend's body spreads across the plains, and Call takes a circuitous route through Colorado and New Mexico to avoid the increasing attention. In Santa Rosa, he discovers that Blue Duck has been captured by a sheriff's deputy and is about to be hanged. Call visits Blue Duck in his jail cell, and Blue Duck taunts him, pointing out that he raided, killed, raped, and kidnapped with impunity throughout his life despite the best efforts of the Texas Rangers. On the day of his hanging, on his way to the roof where the gallows await him, Blue Duck jumps out a third-story window, pulling along with him the sheriff's deputy who had caught him, killing them both.
Arriving back in Texas exhausted, despondent, and wounded from a bullet to his side, Call buries Gus by the spring in the orchard near San Antonio, true to his word. He then rides on to Lonesome Dove, where the cook Bolivar, who had abandoned the cattle drive before it left Texas, is delighted to see him again. In town, Call finds that the saloon has burned down; the proprietor, who had been madly in love with Lorena, committed suicide after her departure by burning down his saloon while he remained inside.
Characters
Captain Woodrow F. Call — Co-owner of the Hat Creek outfit and former Texas Ranger. A largely silent leader of men and tireless worker who believes firmly in discipline, duty, and honor, he is a foil to his best friend Gus. McMurtry describes Call as a Stoic.
Captain Augustus "Gus" McCrae — Co-owner of the Hat Creek outfit and former Texas Ranger. A lazy, loquacious, and charismatic rake with a fondness for alcohol, gambling, and whores, he is nonetheless a brave and competent fighter when required. He is tall and lanky, famed for his excellent eyesight, and has had silver hair since his twenties. It is widely believed this character is based on a handsome, smooth talking gentleman from the North West of England. He serves as a foil to his best friend Call, and is described by McMurtry as an Epicurean.
Pea Eye Parker — The wrangler and blacksmith of the Hat Creek Cattle Company, Pea Eye served as a corporal in the Rangers under Gus and Call. Pea Eye (his real first name long forgotten) is not especially bright, but he is brave, reliable, and kind. He follows Call's lead without question.
Joshua Deets — An African-American former Ranger, Deets is a loyal ranchhand and, on the drive, serves as the chief scout. He is an exceptional tracker who relies on his phenomenal instincts to lead the company out of harm's way. He is quiet and contemplative, but wise, compassionate, and trusted by all.
Newt Dobbs — A 17-year-old orphan raised by Gus and Call. His mother was a prostitute named Maggie, who died when he was a child. He knows his mother was a prostitute but has no idea who his father might be. Most observers, notably Gus and Clara Allen, are confident Call is his father. Though he begins the journey awkward and inexperienced, Newt develops into a competent and reliable cowboy and, despite his young age, is eventually given leadership of the ranch in Call's absence. McMurtry refers to Newt as "the lonesome dove of the title."
Jake Spoon — A former Ranger who left his friends ten years ago to travel around America, returning to Texas near the beginning of the novel. Like Gus, Jake is a drinker, gambler, and womanizer. He possesses a great personal charm but is lazy, selfish, and often careless.
Dishwater "Dish" Boggett — Though only 22, Dish is a cowboy of great skill and the "top hand" for Call's cattle drive. He suffers greatly from unrequited love for Lorena Wood. His nickname derives from once having drunk dishwater on a cattle drive, being so thirsty that he could not wait for the water barrel.
Bolivar — A former Mexican bandit and the cook for the Hat Creek Cattle Company. He is obsessed with loudly and unnecessarily ringing the dinner bell to call the company for dinner. Bolivar is uneasy about venturing far from the Rio Grande and abandons the cattle drive before it leaves Texas.
Po Campo — The cattle drive's enigmatic new cook, hired by Call in San Antonio after Bolivar's departure. He uses exotic ingredients like grasshoppers in his meals and refuses to ride animals. He hints at being well-traveled, and also offhandedly remarks that he killed his wife.
Lorena Wood — A beautiful young woman from Alabama who was coerced into prostitution by a former lover, later washing up in Lonesome Dove, where she works as the town's only whore. Lorena is taciturn, strong-willed, and often intimidating to the numerous cowboys who seek her affection, generally viewing her clients and admirers with contempt. Discontented with her life, Lorena initially harbors a dream of traveling to San Francisco, but her perspective changes dramatically after her experiences during the cattle drive.
Blue Duck — The son of Comanche war chief Buffalo Hump and his Mexican captive, Blue Duck leads a gang of renegade Indians and Caucasian criminals. Atrociously wicked and remorseless, he is feared across the plains as a ruthless murderer, rapist, and slaver. He has managed to evade the law even as the West gradually grows safer and more civilized.
July Johnson — The sheriff of the town of Fort Smith, Arkansas. July is a kind young man recently married to Elmira, whom he deeply loves despite her being openly disdainful of him. After his brother Ben is accidentally killed by Jake Spoon, July sets off in pursuit of him.
Elmira Johnson — A former whore from Kansas, recently married to July Johnson. She is unhappy with her life and suffers from depression, eventually leaving Fort Smith to seek out her old love Dee Boot.
Roscoe Brown — The deputy sheriff of Fort Smith, Arkansas. Roscoe is a simple man in his forties who is content to spend his life minding the sleepy town's jail, but is bullied by July's sister-in-law into tracking down the sheriff and his missing wife.
Joe — Elmira's son, who travels with July to find and arrest Jake Spoon.
Janey — A young girl Roscoe meets on his journey to find July. She was a slave to an old man living alone in the woods, but when Roscoe arrives she escapes from captivity and travels with him, proving herself useful with her ability to catch animals to eat and her excellent aim when throwing rocks.
Clara Allen — Gus' former love, she declined his repeated marriage proposals during their youth in Texas – for reasons that were never entirely clear to Gus – instead marrying the horse trader Bob Allen and moving to a ranch near Ogallala, Nebraska. She still grieves for her sons who died of respiratory disease from the sod house she and Bob first lived in, and treasures her daughters.
Jimmy and Ben Rainey, Bill and Pete Spettle, Soupy Jones, Needle Nelson, Jasper Fant, Bert Borum, Lippy Jones, Sean and Allen O'Brien — Other hands hired by Call to work the cattle drive.
Reception
Lonesome Dove was the winner of the 1986 Pulitzer Prize in Fiction, and received favorable reviews. In the New York Times, Nicholas Lemann praised the novel as "thrilling and almost perfectly realized," calling it "the great cowboy novel."
McMurtry himself eventually expressed dissatisfaction with the popularity of the novel, particularly after the miniseries adaptation. In the preface to the 2000 edition he wrote: "It's hard to go wrong if one writes at length about the Old West, still the phantom leg of the American psyche. I thought I had written about a harsh time and some pretty harsh people, but, to the public at large, I had produced something nearer to an idealization; instead of a poor man's Inferno, filled with violence, faithlessness and betrayal, I had actually delivered a kind of Gone With The Wind of the West, a turnabout I'll be mulling over for a long, long time."
Adaptations
A television miniseries adaptation produced by Motown Productions was broadcast on CBS in 1989, starring Robert Duvall as Augustus McCrae and Tommy Lee Jones as Woodrow F. Call. The series was a commercial and critical success, eventually garnering a cult following.
Historical references
According to McMurtry, Gus and Call were not modeled after historical characters, but there are similarities with real-life cattle drivers Charles Goodnight and Oliver Loving. When Goodnight and Loving's African American guide Bose Ikard died, Goodnight carved a wooden grave marker for him, just as Call does for Deets. Upon Loving's death, Goodnight brought him home to be buried in Texas, as Call does for Augustus. (Goodnight himself appears as a minor but generally sympathetic character in this novel, and more so in the sequel, Streets of Laredo, and the prequels Dead Man's Walk and Comanche Moon.) Blue Duck also was a historical person, a paramour of Belle Starr, "Queen of the Oklahoma Outlaws".
According to McMurtry's memoir, Books: A Memoir, the ultimate sources for Gus and Call were Don Quixote, the crazy old knight, and Sancho Panza, the peasant pragmatist, from Don Quixote. He stated: "What is important that, early on, I read some version of Don Quixote and pondered the grave differences (comically cast) between Sancho and the Don. Between the two is where fiction, as I've mostly read and written it, lives."
Other books of the Lonesome Dove series feature other prominent historical events and locations such as the Texan Santa Fe Expedition, the Great Raid of 1840, and the King Ranch, and characters such as Buffalo Hump, John Wesley Hardin, and Judge Roy Bean.
See also
Andy Adams (writer), wrote the Log of a Cowboy, an account of a five-month drive of 3,000 cattle from Brownsville, Texas, to Montana in 1882 along the Great Western Cattle Trail
Bose Ikard
References
Bibliography
McMurtry, Larry. (1985). Lonesome Dove: A Novel. New York: Simon & Schuster.
External links
Lonesome Dove exhibit at Texas State University - San Marcos
Pappy's Holdup wagon journey - Location where part of Movie was filmed.
Photos of the first edition of Lonesome Dove
Study Guide for Lonesome Dove
1985 American novels
Novels set in the 1870s
American novels adapted into television shows
Western (genre) novels
Novels by Larry McMurtry
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction-winning works
Texas literature
Lonesome Dove series
Novels set in Texas
Novels set in Nebraska
Novels set in Arkansas
Simon & Schuster books
PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction-winning works
English-language books
Novels set in Fort Worth, Texas | [
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|
238535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantam%20Spectra | Bantam Spectra | Bantam Spectra is the science fiction division of American publishing company Bantam Books, which is owned by Random House.
According to their website, Spectra publishes "science fiction, fantasy, horror, and speculative novels from recognizable authors". Spectra authors have collectively won 31 such awards in the fields of science fiction and fantasy, and been nominated on 132 occasions. These authors include the following:
Anthony Ballantyne
Bruce Sterling
Catherine Asaro
Catherynne Valente
Charles Platt
Christopher Barzak
Connie Willis
Dan Simmons
David Brin
David J Williams
Doug Beason
Elisabeth Vonarburg
Elizabeth Bear
Elizabeth Hand
Ellen Kushner
George R. R. Martin
Gregory Benford
Ian McDonald
Jamil Nasir
Joe Lansdale
John Ford
Justina Robson
Karen Fowler
Kelley Armstrong
Kevin J. Anderson
Kim Robinson
Lisa Goldstein
Liz Williams
M. K. Hobson
Maggie Furey
Margaret Ogden
Mark Budz
Michael McQuay
Neal Stephenson
Patrice Murphy
Patricia Geary
Paula Volsky
Richard Grant
Robert Charles Wilson
Roberta MacAvoy
Roger MacBride Allen
Scott Lynch
Sheri Tepper
T. A. Pratt
Tim Lebbon
William Gibson
William McCarthy
Bantam Spectra series
Star Wars
More than 20 Star Wars novels have been published under the Bantam Spectra Imprint. Notable Spectra Star Wars novels include Timothy Zahn's blockbuster Thrawn Trilogy, Barbara Hambly's Children of the Jedi, and others. Eventually Lucasfilm, which owns Star Wars, decided to have Scholastic and Del Rey publish their books, leading to the end of the Bantam Spectra Star Wars era.
References
External links
American speculative fiction publishers
Random House
Science fiction publishers | [
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238536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%20Dragutin | Stefan Dragutin | Stefan Dragutin (, ; 1244 – 12 March 1316) was King of Serbia from 1276 to 1282. From 1282, he ruled a separate kingdom which included northern Serbia, and (from 1284) the neighboring Hungarian banates (or border provinces), for which he was unofficially styled "King of Syrmia".
He was the eldest son of King Stefan Uroš I of Serbia and Queen Helen. Dragutin married Catherine of Hungary, likely after his father concluded a peace treaty with her grandfather, Béla IV of Hungary, in 1268. By 1271, he received the title of "young king" in recognition of his right to succeed his father. He rebelled against his father, and with Hungarian assistance, forced him to abdicate in 1276.
Dragutin abandoned Uroš I's centralizing policy and ceded large territories to his mother in appanage. After a riding accident, he abdicated in favor of his brother, Milutin, in 1282, but he retained the northern regions of Serbia along the Hungarian border. Two years later, his brother-in-law, Ladislaus IV of Hungary, granted him three banates—Mačva (or Sirmia ulterior), Usora and Soli. He was the first Serbian monarch to rule Belgrade. With his brother's support, he also occupied the Banate of Braničevo in 1284 or 1285.
In theory, Dragutin was a vassal both to his brother (for his Serbian territories), and to the Hungarian monarchs (for the four banates), but in practice he ruled his realm as an independent ruler from the 1290s. His conflicts with Milutin developed into open war in 1301, and he frequently raided the neighboring Hungarian lords from 1307. Most of the Serbian noblemen supported Dragutin, but he was forced to make peace with Milutin after Milutin's mercenaries routed him in 1311 or 1312. Before his death, he entered a monastery and died as the monk Teoktist. On the list of Serbian saints, Dragutin is venerated on 12 November or 30 October (Old Style and New Style dates).
Early life
Dragutin was the eldest son of King Stefan Uroš I of Serbia, and Helen of Anjou. The place and date of his birth are unknown. In 1264, the monk Domentijan recorded that the "fourth generation" of the descendants of Stefan Nemanja was already old enough "to ride a horse and carry a warrior's lance". As Domentijan is obviously referring to Dragutin, the historian Miodrag Purković concluded Dragutin must have been twenty and dated his birth to around 1244.
The date of Dragutin's marriage with Catherine of Hungary is also unknown. His father and her grandfather, Béla IV of Hungary, most probably arranged the marriage during the peace negotiations that followed Uroš I's invasion of Mačva in 1268, but an earlier date cannot be excluded. Mačva was a Hungarian border province to the north of Serbia which had been governed by Béla IV's daughter, Anna, on behalf of her minor son, Béla. Uroš I launched a plundering raid against the province, but he was captured and forced to seek a reconciliation. Catherine's father, Stephen V, had been bearing the title of "younger king" as his father's co-ruler and heir and the same title was bestowed on Dragutin in recognition of his exclusive right to inherit Serbia from his father. The Peace of Pressburg between Stephen V and King Ottokar II of Bohemia is the oldest extant document which describes Dragutin as a "younger king".
Decades later, Danilo II, Archbishop of Serbia, recorded that Dragutin's Hungarian in-laws also expected that Uroš would cede parts of his realm to Dragutin to allow him to rule them independently. The peace agreement may have explicitly prescribed the division of Serbia between Uroš I and Dragutin, according to Aleksandar Krstić and other historians. After spending years strengthening his central government, Uroš was reluctant to divide his kingdom with his son. Dragutin and his wife were living in his father's court when a Byzantine envoy visited Serbia in the late 1260s.
Dragutin rose up against his father in 1276. Whether he wanted to persuade his father to share power with him, or he was afraid of being disinherited in favor of his younger brother, Milutin, cannot be determined. Dragutin's brother-in-law, Ladislaus IV of Hungary, sent Hungarian and Cuman troops to Serbia to assist him. Dragutin routed his father near Gacko in the autumn of 1276. Uroš abdicated without further resistance and entered the Sopoćani Monastery where he died a year later.
Reign
Serbia
The archbishop of Serbia, Joanikije I, abdicated after the fall of Uroš I. His abdication may have been to protest Dragutin's usurpation of the throne, or he may have been forced to resign because of his close relationship with the dethroned monarch. Soon after ascending the throne, Dragutin gave large parts of Serbia—including Zeta, Trebinje and other coastal territories, and Plav—to his mother in appanage. The lands of Helen's appanage included the core territories of the former Kingdom of Duklja and developed into a province of the heirs to the Serbian throne after her death. Milutin accompanied their mother to her realm and settled in Shkodër.
Serbia's relationship with the Republic of Ragusa had been tense during the last years of Uroš I's reign, although his wife secretly supported the republic. Dragutin reconciled shortly after he had ascended the throne. Charles I of Anjou, King of Sicily, wanted to include Dragutin in a coalition against the Byzantine Empire. The two kings exchanged letters about this issue in 1279.
Dragutin fell off his horse and broke his leg in early 1282. His injury was so severe a council was called in Deževo to make decisions about governing Serbia. At the council, Dragutin abdicated in favor of Milutin, but the circumstances of his abdication are uncertain. Decades later, Dragutin recounted that he had already come into conflict with Milutin, and that he had ceded the government to Milutin only provisionally, until he recovered. Archbishop Danilo II wrote that Dragutin abdicated because he regarded the riding accident as God's punishment for his acts against his father, but the Archbishop also referred to unspecified "serious troubles" that contributed to Dragutin's decision. The Byzantine historian, George Pachymeres, was informed that Dragutin's abdication had been definitive, but Pachymeres also mentioned an agreement between the two brothers that secured the right of Dragutin's (unnamed) son to succeed Milutin.
Sirmia ulterior
Inscriptions on frescos and diplomatic correspondence provide evidence that Dragutin was styled "king" after his abdication, but Milutin's supreme position is evident. Dragutin continued to style himself as king in his charters and on his coins. Dragutin and Milutin wore royal insignias seen on a fresco in St. Achillius Church, which was Dragutin's endowment near Arilje, but Dragutin is depicted with fewer royal emblems. Actually, Serbia was divided between Dragutin and Milutin at Dragutin's abdication, with Dragutin retaining the northern region along the Hungarian border, including the recently opened silver mine at Rudnik. He also held territories in western Serbia on the river Lim, thus he was his brother's most powerful vassal. Ladislaus IV of Hungary granted Mačva, Usora and Soli to Dragutin in the second half of 1284. Relatives of the Hungarian monarchs, most recently Dragutin's mother-in-law, Elizabeth the Cuman, had held the same territories in appanage, and Dragutin continued to rule them as a Hungarian vassal. Mačva was also known as Sirmia ulterior, hence Dragutin's contemporaries often styled him as "King of Srem". He took up his seat at Debrc on the Sava, but he also regularly stayed in Belgrade. He was the first Serbian monarch to rule this town.
Dragutin administered his realm independently of his brother. He supported the Franciscans' missions in Bosnia and allowed the establishment of a Catholic see in Belgrade. Two Cuman or Bulgarian warlords, Darman and Kudelin, had seized a former Hungarian banate, the Banate of Braničevo. Dragutin invaded Braničevo with Hungarian assistance in 1284 or 1285 but could not defeat them. Darman and Kudelin hired Cuman and Tatar troops and began raiding Dragutin's realm. Dragutin sought help from Milutin and the two brothers met in Mačkovac. After they joined their forces and defeated Darman and Kudelin, Dragutin seized Braničevo in 1291 or 1292. The new Hungarian monarch, Andrew III, also supported their military action, but Andrew's weak position in Hungary enabled Dragutin to strengthen his independence.
Dragutin's sister-in-law, Mary, had laid claim to Hungary after the death of her brother, Ladislaus IV. Dragutin was allegedly willing to support her and her son, Charles Martel of Anjou. Charles Martel, who regarded himself the lawful king of Hungary, granted Slavonia to Dragutin's son, Vladislav, in 1292, but most Hungarian noblemen and prelates remained loyal to Andrew III. Dragutin also sought a reconciliation with Andrew, and Vladislav married Constance, the granddaughter of Andrew's uncle, Albertino Morosini in 1293. Dragutin took advantage of the disintegration of Hungary during the last decade of the 13th century and became one of the dozen "oligarchs" (or powerful lords) who ruled vast territories independently of the monarch.
Dragutin supported his brother's attacks against the Byzantine territories in Macedonia in the 1290s. After Milutin had made peace with the Byzantine Empire in 1299, dozens of Serbian noblemen, who had benefited from the war, moved to Dragutin's realm. Tensions between the two brothers grew rapidly, most probably because Milutin wanted to secure the succession in Serbia for his own sons. In 1301, open war broke out and Milutin occupied Rudnik after taking it from Dragutin. According to Ragusan reports, a peace treaty was made in late 1302, but Dragutin's troops or allies pillaged Milutin's silver mines at Brskovo in 1303. The armed conflict lasted for more than a decade, but its details are unknown. The parties allegedly avoided fighting pitched battles and Dragutin kept his realm almost intact, although income from the silver mines enabled Milutin to hire mercenaries.
Charles Martel's son, Charles Robert, came to Hungary to assert his claim to the throne in 1300. His grandfather, Charles II of Naples, listed Dragutin and Dragutin's wife among Charles Robert's principal supporters. Between the summer of 1301 and May 1304, Charles Robert spent much of his time in the powerful Ugrin Csák's domains, which were located to the north of Dragutin's realm, implying that Charles Robert's relationship with Dragutin was cordial. For unknown reasons, Dragutin's troops pillaged Csák's domains in 1307, but Csák launched a counter-attack and defeated Dragutin's army on an unknown date, sometime before 13 October 1307. Dragutin made an alliance with Charles Robert's opponent, Ladislaus Kán, who ruled Transylvania in the 1300s. Dragutin's Orthodox son married Kán's daughter, for which the papal legate, Gentile Portino da Montefiore, excommunicated Kán at the end of 1309. Historian Alexandar Krstić proposes that Dragutin wanted to secure the Hungarian throne for his elder son, Vladislav, and the Serbian throne for his younger son, Urošica. Records of the destruction that Dragutin and his troops wreaked in Valkó and Szerém Counties most probably refer to Dragutin's frequent raids against Ugrin Csák's territories in 1309 and 1310. He also seized properties of the Archbishopric of Kalocsa, which prevented the newly elected Archbishop Demetrius from visiting Rome before the end of 1312.
His conflict with Charles Robert forced him to fight on two fronts. He could continue the war against his brother after Serbian noblemen rose up against Milutin in the early 1310s. The Serbian prelates remained loyal to Milutin and helped him to hire Tatar, Jassic and Turkish mercenaries. After Milutin inflicted a decisive defeat on Dragutin in late 1311 or 1312, the prelates mediated a peace treaty between them most probably in 1312. Dragutin had to acknowledge his brother as the lawful king, but his Serbian appanage (including the silver mine at Rubnik) was fully restored to him. Dragutin sent reinforcements to help his brother's fight against the powerful Ban of Croatia, Mladen II Šubić of Bribir, in 1313. According to Krstić, Dragutin obviously made a peace treaty with Charles Robert in Sremska Mitrovica in February 1314. In 1314 or 1316, Dragutin signed his brother's charter of the grant to the Banjska Monastery as "the former king".
Dragutin became a monk and adopted the name Teoctist shortly before his death. According to Archbishop Danilo II's biography, while he was dying, he stated he could not be venerated as a saint. He died on 12 March 1316. He was buried in the Đurđevi Stupovi Monastery. He is regarded as the second founder of the monastery, which had been built by his great-grandfather, Stephen Nemanja. On the list of Serbian saints, Dragutin is venerated on 12 November or 30 October (Old Style and New Style dates). He was succeeded, in his northern domains, by his son, Stefan Vladislav II.
See also
History of Serbia
Srem
References
Sources
External links
13th-century Serbian monarchs
14th-century Serbian monarchs
Nemanjić dynasty
Medieval Hungarian nobility
History of Syrmia
Medieval history of Vojvodina
Eastern Orthodox royal saints
Serbian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Burials at Serbian Orthodox monasteries and churches
Year of birth unknown
13th-century births
1316 deaths
Sons of kings
Christian monarchs | [
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|
238538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%20Radoslav | Stefan Radoslav | Stefan Radoslav (; 1192 – after 1235), also known as Stephanos Doukas (), was the King of Serbia, from 1228 to 1233.
Family
Stefan was the eldest son of Stefan Nemanjić (r. 1196–1228), by his first wife Eudokia Angelina, daughter of Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) and Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina. He reportedly had two unnamed sisters, the first of whom married first the Albanian prince Dhimitër Progoni, and secondly the Greco-Albanian lord Gregorios Kamonas, while the second married the sebastokrator Alexander Asen, whom George Acropolites identifies as a son of Tsar Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria (r. 1189–96). It is uncertain if his mother was Maria or Helena, respectively the first and second wife of Ivan Asen I. Alexander was the father of Kaliman II of Bulgaria (r. 1256).
According to the historian John Van Antwerp Fine, Jr., Eudokia was repudiated on grounds of adultery in 1200–01. Fine summarizes a passage of Niketas Choniates to state "She left on foot with only the clothes on her back". Eudokia sought refuge with her brother-in-law Vukan Nemanjić, Prince of Zeta. Vukan provided her with hospitality for a while and then arranged for her transportation to Durrës, where she boarded a Byzantine ship heading for Constantinople and returned safely to her father. This indicates Stefan Radoslav was born either in the 1190s or the early 1200s (decade).
Fine considers the treatment of Eudokia to be an indication of a decline in the prestige the Byzantine Empire held at the time. The senior Stefan was evidently unafraid of a military confrontation with his former father-in-law which could have occurred in retaliation for his actions. The alliance with the Empire had apparently outlived its use to the Serbian rulers. Stefan Nemanjić had ongoing border disputes with both Vukan Nemanjić and Emeric of Hungary, though outright war had not started yet. The Byzantines had failed to provide him with any military support and Stefan had apparently despaired of any help arriving from that direction. At the same time the senior Stefan was negotiating submitting himself and his subjects to the Roman Catholic Church in exchange for Pope Innocent III declaring him a King. He had reasons to distance himself from the Byzantines and the Eastern Orthodox Church associated with them.
His father was later remarried to Anna Dandolo, a daughter of Ranier Dandolo and granddaughter of Enrico Dandolo, Doge of Venice. Stefan Radoslav had three paternal half-brothers from this marriage. They were Serbian Archbishop Saint Sava II, Stefan Vladislav and Stefan Uroš I. His mother would proceed to marry secondly to Alexios V Doukas and thirdly to Leo Sgouros, ruler of Nafplion. However, there were no known children by either marriage, thus Stefan Radoslav consequently had no maternal half-siblings.
Ruler of Zachlumia
According to "The Realm of the Slavs" (1601) by Mavro Orbin, Stefan Radoslav served as ruler of Zachlumia during the reign of his father. However the sources Orbin used for his history of Zachlumia are not identified by name. They are considered lost and Orbin remains our earliest extant source for several of the events mentioned. According to it Miroslav, the Great was succeeded by his son Andrew (Andrija), only ten-years-old. Missing from the text is Toljen, a son of Miroslav who was mentioned as heir apparent in other sources. With Andrew being underage, the local nobility proceeded to depose him. They offered the crown to Peter (Petar), whose relation to his predecessors is not mentioned by Orbin. Fine notes that later scholars tend to assume Peter was another son of Miroslav and brother or half-brother to Andrew. Some time later, the cause of the exiled Andrew was taken up by Stefan Nemanjić who invated Zachlumia. Peter was forced to retreat to the areas west and north of the river Neretva. The rest of Zachlumia fell into the control of Nemanjić. Fine points that the areas supposedly held by Peter would not be uncontested. They are known from other sources to have been claimed by Andrew, Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia since 1198. Orbin next claims that Nemanjić divided Zachlumia between his cousin Andrew, son of Miroslav and his own son, Radolslav. Andrew was given control of Popovo and coastal Hum. The mainland was granted to Radoslav. Orbin then claims that Radoslav died and Nemanjić granted his area to Andrew. Fine points that Radoslav could not have predeceased his father. We know from other sources that he went on to succeed him. Nemanjić could have simply removed him for his position of authority for reasons lost to us. Orbin continues his account but Radoslav is not mentioned again.
Fine points that the reliability of the above account is at times difficult to determine because the lack of further sources. There are some obvious inaccuracies at times but the basics of the story could be true. A succession crisis in Zachlumia with the existence of rival heirs would be quite plausible. Nemanjić would have reason to get involved. His ongoing rivalry with his brother in the late 1190s would require him to secure control over Zachlumia, in order to prevent Vukan from claiming control for himself. However his activities in the area are otherwise unrecorded. His motivation for backing Andrew against Peter is also unclear. Either of the two could serve as rulers of a puppet state. Installing Radoslav as ruler of eastern Zachlumia would be a way to secure tighter control of the region.
Orbin does not actually provide dates for the events of his account. Fine proceeds to estimate them, based on sources recording other events in the wider region. He estimates the death of Miroslav to 1198. Explaining why Andrew of Croatia and Dalmatia chose that year to attack. He acquired control over areas of Zachlumia northwest of the Neretva. By 1203, this Andrew was involved in conflict with his own brother, Emeric of Hungary. The ongoing conflict would allow Peter to claim the areas northwest of the Neretva for himself. He could have either taken advantage of Andrew's troops already withdrawing or using his own forces to drive them out. Either way, Andrew could probably not afford maintaining two fronts of war at the same time. Securing the area as his powerbase, Peter could then drive his brother from eastern Zachlumia. The amount of time between the time Andrew of Zachlumia went into exile and the decision of Nemanjić to intervene is left unclear in the account by Orbin. Fine suggests it could have been more than a decade. He suggests it could be as late as 1216, just a year before Nemanjić was declared a King by Pope Honorius III. Nemanjić could by then devote his forces to securing eastern Zachlumia for Andrew, his intended puppet ruler. He could then attempt to secure even tighter control by appointing Radoslav in the areas directly bordering Raška. The area could have stayed under his control for longer than Orbin indicates. Fine points that Andrew seems to have "disappeared from the scene" by 1218 when Peter is recorded to have taken over the coastal areas. There seems to be no indication of Peter extending his control to the areas supposedly ruled by Radoslav.
Reign and deposition
Fine mentions Radoslav acting as governor of the Principality of Zeta for part the reign of his father. In a charter variously dated to 1222 or 1228, Radoslav appears as co-founder of the monastery of Žiča with his father. King Stefan the First-Crowned, who had become ill, took monastic vows and died in 1227. Radoslav who was the eldest son succeeded as King, crowned at Žiča by Archbishop Sava, his uncle and the first Archbishop (since 1219) of the autocephalous Serbian Orthodox Church. The younger sons, Vladislav and Uroš I, received appanages. The youngest of the brothers, Sava II, was appointed Bishop of Hum shortly thereafter, later serving as Archbishop of Serbia (1263-1270). The Church and state were thus dominated by the same family and the ties between the two as well as the family's role within the Church continued.
According to biographer and monk Theodosius, Radoslav was a good ruler at first, but then fell under the influence of his wife, who was the daughter of the ruler of Epirus and Thessalonica, Theodore Komnenos Doukas (r. 1215–1230). Radoslav was most likely not beloved by the Serbian nobility due to this Greek influence. Radoslav used his Greek name, Stephanos Doukas, on his coinage, in several Greek documents and even once in his signature.
Radoslav was probably safe from domestic rebellion as long as his father-in-law Theodore remained strong. In 1230, however, Theodore was defeated and captured by Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen II, after which Radoslav's position seems to have weakened; some of his nobility revolted in autumn 1233. Serbian medieval biographers noted that the nobility had left the support of Radoslav and stood itself behind the younger Vladislav. Radoslav fled the country between 1 September 1233 and 4 February 1234, and was unable to regain the kingdom, but eventually returned as a monk. Radoslav fled to Dubrovnik (1233) with his wife, and there are indications that Radoslav had organized some actions against Vladislav and that he thought that he would manage to return to the throne - this is evident from an dated 4 February 1234, regarding a promise to Ragusan trading privileges once he had returned to Serbia. Because of this, Vladislav began threatening Ragusa, which then had to turn to Bosnian Ban Ninoslav for help, and as the action against Vladislav was unsuccessful, Radoslav found refuge with the Epirote ruler Michael II Komnenos Doukas in Dyrrhachium.
According to Theodosius, Radoslav's wife Anna had left him for a commander of the fortress, a Frank. However, this account has been proven to be false, as there was no Frankish commander in Dyrrachium in Radoslav's time. After some time, Radoslav and his wife returned together to Serbia and took monastic vows.
Vladislav was crowned King upon Radoslav's flight. Vladislav married the daughter of Ivan Asen II, much thanks to Sava. Sava then abdicated in favour of his apprentice Arsenije in the end of 1233. Sava died while heading home from a Holy Land trip, while visiting the Bulgarian court in 1235, and was respectfully buried at the Holy Forty Martyrs Church in Tarnovo. Sava's body was returned to Serbia after a series of requests, and was then buried in the Mileševa monastery, built by Vladislav in 1234. Sava was canonized and his relics were miraculous; his cult remained important throughout the Middle Ages and the Ottoman occupation.
According to Fine both Radoslav and Anna retired into monastic life following their deposition. His monastic name was Jovan. The time and circumstances of his death are unknown. The relations between Vladislav and Radoslav after he had returned and became a monk are not fully known, but he did not disturb his brother. There is a hypothesis that Radoslav even received a part of Serbian land to administrate. In any case, Radoslav continued the rest of his life in peace.
The Europäische Stammtafeln: Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten (1978) by Detlev Schwennicke, reports Radoslav betrothed to Theodora Komnene c. 1217. She was a daughter of Michael I Komnenos Doukas, ruler of Epirus. Both of his wives were members of the Melissenos family. Uncertain which of the two was her mother. Fine indicates Radoslav would instead marry her first cousin Anna Doukaina Angelina in 1219/1220. She was a daughter of Theodore Komnenos Doukas and Maria Petraliphaina. The Europäische Stammtafeln reports the marriage resulting in the birth of a single child. The name is not listed and Charles Cawley, a modern genealogist, has been unable to find primary sources on the existence of the child.
See also
List of Serbian monarchs
Nemanjić family tree
References
Sources
External links
1190s births
1240s deaths
13th-century Serbian monarchs
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Grand Princes of Zeta
Burials at Serbian Orthodox monasteries and churches
Nemanjić dynasty | [
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|
238540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadyattes | Sadyattes | Sadyattes ( ; reigned c. 637 – c. 635 BC) was the third king of the Mermnad dynasty in Lydia, the son of Ardys and the grandson of Gyges of Lydia.
Reign
Sadyattes came to power during period of severe crisis that Lydia was facing because of several waves of invasions by the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the Pontic steppe who had invaded the Levant. The Cimmerians attacked Lydia several times but had been repelled by Sadyattes's grandfather, Gyges, but in 644 BCE, the Cimmerians attacked Lydia for the third time, led by their king Lygdamis. The Lydians were defeated, Sardis was sacked, and Gyges was killed, following which he was succeeded by his son, Ardys, who was the father of Sadyattes.
In 637 BCE, that is in Ardys's seventh regnal year, the Thracian Treres tribe who had migrated across the Thracian Bosporus and invaded Anatolia, under their king Kobos, and in alliance with the Cimmerians and the Lycians, attacked Lydia. They defeated the Lydians again and for a second time sacked the Lydian capital of Sardis, except for its citadel. It is probable that Ardys was killed during this Cimmerian attack.
Sadyattes's reign was even more short-lived than that of his father Ardys: although Herodotus claimed that Ardys had reigned for twelve years, modern estimates give him a much shorter reign of only two years. Little is know about the reign of Sadyattes except that he began a war with the Ionian Greek maritime city of Miletus.
Sadyattes died in 635 BCE and was succeeded by his son Alyattes, who would transform Lydia into a powerful empire. It is possible that, like his grandfather Gyges and maybe his father Ardys as well, he died fighting the Cimmerians. He was succeeded by his son Alyattes, who continued his war against Miletus.
Aftermath
Soon after 635 BCE, with Assyrian approval and in alliance with the Lydians, the Scythians under their king Madyes entered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Western Asia in the 590s BCE. This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, who Strabo credits with expelling the Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of Sadyattes's son, the king Alyattes of Lydia, whom Herodotus and Polyaenus claim finally defeated the Cimmerians.
References
Sources
Kings of Lydia
Year of birth unknown
6th-century BC rulers
7th-century BC rulers in Asia
591 BC deaths
Mermnad dynasty | [
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|
238557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrzej%20Bade%C5%84ski | Andrzej Badeński | Andrzej Stanisław Badeński (10 May 1943 – 28 September 2008) was a Polish sprinter who specialized in the 400 metres. He won a bronze medal in that event at the 1964 Summer Olympics, and won the gold medal in that event at the European Indoor Championships in 1968 and in 1971.
Career
Badenski was born in Warsaw and represented the club Legia Warszawa. At the 1962 European Championships he finished sixth in the 400 metres. He did however win few international accolades before winning the bronze medal in the 400 metres at the 1964 Olympic Games. At the same Olympics he finished sixth in the 4×400 metres relay together with the Polish team. At the 1966 European Championships he won a silver medal in the 400 metres, only behind Stanislaw Gredzinski, and won the 4×400 metres relay together with Jan Werner, Edmund Borowski and Stanislaw Gredzinski.
After this, his greatest success would come in the regional indoor championships. At the 1967 European Indoor Games he competed in the relay final, but the team did not finish, and at the 1968 European Indoor Games he won a gold medal in the relay. He also won the individual distance at the 1968 European Indoor Games, and two relay gold medals at the 1969 European Indoor Games.
His second Olympic Games were in 1968. He finished seventh in the 400 metres. In the 4×400 metres relay he finished fourth together with Stanislaw Gredzinski, Jan Balachowski and Jan Werner. With the same team members he finished fourth in the relay at the 1969 European Championships. In the individual distance he finished sixth. At the 1970 European Indoor Championships he won two silver medals; in the individual distance as well as in relay. At the 1971 European Indoor Championships he won gold medals in both these events, the latter together with Waldemar Korycki, Jan Werner and Jan Balachowski. With the same team members he won a silver medal in the relay at the 1971 European Championships and a gold medal at the 1972 European Indoor Championships. At the 1972 Olympic Games he reached the semi-final in the 400 metres and finished fifth in the relay.
He became Polish 400 metres champion in 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965 and 1967, and in 1971 he became American indoor champion in the 600 yards event. His personal best time in the 400 metres was 45.42 seconds, achieved in 1968. At the end of his career in 1974 he defected to the West and lived in Germany until his death. He died near Wiesbaden in September 2008.
References
1943 births
2008 deaths
Polish male sprinters
Olympic athletes of Poland
Athletes (track and field) at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Polish emigrants to Germany
Polish defectors
Legia Warsaw athletes
European Athletics Championships medalists
Medalists at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for Poland
Olympic bronze medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes from Warsaw | [
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|
238558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan%20State%20University | Metropolitan State University | Metropolitan State University (Metro State) is a public university in the Minneapolis–St. Paul, Minnesota metropolitan area. It is a member of the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities system.
History
The institution was founded in 1971 as Minnesota Metropolitan State College with a mission to educate non-traditional students from the Twin Cities metropolitan area whose needs were not served by other existing institutions like the University of Minnesota. David E. Sweet was appointed the university's first president and the school, with offices above a drug store in downtown St. Paul, admitted the first class of 50 students in 1972. The university did not have a campus and offered classes in rented space throughout the Twin Cities (Minneapolis-St. Paul) metropolitan area. When Metropolitan State began, it was a college for working adults. It was strictly an upper-division college where students could only complete their junior and senior years of academic study. The university initially followed a non-traditional course: it offered competence-based learning whereby students were recognized for learning gained outside the classroom—including prior learning through experience. Letter grades were available, but they were always optional. Instead of mandatory letter grades instructors wrote 'narrative evaluations' and recorded only what students "knew and could do." Students designed their own degree plans. Most of the teaching was done by 'community faculty' who held advanced degrees and had extensive practical experience in their respective fields.
During the 1980s, enrollment grew from around 1,000 students to over 2,500 students. The university expanded its programs to 30 baccalaureate programs as the state increased funding for the institution.
The university began admitting freshmen and sophomores and adopted general education requirements and a grading policy with grade point averages in 1994. In the Fall of 1998, Metro State along with all public higher education in Minnesota, moved from a three quarter to a two semester scheduling system. In 1992, the main campus of the university moved to a permanent campus that is located in the Dayton's Bluff section of east Saint Paul. Despite this change the university maintained a commitment to offering classes in leased space throughout the metropolitan area. Today the main campus is located in Saint Paul, and additional campus facilities are located in Midway, Minneapolis and Brooklyn Park.
Although Metro State adopted a more traditional format in the 1990s, it continues to give students the opportunity to create their own individualized/self-designed degree programs through the College of Individualized Studies (CIS). On July 1, 2012, Metro State's 'First College' was renamed the CIS. The individualized degrees are a popular alternative for students who are interested in unique or interdisciplinary degrees instead of traditional 'structured' degrees.
During the 2009–10 school year, Metro State enrolled 6,000 full-time equivalent students. From 2008 to June 30, 2014, Dr. Sue K. Hammersmith was Metro State's president. During Dr. Hammersmith's six-year tenure, the number of degrees conferred increased by 38%. Dr. Devinder Malhotra became Metro State's president on July 1, 2014. During the 2014–2015 school year, Metro State served 12,000 full and part-time students. Virginia Arthur was Metro State's provost from 2012 until 2016 when she became the university's president.
Presidents
David E. Sweet (1972–1977)
Reatha King (1977–1988)
Charles Graham (1988–1989)
Tobin Barrozo (1989–1992)
Richard Green (1993–1993)
Susan Cole (1993–1998)
Dennis Nielsen (1998–2000)
Wilson G. Bradshaw (2000–2007)
William Lowe (2007–2008)
Sue Hammersmith (2008–2014)
Devinder Malhotra (2014–2016)
Virginia Arthur (2016–present)
Academics
As part of its mission to educate working adults and non-traditional students, Metro State previously had an open admissions policy with rolling applications accepted throughout the year. Metro State has been classified as 'less selective', and has historically had a near 100% acceptance rate.
Metro State offers 62 'structured' undergraduate degrees, a self-designed B.A. degree in liberal arts, a self-designed/individualized B.A. degree and three undergraduate certificates through its four colleges and three schools: the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Management, the College of Health, Community and Professional Studies, the School of Nursing, the School of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, the School of Urban Education and the College of Individualized Studies.
Metropolitan State University offers 25 'structured' master's degree programs, an MA or MS degree in individualized studies and an interdisciplinary master of arts degree in liberal studies. The university also offers eleven graduate certificate programs. In 2007, Metro State began offering an applied doctor of nursing practice degree. Metro State launched the first applied doctorate in business administration within the Minnesota State system during fall semester 2010. Although a number of schools in the region — such as the University of Minnesota — offer Ph.D.s in Business Administration, there are only seven regionally accredited universities in the entire upper-Midwest that offer Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.) degrees. With nearly 900 declared accounting majors, Metropolitan State University's Bachelor of Science in Accounting program is the largest in Minnesota. Moreover, graduates of Metro State's accounting program consistently place among the top-10 finishers in Minnesota's exacting CPA examination. Altogether, Metro State offers a total of 108 undergraduate and graduate academic degrees and certificates—this does not include any undergraduate minor programs.
Accreditation
The university is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission, the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP), the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE) and the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). Metro State is also accredited by the Minnesota Professional Educator Licensing and Standards Board (PELSB), the Minnesota Board of Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST), and the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM). In addition, Metro State has received recognition and endorsements from the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) and from the National Center of Academic Excellence in Cyber Defense Education.
Demographics
Based upon data from the 2016-2017 academic year, 45% of Metropolitan State University's student body are students of color, while 4% are from out-of-state and 2% are international. 42% of students were male, and 58% were female. Metro State's students range in age from 15-84. Metro State's Class of 2015 had an 82% licensure exam pass rate. Metro State has a 67% six-year graduation rate.
Student accommodations
Metropolitan State University accommodates the needs of working adults by scheduling many of its classes in the evening and on weekends. The number of daytime course offerings have been increasing in recent years because of the growing demands of students. It is possible for recent graduates of Minneapolis and St. Paul public high schools to attend Metro State tuition free.
Each student attending Metropolitan State University pays a .43 cent per credit fee to fund the Minnesota State University Student Association, a student-led non-profit that advocates on behalf of all Minnesota state university students. In 1995, Metro State won a highly coveted National (Theodore) Hesburgh Award for innovative and outstanding faculty development. Former President Bill Clinton was the keynote speaker at the awards ceremony.
Library
In 2002, the Minnesota legislature approved funding for the construction of a library at the St. Paul campus; the building opened during spring semester 2004. The library also houses a branch of the Saint Paul Public Library. This is the only university/public library partnership in the state of Minnesota and one of only a few nationwide.
In order to encourage the spiritual development of students and members of the community, the library built the David Barton Community Labyrinth and Reflective Garden, named in honor of the library's first dean. The labyrinth is open to the public and has been the setting for several events.
Notable alumni
Metro State's first graduating class consisted of 12 people on February 1, 1973. As of May 8, 2021 - Metro State has 50,254 alumni. Notable alumni include:
Derek Chauvin - former Minneapolis police officer and convicted murderer, known for his role in the murder of George Floyd.
Carl Eller - former professional football player inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame
Leo Foley - former Minnesota State Senator
Frank J. Grass - United States Army General and Chief of the National Guard Bureau
Ken Kelash - Minnesota state senator
John Kriesel - former Minnesota state representative, former Minnesota National Guard Staff Sergeant, speaker, and author
James Lukaszewski - author, consultant, founder, and president of the Lukaszewski Group Division of Risdall Public Relations
Mohamud Noor - computer scientist, activist, and politician
Sandy Pappas - former president of the Minnesota State Senate
Samuel Sam-Sumana - honorable chief and former vice president of the Republic of Sierra Leone
Char Samuelson - former Minnesota state representative
Don Shelby - former news anchor on WCCO-TV
See also
List of colleges and universities in Minnesota
Higher education in Minnesota
References
External links
Official website
Educational institutions established in 1971
Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Public universities and colleges in Minnesota
Universities and colleges in Minneapolis
Universities and colleges in Saint Paul, Minnesota
1971 establishments in Minnesota | [
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238560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya%20Prigogine | Ilya Prigogine | Viscount Ilya Romanovich Prigogine (; ; 28 May 2003) was a physical chemist and Nobel laureate noted for his work on dissipative structures, complex systems, and irreversibility.
Biography
Prigogine was born in Moscow a few months before the Russian Revolution of 1917, into a Jewish family. His father, Roman (Ruvim Abramovich) Prigogine, was a chemical engineer at the Imperial Moscow Technical School; his mother, Yulia Vikhman, was a pianist. Because the family was critical of the new Soviet system, they left Russia in 1921. They first went to Germany and in 1929, to Belgium, where Prigogine received Belgian nationality in 1949. His brother Alexandre (1913–1991) became an ornithologist.
Prigogine studied chemistry at the Free University of Brussels, where in 1950, he became professor. In 1959, he was appointed director of the International Solvay Institute in Brussels, Belgium. In that year, he also started teaching at the University of Texas at Austin in the United States, where he later was appointed Regental Professor and Ashbel Smith Professor of Physics and Chemical Engineering. From 1961 until 1966 he was affiliated with the Enrico Fermi Institute at the University of Chicago and was a visiting professor at Northwestern University. In Austin, in 1967, he co-founded the Center for Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, now the Center for Complex Quantum Systems. In that year, he also returned to Belgium, where he became director of the Center for Statistical Mechanics and Thermodynamics.
He was a member of numerous scientific organizations, and received numerous awards, prizes and 53 honorary degrees. In 1955, Ilya Prigogine was awarded the Francqui Prize for Exact Sciences. For his study in irreversible thermodynamics, he received the Rumford Medal in 1976, and in 1977, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 1989, he was awarded the title of Viscount in the Belgian nobility by the King of the Belgians. Until his death, he was president of the International Academy of Science, Munich and was in 1997, one of the founders of the International Commission on Distance Education (CODE), a worldwide accreditation agency. Prigogine received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1985 and in 1998 he was awarded an honoris causa doctorate by the UNAM in Mexico City.
Prigogine was first married to Belgian poet Hélène Jofé (as an author also known as Hélène Prigogine) and in 1945 they had a son Yves. After their divorce, he married Polish-born chemist Maria Prokopowicz (also known as Maria Prigogine) in 1961. In 1970 they had a son, Pascal.
In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.
Research
Prigogine is best known for his definition of dissipative structures and their role in thermodynamic systems far from equilibrium, a discovery that won him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. In summary, Ilya Prigogine discovered that importation and dissipation of energy into chemical systems could result in the emergence of new structures (hence dissipative structures) due to internal self reorganization. In his 1955 text, Prigogine drew connections between dissipative structures and the Rayleigh-Bénard instability and the Turing mechanism.
Dissipative structures theory
Dissipative structure theory led to pioneering research in self-organizing systems, as well as philosophical inquiries into the formation of complexity on biological entities and the quest for a creative and irreversible role of time in the natural sciences.
With professor Robert Herman, he also developed the basis of the two fluid model, a traffic model in traffic engineering for urban networks, analogous to the two fluid model in classical statistical mechanics.
Prigogine's formal concept of self-organization was used also as a "complementary bridge" between General Systems Theory and thermodynamics, conciliating the cloudiness of some important systems theory concepts with scientific rigor.
Work on unsolved problems in physics
In his later years, his work concentrated on the fundamental role of indeterminism in nonlinear systems on both the classical and quantum level. Prigogine and coworkers proposed a Liouville space extension of quantum mechanics. A Liouville space is the vector space formed by the set of (self-adjoint) linear operators, equipped with an inner product, that act on a Hilbert space. There exists a mapping of each linear operator into Liouville space, yet not every self-adjoint operator of Liouville space has a counterpart in Hilbert space, and in this sense Liouville space has a richer structure than Hilbert space. The Liouville space extension proposal by Prigogine and co-workers aimed to solve the arrow of time problem of thermodynamics and the measurement problem of quantum mechanics.
Prigogine co-authored several books with Isabelle Stengers, including The End of Certainty and La Nouvelle Alliance (Order out of Chaos).
The End of Certainty
In his 1996 book, La Fin des certitudes, written in collaboration with Isabelle Stengers and published in English in 1997 as The End of Certainty: Time, Chaos, and the New Laws of Nature, Prigogine contends that determinism is no longer a viable scientific belief: "The more we know about our universe, the more difficult it becomes to believe in determinism." This is a major departure from the approach of Newton, Einstein and Schrödinger, all of whom expressed their theories in terms of deterministic equations. According to Prigogine, determinism loses its explanatory power in the face of irreversibility and instability.
Prigogine traces the dispute over determinism back to Darwin, whose attempt to explain individual variability according to evolving populations inspired Ludwig Boltzmann to explain the behavior of gases in terms of populations of particles rather than individual particles. This led to the field of statistical mechanics and the realization that gases undergo irreversible processes. In deterministic physics, all processes are time-reversible, meaning that they can proceed backward as well as forward through time. As Prigogine explains, determinism is fundamentally a denial of the arrow of time. With no arrow of time, there is no longer a privileged moment known as the "present," which follows a determined "past" and precedes an undetermined "future." All of time is simply given, with the future as determined or as undetermined as the past. With irreversibility, the arrow of time is reintroduced to physics. Prigogine notes numerous examples of irreversibility, including diffusion, radioactive decay, solar radiation, weather and the emergence and evolution of life. Like weather systems, organisms are unstable systems existing far from thermodynamic equilibrium. Instability resists standard deterministic explanation. Instead, due to sensitivity to initial conditions, unstable systems can only be explained statistically, that is, in terms of probability.
Prigogine asserts that Newtonian physics has now been "extended" three times: first with the introduction of spacetime in general relativity, then with the use of the wave function in quantum mechanics, and finally with the recognition of indeterminism in the study of unstable systems (chaos theory).
Publications
Defay, R. & Prigogine, I. (1966). Surface tension and adsorption. Longmans, Green & Co. LTD.
Prigogine, I. The Behavior of Matter under Nonequilibrium Conditions: Fundamental Aspects and Applications in Energy-oriented Problems, United States Department of Energy, Progress Reports:
September 1984 – November 1987, (7 October 1987). Department of Physics at the University of Texas-Austin
15 April 1988 – 14 April 1989, (January 1989), Center for Studies in Statistical Mathematics at the University of Texas-Austin.
15 April 1990 – 14 April 1991, (December 1990), Center for Studies in Statistical Mechanics and Complex Systems at the University of Texas-Austin.
Prigogine, I. "Time, Dynamics and Chaos: Integrating Poincare's 'Non-Integrable Systems'", Center for Studies in Statistical Mechanics and Complex Systems at the University of Texas-Austin, United States Department of Energy-Office of Energy Research, Commission of the European Communities (October 1990).
Editor (with Stuart A. Rice) of the Advances in Chemical Physics book series published by John Wiley & Sons (presently over 140 volumes)
Prigogine I, (papers and interviews) Is future given?, World Scientific, 2003. (145p.)
Ilya Prigogine Prize for Thermodynamics
The Ilya Prigogine Prize for Thermodynamics was initialized in 2001 and patronized by Ilya Prigogine himself before his death in 2003. It is awarded on a biennial basis during the Joint European Thermodynamics Conference (JETC) and considers all branches of thermodynamics (applied, theoretical, and experimental as well as quantum thermodynamics and classical thermodynamics).
See also
Autocatalytic reactions and order creation
List of Jewish Nobel laureates
Schismatrix
Systems theory
Process philosophy
References
Further reading
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, 8 December 1977 Time, Structure and Fluctuations
The Center for Complex Quantum Systems
Emergent computation
Interview with Prigogine (Belgian VRT, 1977)
1917 births
2003 deaths
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
Belgian Nobel laureates
Soviet emgirants to Germany
German emigrants to Belgium
Belgian physicists
Jewish physicists
Belgian physical chemists
Free University of Brussels (1834–1969) alumni
Belgian systems scientists
Jewish systems scientists
Complex systems scientists
Theoretical chemists
Thermodynamicists
Free University of Brussels (1834–1969) faculty
University of Texas at Austin faculty
Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Jewish chemists
Jewish scientists
Belgian Jews
Belgian people of Russian-Jewish descent
Naturalised citizens of Belgium
Viscounts of Belgium
People from Moscow
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to Belgium
Computational chemists
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin | [
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|
238561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent%20school%20%28United%20Kingdom%29 | Independent school (United Kingdom) | In the United Kingdom, independent schools (also sometimes described as public schools) are fee-charging schools, typically governed by an elected board of governors and independent of many of the regulations and conditions that apply to state-funded schools. For example, pupils do not have to follow the National Curriculum. Historically, the term 'private school' referred to a school in private ownership, in contrast to an endowed school subject to a trust or of charitable status. Many of the older and more exclusive independent schools catering for the 13–18 age range in England and Wales are known as public schools, seven of which were the subject of the Public Schools Act 1868. The term 'public school' derived from the fact that they were then open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion (while in the USA and most other English speaking countries, 'public school' refers to a publicly funded state school). Prep (preparatory) schools educate younger children up to the age of 13 to 'prepare' them for entry to the public schools and other independent schools. Some former grammar schools converted to an independent fee-charging model following the 1965 Circular 10/65, which marked the end of their state funding; others converted into comprehensive schools.
There are around 2,600 independent schools in the UK, which educate around 615,000 children, some 7 per cent of all British children and 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16. In addition to charging tuition fees, many also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and charitable status. Many of these schools are members of the Independent Schools Council. In 2017, the average annual cost for private schooling was £14,102 for day school and £32,259 for boarding school.
History
Origins
Some independent schools are particularly old, such as The King's School, Canterbury (founded 597), The King's School, Rochester (founded 604), St Peter's School, York (founded c. 627), Sherborne School (founded 705), Wells Cathedral School (founded 909), Warwick School (c. 914), The King's School, Ely (c. 970) and St Albans School (948). These schools were founded as part of the church and were under its complete dominion. However, during the late 14th and early 15th centuries the first schools independent of the church were founded. Winchester and Oswestry were the first of their kind, and paved the way for the establishment of the modern "public school". These were often established for male students from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds; however, English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself, irrespective of poverty.
The transformation of free charitable foundations into institutions which sometimes charge fees came about readily: the foundation would only afford minimal facilities, so that further fees might be charged to lodge, clothe and otherwise maintain the scholars, to the private profit of the trustees or headmaster. Also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few students could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. (Some schools still keep their foundation students in a separate house from other pupils.)
After a time, such fees eclipsed the original charitable income, and the original endowment would become a minor part of the capital benefactions enjoyed by the school. In 2009 senior boarding schools were charging fees of between £16,000 and nearly £30,000 per annum. However, a majority of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, and bursaries are available to students on a means test basis. Christ's Hospital in Horsham is an example: a large proportion of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors.
Victorian expansion
The educational reforms of the 19th century were particularly important under first Thomas Arnold at Rugby, and then Butler and later Kennedy at Shrewsbury, the former emphasising team spirit and muscular Christianity and the latter the importance of scholarship and competitive examinations. Edward Thring of Uppingham School introduced major reforms, focusing on the importance of the individual and competition, as well as the need for a "total curriculum" with academia, music, sport and drama being central to education. Most public schools developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, and came to play an important role in the development of the Victorian social elite. Under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes.
They were schools for the gentlemanly elite of Victorian politics, armed forces and colonial government. Often, successful businessmen would send their sons to a public school as a mark of participation in the elite. Much of the discipline was in the hands of senior pupils (usually known as prefects), which was not just a means to reduce staffing costs, but was also seen as vital preparation for those pupils' later roles in public or military service. More recently heads of public schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in disciplining.
To an extent, the public school system influenced the school systems of the British Empire, and recognisably "public" schools can be found in many Commonwealth countries.
Modern era
Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the direct grant grammar schools. The Direct Grant Grammar Schools (Cessation of Grant) Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result, 119 of these schools became independent.
Pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the mid-1970s recession. At the same time participation at all secondary schools grew dramatically, so that the share of the independent sector fell from a little under 8 per cent in 1964 to reach a low of 5.7 per cent in 1978. Both these trends were reversed during the 1980s, and the share of the independent schools reached 7.5 per cent by 1991. The changes since 1990 have been less dramatic, participation falling to 6.9 per cent by 1996 before increasing very slightly after 2000 to reach 7.2 per cent in 2012. In 2015, the figure has fallen back to 6.9 per cent with the absolute number of pupils attending independent schools falling everywhere in England apart from in the South East.
The present day
England and Wales
In 2011 there were more than 2,500 independent schools in the UK educating some 628,000 children, comprising over 6.5 per cent of UK children, and more than 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16.
In England the schools account for a slightly higher percentage than in the UK as a whole. According to a 2010 study by Ryan & Sibetia, "the proportion of pupils attending independent schools in England is currently 7.2 per cent (considering full-time pupils only)".
Most of the larger independent schools are either full or partial boarding schools, although many are now predominantly day schools; by contrast there are only a few dozen state boarding schools. Boarding-school traditions give a distinctive character to British independent education, even in the case of day-pupils.
A high proportion of independent schools, particularly the larger and older institutions, have charitable status.
Inspections in England
The Independent Schools Council (ISC), through seven affiliated organisations, represents 1,289 schools that together educate over 80 per cent of the pupils in the UK independent sector. Those schools in England which are members of the affiliated organisations of the ISC are inspected by the Independent Schools Inspectorate under a framework agreed between ISC, the Government's Department for Education (DfE) and the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted). Independent Schools not affiliated to the ISC in England may be inspected by either School Inspection Service or Bridge Schools' Trust. Independent schools accredited to the ISC in Scotland and Wales and Northern Ireland or others in England out with the inspectorial bodies listed above are inspected through the national inspectorates in each country.
Scotland
Independent schools in Scotland educate about 31,000 children and often referred to as private schools. Although many of the Scottish independent schools are members of the ISC they are also represented by the Scottish Council of Independent Schools, recognised by the Scottish Parliament as the body representing private schools in Scotland. Unlike England, all Scottish independent schools are subject to the same regime of inspections by Education Scotland as local authority schools and they have to register with the Learning Directorate. The nine largest Scottish independent schools, with 1,000 or more pupils, are George Watson's College, Hutcheson's Grammar School, Robert Gordon's College, George Heriot's School, St Aloysius' College, The Glasgow Academy, Dollar Academy, the High School of Glasgow and the High School of Dundee.
Historically, in Scotland, it was common for children destined for private schools to receive their primary education at a local school. This arose because of Scotland's long tradition of state-funded education, which was spearheaded by the Church of Scotland from the seventeenth century, long before such education was common in England. Independent prep schools only became more widespread in Scotland from the late 19th century (usually attached to an existing secondary private school, though exceptions such as Craigclowan Preparatory School and Cargilfield Preparatory School do exist), though they are still much less prevalent than in England. They are, however, currently gaining in numbers.. In modern times many secondary pupils in Scotland's private schools will have fed in from the school's own fee-paying primary school, therefore there is considerable competition facing pupils from state primary schools who seek to enter a private school at secondary stage, via entrance examinations.
Selection
Independent schools, like state grammar schools, are free to select their pupils, subject to general legislation against discrimination. The principal forms of selection are financial, in that the pupil's family must be able to pay the school fees, and academic, with many administering their own entrance exams – some also require that the prospective student undergo an interview, and credit may also be given for musical, sporting or other talent. Entrance to some schools is more or less restricted to pupils whose parents practise a particular religion, or schools may require all pupils to attend religious services.
Only a small minority of parents can afford school fees averaging over £23,000 per annum for boarding pupils and £11,000 for day pupils, with additional costs for uniform, equipment and extra-curricular facilities. Scholarships and means-tested bursaries to assist the education of the less well-off are usually awarded by a process which combines academic and other criteria.
Independent schools are generally academically selective, using the competitive Common Entrance Examination at ages 11–13. Schools often offer scholarships to attract abler pupils (which improves their average results); the standard sometimes approaches the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) intended for age 16. Poorly-performing pupils may be required to leave, and following GCSE results can be replaced in the sixth form by a new infusion of high-performing sixth-form-only pupils, which may distort apparent results. On the other hand, pupils performing poorly cannot legally be excluded from a state school solely for poor performance.
Conditions
Independent schools, as compared with maintained schools, are generally characterised by more individual teaching; much lower pupil-teacher ratios at around 9:1; longer teaching hours (sometimes including Saturday morning teaching) and homework (known as prep), though shorter terms; more time for organised sports and extra-curricular activities; more emphasis on traditional academic subjects such as maths, classics and modern languages; and a broader education than that prescribed by the national curriculum, to which state school education is in practice limited.
As boarding schools are fully responsible for their pupils throughout term-time, pastoral care is an essential part of independent education, and many independent schools teach their own distinctive ethos, including social aspirations, manners and accents, associated with their own school traditions. Many pupils aspire to send their own children to their old schools over successive generations. Most offer sporting, musical, dramatic and art facilities, sometimes at extra charges.
Educational achievement is generally very good. Independent school pupils are four times more likely to attain an A* at GCSE than their non-selective state sector counterparts and twice as likely to attain an A grade at A-level. A much higher proportion go to university. Some schools specialise in particular strengths, whether academic, vocational or artistic, although this is not as common as it is in the State sector.
Independent schools are able to set their own discipline regime, with much greater freedom to exclude children, primarily exercised in the wider interests of the school: the most usual causes being drug-taking, whether at school or away, or an open rejection of the school's values, such as dishonesty or violence.
In England and Wales there are no requirements for teaching staff to have Qualified Teacher Status or to be registered with the General Teaching Council. In Scotland a teaching qualification and registration with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS) is mandatory for all teaching positions.
Impact on the British economy
In 2014 the Independent Schools Council commissioned a report to highlight the impact that independent schools have on the British economy. The report calculated that independent schools support an £11.7 billion contribution to gross value added (GVA) in Britain.
Criticisms
Independent schools are often criticised for being elitist, and seen as lying outside the spirit of the state system. Many of the best-known public schools are extremely expensive, and many have entry criteria geared towards those who have been at private "feeder" preparatory schools. The Thatcher government introduced the Assisted Places Scheme in England and Wales in 1980, whereby the state paid the school fees for those pupils capable of gaining a place but unable to afford the fees. This was essentially a response to the decision of the previous Labour government in the mid-1970s to remove government funding of direct grant grammar schools, most of which then became independent schools; some Assisted Places pupils went to the former direct-grant schools such as Manchester Grammar School. The scheme was terminated by the Labour government in 1997, and since then the independent sector has moved to increase its own means-tested bursaries.
The former classics-based curriculum was also criticised for not providing skills in sciences or engineering, but was perhaps in response to the requirement of classics for entry to Oxbridge until the early 1960s, as well as a hangover from centuries ago when only Latin and Greek were taught at many public schools. It was Martin Wiener's opposition to this tendency which inspired his 1981 book English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit: 1850-1980. It became a huge influence on the Thatcher government's opposition to old-school gentlemanly Toryism. According to a 2010 report from the Department for Education, independent school pupils have "the highest rates of achieving grades A or B in A-level maths and sciences" compared to grammar, specialist and mainstream state schools, and pupils at independent schools account for a disproportionate number of the total number of A-levels in maths and sciences.
Some parents complain that their rights and their children's are compromised by vague and one-sided contracts which allow Heads to use discretionary powers unfairly, such as in expulsion on non-disciplinary grounds. They believe independent schools have not embraced the principles of natural justice as adopted by the state sector, and private law as applied to Higher Education. This belief is reinforced by the fact that the legal rights of pupils are governed by a private contract, as opposed to rights implemented by the national government. For instance, a pupil seeking admission to a state school that is rejected is legally entitled to appeal, whereas at an independent school admissions are at the discretion of the governing body of the school.
In 2006, pupils at fee-paying schools made up 43 per cent of those selected for places at Oxford University and 38 per cent of those granted places at Cambridge University (although such pupils represent only 18 per cent of the 16 years old plus school population).
Charitable status
A major area of debate in recent years has centred around the continuing charitable status of independent schools, which means they are not charged business rates by local councils, amongst other benefits. This is estimated to save the schools about £200 per pupil and to cost the Exchequer about £100 million in tax breaks, assuming that an increase in fees would not result in any transfer of pupils from private to maintained sector.
Since the Charities Act was passed in November 2006, charitable status is based on an organisation providing a "public benefit", as judged by the Charity Commission. In 2008, the Charity Commission published guidance, including guidance on public benefit and fee charging, setting out issues to be considered by charities charging high fees that many people could not afford. The Independent Schools Council was granted permission by the High Court to bring a judicial review of the Charity Commission’s public benefit guidance as it affected the independent education sector. This was heard by the Upper Tribunal at the same time as a reference by the Attorney General asking the Tribunal to consider how the public benefit requirement should operate in relation to fee-charging charitable schools. The Upper Tribunal's decision, published on 14 October 2011, concluded that in all cases there must be more than de minimis or token benefit for the poor, but that trustees of a charitable independent school should decide what was appropriate in their particular circumstances.
The Charity Commission accordingly published revised public benefit guidance in 2013.
In Scotland, under the Charities and Trustee Investment Act (Scotland), there is an entirely separate test of charitable status, overseen by the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator, which assesses the public benefit provided by each registered school charity.
Advantage of more time for exams
An investigation into official exam data by the BBC's Radio 4 Today programme, in 2017, showed that 20% of private school pupils were given extra time for their GCSE and A level exams, as compared with less than 12% of pupils in public sector schools. The most commonly given amount of extra exam time is 25%. Such 'exam access' arrangements are given for a range of disabilities and educational special needs such as dyslexia, dyspraxia and ADHD.
School type and eventual degree class
In 2002 Jeremy Smith and Robin Naylor of the University of Warwick conducted a study into the determinants of degree performance at UK universities. Their study confirmed that the internationally recognized phenomenon whereby “children from more advantaged class backgrounds have higher levels of educational attainment than children from less-advantaged class backgrounds" persists at university level in the United Kingdom.
The authors noted "a very well-determined and monotonically positive effect defined over Social Classes I to V" whereby, for both men and women, "ceteris paribus, academic performance at university is better the more advantaged is the student's home background". but they also observed that a student educated at an independent school was on average 6 per cent less likely to receive a first or an upper second class degree than a student from the same social class background, of the same gender, who had achieved the same A-level score at a state school. The averaged effect was described as very variable across the social class and A-level attainment of the candidates; it was "small and not strongly significant for students with high A-level scores" (i.e. for students at the more selective universities) and "statistically significant mostly for students from lower occupationally-ranked social-class backgrounds". Additionally, the study could not take into account the effect of a slightly different and more traditional subject mix studied by independent students at university on university achievement. Despite these caveats, the paper attracted much press attention. The same study found wide variations between independent school, suggesting that students from a few of them were in fact significantly more likely to obtain the better degrees than state students of the same gender and class background having the same A-level score.
In 2011, a subsequent study led by Richard Partington at Cambridge University showed that A-level performance is "overwhelmingly" the best predictor for exam performance in the earlier years ("Part I") of the undergraduate degree at Cambridge. Partington's summary specified that "questions of school background and gender" ... "make only a marginal difference and the pattern – particularly in relation to school background – is in any case inconsistent."
A study commissioned by the Sutton Trust and published in 2010 focussed mainly on the possible use of US-style SAT tests as a way of detecting a candidate's academic potential. Its findings confirmed those of the Smith & Naylor study in that it found that privately educated pupils who, despite their educational advantages, have only secured a poor A-level score, and who therefore attend less selective universities, do less well than state educated degree candidates with the same low A-level attainment. In addition, as discussed in the 2010 Buckingham report "HMC Schools: a quantitative analysis", because students from state schools tended to be admitted on lower A-level entry grades, relative to entry grades it could be claimed that these students had improved more. A countervailing finding of the Sutton Trust study was that for students of a given level of A-level attainment it is almost twice as difficult to get a first at the most selective universities than at those on the other end of the scale. Independent sector schools regularly dominate the top of the A-level league tables, and their students are more likely to apply to the most selective universities; as a result independent sector students are particularly well represented at these institutions, and therefore only the very ablest of them are likely to secure the best degrees.
In 2013 the Higher Education Funding Council for England published a study noting, amongst other things, that a greater percentage of students who had attended an independent school prior to university achieved a first or upper second class degree compared with students from state schools. Out of a starting cohort of 24,360 candidates having attended an independent school and 184,580 having attended a state school, 64.9 per cent of the former attained a first or upper second class degree, compared to 52.7 per cent of the latter. However, no statistical comparisons of the two groups (State vs Independent) were reported, with or without controls for student characteristics such as entry qualifications, so no inferences can be drawn on the relative performance of the two groups. The stand-out finding of the study was that Independent School students over-achieved in obtaining graduate jobs and study, even when student characteristics were allowed for (sex, ethnicity, school type, entry qualifications, area of study).
In 2015, the UK press widely reported the outcome of research suggesting that graduates from state schools that have attained similar A level grades go on to achieve higher undergraduate degree classes than their independent school counterparts. The quoted figures, based on the degree results of all students who graduated in 2013/14, suggested that 82 per cent of state school pupils got firsts or upper seconds compared with 73 per cent of those from independent schools. Later, HEFCE admitted that it had made a transposition error, and that in fact, 73 per cent of state school graduates gained a first or upper second class degree compared with 82 per cent of independent school graduates. This admission attracted far less publicity than the original erroneous assertion.
Across all English universities, state school students who scored two Bs and a C at A-level did on average eight per cent better at degree level than their privately educated counterparts. However, two Bs and a C represents an entry tariff of 112, well below the average demanded by any of the UK's Russell Group universities.
See also
Education in the United Kingdom
Independent school fee fixing scandal
List of independent schools in the United Kingdom
School and university in literature
Schools Class locomotives for a class of Southern Railway locomotives that were named after Public Schools in the early 1930s
Notes
External links
'To fail them all their days' By Ben Locker and William Dornan in The Times. April 3, 2007
Education in the United Kingdom
Independent schools in the United Kingdom
School types | [
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|
238565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20Suit%20Gundam%200083%3A%20Stardust%20Memory | Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory | is a 13-episode anime OVA series set in the Gundam universe. The first volume containing two 30-minute episodes was released in Japan on May 23, 1991. Subsequent volumes, containing one 30-minute episode each, followed every one or two months; the final volume went on sale on September 24, 1992. The series was directed by Mitsuko Kase (episodes 1–7) and Takashi Imanishi (episodes 8–13). The characters were designed by Toshihiro Kawamoto. Mechanical designs were by Shoji Kawamori (of Macross fame) and Hajime Katoki.
Gundam 0083:Stardust Memory was licensed in North America by Bandai Entertainment and was available on VHS and DVD. The OVA series aired on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim in 2002.
Plot
The year is Universal Century 0083, and three years have passed after the One Year War ended with the Principality of Zeon's defeat. The Delaz Fleet, a group of Zeon remnants, launches an attack on the Earth Federation's Torrington Base, stealing the prototype Gundam GP02A "Physalis", a mobile suit with nuclear launch capability. Kou Uraki, a test pilot at Torrington Base, becomes the pilot for the Gundam GP01 "Zephyranthes", and joins the Pegasus-class carrier Albion as it pursues the stolen GP02A in order to stop the Delaz Fleet's ultimate goal: "Operation Stardust".
Characters
Main characters
Main mecha: RX-78GP01 Gundam GP01 "Zephyranthes"; RX-78GP01Fb Gundam GP01Fb "Zephyranthes" Full Burnern; RX-78GP03 Gundam GP03 "Dendrobium"
Other mecha: MS-06F-2 Zaku II F2
A 19-year-old Federation test pilot stationed at the Torrington base in Australia. When Anavel Gato steals the Gundam GP02A, Kou goes after him in the Gundam GP01. He is later assigned to the Albions mobile suit team under the command of Lieutenant South Burning with orders to either recapture or destroy the GP02A. Uraki matures during his stay aboard the Albion and develops a relationship with Anaheim Electronics systems engineer Nina Purpleton. Following Burning's death, Uraki is promoted from Ensign to Lieutenant Junior Grade by Captain Eiphar Synapse. In the aftermath of Operation Stardust, Uraki is court-martialed and sentenced to one year in hard labor, but his criminal record is erased when the Federation decides to sweep the Gundam Development Project under the rug. In U.C. 0084, after being demoted to Ensign, Uraki is relocated to Oakly Base in North America, where he reunites with Nina, as well as his former wingman Chuck Keith.
Main mecha: RX-78GP02A Gundam GP02A "Physalis"; AMX-002 Neue Ziel
Other mecha: MS-14A Gelgoog; YMS-09R-2 Prototype Rick Dom Zwei
A former member of the Principality of Zeon's elite palace guard unit. At the Battle of Solomon during the One Year War, Gato earned the nickname "Nightmare of Solomon". He joined Aiguille Delaz's fleet late in the war and departed with them following the fall of A Baoa Qu. Gato returns to Earth in October U.C. 0083 to seize the Gundam GP02A and later uses this mobile suit's nuclear weapon against the Federation's Naval Review in Episode 9. He dies in Episode 13 leading a kamikaze run against the Earth Federation fleet after inputting the Island East colony's final impact point, having fulfilled his mission.
A 21-year-old Anaheim Electronics systems engineer in charge of the project that developed the two Gundams, which she is extremely protective over. She reluctantly allows Uraki to pilot the Gundam GP01 in order to recapture the Gundam GP02A and they both slowly begin a romantic relationship. She is later revealed to have a romantic past with Anavel Gato.
Albion crew
The captain of the ship Albion, which is given the tall order of recapturing the stolen Gundam GP02A. During the events of Operation Stardust, Synapse goes against Federation orders and acquires the GP03 Dendrobium as a means to stop the Delaz Fleet from fulfilling their mission. In the aftermath of the operation, Synapse is charged with mutiny and sentenced to death.
Mecha: RGM-79C GM Type C; RGM-79N GM Custom
A 39-year-old senior pilot at the Federation's Torrington base, Lieutenant South Burning serves as mobile suit company commander for the Albion. He serves as a mentor for the rookies Kou Uraki and Chuck Keith. Burning dies in the eighth episode when his GM suddenly explodes after a brief encounter with Cima Garahau, but not before picking up a briefcase carrying details of what is known as "Operation Stardust."
Mecha: RGC-83 GM Cannon II; MS-06F-2 Zaku II F2; MS-14F Gelgoog Marine
Uraki's wingman at Torrington Base, he is likewise reassigned to the Albion as part of its mobile suit team. Over the course of the series, he has a romantic connection with Albion chief mechanic Mora Bascht. After the events of Operation Stardust, Keith is reassigned to Oakly Base in North America.
Mecha: RGM-79N GM Custom
One of three mobile suit pilots assigned to the Albion after the Delaz Fleet's assault on Torrington. Monsha takes an immediate dislike to Uraki and Keith, especially Kou for being chosen to pilot the Gundam GP01 despite a lack of experience. When he is not on duty, Monsha likes to drink, gamble, and chase women, and often sexually harasses Nina.
Mecha: RGM-79N GM Custom
Another reinforcement pilot who served under Lieutenant Burning alongside Monsha and Adel during the One Year War. Although he is calmer and less obnoxious than Monsha, Bate has a tendency to encourage his friend's misbehavior, but that does not prevent him from being promoted to deputy commander of the mobile suit team. He and Monsha, plus the rest of the Albions bridge crew are eventually drafted into the Titans.
Mecha: RGC-83 GM Cannon II
The third reinforcement pilot assigned to the Albion and the most mild-mannered of the three.
A tall, big-boned female mechanic who serves as chief of maintenance aboard the Albion and friend to Nina. She takes a liking to Chuck ever since she met him.
The Albions helmsman.
A bridge officer of the Albion.
A bridge officer of the Albion.
The Albions navigator.
A communications officer of the Albion.
Earth Federation
A Federation Admiral stationed at Jaburo base who is the Albions direct contact. Kowen is arrested under Jamitov Hyman's orders for insubordination during the final phase of Operation Stardust.
A Federation Major stationed at the La Vie en Rose space station. He kills Anaheim Electronics engineer Lucette Audevie while preventing Uraki from boarding the GP03 Dendrobium before he is ordered to drop his gun by Captain Synapse and his men.
Principality of Zeon
Commander of the . A strong supporter of Gihren Zabi's ideals, self-promoted Vice-Admiral Delaz was a colonel of a Zeon flotilla during the One Year War. He refuses to join the survivors retreating to Axis and spends the next three years in a secret colony base called the . Delaz initiates as a means to undermine the security of the Earth Federation. He dies at Cima Garahau's hands in Episode 12 after encouraging Gato to push ahead with the colony drop.
Mecha: MS-14Fs Gelgoog Marine Commander Type; AGX-04 Gerbera Tetra
Commander of a group of former Zeon marines who are called upon by Delaz to help him execute Operation Stardust. It is later revealed that Cima is working for the Earth Federation, as she felt betrayed by the Principality of Zeon when her home colony was evacuated and converted into a colony laser. Cima guns down Delaz during the final phase of Operation Stardust, but is eventually killed by Uraki when her Gerbera Tetra is impaled by the beam cannon of Uraki's GP03 Dendrobium.
Mecha: MA-06 Val-Walo
A former Zeon lieutenant who fought alongside Gato during the One Year War, ultimately losing his left arm. When Uraki is beaten up by hoodlums in Von Braun City, Kelly helps him recover his mental faculties and the two become friends as Uraki helps him repair the Val-Walo mobile armor in his warehouse. However, they are both well aware that if they meet in battle, they will have no choice but to fight each other. Upon discovering that the Cima Fleet will not take him to the Delaz Fleet due to his disability, Kelly launches the Val-Walo to challenge the Gundam GP01Fb to a battle to prove them wrong. He is defeated by Uraki and dies in the explosion, as he never installed an escape system in the mobile armor.
Anaheim Electronics
An Anaheim Electronics Director based in Von Braun. Despite supporting the Federation, he secretly makes deals with Cima Garahau to supply her fleet with resources such as the Gerbera Tetra prototype mobile suit. In the aftermath of Operation Stardust, O'Sullivan commits suicide in his office.
An Anaheim Electronics systems engineer in charge of the GP03 Dendrobium at La Vie en Rose. Lucette shows high interest in assigning the GP03 Dendrobium to Uraki, despite Nina's objections. She is killed by Nakahha Nakato while helping Uraki board the Gundam prototype.
An Anaheim Electronics employee stationed aboard the Albion who is revealed to be a Zeon spy. Orville escapes from the Albion and attempts to make contact with the Kimbareid forces in Africa, but is shot down to prevent the Albion from discovering the location of the secret Zeon base.
Others
Kelly Layzner's girlfriend, who is completely against him returning to battle.
Mecha
Earth Federation
The first unit of the Gundam Development Project by the Earth Federation and Anaheim Electronics. The Gundam GP01 is a redesign of the RX-78-2 Gundam, with a 30% increase in performance over its predecessor. Like the original Gundam, the Gundam GP01 features the Core Block System, which incorporates the as the suit's control unit and escape system. While it excels heavily in ground combat, it is not suitable for space battles; this is evident when Ensign Kou Uraki recklessly launches it in space and the unit is heavily damaged by Cima Garahau's Gelgoog Marine.
An upgraded version of the Gundam GP01, specifically for space use. The Gundam GP01Fb is equipped with giant thrusters on its backpack and numerous verniers on its shoulders and legs for increased maneuverability. It duels with the Gundam GP02A following the destruction of the Federation naval review until both units destroy each other.
The third unit of the Gundam Development Project, the GP03 Dendrobium is a massive mobile armor designed to destroy enemy fleets. It is armed with multiple missile pods, a large beam cannon, and two giant beam sabers. In addition, it is equipped with an I-field, which shields it against beam attacks. Controlling the mobile armor is the , which has extending arms to quickly grab weapons during combat. During the final phase of Operation Stardust, the GP03 Dendrobium is heavily damaged, but the Gundam GP03S Stamen remains intact; it is last seen shooting at Bask Om's fleet.
An upgraded version of the Federation's mass production mobile suit. While it boasts superior maneuverability, production costs limit the GM Custom to elite pilots. Furthermore, it excels at nothing other than being a well-balanced general purpose mobile suit. During a duel with Bernard Monsha's GM Custom, Uraki comments on it as "remarkable for being unremarkable".
A medium-range attack mobile suit that is a successor to the RX-77 Guncannon and RGC-80 GM Cannon. Unlike its predecessor, the GM Cannon II is armed with shoulder mounted beam cannons instead of units that fire solid shells. It is also equipped with Chobham armour, which protects it from heavy attacks at the cost of maneuverability.
A late production variant of the RGM-79 GM. Several units are stationed in Torrington Base in Australia, as well as various fleets in space.
A modified GM Type C equipped with a new backpack and shock absorbers on its legs, intended to serve as a testbed unit for the Gundam Development Project. The backpack emits a significantly higher output than standard backpacks, enabling the Powered GM to easily outmaneuver most Federation and Zeon mobile suits. During the pursuit outside Torrington Base, the Powered GM is destroyed by a Dom Tropen's bazooka shot at close range.
A redesign of the GM Custom for use by the Titans. It is briefly seen toward the end of episode 13.
The Earth Federation's newest Pegasus-class mobile suit carrier, named after the old name of the island of Great Britain. It is sent from Anaheim Electronics' headquarters on the moon to deliver the Gundam units GP01 and GP02A to Torrington Base. After the Gundam GP02A is stolen, the Albion is assigned to track down and recover the unit from the Delaz Fleet.
The newly constructed flagship of the Earth Federation space fleets, the Birmingham is a space battleship with a heavy emphasis on firepower, featuring a large number of beam cannons and no mobile suit hangars. It was destroyed by the GP02A's nuclear attack, but its design would form the basis for the future Dogosse Giar-class.
Principality of Zeon
The second unit of the Gundam Development Project. The Gundam GP02A is equipped with heavy shielding and an atomic bazooka that is capable of firing a nuclear warhead. Upon its arrival in Torrington Base, the Gundam GP02A is stolen by Anavel Gato, who later uses it to fire the warhead on the Federation's naval review on Konpei Island. Following this incident, it duels with the Gundam GP01Fb until both units are destroyed.
A prototype mobile armor given to Gato by the Axis Zeon forces for the second phase of Operation Stardust. The Neue Ziel is armed with multiple particle beam cannons and missiles, as well as an I-field. It is also equipped with multiple verniers for high mobility and computer-controlled sub-arms that allow non-Newtypes to execute all-range attacks. After inflicting heavy damage on Federation fleets, the Neue Ziel is destroyed when Gato and the remaining Delaz Fleet mobile units do a kamikaze run on the surrounding Federation forces.
Gato's original mobile suit during the One Year War. It was painted blue and green.
Gato's second mobile suit during the One Year War, the Prototype Rick Dom Zwei is briefly seen in the flashback introduction in episode 1 when Delaz stops him from boarding the mobile suit. It is also featured in the 2016 animated short Mayfly of Space 2.
A later variant of the MS-06 Zaku II. Several units are in service with the Delaz Fleet while some units have been captured by the Earth Federation and used for aggressor combat.
A later variant of the MS-09 Dom.
Cima Garahau's custom Gelgoog Marine unit, equipped with additional verniers and a large beam rifle.
A prototype mobile suit donated to the Cima Fleet by Anaheim Electronics. It was originally the unfinished before Anaheim cancelled the project, but the Zeon-influenced engineers behind the project secretly completed it with a different design that is closer to Zeon mobile suits. After attacking the GP03 Dendrobium, the Gerbera Tetra is impaled by its beam cannon.
A variant of the MS-14 Gelgoog originally assigned to Zeon marine units. Following the One Year War, some units are used by the Federation for aggressor combat.
A Zeon mobile armor piloted by Kelly Layzner. The Val-Walo is equipped with beam cannons, claw arms, and Plasma Leaders that trap enemy units by jamming their electronics. In addition, it is modified to allow Kelly to pilot it with only one arm. The Val-Walo is defeated by the Gundam GP01Fb outside Von Braun.
A massive prototype mobile suit designed for long-range artillery combat. The Xamel inflicts major damage on Torrington Base, but is later on defeated by South Burning's GM Type C.
A space type assault mobile suit constructed by the Delaz Fleet using parts from the MS-06F-2 Zaku II F2 and the Gattle fighter bomber.
A Gwazine-class space battleship and the flagship of the Delaz Fleet. The Gwaden is destroyed by Cima after she assassinates Delaz.
A Musai-class Late Production Type light cruiser assigned to Gato, the Peer Gynt is named after the Norwegian play. It is sliced in half by the GP03 Dendrobium's beam saber during the final phase of Operation Stardust.
A Zanzibar-class mobile suit carrier and the flagship of the Cima Fleet, the Lili Marleen is named after the 1915 poem. It is destroyed by the GP03 Dendrobium's beam cannon during the final phase of Operation Stardust.
Media
Anime
From episodes 1-7, the opening theme is "The Winner" by Miki Matsubara while the ending theme is "Magic" by Jacob Wheeler. From episodes 8-13, the opening theme is "Men of Destiny" by MIO while the ending theme is "Evergreen" by MIO. For episodes 1 & 6, "Back to Paradise" by Miki Matsubara was used as a insert song.
{{Episode table
|background=#A9B2C3
|overall=
|title=
|airdate=
|altdate=
|altdateT=English air date
|episodes=
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 12
| Title = Assault on the Point of No Return
| TranslitTitle = Kyōshū, Soshi Genkaiten
| NativeTitle = 強襲、阻止限界点
| NativeTitleLangCode = ja
| OriginalAirDate =
| AltDate = May 11, 2002
| ShortSummary = Kou and Gato, now in their mobile armors, finally take each other on as the Albion crew tries to stop the colony before it passes the minimum limit for terminal entry. Cima's crew takes Delaz hostage aboard his flagship, the Gwaden. At Jaburo, General Kowen desperately tries to convince EFSF supreme commander Gen Gene Collini of mobilizing the military's full might to stop the colony, but Jamitov Hymem has Kowen taken away. Delaz discovers that the Federation has deployed the Solar System II mirror array past the terminal entry point and encourages Gato to see the operation through - before Cima kills him. Out of rage, Gato drives one of the Neue Ziels claws at the Gwaden bridge.
| LineColor = A9B2C3
}}
}}
Compilation film
Just before the completion of the Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory OVA in September 1992, the series was reformatted into a compilation film which was released under the title Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: The Last Blitz of Zeon (ジオンの残光 Jion no Zankō), which opened in Japanese theaters on August 29, 1992. The ending theme is "True Shining" by Rumiko Wada. "Mon Etoil" by Rumiko Wada was used as a insert song.
Home media
A special VHS sneak peek of the first episode titled GxG Unit was given to advance ticket purchasers of Mobile Suit Gundam F91.
The series was reissued in DVD format in Japan on four volumes; the first R2 disc went on sale on January 25, 2000.
In 2006, a "5.1 ch DVD Box" was released in Japan. Along with remastered footage, this release featured a brand new audio track featuring completely re-recorded dialogue, altered sound effects and music and a new surround sound experience.
Bandai Entertainment licensed the series for the US market. The series was released on VHS in dubbed and subtitled versions in 1999 to coincide with the Gundam Big Bang Project. It spanned 7 VHS volumes and was also available in a box set. Volume 1 of the R1 DVD went on sale in January 2002. Cartoon Network premiered the series on U.S. television a month later on its Adult Swim Action block, where it remained until November 2002. Due to the closure of Bandai Entertainment, the OVAs have been out-of-print. On October 11, 2014 at their 2014 New York Comic-Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be releasing all of the Gundam franchise, including Stardust Memory in North America through distribution via Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015.
The compilation film was released on DVD in the UK, Ireland and throughout Europe by Beez Entertainment on 15 May 2006 under the title The Afterglow of Zeon'''. It was only in Japanese, but with a variety of subtitles, including English. It was released in North America in 2017.
Bandai Visual released a DVD boxed set in Japan on May 27, 2011, as part of the series' 20th anniversary.
The series later received a Blu-ray Box in Japan in 2016. This release contained both the original stereo 2.0 audio and the 2006 5.1 re-recording. It also included a two part picture drama entitled "Mayfly of Space" focusing on Cima Garahau and the Zeonic soldiers.
A Blu-Ray/DVD set based on this release was put out by Rightstuf on April 4 2017, including both English and Japanese options, though the Japanese selections are only based on the 2006 "5.1 ch" re-recording.
Models
With the release of the original series in 1991, Bandai produced 1/144 scale model kits of the GP01 and GP01Fb, GP02A, GP03S, and AGX-04 Gerbera Tetra. All five units were later released in the 1/144 scale High Grade Universal Century (HGUC) line, which included a special version of the Gundam GP02A with an MLRS launcher and a Linkin Park edition of the Gundam GP01Fb. The GP03 Dendrobium was also released in 1/144 scale and in 1/550 scale alongside the Val-Walo and the Neue Ziel. At least six mobile suits from the series have been released either under Bandai's Master Grade (MG) line.
The GP01 and GP01Fb were released as part of the Perfect Grade (PG) line in 2003 and the Real Grade (RG) line in 2013 while the original version of the AGX-04 Gerbera Tetra, the Gundam GP04G Gerbera, was released in 2015 under the Reborn One-Hundred (RE/100) line.
Radio dramaGundam 0083's canon includes two radio dramas on CD format billed as Cinema CDs. Both drama CDs were directed by series director Takashi with dialogue by Asahide Ōkuma (writer for 5 of the 0083 episodes).
Runga Offing narrates events between Episodes 7 and 8, when the Albion engages a Chivvay-class Zeon warship. It introduces a new character named Aristide Hughes, the Albions Gunnery Lieutenant.
Mayfly of Space reveals Cima's backstory in flashbacks as she reflects on her past prior to the events of Episode 13. It reveals that Cima and her Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) poisoned a Side 5 colony using G-3 nerve gas under orders, but were treated as pariahs afterwards by their own countrymen for committing such an atrocity. At the end of the war, her superior refused to let her retreat to Axis. Because their home colony Mahal had been converted into a weapon, Cima and her men were left stranded and homeless.
Both of these stories appear in the PlayStation 2 game Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters in Space. Portions of Mayfly of Space were adapted into two animated short features; the first in 1993 and the second in 2016.
Print
Kadokawa Shoten released a three-part novelization of the series. Penned by Hiroshi Yamaguchi, the books contain illustrations by Toshihiro Kawamoto, Hirotoshi Sano, and Hajime Katoki. It was made available online via Book Walker on May 26, 2014.
Viz Communications also released all episodes in a comic book format from 1994 to 1995. However, instead of a manga, they used screenshots from each episode for the panels. Line art and descriptions of all units were inserted as well.
A manga reboot titled was published on Kadokawa Shoten's Gundam Ace from June 26, 2013 to February 26, 2021 and compiled into sixteen volumes. The manga was written by the OVA's director Takashi Imanishi and illustrated by Masato Natsumoto.
Reception
References
Bibliography
Gundam 0083 Stardust Memory''. Gundam Film Book Series 5. .
External links
Official Website: Anime
1991 anime OVAs
1992 anime OVAs
1992 anime films
Bandai Entertainment anime titles
Dengeki Comics
0083
Sunrise (company)
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|
238569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%20County | Morgan County | Morgan County is the name of eleven counties in the United States of America, nine of which were named for Daniel Morgan, Revolutionary War General:
Morgan County, Alabama
Morgan County, Colorado (named for Colonel Christopher A. Morgan)
Morgan County, Georgia
Morgan County, Illinois
Morgan County, Indiana
Morgan County, Kentucky
Morgan County, Missouri
Morgan County, Ohio
Morgan County, Tennessee
Morgan County, Utah (named for Jedediah Morgan Grant, father of Heber J. Grant)
Morgan County, West Virginia | [
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|
238572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonesome%20Dove%20series | Lonesome Dove series | The Lonesome Dove series is a series of four western fiction novels written by Larry McMurtry and the five television miniseries and television series based upon them.
Overview
The novels and miniseries follow the exploits of several members of the Texas Ranger Division from the time of the Republic of Texas up until the beginning of the 20th century. Recurring characters include Augustus "Gus" McCrae, Woodrow F. Call, Joshua Deets, Pea Eye Parker, Jake Spoon, Clara Forsythe Allen, Maggie Tilton, Lorena Wood Parker, Blue Duck, and Buffalo Hump. The series is set within historical events and characters, although they are often adapted or altered to accommodate the fictional timelines of the main characters.
Novels
In order of publication:
Lonesome Dove (1985)
Streets of Laredo (1993)
Dead Man's Walk (1995)
Comanche Moon (1997)
In order of internal chronology:
Dead Man's Walk – set in the early 1840s
Comanche Moon – set in the 1850–60s
Lonesome Dove – set in mid-to-late 1870s
Streets of Laredo – set in the early 1890s
Television miniseries
Lonesome Dove (1989)
Return to Lonesome Dove (1993) – This miniseries is set a year after the events of Lonesome Dove. The story was written by John Wilder. McMurtry was not involved in the production of this and he was not happy when CBS implied that he was a collaborator.
Streets of Laredo (1995)
Dead Man's Walk (1996)
Comanche Moon (2008)
Recurring characters
Actors for characters based on the chronology of the series. Note that Wes Studi played two roles, Famous Shoes in Streets of Laredo and Buffalo Hump in Comanche Moon.
Television series
Lonesome Dove: The Series
References
External links
Series of books | [
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238573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Marriages%20Act%201772 | Royal Marriages Act 1772 | The Royal Marriages Act 1772 was an act of the Parliament of Great Britain which prescribed the conditions under which members of the British royal family could contract a valid marriage, in order to guard against marriages that could diminish the status of the royal house. The right of veto vested in the sovereign by this act provoked severe adverse criticism at the time of its passage.
It was repealed as a result of the 2011 Perth Agreement, which came into force on 26 March 2015. Under the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, the first six people in the line of succession need permission to marry if they and their descendants are to remain in the line of succession.
Provisions
The Act said that no descendant of King George II, male or female, other than the issue of princesses who had married or might thereafter marry "into foreign families", could marry without the consent of the reigning monarch, "signified under the great seal and declared in council". That consent was to be set out in the licence and in the register of the marriage, and entered in the books of the Privy Council. Any marriage contracted without the consent of the monarch was to be null and void.
However, any member of the royal family over the age of 25 who had been refused the sovereign's consent could marry one year after giving notice to the Privy Council of an intention so to marry, unless both houses of Parliament expressly declared their disapproval. There was, however, no instance in which the sovereign's consent in Council was formally refused, though there was one where it was sought but the request ignored and others where it was not sought because it was likely to be refused.
The Act further made it a crime to perform or participate in an illegal marriage of any member of the royal family. This provision was repealed by the Criminal Law Act 1967.
Rationale
The Act was proposed by George III as a direct result of the marriage of his brother, Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn, who in 1771 had married the commoner Anne Horton, the daughter of Simon Luttrell and the widow of Christopher Horton. Royal Assent was given to the Act on 1 April 1772, and it was only on 13 September following that the King learned that another brother, Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh, had in 1766 secretly married Maria, the illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and the widow of the 2nd Earl Waldegrave. Both alliances were considered highly unsuitable by the King, who "saw himself as having been forced to marry for purely dynastic reasons".
Couples affected
On 15 December 1785, the King's eldest son George, Prince of Wales, married privately and in contravention of this Act the twice-widowed Maria Anne Fitzherbert, a practising Roman Catholic, at her house in Park Lane, London, according to the rites of the Church of England. This marriage was invalid under the Act. Had the marriage been valid, it would have excluded the Prince from succession to the throne under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701, and made his brother Prince Frederick, Duke of York, the heir-apparent.
On 29 September 1791, the King's second son Prince Frederick, Duke of York, married Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia, at Charlottenburg, Berlin, but the ceremony had to be repeated in London on 23 November 1791 as, although consent had been given at the Privy Council on 28 September, it had proved impossible to obtain the Great Seal in time and doubt had thus been thrown on the legality of the marriage.
On 4 April 1793, Prince Augustus, the sixth son of the King, married Lady Augusta Murray, in contravention of the Act, first privately and without witnesses, according to the rites of the Church of England at the Hotel Sarmiento, Rome, and again, after banns, on 5 December 1793, at St George's, Hanover Square, London. Both marriages were declared null and void by the Court of Arches on 14 July 1794, and the two resulting children were subsequently considered illegitimate.
After the death of Lady Augusta Murray, Prince Augustus, now Duke of Sussex, apparently married (no contemporary evidence survives), again in contravention of the Act, about 2 May 1831, at her house in Great Cumberland Place, London, Lady Cecilia Buggin, who on that day had taken the surname Underwood in lieu of Buggin and who, on 10 April 1840, was created Duchess of Inverness by Queen Victoria (the Duke being Earl of Inverness). The Queen had thereby, as Lord Melbourne wrote, "recognized the moral and religious effect of whatever has taken place whilst she avoided the legal effects of a legal marriage which was what her Majesty was most anxious to do". Acceptance of the marriage would have meant acceptance of the Duke's earlier marriage and the legitimacy of his two children. However, the couple cohabited and were socially accepted as husband and wife.
On 8 January 1847, the Queen's first cousin Prince George of Cambridge married, by licence of the Faculty Office but in contravention of this Act, Sarah Fairbrother, a pregnant actress with four illegitimate children (two by himself and two by other men), at St James, Clerkenwell. From about 1858, Fairbrother took the name Mrs FitzGeorge. The marriage was non-existent, not a morganatic marriage as many have called it. It is also incorrect to say that Queen Victoria refused to consent to this marriage, as no application was made to her under the Act, it being very apparent that no consent would be given.
After Charles Edward, Duke of Albany was deprived of his British titles under the Titles Deprivation Act 1917 due to his German loyalties during World War I, his descendants married without consent from the British monarch (the earliest in 1932). As Charles Edward was a male-line grandson of Queen Victoria, application of the Royal Marriages Act as written renders null and void for the purposes of British law the marriages of his children, despite having been lawfully contracted in Germany.
The only known case in which permission to marry was withheld by the British sovereign despite a formal request under the Royal Marriages Act is that of Prince George William of Hanover, a German citizen descended from King George III, whose father and grandfather were deprived of their British titles under the Titles Deprivation Act 1917 due to their German loyalties during World War I. On 23 April 1946, George William married Princess Sophie of Greece and Denmark, who was about to become a kinswoman to the British royal family as her brother Prince Philip was courting the future Queen Elizabeth II. Their request for permission from King George VI received no response due to sensitivity over the fact that a state of war still existed between the United Kingdom and Germany, and it was held by British officials at the time that the marriage and its issue would not be legitimate in the United Kingdom despite being legal in Germany.
Broad effects
The Act rendered void any marriage wherever contracted or solemnised in contravention of it. A member of the royal family who contracted a marriage that violated the Act did not thereby lose his or her place in the line of succession, but the offspring of such a union were made illegitimate by the voiding of the marriage and thus lost any right to succeed.
The Act applied to Catholics, even though they are ineligible to succeed to the throne. It did not apply to descendants of Sophia of Hanover who are not also descendants of George II, even though they are still eligible to succeed to the throne.
It had been claimed that the marriage of Prince Augustus had been legal in Ireland and Hanover, but the Committee of Privileges of the House of Lords ruled (in the Sussex Peerage Case, 9 July 1844) that the Act incapacitated the descendants of George II from contracting a legal marriage without the consent of the Crown, either within the British dominions or elsewhere.
All European monarchies, and many non-European realms, have laws or traditions requiring prior approval of the monarch for members of the reigning dynasty to marry. But Britain's was unusual because it was never modified between its original enactment and its repeal 243 years later, so that its ambit grew rather wide, affecting not only British royal family, but more distant relatives of the monarch.
Farran exemption
In the 1950s, Charles d'Olivier Farran, Lecturer in Constitutional Law at Liverpool University, theorised that the Act could no longer apply to anyone living, because all the members of the immediate royal family were descended from British princesses who had married into foreign families. The loophole is due to the Act's wording, whereby if a person is, through one line, a descendant of George II subject to the Act's restriction, but is also, separately through another line, a descendant of a British princess married into a foreign family, the exemption for the latter reads as if it trumps the former.
Many of George II's descendants in female lines have married back into the British royal family. In particular, the Queen and other members of the House of Windsor descend (through Queen Alexandra) from two daughters of George II – (Mary, Landgravine of Hesse and Louise, Queen of Denmark) – who married foreign rulers (respectively Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and King Frederick V of Denmark), and through Queen Mary from a third (Anne, Princess of Orange, consort of William IV, Prince of Orange). Queen Mary herself was a product of such a marriage; her parents were Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, a granddaughter of George III and Francis, Duke of Teck, a minor German prince of the House of Württemberg. Moreover, Charles, Prince of Wales, his issue, siblings, and their issue descend from yet another such marriage, that of Princess Alice, a daughter of Queen Victoria, to Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, through their great-grandson Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
This so-called "Farran exemption" met with wide publicity, but arguments against it were put forward by Clive Parry, Fellow of Downing College, Cambridge, and Farran's interpretation has since been ignored. Consent to marriages in the royal family (including the distantly related House of Hanover) continued to be sought and granted as if none of the agnatic descendants of George II were also his cognatic descendants.
Parry argued that the "Farran exemption" theory was complicated by the fact that all the Protestant descendants of the Electress Sophia of Hanover, ancestress of the United Kingdom's monarchs since 1714, had been entitled to British citizenship under the Sophia Naturalization Act 1705 (if born prior to 1949, when the act was repealed). Thus, some marriages of British princesses to continental monarchs and princes were not, in law, marriages to foreigners. For example, the 1947 marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, by birth a Greek and Danish prince but descended from the Electress Sophia, was a marriage to a British subject even if he had not been previously naturalised in Britain. This would also mean theoretically, for example, that the present royal family of Norway was bound by the Act, for the marriage of Princess Maud, a daughter of King Edward VII, to the future King Haakon VII of Norway, was a marriage to a "British subject", since Haakon descended from the Electress Sophia.
Exemption of the former Edward VIII
In 1936 the statute His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 specifically excluded Edward VIII from the provisions of this Act upon his abdication, allowing him to marry the divorcée, Wallis Simpson. The wording of the statute also excluded any issue of the marriage both from being subject to the Act, and from the succession to the throne; no marriages or succession rights were ultimately affected by this language, as the Duke and Duchess of Windsor had no children.
Perth Agreement
In October 2011 David Cameron wrote to the leaders of the other Commonwealth realms proposing that the act be limited to the first six people in line to the throne. The leaders approved the proposed change at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting held in Perth, Western Australia.
The legislation in a number of Commonwealth realms repeals the Royal Marriages Act 1772 in its entirety. It was, in the United Kingdom, replaced by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, which stipulates a requirement for the first six people in the line of succession to obtain the sovereign's consent before marrying in order to remain eligible. Article 3(5) of the new act also provides that, except for succession purposes, any marriage that would have been void under the original act "is to be treated as never having been void" if it did not involve any of the first six people in the line of succession at the time of the marriage; royal consent was never sought or denied; "in all the circumstances it was reasonable for the person concerned not to have been aware at the time of the marriage that the Act applied to it"; and no one has acted on the basis that the marriage is void. New Zealand's Royal Succession Act 2013 repealed the Royal Marriages Act and provided for royal consent for the first six people in the line of succession to be granted by the monarch in right of the United Kingdom.
Other legislation
The Regency Act 1830, which provided for a regency in the event that Queen Victoria inherited the throne before she was eighteen, made it illegal for her to marry without the regent's consent. Her spouse and anyone involved in arranging or conducting the marriage without such consent would be guilty of high treason. This was more serious than the offence created by the Act of 1772, which was equivalent to praemunire. However, the Act never came into force, as Victoria had already turned 18 a few weeks before becoming queen.
Consents for marriages under the Act
Consents under the Act were entered in the Books of the Privy Council but have not been published. In 1857 it became customary to publish them in the London Gazette and notices appear of consents given in Council at Courts held on the following dates. Not all consents were there and gaps in the list have been filled by reference to the Warrants for Royal Marriages in the Home Office papers (series HO 124) in The National Archives:
See also
Marriage Act
Notes
References
External links
Text of the Act immediately before its repeal at legislation.gov.uk
Digital Reproduction of the Original Act on the Parliamentary Archives catalogue
Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1772
Legal history of Canada
British monarchy
Marriage law in the United Kingdom
Perth Agreement | [
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|
238584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restroom | Restroom | Restroom is a euphemism for a public toilet, in a publicly accessible location, or less frequently a toilet room, in a private residence. Different dialects use "bathroom" and "restroom" (American English), "bathroom" (usually includes a bathtub or shower) and "washroom" (just toilet and sink) (Canadian English), "comfort room" or "CR" (Filipino English) and "WC" (an initialism for "water closet"), "lavatory" and its abbreviation "lavvy" (British English).
The term restroom derived from the fact that in early 1900s through to the middle of the century up-scale restaurants, theatres and performing facilities would often have comfortable chairs or sofas located within or in a room directly adjacent to the actual toilet and sink facilities, something which can be seen in some movies of the time period. An example of this is the description of a "movie palace" which was opening in 1921 which was described as including " ... a rest-room for the fair sex and a lounging room for the sterner sex ... off these rooms are the toilets."
Euphemisms for the toilet that bear no direct reference to the activities of urination and defecation are ubiquitous in modern Western languages, reflecting a general attitude of unspeakability about such bodily function. As the euphemism, in the United States "restroom" has come to be associated with the actual function of the toilet, and further euphemisms such as "powder room" and "lounge" have been constructed to avoid using the word "restroom".
Use of the euphemism has caused confusion when conveyed to visitors from other cultures, or misapplied by speakers from other cultures. For example, in the 1970s the official Xinhua News Agency of Mainland China published an English-language story stating that the vice-premier had met with guests in the Beijing International Airport restroom, by which the authors meant a lobby.
References
Euphemisms
Toilets
Rooms | [
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|
238594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heir%20presumptive | Heir presumptive | An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an heir apparent or of a new heir presumptive with a better claim to the position in question.
Depending on the rules of the monarchy, the heir presumptive might be the daughter of a monarch if males take preference over females and the monarch has no sons, or the senior member of a collateral line if the monarch is childless or the monarch's direct descendants cannot inherit (either because they are daughters and females are completely barred from inheriting, because the monarch's children are illegitimate, or because of some other legal disqualification, such as being descended from the monarch through a morganatic line or the descendant's refusal or inability to adopt a religion the monarch is required to profess). In either case, the subsequent birth of a legitimate child to the monarch may displace the former heir presumptive by a new heir apparent or heir presumptive. It is not assumed that the monarch and his or her consort are incapable of having further children; on the day before Queen Elizabeth II ascended the throne, her father George VI was gravely ill and her mother was in her early 50s, but Elizabeth was still considered the heir presumptive rather than the heir apparent.
Heir presumptive, like heir apparent, is not a title or position per se. Rather, it is a general term for a person who holds a certain place in the order of succession. In some monarchies, the heir apparent bears, ipso facto, a specific title and rank (e.g., Denmark, Netherlands, United Kingdom), this also sometimes being the case for noble titleholders (e.g., Spain, United Kingdom), but the heir presumptive does not bear that title. In other monarchies (e.g., Monaco, Spain) the first in line to the throne bears a specific title (i.e., "Hereditary Prince/Princess of Monaco", "Prince/Princess of Asturias") by right, regardless of whether she or he is heir apparent or heir presumptive.
Simultaneous heirs presumptive
In the English and Welsh common law of inheritance, there is no seniority between sisters; where there is no son to inherit, any number of daughters share equally. Therefore, certain hereditary titles can have multiple simultaneous heirs presumptive. Since the title cannot be held by two people simultaneously, two daughters (without a brother) who inherit in this way would do so as co-parceners and before they inherit, both would be heirs presumptive. In these circumstances, the title would in fact be held in abeyance until one person represents the claim of both, or the claim is renounced by one or the other for herself and her heirs, or the abeyance is ended by the Crown. There are special procedures for handling doubtful or disputed cases.
Heirs presumptive as of
Crown Prince Fumihito is the heir presumptive (皇嗣, Kōshi) to his elder brother, Emperor Naruhito of Japan. Historically, the succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne has normally passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage. If Naruhito were to have a legitimate son, he would become heir apparent and Prince Fumihito would move back one place in the line of succession.
Leonor, Princess of Asturias, is the heir presumptive to her father, King Felipe VI of Spain. If her father has a legitimate son, he would be heir apparent and Leonor would lose her titles and move back one place in the line of succession.
Prince Dipangkorn Rasmijoti is the heir presumptive to his father, King Vajiralongkorn of Thailand. In accordance with the 1924 Palace Law of Succession, the reigning king has absolute power to name any royal male as heir apparent, and upon being announced publicly, the "position of such heir is secure and indisputable".
Past heirs presumptive who did not inherit thrones
The list is limited to heirs presumptive who did not succeed due to death, abolition of monarchies, or change in succession law.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus was heir presumptive to his uncle and father-in-law Augustus until his death in 23 BC.
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was heir presumptive to his father-in-law Augustus until his death in 12 BC.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was heir presumptive to his brother-in-law Caligula until his death in 38.
Britannicus was heir presumptive to his stepbrother Nero until his death in 55.
Robert Curthose was heir presumptive to his brother William II of England until he was disinherited for rebellion in 1088.
Edmund of Scotland was heir presumptive to his uncle Donald III of Scotland until his uncle's overthrow in 1097.
Empress Matilda was heir presumptive to her father Henry I of England but upon Henry's death in 1135, Matilda's cousin Stephen, King of England took the throne instead.
Arthur I, Duke of Brittany, was heir presumptive to his uncle Richard I of England but upon Richard's death in 1199, Arthur's uncle John, King of England took the throne instead.
Peter I, Count of Urgell, was heir presumptive to his nephew Afonso III of Portugal until his death in 1258.
Margaret of Scotland, Queen of Norway, was heir presumptive to her father Alexander III of Scotland until her death in 1283.
Uzana of Bassein was heir presumptive to his father Narathihapate until he was assassinated in 1287.
Edward Bruce was heir presumptive to his brother Robert I of Scotland until he claimed the throne of Ireland.
Marjorie Bruce was heir presumptive to her father Robert I of Scotland until her death in 1316.
Charles, Count of Valois, was heir presumptive to his nephew Charles IV of France twice until his death in 1325.
Binnya E Laung was heir presumptive to his father Binnya E Law until his death.
Beatrice of Portugal was heir presumptive to her father Ferdinand I of Portugal but upon Ferdinand's death in 1383, Beatrice's half-uncle John I of Portugal took the throne instead.
John of Gaunt was heir presumptive to his nephew Richard II of England until the succession law was changed in 1386.
Bawlawkyantaw was heir presumptive to his father Razadarit until his execution in 1390.
Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, was heir presumptive to Richard II after the change in succession until his death in 1398.
Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, was heir presumptive to Richard II until Richard's forced abdication in 1399.
Theiddat was heir presumptive to his brother Minkhaung I until his nephew Minye Kyawswa was made heir instead.
Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany, was heir presumptive to his nephew James I of Scotland until his death in 1420.
Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence, was heir presumptive to his brother Henry V of England from his brother's succession in 1413 to his death in 1421.
Murdoch Stewart, Duke of Albany, was heir presumptive to his cousin James I of Scotland until he was attained and executed in 1425.
John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, was heir presumptive to his nephew Henry VI of England until his death in 1435.
Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl, was heir presumptive to his great-nephew James II of Scotland until he was executed in 1437 for his part in killing the previous king James I.
Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France, was heir presumptive to her brother James II of Scotland until her death in 1445.
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, was heir presumptive to his nephew Henry VI until his death in 1447.
Joanna la Beltraneja was heir presumptive to her father Henry IV of Castile until he named his brother Alfonso as heir instead.
Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, was heir presumptive to his half-brother Henry IV of Castile until his death in 1468.
George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, was heir presumptive to his brother Edward IV of England until he fled after rebelling against him in 1470.
Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, was heir presumptive to his uncle Richard III of England until he was removed from the succession in 1485.
John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln, was heir presumptive to his uncle Richard III until the king was killed in battle in 1485.
Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, was heir presumptive to her parents Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon until her death in 1498.
Miguel da Paz, Prince of Portugal, in addition to being heir apparent to his father Manuel I of Portugal, was heir presumptive to grandparents Isabella and Ferdinand until his death in 1500.
James Stewart, Duke of Ross, was heir presumptive to his brother James IV of Scotland until his death in 1504.
John Stewart, Duke of Albany, was heir presumptive to James V of Scotland until his death in 1536.
Carlos, Prince of Asturias, in addition to being heir apparent to his father Philip II of Spain, was also heir presumptive to his cousin Sebastian of Portugal until his death in 1568.
James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, was heir presumptive to James VI of Scotland until his death in 1575.
Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma, was heir presumptive to his granduncle Henry, King of Portugal until the succession crisis that emerged after Henry's death in 1580.
Francis, Duke of Anjou, was heir presumptive to his brother Henry III of France until his death in 1584.
Charles de Bourbon was heir presumptive to his nephew Henry IV of France until his death in 1590.
Dmitry of Uglich was heir presumptive to his half-brother Feodor I of Russia until his death in 1591.
Dmitry Shuisky was heir presumptive to his brother Vasili IV of Russia until his brother was overthrown in 1610.
Sigismund III Vasa was heir presumptive of Russia to his son Vladislav until his son's overthrow in 1613.
Monsieur d'Orléans, was heir presumptive to his brother Louis XIII of France until his death in 1611.
Charles Philip, Duke of Södermanland, was heir presumptive to his brother Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden until his death in 1622.
Catherine of Sweden, Countess Palatine of Kleeburg, was heir presumptive to her niece Christina, Queen of Sweden, until her death in 1638.
Margaret Theresa of Spain was heir presumptive to her brother Charles II of Spain until her death in 1673.
Maria Antonia of Austria was heir presumptive to her uncle Charles II until her death in 1692.
Joseph Ferdinand, Electoral Prince of Bavaria, in addition to being heir apparent to his father Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, was heir presumptive to his great-uncle Charles II until his death in 1699.
Sophia, Electress of Hanover, was declared heir presumptive to the British thrones by the Act of Settlement 1701, but died before acceding to the throne of her distant cousin, Queen Anne.
Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, was heir presumptive to Louis XV of France until his death in 1723.
Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg was heir presumptive to his half-brother Adolphus Frederick III, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, until his death in 1752.
Prince Augustus William of Prussia was heir presumptive to his brother Frederick II of Prussia until his death in 1758.
Duke Louis of Mecklenburg-Schwerin was heir presumptive to his brother Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, until his death in 1778.
Inthraphithak was heir presumptive to his father Taksin until Taksin was overthrown and both were executed in 1802.
Maha Sura Singhanat was heir presumptive to his brother Phutthayotfa Chulalok until his death in 1803.
Anurak Devesh was heir presumptive to his uncle Phutthayotfa Chulalok until his death in 1806.
Maha Senanurak was heir presumptive to his brother Phutthaloetla Naphalai until his death in 1817.
Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia was heir presumptive to his brother Alexander I of Russia until he renounced his rights in 1823.
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, brother of King George IV of the United Kingdom, was heir presumptive from his brother's ascension in 1820 to his death in 1827.
Sakdiphonlasep was heir presumptive to his nephew Nangklao until his death in 1832.
Infante Carlos of Spain, Count of Molina, brother of King Ferdinand VII of Spain. Ferdinand VII changed the succession law in favour to his daughter, who became Queen Isabella II after the King's death in September 1833. This led to the Carlist Wars in Spain.
Maximilian, Hereditary Prince of Saxony, was heir presumptive to his brother Anthony of Saxony until he renounced his rights in favour of his son Frederick Augustus in 1830.
Archduke Franz Karl of Austria, brother of Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, was heir presumptive throughout his brother's reign until the revolution that saw his brother forced to abdicate also saw Franz renounce his rights in favour of his son Franz Joseph in 1848.
Ahmad Rifaat Pasha was heir presumptive to his half-uncle Sa'id of Egypt until his death in 1858.
Prince Henry, Count of Bardi, was heir presumptive to his brother Robert I, Duke of Parma, until the monarchy was abolished in 1859.
Archduke Karl Salvator of Austria was heir presumptive to his brother Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany, until the monarchy was abolished in 1860.
Prince Louis, Count of Trani, was heir presumptive to his half-brother Francis II of the Two Sicilies until the monarchy was abolished in 1861.
Albert, Prince Consort, was heir presumptive to his brother Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, until his death in 1861.
Infante João, Duke of Beja, was heir presumptive to his brother Luís I of Portugal until his death in 1861.
Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince of Denmark, was heir presumptive to his nephew King Frederick VII of Denmark until his death five months before his nephew in 1863.
Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, in addition to being heir apparent to his mother Queen Victoria, was also heir presumptive to his uncle Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, until renouncing his rights in favour of his younger brothers in 1863.
Pinklao was heir presumptive to his brother Mongkut until his death in 1866.
Prince William of Hesse-Kassel was heir presumptive to his cousin Frederick William, Elector of Hesse, until the monarchy was abolished in 1866.
Prince William of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld was heir presumptive to his brother Alexis, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld, until the monarchy was abolished in 1866.
Prince Frederick of Württemberg was heir presumptive to his cousin and brother-in-law Charles I of Württemberg until his death in 1870.
Prince Charles of Hesse and by Rhine was heir presumptive to his brother Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse, until his death a few months before his brother in 1877.
Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern, was heir presumptive to his brother Carol I of Romania until he renounced his rights in favour of his sons.
William, Prince of Hohenzollern, was heir presumptive to his uncle Carol I of Romania until he renounced his rights in favour of his younger brother Ferdinand.
Wichaichan was heir presumptive to his cousin Chulalongkorn until his death in 1885.
Mercedes, Princess of Asturias, daughter of Alfonso XII of Spain, was the heir presumptive at her birth. After her father died, her posthumously born brother Alfonso became king as Alfonso XIII of Spain and she remained the heir presumptive until her death in 1905.
Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, was the heir presumptive to her father Pedro II of Brazil on the throne of the Empire of Brazil. However, a coup d'etat in 1889 proclaimed a Republic in the country, deposing the monarchy.
Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria was the heir presumptive of his brother Franz Joseph I of Austria from the suicide of his nephew Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, until his death in 1896.
Duke William of Württemberg was heir presumptive to his kinsman William II of Württemberg until his death in 1896.
Princess Sophie of the Netherlands was heir presumptive to her niece Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands until her death in 1897.
Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia was heir presumptive to his brother Nicholas II of Russia until his death in 1899.
Duke Nicholas of Württemberg was heir presumptive to his kinsman William II of Württemberg until his death in 1903.
Ernest, Count of Lippe-Biesterfeld was heir presumptive to his kinsman Alexander, Prince of Lippe until his death in 1904.
Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders, was the heir presumptive of his older brother King Leopold II of Belgium after the death of his nephew Prince Leopold, Duke of Brabant, until his own death in 1905.
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, was heir presumptive to his brother Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, until he renounced his rights and that of his descendants in favour of his nephew Charles Edward.
Prince Moritz of Saxe-Altenburg was heir presumptive to his brother Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, until his death in 1907.
Afonso, Prince Royal of Portugal, was the heir presumptive of his nephew Manuel II of Portugal until the monarchy was abolished in 1910.
Yi Un was heir presumptive to his half-brother Sunjong of Korea until the Annexation of Korea in 1910.
Pujie was heir presumptive to his brother Puyi until the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, and Republic of China founded in 1912. He became heir presumptive again after the puppet regime Manchukuo after the Mukden Incident, while Puyi became the emperor of Manchukuo as well until the surrender of Japan in 1945.
Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria, was heir presumptive to his nephew Otto, King of Bavaria until his death in 1912.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was the heir presumptive of his uncle Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria until his assassination June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo.
Duke Philipp of Württemberg was heir presumptive to his kinsman William II of Württemberg until his death in 1917.
Prince Maximilian of Baden was heir presumptive to his cousin Frederick II, Grand Duke of Baden, until the monarchy was abolished in 1918.
Charles Michael, Duke of Mecklenburg, was heir presumptive to his cousin Adolphus Frederick VI, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, until the throne became vacant and was later abolished in 1918.
Ernst, Prince of Saxe-Meiningen, was heir presumptive to his half-brother Bernhard III, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, until the monarchy was abolished in 1918.
Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, was heir presumptive to his kinsman William II of Württemberg until the monarchy was abolished in 1918.
Wolrad, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, was heir presumptive to his brother Adolf II, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, until the monarchy was abolished in 1918.
Sizzo, Prince of Schwarzburg, was heir presumptive to his cousin Günther Victor, Prince of Schwarzburg, until the monarchy was abolished in 1918.
Heinrich XXVII, Prince Reuss Younger Line, in addition to ruling his own principality, was heir presumptive to his kinsman Heinrich XXIV, Prince Reuss of Greiz, until both monarchies were abolished in 1918.
Chakrabongse Bhuvanath was heir presumptive to his brother Vajiravudh until his death in 1920.
Asdang Dejavudh was heir presumptive to his brother Vajiravudh until his death in 1924.
Varananda Dhavaj was heir presumptive to his uncle Vajiravudh until being replaced as heir by his other uncle Prajadhipok in 1924.
Mahidol Adulyadej was heir presumptive to his half-brother Prajadhipok until his death in 1929.
Kiril, Prince of Preslav was heir presumptive to his nephew Simeon II of Bulgaria, until his execution by Communists in 1945.
Prince Nicholas of Romania was heir presumptive to his nephew Michael I of Romania until the monarchy was abolished in 1947.
Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois, was heir presumptive to her father Louis II, Prince of Monaco, until renouncing her rights in favour of her son Rainier.
Prince Knud of Denmark was the heir presumptive of his brother King Frederick IX of Denmark, but an amendment to the Danish Constitution in 1953 replaced the previously semi-Salic succession with male-preference primogeniture and proclaimed King Frederick's eldest daughter Princess Margrethe, later Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, heir presumptive.
Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh was heir presumptive to her father George VI in India until it became a republic in 1950, as well as Newfoundland until it joined Canada in 1949 (she reigned as Queen of Canada since 6 February 1952).
Mohammed Ali Tewfik was heir presumptive to Fuad II of Egypt until the monarchy was abolished in 1953.
'Abd al-Ilah was heir presumptive to his nephew Faisal II of Iraq until they were both executed in 1958.
Tunku Abdul Malik was heir presumptive to his brother Abdul Halim of Kedah until his death in 2015.
See also
Monarchy
References
Monarchy
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|
238595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Henry%2C%20Duke%20of%20Cumberland%20and%20Strathearn | Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn | Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn (Henry Frederick; 7 November 1745 – 18 September 1790) was the sixth child and fourth son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, and a younger brother of George III. His 1771 marriage to a commoner against the King's wishes prompted the Royal Marriages Act of 1772.
Early life
Prince Henry of Wales was born on 7 November 1745 at Leicester House, London, to Frederick, Prince of Wales, son of George II and Caroline of Ansbach, and his wife The Princess of Wales. He was christened at Leicester House twenty-three days later.
Royal Dukedom
On 22 October 1766, just prior to his twenty-first birthday, the prince was created Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn and Earl of Dublin.
Allegations
On 4 March 1767, the Duke of Cumberland allegedly married Olive Wilmot (later Mrs Payne), a commoner, in a secret ceremony. There reportedly was one child, Olivia Wilmot (1772–1834), from this relationship, though the duke's paternity was never proven, and Olivia Wilmot was accused of forging the evidence. A landscape painter and novelist, Olivia Wilmot married John Thomas Serres (1759–1825) and later, controversially, assumed the title of "Princess Olivia of Cumberland".
Cumberland's mistresses included Ann Elliot who had been an actress before another had taken her off the stage. Cumberland set her up in a house in Greek Street in Soho where she died after an illness in 1769. Cumberland arranged for her burial and memorial and gave a large sum to her estate.
In 1769, the Duke of Cumberland was sued by Lord Grosvenor for "criminal conversation" (that is, adultery) after the Duke and Lady Grosvenor were discovered in flagrante delicto. Lord Grosvenor was awarded damages of £10,000, which together with costs amounted to an award of £13,000 ().
Royal Navy
In 1768, at the fairly late age of 22, the Duke entered the Royal Navy as a midshipman and was sent to Corsica in HMS Venus. However, he returned in September when the ship was recalled following the French invasion of the Corsican Republic. He was promoted to Rear-Admiral the following year and Vice-Admiral in 1770.
Marriage
On 2 October 1771 the Duke married Anne Horton (1743–1808), daughter of Irish peer and British MP Simon Luttrell, and the widow of Christopher Horton of Catton Hall. The marriage caused a rift with the King, who considered it a mismatch, and was the catalyst for the Royal Marriages Act 1772, which forbade any descendant of George II to marry without the monarch's permission. There were no children from this marriage.
The marriage between Anne Horton and the Duke of Cumberland was described as a "conquest at Brighthelmstone" (now Brighton) by Mrs. Horton, "who", Horace Walpole says, "had for many months been dallying with his passion, till she had fixed him to more serious views than he had intended." Anne was however generally thought one of the great beauties of the age (even Walpole found her green eyes "enchanting"), and Thomas Gainsborough painted her several times.
Later life
In 1775, the Duke established the Cumberland Fleet, which would later become the Royal Thames Yacht Club. He was promoted vice-admiral of the White in 1776, admiral of the Blue in 1778, and admiral of the White in 1782, though he was forbidden from assuming any command. The Duke was also instrumental in the development of Brighton as a popular resort. He had first visited in 1771, and in 1783, the Prince of Wales visited his uncle there.
The Duke of Cumberland died in London on 18 September 1790. His widow died in 1808.
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles
7 November 1745 – 22 October 1766: His Royal Highness Prince Henry
22 October 1766 – 18 September 1790: His Royal Highness The Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn
The prince's full style, as recited by Garter King of Arms at his funeral, was the "Most High, Most Mighty and Illustrious Prince Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn, Earl of Dublin, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter".
Arms
Henry was granted use of the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of five points, the centre bearing a cross gules, the other points each bearing a fleur-de-lys azure.
Ancestors
References
Henry Churchyard "Royal Genealogies, Part 10"
Sam Sloan "Big Combined Family Trees (pafg733)"
Citations
External links
Portrait of the Duchess of Cumberland
1745 births
1790 deaths
People from Old Windsor
House of Hanover
Princes of Great Britain
101
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
Earls of Dublin
Peers of Ireland created by George III
Fellows of the Royal Society
Grand Masters of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
Burials at Westminster Abbey | [
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238601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiet%20PC | Quiet PC | A quiet PC is a personal computer that makes very little or no noise. Common uses for quiet PCs include video editing, sound mixing and home theater PCs, but noise reduction techniques can also be used to greatly reduce the noise from servers. There is currently no standard definition for a "quiet PC", and the term is generally not used in a business context, but by individuals and the businesses catering to them.
A proposed general definition is that the sound emitted by such PCs should not exceed 30 dBA, but in addition to the average sound pressure level, the frequency spectrum and dynamics of the sound are important in determining if the sound of the computer is noticed. Sounds with a smooth frequency spectrum (lacking audible tonal peaks), and little temporal variation are less likely to be noticed. The character and amount of other noise in the environment also affects how much sound will be noticed or masked, so a computer may be quiet with relation to a particular environment or set of users.
History
Prior to about 1975, all computers were typically large industrial/commercial machines, often in a centralized location with a dedicated room-sized cooling system. For these systems noise was not an important issue.
The first home computers, such as the Commodore 64, were very low power, and therefore could run fanless or, like the IBM PC, with a low-speed fan only used to cool the power supply, so noise was seldom an issue.
By the mid 1990s as CPU clock speeds increased above 60 MHz, "spot-cooling" was added by means of a fan over the CPU heatsink to blow air onto the processor. Over time, more fans were included to provide spot-cooling in more locations where heat dissipation was needed, including the 3D graphics cards as they grew more powerful. Computer cases increasingly needed to add fans to extract heated air from the case, but unless very carefully designed, this would add more noise.
Energy Star, in 1992, and similar programs led to the widespread adoption of sleep mode among consumer electronics, and the TCO Certified program promoted lower energy consumption. Both added features that allowed systems to only consume as much power as is needed at a particular moment and helped reduce power consumption. In a similar manner the first low power and energy-conserving CPUs were developed for use in laptops but can be used in any machine to reduce power requirements, and hence noise.
Causes of noise
The main causes of PC noise are:
Mechanical friction generated by disk drives and fan bearings
Vibration from disk drives and fans
Air turbulence caused by obstructions in the flow of air
Air vortex effects from fan blade edges
Electrical whine: noise generated by electrical coils or transformers used in power supplies, motherboards, video cards or LCD monitors.
Many of these sources increase with the power of the computer. More or faster transistors use more power, which releases more heat. Increasing the rotation speed of fans to address this will (all things being equal) increase their noise. Similarly, increasing hard disk drives' and optical disc drives' rotation speeds increases performance, but generally also vibration and bearing friction.
Measuring noise
Though standards do exist for measuring and reporting sound power output by such things as computer components, they are often ignored. Many manufacturers do not give sound power measurements. Some report sound pressure measurements, but those that do often do not specify how sound pressure measurements were taken. Even such basic information as measurement distance is rarely reported. Without knowing how it was measured, it is not possible to verify these claims, and comparisons between such measurements (e.g. for product selection) are meaningless. Comparative reviews, which test several devices under the same conditions, are more useful, but even then, an average sound pressure level is only one factor in determining which components will be perceived as quieter.
Noise reduction methods
Common noise reduction methods
Use large, efficient heat sinks
Incorporate heat pipes, which have much higher effective thermal conductivity than solid copper
Use fans with lower speeds and larger diameters
Use fans with low bearing and motor noise
Rather than constant-speed fans, use thermostatically controlled variable speed fans that run at less than maximum speed, and thus run quieter most of the time
Use an efficient power supply to minimize waste heat
Use quieter models of hard drive
Use solid state devices like compact flash or solid-state drives rather than traditional mechanical hard drives
Use remote networked via SMB or NFS rather than local disks
Place a damping material such as Sorbothane around hard drives or other spinning items
Use sound insulation material to absorb sound and dampen case resonance
Water cooling, although difficult to set up, may be useful in some situations
Low-cost methods
A number of methods exist for reducing computer noise at little or no added cost.
Reduce CPU supply voltage ("undervolting"). Many of today's CPUs can run stably at their stock speed, or even with a slight overclock, at a reduced voltage, which reduces heat output. Power consumption is approximately proportional to V2·f, that is, it varies linearly with the clock frequency and quadratically with the voltage. This means that even a small reduction in voltage can have a large effect in power consumption. Undervolting and underclocking can also be used with chipsets and GPUs.
Enable Cool'n'Quiet for AMD CPUs or SpeedStep (also known as EIST) on Intel CPUs.
Reduce fan speed. For newer computers, the speed of fans can be varied automatically, depending on how hot certain parts of the computer get. Lowering a DC fan motor's supply voltage will reduce its speed while making it quieter and lowering the amount of air the fan moves. Doing this arbitrarily could lead to components overheating; therefore, whenever performing hardware work it is advised to monitor the temperature of system components. Fans with Molex connectors can be modified easily. With 3-pin fans, either fixed inline resistors or diodes, or commercial fan controllers, such as the Zalman Fanmate, can be used. Software like speedfan or Argus Monitor may allow fan speed control. Many newer motherboards support pulse-width modulation (PWM) control, allowing the fan speed to be set in the BIOS or with software.
Mount fans on anti-vibration mounts.
Remove restrictive fan grills to allow easier airflow, or replace noisy fan grills with quieter versions.
Use software such as Nero DriveSpeed or RimhillEx to reduce the speed of optical drives.
Isolate hard disk noise, either by using anti-vibration mounts (generally rubber or silicone grommets), or by suspending the hard disk to fully decouple it from the computer chassis by mounting it in a 5.25 inch drive bay with viscoelastic polymer mounts.
Set the hard disk's AAM value to its lowest setting. This reduces the seek noise produced by the hard drive, but also reduces performance slightly.
Set operating system to spin down hard drives after a short time of inactivity. This may reduce a drive's life span and commonly conflicts with the OS and running programs, though it can still be useful for drives that are only used for data storage.
Defragment hard drives to reduce the drive heads' need to search widely for data. This can also improve performance.
Arrange components and cables to improve airflow. Wires hanging inside the computer can block the airflow, which can increase the temperature. They can be easily moved to the side of the case so that air can pass through more easily.
Remove dust from inside the computer. Dust on computer parts will retain more heat. Fans draw in dust along with outside air; it can build up quickly inside the computer. Dust can be removed with a vacuum cleaner, gas duster, or compressed air. Special anti-static vacuum cleaners should be used, however, to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD). Ideally, this would be done often enough to prevent a significant amount of dust from ever building up. How frequently this would need to be performed would depend entirely on the environment in which the computer is used.
In some cases an acceptable solution may be to relocate the too-noisy computer outside the immediate working area, and access it either with long-distance HDMI/USB/DVI cables or via remote desktop software from a quiet thin client, e.g. based on a Raspberry Pi, a miniature computer that does not even use a heat sink.
Individual components in a quiet PC
The following are notes regarding individual components in quiet PCs.
The motherboard, CPU, and video card are major energy users in a computer. Components that need less power will be easier to cool quietly. A quiet power supply is selected to be efficient while providing enough power for the computer.
Motherboard
A motherboard based on a chipset that uses less energy will be easier to cool quietly. Undervolting and underclocking generally require motherboard support, but when available can be used to reduce energy use and heat output, and therefore cooling requirements.
Many modern motherboard chipsets have hot northbridges which may come with active cooling in the form of a small, noisy fan. Some motherboard manufacturers have replaced these fans by incorporating large heat sinks or heatpipe coolers, however they still require good case airflow to remove heat. Motherboard voltage regulators also often have heat sinks and may need airflow to ensure adequate cooling.
Some motherboards can control the fan speed using an integrated hardware monitoring chip (often a function within a Super I/O solution), which can be configured through BIOS or with a system monitoring software like SpeedFan and Argus Monitor, and most recent motherboards have built-in PWM fan control for one or two fans.
Even though a given hardware monitoring chip may be capable of performing fan control, a motherboard manufacturer may not necessarily wire up the fan header pins of the motherboard correctly to the hardware monitoring chip, thus sometimes computer fan control cannot be performed on a given motherboard due to the wiring irregularities, even though the software may indicate that the fan control is available due to the underlying support by the hardware monitoring chip itself. Other times, it may be the case that a single fan-control setting may affect all fan connector headers on the motherboard at the same time, even if individual settings for each fan are available in the hardware monitoring chip itself; these wiring issues being very common makes it difficult to design good general-purpose user interfaces for configuring fan control.
Motherboards can also produce audible electromagnetic noise.
CPU
The heat output of a CPU can vary according to its brand and model or, more precisely, its thermal design power (TDP). Intel's third revision Pentium 4, using the "Prescott" core, was infamous for being one of the hottest-running CPUs on the market. By comparison, AMD's Athlon series and the Intel Core 2 perform better at lower clock speeds, and thus produce less heat.
Modern CPUs often incorporate energy saving systems, such as Cool'n'Quiet, LongHaul, and SpeedStep. These reduce the CPU clock speed and core voltage when the processor is idle, thus reducing heat. The heat produced by CPUs can be further reduced by undervolting, underclocking or both.
Most modern mainstream and value CPUs are made with a lower TDP to reduce heat, noise, and power consumption. Intel's dual-core Celeron, Pentium, and i3 CPUs generally have a TDP of 35–54 W, while the i5 and i7 are generally 64–84 W (newer versions, such as Haswell) or 95W (older versions, such as Sandy Bridge). Older CPUs such as the Core 2 Duo typically had a TDP of 65 W, while the Core 2 Quad CPUs were mostly 65–95 W. AMD's Athlon II x2 CPUs were 65 W, while the Athlon x4 was 95 W. The AMD Phenom ranged from 80 W in the x2 variant to 95 and 125 W in the quad-core variants. The AMD Bulldozer CPUs range from 95–125 W. The APUs range from 65 W for the lower-end dual-core variants, such as the A4, to 100 W in the higher-end quad-core variants, such as the A8. Some processors come in special low power versions. For example, Intel's lower TDP CPUs end in T (35 W) or S (65 W).
Video card
Video card can produce a significant amount of heat. A fast GPU may be the largest power consumer in a computer and because of space limitations, video card coolers often use small fans running at high speeds, making them noisy.
Options to reduce noise from this source include:
Replace the stock cooler with an aftermarket one.
Use motherboard video output. Typically, motherboard video takes less power, but provides lower gaming or HD video decoding performance.
Select a video card that does not use a fan.
Most modern graphics cards come with tools that allow the user to reduce the power target and adjust fan curves, resulting in quieter operation at a cost of performance
Power supply
Power supply (PSU) is made quieter through the use of higher efficiency (which reduces waste heat and need for airflow), quieter fans, more intelligent fan controllers (ones for which the correlation between temperature and fan speed is more complex than linear), more effective heat sinks, and designs that allow air to flow through with less resistance. For a given power supply size, more efficient supplies such as those certified 80 plus generate less heat.
A power supply of appropriate wattage for the computer is important for high efficiency and minimizing heat. Power supplies are typically less efficient when lightly or heavily loaded. High wattage power supplies will typically be less efficient when lightly loaded, for instance when the computer is idle or sleeping. Most desktop computers spend most of their time lightly loaded. For example, most desktop PCs draw less than 250 watts at full load, and 200 watts or less is more typical.
Power supplies with thermally controlled fans can be made quieter by providing a cooler and/or less obstructed source of air, and fanless power supplies are available, either with large passive heat sinks or relying on convection or case airflow to dissipate heat. It is also possible to use fanless DC to DC power supplies that operate like those in laptops, using an external power brick to supply DC power, which is then converted to appropriate voltages and regulated for use by the computer. These power supplies usually have lower wattage ratings.
The electrical coils in power supplies can produce audible electromagnetic noise which can become noticeable in a quiet PC.
Equipping the PSU with a power cord that uses a ferrite bead can sometimes help to reduce humming from the PSU.
Case
Case designed for low noise usually include quiet fans, and often come with a quiet power supply. Some incorporate heatsinks to cool components passively.
Larger cases provide more space for airflow, larger coolers and heat sinks, and sound dampening material.
Airflow
Noise-optimized cases often have ducting and partitioning within the case to optimize airflow and to thermally isolate components. Vents and ducts may easily be added to regular cases.
Case designed to be quiet typically have wire grills or honeycombed fan grills. Both are far superior to the older style of stamped grill.
Features that facilitate neat cable management, such as brackets and space to run cables behind the motherboard tray, help increase cooling efficiency.
Air filters can help to prevent dust from coating heat sinks and surfaces, which dust impedes heat transfer, making fans spin faster. However, the filter itself can increase noise if it restricts airflow too much or is not kept clean, requiring a larger or faster fan to handle the pressure drop behind the filter.
Soundproofing
The inside of a case can be lined with dampening materials to reduce noise by:
attenuating the vibration of the case panels via extensional damping or constrained-layer damping
reducing the amplitude of the vibration of the case panels by increasing their mass
absorbing airborne noise, such as with foam
Cooling systems
Heat sink
Large heat sink designed to operate efficiently with little airflow are often used in quiet computers. Often heat pipes are used to more efficiently distribute heat to the heat sink.
Fan
If they use fans at all, quiet PCs typically use larger-than-usual low-speed fans with quiet-running motors and bearings. The 120 mm size is common, and 140 mm fans are used where cases or heat sinks allow them. Quiet fan manufacturers include Nexus, EBM-Papst, Yate Loon, Scythe, and Noctua. Extensive comparative surveys have been posted by SPCR and MadShrimps.
Fan noise is often proportional to fan speed, so fan controllers can be used to slow down fans and to precisely choose fan speed. Fan controllers can produce a fixed fan speed using an inline resistor or diode; or a variable speed using a potentiometer to supply a lower voltage. Fan speed can also be reduced more crudely by plugging them into the power supply's 5 volt line instead of the 12 volt line (or between the two for a potential difference of 7 volts, although this cripples the fan's speed sensing). Most fans will run at 5 volts once they are spinning, but may not start reliably at less than 7 V. Some simple fan controllers will only vary the fans' supply voltage between 8 V and 12 V to avoid this problem entirely. Some fan controllers start the fan at 12 V, then drop the voltage after a few seconds.
PWM fan control, however, is the easiest and most efficient option for modern motherboards that have PWM fan headers. PWM fan control rapidly cycles between feeding the fan full voltage and no voltage, to control rotational speed. Typically the motherboard chipset provides temperature data from sensors on the CPU itself to control speed.
Bearing and motor noise is an important consideration. Soft mounting fans (e.g. with rubber or silicone fan isolators) can help reduce transfer of fan vibration to other components.
Piezoelectric fans are often quieter than rotating fans and may consume less power. Intel, Murata, and others have recently done development on use of piezoelectric fans in desktop PCs.
Watercooling
Watercooling is a method of heat-dissipation by transferring the heat through a conductive material which is in contact with a liquid, such as demineralised water with an additive to prevent bacterial growth. This water travels in a loop that usually contains a reservoir, radiator and pump. Modern 12 V DC pump technologies allow extremely powerful and quiet designs.
By efficiently transferring device heat to a separate heat exchanger that can use larger heat sinks or fans, watercooling can allow quieter overall operation. Devices such as GPUs, Northbridges, Southbridges, hard disk drives, memory, voltage regulator modules (VRMs), and even power supplies can be separately watercooled; in fact the whole PC can be immersed, in some cases.
Secondary storage
Hard drive
Older hard drive used ball bearing motors but more recent desktop hard drives use quieter fluid bearing motors.
The smaller 2.5" form-factor hard drives generally vibrate less, are quieter, and use less power than traditional 3.5" drives, but often have lower performance and less capacity, and cost more per gigabyte.
To minimize vibrations from a hard drive being transferred to, and amplified by, the case, hard drives can be mounted with soft rubber studs, suspended with elastics or placed on soft foam or Sorbothane. Hard disk enclosures can also help reduce drive noise, but care must be taken to ensure that the drive gets adequate cooling - with disk temperatures often be monitored by SMART software.
Solid-state storage
A solid-state drive has no moving mechanical components and runs silently, but () are still roughly four times more expensive per unit of storage than consumer-grade HDDs.
In some cases, other solid state storage methods may be suitable:
Compact Flash (CF) cards can be used as secondary storage. Because they use a slightly modified Parallel ATA (PATA) interface, a simple adapter is all that is needed to connect CF cards to function as an PATA or PC Card hard disk. CF cards are also small, allowing SFF PCs to be made, produce no noise, use very little power (further reducing heat output in the AC/DC conversion in the PSU), and an insignificant amount of heat. However, they are very expensive per GB and are only available in small capacities and there are also issues regarding the maximum number of writes to each sector.
USB flash drives can be used if a motherboard supports booting from USB. They are based on flash memory, so have the same advantages and disadvantages as CF cards, except that speed is limited by the USB bus.
i-RAM is a solid-state disk which has four DIMM slots to allow regular PC RAM to be used like a disk. It is much faster than a hard disk, does not have the write cycle limitations of flash memory, however it requires power continuously in order to maintain its contents (from standby power or a battery when the system is off), uses more power than many laptop hard drives, has maximum capacity of 4 GiB, and is expensive.
All forms of solid-state storage are more expensive than traditional spinning-disk drives, so some quiet PC designs use them in conjunction with a secondary hard drive which is only accessed when needed, or with network-attached storage, where less-quiet traditional hard drives are kept remote.
Optical drive
Optical drives can be slowed down by software to quiet them, such as Nero DriveSpeed, or emulated by virtual drive programs such as Daemon Tools to eliminate their noise entirely. Notebook optical drives can be used, which tend to be quieter, however this may be because they tend to run slower (typically 24× CD speed, 8× DVD speed). Some DVD drives have a feature, commonly called Riplock, which reduces drive noise by slowing the drive during video playback. For playback operations only 1x (or real time) speed is required.
External components
Monitor
A CRT monitor can produce coil noise, as can the external power supply for an LCD monitor or the voltage converter for the monitor's backlight. LCD monitors tend to produce the least noise (whine) when at full brightness. Reducing brightness using the video card does not introduce whine, but may reduce color accuracy. An LCD monitor with an external power supply tucked out of the way will produce less noticeable noise than one with the power supply built into the screen housing.
Printer
In the past, particularly noisy printers such as dot matrix and daisy wheel designs were often housed in soundproofed boxes or cabinets, and the same technique can be used with modern printers to reduce their perceived noise. Another solution is to network the printer, and locate it physically away from the immediate work area.
Laptop
In contrast to desktop PCs, laptops and notebooks typically do not have power supply fans or video card fans, generally use physically smaller hard drives and lower-power components. However, laptop CPU fans are usually smaller, so may not necessarily be quieter than their desktop counterparts - a smaller fan area requires faster fan speeds to move the same amount of air. Furthermore, limited space, limited access and proprietary components make silencing them more difficult.
Fanless
A number of laptops and netbooks however do not use cooling fans at all.
Fanless portable computers (tablet pcs, subnotebooks, chromebooks, ultrabooks and 2-in-1 PCs) running under 10-15 W on mobile CPUs (most commonly ARM processors) became popular after netbooks but then mainly after the introduction of the first iPad in 2010. The first iPad's CPU, the ARM Cortex-A8 was the first Cortex design to be adopted on a large scale in consumer devices.
References
External links
– articles on various aspects of PC acoustics.
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Personal computers
Computers and the environment
Noise pollution | [
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|
238604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/UX | A/UX | A/UX (Apple UNIX) is Apple Computer's implementation of the Unix operating system for Macintosh computers, integrated with System 7's graphical interface and application compatibility. Launched in 1988 and discontinued in 1995 with version 3.1.1, it is Apple's first official Unix-based operating system. A/UX requires select models of 68k-based Macintosh with an FPU and a paged memory management unit (PMMU), including the Macintosh II, SE/30, Quadra, and Centris series. It was never the predecessor to macOS, a variant of UNIX currently bundled with Apple's desktop computers.
Described by InfoWorld as "an open systems solution with the Macintosh at its heart", the operating system is based on UNIX System V Release 2.2. It includes some additional features from System V Releases 3 and 4 and BSD versions 4.2 and 4.3. It is POSIX- and System V Interface Definition (SVID)-compliant and includes TCP/IP networking from version 2 onward. Having a Unix-compatible, POSIX-compliant operating system made it possible for Apple to bid for large contracts to supply computers to U.S. federal government institutes.
Features
A/UX provides a graphical user interface including the familiar Finder windows, menus, and controls. The A/UX Finder is a customized version of the System 7 Finder, adapted to run as a Unix process and designed to interact with the underlying Unix file systems. A/UX includes a CommandShell terminal program, which offers a command-line interface to the underlying Unix system. An X Window System server application (called MacX) with a terminal program can also be used to interface with the system and run X applications alongside the Finder. Alternatively, the user can choose to run a fullscreen X11R4 session without the Finder.
Apple's compatibility layer allows A/UX to run Macintosh System 7.0.1, Unix, and hybrid applications. A hybrid application uses functions from both the Macintosh toolbox and the Unix system. For example, it can run a Macintosh application which calls Unix system functions, or a Unix application which calls Macintosh Toolbox functions (such as QuickDraw), or a HyperCard stack graphical frontend for a command-line Unix application. A/UX's compatibility layer uses some existing Toolbox functions in the computer's ROM, while other function calls are translated into native Unix system calls; and it cooperatively multitasks all Macintosh apps in a single address space by using a token-passing system for their access to the Toolbox.
A/UX includes a utility called Commando (similar to a tool of the same name included with Macintosh Programmer's Workshop) to assist users with entering Unix commands. Opening a Unix executable file from the Finder opens a dialog box that allows the user to choose command-line options for the program using standard controls such as radio buttons and check boxes, and display the resulting command line argument for the user before executing the command or program. This feature is intended to ease the learning curve for users new to Unix, and decrease the user's reliance on the Unix manual. A/UX has a utility that allows the user to reformat third-party SCSI drives in such a way that they can be used in other Macs of that era.
A/UX runs only on 68k-based Macintoshes with a floating point unit (FPU) and a paged memory management unit (PMMU); even then, it only runs on select models. For example, the Quadra 840AV, Apple's fastest 68k Macintosh, cannot run A/UX.
History
A/UX 1.0 was announced at the February 1988 Uniforum conference, seven months behind schedule. It was initially aimed at existing Unix customers, universities and VARs. The system was initially sold pre-installed on the Macintosh II for , although one could add a larger monitor at a higher price, or purchase a kit for upgrading an existing Mac II for a lower price. Third-party software announced with the system's first release includes the Ingres database, StatView, developer tools, and various productivity software packages.
Based on AT&T's Unix System V.2.2 with additional features from BSD Unix. Networking support included TCP/IP, AppleTalk, and NFS implementations, developed by UniSoft. The base system had no GUI, running only via the command line. It was capable of running a single Mac program at a time, using the System 6 interface, although only about 10% of the existing Mac software would run on it.
Released in 1989, A/UX 1.1 supplies the basic GUI of System 6, with Finder, Chooser, Desk Accessories, and Control Panels; and it provisions Unix with the X Window System (X11R3) GUI, the Draft 12 POSIX standard, and overall improved speed comparable to a low end Sun workstation. Having its first POSIX compliant platform allowed Apple to join "a growing list of industry heavyweights" to be allowed into the US federal government's burgeoning $6 billion bid market.
In 1991, based on the AIM alliance, Apple envisioned A/UX as becoming the basis for drastically scaling its concept of Macintosh system architecture and application compatibility across the computing industry, from personal to enterprise markets. Apple formed a new business division for enterprise systems led by director Jim Groff, to serve "large businesses, government, and higher education". Basing the division upon a maturing A/UX, Groff admitted that Apple was "not a major player" in the Unix market and had performed merely "quiet" marketing of the operating system, but fully intended to become a "major player" with "very broad-based marketing objectives" in 1992. Further, Apple believed the alliance with IBM would merge A/UX, AIX, and System 7—thus ultimately scaling the execution of Macintosh applications from Mac desktops to IBM's huge RS/6000 systems.
In November 1991, Apple launched A/UX 3.0, planning to synchronize the two ongoing release schedules of A/UX and System 7. At that time, the company also preannounced A/UX 4.0, expected for release in 1993 or 1994. The announcement expounded upon the historic technology partnership between Apple and IBM, expecting to merge Apple's user-friendly graphical interface and desktop applications market with IBM's highly scalable Unix server market, and allowing the two companies to enter what Apple believed to be an emerging "general desktop open systems market". The upcoming A/UX 4.0 would target the PowerOpen Environment ABI, merge features of IBM's AIX variant of Unix into A/UX, and use the OSF/1 kernel from the Open Software Foundation. A/UX 3.0 would serve as an "important migration path" to this new system, making Unix and System 7 applications compliant with the PowerOpen specification. The future A/UX 4.0 and AIX operating systems were intended to run on a variety of IBM's POWER and PowerPC hardware, and on Apple's PowerPC-based hardware.
In April 1992, a C2-level secure version of A/UX was released. Coincidentally, the AIM alliance had launched the Apple/IBM partnership corporation Taligent Inc. one month earlier, with the mission of bringing Pink to market as a grandly universal operating system and application framework.
Contrary to all announcements, Apple eventually abandoned all plans for A/UX 4.0, never releasing the product. In 1995, PowerOpen was discontinued and Apple withdrew from the Taligent Inc. partnership in December. In 1996, Apple discontinued its Copland project which had spent two years in the public view, intended to become Mac OS 8 and to host Taligent software. From 1996 to 1997, the company deployed a short-lived platform of Apple Network Server systems based upon PowerPC hardware and a customized IBM AIX operating system. Apple's overall failed operating system strategy left it with the badly aged System 7 and no successor. Following its 1996 acquisition of NeXT, Apple introduced 1999's Mac OS X Server, a descendant of the Unix-based NeXTSTEP operating system.
The final release of A/UX is version 3.1.1 of 1995. Apple had abandoned the A/UX platform completely by 1996.
Reception
A/UX 1.0 was criticized in a 1988 InfoWorld review for having a largely command-driven user interface as in other Unix variants, rather than graphical as in System 6; its networking support was praised, though. BYTE in 1989 listed A/UX 1.1 among the "Excellence" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that it "could make Unix the multitasking operating system of choice during the next decade" and challenge OS/2. Compared to contemporary workstations from other Unix vendors, however, the Macintosh hardware lacks features such as demand paging. The first two versions A/UX consequently suffer from poor performance, and poor sales. Users also complained about the amount of disk space it uses on a standard Macintosh, though comparable to any Unix system.
In the August 1992 issue of InfoWorld, the same author favorably reviewed A/UX 3.0, describing it as "an open systems solution with the Macintosh at its heart" where "Apple finally gets Unix right". He praised the GUI, single-button point-and-click installer, one year of personal tech support, the graphical help dialogs, and the user's manuals, saying that A/UX "defies the stereotype that Unix is difficult to use" and is "the easiest version of Unix to learn". Its list price of is much higher than that of "much weaker" competing PC operating systems such as System 7, OS/2, MS-DOS, and Windows 3.1, but low compared to the then prevailing proprietary Unix licenses of more than . The review found the system speed "acceptable but not great" even on the fastest Quadra 950, blaming not the software but the incomplete Unix optimization found in Apple's hardware. Though "a very good value", the system's price-performance ratio was judged as altogether uncompetitive against Sun's SPARCstation 2. The reviewers thought it unlikely for users "to want to buy Macs just to run A/UX" and would have awarded InfoWorlds top score if the OS was not proprietary to Macintosh hardware.
Tony Bove of the Bove & Rhodes Report generally complained that "[f]or Unix super-users there is no compelling reason to buy Apple's Unix. For Apple A/UX has always been a way to sell Macs, not Unix; it's a check-off item for users."
Legacy
Because A/UX requires very specific raw hardware access, the execution of A/UX within Macintosh emulation software was impossible until the 2014 introduction of the Macintosh II emulator named Shoebill.
Vintage A/UX users had one central repository for most A/UX applications: an Internet server at NASA called Jagubox. It was administered by Jim Jagielski, who was also the editor of the A/UX FAQ.
A/UX Users Group
Between January, 1995 and January 2008, the A/UX Users Group met eighteen times, over dinners in conjunction with MacWorld Expo and Mactivity conferences. The dinners were hosted by Brita Meng (of Shiva), Richard Ford (of Apple, then Packeteer), and Bill Woodcock (Zocalo, then Packet Clearing House).
See also
macOS, Apple's current OS, descended from the Unix-based NeXTSTEP
MachTen, Unix in the form of a Mac OS 7 application
MacMach, an academic Mach-based Unix experiment providing Mac OS 7 as a Unix application
Executor, a third-party reverse-engineered reimplementation of System 7 as a Unix application
Macintosh Application Environment, Apple's Mac OS application layer for third-party Unix systems
Classic, classic Mac OS applications as a paravirtualized Unix process
Star Trek project, System 7 ported as a DOS application for IBM PC clones
MkLinux, Apple-sponsored Mach microkernel-based Linux on Macintosh hardware
References
External links
Official A/UX FAQ and Semi-official A/UX FAQ updates
A/UX retrospective from 2010 at The Long View
A/UX overview and tour
A/UX Installation Tutorial and General Info
Apple Inc. operating systems
Discontinued operating systems
Window-based operating systems
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238611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%8Dkai | Yōkai | are a class of supernatural entities and spirits in Japanese folklore. The word is composed of the kanji for "attractive; calamity" and "apparition; mystery; suspicious." are also referred to as , or . are not literally demons in the Western sense of the word, but are instead spirits and entities, whose behaviour can range from malevolent or mischievous to friendly, fortuitous, or helpful to humans.
often have animal features (such as the , depicted as appearing similar to a turtle, and the , commonly depicted with wings), but may also appear humanoid in appearance, such as the . Some resemble inanimate objects (such as the ), while others have no discernible shape. are typically described as having spiritual or supernatural abilities, with shapeshifting being the most common trait associated with them. that shapeshift are known as or .
Japanese folklorists and historians explain as personifications of "supernatural or unaccountable phenomena to their informants." In the Edo period, many artists, such as Toriyama Sekien, invented new by taking inspiration from folk tales or purely from their own imagination. Today, several such (such as the ) are mistaken to originate in more traditional folklore.
Concept
The concept of , their causes and phenomena related to them varies greatly throughout Japanese culture and historical periods; typically, the older the time period, the higher the number of phenomena deemed to be supernatural and the result of . According to Japanese ideas of animism, spirit-like entities were believed to reside in all things, including natural phenomena and objects. Such spirits possessed emotions and personalities: peaceful spirits were known as , who brought good fortune; violent spirits, known as , brought ill fortune, such as illness and natural disasters. Neither type of spirit was considered to be .
One's ancestors and particularly respected departed elders could also be deemed to be , accruing status as protective spirits who brought fortune to those who worshipped them. Animals, objects and natural features or phenomena were also venerated as or propitiated as depending on the area.
Despite the existence of harmful spirits, rituals for converting into were performed, aiming to quell maleficent spirits, prevent misfortune and alleviate the fear arising from phenomena and events that otherwise had no explanation. The ritual for converting into was known as the (lit., "the calming of the spirits" or a "Requiem"). rituals for that failed to achieve deification as benevolent spirits, whether through a lack of sufficient veneration or through losing worshippers and thus their divinity, became .
Over time, phenomena and events thought to be supernatural became fewer and fewer, with the depictions of in picture scrolls and paintings beginning to standardise, evolving more into caricatures than fearsome spiritual entities. Elements of the tales and legends surrounding began to be depicted in public entertainment, beginning as early as the Middle Ages in Japan. During and following the Edo period, the mythology and lore of became more defined and formalised.
Types
The folklorist studied the literature and paintings depicting and (lit., "changed things/mutants"), dividing them into categories as presented in the and the :
Categories based on a 's "true form":
Human
Animal
Plant
Object
Natural phenomenon
Categories depending on the source of mutation:
Mutation related to this world
Spiritual or mentally related mutation
Reincarnation or afterworld related mutation
Material related mutation
Categories based on external appearance:
Human
Animal
Plant
Artifact
Structure or building
Natural object or phenomenon
Miscellaneous or appearance compounding more than one category
In other folklorist categorisations, are classified, similarly to the nymphs of Greek mythology, by their location or the phenomena associated with their manifestation. are indexed in the book as follows:
(mountains)
(paths)
(trees)
(water)
(the sea)
(snow)
(sound)
(animals, either real or imaginary)
History
Ancient history
Houki 8 (772): in the Shoku Nihongi, there is the statement "Shinto purification is performed because yōkai appear very often in the imperial court, (大祓、宮中にしきりに、妖怪あるためなり)," using the word "yōkai" to mean not anything in particular, but strange phenomena in general.
Middle of the Heian era (794–1185/1192): In The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, there is the statement "there are tenacious mononoke (いと執念き御もののけに侍るめり)" as well as a statement by Murasaki Shikibu that "the mononoke have become quite dreadful (御もののけのいみじうこはきなりけり)", which are the first appearances of the word "mononoke".
Koubu 3 (1370): In the Taiheiki, in the fifth volume, there is the statement, "Sagami no Nyudo was not at all frightened by yōkai."
The ancient times were a period abundant in literature and folktales mentioning and explaining yōkai. Literature such as the Kojiki, the Nihon Shoki, and various Fudoki expositioned on legends from the ancient past, and mentions of oni, orochi, among other kinds of mysterious phenomena can already be seen in them. In the Heian period, collections of stories about yōkai and other supernatural phenomena were published in multiple volumes, starting with publications such as the Nihon Ryōiki and the Konjaku Monogatarishū, and in these publications, mentions of phenomena such as Hyakki Yagyō can be seen. The yōkai that appear in these literature were passed on to later generations. However, despite the literature mentioning and explaining these yōkai, they were never given any visual depictions. In Buddhist paintings such as the Hell Scroll (Nara National Museum), which came from the later Heian period, there are visual expressions of the idea of oni, but actual visual depictions would only come later in the Middle Ages, from the Kamakura period and beyond.
Yamata no Orochi was originally a local god but turned into a yōkai that was slain by Susanoo. Yasaburo was originally a bandit whose vengeful spirit (onryo) turned into a poisonous snake upon death and plagued the water in a paddy, but eventually became deified as the "wisdom god of the well (井の明神)." Kappa and inugami are sometimes treated as gods in one area and yōkai in other areas. From these examples, it can be seen that among Japanese gods, there are some beings that can go from god to yōkai and vice versa.
Post-classical history
Medieval Japan was a time period where publications such as Emakimono, Otogizōshi, and other visual depictions of yōkai started to appear. While there were religious publications such as the Jisha Engi (寺社縁起), others, such as the Otogizōshi, were intended more for entertainment, starting the trend where yōkai became more and more seen as subjects of entertainment. For examples, tales of yōkai extermination could be said to be a result of emphasizing the superior status of human society over yōkai. Publications included:
The Ooe-yama Shuten-doji Emaki (about an oni), the Zegaibou Emaki (about a tengu), the Tawara no Touta Emaki (俵藤太絵巻) (about a giant snake and a centipede), the Tsuchigumo Zoshi (土蜘蛛草紙) (about tsuchigumo), and the Dojo-ji Engi Emaki (about a giant snake). These emaki were about yōkai that come from even older times.
The Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki, in which Sugawara no Michizane was a lightning god who took on the form of an oni, and despite attacking people after doing this, he was still deified as a god in the end.
The Junirui Emaki, the Tamamono Soshi, (both about Tamamo-no-Mae), and the Fujibukuro Soushi Emaki (about a monkey). These emaki told of yōkai mutations of animals.
The Tsukumogami Emaki, which told tales of thrown away none-too-precious objects that come to have a spirit residing in them planning evil deeds against humans, and ultimately get exorcised and sent to peace.
The Hyakki Yagyō Emaki, depicting many different kinds of yōkai all marching together
In this way, yōkai that were mentioned only in writing were given a visual appearance in the Middle Ages. In the Otogizōshi, familiar tales such as Urashima Tarō and Issun-bōshi also appeared.
The next major change in yōkai came after the period of warring states, in the Edo period.
Modern history
Edo period
Enpō 6 (1677): Publication of the Shokoku Hyakumonogatari, a collection of tales of various monsters.
Hōei 6 (1706): Publication of the Otogi Hyakumonogatari. In volumes such as "Miyazu no Ayakashi" (volume 1) and "Unpin no Yōkai" (volume 4), collections of tales that seem to come from China were adapted into a Japanese setting.
Shōtoku 2 (1712): Publication of the Wakan Sansai Zue by Terajima Ryōan, a collection of tales based on the Chinese Sancai Tuhui.
Shōtoku 6 (1716): In the specialized dictionary Sesetsu Kojien (世説故事苑), there is an entry on yōkai, which stated, "among the commoners in my society, there are many kinds of kaiji (mysterious phenomena), often mispronounced by commoners as 'kechi.' Types include the cry of weasels, the howling of foxes, the bustling of mice, the rising of the chicken, the cry of the birds, the pooping of the birds on clothing, and sounds similar to voices that come from cauldrons and bottles. These types of things appear in the Shōseiroku, methods of exorcising them can be seen, so it should serve as a basis."
Tenmei 8 (1788): Publication of the Bakemono chakutocho by Masayoshi Kitao. This was a kibyoshi diagram book of yōkai, but it was prefaced with the statement "it can be said that the so-called yōkai in our society is a representation of our feelings that arise from fear" (世にいふようくわいはおくびょうよりおこるわが心をむかふへあらわしてみるといえども ... ), and already in this era, while yōkai were being researched, it indicated that there were people who questioned whether yōkai really existed or not.
It was in this era that the technology of the printing press and publication was first started to be widely used, that a publishing culture developed, and was frequently a subject of kibyoshi and other publications.
As a result, kashi-hon shops that handled such books spread and became widely used, making the general public's impression of each yōkai fixed, spreading throughout all of Japan. For example, before the Edo period, there were plenty of interpretations about what the yōkai were that were classified as kappa, but because of books and publishing, the notion of kappa became anchored to what is now the modern notion of kappa. Also, including other kinds of publications, other than yōkai born from folk legend, there were also many invented yōkai that were created through puns or word plays, and the Gazu Hyakki Hagyo by Sekien Toriyama is one example of that. Also, when the Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai became popular in the Edo period, it is thought that one reason for the appearance of new yōkai was a demand for entertaining ghost stories about yōkai no one has ever heard of before, resulting in some ō that were simply made up for the purpose of telling an entertaining story, and the kasa-obake and the tōfu-kozō are known examples of these.
They are also frequently depicted in ukiyo-e, and there are artists that have drawn famous yōkai like Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Yoshitoshi, Kawanabe Kyōsai, and Hokusai, and there are also Hyakki Yagyō books made by artists of the Kanō school.
In this period, toys and games like karuta and sugoroku, frequently used yōkai as characters. Thus, with the development of a publishing culture, yōkai depictions that were treasured in temples and shrines were able to become something more familiar to people, and it is thought that this is the reason that even though yōkai were originally things to be feared, they have then become characters that people feel close to.
Meiji period
Meiji 24 (1891): Publication of the Seiyuu Youkai Kidan by Shibue Tamotsu. It introduced folktales from Europe, such as the Grimm Tales.
Meiji 29 (1896): Publication of the Yōkaigaku Kogi by Inoue Enryō
Meiji 33 (1900): Performance of the kabuki Yami no Ume Hyakumonogatari at the Kabuki-za in January. It was a performance in which appeared numerous yōkai such as the Kasa ippon ashi, skeletons, yuki-onna, osakabe-hime, among others. Onoe Kikugorō V played the role of many of these, such as the osakabe-hime.
Taishō 3 (1914): Publication of the Shokubutsu Kaiko by Mitsutaro Shirai. Shirai expositioned on plant yōkai from the point of view of a plant pathologist and herbalist.
With the Meiji Restoration, Western ideas and translated western publications began to make an impact, and western tales were particularly sought after. Things like binbogami, yakubyogami, and shinigami were talked about, and shinigami were even depicted in classical rakugo, and although the shinigami were misunderstood as a kind of Japanese yōkai or kami, they actually became well known among the populace through a rakugo called "Shinigami" by San'yūtei Enchō, which were adoptions of European tales such as the Grimm fairy tale "Godfather Death" and the Italian opera Crispino e la comare (1850). Also, in Meiji 41 (1908), Kyōka Izumi and Tobari Chikufuu jointedly translated Gerhart Hauptmann's play The Sunken Bell. Later works of Kyōka such as Yasha ga Ike were influenced by The Sunken Bell, and so it can be seen that folktales that come from the West became adapted into Japanese tales of yōkai.
Shōwa period
Since yōkai are introduced in various kinds of media, they have become well known among the old, the young, men and women. The kamishibai from before the war, and the manga industry, as well as the kashi-hon shops that continued to exist until around Showa 40 (the 1970s), as well as television contributed to the public knowledge and familiarity with yōkai. Yōkai play a role in attracting tourism revitalizing local regions, like the places depicted in the Tono Monogatari like Tono, Iwate, Iwate Prefecture and the Tottori Prefecture, which is Shigeru Mizuki's place of birth.
In this way, yōkai are spoken about in legends in various forms, but traditional oral storytelling by the elders and the older people is rare, and regionally unique situations and background in oral storytelling are not easily conveyed. For example, the classical yōkai represented by tsukumogami can only be felt as something realistic by living close to nature, such as with tanuki (Japanese raccoon dogs), foxes and weasels. Furthermore, in the suburbs, and other regions, even when living in a primary-sector environment, there are tools that are no longer seen, such as the inkstone, the kama (a large cooking pot), or the tsurube (a bucket used for getting water from a well), and there exist yōkai that are reminiscent of old lifestyles such as the azukiarai and the dorotabo. As a result, even for those born in the first decade of the Showa period (1925–1935), except for some who were evacuated to the countryside, they would feel that those things that become yōkai are "not familiar" and "not very understandable". For example, in classical rakugo, even though people understand the words and what they refer to, they are not able to imagine it as something that could be realistic. Thus, the modernization of society has had a negative effect on the place of yōkai in classical Japanese culture.
On the other hand, the yōkai introduced through mass media are not limited to only those that come from classical sources like folklore, and just as in the Edo period, new fictional yōkai continue to be invented, such as scary school stories and other urban legends like kuchisake-onna and Hanako-san, giving birth to new yōkai. From 1975 onwards, starting with the popularity of kuchisake-onna, these urban legends began to be referred to in mass media as "modern yōkai. This terminology was also used in recent publications dealing with urban legends, and the researcher on yōkai, Bintarō Yamaguchi, used this especially frequently.
During the 1970s, many books were published that introduced yōkai through encyclopaedias, illustrated reference books, and dictionaries as a part of children's horror books, but along with the yōkai that come from classics like folklore, Kaidan, and essays, it has been pointed out by modern research that there are some mixed in that do not come from classics, but were newly created. Some well-known examples of these are the gashadokuro and the jubokko. For example, Arifumi Sato is known to be a creator of modern yōkai, and Shigeru Mizuki, a manga artist of yōkai, in writings concerning research about yōkai, pointed out that newly created yōkai do exist, and Mizuki himself, through GeGeGe no Kitaro, created about 30 new yōkai. There has been much criticism that this mixing of classical yōkai with newly created yōkai is making light of tradition and legends. However, since there have already been those from the Edo period like Sekien Toriyama who created many new yōkai, there is also the opinion that it is unreasonable to criticize modern creations without doing the same for classical creations too. Furthermore, there is a favorable view that says that introducing various yōkai characters through these books nurtured creativity and emotional development of young readers of the time.
In popular culture
Yokai is often referred to as a Japanese spirit or an East Asian ghost, like the Hanako-san legend or the story of the "Slit-mouthed girl", both of which hail from Japanese legend. Yokai can also be derived as something strange or unusual.
See also
(legendary beings from the Ryukyu Islands)
References
Further reading
Ballaster, R. (2005). Fables Of The East, Oxford University Press.
Fujimoto, Nicole. "Yôkai und das Spiel mit Fiktion in der edozeitlichen Bildheftliteratur" (Archive). Nachrichten der Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens (NOAG), University of Hamburg. Volume 78, issues 183–184 (2008). pp. 93–104.
Hearn, L. (2005). Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things, Tuttle Publishing.
Komatsu, K. (2017). An Introduction to Yōkai Culture: Monsters, Ghosts, and Outsiders in Japanese History, Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture, .
Meyer, M. (2012). The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, .
Phillip, N. (2000). Annotated Myths & Legends, Covent Garden Books.
Tyler, R. (2002). Japanese Tales (Pantheon Fairy Tale & Folklore Library), Random House, .
Yoda, H. and Alt, M. (2012). Yokai Attack!, Tuttle Publishing, .
External links
Yōkai and Kaidan (PDF; 1.1 MB)
The Ōishi Hyōroku Monogatari Picture Scroll
Database of images of Strange Phenomena and Yōkai (Monstrous Beings)
Collection: Supernatural in Japanese Art, from University of Michigan Museum of Art | [
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238612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20raccoon%20dog | Common raccoon dog | The common raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), also known as the Chinese raccoon dog, Asian raccoon dog, mangut (its Evenki name), neoguri (its Korean name) or simply raccoon dog is a canid indigenous to mainland East Asia and northern Vietnam. It is one of two extant species in the genus Nyctereutes, alongside the Japanese raccoon dog (N. viverrinus). Despite its name, its closest relatives are the true foxes, and not the American raccoons.
Among the Canidae, the raccoon dog shares the habit of regularly climbing trees only with the North American gray fox, to which it is not closely related.
The raccoon dog is named for the resemblance of its masked face to that of the common raccoon (Procyon lotor), a procyonid to which it is not closely related.
Due to the fur trade, this species has been widely introduced in Europe, where it has been treated as a potentially hazardous invasive species. In Sweden and Denmark, it is called mårdhund ("marten dog"). In Europe, the raccoon dog is included since 2019 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.
Description
Common raccoon dog skulls greatly resemble those of South American foxes, particularly crab-eating foxes, though genetic studies reveal they are not closely related. Their skulls are small, but sturdily built and moderately elongated, with narrow zygomatic arches. The projections of the skull are well-developed, the sagittal crest being particularly prominent in old animals.
Reflecting their omnivorous diets, raccoon dogs have small and weak canines and carnassials, flat molars, and relatively long intestines – (1.5–2.0 times longer than other canids). They have long torsos and short legs. Total lengths can range from . The tail, at long, is short, amounting to less than a third of the animal's total length and hangs below the tarsal joints without touching the ground. The ears are short and protrude only slightly from the fur.
Weights fluctuate according to season: in March they weigh 3 kg (6.6 lb), while in August to early September males average 6.5–7 kg (14–15 lb), with some individuals attaining a maximal weight of . Specimens from Japanese and Russian studies have been shown to be on average larger than those from Chinese studies.
The winter fur is long and thick with dense underfur and coarse guard hairs measuring 120 mm in length. The winter fur protects raccoon dogs from low temperatures ranging down to −20° to −25 °C. It is of a dirty, earth-brown, or brownish-grey colour with black guard hairs. The tail is darker than the torso. A dark stripe is present on the back, which broadens on the shoulders, forming a cross shape. The abdomen is yellowish-brown, while the chest is dark brown or blackish. The muzzle is covered in short hair, which increases in length and quantity behind the eyes. The cheeks are coated with long, whiskery hairs. The summer fur is brighter and reddish straw-coloured.
A rare, white colour type occurs in China. They can also come in a yellow colour.
Ecology
Diet
Common raccoon dogs are omnivores that feed on insects, rodents, amphibians, birds, fish, reptiles, mollusks, carrion, and insectivores, as well as fruits, nuts, and berries. Among the rodents targeted by raccoon dogs, voles seem to predominate in swampy areas, but are replaced with gerbils in flatland areas such as Astrakhan. Frogs are the most commonly taken amphibians; in the Voronezh region, they frequently eat fire-bellied toads, while European spadefoot toads are usually taken in Ukraine. Raccoon dogs are able to eat toads that have toxic skin secretions by producing copious amounts of saliva to dilute the toxins. They prey on waterfowl, passerines, and migrating birds. Grouse are commonly hunted in their introduced range, and many instances of pheasant predation are recorded in the Ussuri territory.
Common raccoon dogs eat beached fish and fish trapped in small water bodies. They rarely catch fish during the spawning season, but eat many during the spring thaw. In their southern range, they eat young tortoises and their eggs. Insectivorous mammals hunted by raccoon dogs include shrews and hedgehogs, and on rare occasions, moles and desmans. In the Ussuri territory, large moles are their primary source of food. Plant food is highly variable, and includes bulbs, rhizomes, oats, millets, maize, nuts, fruits, berries, grapes, melons, watermelons, pumpkins, and tomatoes.
Common raccoon dogs adapt their diets to the season; in late autumn and winter they feed mostly on rodents, carrion, and feces, while fruit, insects, and amphibians predominate in spring. In summer they eat fewer rodents, and mainly target nesting birds, fruits, grains, and vegetables.
Predators
Wolves are the main predators of common raccoon dogs, killing large numbers of them in spring and summer, though attacks have been reported in autumn, too. In Tatarstan, wolf predation can account for 55.6% of raccoon dog deaths, while in northwestern Russia, it amounts to 64%. Red foxes kill raccoon dog pups, and have been known to bite adults to death.
Both foxes and European badgers compete with raccoon dogs for food, and have been known to kill them if raccoon dogs enter their burrows. Eurasian lynxes rarely attack them. Birds of prey known to take raccoon dogs include golden eagles, white-tailed eagles, goshawks, and eagle owls.
Behavior
Reproduction and development
The mating season begins from early February to late April, depending on location. Raccoon dogs are monogamous animals, with pair formations usually occurring in autumn. Captive males, however, have been known to mate with four or five females. Males will fight briefly, but not fatally, for mates. Copulation occurs during the night, or at dawn, and typically will last 6–9 minutes. Estrus lasts from a few hours to six days, during which females may mate up to five times. Females enter estrus again after 20–24 days, even when pregnant.
The gestation period lasts 61–70 days, with pups being born in April–May. Litter sizes typically consist of 6–8 pups, though 15–16 pups can be born in exceptional cases. First-time mothers typically give birth to fewer pups than older ones. Males take an active role in raising the pups. This male role is very significant, as demonstrated by early releases in 1928 of pregnant females without males, resulting in very limited success at introduction, while later releases of pairs from 1929 until the 1960s resulted in the raccoon dog's now-extensive introduced European range.
At birth, pups weigh 60–110 g, and are blind and covered in short, dense, soft wool lacking guard hairs. Their eyes open after 9–10 days, with the teeth erupting after 14–16 days. Guard hairs begin to grow after 10 days, and first appear on the hips and shoulders. After two weeks, they lighten in colour, with black tones remaining only around the eyes. Lactation lasts for 45–60 days, though pups begin eating food brought to them as early as the age of three weeks to one month. They reach their full size at the age of 4.5 months. Pups leave their parents in late August–September. By October, the pups, which by then resemble adults, unite in pairs. Sexual maturity is reached at 8–10 months. Their longevity is largely unknown; animals 6–7 years of age have been encountered in the wild, while captive specimens have been known to live for 11 years.
Hibernation
Raccoon dogs are the only canids known to hibernate. In early winter, they increase their subcutaneous fat by 18–23% and their internal fat by 3–5%. Animals failing to reach these fat levels usually do not survive the winter. During their hibernation, their metabolism decreases by 25%. In areas such as Primorsky Krai and their introduced range, raccoon dogs hibernate only during severe snowstorms. In December, their physical activity decreases once snow depth reaches 15–20 cm, and limit the range from their burrows to no more than 150–200 m. Their daily activities increase during February when the females become receptive, and when food is more available.
Vocalizations
Like foxes, they do not bark, uttering instead a growl, followed by a long-drawn, melancholy whine. Captive specimens have been known to utter daily a very different kind of sound when hungry, described as a sort of mewing plaint. Males fighting for females may yelp and growl.
Subspecies
, four subspecies are recognised by MSW3:
The Japanese raccoon dog was also considered a subspecies, but is now thought to better represent a distinct species of its own.
Expanded range and invasive species
From 1928 to 1958, 10,000 raccoon dogs of the N. p. ussuriensis subspecies were introduced in 76 districts, territories, and republics of the Soviet Union in an attempt to improve their fur quality. Primor'e in the Russian Far East was the first region to be colonised, with individuals being transplanted from islands in the Sea of Japan. By 1934, raccoon dogs were introduced into Altai, the northern Caucasus, Armenia, Kirgizia, Tatarstan, Kalinin, Penza, and Orenburg regions. In the following year, they were further introduced into Leningradsky, Murmansk, Novosibirsk, and Bashkortostan.
Raccoon dogs in Irkutsk, Novosibirsk, Trans-Baikaliya, and Altai did not fare well, due to harsh winters and scarce food. Raccoon dogs also fared badly in the mountainous regions of the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Moldova. However, successful introductions occurred in the Baltic states, European Russia (particularly in Kalinin, Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk regions), in central Russia (Moscow, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Gorkiy, Vladimir, Ryazan Oblasts, etc.) as well as in the black soil belt (Voronezh, Tambov and Kursk), the lower Volga Region and the level parts of the northern Caucasus and Dagestan. In Ukraine, the greatest numbers of raccoon dogs were established in Poltava, Kherson, and Lugansk.
In 1948, 35 raccoon dogs were introduced into Latvia. The population increased rapidly. In 1960, Latvia officially reported a total of 4,210 raccoon dogs were hunted.
The raccoon dog is now abundant throughout Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania, and has been reported as far away as Bulgaria, Serbia, France, Poland, Czech Republic, Belarus, Romania, Moldova, Hungary, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Germany, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. In response, Denmark set a goal of zero breeding raccoon dogs by 2015. However, by 2018 it had become fully established in Jutland (the mainland of Denmark, directly connected to Germany), with further projects mainly aimed at limiting or preventing its spread on the Danish islands.
In June 2021 a study commissioned by the United Kingdom's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs identified the raccoon dog as one of 20 invasive species likely to spread to the British Isles.
Diseases and parasites
Coronaviruses
A virus similar to SARS-CoV was isolated from Himalayan palm civets (Paguma larvata), a raccoon dog, and humans working in a live-animal market in Guangdong, China in May 2003.
Raccoon dogs, as well as masked palm civets, were originally believed to be the natural reservoirs of severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus. However, genetic analysis has since convinced most experts that bats are the natural hosts. Raccoon dogs were most likely only transient accidental hosts.
According to German virologist Christian Drosten the raccoon dog is the most likely intermediate host for transmission of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-Cov-2 to humans, as raccoon dogs are bred in China in fur farming.
Other viruses
The introduction of the raccoon dog to Europe is thought to have brought with it infected ticks that introduced the Asian tick-borne meningoencephalitis virus.
Cases of raccoon dogs carrying rabies are known from the lower Volga, Voronezh, and Lithuania.
Canine distemper occurs in raccoon dogs inhabiting the northern Caucasus.
Bacteria
Captive raccoon dogs in Soviet state animal farms were recorded to carry paratyphoid, anthrax, and tuberculosis.
Eukaryotes
Apicomplexa
Massive epizootics of piroplasmosis were recorded in Ukraine and Tartary.
Worms
Raccoon dogs carry 32 different parasitic worms, including eight trematode species, 17 species of nematodes, seven cestodes, and particularly Echinococcus.
Arthropods
Ticks include Dermacentor pictus, Ixodes ricinus, I. persulcatus, I. crenulatus, and Acarus siro.
Six species of fleas are known to be carried by them, including Chaetopsylla trichosa, C. globiceps, Paraceras melis, Ctenocephalides felis, C. canis and Pulex irritans.
Although they can be infected with mange, it does not pose a significant threat to their populations as it does with foxes.
Relationships with humans
Game and crop damage
Raccoon dogs are harmful to game bird populations, particularly in floodlands and the shorelines of estuaries, where they feed almost exclusively on eggs and chicks during the spring period. Birds amount to 15–20% of their diets in Lithuania, 46% on the Oka River floodlands, and 48.6% in the Voronezh Reserve. They are also harmful to the muskrat trade, destroying their nests and eating their young. In Ukraine, raccoon dogs are harmful to kitchen gardens, melon cultivations, vineyards, and corn seedlings.
Hunting
Raccoon dogs are typically hunted from November until the snow deepens. In the Far East, they are hunted at night using Laikas and mongrels. In the 19th century, the Goldi and Oroch people fastened bells to the collars of their raccoon dog hounds. In their introduced range, raccoon dogs are usually caught incidentally during hunts for other species. Hunting with dogs is the most efficient method in raccoon dog hunts, having success rates of 80–90%, as opposed to 8–10% with guns and 5–7% with traps. Unless they retreat in their burrows, hunted raccoon dogs can be quickly strangled by hunting dogs. Traps are usually set at their burrows, along the shores of water bodies, and around marshes and ponds.
In Finland, 60,000–70,000 raccoon dogs were hunted in 2000, increasing to 170,000 in 2009 and 164,000 in 2010. Hunting of raccoon dogs in Hungary began in 1997, with an annual catch of one to nine animals. In Poland, 6,200 were shot in 2002–2003. Annual Swedish and Danish raccoon dog hunts usually result in the capture of two to seven individuals. Between 18,000 and 70,000 Japanese raccoon dogs were killed in Japan from the post-WWII period to 1982. Japan intensified its raccoon dog culling starting in the 1970s, averaging 4,529 kills annually between 1990 and 1998. The numbers killed have since decreased.
Fur use
When used on clothing, the fur of the raccoon dog is often called "murmansky" or "tanuki" fur. In the United States, it is marketed as "Asiatic raccoon", and in Northern Europe as "Finn raccoon". Generally, the quality of the pelt is based on the silkiness of the fur, as its physical appeal depends upon the guard hairs being erect, which is only possible in silkier furs. Small raccoon dog pelts with silky fur command higher prices than large, coarse-furred ones. Due to their long and coarse guard hairs and their woolly fur fibre, which has a tendency to felt or mat, raccoon dog pelts are used almost exclusively for fur trimmings. Japanese raccoon dog pelts, though smaller than other geographic variants, are the most valued variety, with specimens from Amur and Heilongjiang coming close behind, while Korean and southern Chinese are the least valued. When raised in captivity, raccoon dogs can produce 100 g of wool of slightly lesser quality than that of goats.
In the Japanese islands, the natives employed raccoon dog skin to make bellows, to decorate their drums, and for winter headgear. Russian trade in raccoon dogs was quite developed in the Primorye and Ussuri areas in the 1880s. The world trade of raccoon dog pelts during 1907–1910 amounted to 260,000–300,000, of which an estimated 20,000 (5–8%) came from Russia, though more recent figures estimate a lesser number of 5,000–6,000; 12,000 raccoon dogs were caught in the 1930s. In their introduced range, licensed trade of raccoon dogs began in 1948–1950, with restrictions being removed in 1953–1955.After the trade began, the number of catches increased sharply; from 1953–1961, it fluctuated between 30,000 and 70,000. In the latter year, about 10,000 were taken from their natural range in the Far East, while 56,000 were taken in their introduced range. Of the 56,000, 6,500 came from Belarus, 5,000 in Ukraine, 4,000 each for Latvia, Lithuania, and Krasnodar, 3,700 in Kalinin, 2,700 in Pskov, and 2,300 in Astrakhan, while 1,000–2,000 pelts each were produced in Vologod, Moscow, Leningrad, Novogrod, Smolensk, Yaroslavl, Azerbaijan, Estonia, and Dagestan. Fewer than 1,000 pelts were produced in all remaining republics and districts. Successful raccoon dog introductions in Kalinin resulted in animals with denser and softer fur: The length of guard and top hairs increased by 7.96%, that of the underfur increased by 5.3%. The thickness of the guard and top hairs decreased by 3.41%. The density of the fur increased by 11.3%. They also became darker in colour, with black-brown pelts occurring in 8% of specimens, as opposed to 3% in their homeland.
Captive breeding of raccoon dogs was initiated in 1928 in the Far East, with 15 state farms keeping them in 1934. Raccoon dogs were the principal furbearers farmed during the early years of collective farms, particularly in Ukraine. By the 1940s, this practice lessened in popularity, as the raccoon dogs required almost the same types of food as silver foxes, which were more valuable. An investigation by three animal protection groups into the Chinese fur trade in 2004 and part of 2005 asserts approximately 1.5 million raccoon dogs are raised for fur in China. The raccoon dog comprises 11% of all animals hunted in Japan. Twenty percent of domestically produced fur in Russia is from the raccoon dog.
Misrepresentation as artificial fur
In several widely publicized incidents, clothing advertised and sold as having synthetic faux fur, were documented as actually containing real fur from raccoon dogs.
On 22 December 2006, MSNBC reported Macy's had pulled from its shelves and its website two styles of Sean John hooded jackets, originally advertised as featuring faux fur, after an investigation concluded garments were actually made from raccoon dog.
On 24 April 2008, the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) filed a false-advertising complaint with the US Federal Trade Commission alleging at least 20 retailers in the U.S. had been mislabeling raccoon dog fur. They assert 70% of fur garments they tested were raccoon dog, but were mislabeled as faux fur, coyote, rabbit, or other animals. In December 2009 Lord & Taylor announced new regulations banning the sale of raccoon dog fur in its stores.
On 19 March 2013, three U.S. retailers settled lawsuits with the U.S. government following an investigation that confirmed they had been selling raccoon dog fur, but labeling it as fake (‘faux’) fur. Neiman Marcus, DrJays.com, and Eminent (Revolve Clothing) reached settlements with the U.S. Federal Trade Commission that do not incur financial penalties unless they mislabel the fur again.
On 19 September 2014, the HSUS announced Kohls had been selling raccoon dog fur as faux fur.
See also
Raccoon in Japan
References
Further reading
.
External links
Raccoon Dog—detailed authoritative article on the website of The Canid Specialist Group (CSG) of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
A track of Raccoon dog's introduction in Europe on GPSed.com—a long way to Europe
World Conservation Union—article on raccoon dogs
Animal Planet—basic information, image
Nyctereutes
Mammals of Asia
Mammals of China
Mammals of Korea
Mammals of Vietnam
Fauna of Siberia
Mammals of East Asia
raccoon dog
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|
238615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Whitney | Mount Whitney | Mount Whitney (Paiute: Tumanguya; Too-man-i-goo-yah) is the highest mountain in the contiguous United States and the Sierra Nevada, with an elevation of . It is in East–Central California, on the boundary between California's Inyo and Tulare counties, west-northwest of North America's lowest point, Badwater Basin in Death Valley National Park, at below sea level. The mountain's west slope is in Sequoia National Park and the summit is the southern terminus of the John Muir Trail, which runs from Happy Isles in Yosemite Valley. The eastern slopes are in Inyo National Forest in Inyo County.
Geography
Mount Whitney's summit is on the Sierra Crest and the Great Basin Divide. It lies near many of the Sierra Nevada's highest peaks. The peak rises dramatically above the Owens Valley, sitting or just over above the town of Lone Pine to the east, in the Owens Valley. It rises more gradually on the west side, lying only about above the John Muir Trail at Guitar Lake.
The mountain is partially dome-shaped, with its famously jagged ridges extending to the sides. Mount Whitney is above the tree line and has an alpine climate and ecology. Very few plants grow near the summit: one example is the sky pilot, a cushion plant that grows low to the ground. The only animals are transient, such as the butterfly Parnassius phoebus and the gray-crowned rosy finch.
Hydrology
The mountain is the highest point on the Great Basin Divide. Waterways on the peak's west side flow into Whitney Creek, which flows into the Kern River. The Kern River terminates at Bakersfield in the Tulare Basin, the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. Today, the water in the Tulare Basin is largely diverted for agriculture. Historically, during very wet years, water overflowed from the Tulare Basin into the San Joaquin River, which flows to the Pacific Ocean.
From the east, water from Mount Whitney flows to Lone Pine Creek, where most of the water is diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct via a sluice. Some water in the creek is allowed to continue on its natural course, joining the Owens River, which terminates at Owens Lake, an endorheic lake of the Great Basin.
Elevation measurements
The estimated elevation of Mount Whitney's summit has changed over the years. The technology of elevation measurement has become more refined and, more importantly, the vertical coordinate system has changed. The peak was commonly said to be at and this is the elevation stamped on the USGS brass benchmark disk on the summit. An older plaque on the summit (sheet metal with black lettering on white enamel) reads "elevation 14,496.811 feet", but this was estimated using the older vertical datum (NGVD29) from 1929. Since then the shape of the Earth (the geoid) has been estimated more accurately. Using a new vertical datum established in 1988 (NAVD88) the benchmark is now estimated to be .
Geology
Whitney's eastern slope is far steeper than its western slope because the Sierra Nevada is the result of a fault block that is analogous to a cellar door: the door is hinged on the west and is slowly rising on the east.
The rise is caused by a fault system that runs along the Sierra's eastern base, below Mount Whitney. Thus, the granite that forms Whitney is the same as that which forms the Alabama Hills, thousands of feet lower down. The raising of Whitney (and the downdrop of the Owens Valley) is due to the same geological forces that cause the Basin and Range Province: the crust of much of the intermontane west is slowly being stretched.
The granite that forms Mount Whitney is part of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. In Cretaceous time, masses of molten rock that originated from subduction rose underneath what is now Whitney and solidified underground to form large expanses of granite. In the last 2 to 10 million years, the Sierra was pushed up, enabling glacial and river erosion to strip the upper layers of rock to reveal the resistant granite that makes up Mount Whitney today.
Climate
Mount Whitney has an alpine tundra climate (ET) under the Köppen climate classification. Summer temperatures are highly variable, ranging from below freezing () to highs near during extreme heat waves in the Owens Valley.
Based on the range from the highest average high of to the lowest average low of for winter temperatures in the table (December to March), every of liquid precipitation equates to approximately of snow, with lower temperatures producing the greater snow depths.
There is no weather station at the summit, but this climate table contains interpolated data for an area below the summit.
Exploration history
In July 1864, the members of the California Geological Survey named the peak after Josiah Whitney, the State Geologist of California and benefactor of the survey. During the same expedition, geologist Clarence King attempted to climb Whitney from its west side, but stopped just short. In 1871, King returned to climb what he believed to be Whitney, but having taken a different approach, he actually summited nearby Mount Langley. Upon learning of his mistake in 1873, King finally completed his own first ascent of Whitney, but did so a month too late to be first. On August 18, 1873, Charles Begole, A. H. Johnson, and John Lucas, all of nearby Lone Pine, had become the first to reach the contiguous United States' highest summit. As they climbed the mountain during a fishing trip to nearby Kern Canyon, they called the mountain Fisherman's Peak.
In 1881, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory founder Samuel Pierpont Langley remained on the summit for some time, making daily observations of the solar heat. Accompanying Langley in 1881 was another party consisting of Judge William B. Wallace of Visalia, W. A. Wright and Reverend Frederick Wales. In his memoirs, Wallace wrote, "The Pi Ute [Paiute] Indians called Mount Whitney Too-man-i-goo-yah, which means 'the very old man.' They believe that the Great Spirit who presides over the destiny of their people once had his home in that mountain." The spelling Too-man-i-goo-yah is a transliteration from the indigenous Paiute Mono language. Other variations are Too-man-go-yah and Tumanguya.
In 1891, the United States Geological Survey's Board on Geographic Names decided to recognize the name Mount Whitney. Despite losing out on their preferred name, Lone Pine residents financed the first trail to the summit, engineered by Gustave Marsh, and completed on July 22, 1904. Four days later, the new trail enabled the first recorded death on Whitney. Having hiked the trail, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries employee Byrd Surby was struck and killed by lightning while eating lunch on the summit. In response, Marsh began work on the stone hut that became the Smithsonian Institution Shelter, completing it in 1909.
A movement began after World War II to rename the mountain for Winston Churchill, but the name Mount Whitney persisted.
Climbing routes
Trails
The most popular route to the summit is by way of the Mount Whitney Trail, which starts at Whitney Portal, at an elevation of , west of the town of Lone Pine. The hike is about round trip with an elevation gain of over . Permits are required year-round, and to prevent overuse the Forest Service issues a limited number of permits between May 1 and November 1. It holds an annual lottery for hiking and backpacking permits on the trail. Applications are accepted from February 1 through March 15. Any permits left over after the lottery is completed typically go on sale April 1. Most hikers plan to stay one or two nights camping along the route. Those in good physical condition sometimes attempt to reach the summit and return to Whitney Portal in one day. A one-day hike requires a day-use permit that prohibits the use of overnight camping gear (sleeping bag and tent). Day hikers often leave Whitney Portal before sunrise and hike from 12 to 18 hours.
Longer approaches to Whitney arrive at its west side, connecting to the Mount Whitney Trail near the summit by way of the John Muir Trail.
Scrambles
The Mountaineer's Route, a gully on the north side of the east face first climbed by John Muir, is considered a scramble, (PD+). The fastest recorded time up this route to the summit and back to the portal is 3 hours 10 minutes, by Jason Lakey of Bishop.
Technical climbs
The steep eastern side of the mountain offers a variety of climbing challenges. The East Face route, first climbed in 1931, is one of the Fifty Classic Climbs of North America routes, and involves technical free climbing () but is mostly class 4. Other routes range up to grade 5.10d.
South of the main summit is a series of minor summits that are completely inconspicuous from the west but appear as a series of "needles" from the east. The routes on these include some of the finest big-wall climbing in the high Sierra. Two of the needles were named after participants in an 1880 scientific expedition to the mountain: Keeler Needle for James Keeler and Day Needle for William Cathcart Day. The latter has been renamed Crooks Peak after Hulda Crooks, who hiked up Mount Whitney every year until well into her nineties.
See also
List of mountain peaks of California
List of highest points in California by county
List of U.S. states by elevation
List of the highest major summits of the United States
List of the most prominent summits of the United States
List of the most isolated major summits of the United States
Whitney Classic
References
Further reading
External links
Fourteeners of California
Highest points of U.S. states
Inyo National Forest
Mountains of Inyo County, California
Mountains of Sequoia National Park
Mountains of the John Muir Wilderness
Mountains of Tulare County, California
Symbols of California
Highest points of United States national parks
Mount Whitney
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|
238617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullhead%20%28album%29 | Bullhead (album) | Bullhead is the third studio album by American rock band Melvins, released in 1991 through Boner Records. The album has longer songs than previous Melvins albums. Before this, most of their songs were under two or three minutes.
The Japanese experimental band Boris took their name from the first track on this album.
Rolling Stone named it as the 60th greatest metal album of all time.
Release
Bullhead was originally released in 1991 on vinyl, CD and cassette. Boner Records re-released it on vinyl in 2015, paired with the previous album Ozma.
Track listing
All tracks are written by Buzz Osborne.
Side one
Side two
Personnel
Dale Crover – drums
Buzz Osborne – guitar, vocals
Lori Black – bass
Jonathan Burnside – engineer
References
1991 albums
Melvins albums
Boner Records albums
Grunge albums | [
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|
238618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Every%20Good%20Boy%20Deserves%20Fudge | Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge | Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge is the second studio album by the grunge band Mudhoney. It was recorded in 1991, at a time when the band was thinking of signing to a major record label, but decided to release the album on Sub Pop. The album shipped 50,000 copies on its original release. It is credited with helping to keep Sub Pop in business.
Guitarist Steve Turner has said that the album is his "favorite Mudhoney album as a whole."
There is an alternate version of "Check-Out Time" on the Let It Slide EP.
Production
The album was recorded on low-quality tape via an 8-track desk. It is named after a mnemonic used by music students to recall the notes (EGBDF) on the lines of the treble clef.
Critical reception
Entertainment Weekly wrote: "Imagine the heaviest of Black Sabbath heavy metal, only somewhat speeded up and with added touches of humor, and you have a good approximation of the Mudhoney way of life." Trouser Press wrote that "Conrad Uno’s dry 8-track production sharpens Mudhoney’s garage-rock edge — evident in Arm’s fuzzed-out vocals and a shared fondness for second-hand blues progressions — enough to stand apart from the watered-down metal of most flannel merchants, but they don’t go anywhere with it." The Spin Alternative Record Guide called the album "charming," writing that a "revitalized sense of hooks connect Mudhoney more directly back to '60s garage."
Along with the band's debut EP Superfuzz Bigmuff, the album was included in 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die, with reviewer Jason Chow calling it "a classic album, one of the best of the genre."
Track listing
Personnel
Mark Arm - vocals, guitar, organ
Steve Turner - electric guitar, harmonica
Matt Lukin - bass guitar
Dan Peters - drums
Conrad Uno - producer
Charts
References
1991 albums
Mudhoney albums
Sub Pop albums
Albums produced by Conrad Uno
Au Go Go Records albums | [
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|
238631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crane%20fly | Crane fly | Crane fly is a common name referring to any member of the insect family Tipulidae, of the order Diptera, true flies in the superfamily Tipuloidea. Cylindrotominae, Limoniinae, and Pediciinae have been ranked as subfamilies of Tipulidae by most authors, though occasionally elevated to family rank. In the most recent classifications, only Pediciidae is now ranked as a separate family, due to considerations of paraphyly. In colloquial speech, crane flies are sometimes known as "mosquito hawks" or "daddy longlegs", (a term also used to describe opiliones (harvestmen) and members of the spider family Pholcidae, both of which are arachnids). The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.
Crown group crane flies have existed since at least the Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous and are found worldwide, though individual species usually have limited ranges. They are most diverse in the tropics but are also common in northern latitudes and high elevations.
The Tipulidae is one of the largest groups of flies, including over 15,000 species and subspecies in 525 genera and subgenera. Most crane flies were described by the entomologist Charles Paul Alexander, a fly specialist, in over 1000 research publications.
Description
Summary
An adult crane fly, resembling an oversized mosquito, typically has a slender body and stilt-like legs that are deciduous, easily coming off the body. The wingspan is generally about , though some species of Holorusia can reach . The antennae have up to 19 segments. It is also characterized by a V-shaped suture or groove on the back of the thorax (mesonotum) and by its wing venation. The rostrum is long and in some species as long as the head and thorax together.
Formal
Tipulidae are medium to large-sized flies () with elongated legs, wings, and abdomen. Their colour is yellow, brown or grey. Ocelli are absent. The rostrum (a snout) is short to very short with a beak-like point called the nasus (rarely absent). The apical segment of the maxillary palpi is flagelliform and much longer than the subapical segment. The antennae have 13 segments (exceptionally 14–19). These are whorled, serrate, or ctenidial. There is a distinct V-shaped suture between the mesonotal prescutum and scutum (near the level of the wing bases). The wings are monochromatic, longitudinally striped or marbled. In females the wings are sometimes rudimentary. The sub-costal vein (Sc) joins through Sc2 with the radial vein, Sc1 is at most a short stump. There are four, rarely (when R2 is reduced) three branches of the radial vein merging into the alar margin. The discoidal wing cell is usually present. The wing has two anal veins. Sternite 9 of the male genitalia has, with few exceptions, two pairs of appendages. Sometimes appendages are also present on sternite 8. The female ovipositor has sclerotized valves and the cerci have a smooth or dentate lower margin. The valves are sometimes modified into thick bristles or short teeth.
The larva is elongated, usually cylindrical. The posterior two-thirds of the head capsule is enclosed or retracted within the prothoracic segment. The larva is metapneustic (with only one pair of spiracles, these on the anal segment of the abdomen), but often with vestigial lateral spiracles (rarely apneustic). The head capsule is sclerotized anteriorly and deeply incised ventrally and often dorsolaterally. The mandibles are opposed and move in the horizontal or oblique plane. The abdominal segments have transverse creeping welts. The terminal segments of the abdomen are glabrous, often partially sclerotized and bearing posterior spiracles. The spiracular disc is usually surrounded by lobe-like projections and anal papillae or lobes.
Biology
The adult female usually contains mature eggs as she emerges from her pupa, and often mates immediately if a male is available. Males also search for females by walking or flying. Copulation takes a few minutes to hours and may be accomplished in flight. Adults have a lifespan of 10 to 15 days. The female immediately oviposits, usually in wet soil or mats of algae. Some lay eggs on the surface of a water body or in dry soils, and some reportedly simply drop them in flight. Most crane fly eggs are black in color. They often have a filament, which may help anchor the egg in wet or aquatic environments.
Crane fly larvae (leatherjackets) have been observed in many habitat types on dry land and in water, including marine, brackish, and fresh water. They are cylindrical in shape, but taper toward the front end, and the head capsule is often retracted into the thorax. The abdomen may be smooth, lined with hairs, or studded with projections or welt-like spots. Projections may occur around the spiracles. Larvae may eat algae, microflora, and living or decomposing plant matter, including wood. Some are predatory.
Ecology
Larval habitats include all kinds of freshwater, semiaquatic environments. Some Tipulinae, including Dolichopeza Curtis, are found in moist to wet cushions of mosses or liverworts. Ctenophora Meigen species are found in decaying wood or sodden logs. Nephrotoma Meigen and Tipula Linnaeus larvae are found in dry soils of pasturelands, lawns, and steppe. Tipulidae larvae are also found in rich organic earth and mud, in wet spots in woods where the humus is saturated, in leaf litter or mud, decaying plant materials, or fruits in various stages of putrefaction.
Larvae can be important in the soil ecosystem, because they process organic material and increase microbial activity. Larvae and adults are also valuable prey items for many animals, including insects, spiders, fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals.
Pest status
The common European crane fly, Tipula paludosa, and the marsh crane fly, T. oleracea, are agricultural pests in Europe. Crane fly larvae of economic importance live in the top layers of soil where they feed on the roots, root hairs, crown, and sometimes the leaves of crops, stunting their growth or killing the plants. They are pests on a variety of commodities. Since the late 1900s, T. paludosa and T. oleracea have become invasive in the United States. The larvae have been observed on many crops, including vegetables, fruits, cereals, pasture, lawn grasses, and ornamental plants.
In 1935, Lord's Cricket Ground in London was among venues affected by leatherjackets. Several thousand were collected by ground staff and burned, because they caused bald patches on the pitch and the pitch took unaccustomed spin for much of the season.
Phylogenetics
The phylogenetic position of the Tipulidae remains uncertain. The classical viewpoint that they are an early branch of Diptera—perhaps (with the Trichoceridae) the sister group of all other Diptera—is giving way to modern views that they are more highly derived. This is thanks to evidence from molecular studies, which is consistent with the more derived larval characters similar to those of 'higher' Diptera. The Pediciidae and Tipulidae are sister groups (the "limoniids" are a paraphyletic clade). Specifically, Limoniinae has recently been treated by numerous authors at the rank of family, but subsequent phylogenetic analyses revealed that the remaining groups of tipulids render the group paraphyletic. The Cylindrotominae appear to be a relict group that was much better represented in the Tertiary. Tipulidae probably evolved from ancestors in the Upper Jurassic, the Architipulidae, and representatives of the Limoniinae are known from the Upper Triassic.
Genera
Subfamily Ctenophorinae
Ctenophora Meigen, 1803
Dictenidia Brulle, 1833
Phoroctenia Coquillett, 1910
Pselliophora Osten Sacken, 1887
Tanyptera Latreille, 1804
Subfamily Cylindrotominae
Cylindrotoma Macquart, 1834
Diogma Edwards, 1938
Liogma Osten Sacken, 1869
Phalacrocera Schiner, 1863
Stibadocera Enderlein, 1912
Stibadocerella Brunetti, 1918
Stibadocerina Alexander, 1929
Stibadocerodes Alexander, 1928
Triogma Schiner, 1863
Subfamily Dolichopezinae
Dolichopeza Curtis, 1825
Subfamily Limoniinae
see List of Limoniine genera
Subfamily Tipulinae
Acracantha Skuse, 1890
Angarotipula Savchenko, 1961
Austrotipula Alexander, 1920
Brachypremna Osten Sacken, 1887
Brithura Edwards, 1916
Clytocosmus Skuse, 1890
Elnoretta Alexander, 1929
Euvaldiviana Alexander, 1981
Goniotipula Alexander, 1921
Holorusia Loew, 1863
Hovapeza Alexander, 1951
Hovatipula Alexander, 1955
Idiotipula Alexander, 1921
Indotipula Edwards, 1931
Ischnotoma Skuse, 1890
Keiseromyia Alexander, 1963
Leptotarsus Guerin-Meneville, 1831
Macgregoromyia Alexander, 1929
Megistocera Wiedemann, 1828
Nephrotoma Meigen, 1803
Nigrotipula Hudson & Vane-Wright, 1969
Ozodicera Macquart, 1834
Platyphasia Skuse, 1890
Prionocera Loew, 1844
Prionota van der Wulp, 1885
Ptilogyna Westwood, 1835
Scamboneura Osten Sacken, 1882
Sphaerionotus de Meijere, 1919
Tipula Linnaeus, 1758
Tipulodina Enderlein, 1912
Valdiviana Alexander, 1929
Zelandotipula Alexander, 1922
Common names
Numerous other common names have been applied to the crane fly. Many of the names are more or less regional in the U.S., including mosquito hawk, mosquito eater, gallinipper, and gollywhopper. They are also known as "daddy longlegs" in English-speaking countries outside of the U.S., not to be confused with the U.S. usages of "daddy long legs" that refer to either arachnids of the order Opiliones or the family Pholcidae. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.
They are also known as Jenny long legs in Scotland. In Ireland they are also known as Skinny Philip, and as Pilib an Gheataire in Gaelic (Gaeilge).
Misconceptions
There is an enduring urban legend that crane flies are the most venomous insects in the world, but have no ability to administer the venom; this is not true. The myth likely arose due to their being confused with the cellar spider as they are also informally called "daddy longlegs", and although the arachnid does possess venom, it is not especially potent.
Despite widely held beliefs that adult crane flies (or "mosquito hawks") prey on mosquito populations, the adult crane fly is anatomically incapable of killing or consuming other insects. Although the adults of some species may feed on nectar, the adults of many species have such short lifespans that they do not eat at all.
See also
Tipularia discolor, the crane fly orchid
References
Further reading
Identification
Pierre C.,1924, Diptères: Tipulidae Faune de France n° 8 Bibliotheque Virtuelle Numerique Out of date but online at no cost. In French.
R. L. Coe, Paul Freeman & P. F. Mattingly Nematocera: families Tipulidae to Chironomidae (Tipulidae). Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects Vol 9 Part 2 i. pdf download manual Out of date but online at no cost
J.F. McAlpine, B.V. Petersen, G.E. Shewell, H.J. Teskey, J.R. Vockeroth, D.M. Wood. Eds. 1987 Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 1 Research Branch Agriculture Canada, 1987 pdf key to Nearctic genera
E. N. Savchenko Family Tipulidae in Bei-Bienko, G. Ya, 1988 Keys to the insects of the European Part of the USSR Volume 5 (Diptera) Part 2 English edition. Keys to Palaearctic species but now needs revision.
External links
Ohioline.osu.edu, Ohio State University Fact Sheet
Family Tipulidae at EOL
IZ.carnegiemnh.org, Crane Flies of Pennsylvania, Extensive Specimen Collection, Carnegie Museum of Natural History
NLBIF.eti.uva.nl, Catalog of Craneflies of the World
Diptera.info, Image Gallery
BugGuide.net, photo gallery, many species
Gaga.jes.mlc.edu.tw, Tipulidae of Taiwan , with images under Latin binomials
Crane Fly, Field Guide to Common Texas Insects
Species lists
West Palaearctic including Russia
Australasian/Oceanian
Nearctic
Japan
Extant Late Jurassic first appearances
Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille | [
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|
238632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Frinton | Freddie Frinton | Freddie Frinton (born Frederick Bittiner Coo; 17 January 1909 – 16 October 1968) was an English comedian, and music hall and television actor. He is primarily remembered today as a household name in several Northwestern European countries for his 1963 television comedic sketch entitled Dinner for One, a perennial national television broadcast New Year's Eve favourite there, whilst being largely forgotten in his home country.
Early life
Frinton was born in Hainton Avenue, Grimsby, Lincolnshire, the child of a seamstress, Florence Elisabeth Coo (born 1892), and was brought up by foster parents. He started working in a Grimsby fish processing plant, where he is said to have entertained his colleagues with parodies and jokes, but was eventually sacked. He moved into music hall, where he enjoyed modest success and renamed himself Freddie Frinton.
Career
During the Second World War he made a moderate breakthrough as a comedian. In 1945, Frinton first performed the sketch Dinner for One in Blackpool. As he had to pay a royalty every time he performed the sketch, he bought the rights to Dinner for One in the 1950s, which turned out to be a fateful decision.
In 1964, at the age of 55, Frinton became a belated success as the plumber husband in the popular television sitcom Meet the Wife, which ran for 40 episodes (the wife was played by Thora Hird). The series is mentioned in the Beatles song "Good Morning Good Morning" with the line "It's time for tea and Meet the Wife".
Dinner for One
In 1963, Frinton's Dinner for One was recorded by the Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR) German television station. The role of Miss Sophie was played by May Warden. Watching the (unsubtitled) English language sketch on television has subsequently become a German, Austrian, and Swiss New Year's Eve tradition, with multiple repeats of the comedy short being shown every year from 1972 onwards.
Dinner for One also found fame in Scandinavia where it has been a hugely popular institution on Norwegian, Danish, Finnish, Estonian and Swedish television on New Year's Eve for many years, as well as in Belgium in the original version. It has become so popular that several versions in various German dialects have been produced and a version was made for Dutch viewers, with the Dutch actor Joop Doderer playing Frinton's role. It is shown every 23 December on Norwegian television (NRK since 1980), and has been shown on the Australian SBS television network on New Year's Eve for at least the last fifteen years. It also became a family tradition in South Africa when the SABC aired it every New Year's Eve during the 1980s and 1990s. The TV short and its main actor Frinton are far less renowned in Britain than in any of these countries.
Although Frinton originated from Lincolnshire, England, his most famous comedy short has never been shown in full on British television. It received its first UK screening on 23 November 2018 (more than 50 years after it was made) at the Picture House in Campbeltown, Argyll and Bute, as part of a comedy film festival. The skit was broadcast to a British audience for the first time on 31 December 2018 on the Sky Arts channel.
Personal life
Although he was an actor whose roles often comprised playing being inebriated, Frinton was teetotal in real life, having seen in others the damage that alcohol could do.
Frinton was married twice and had five children. His first marriage was to Maisie Basil in 1931; they had one son together. His second wife was Nora Gratton, whom he married in 1945. They had four children: two daughters and two sons.
Death
On 16 October 1968, Frinton died suddenly from a heart attack in London at the age of 59. His body was buried in the City of Westminster Cemetery, in London.
Partial filmography
References
External links
1909 births
1968 deaths
English male comedians
English male actors
People from Grimsby
Music hall performers
20th-century English male actors
20th-century British comedians | [
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|
238638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Bolt | George Bolt | George Bruce Bolt (24 May 1893 – 27 July 1963) was a pioneering New Zealand aviator.
Biography
Bolt was born in Dunedin in 1893. He formed the Canterbury Aero Club in 1910, helping to make and fly gliders on the Cashmere Hills. He used these to take aerial photographs in 1912.
In 1916 Bolt was hired by pioneer pilot Vivian Walsh as a mechanic at the Walsh Brothers Flying School at Kohimarama. He learnt to fly the brothers' Curtiss flying boats and the machines of their own design, including the Walsh brothers Type D, as well as the two Boeing and Westervelt floatplanes which were the first machines made by that company.
In 1919 he flew New Zealand's first air mail and established an altitude record of . In 1921 he flew from Auckland to Wellington in 5 hours and 16 minutes with stops at Kawhia and Wanganui with Leo Walsh as passenger.
He was an RNZAF and Royal Air Force pilot during World War II, and Chief Engineer of Tasman Empire Airways Limited, (now known as Air New Zealand), from 1944 to 1960, where his experience with the Short Sandringham led him to play a role in the development of the Short Solent.
Several streets and aviation related facilities in various New Zealand cities are named after him, including George Bolt Memorial Drive, the main access road to Auckland International Airport.
Bolt performed initial research into the achievements of aviation pioneer and inventor Richard Pearse during the late 1950s and early 1960s.
In the 1953 Coronation Honours, Bolt was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, for services to aviation. His son Richard Bolt also served in the RNZAF and rose to the rank of air marshal.
Bolt died in Auckland in 1963. He was buried at Purewa Cemetery in the Auckland suburb of Meadowbank.
References
1893 births
1963 deaths
New Zealand World War II pilots
New Zealand aviators
New Zealand Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Dunedin
New Zealand aviation record holders
Burials at Purewa Cemetery | [
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238640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin%20of%20Sherwood | Robin of Sherwood | Robin of Sherwood is a British television series, based on the legend of Robin Hood. Created by Richard Carpenter, it was produced by HTV in association with Goldcrest, and ran from 28 April 1984 to 28 June 1986 on the ITV network. In the United States it was shown on the premium cable TV channel Showtime and, later, on PBS. The show starred Michael Praed and Jason Connery as two different incarnations of the title character. Unlike previous adaptations of the Robin Hood legend, Robin of Sherwood combined a gritty, authentic production design with elements of real-life history, 20th century fiction, and pagan myth.
Robin of Sherwood has been described by historian Stephen Knight as "the most innovative and influential version of the myth in recent times". The series is also notable for its musical score by Clannad, which won a BAFTA award.
Overview
Richard Carpenter had previously worked with producer Paul Knight on two other dramas involving historical adventure, Dick Turpin (1979–1982) and Smuggler (1981). For their next project, Carpenter and Knight decided to have their production company Gatetarn do an adaptation of the Robin Hood legend. With the aid of television producer Sidney Cole, Carpenter and Knight were able to create a production deal for the show. Goldcrest Films, the US network Showtime, HTV and Gatetarn agreed to fund the series. Robin of Sherwood was more expensive than Carpenter and Knight's previous series; each episode of Robin of Sherwood cost around £500,000 to film. Filming on Robin of Sherwood began in 1983. The show premiered in 1984, on ITV in the UK and on Showtime in the United States. There were three series, composed of a two-hour opening episode and 24 one-hour long episodes, although the pilot is sometimes screened as two one-hour episodes. The episodes comprising "The Swords of Wayland" were transmitted as one episode in the UK on their original screening, on a bank holiday weekend in 1985. The show was shot on film and almost entirely on location, mostly in the northeast and southwest of England; HTV West in Bristol was the base of operations, and most of the filming was done in and around Bristol and its surrounding counties. Primary locations were the Blaise Castle Estate in North Bristol and Vassals Park to the south. Some of the forest scenes were shot near Bradford-on-Avon.
Robin of Sherwood is one of the most influential treatments of the core Robin Hood legend since The Adventures of Robin Hood, featuring a realistic period setting and introducing the character of a Saracen outlaw. Carpenter also added fantasy elements to the story (which had not appeared in previous TV versions of the legend). These included Robin's supernatural mentor Herne the Hunter, Robin gaining a magic sword called Albion, and the outlaws battling against black magicians and demons as well as the Sheriff and his henchmen.
Michael Praed played Robin of Loxley in the first two series. His 'Merry Men' consisted of Will Scarlet (Ray Winstone), Little John (Clive Mantle), Friar Tuck (Phil Rose), Much (Peter Llewellyn Williams), the Saracen Nasir (Mark Ryan) and Lady Marian (Judi Trott). He is also assisted by Herne the Hunter (John Abineri). As in the legend, Robin is opposed by the Sheriff of Nottingham (Nickolas Grace) and Guy of Gisburne (Robert Addie), as well as the Sheriff's brother Abbot Hugo (Philip Jackson) (representing all the greedy abbots in the legends).
In the opening story, Robin Hood and the Sorcerer, Robin and his half-brother Much fall foul of the Sheriff's henchman, Sir Guy of Gisburne and are imprisoned in Nottingham Castle. They manage to escape, and gather a team of fellow rebels to fight back against the Sheriff's authority.
At the end of the second series, Robin of Loxley is killed, and Robert of Huntingdon (played by Jason Connery) replaces him as Robin Hood. The third series had the same episode count as the first two combined, so each incarnation of Robin featured in the same number of episodes.
At the conclusion of Series Three, Goldcrest was forced to pull out of the venture, due to a downturn in the fortunes of their film arm. Goldcrest had been responsible for critical and commercial hits such as Chariots of Fire (1981) and Gandhi (1982) earlier in the 1980s, but had hit a lean period with such films as Revolution (1985) and Absolute Beginners (1986). The series was expensive to produce; HTV could not afford to finance it alone, and so Robin of Sherwood came to an unexpected end. Goldcrest invested £1,289,000 in the first six episodes, £1,944,000 in the next seven and £4,035,000 in the next twelve. Despite the huge popularity of the series, Goldcrest's financial difficulties due to its cinematic investments, prevented further production.
During the course of the third series, the new Robin discovers that he is the half-brother of his nemesis Guy of Gisburne (an idea suggested to Carpenter by the fact that both actors had blond hair). Carpenter planned to have Guy eventually discover that his greatest enemy was also his half-brother. However, this particular story arc was never resolved, as the show's intended fourth (and final) series was never made. The fourth season would have also featured the return of Baron de Belleme. The sudden cancellation also broke off Robin and Marion's intended marriage and left Marion at Halstead Abbey as a novice. Carpenter later said that, if he had known the third season would be last, he would have married Robin and Marion.
After the series ended, Carpenter and Knight tried several times to revive the show. First, Knight tried to gain funding from US producers for a fourth season, but was unsuccessful. Carpenter then wrote a script for a feature film adaptation of the series, and tried to get funding for it. Carpenter said in a 1990 interview that the film was intended to star the TV series' regular cast (with, however, a new actor playing Robin if Connery was unavailable). Carpenter also said that the film would not be an adaptation of the unmade fourth season, but "a story on its own". However, the appearance of two Robin Hood films in 1991 (Robin Hood and Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves) meant that Carpenter and Knight could not interest potential producers in a third Robin Hood film.
Temporal setting
Robin of Sherwood is set in the usual period for Robin Hood stories – England in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, during the reigns of the Angevin kings Richard I and John.
Robin Hood and the Sorcerer opens in the year 1180 AD, before flashing forward fifteen years ahead. In the final episode of Season One, however, King Richard's return to England following his capture and ransom is depicted, which occurred in 1194. The Season Two episode "The Prophecy" is set in the year 1199 AD, when Prince John becomes King of England. In the Season Three episode "The Time of the Wolf (Part One)", the Sheriff dictates a legal document dated for the year 1211 AD, and the plot of the episode involves King John raising an army to fight Llywelyn of Wales (a historical event which took place in that same year).
Cast and characters
The Merry Men
Robin of Loxley (Michael Praed)Born the son of Anglo-Saxon nobleman Ailric of Loxley, Robin was raised by his uncle, the local miller, after Ailric was murdered. As an adult, Robin accepts the charge of Herne the Hunter and becomes the prophesied "Hooded Man," champion of the oppressed. Hiding in Sherwood Forest, he assembles a number of friends and fights for freedom and justice. He is killed at the end of Series Two by Norman crossbowmen, on the orders of the Sheriff of Nottingham – the same manner in which his father died.
Much (Peter Llewellyn Williams)Son of the miller who raised Robin, he admires Robin as his big brother. He is dubbed "the half-wit" by Guy of Gisburne, but he is more uneducated and naive than intellectually impaired. He matures more after the first Robin's death.
Will Scarlet (Ray Winstone)Originally called Will Scathlock. When his wife, Elena, is raped, beaten and trampled to death with horses by mercenaries, he changes his name after slaying several of her killers. Hot-headed and filled with hatred of all things Norman, he is contrasted with the more collected Robin, which frequently leads to conflicts. He has a brother who owns an inn in Lichfield.
Little John (Clive Mantle)Originally John Little from Hathersage, this giant of a man is placed under a spell by the Baron de Belleme. When Robin defeats the Baron and frees John from the spell, John becomes a loyal friend to Robin (and later, to Robert of Huntington). His hulking figure and immense strength is contrasted by his soft heart.
Lady Marion of Leaford (Judi Trott)Daughter of a Saxon nobleman believed to be killed in battle, Marion lives as a ward of Abbot Hugo, who is keen on gaining her inheritance. She first enters a nunnery, but when Simon de Belleme desires her as his bride (actually intending to sacrifice her), she escapes into Sherwood Forest, where she falls in love with and marries Robin Hood. She is later rescued from another unwanted marriage, by Robert of Huntingdon.
Friar Tuck (Phil Rose)Chaplain to the Sheriff of Nottingham, he helps Lady Marion escape into Sherwood and joins the Merry Men, forming a fast friendship with Little John. Carpenter said that Tuck "represents the better side of Christianity."
Nasir (Mark Ryan)A Saracen assassin, he was captured in Palestine by the Baron de Belleme and brought back to England to work as his henchman. After the Baron is killed by Robin, Nasir – having found respect for Robin during a crucial sword fight – decides to join the Merry Men. Throughout the series, he speaks very little. Initially, Ryan's character was intended to be killed in Robin Hood and the Sorcerer. However, Ryan proved so popular with the show's cast and crew, that Carpenter decided to make him a regular instead.
Robert of Huntingdon (Jason Connery)Chosen as Robin's successor by Herne, Robert frees the Merry Men, but thinks himself inadequate to take up the mantle of the Hooded Man, despite his sympathies towards the downtrodden. He changes his mind after Lady Marion is taken by Lord Owen of Clun, and sets out to rescue her, reassembling the scattered Merry Men in the process. Though slightly insecure about taking over, in light of his predecessor, Robert proves to be an excellent leader. He later discovers that he is the half-brother of Guy of Gisburne.
Herne the Hunter (John Abineri)A shamanic figure who often incarnates a forest spirit representing the powers of light and goodness, inspiring and protecting the Hooded Man. Carpenter stated that Herne was based on the Pagan idea of the Horned God.
Main antagonists
Robert de Rainault, Sheriff of Nottingham (Nickolas Grace)The king's chief representative in Nottingham and Sherwood, he is mainly interested in increasing his own power and wealth, competing with his younger brother, the Abbot. He considers his serfs mere chattels and hates women. He frequently relies on the brawn of Guy of Gisburne, whom he nonetheless disrespects and ridicules for his failures. His ambition results in strained relations with fellow noblemen (who consider him a "dreadful little man"), and with a succession of kings.
Hugo de Rainault, Abbot of St. Mary's (Philip Jackson)The sheriff's younger brother and highest-ranking church man in Nottingham, his main interest lies in acquiring land, especially that of his temporary ward, Lady Marion, and her father.
Sir Guy of Gisburne (Robert Addie)Steward over the abbot's lands and gamekeeper of Sherwood, he is the chief military commander in the area. Self-identifying "a warrior and not a courtier", he is prone to disregard diplomacy and tact in favour of brute force but he is sometimes also able to use cunning. He resents the Sheriff for frequently taunting him and Robin for being the cause of these taunts. After a rocky start he gained the (limited) respect of Prince John. Later, it is revealed that he is the Earl of Huntingdon's illegitimate son and thus the second Robin's half-brother.
Baron Simon de Belleme (Anthony Valentine)A nobleman and also a devil worshipper. As master of the black arts, he controlled both Little John and Nasir, having captured the latter during the Crusades. He desires Lady Marion to sacrifice her to his demons. He is killed by Robin in Series One but his remaining disciples still work towards and actually succeed in his resurrection in Series Two. However he is not heard of or seen in Series Three.
Prince John, later King of England (Phil Davis) John is first mentioned in The King's Fool, where it is stated that the Sheriff and Abbot Hugo supported him against King Richard. King John appears in the episode The Prophecy, where he is depicted as manipulative, bullying and lecherous. John becomes King in The Prophecy after Richard's death.
Gulnar (Richard O'Brien)A pagan sorcerer in the entourage of Lord Owen of Clun, he bewitches Lady Marion. After Owen is killed, he sets out to avenge Owen's death – and his own disgrace – on Robin and the Merry Men.
Other notable characters
Richard the Lionheart, King of England (John Rhys-Davies)First encountered by Robin's band in Sherwood while returning to Nottingham from the Crusades in disguise. He initially appears to be an ally, removing de Rainault from the Sheriff's office and pardoning the outlaws. A warrior by nature and not inclined to remain in and properly govern England, Richard tries to get Robin to join his army, but when Robin, realising what sort of man Richard really is, publicly refuses, he orders Robin killed (unsuccessfully). He subsequently returns to Normandy and is killed by an enemy arrow; the news of his death reaches Nottingham while Prince John is visiting, and Gisburne is the first to declare John the new king. Unlike traditional Robin Hood stories, Robin of Sherwood depicts Richard as being villainous and being as bad as his brother, Prince John. Herne the Hunter refers to King Richard as "the Lion spawned of the Devil's Brood" in The King's Fool, a reference to the medieval legend of the Plantagenet family being descended from the spirit Melusine.
The Old Prisoner (Stuart Linden)The mainstay of the Nottingham dungeon, he repeatedly refuses to flee, as he will not part with his pet rat Arthur, and advises all prisoners that the only way out is "feet first".
Edward of Wickham (Jeremy Bulloch)The headman of the village of Wickham, he and all of the villagers are sympathetic to Robin Hood's band and assist them occasionally.
Richard of Leaford (George Baker)The father of Lady Marion, important Anglo-Saxon landowner and loyal follower of King Richard, he was captured during the Crusades and presumed dead. Later released by Saladin, he is captured and secretly brought to Nottingham by Prince John, but freed by Robin. Later, he is reconciled to King John (by paying a large sum of money, which also bought a pardon for Marion) and returns to his estates, which are still coveted by the de Rainault brothers.
Earl of Huntingdon (Michael Craig)An important nobleman and a careful politician, he is father to the second Robin Hood and (unknown to him) also to Guy of Gisburne. When Robert becomes the new Robin Hood, the Earl disinherits him; the two later reconcile emotionally.
Lord Owen of Clun (Oliver Cotton)A half-Welsh nobleman holding strategically important lands on the Welsh border, he is courted by the Earl of Huntingdon on behalf of King John. Desiring Lady Marion as his wife, he has her kidnapped and bewitched, but he is outsmarted by the Merry Men and killed during their escape.
Meg of Wickham (Claire Toeman)Little John's girlfriend who lives in the outlaw-friendly village of Wickham.
Alan-a-Dale (Peter Hutchinson)The former minstrel (and not a very good one!) to the Baron de Bracy, he is in love with the Baron's daughter Mildred.
Mildred de Bracy (Stephanie Tague)The object of an arranged marriage to the Sheriff of Nottingham (who is after her dowry money), but in love with Alan-a-Dale.
Morgwyn of Ravenscar (Rula Lenska)Outwardly the Abbess in charge of Ravenscar Abbey near the village of Uffcombe-on-the-Rock, she is secretly an evil witch and the leader of the Cauldron of Lucifer, a powerful coven dedicated to the raising of Lucifer. She seeks the Seven Swords of Wayland to use their power, but one of them (Albion) is in Robin Hood's possession. She succeeds in bewitching the Merry Men and turning them against Robin and Marion for a time, but Robin foils her plans, and she is ultimately destroyed by her own demon riders.
Bertrand de Nivelles (Oliver Tobias)The leader of a band of mercenaries called in by Guy of Gisburne to destroy Robin Hood and his men.
Ralph of Huntingdon (Trevor Clarke)A young captain who briefly becomes the Sheriff's new favourite. He is killed by Guy of Gisburne at Castle Belleme.
Isadora (Cathryn Harrison)The daughter of Lord Agravaine and privy to the secret of Caerleon.
Lord Agravaine (Cyril Cusack)Robert of Huntington's godfather and guardian of a secret treasure in the castle of Caerleon.
Philip Mark (Lewis Collins)The brutal former Head Forester of Lincolnshire who is appointed by King John to take Robert de Rainault's place as Sheriff of Nottingham; his tenure as Sheriff is extremely brief.
Sarak (Valentine Pelka)A Saracen with a scarred face hidden by a mask, he is the right-hand man of Philip Mark and a former hashashin who betrayed the brotherhood's secrets for money. He bears a grudge against Nasir, who was sent after him to kill him, but only scarred him.
Roger de Carnac (Matt Frewer)On King John's orders, he and his men impersonate the second Robin and the Merry Men in a plan to discredit them with the people.
Queen Hadwisa (Patricia Hodge)King John's first wife who is unceremoniously cast aside when King John chooses the 11-year-old Isabella as his new wife and who hatches a complex plot to depose John.
Adam Bell (Bryan Marshall)A famous outlaw who returns to Nottingham from the North after many years.
Edgar of Huntingdon (Ian Ogilvy)The second Robin's uncle, who has a hidden agenda against his brother, the Earl.
Mad Mab (Annabelle Lee)A madwoman accused of witchcraft, and defended by the Merry Men. Ultimately it is revealed that she is indeed a witch.
Grendel (James Coombes)Gulnar's right-hand man under Owen of Clun, he later becomes the fanatical leader of the Sons of Fenris.
Episodes
In repeats, episodes have frequently been broadcast out of order, and alternative orders have been suggested. The original running order creates a number of continuity errors, the most notable being Marian's father being referred to as being dead in "The Swords of Wayland" even though he was discovered to be alive in "The Prophecy" and appears in later episodes.
Places of action
Villages
Loxley, burned childhood village of the first Robin – filmed at Mells Park
Wickham, an important village in the series where the lover (Meg) of Little John lived
Cromm Cruac, phantom village created by Gulnar (named after the Irish deity Cromm Cruac and seen only in the episode of the same name)
Elsdon, mentioned in the episode The Witch of Elsdon
Uffcombe, village attacked by Hounds of Lucifer
Castles and cities
Nottingham Castle – filmed at several other locations
Castle of Belleme
Castle of Lord Owen (Clun Castle) – filmed at Kidwelly Castle (outside)
Castle of Gwydion – filmed at several other locations
Castle of Huntingdon, childhood home of the second Robin – filmed at several other locations
Leaford
Caerleon – filmed at several other locations
Abbeys
Warren – filmed at several other locations
Thornton – filmed at several other locations
Ravenscar – filmed at several other locations
Croxden – filmed at several other locations
Kirklees – filmed at several other locations
Grimstone – filmed at several other locations
Halstead – filmed elsewhere
Landscape
Sherwood Forest – filmed at several other locations, Greyfield Woods were used for scenes by the famous waterfall with lots of dry ice
Tor of last stand of first Robin – filmed near Burrington Camp
Music
The music for Robin of Sherwood was composed and performed by Irish folk group Clannad. The show's original soundtrack, Legend, was released in 1984 and won the BAFTA award for Best Original Television Music.
Three singles were released from the album: the theme-tune "Robin (The Hooded Man)", "Now is Here" and "Scarlet Inside". An EP contained a remix of "Robin (The Hooded Man)" from the third series.
While not all of the show's music is found on the Legend album, some additional pieces can be found on Clannad's albums Macalla (released 1986) and Clannad: Live in Concert, 1996 (released 2005). In November 2003, Clannad revealed on their official web site that "there were several other pieces of music recorded for the third series of Robin of Sherwood that were not included on the Legend album. Unfortunately no-one has been able to locate the master tapes of this music. The search is continuing and hopefully one day these recordings will be able to be released."
Crew
Directed by: Ian Sharp and others (see Episode guide).
Written by: Richard Carpenter and others (see Episode guide).
Cinematography: Roger Pearce, Howard Rockliffe, Gary Breckon and Bob Edwards
Music: Clannad
Production design: John Biggs and Ken Sharp
Costume design: Lynette Cummin
Scenic artist: Peter Gray
Editing: David McCormick, Andy Findlay, Robin Inger, and others.
Casting: Esta Charkham and Beth Charkham
Special effects: Ken Lailey
Stunt co-ordination: Terry Walsh
Horse Master: Steve Dent
Reception
A review at rpg.net, written in 2003, opines:
Reviewing Robin of Sherwood for SFX Magazine, Jayne Nelson stated that "this incarnation of England's most famous outlaw will probably never be bettered". Nelson praised the show's "excellent writing, moody cinematography and haunting score." Nelson also said that "The Greatest Enemy" was the best episode of the show, followed by "The Swords of Wayland" and "The Sheriff of Nottingham".
Richard Marcus, writing on blogcritics.org, writes in 2008:
Controversy
ITV aired Robin of Sherwood during an early-evening television slot, and promoted the programme as being for a family audience. However, Mary Whitehouse and the National Viewers and Listeners' Association criticised Robin of Sherwood as being unsuitable for children (as the organisation previously did with Doctor Who). Whitehouse claimed that the show depicted "extensive violence", objected to the depiction of Satanic villains in "The Swords of Wayland", and also criticised the apparent "resurrection" of Robin in "The Greatest Enemy" as being disrespectful to Christianity. Carpenter later met Whitehouse for a public debate, and introduced himself to her and the audience by saying "I'm Richard Carpenter, and I'm a professional writer. And you're a professional... what?" The Guinness Book of Classic British TV defended Robin of Sherwood, stating that the show's "swordplay was strictly zero blood" and that the supernatural elements were the result of Carpenter's "love for the subject matter".
Comic Strip
A comic strip based on Robin of Sherwood ran in Look-in magazine from April 1984 to September 1986.
DVD and Blu-ray releases
"Series 1 – Part 1 – Episodes 1 To 3 DVD."
"Series 1 – Part 2 – Episodes 4 To 6 DVD."
"Series 2 – Part 1 – Episodes 1 To 4 DVD."
"Series 2 – Part 2 – Episodes 5 To 7 DVD."
"Series 3 – Part 1 – Episodes 1 To 6 DVD."
"Series 3 – Part 2 – Episodes 7 To 13 DVD."
"The Complete Series 1 DVD" ,
"The Complete Series 2 DVD"
"Complete DVD"
"The Complete Series (NTSC)"
In the US and Canada, the first and second series have been released by Acorn Media in a five DVD set. A second set, containing the complete third series was released on 9 October 2007
In October 2010 Network DVD announced the forthcoming release of Series 1 and 2 in a single Region B Blu-ray set, entitled Robin of Sherwood: Michael Praed (the 3-Disc Blu-ray and DVD bonus disc). This was released on 15 November 2010. In the US and Canada, the first and second series were released on 7 June 2011 by Acorn Media as Robin of Sherwood: Set 1.
Network DVD released Blu-ray set, entitled Robin of Sherwood: Jason Connery, on 31 October 2011.
Bonus features
On The Complete Collection DVD set, there are "seventeen hours of special features", including fourteen commentary tracks, a documentary on the folk group Clannad creating the score for the series, outtakes, bonus footage, a behind the scenes documentary, four documentaries that look back on the making of the show with former cast and crew, and other behind the scenes footage too.
Audio plays
In July 2015, Bafflegab Productions, the producers of the audio play/comic book series The Scarifyers, and co-producer Barnaby Eaton-Jones announced that they were adapting a feature-length script entitled Robin of Sherwood: The Knights Of The Apocalypse, written by Richard Carpenter before his death in 2012. Jason Connery, Judi Trott, Ray Winstone, Clive Mantle, Mark Ryan, Phil Rose, Philip Jackson, and Nickolas Grace (Robert of Huntingdon, Lady Marion, Will Scarlet, Little John, Nasir, Friar Tuck, Abbot Hugo, and the Sheriff of Nottingham, respectively) all agreed to reprise their roles for the project, with Daniel Abineri taking the role of Herne in place of his father, John Abineri, who died in 2000. In December 2015, Barnaby Eaton-Jones took over as sole producer of the audio play, with Spiteful Puppet (the award-winning audio company who produced 'Hood') as executive producers; as approved by ITV Studios and Richard 'Kip' Carpenter's estate. After beginning its crowdfunding campaign on Indiegogo in September 2015, the production set a goal of £10,000 within 30 days to cover production costs; due to enthusiastic fan support, however, the goal was reached in just under 24 hours. The audio play was released in 2016, with proceeds going to the Sherwood Forest Trust and the British Red Cross.
The success of the play led to Spiteful Puppet announcing a set of four further 'Robin of Sherwood' plays for 2017, two featuring Jason Connery and two featuring Michael Praed. This release was later pushed back to 2018 however a series of enhanced audiobooks was announced, with the first four being released in December 2017.
Bibliography
Novelisation of the first series (Robin Hood and the Sorcerer, The Witch of Elsdon, Seven Poor Knights from Acre, Alan-A-Dale and The King's Fool) by series creator Richard Carpenter.
Novelises the second series, but begins with The Swords of Wayland two-parter which actually came towards the end of the second series, not the beginning; it was intended to be shown first, but deferred to show its feature-length episode on the British Bank Holiday weekend. Also novelises Lord of the Trees, The Prophecy, The Children of Israel, The Enchantment, and The Greatest Enemy.
Novelises Herne's Son Parts 1 and 2 and The Power of Albion from the beginning of Series Three, showing how Robert of Huntingdon became 'Robin.' All of these episodes were written by Richard Carpenter.
Novelises the remaining episodes of Series Three that were written by Richard Carpenter (The Cross of St Ciricus, Rutterkin, and The Time of the Wolf Parts 1 & 2). (The episodes not novelised are The Inheritance, The Sheriff of Nottingham, Cromm Cruac, The Betrayal, Adam Bell, and The Pretender, i.e. the third-season episodes not written by Richard Carpenter.)
The four Robin of Sherwood novelisations in one volume.
Novelization of the audio drama, with a limited print run. Given as a bonus to supporters of the Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign for the audio drama.
An episode guide to seasons 1-2 of the series, starring Michael Praed.
An episode guide to season 3 of the series, starring Jason Connery.
Novelization of the audiobook, with a limited print run. Note: "Jennifer Ash" is the pseudonym of writer Jenny Kane.
Novelization of the audiobook, with a limited print run.
Novelization of the audiobook, with a limited print run.
Original novel based on the TV series, with a limited print run.
Novelization of the audiobook, with a limited print run.
Original novel based on the TV series, with a limited print run.
Anthology of novelizations of the audio material and original novels based on the TV series. Intended to represent the unmade fourth TV season. The contents are What Was Lost, by Elliot Thorpe and Iain Meadows; The Power of Three by Jennifer Ash; To Have and To Hold, Elliot Thorpe and Barnaby Eaton-Jones; Queen of the Black Sun by Kenton Hall and Iain Meadows; The Servant by Jennifer Ash; and a second novelisation of Richard Carpenter's Knights of the Apocalypse by Jennifer Ash. Published with a limited print run.
Original novel based on the TV series, with a limited print run.
Novelization of the audiobook, with a limited print run.
Novelization of the audiobook, with a limited print run.
References
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External links
BBC.co.uk, BBC Wiltshire's Robin of Sherwood Retrospective and BBC.co.uk, audio interviews from 2004 with Nickolas Grace, Phil Rose and Richard Carpenter.
1984 British television series debuts
1986 British television series endings
1980s British drama television series
English-language television shows
British fantasy television series
ITV television dramas
Period television series
Robin Hood television series
Television shows produced by Harlech Television (HTV)
Television series by ITV Studios
Television shows set in Nottinghamshire
Television series set in the 12th century
Television series set in the 13th century
Cultural depictions of Richard I of England
Cultural depictions of John, King of England
Television about magic
Witchcraft in television | [
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238644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinner%20for%20One | Dinner for One | Dinner for One, also known as The 90th Birthday (), is a two-hander comedy sketch, written by British author Lauri Wylie for the theatre. After featuring on the stage, the German TV broadcaster, Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR) recorded the sketch in 1962 as an 18-minute black-and-white videotape recording, performed by British comedians Freddie Frinton and May Warden.
It has become traditional viewing on New Year's Eve in European countries such as Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Estonia, or on 23 December in Norway, and, as of 1995, was the most frequently repeated television programme in Germany ever. Despite starting on the British stage, the sketch has only recently started to gain recognition in the UK. The show is now broadcast every New Year's Eve in Britain on Sky Arts with its first national broadcast there airing in 2018.
In other parts of the world, the sketch is broadcast in Australia and South Africa. Apart from a few satires, Dinner for One is not known in the United States, where the comic premise had already been made famous by Red Skelton and Lucille Ball. The article "Dinner for One: The greatest cult film you've never heard of" investigates the reason for its obscurity.
In 2003, Danish TV producer Paul Anthony Sørensen directed and produced a documentary about the sketch that includes interviews with relatives of Freddie Frinton and May Warden. It was nominated for the Rose d'Or 2004.
Plot
Heinz Piper introduces the story as the conferencier: Miss Sophie (Warden) is celebrating her 90th birthday. As every year, she has invited her four closest friends to a birthday dinner: Sir Toby, Admiral von Schneider, Mr. Pomeroy, and Mr. Winterbottom. However, she has outlived all of them, requiring her butler James (Frinton) to impersonate the guests.
James not only must serve Miss Sophie the four courses à la russe – mulligatawny soup, North Sea haddock, chicken and fruit – but also serve the four imaginary guests the drinks chosen by Miss Sophie (sherry, white wine, champagne and port wine for the respective courses), slip into the role of each guest and drink a toast to Miss Sophie. As a result, James becomes increasingly intoxicated and loses his dignified demeanour; he pours the drinks with reckless abandon, breaks into "Sugartime" by the McGuire Sisters for a brief moment, and at one point accidentally drinks from a flower vase, which he acknowledges with a grimace and exclaims "Huh, I'll kill that cat!"
There are several running gags in the piece:
James frequently trips over the head of a tigerskin rug; as an additional punchline, he walks past it in one instance to his own astonishment, but then stumbles over it on the way back. In another instance, he gracefully steps over it, and in the final instance, the tipsy James leaps over the head.
Sir Toby would like to have poured a small extra amount of each drink, and James complies with the request with initial politeness and then increasing sarcasm.
Miss Sophie expects James, as Admiral von Schneider, to knock his heels together with the exclamation "Skål!" (Swedish for "Cheers!"). Because this action proves painful, he asks each time whether he really has to, but obliges upon Miss Sophie's insistence. The gag is broken as an additional punchline when the drunk James' feet miss each other, causing him to stumble.
Before each course, James asks and gradually babbles "The same procedure as last year, Miss Sophie?"; Miss Sophie replies "The same procedure as every year, James".
Finally, Miss Sophie concludes the evening with an inviting "I think I'll retire", to which James and Sophie repeat their exchange concerning the "same procedure". James takes a deep breath, turns to the audience with a sly grin and says "Well, I'll do my very best" before the pair retreat to the upper rooms.
Origin of the sketch
Lauri Wylie debuted "Dinner for One" as a sketch in his London stage revue En Ville Ce Soir in 1934.
Frinton and Warden performed Dinner for One on stage on Britain's seaside piers as early as 1945; Frinton inherited the rights to the sketch in 1951 after Wylie's death. The sketch was also staged elsewhere, for example in 1953 in John Murray Anderson's Almanac at the Imperial Theatre with Hermione Gingold playing Miss Sophie, Billy DeWolfe as the butler, and four dead friends.
In 1962, German entertainer Peter Frankenfeld and director Heinz Dunkhase discovered Dinner for One in Blackpool. The sketch was staged in Frankenfeld's live show soon afterwards, and recorded on 8 July 1963 at the Theater am Besenbinderhof, Hamburg, in front of a live audience. The sketch was recorded in English with a short introduction in German. The introductory theme, Charmaine, was composed by Lew Pollack and recorded by the Victor Silvester orchestra. According to the NDR, Frinton and Warden were each paid DM 4,150. The show was re-run occasionally until it gained its fixed spot on New Year's Eve in 1972.
The comic premise of the skit—a man consuming multiple rounds of alcohol and becoming comically drunk—is generally credited to American actor Red Skelton, who included a similar sketch as part of his vaudeville routines beginning in 1928 (and allowed the premise to be used by Lucille Ball in the famed I Love Lucy episode "Lucy Does a TV Commercial"). There is no definitive evidence of when Wylie wrote the sketch; the first evidence there is of the "Dinner for One" sketch being performed is from 1934, and as neither Skelton nor Wylie were internationally famous at the time, neither one likely knew of the other's work.
Broadcasting countries
The sketch has become a viewing tradition on New Year's Eve in German-speaking countries, where up to half the population may watch it every year on New Year's Eve. Some die-hard fans even copy the meal served in the sketch. The full 18-minute version is typically aired in Germany on Das Erste in the afternoon, and the regional third channels several times throughout the afternoon and evening. In Austria, ORF 1 airs the full sketch around 11:30 pm. Swiss public broadcaster SRF shows its own 11-minute version around 7:00 pm on SRF 1 and at 11:50 pm on SRF zwei.
It is also a New Year tradition in Scandinavian countries. In Finland, the show is viewed by 400,000 viewers each New Year's Eve.
In Sweden, the show was suspended for six years after its first screening, deemed unsuitable because of James' heavy drinking. However, the TV network finally capitulated to popular demand and brought it back. It has been broadcast every year since 1976 in Sweden, with the exception of 2004 in the wake of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
In 1985, the Danish television network, DR, decided not to broadcast the sketch, but received so many complaints that it returned the following year. With this single exception, Dinner for One has been shown on DR every 31 December since 1980.
In Norway, the show is broadcast on 23 December, also since 1980. In 1992, it was aired 15 minutes early, and the resulting audience uproar caused it to be re-broadcast later that night.
It is broadcast annually on New Year's Eve in Australia (since 1989) and South Africa, though it is not as well known as in Europe. It was shown briefly in the US (by HBO) in the 1970s.
The sketch is almost completely unknown in the United Kingdom, and its first national British television airing did not come until Sky Arts broadcast the film on New Year's Eve 2018 (although a year before, the film had been screened on Grimsby local channel Estuary TV). The Sky Arts broadcast included English subtitles for the German-language introduction, the end of which briefly faded out followed by a fade in on Frinton, cutting out the moment when the German announcer introduces James.
Although the sketch is most popular in European countries, it is usually shown in the original English without dubbing or subtitles. It is easy to understand with even a basic knowledge of English due to the physical nature of the comedy. British people are often perplexed by fans' ability to quote dialogue.
Different versions
The NDR television channel recorded several other versions in 1963. Danish TV shows a version in which no audience is heard.
A third, 11-minute version was recorded by Schweizer Fernsehen (Swiss Television) with less alcohol drunk.
Both the 18-minute and 11-minute versions have been released on DVD in Germany.
In 1977, the Dutch public broadcasting system created a Dutch language version starring Joop Doderer, but this never achieved the same popularity.
In 1999, the NDR released a colourised version.
In Denmark, a parody of the sketch was filmed, subtitled "The 80th Birthday", in which Miss Sophie's friends are still at the table (though the NDR version mentions that the last of Miss Sophie's friends died 25 years ago). Other versions had been produced in different German dialects, including one in Low German (this version, "Dinner for One Up Platt," is also aired on NDR in rotation annually along with the original), various re-enactments or parodies by different comedians, and a version featuring the German glove puppet character Bernd das Brot ("Bernd the Bread") named "dinner for brot"
In 1992 a color version was filmed in the Frankfurt festival hall with Bodo Maria and Macha Stein. The resulting VHS cassette/DVD was dedicated to the Frankfurt Ufa star Camilla Horn. Camilla Horn had originally been meant to play the role of Miss Sophie. However, she had to withdraw due to illness.
On 24 December 2011, a digitally-edited satirical version entitled "The 90th Euro rescue summit, or, Euros for No One", produced by Udo Eling and German state broadcaster ARD, was uploaded to YouTube. It features German Chancellor Angela Merkel as Miss Sophie and French President Nicolas Sarkozy as her servant and has new German (and some French) dialogue about the Eurozone debt crisis.
In 2016, Netflix made a parody in which the guests are replaced with characters from Netflix shows, specifically Saul Goodman from Breaking Bad and Better Call Saul, Frank Underwood from House of Cards, Pablo Escobar from Narcos, and Crazy Eyes from Orange is the New Black.
Catch phrase: "Same procedure as every year"
The line "Same procedure as every year" (in the original English) has become a very popular catchphrase in Germany. The phrase has entered everyday vocabulary, and is used in newspaper headlines and advertisements. This is also the case in Norway, Denmark and Sweden where the phrase has become a running joke about Christmas itself.
Legacy
The sketch resonated strongly with Norwegian, Luxembourgish and German audiences. The sketch is one of the most widely-known pieces of English-language media in Europe despite its relatively minimal impact in Britain.
Deutsche Post issued a commemorative stamp for the show on 11 October 2018.
In January 2021, Google added an easter egg to their Knowledge Panel for the film. The panel included a tiger's head, which when clicked showed James running across the screen and tripping over said tiger. It also featured sound clips from the film, chiefly the line "Same procedure as every year, James."
See also
Dinner for One, 2008 debut album by Amity in Fame, an Acoustic Rock band from Linz, Austria
From All of Us to All of You, 1958 Disney Christmas special that has become a tradition in the Nordic countries.
Tři oříšky pro Popelku, a holiday classic in several European countries.
The Irony of Fate, or Enjoy your Banya! (), a Soviet film traditionally broadcast in Russia and the former Soviet republics every New Year's Day.
Trading Places (), 1983 American comedy film, the movie has become a tradition on Italian television for its Christmas atmosphere, it is always broadcast in the evening of Christmas Eve.
The Snowman, a half-hour animated adaptation of the book of the same name, which debuted on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 26 December 1982. It has since become a prominent annual festive event in British popular culture.
References
External links
Video
Downloadable versions of Dinner for One at archive.org
English transcript (NDR)
Alternative versions
Articles
Dinner For One: How an obscure British skit became a New Year's Eve tradition 28 December 2010
BBC News article 3 August 2009.
'Dinner for One' – A Sketch Well-known to all but the British
British comedy lives on in German television in The Guardian (31 December 2002)
The Mystery of Dinner for One. How an obscure British skit has become Germany's most popular New Year's tradition from Slate.com (30 December 2005)
1963 films
1963 comedy films
1963 short films
1963 television films
German comedy films
German short films
German television films
Comedy short films
Comedy sketches
English-language films
English-language German films
New Year's television specials
West German films
Winter traditions
Fictional servants
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|
238646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protostar | Protostar | A protostar is a very young star that is still gathering mass from its parent molecular cloud. The protostellar phase is the earliest one in the process of stellar evolution. For a low-mass star (i.e. that of the Sun or lower), it lasts about 500,000 years. The phase begins when a molecular cloud fragment first collapses under the force of self-gravity and an opaque, pressure supported core forms inside the collapsing fragment. It ends when the infalling gas is depleted, leaving a pre-main-sequence star, which contracts to later become a main-sequence star at the onset of hydrogen fusion producing helium.
History
The modern picture of protostars, summarized above, was first suggested by Chushiro Hayashi in 1966. In the first models, the size of protostars was greatly overestimated. Subsequent numerical calculations clarified the issue, and showed that protostars are only modestly larger than main-sequence stars of the same mass. This basic theoretical result has been confirmed by observations, which find that the largest pre-main-sequence stars are also of modest size.
Protostellar evolution
Star formation begins in relatively small molecular clouds called dense cores. Each dense core is initially in balance between self-gravity, which tends to compress the object, and both gas pressure and magnetic pressure, which tend to inflate it. As the dense core accrues mass from its larger, surrounding cloud, self-gravity begins to overwhelm pressure, and collapse begins. Theoretical modeling of an idealized spherical cloud initially supported only by gas pressure indicates that the collapse process spreads from the inside toward the outside. Spectroscopic observations of dense cores that do not yet contain stars indicate that contraction indeed occurs. So far, however, the predicted outward spread of the collapse region has not been observed.
The gas that collapses toward the center of the dense core first builds up a low-mass protostar, and then a protoplanetary disk orbiting the object. As the collapse continues, an increasing amount of gas impacts the disk rather than the star, a consequence of angular momentum conservation. Exactly how material in the disk spirals inward onto the protostar is not yet understood, despite a great deal of theoretical effort. This problem is illustrative of the larger issue of accretion disk theory, which plays a role in much of astrophysics.
Regardless of the details, the outer surface of a protostar consists at least partially of shocked gas that has fallen from the inner edge of the disk. The surface is thus very different from the relatively quiescent photosphere of a pre-main sequence or main-sequence star. Within its deep interior, the protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center, hydrogen-1 is not yet fusing with itself. Theory predicts, however, that the hydrogen isotope deuterium (hydrogen-2) fuses with hydrogen-1, creating helium-3. The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed pre-main-sequence stars.
The energy generated from ordinary stars comes from the nuclear fusion occurring at their centers. Protostars also generate energy, but it comes from the radiation liberated at the shocks on its surface and on the surface of its surrounding disk. The radiation thus created must traverse the interstellar dust in the surrounding dense core. The dust absorbs all impinging photons and reradiates them at longer wavelengths. Consequently, a protostar is not detectable at optical wavelengths, and cannot be placed in the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, unlike the more evolved pre-main-sequence stars.
The actual radiation emanating from a protostar is predicted to be in the infrared and millimeter regimes. Point-like sources of such long-wavelength radiation are commonly seen in regions that are obscured by molecular clouds. It is commonly believed that those conventionally labeled as Class 0 or Class I sources are protostars. However, there is still no definitive evidence for this identification.
Observed classes of young stars
Gallery
See also
Stellar birthline
Pre-main-sequence star
Protoplanetary disk
Quasi-star
Star formation
Stellar evolution
Notes
References
External links
Planet-Forming Disks Might Put Brakes On Stars (SpaceDaily) July 25, 2006
Planets could put the brakes on young stars Lucy Sherriff (The Register) Thursday 27 July 2006 13:02 GMT
Why Fast-Spinning Young Stars Don't Fly Apart (SPACE.com) 24 July 2006 03:10 pm ET
Star formation
Star types
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|
238654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodtown | Foodtown | Foodtown was a New Zealand supermarket chain owned by Progressive Enterprises. As with Woolworths, the Foodtown brand was phased out in the late 2000s, with all stores rebranded as Countdown by the end of 2011. Foodtown supermarkets were typically integrated with a shopping centre; the chain had few stand-alone stores.
History
1958–1961 Foodtown Supermarkets Limited
On 18 June 1958, the first Foodtown supermarket of 1,400 square metres was opened on a 1.1-hectare site at Otahuhu. Three small business owners – Tom Ah Chee, Norman Kent, and John Brown – sold their small businesses and pooled their resources to personally build and supervise construction of New Zealand's first American-style supermarket. The Otahuhu supermarket proved a success and a second Foodtown was built and opened in Takanini, South Auckland in 1961.
1961–1988 Progressive Enterprises
In 1961 the company was restructured when the Picot family joined the business. Their family company, Progressive Enterprises, contributed an equal amount of capital to that accumulated by the three original partners and became the parent company to Foodtown Supermarkets Limited.
1988–1992 Coles Myer Limited
In March 1988 Progressive Enterprises became part of the Australian company Coles Myer. During this time it saw the expansion of the Foodtown chain to areas outside Auckland (Hamilton, Wellington, Tauranga, Palmerston North, Wanganui and New Plymouth) and also saw greater expansion within the wider Auckland area.
1992–1994 Progressive Enterprises – public company
In April 1992 Coles Myer relaunched Progressive Enterprises onto the New Zealand stock exchange as a public company. During this time no new Foodtown supermarkets were opened.
1993–2005 Progressive Enterprises – Foodland Associated Limited
In October 1993 Foodland Associated Limited (FAL) bought the majority shareholding from Coles Myer and shortly after bought all remaining public shares and delisted Progressive from the New Zealand stock exchange. With this purchase Progressive Enterprises became the parent company for a number of FAL brands. Progressive Enterprises consisted of: Foodtown Supermarkets, Countdown, 3 Guys, Georgie Pie Restaurant, Rattans and Supervalue.
On 17 June 2002 Progressive Enterprises Ltd bought Woolworths (NZ) Ltd from Hong Kong-based owners Dairy Farm Group. The sale saw Progressive's supermarket brands Foodtown, Countdown, 3 Guys, SuperValue and FreshChoice joined by Woolworths, Big Fresh and Price Chopper. As a result, PEL increased its share of the NZ grocery market to approximately 45%.
Foodtown was the first supermarket in New Zealand to launch a loyalty card called the "Foodtown Card", which offered exclusive discounts and competitions to cardholders. This was renamed in 2003 after the merger of Progressive and Woolworths (NZ) Ltd as the "Foodtown Woolworths onecard".
2005–2011 Progressive Enterprises – Woolworths Limited
On 24 November 2005 Australian company Woolworths Limited purchased Progressive Enterprises Limited from Foodland Associated Limited.
In October 2006, Progressive Enterprises announced a discount fuel scheme with Gull Petroleum and Shell to offer discounts on petrol when shoppers spent $40 or more in their Woolworths, Foodtown or Countdown Stores. This scheme was similar to the one their parent company Woolworths Limited offered in Australia.
In 2008, Progressive Enterprises announced their intention to phase out the Foodtown brand. Existing Foodtown locations were to be rebranded as Countdown over a 5-year period, as each store was to receive periodic upgrades. No existing Foodtown stores were to be closed as a result of this – although the store in Cameron Road, Tauranga, which was situated almost directly opposite a Countdown store, closed on 1 May 2011 due to "dwindling profits". In some areas, the location of a Foodtown near a Countdown resulted in two Countdowns close to each other, sometimes 100m. For example, a Countdown exists in the Manukau City Mall located at Westfield Manukau as well as in the stand-alone Manukau branch located on Great South Road. Another notable mention is the Countdowns in Highland Park, where there are Countdowns within 100m of each other. Another example is at Westfield Glenfield which has two Countdowns almost directly opposite each other, one of them being a converted Foodtown.
On 14 November 2011, the last Foodtown, at Browns Bay, was rebranded to Countdown, bringing an end to the iconic New Zealand brand.
Private label brands
Basics – replaced by Homebrand in 2005
Signature Range
Woolworths Select
Woolworths Home Brand
Woolworths Naytura
Woolworths Freefrom
Woolworths Essentials
See also
Woolworths (New Zealand)
Woolworths Supermarkets (Australia)
Big Fresh
Price Chopper
References
External links
Foodtown's Website
Supermarkets of New Zealand
Retail companies established in 1958
Retail companies disestablished in 2011
Woolworths Group (Australia)
2011 disestablishments in New Zealand
New Zealand companies established in 1958 | [
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|
238655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%20Enemy | Arch Enemy | Arch Enemy is a Swedish melodic death metal band, originally a supergroup from Halmstad, formed in 1995. Its members were in bands such as Carcass, Armageddon, Carnage, Mercyful Fate, Spiritual Beggars, The Agonist, Nevermore, and Eucharist. It was founded by Carcass guitarist Michael Amott along with Johan Liiva, who were both originally from the death metal band Carnage. The band has released ten studio albums, three live albums, three video albums and four EPs. The band was originally fronted by Johan Liiva, who was replaced by German vocalist Angela Gossow in 2000. Gossow left the band in March 2014 to become the group's manager and was replaced by Canadian vocalist Alissa White-Gluz.
History
Early years and Black Earth (1995–1997)
Arch Enemy, the brainchild of Michael Amott (Carcass, Carnage, and Spiritual Beggars), was originally assembled when Amott left Carcass. He and his younger brother Christopher (Armageddon) joined with vocalist Johan Liiva (ex-Carnage, Furbowl, Devourment) and session drummer Daniel Erlandsson (Eucharist).
The band's debut, entitled Black Earth, was recorded in Studio Fredman and released by the now defunct Wrong Again Records in 1996. It obtained a fair amount of success in Japan, achieving MTV rotation with their first single "Bury Me an Angel", as well as moderate success in Sweden.
Stigmata, Burning Bridges, and Gossow (1998–2000)
After the release of Black Earth the band switched labels, signing a contract with Century Media. In 1998 Arch Enemy released Stigmata, for which bassist Martin Bengtsson and drummer Peter Wildoer joined the band. The album gained a wider audience and popularity in Europe and America. This was also the first Arch Enemy album to be released worldwide.
In 1999, Sharlee D'Angelo (ex-King Diamond, ex-Mercyful Fate) assumed the role of Arch Enemy's bassist, and Daniel Erlandsson (Eucharist, ex-Carcass) was again recruited as the drummer. Burning Bridges was released, and was followed by the live album Burning Japan Live 1999. During the touring-cycle for Burning Bridges, D'Angelo was temporarily replaced twice; first by Dick Lövgren (Meshuggah, ex-Armageddon) and then by Roger Nilsson (ex-Spiritual Beggars, Firebird, the Quill).
In November 2000, vocalist Johan Liiva left and was replaced by German death metal vocalist Angela Gossow.
Wages of Sin and Anthems of Rebellion (2001–2004)
The first album with songs featuring Gossow was Wages of Sin, released in 2001. In December of the same year, Arch Enemy took part in the "Japan's Beast Feast 2002" concert, playing alongside Slayer and Motörhead.
Anthems of Rebellion was released in 2003 and brought some innovations, such as the use of a second voice singing in harmony; such as in the "End of the Line" and "Dehumanization" tracks. In November of the following year, the band released the EP Dead Eyes See No Future, which featured live recordings, along with covers of Manowar, Megadeth and Carcass songs. In June 2004, the band embarked upon yet another Japan tour.
Doomsday Machine (2005–2006)
In June 2005, Arch Enemy finished the recording for their sixth album, Doomsday Machine. In July 2005, guitarist Christopher Amott left the band in order to focus on his personal life. He was temporarily replaced by guitarist Gus G. (Ozzy Osbourne, Firewind) and then by Fredrik Åkesson in September 2005. Christopher returned on a permanent basis in March 2007, shortly before the band entered the studio to begin recording their new album with producer Fredrik Nordström (who had previously worked with the band on their first four albums). Åkesson went on to become Opeth's new lead guitarist in May 2007.
Rise of the Tyrant (2007–2008)
Arch Enemy's seventh album, entitled Rise of the Tyrant was released on 24 September 2007 in Europe and 25 September 2007 in the United States. Rise of the Tyrant debuted at number 84 on the Billboard 200 chart. This surpassed the Doomsday Machine chart entry, making it the band's highest charting effort to date. Gossow said the new album has more emotion and less double vocals, as well as less vocal processing, yielding a more "raw" presentation.
Arch Enemy played the Bloodstock Open Air Festival in August 2007, between Sabbat and In Flames. They then performed on the Black Crusade tour at the end of 2007 with Machine Head, Trivium, DragonForce and Shadows Fall.
On 8 March 2008 Arch Enemy filmed a live show in Tokyo, Japan for the live DVD Tyrants of the Rising Sun. Arch Enemy also co-headlined the "Defenders of the Faith" tour in April 2008 with Opeth, while DevilDriver and 3 Inches of Blood opened for them. They then headlined the "Tyranny and Bloodshred" tour in May 2008 with Dark Tranquillity, Divine Heresy, and Firewind as supporting acts.
The Root of All Evil (2009–2010)
A compilation album titled The Root of All Evil was released on 28 September 2009 in Europe, 30 September in Japan, and 6 October in the United States. The Root of All Evil features twelve re-recorded songs spanning the band's career before Gossow joined as vocalist, with some material pre-dating D'Angelo as their bassist. In the first half of 2009, the band toured Europe and South America, and then played at the annual "Dubai Desert Rock Festival" alongside Opeth, Chimaira, and Motörhead. Following the release of The Root of All Evil on 28 September 2009, the band embarked on an Asian and Australian tour, which included their first visit to New Zealand. The tour started at the "Loud Park festival" in Japan on 17 October supplementing other acts including Megadeth, Judas Priest, Slayer, Anthrax, Rob Zombie and Children of Bodom. They also toured in South Korea on 25 October headlining at the Melon AX Hall in Seoul.
Khaos Legions and Christopher's second departure (2011–2013)
According to a September 2010 interview with Angela Gossow, Arch Enemy entered the studio on 1 December to begin recording their eighth album, Khaos Legions, for a release in June 2011, according to the band's website. The first single from the album was released on the Century Media website on 31 March entitled "Yesterday is Dead and Gone". The album was released on 31 May 2011. On 12 December the band announced that they would be filming a show in Cologne the following day for an upcoming live DVD entitled "World Khaos Tour".
On 3 March 2012 it was announced on the band's Facebook page that Christopher Amott had once again departed from the band. He was replaced by Nick Cordle from Arsis. Arch Enemy released their third music video from Khaos Legions on 25 April 2012 for "Under Black Flags We March". Not only does Nick Cordle appear in the video, he also recorded a new guitar solo, making this his debut track with the band.
Gossow's departure and War Eternal (2014−2015)
On 3 March 2014 the band revealed their ninth album would be titled War Eternal, released in June 2014.
On 17 March 2014, Gossow released a statement announcing her departure from the group and welcoming her replacement, former vocalist of Canadian metalcore band the Agonist, Alissa White-Gluz. In the statement, she wrote that while she had enjoyed her time with the group, it was time for her to move on, be with her family and pursue other interests. Gossow did confirm that she would remain Arch Enemy's business manager, and would be "passing the torch to the super talented Alissa White-Gluz, whom I’ve known as a dear friend and a superb vocalist for many years. I always thought she deserved a chance to shine – and now she’s getting it. Just like I got that chance back in 2001."
White-Gluz also released a statement saying: "I am very honored and happy to announce a new chapter in my life and musical career. Wages of Sin was the first metal album I ever bought, and it was love at first listen. It is not often that you get a phone call from your favorite band asking you to join! I am thrilled to have the opportunity to work with such amazingly talented musicians whom I also consider great friends. I look forward to being able to write and perform at a whole new level now with Arch Enemy! Music is forever, metal is limitless and this is only the beginning!"
During Arch Enemy's North American tour in support of their album War Eternal, guitarist Nick Cordle left the band on 10 November 2014. Specifically, he left the stage with only a few songs remaining in the set during the show at San Francisco's Regency Ballroom. Christopher Amott temporarily re-joined the band for the remainder of the tour, while famed guitarist Jeff Loomis (formerly of Nevermore) was announced as the official replacement and joined the band for their European tour with Kreator and subsequent events.
New project Black Earth (2016–2017)
On 22 January 2016, the founding members of Arch Enemy formed a side project named Black Earth. Consisting of former members Liiva and Christopher Amott, and current members Daniel Erlandsson, Michael Amott, and Sharlee D'Angelo, the band played a sold out Japan tour in May 2016 to celebrate the 20th anniversary of both Arch Enemy and the release of their debut album, Black Earth, they only performed songs from the band's first three albums.
Will to Power (2017–2019)
On 26 August 2016, it was announced that Arch Enemy was working on their tenth studio album which would be released in 2017. On 22 May 2017, the band revealed that the album would be entitled Will to Power, to be released on 8 September 2017 by Century Media Records.
The first single, "The World Is Yours", was released on 14 July 2017, along with a music video that gained more than 1.1 million views on YouTube in the first two days.
On 2 August 2017, the band announced a co-headlining North American tour with Trivium in fall 2017 with While She Sleeps and Fit for an Autopsy as support acts.
In an October 2018 interview, Michael Amott announced that he has been "writing a little bit here and there" and has "a few new ideas" for the next Arch Enemy album.
Covered in Blood (2019)
On 18 January 2019, Arch Enemy released "Covered in Blood", a compilation album of songs covered over the years.
European tour and Deceivers (2020–present)
On 30 November 2020, Arch Enemy announced their participation in the European Siege Tour 2021 with Behemoth, Carcass and Unto Others. On October 21, 2021, Arch Enemy premiered the music video for their new single "Deceiver, Deceiver". On December 10, 2021, they released a music video for another single, "House of Mirrors". On January 27, 2022, Arch Enemy announced their long-awaited 11th album, entitled Deceivers, due July 29th, 2022.
Musical style and influences
Arch Enemy's musical style has been classified as melodic death metal. AllMusic critic Steve Huey describes the band's sound as a "blend [of] progressive and death metal influences." Earlier albums, such as Burning Bridges, while still classified as melodic death metal, are more centered around classic death metal. Influences to Arch Enemy are cited as Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Black Sabbath, W.A.S.P., Manowar, Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Testament, Pantera, Death, Obituary, Carcass, Mercyful Fate, and King Diamond.
Band members
Current members
Michael Amott − guitar, backing vocals (1995–present)
Daniel Erlandsson − drums (1995–1997, 1998–present)
Sharlee D'Angelo − bass (1998–present)
Alissa White-Gluz – lead vocals (2014–present)
Jeff Loomis − guitar, backing vocals (2014–present)
Former members
Martin Bengtsson − bass (1997–1998)
Peter Wildoer − drums (1997–1998)
Johan Liiva – lead vocals (1995–2000, guest 2015)
Fredrik Åkesson − guitar, backing vocals (2005–2007)
Christopher Amott − guitar, backing vocals (1995–2005, 2007–2012, touring member 2014, guest 2015, 2016)
Angela Gossow − lead vocals (2000–2014)
Nick Cordle − guitar, backing vocals (2012–2014)
Timeline
Discography
Black Earth (1996)
Stigmata (1998)
Burning Bridges (1999)
Wages of Sin (2001)
Anthems of Rebellion (2003)
Doomsday Machine (2005)
Rise of the Tyrant (2007)
Khaos Legions (2011)
War Eternal (2014)
Will to Power (2017)
Deceivers (2022)
References
External links
Official website
Arch Enemy Discography
1996 establishments in Sweden
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Century Media Records artists
Musical quintets
Musical groups established in 1996
Swedish melodic death metal musical groups
Swedish heavy metal musical groups | [
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|
238657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentors%20%28band%29 | Mentors (band) | The Mentors are an American heavy metal band, known for their deliberate shock rock lyrics.
Originally formed in Seattle, Washington in May 1976, they relocated to Los Angeles, California in 1979.
The band garnered attention both from noted hard rock acts and pro-censorship movements such as the Parents Music Resource Center, but the death of drummer and lead singer Eldon Hoke ("El Duce") in 1997 brought them unprecedented attention. The band remains active today with a different line-up: Sickie Wifebeater (Eric Carlson) on lead guitar, Dr Heathen Scum (Steve Broy) on bass guitar, Cousin Fister (Bryan) on rhythm guitar, and John Christopher on drums.
History
Founding members Eldon Hoke ("El Duce"), Eric Carlson ("Sickie Wifebeater") and Steve Broy ("Dr. Heathen Scum") attended Roosevelt High School together in Seattle, and began experimenting together with crude punk and primitive heavy metal. Upon formation, the Mentors began to tour the Northwest, playing shows with their trademark executioner hoods (it was the idea of El Duce, who adored a horror movie called "Mark of the Devil") and bawdy lyrics. In the early days of the band, El Duce would contact venues saying they were a Kiss cover band and send them a dubbed cassette with Kiss songs on it and say it was them, on one occasion he sent a copy of Deep Purple Live in Japan to what they thought was a club. It was later revealed to be a pizza place and they ended up playing a kid's birthday party, they were forced to stop after one song and were eventually given $50. Broy was in and out of the band during its early career due to his preoccupation with pursuing a degree in engineering. Other bassists from this era include Jeff Dahl, Chris Jacobsen (Jack Shit), and Mike Dewey (Heathen Scum Wezda).
Through Mystic Records, the Mentors released their first EP, The Trash Bag, in 1983. Their first live album, Live at the Whiskey/Cathey de Grande, came out the following year; both records were produced by Phillip (Philco) Raves. In 1985, they signed to Death Records, a subsidiary of Metal Blade, and released their debut studio LP, You Axed for It!, with Broy returning on the bass. During this time, Hoke maintained a strong public presence, making a controversial appearance alongside fellow metal band GWAR on The Jerry Springer Show, where Hoke's band, beliefs, and public image were criticized.
The Mentors did not achieve true notoriety until the 1985 Congressional hearings orchestrated by Tipper Gore's Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). The relatively obscure Mentors caught the attention of the PMRC with their song, "Golden Shower", prompting a reading of some of its lyrics on the Congressional floor.
Broy was briefly replaced by bassists Wayne Daddio ("Ripper"), Ed Danky ("Poppa Sneaky Spermshooter"), Lucinda Rezabek ("Scum Bitch"), and
Keith McAdam ("Zippy"), but later returned to the group. In 1989, the Mentors released their third album, Sex, Drugs & Rock 'n' Roll, a faux-live record. This album caught the attention of the hard rock band Revolting Cocks, who invited the Mentors on tour with them.
They released Rock Bible in 1990, with Rick Lomas ("Insect On Acid") sitting in on drums. To the Max followed the next year. Clark Savage ("Moosedick") often filled in for Hoke on drums at live shows, as Hoke's alcoholism had made it difficult for him to play drums and sing simultaneously, eventually taking the position as drummer while Hoke became vocalist exclusively.
The Mentors remained sporadically active thereafter. Hoke began a solo career, while Carlson formed the band Jesters of Destiny. In 1997, while being interviewed for the documentary film Kurt and Courtney, Hoke claimed that Courtney Love had offered him $50,000 to kill her husband Kurt Cobain, whose death was ruled a suicide. Two days after being interviewed, Hoke died after being struck by a freight train while intoxicated. His death was alternately described as an accident and a suicide, however, some conspiracy theorists have claimed there is evidence suggesting foul play.
Carlson, Broy and Savage continued the band and were joined by guitarist Jeff Solberg ("Sickie J") and vocalist Jake Huber ("El Rapo"), releasing Over the Top in 2005. In 2006 Singer and drummer Marc DeLeon ("Mad Dog"), of the Mentors tribute band The Mantors, replaced Huber and, later, Savage. 2009 saw the release of Ducefixion, their eighth full-length record. DeLeon left the Mentors in 2014 during the making of full-length documentary film called The Mentors: Kings of Sleaze Rockumentary, directed by April Jones.
On May 25, 2017, the Mentors released The Illuminaughty, their first studio album in eight years, with Broy and Lomas sharing the vocal duties.
Members
Current members
Eric Carlson (Sickie Wifebeater) – lead guitar (1976–present), rhythm guitar (1976–2001, 2010–2014)
Steve Broy (Dr. Heathen Scum) – bass (1976–1979, 1984–1986, 1989–present), lead vocals (2014–present)
Rick Lomas (Insect On Acid) – keyboards (1989–1990, 2014–present), drums (1989–1990), backing vocals (2014–present)
Cousin Fister – rhythm guitar (2014–present)
John Christopher (El Chapo aka Viejo Malo) – drums (2014–present)
Don Nutz- The Italian Stallion – drums for Europe and Long Us Tours (2015–present)
Former members
Eldon Hoke (El Duce) – drums, vocals (1976–1997; died 1997)
Jeff Dahl – bass (1979–1980)
Chris Jacobson (Jack Shit) – bass (1980; died 2011)
Mike Dewey (Heathen Scum Wezda) – bass (1980–1984)
Ed Danky (Poppa Sneaky Spermshooter) – bass (1986–1989; died 1990)
Lucinda Rezabek (Scumbitch) – bass (1989)
Keith McAdam (Zippy) – bass (1989)
Clark Savage (Moosedick) – drums (1991–2008)
Jeff Solberg (Sickie Jr.) – rhythm guitar (2001–2010)
Jake Huber (El Rapo) – vocals (2001–2005; died 2020)
Marc DeLeon (Mad Dog) – vocals (2005–2014), drums (2008–2014)
Timeline
Discography
Singles/EPs
Get Up and Die (1981, Mystic Records)
Live in Frisco (1987, Mystic Records)
Mentorhawk (split CD with Dutch Metal act Hammerhawk 1999, HMF Records)
"Oblivion Train" (2009, Stool Sample Records)
"Nuthang" (2018) (Recorded in 1977)
"Baby You Will Regret Me" (2018)
"Cornshucker" (2018) (New version)
"I Am a Peeping Tom" (2018) (New version)
Live albums
Live at the Whisky / Cathay De Grande (1983, Mystic)
Sex, Drugs & Rock 'n' Roll (1989, Ever Rat Records)
Studio albums
You Axed for It! (1985, Metal Blade/Death Records)
Up the Dose (1986, Metal Blade/Death Records)
Rock Bible (1990, Mentor Records)
To the Max (1991, Mentor Records)
Over the Top (2005, Mentor Records)
Ducefixion (2009, Mentor Records)
The Illuminaughty (2017, Mentor Records)
Compilations
Up the Dose / You Axed for It! (1989, Metal Blade/Death Records)
Houses of the Horny (1994, Mentor Records)
West Coast Debauchery (2008, Mentor Records, compilation of the tracks from Live at the Whiskey/Cathay de Grande and Live in Frisco)
Videography
1983: Get Up & Die
1987: Fuck Movie
1990: A Piece of Sinema
1990: The Wretched World of the Mentors
1991: Hollywood Head Bash
1991: Tour De Max '91
1993: El Duce: The Man. The Myth. The Video
2007: El Duce Vita
2010: Perverted Movie
2017: The Kings of Sleaze (documentary)
2019: The El Duce Tapes (documentary)
See also
List of The Mentors songs
References
External links
The Mentors at Encyclopedia Metallum
Hard rock musical groups from Washington (state)
Heavy metal musical groups from Washington (state)
Musical quintets
Musical groups established in 1976
Metal Blade Records artists
Musical groups disestablished in 1997
Musical groups reestablished in 2000
Obscenity controversies in music | [
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|
238658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkway | Walkway | In American English, walkway is a composite or umbrella term for all engineered surfaces or structures which support the use of trails.
The New Oxford American Dictionary also defines a walkway as "a passage or path for walking along, esp. a raised passageway connecting different sections of a building or a wide path in a park or garden." The word is used to describe a footpath in New Zealand, where "walkways vary enormously in nature, from short urban strolls, to moderate coastal locations, to challenging tramps [hikes] in the high country [mountains]". Similarly in St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada the "Grand Concourse", is an integrated walkway system that has over of walkways, which link every major park, river, pond, and green space in six municipalities.
In Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the SkyWalk is an approximately enclosed and elevated walkway (skyway) connecting Union Station to the CN Tower and the Rogers Centre (SkyDome). It is part of the PATH network. The SkyWalk passes above the York Street 'subway' and the Simcoe Street Tunnel. It opened in 1989 and it was built to reduce the need for additional parking spaces near the Skydome stadium by providing a direct transportation link to the subway and GO trains. PATH is a network of pedestrian tunnels beneath the office towers of Downtown Toronto, and the largest underground shopping complex in the world.
In British English, a walkway more specifically refers to a covered or raised passage in a building, typically connecting separate buildings.
See also
Canopy walkway, walkways built through forest canopies
Floating dock
Footbridge
Footpath
Oceanway
Jubilee Walkway, London, England
Moving sidewalk
Pedway
Processional walkway
Promenade
Sidewalk
Skyway
References
Types of streets
Pedestrian infrastructure
Footpaths
Garden features
Pavements | [
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|
238666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict%20%28band%29 | Conflict (band) | Conflict is an English anarcho-punk band originally based in Eltham in South London. Formed in 1981, the band's original line up consisted of: Colin Jerwood (vocals), Francisco 'Paco' Carreno (drums), Big John (bass guitar), Steve (guitars), Pauline (vocals), Paul a.k.a. 'Nihilistic Nobody' (visuals). Their first release was the EP "The House That Man Built" on Crass Records. By the time they released their first album, It's Time to See Who's Who, on Corpus Christi Records, Pauline and Paul had left the band. Conflict later set up its own Mortarhate Records label, which put out releases by other artists including Hagar the Womb, Icons of Filth, Lost Cherrees, The Apostles, and Stalag 17.
In 1983, Steve Ignorant, who was at the time a member of the band Crass, guested on the band's pro-animal rights single "To A Nation of Animal Lovers". After the dissolution of Crass, Ignorant later became second vocalist for Conflict on a semi-permanent basis. This followed a 1986 gig in Brixton, London, when he had joined the band on stage for a few numbers.
The band has always been outspoken regarding issues such as anarchism, animal rights, the anti-war movement and in their support for the organisation Class War, and a number of their gigs during the 1980s were followed by riots and disturbances.
Former band drummer, Francisco "Paco" Carreno, died on 20 February 2015, at the age of 49.
Members
Original line up
Colin Jerwood (vocals)
'Big' John Clifford (bass guitar)
Kenny Barnes (drums)
Graham Ball (guitar)
Paul Fryday, a.k.a. 'Nihilistic Nobody' (visuals)
Later members
Francisco "Paco" Carreno (drums)
Steve Gittins (guitar)
Mandy Spokes (vocals)
Kevin Webb (guitar)
Paul Hoddy (bass guitar)
Chris Parish (guitar)
Kerry B (vocals)
Steve Ignorant (vocals)
Ferenc Collins (guitar)
Marshall Penn (guitar)
Mark Pickstone (keyboards)
Jackie Hannah (vocals)
Sarah Taylor (vocals)
Spike Smith (drums)
Eve Scragg (vocals)
Matthew Zilch (guitar)
Gav King (guitar)
William Faith (guitar)
Jeannie Ford (vocals)
Current members
Colin Jerwood (Vocals)
Stuart Meadows (Drums)
Gav King (Guitar)
Fiona Friel (Vocals)
Fran Fearon (Bass Guitar)
Discography
Chart placings shown are from the UK Indie Chart.
Studio albums
It's Time to See Who's Who LP (March 1983, Corpus Christi Records) (#1)
reissued in May 1994 as It's Time to See Who's Who Now by Mortarhate Records, with a different track listing.
Increase the Pressure LP / CD (June 1984, Mortarhate Records) (#2)
The Ungovernable Force LP (August 1986, Mortarhate Records) (#2)
reissued in 2006 with bonus tracks on CD by Mortarhate Records.
From Protest To Resistance LP (1986, Bust Fund) (#11)
The Final Conflict LP (December 1988, Mortarhate Records) (#13)
Against All Odds LP (1989, Mortarhate Records)
Conclusion LP / CD (December 1993, Mortarhate Records)
There's No Power Without Control LP / CD (July 2003, Mortarhate Records)
EPs
"The House That Man Built" EP (June 1982, Crass Records) (#3). Later re-issued on Mortarhate Records.
"To a Nation of Animal Lovers" EP (October 1983, Corpus Christi Records) (#4). Later re-issued on Mortarhate Records.
"The Serenade is Dead" EP (January 1984, Mortarhate Records) (#5)
"This is Not Enough, Stand Up and Fucking Fight" 7" (March 1985, Mortarhate Records) (#3)
"The Battle Continues" 7" (October 1985, Mortarhate Records) (#1)
"The Final Conflict" 12"(1988, Mortarhate Records)
"These Colours Don't Run" 7" / CD (October 1993, Mortarhate Records)
"BBC1" 7" (1995, Mortarhate Records)
"Now You've Put Your Foot in It" 7" / CD (2001, Mortarhate Records)
"Carlo Giuliani" 7" / CD (April 2003, Mortarhate Records)
Compilations
Who? What? Why? When? Where? LP / CD (1984, Mortarhate Records). The album had little circulation on its initial release, but gained greater currency when re-released in 2003.
Employing All Means Necessary LP / CD (1985, Mortarhate Records)
Standard Issue 82–87 LP / CD (February 1989, Mortarhate Records)
Standard Issue II 88–94 LP / CD (1996, Mortarhate Records)
Deploying All Means Necessary (February 1997)
There Must Be Another Way (January 2001)
Live
Live at Centro Iberico EP (October 1982, Xntrix Records) (#7). Later re-issued on Mortarhate Records.
Live at Brest, France (March 1983)
Only Stupid Bastards Help EMI LP (1986, New Army Records) (#5)
Leeds University (April 1986)
Turning Rebellion into Money Double LP / CD (1987, Mortarhate Records) (#1)
In The Venue (April 2000)
In America CD (2001, Go-Kart Records 83)
Live in London (2004)
Other
Rebellion Sucks! (Anthology and DVD of live in London 2004)
See also
Animal rights and punk subculture
References
External links
Anarcho-punk groups
English punk rock groups
Musical groups from the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Musical groups established in 1981
People from Eltham | [
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|
238672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sona%20%28constructed%20language%29 | Sona (constructed language) | Sona is an international auxiliary language created by Kenneth Searight and described in a book he published in 1935. The word in the language itself means "auxiliary neutral thing", but the name was also chosen to echo "sonority" or "sound".
Searight created Sona as a response to the Eurocentricity of other artificial auxiliary languages of his time, such as Esperanto and Ido. At the same time, Searight intended his language to be more practical than most a priori languages like Solresol or Ro, which were intended to be unbiased by any particular group of natural languages. Thus, Sona sacrificed familiarity of grammar and lexicon for some measure of "universality", while at the same time preserving basic notions common to grammars around the world such as compounding as a method of word formation. Searight used inspiration from many diverse languages, including English, Arabic, Turkish, Chinese and Japanese, to create his eclectic yet regular and logical language.
Searight specifically chose only sounds that speakers of many languages could say, therefore making it a true universal. He hoped that in a perfect world, Sona would be taught to young children everywhere.
Sona is an agglutinative language with a strong tendency towards being an isolating language. The language has 360 radicals or root words whose meanings are based on the categories in Roget's original thesaurus, plus an additional 15 particles. Ideas and sentences are formed by juxtaposing the radicals. Thus, ra "male" plus ko "child" makes rako "boy".
Searight's book, Sona; an auxiliary neutral language (London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., 1935, LCCN: 35016722) is the only published example of this language. There is a small community on the Internet interested in reviving and using Sona.
Writing
Sona uses the Latin alphabet and contains 24 letters. Although the author provides the rules for writing in Sona in his text, he also specifies that Sona has "few hard and fast rules." One mentioned rule in regards to writing covered by Searight is that foreign words are written with a capital. Even in regards to punctuation, Searight claims it is "desirable that we leave the matter more or less opened to choice."
Alphabet
The Sona alphabet has 24 letters. Searight lists no official order but presents the following chart:
The vowels are sounded as in Italian. British English equivalents are fast, fete, machine, fort, rule. y is the neutral vowel of Welsh, but before another vowel, it is pronounced as the English y (e.g. yard). The alphabet letters are "named" by adding the vowel y. For the vowels of the alphabet, the y is initial, such as ya, ye, yi, yo, yu, y, and is final for aspirates and consonants, such as cy, gy, ky, etc. The y is also useful for separating two like vowels in a word and for separating an -n radical from a vowel. For instance, ta-ata becomes tayata and ta-o becomes tayo. This helps reduce confusion by distinguishing words from other similar combined radicals. i and u are shortened before a vowel. The only consonant that is final allowed is -n.
Radicals
The language consists of 360 radicals and 15 particles, each of which represents a single unit of meaning. Every word in Sona can be decomposed into radicals and, conversely, new words can be constructed by combining them in various ways. Radicals are meant to represent symbolic ideas or groups of ideas, and this simplifies the language by connecting words to one another based on universal concepts.
The radicals are organized into groups of five which share both a consonant-vowel root and a fundamental meaning. Each radical in the group is created by attaching a-, u-, or i- or -n. For example, the group ta (increase) also contains the radicals tan (bulk), ata (extension), ita (filling), and uta (swelling).
When radicals are combined, their order affects the resulting meaning. A radical used as a prefix will be dominant, while one used as a suffix will be subordinate, hence tara "big man" versus rata "giant."
A radical can change meaning depending its context. Some radicals take on a different meaning when used as an affix, e.g. when used as a prefix, the meaning of ka changes from "lead" to a causal maker. Many compounds take on set meanings beyond that of their component parts. For example, akizu, literally "fast animal," signifies "horse."
Phonetics and phonology
The 360 radicals are split up into consonants and aspirates. Of the 12 consonants, each can be categorized five different ways, isolated and with the four possible affixes. This gives us 300 radicals. The 6 aspirates, c, j, x, f, v, and h, have only the -n form, which gives us the remaining 60 radicals. Searight decided to exclude diphthongs from Sona in order to maintain its universality. Here is an example of how radicals are modified with prefixes and suffixes to create new words.
There are 180 disyllables, and the remaining 5 monosyllables are the particles au, ua, ue, ui, and uo. The only vowels allowed as radical prefixes are a, i, and u.
Sona does not use a formal suffix for possession, but one may add -si for emphasis, which is the equivalent of an English -'s.
The epithet is always placed before its head word, so one would say "the big dog," as in English, and not "the dog big," as in Spanish.
While radicals may be compounded, they also can be isolated words. For instance, te alone means "hand," but compounding it creates tebi (handle), bute (nose), and tega (arm).
As for the aspirates, h is aspirated, x is pronounced like the sh in "shin," j may be sounded as in the English "ʤ" or the French "ʒ". Since there is already a letter k in Sona, c is pronounced like the ch in "chin." f and v are pronounced how English speakers pronounce them.
As for the consonants, only three of them need mentioning. g is always a hard G, meaning it is pronounced like the G in Gary as opposed to the G in Gym. z is pronounced like the Z in "zeal," but it can vary to the Italian variation of dz, or the German variation of ts. Also, s is always sharp, meaning it never sounds like a Z as in "as." The remaining consonants are pronounced as English speakers would pronounce them. Sona also has no double consonants or digraphs.
Sona utilizes elision, meaning when a radical with a vowel prefix is followed by its own primary or -n form, the common vowel is dropped. For example, ata-ta becomes atta, and ata-tan becomes attan.
For foreign sounds and words, Sona uses the phonetic symbol for that word and writes it with an initial capital letter. Sona rarely utilizes capital letters, and Sona is the only word in Sona spelled with a capital letter. For technical and scientific terms, such as Greek and Latin words, Sona leaves them as is, occasionally changing an initial C to K to match the sounds, for instance Carnival becomes Karnival. These words are spelled in accordance with the language of origin, and last names are not altered.
Sona is not a tonal language and therefore the tonic accent is evenly distributed throughout speech, such as Japanese and French.
Punctuation is not a necessary part of the language since there are prefixes and suffixes for questions and emphasis. However, in Sona it is up to a person's preference whether or not they would like to use punctuation.
For nouns, the definite article is en, meaning "it," and is optionally used for emphasis. For instance, ra stands for "man", but en ra means "the (very) man." There is no indefinite article in Sona. It does, however, borrow an Honorific from Japanese. O is used before names, words of address, and verbs as an expression of politeness. For instance, O ra means "honorable man." It can also mean "please."
For naming, the radical ha, meaning "name," converts another radical into a name that addresses a person. For instance, hara (name and man) signifies Mr. Monsieur, Signor, Herr, Sir, etc. Inanimate objects have no gender. Sex is marked by ra, meaning male or man, and zan, meaning female or woman.
Morphology
All words can be fully analyzed into their constituent radicals (with the exception of proper nouns and borrowed words). As a result, the morphology of the language is a combination of isolating and agglutinating, and contains no fusional element.
Most word formation is done by compounding. When compounding radicals, the first one is said to be the "governing radical," and the following ones act as modifiers. The language also permits the compounding of polysyllabic words.
Inflectional morphology
Nouns
There are twelve cases. For nominative and accusative, the noun and the verb are compounded. For the former, the noun comes first and for the latter, the verb. For possessive, the possessor is simply placed before the possessed, but the suffix -si can be added to the possessor if needed for clarification. Three of the cases are formed with affixes: the vocative with -ha, the directive with -li, and the locative with a-. The remaining cases are formed analytically with a word placed before the noun: dili for the motive, li for the dative, ne for the ablative, bi for instrumental, vi for genitive, and di for partitive.
Nouns can optionally be marked for plural (-e), collective (-gi).
Only animate nouns are marked for gender: ra for male, zan for female, and -ji or -ci for neuter, with the latter having an additional agentive meaning. The inanimates have special noun affixes which mark them as either inorganic (-na) or organic (-ga).
The augmentative is -ta- and the diminutive is -ko-. The approbative is marked by -xa and the disapprobative is marked by -ze.
Adjectives
The comparative is formed by e- and superlative is formed by en e- (with en meaning "the"). However, they do not have to be marked explicitly. Compare koyo ra "small man", ekoyo ra "smaller man", and en ekoyo ra "the smallest man."
Verbs
Both prepositions and pronouns may be optionally attached to the end of the verb.
Three different radicals can be used to mark transitivity: -ka- ("cause"), -ba ("strike, forceful"), -ru ("go, get").
Searight gives this verb paradigm using the root ru, "move," as an example:
Derivational morphology
Nouns
Instrumental nouns can be formed with -bi; places are denoted by -a, -ma, or -ca; buildings by -kan; times are formed with -ri.
Abstract nouns may be formed in several ways. A noun of state is produced with -ne, a verbal noun is produced with -da, and a noun of quality is produced with -vi. For example, starting with the radical di, "divide," one can create dine, "division;" dida, "dividing;" and divi, "particularity."
Adjectives
The primary method of adjective formation is the suffix -(y)o, as in tayo, "great." They can be used as predicates by omitting the o, as in ra ta, "the man is big."
Adjectives with more specific meanings can be derived in several other ways. Searight gives the following list, using ra, "man," to generate an example of each:
Adverbs
Some adverbial forms are derived by a suffix, like adjectives, while others are formed analytically. The default method of creating an adverb is the word po preceding it. Searight offers the following adverb derivations:
Verbs
Radicals can be converted into verbs analytically by the addition of da before the root.
Syntax
Searight's central claim on syntax in Sona is that "the construction of the Sona sentence is based upon the logical sequence of ideas." The syntactical structure of Sona is intended to be as intuitive and logical as possible, although Searight does present some rules in his text under the "Syntax" section. According to Searight, the word order is SVO, with qualifying words preceding the words they qualify. Searight stresses that "the construction of the Sona sentence must not be confined to European models."
References
External links
Sona: an auxiliary neutral language - Original book, Web Version
Online Sona/English dictionary and translation aid
Table of radicals in Sona
Sona Mailing List
A Sona Message Board
Wiki in Sona
Agglutinative languages
Analytic languages
International auxiliary languages
Interlinguistics
Constructed languages introduced in the 1930s
1935 introductions
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238674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperback | Paperback | A paperback, also known as a softcover or softback, is a type of book characterized by a thick paper or paperboard cover, and often held together with glue rather than stitches or staples. In contrast, hardcover or hardback books are bound with cardboard covered with cloth, plastic, or leather. The pages on the inside of a paperback are made of paper.
Inexpensive books bound in paper have existed since at least the 19th century in such forms as pamphlets, yellowbacks, dime novels, and airport novels. Modern paperbacks can be differentiated by size. In the U.S., there are "mass-market paperbacks" and larger, more durable "trade paperbacks". In the U.K., there are A-format, B-format, and the largest C-format sizes.
Paperback editions of books are issued when a publisher decides to release a book in a low-cost format. Cheaper, lower quality paper, glued (rather than stapled or sewn) bindings, and the lack of a hard cover may contribute to the lower cost of paperbacks. Paperbacks can be the preferred medium when a book is not expected to be a major seller or where the publisher wishes to release a book without putting forth a large investment. Examples include many novels and newer editions or reprintings of older books.
Since paperbacks tend to have a smaller profit margin, many publishers try to balance the profit to be made by selling fewer hardcovers against the potential profit to be made by selling more paperbacks with a smaller profit per unit. First editions of many modern books, especially genre fiction, are issued in paperback. Best-selling books, on the other hand, may maintain sales in hardcover for an extended period to reap the greater profits that the hardcovers provide.
History
The early 19th century saw numerous improvements in the printing, publishing and book-distribution processes, with the introduction of steam-powered printing presses, pulp mills, automatic type setting, and a network of railways. These innovations enabled the likes of Simms and McIntyre of Belfast, Routledge & Sons (founded in 1836) and Ward & Lock (founded in 1854) to mass-produce cheap uniform yellowback or paperback editions of existing works, and distribute and sell them across the British Isles, principally via the ubiquitous W. H. Smith & Sons newsagent found at most urban British railway stations. These paper bound volumes were offered for sale at a fraction of the historical cost of a book, and were of a smaller format, , aimed at the railway traveller. The Routledge's Railway Library series of paperbacks remained in print until 1898, and offered the traveling public 1,277 unique titles.
The German-language market also supported examples of cheap paper-bound books:
Bernhard Tauchnitz started the Collection of British and American Authors in 1841. These inexpensive, paperbound editions, a direct precursor to mass-market paperbacks, eventually ran to over 5,000 volumes. Reclam published Shakespeare in this format from October 1857 and went on to pioneer the mass-market paper-bound Universal-Bibliothek series from 10 November 1867.
20th century
The German publisher Albatross Books revised the 20th-century mass-market paperback format in 1931, but the approach of World War II cut the experiment short. It proved an immediate financial success in the United Kingdom in 1935 when Penguin Books adopted many of Albatross's innovations, including a conspicuous logo and color-coded covers for different genres. British publisher Allen Lane invested his own financial capital to launch the Penguin Books imprint in 1935, initiating the paperback revolution in the English-language book market by releasing ten reprint titles. The first released book on Penguin's 1935 list was André Maurois' Ariel.
Lane intended to produce inexpensive books. He purchased paperback rights from publishers, ordered large print runs (such as 20,000 copies—large for the time) to keep unit prices low, and looked to non-traditional book-selling retail locations. Booksellers were initially reluctant to buy his books, but when Woolworths placed a large order, the books sold extremely well. After that initial success, booksellers showed more willingness to stock paperbacks, and the name "Penguin" became closely associated with the word "paperback".
In 1939, Robert de Graaf issued a similar line in the United States, partnering with Simon & Schuster to create the Pocket Books label. The term "pocket book" became synonymous with paperback in English-speaking North America. In French, the term livre de poche was used and is still in use today. De Graaf, like Lane, negotiated paperback rights from other publishers, and produced many runs. His practices contrasted with those of Lane by his adoption of illustrated covers aimed at the North American market. To reach an even broader market than Lane, he used distribution networks of newspapers and magazines, which had a lengthy history of being aimed (in format and distribution) at mass audiences.
Because of its number-one position in what became a very long list of pocket editions, James Hilton's Lost Horizon is often cited as the first American paperback book. However, the first mass-market, pocket-sized, paperback book printed in the U.S. was an edition of Pearl Buck's The Good Earth, produced by Pocket Books as a proof-of-concept in late 1938, and sold in New York City. In World War II, the U.S. military distributed some 122 million "Armed Services Editions" paperback novels to the troops, which helped popularize the format after the war.
Through the circulation of the paperback in kiosks and bookstores, scientific and intellectual knowledge was able to reach the masses. This occurred at the same time that the masses were starting to attend university, leading to the student revolts of 1968 prompting open access to knowledge. The paperback book meant that more people were able to openly and easily access knowledge and this led to people wanting more and more of it. This accessibility posed a threat to the wealthy by imposing that it would be turned upside down, as the masses were now able to access almost all of the knowledge the wealthy previously had access to. Treating the paperback as any other book drastically weakened the distinction between high and low culture. The paperback revolution essentially broke this relationship by redefining it through access to knowledge.
Paperback originals
In the United States, many companies entered the paperback publishing field in the years after Pocket Books' inception, including Ace, Dell, Bantam, Avon and dozens of other smaller publishers. At first, paperbacks consisted entirely of reprints, but in 1950, Fawcett Publications' Gold Medal Books began publishing original works in paperback.
Fawcett was also an independent newsstand distributor, and in 1945, the company negotiated a contract with New American Library to distribute their Mentor and Signet titles. That contract prohibited Fawcett from becoming a competitor by publishing their own paperback reprints. Roscoe Kent Fawcett wanted to establish a line of Fawcett paperbacks, and he felt original works would not be a violation of the contract. To challenge the contract, Fawcett published two anthologies—The Best of True Magazine and What Today's Woman Should Know About Marriage and Sex—reprinting material from Fawcett magazines not previously published in books. When these books were successfully published, he announced Gold Medal Books, a line of paperback originals. Sales soared, prompting Gold Medal editorial director Ralph Daigh to comment, "In the past six months we have produced 9,020,645 books, and people seem to like them very well." However, hardcover publishers resented Roscoe Fawcett's innovation, as evidenced by Doubleday's LeBaron R. Barker, who claimed that paperback originals could "undermine the whole structure of publishing."
Genre categories began to emerge, and mass-market book covers reflected those categories. Mass-market paperbacks influenced slick and pulp magazines. The market for cheap magazines diminished when buyers began to buy cheap books instead. Authors also found themselves abandoning magazines and writing for the paperback market. The leading paperback publishers often hired experienced pulp magazine cover artists, including Rudolph Belarski and Earle K. Bergey, who helped create the look and feel of paperbacks and set an appealing visual standard that continues to this day. Scores of well-known authors were published in paperback, including Arthur Miller and John Steinbeck.
World War II brought both new technology and a wide readership of men and women now in the military or employed as shift workers; paperbacks were cheap, readily available, and easily carried. Furthermore, people found that restrictions on travel gave them time to read more paperbacks. Four-color printing and lamination developed for military maps made the paperback cover eye catching and kept ink from running as people handled the book. A revolving metal rack, designed to display a wide variety of paperbacks in a small space, found its way into drugstores, dimestores, and markets. Soldiers received millions of paperback books in Armed Services Editions.
U.S. paperbacks quickly entered the Canadian market. Canadian mass-market paperback initiatives in the 1940s included White Circle Books, a subsidiary of Collins (U.K.); it was fairly successful but was soon outstripped by the success of Harlequin which began in 1949 and, after a few years of publishing undistinguished novels, focused on the romance genre and became one of the world's largest publishers.
McClelland and Stewart entered the Canadian mass-market book trade in the early 1960s, with its "Canadian best seller library" series, at a time when Canadian literary culture was beginning to be popularized, and a call for a Canadian author identity was discussed by the Canadian people.
Types
Mass-market
A mass-market paperback is a small, usually non-illustrated, inexpensive bookbinding format. This includes the U.K. A-format books of and the U.S. "pocketbook" format books of a similar size. They have been historically printed on relatively low-quality paper. They are commonly released after the hardback edition and often sold in non-traditional bookselling locations such as airports, drugstores, and supermarkets, as well as in traditional bookstores.
In 1982, romance novels accounted for at least 25% of all paperback sales. In 2013, 51% of paperback sales were romance. Many titles, especially in genre fiction, have their first editions in paperback and never receive a hardcover printing. This is particularly true of first novels by new authors.
The mass-market paperbacks sold in airport newsstands have given rise to the vaguely defined literary genre of the "airport novel", bought by travelers to read during their potentially long hours of sitting and waiting. Mass-market paperbacks also have offered collections of comic strips and magazine cartoon series, such as Ernie Bushmiller's Nancy and Chon Day's Brother Sebastian.
B-format
The term B-format indicates a medium-sized paperback of . This size has been used to distinguish literary novels from genre fiction. In the U.S., books of this size are thought of as smaller trade paperbacks (see below).
Trade
A trade paperback, sometimes referred to as a "trade paper edition" or just as a "trade", is a higher-quality paperback book. If it is a softcover edition of a previous hardcover edition, and if published by the same publishing house as the hardcover, the text pages are normally identical to the text pages in the hardcover edition, and the book is close to the same size as the hardcover edition. Significantly, the pagination is the same so that references to the text will be unchanged: this is particularly important for reviewers and scholars. The only difference is the soft binding; the paper is usually of higher quality than that of a mass-market paperback, for example acid-free paper.
In the U.S., the term trade paperback also encompasses the medium-sized paperbacks described as B-format, above. British trade paperbacks are .
Trade comics
Trade paperbacks are often used to reprint several issues of a comic series in one volume, usually an important storyline or the entire series itself, and the name "trade paperback" has become synonymous with a collection of reprinted material. Graphic novels may also be printed in trade paperback form. Publishers sometimes release popular collections first in a hardback form, followed by a trade paperback months later. Examples include Marvel Comics' Secret War and DC Comics' Watchmen among many others.
Major publishers
See also
Book size
Bunkobon
George Kelley Paperback and Pulp Fiction Collection
Hardcover
References
Further reading
Canja, Jeff (2002). Collectible Paperback Books, Second Edition, East Lansing, MI: Glenmoor Publishing. .
Davis, Kenneth C. Two-Bit Culture: The Paperbacking of America (Macmillan, 1984).
Hancer, Kevin (1990). Hancer's Price Guide to Paperback Books, Third Edition, Radnor, Pennsylvania: Wallace-Homestead Book Company. .
External links
How to make a paperback book by hand
Glue Bound Book tutorial
Literary Novels Going Straight to Paperback, New York Times article about paperback originals
paperback book development stages
Book formats
Book publishing
Book terminology | [
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|
238676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%20proof | Direct proof | In mathematics and logic, a direct proof is a way of showing the
truth or falsehood of a given statement by a straightforward combination of
established facts, usually axioms, existing lemmas and theorems, without making any further assumptions. In order to directly prove a conditional statement of the form "If p, then q", it suffices to consider the situations in which the statement p is true. Logical deduction is employed to reason from assumptions to conclusion. The type of logic employed is almost invariably first-order logic, employing the quantifiers for all and there exists. Common proof rules used are modus ponens and universal instantiation.
In contrast, an indirect proof may begin with certain hypothetical scenarios and then proceed to eliminate the uncertainties in each of these scenarios until an inescapable conclusion is forced. For example, instead of showing directly p ⇒ q, one proves its contrapositive ~q ⇒ ~p (one assumes ~q and shows that it leads to ~p). Since p ⇒ q and ~q ⇒ ~p are equivalent by the principle of transposition (see law of excluded middle), p ⇒ q is indirectly proved. Proof methods that are not direct include proof by contradiction, including proof by infinite descent. Direct proof methods include proof by exhaustion and proof by induction.
History and etymology
A direct proof is the simplest form of proof there is. The word ‘proof’ comes from the Latin word probare, which means “to test”. The earliest use of proofs was prominent in legal proceedings. A person with authority, such as a nobleman, was said to have probity, which means that the evidence was by his relative authority, which outweighed empirical testimony. In days gone by, mathematics and proof was often intertwined with practical questions – with populations like the Egyptians and the Greeks showing an interest in surveying land. This led to a natural curiosity with regards to geometry and trigonometry – particularly triangles and rectangles. These were the shapes which provided the most questions in terms of practical things, so early geometrical concepts were focused on these shapes, for example, the likes of buildings and pyramids used these shapes in abundance. Another shape which is crucial in the history of direct proof is the circle, which was crucial for the design of arenas and water tanks. This meant that ancient geometry (and Euclidean Geometry) discussed circles.
The earliest form of mathematics was phenomenological. For example, if someone could draw a reasonable picture, or give a convincing description, then that met all the criteria for something to be described as a mathematical “fact”. On occasion, analogical arguments took place, or even by “invoking the gods”. The idea that mathematical statements could be proven had not been developed yet, so these were the earliest forms of the concept of proof, despite not being actual proof at all.
Proof as we know it came about with one specific question: “what is a proof?” Traditionally, a proof is a platform which convinces someone beyond reasonable doubt that a statement is mathematically true. Naturally, one would assume that the best way to prove the truth of something like this (B) would be to draw up a comparison with something old (A) that has already been proven as true. Thus was created the concept of deriving a new result from an old result.
Examples
The sum of two even integers equals an even integer
Consider two even integers and . Since they are even, they can be written as
respectively for integers and .
Then the sum can be written as
where , and are all integers.
It follows that has 2 as a factor and therefore is even, so the sum of any two even integers is even.
Pythagoras' theorem
Observe that we have four right-angled triangles and a square packed into a large square. Each of the triangles has sides a and b and hypotenuse c. The area of a square is defined as the square of the length of its sides - in this case, (a + b)2. However, the area of the large square can also be expressed as the sum of the areas of its components. In this case, that would be the sum of the areas of the four triangles and the small square in the middle.
We know that the area of the large square is equal to (a + b)2.
The area of a triangle is equal to
We know that the area of the large square is also equal to the sum of the areas of the triangles, plus the area of the small square, and thus the area of the large square equals
These are equal, and so
After some simplifying,
Removing the ab that appears on both sides gives
which proves Pythagoras' theorem. ∎
The square of an odd number is also odd
By definition, if n is an odd integer, it can be expressed as
for some integer k. Thus
Since 2k2+ 2k is an integer, n2 is also odd. ∎
References
Sources
(Ch. 1.)
External links
Direct Proof from Larry W. Cusick's How To Write Proofs.
Direct Proofs from Patrick Keef and David Guichard's Introduction to Higher Mathematics.
Direct Proof section of Richard Hammack's Book of Proof.
Mathematical proofs
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238677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Theft%20Auto%3A%20Vice%20City | Grand Theft Auto: Vice City | Grand Theft Auto: Vice City is a 2002 action-adventure game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It is the fourth main entry in the Grand Theft Auto series, following 2001's Grand Theft Auto III, and the sixth instalment overall. Set in 1986 within the fictional Vice City (based on Miami), the single-player story follows drug pedler Tommy Vercetti's rise to power after being released from prison and becoming caught up in an ambushed drug deal. While seeking out those responsible, he slowly builds an empire by seizing power from other criminal organisations in the city.
The game is played from a third-person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle. The open world design lets the player freely roam Vice City, consisting of two main islands. The game's plot is based on multiple real-world people and events in Miami such as Cubans, Haitians, and biker gangs, the 1980s crack epidemic, the Mafioso drug lords of Miami, and the dominance of glam metal. The game was also influenced by the film and television of the era, most notably Scarface and Miami Vice. Much of the development work constituted creating the game world to fit the inspiration and time period; the development team conducted extensive field research in Miami while creating the world. The game was released in October 2002 for the PlayStation 2, in May 2003 for Microsoft Windows, and in October 2003 for the Xbox.
Upon release, Vice City received critical acclaim, with praise particularly directed at its music, gameplay, story, and open world design. However, the game also generated controversy over its depiction of violence and racial groups, sparking lawsuits and protests. Vice City became the best-selling video game of 2002 and has sold over 17.5 million copies. Considered one of the most significant titles of the sixth generation of video games and one of the greatest video games ever made, it won numerous year-end accolades including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications. Since its release, the game has received numerous ports to many gaming platforms. An enhanced version was released for mobile platforms in 2012 for the game's tenth anniversary, and a further enhanced version was released in 2021. Its successor, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, was released in October 2004, and a prequel, Vice City Stories, was released in October 2006.
Gameplay
Grand Theft Auto: Vice City is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player controls criminal Tommy Vercetti and completes missions—linear scenarios with set objectives—to progress through the story. It is possible to have several missions available at a time, as some missions require the player to wait for further instructions or events. Outside of missions, the player can freely roam the game's open world and has the ability to complete optional side missions. Composed of two main islands and several smaller areas, the world is much larger in area than earlier entries in the series. The islands are unlocked for the player as the story progresses.
The player may run, jump, or drive vehicles to navigate the game's world. The player uses melee attacks, firearms and explosives to fight enemies. The firearms include weapons such as the Colt Python, an M60 machine gun and a Minigun. The game's three-dimension environment allows a first-person view while aiming with the sniper rifle and rocket launcher. In addition, the game's combat allows the player to commit drive-by shootings by facing sideways in a vehicle. The game provides the player a wide variety of weapon options—they can be purchased from local firearms dealers, found on the ground, retrieved from dead enemies, or found around the city.
In combat, auto-aim can be used as assistance against enemies. Should the player take damage, their health meter can be fully regenerated through the use of health pick-ups. Body armour can be used to absorb gunshots and explosive damage, but is used up in the process. When health is entirely depleted, gameplay stops and the player respawns at the nearest hospital while losing all weapons and armour and some of their money. If the player commits crimes while playing, the game's law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a "wanted" meter in the head-up display (HUD), which increases as the player commits more crimes. On the meter, the displayed stars indicate the current wanted level, and the higher the level, the greater the response for law enforcement (for example, at the maximum six-star level, police helicopters and military swarm to lethally dispatch players).
During the story, Tommy meets characters from various gangs. As the player completes missions for different gangs, fellow gang members will often defend the player, while rival gang members will recognise the player and subsequently shoot on sight. While free roaming the game world, the player may engage in activities such as a vigilante minigame, a fire fighting activity, a paramedic service and a taxi cab service. Completion of these activities grants the player with context-specific rewards. As Tommy builds his criminal empire, the player may purchase a number of properties distributed across the city, some of which act as additional hideouts where weapons can be collected and vehicles can be stored. There are also a variety of businesses which can be purchased, including a pornographic film studio, a taxi company, and several entertainment clubs. Each commercial property has a number of missions attached to it, such as eliminating competition or stealing equipment; once all missions are complete, the property begins to generate an ongoing income available for the player.
Plot
In 1986, mobster Tommy Vercetti (voiced by Ray Liotta) is released from prison after serving a fifteen-year sentence for murder. His boss Sonny Forelli (Tom Sizemore), seeking to establish drug operations in the south, sends Tommy to Vice City to oversee an important drug deal alongside crooked lawyer Ken Rosenberg (William Fichtner). However, the deal is ambushed by unknown assailants, with Tommy and Ken barely escaping it. Angered upon hearing the news, Sonny orders Tommy to recover the drugs, alongside the money he gave to him, under threat of consequences. Seeking information, Ken points Tommy towards retired army colonel Juan Garcia Cortez (Robert Davi), who helped set up the exchange. Expressing regret for the ambush, Cortez promises to find out who masterminded it.
While investigating, Tommy meets with several people who offer him help: music director Kent Paul (Danny Dyer), who maintains connections with the city's criminal underworld; Lance Vance (Philip Michael Thomas), who aided in the deal and lost his brother in the ambush; Texan business tycoon Avery Carrington (Burt Reynolds), who in return enlists Tommy's help with several deals; and drug kingpin Ricardo Diaz (Luis Guzmán), who employs both Tommy and Lance. Eventually, Cortez begins voicing his suspicions that Diaz organised the ambush. Upon further investigation, Lance discovers this to be the truth and, against Tommy's advice, tries to kill Diaz, only to get himself captured. After Tommy saves Lance, the pair find themselves forced to kill Diaz before he can retaliate. With Diaz dead, Tommy takes over his assets and, at Avery's suggestion, works to expand his new criminal empire by forcing businesses to pay him protection money and buying out nearly bankrupt companies to use as fronts for illicit operations. At the same time, Tommy provides assistance to several prominent gang leaders in the hopes they will support his expansion, and helps Cortez flee the city with stolen military equipment.
Eventually, Sonny discovers that Tommy has gained complete control over Vice City's drug trade without cutting the Forellis in. Enraged at his independence, Sonny sends mobsters to forcefully collect money from Tommy's businesses. In response, Tommy kills Sonny's men and severs his ties with him. Later, learning Sonny is personally coming to Vice City to collect what he believes he is owed, Tommy prepares to pay him tribute with counterfeit money. However, Sonny reveals that he was responsible for Tommy's arrest fifteen years prior, and that Lance has betrayed him and allied himself with the Forellis, having felt inadequate in Tommy's presence since his rise to power. A shootout ensues in Tommy's mansion, during which he prevents the Forellis from stealing his money and murders Lance for his betrayal, before finally killing Sonny in a tense standoff. When Ken arrives to a scene of carnage, Tommy quickly reassures him that everything is now fine, as he has finally established himself as the undisputed crime kingpin of Vice City.
Development
Rockstar North began to develop Grand Theft Auto: Vice City in late 2001, around the time of Grand Theft Auto IIIs release. While initial development only involved creating 3D models, executive producer Sam Houser said "it really kicked off at the beginning of 2002" and lasted about nine months. After the release of the Windows version of Grand Theft Auto III, the development team discussed creating a mission pack for the game that would add new weapons, vehicles, and missions. Upon further discussion, the team decided to make this concept a stand-alone game, which became Vice City. The game was announced on 22 May 2002, during the Electronic Entertainment Expo. It was Rockstar North's most expensive game at the time, with a budget of US$5 million. On 5 September 2002, the company announced that the release date of 22 October had been postponed until 29 October to meet product demand. By 15 October 2002, development of Vice City stopped as the game was submitted for manufacturing. Capcom published the game in Japan on 20 May 2004 for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 2. The game was added to the Rockstar Games Launcher in September 2019.
Setting
The game is set in 1986 in fictional Vice City, which is based heavily on the city of Miami. Vice City previously appeared in the original Grand Theft Auto (1997); the development team decided to reuse the location and incorporate ideas from within the studio and the fanbase. They wanted to satirise a location that was not contemporary, unlike Grand Theft Auto IIIs Liberty City. The team wanted to choose a location that had various similarities and differences to New York City—the inspiration of Liberty City—eventually leading them to Miami, which producer Leslie Benzies describes as "a party town, all sun and sea and sex, but with that same dark edge underneath". Sam Houser called it "the grooviest era of crime because it didn't even feel like it was crime ... it was a totally topsy-turvy back-to-front period of time". The team intended to make Vice City a "living, breathing city", for the player to feel like "life still goes on" while the character is inside a building.
The game's look, particularly the clothing and vehicles, reflect its 1980s setting. Many themes are borrowed from the major films Scarface (1983) and Carlito's Way (1993), the latter for its characterisation and portrayal of nuanced criminals. The television series Miami Vice (1984–89) was also a major influence and was regularly watched by the team throughout development. Art director Aaron Garbut used the series as a reference point in creating neon lighting. In recreating a 1980s setting, the team found it "relatively painless" due to the distinct culture of the time period and the team's familiarity of the era. The art team was provided with large volumes of research, as well as reference photographs from other members of the development team. The team organised field research trips to Miami shortly after the development of Grand Theft Auto III, splitting into small teams and observing the streets.
Story and characters
The team spent time "solving [the] riddle" of a speaking protagonist, a notable departure from Grand Theft Auto IIIs silent protagonist Claude. Ray Liotta portrayed protagonist Tommy Vercetti. Liotta described the role as challenging: "You're creating a character that's not there before ... It's so intensive". When recording the role, the team used blue screen in order to allow Liotta to visualise "how it's gonna move". The team ensured that the player felt "real affinity" for Tommy, making the narrative a key development interest. Dan Houser described Tommy as "strong and dangerous and prepared to wait for the right opportunity to arrive". Director Navid Khonsari recalled Liotta frequently complaining on set and found him difficult to work with as a result. "In some sessions he was ... into it, but then sometimes ... he was very dark and couldn't work", said Sam Houser. Following the game's success, Liotta reportedly complained that he was underpaid for the role.
The majority of the game's animations were original, with only a few borrowed from Grand Theft Auto III. For the characters, the team used motion capture and stop motion animation techniques; cutscenes use the former, while gameplay movements use a combination of both techniques. The team encountered difficulty in animating motorcycle animations, due in part to the variety of models. Pedestrian character models use skins in Vice City, allowing the artists to produce more realistic characters. There are 110 unique pedestrian models throughout the game world alongside roughly 50 story characters; each character is rendered using twice the amount of polygons and textures found in Grand Theft Auto III. This also impacted the character physics, improving gameplay aspects such as weapon-hit accuracy. Some character models and scenarios were inspired by films such as The Godfather (1972), and the game's presentation was inspired by action television shows of the 1980s. The interplay between Tommy Vercetti and Lance Vance was crafted to be similar to the relationship of Miami Vices Sonny Crockett and Ricardo Tubbs.
Sound design and music production
The game features 8,000 lines of recorded dialogue, four times the amount in Grand Theft Auto III. It contains over 90 minutes of cutscenes and nine hours of music, with more than 113 songs and commercials. The team was interested in the challenge of creating the game's soundtrack, particularly in contrast to Grand Theft Auto IIIs music, which Sam Houser described as "clearly satirical and its own thing". In developing the radio stations, the team wanted to reinforce the game's setting by collating a variety of songs from the 1980s and therefore performed extensive research. The radio stations were published by Epic Records in seven albums—known collectively as Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Official Soundtrack Box Set—alongside the game in October 2002. Vice City contains about "three times as much" talk radio as Grand Theft Auto III. Producer and talk show host Lazlow Jones stated that the small percentage of station listeners that actually call in are "insane"; in Vice City, the team "bumped it up a notch", emphasising the extremity. Dan Houser felt that the talk stations give depth to the game world.
Critical reception
Initial release
Grand Theft Auto: Vice City was released to critical acclaim. Metacritic calculated an average score of 95 out of 100, indicating "universal acclaim", based on 62 reviews. It is Metacritic's highest-rated PlayStation 2 game of 2002, and the fifth-highest rated PlayStation 2 game overall, tied with a number of others. Reviewers liked the game's sound and music, open-ended gameplay, and open world design, though some criticism was directed at the controls and technical issues. IGNs Douglass Perry declared it "one of the most impressive games of 2002", and GameSpys Raymond Padilla named the experience "deep, devilishly enjoyable, and unique".
Reviewers generally considered the missions an improvement over Grand Theft Auto III, although some noted occasional awkwardness and frustration. IGNs Perry wrote that the game's missions give the player "a stronger feeling of being inside a story within a world that truly exists". Game Informers Matt Helgeson found the missions to be more complex, and AllGames Scott Alan Marriott felt that the storyline was improved as a result. Marriott also found the lead character of Tommy to be more engaging than Grand Theft Auto IIIs Claude; IGNs Perry felt that Rockstar "found the right person and the right choice", and Edge wrote that Tommy "sweats charisma", commending Ray Liotta's performance.
The game's open world design was praised by reviewers, many of whom felt that it contained more detail and felt more alive than its predecessors. GameSpys Padilla made favourable comparisons between Vice City and Grand Theft Auto IIIs Liberty City, noting the former's level of detail. Game Revolutions Ben Silverman wrote that the game's depth is "unparalleled", praising the world's realism and detail, while AllGames Marriott commended the "ambitious scope in design".
Marriott of AllGame named Vice City an "unforgettable listening experience", and Perry of IGN declared the music as "the most impressive list of songs in a game". Many reviewers commended the game's radio stations and talk radio, and felt that the game's collection of licensed 1980s music fit the tone and time period of the world. The voice acting also received praise; GameSpots Jeff Gerstmann named the cast of characters "colorful and memorable", and IGNs Perry found the voice acting "among one of the best of its kind". Game Revolutions Silverman felt that the acting "gives the story credence".
Many reviewers found that the game offers a better variety of vehicles than Grand Theft Auto III, and found them easier to control; GameSpots Gerstmann named the driving "more exciting and dangerous", and IGNs Perry found the motorcycle's controls pleasing. In addition to the vehicle handling, reviewers noted improvements in the targeting and shooting mechanics, although still recognised issues. Helgeson of Game Informer wrote that "targeting is improved to the point where combat can actually be fun".
Some reviewers recognised an improved draw distance over Grand Theft Auto III, although many identified frame rate drops during hardware-intense sequences. The changes in character models polarised reviews; while GameSpys Padilla and IGNs Perry noted the improvement in character models, Eurogamers Tom Bramwell considered it "maddening to see that character ... models haven't been smartened up at all". The game's artificial intelligence and long load times were frequently criticised in reviews, and many reviewers noted the awkward camera angles and environment during gameplay.
Microsoft Windows version
When Vice City was released to Microsoft Windows in May 2003, it received similar critical acclaim. Metacritic calculated an average score of 94 out of 100, indicating "universal acclaim", based on 30 reviews. It was the highest-rated Windows game on Metacritic in 2003. Reviewers liked the visual enhancements, and were generally positive towards the control improvements.
The port's visuals received a positive response from reviewers. AllGames Mark Hoogland praised the improved car details, environment textures, and weather effects; GameSpots Greg Kasavin echoed similar remarks, noting occasional frame rate drops. GameSpys Sal Accardo commended the draw distance improvements, identifying very few texture issues. IGNs Steve Butts found the port's system requirements to be reasonable, unlike Grand Theft Auto III, and praised the faster load times. Eurogamers Martin Taylor was critical of the visuals, stating that the higher resolutions "aren't kind to the overall visual quality", and criticising the hardware requirements.
The control changes of the port were generally well received. Most reviewers found the targeting and shooting mechanics to be improved with mouse and keyboard controls; Eurogamers Taylor called them "far more fluid", and GameSpys Accardo wrote "there's simply no substitute for aiming with a mouse". However, the driving control changes were widely criticised; IGNs Butts called it "crap". AllGames Hoogland found the controls to be "more forgiving" over time.
Mobile version
When Vice City was released on mobile devices in December 2012, it received "generally favorable" reviews. Metacritic calculated an average score of 80 out of 100, based on 19 reviews. Reviewers liked the enhanced visuals, but criticism was directed at the touchscreen controls.
The port's visuals were well received. Destructoids Chris Carter felt that they "[suit] the neon and bright pastel veneer", and wrote that the "new lighting effects and smoothed-out engine really allow the game to pop like it never has before". IGNs Justin Davis praised the updated character models, lighting, and textures, and Touch Arcades Eric Ford noted that the "visuals are improved but not in a drastic manner". NowGamer found that the mobile display improves the visual enjoyment of the game, despite the issues with the original game. Tom Hoggins of The Telegraph identified some issues with character models, but stated "the city looks terrific".
Most reviewers criticised the port's touchscreen controls. Pocket Gamers Mark Brown found them "not ideal", but noted that this was also the case in the original game, while Digital Spys Scott Nichols felt that the game "only complicated [the controls] further". IGNs Davis was thankful for the addition of customisable controls, and wrote that they "make the experience much more controllable", and Touch Arcades Ford greatly appreciated the developer's efforts to "make the situation bearable". Destructoids Carter spoke favourably of the controls, despite noting awkward character movement, while The Telegraphs Hoggins found the controls "far more accomplished" than Grand Theft Auto IIIs mobile port.
Commercial performance
Sales
Within 24 hours of its release, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City sold over 500,000 copies. Within two days of its release, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City sold 1.4 million copies, making it the fastest-selling game in history at the time. It was the highest-selling game of 2002 in the United States; by 2004, the game had sold 5.97 million units, and by December 2007 it had sold 8.20 million. By July 2006, it had sold 7 million copies and earned $300 million in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country, beating Grand Theft Auto III and Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. In February 2005, it was re-released as part of PlayStation's Greatest Hits selection, indicating high sales. In Japan, Vice City sold about 223,000 copies in its first week and over 410,000 by January 2008. The game earned a "Diamond" award in the United Kingdom, indicating over one million sales. By March 2008, the game had sold 17.5 million units worldwide, making it one of the best-selling PlayStation 2 games.
Accolades
Grand Theft Auto: Vice City received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications. It was named the Best PlayStation 2 game at the 1st British Academy Games Awards, the Golden Joystick Awards, and from Entertainment Weekly, IGN, and GameSpot. It was also awarded the prestigious Ultimate Game at the Golden Joystick Awards. The game was awarded Best Action/Adventure Game from the British Academy Games Awards, GameSpot, and IGN. The game's sound also received several awards and nominations: it won Best Music from GameSpot, and was nominated for Best Sound, and it won the award for Sound at the British Academy Games Awards. It won Design at the British Academy Games Awards and was nominated for Best Graphics (Technical and Artistic) by GameSpot. The game was the runner-up for IGN's Reader's Choice Overall Game of the Year and was nominated for GameSpot's award for Best Story. It was awarded Best PC Game at the British Academy Games Awards.
Controversies
Similar to its predecessors, Vice City generated several controversies. It has been labelled as violent and explicit and is considered highly controversial by many special interest groups. Peter Hartlaub of SFGate noted the game's "mindless violence", but simply attributed it to the developers' attempt to achieve accuracy. Jeremy Pope, who worked on various Rockstar games including Vice City, vowed never to work on violent games again due to their portrayal in mainstream media. In Australia, the game was pre-edited to receive an MA15+ classification; an uncensored version was released in the region in 2010, retaining its classification.
In November 2003, the Haitian Centers Council and Haitian Americans for Human Rights staged a protest in New York publicly criticising the game, contending that it invited the player to harm Haitian immigrants and claiming that it depicted Haitians as "thugs, thieves and drug dealers". In response, Rockstar issued a press release apologising and acknowledging the concern, but insisted that the violence should be taken within the context of the game, which also contains violence towards other ethnic groups. When New York mayor Michael Bloomberg threatened distributor Take-Two Interactive with legal action, the company apologised and removed offensive statements from future copies of the game. In January 2004, North Miami's majority Haitian-American council filed an ordinance to ban the selling or renting of violent games to anyone under 18 without parental permission. The proposal, apparently sparked by Vice City, was supported by North Miami mayor Josaphat Celestin, who stated "We don't believe the First Amendment was written to protect those who want to incite violence". The case was later downgraded from federal court to state court.
On 7 June 2003, 18-year-old Devin Moore shot and killed two Alabamian police officers and a dispatcher before fleeing in a patrol car; he was later apprehended. In statements to police, Moore reportedly said "Life is like a video game. Everybody's got to die sometime". A $600 million lawsuit was filed against Rockstar Games, Take-Two Interactive, Sony Computer Entertainment, GameStop, and Wal-Mart, claiming that Moore frequently played Vice City and that his experience with the game led him to commit the crimes. The plaintiffs' attorney, Jack Thompson, claimed the graphic nature of the game caused Moore to commit the murders. Thompson removed himself from the case Strickland v. Sony in November 2005 after being scrutinised by the judge for unprofessional conduct. In March 2006, the Supreme Court rejected an appeal by the defendants to dismiss the case.
In September 2006, Thompson brought another $600 million lawsuit against Cody Posey, Rockstar Games, Take-Two Interactive, and Sony Computer Entertainment. The lawsuit claimed that 14-year-old Posey played the game obsessively before murdering his father, stepmother, and stepsister on a ranch in Hondo, New Mexico. Posey's defence team argued that he was abused by his father and was taking Zoloft at the time of the killings. The suit alleged that the murders would not have taken place if Posey had not obsessively played Vice City. The case was dismissed in December 2007, as New Mexico held no jurisdiction over Sony or Take-Two.
In July 2017, the Psychic Readers Network (PRN) sued Rockstar over the character named Auntie Poulet, alleging similarities between the character and Youree Harris, who voiced the character. Brandon J. Huffman, a lawyer for Odin Law and Media, noted that PRN's lawsuit faced challenges due to the timing of the lawsuit, as the Eleventh Circuit's statute of limitations for copyright infringement is three years; the lawsuit was filed almost 15 years after the game's release. Huffman added that Take-Two could also claim parody or settle out of court, but that it was unlikely to do either initially.
Legacy
Mike Snider of USA Today wrote that Vice City "raised the bar for video games", citing its interactivity, violence, and soundtrack. Kotakus Luke Plunkett and PC Magazines Jeffrey L. Wilson both named Vice City the best game in the series, with the former naming it the "perfect Grand Theft Auto experience". The readers of Official UK PlayStation Magazine named Vice City the fourth-greatest PlayStation title ever released. Vice City also appeared on Japanese magazine Famitsus readers' list of top 100 games in 2006; it was one of the only Western titles on the list. Art director Aaron Garbut felt that, alongside its predecessor Grand Theft Auto III and successor San Andreas, Vice City led the trend of open world games.
Ports
Grand Theft Auto: Vice City was released for Microsoft Windows on 12 May 2003, supporting higher screen resolutions and draw distance, and featuring more detailed textures. A GameCube release was planned, but later cancelled. For its release on the Xbox in December 2003, Vice City was bundled with Grand Theft Auto III in a compilation titled Grand Theft Auto: Double Pack. The Xbox port features custom soundtrack support as well as improved audio, polygon models, and reflections over the previous ports. Double Pack was later bundled with San Andreas in a compilation titled Grand Theft Auto: The Trilogy, released in October 2005. The Trilogy was also released for OS X on 12 November 2010. For the game's tenth anniversary in 2012, War Drum Studios ported Vice City to several iOS and Android devices. The port is almost identical to the Windows version of the game, but with enhanced visuals and a customisable layout. The iOS version was released on 6 December, while the Android version was briefly delayed to 12 December due to technical issues. This port was also released on Fire OS devices on 15 May 2014. An emulated version of Vice City was released on the PlayStation 3 on 30 January 2013 via the PlayStation Network's PS2 Classics; another emulated version was released for the PlayStation 4 on 5 December 2015, upscaled to 1080p and with support for PlayStation Trophies.
A remastered version of The Trilogy subtitled The Definitive Edition, including Vice City, was released for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S on 11 November 2021; versions for Android and iOS devices will release in 2022. Existing versions of the game were removed from digital retailers in preparation for The Definitive Edition, but Rockstar soon announced they would be relisted.
A core team of six fans reverse-engineered the game and released it as an executable in December 2020, having worked on it since May; titled reVC, the project allows the game to be unofficially ported to platforms such as Nintendo Switch, PlayStation Vita, and Wii U. Take-Two issued a DMCA takedown for the project in February 2021. In April, Theo, a New Zealand-based developer who maintained a fork of the source code, filed a counter-notice on GitHub, claiming that the code does not contain any original work owned by Take-Two; per DMCA rules regarding disputes, Theo's content was restored after two weeks. On 10 June 2021, the team behind reVC filed a counter-notice; per DMCA rules regarding disputes, the source code was restored after two weeks. In September 2021, Take-Two filed a lawsuit in California against the programmers, asserting that the projects constitute copyright infringement.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
2002 video games
Action-adventure games
Android (operating system) games
Cancelled GameCube games
Capcom games
Interactive Achievement Award winners
IOS games
MacOS games
Motion capture in video games
Nintendo Switch games
Obscenity controversies in video games
Race-related controversies in video games
Open-world video games
Organized crime video games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation Network games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 5 games
RenderWare games
Rockstar Games games
Rockstar Vienna games
Take-Two Interactive games
Censored video games
Video game prequels
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in 1986
Video games set in Florida
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games produced by Leslie Benzies
Video games with custom soundtrack support
Video games written by Dan Houser
Windows games
Xbox games
Xbox One games
Xbox Series X and Series S games | [
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|
238680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27s%20law | Avogadro's law | Avogadro's law (sometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis or Avogadro's principle) or Avogadro-Ampère's hypothesis is an experimental gas law relating the volume of a gas to the amount of substance of gas present. The law is a specific case of the ideal gas law. A modern statement is:
Avogadro's law states that "equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules."
For a given mass of an ideal gas, the volume and amount (moles) of the gas are directly proportional if the temperature and pressure are constant.
The law is named after Amedeo Avogadro who, in 1812, hypothesized that two given samples of an ideal gas, of the same volume and at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. As an example, equal volumes of gaseous hydrogen and nitrogen contain the same number of atoms when they are at the same temperature and pressure, and observe ideal gas behavior. In practice, real gases show small deviations from the ideal behavior and the law holds only approximately, but is still a useful approximation for scientists.
Mathematical definition
The law can be written as:
or
where
V is the volume of the gas;
n is the amount of substance of the gas (measured in moles);
k is a constant for a given temperature and pressure.
This law describes how, under the same condition of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as follows:
The equation shows that, as the number of moles of gas increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion. Similarly, if the number of moles of gas is decreased, then the volume also decreases. Thus, the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of ideal gas is independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas.
Derivation from the ideal gas law
The derivation of Avogadro's law follows directly from the ideal gas law, i.e.
where R is the gas constant, T is the Kelvin temperature, and P is the pressure (in pascals).
Solving for V/n, we thus obtain
Compare that to
which is a constant for a fixed pressure and a fixed temperature.
An equivalent formulation of the ideal gas law can be written using Boltzmann constant kB, as
where N is the number of particles in the gas, and the ratio of R over kB is equal to the Avogadro constant.
In this form, for V/N is a constant, we have
If T and P are taken at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP), then k′ = 1/n0, where n0 is the Loschmidt constant.
Historical account and influence
Avogadro's hypothesis (as it was known originally) was formulated in the same spirit of earlier empirical gas laws like Boyle's law (1662), Charles's law (1787) and Gay-Lussac's law (1808). The hypothesis was first published by Amadeo Avogadro in 1811, and it reconciled Dalton atomic theory with the "incompatible" idea of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac that some gases were composite of different fundamental substances (molecules) in integer proportions. In 1814, independently from Avogadro, André-Marie Ampère published the same law with similar conclusions. As Ampère was more well known in France, the hypothesis was usually referred there as Ampère's hypothesis, and later also as Avogadro–Ampère hypothesis or even Ampère–Avogadro hypothesis.
Experimental studies carried out by Charles Frédéric Gerhardt and Auguste Laurent on organic chemistry demonstrated that Avogadro's law explained why the same quantities of molecules in a gas have the same volume. Nevertheless, related experiments with some inorganic substances showed seeming exceptions to the law. This apparent contradiction was finally resolved by Stanislao Cannizzaro, as announced at Karlsruhe Congress in 1860, four years after Avogadro's death. He explained that these exceptions were due to molecular dissociations at certain temperatures, and that Avogadro's law determined not only molecular masses, but atomic masses as well.
Ideal gas law
Boyle, Charles and Gay-Lussac laws, together with Avogadro's law, were combined by Émile Clapeyron in 1834, giving rise to the ideal gas law. At the end of the 19th century, later developments from scientists like August Krönig, Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, gave rise to the kinetic theory of gases, a microscopic theory from which the ideal gas law can be derived as an statistical result from the movement of atoms/molecules in a gas.
Avogadro constant
Avogadro's law provides a way to calculate the quantity of gas in a receptacle. Thanks to this discovery, Johann Josef Loschmidt, in 1865, was able for the first time to estimate the size of a molecule. His calculation gave rise to the concept of the Loschmidt constant, a ratio between macroscopic and atomic quantities. In 1910, Millikan's oil drop experiment determined the charge of the electron; using it with the Faraday constant (derived by Michael Faraday in 1834), one is able to determine the number of particles in a mole of substance. At the same time, precision experiments by Jean Baptiste Perrin led to the definition of Avogadro's number as the number of molecules in one gram-molecule of oxygen. Perrin named the number to honor Avogadro for his discovery of the namesake law. Later standardization of the International System of Units led to the modern definition of the Avogadro constant.
Molar volume
Taking STP to be 101.325 kPa and 273.15 K, we can find the volume of one mole of gas:
For 101.325 kPa and 273.15 K, the molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.4127 dm3mol−1.
See also
Notes
References
Gas laws
Amount of substance
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238682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicity | Simplicity | Simplicity is the state or quality of being simple. Something easy to understand or explain seems simple, in contrast to something complicated. Alternatively, as Herbert A. Simon suggests, something is simple or complex depending on the way we choose to describe it. In some uses, the label "simplicity" can imply beauty, purity, or clarity. In other cases, the term may suggest a lack of nuance or complexity relative to what is required.
The concept of simplicity is related to the field of epistemology and philosophy of science (e.g., in Occam's razor). Religions also reflect on simplicity with concepts such as divine simplicity. In human lifestyles, simplicity can denote freedom from excessive possessions or distractions, such as having a simple living style.
Some other information
In some contextual uses, "simplicity" can imply beauty, purity, or clarity. In other cases, the term may have negative connotations, as when referring to people as simpletons.
In philosophy of science
The concept of simplicity has been related to in the field of epistemology and philosophy of science.
According to Occam's razor, all other things being equal, the simplest theory is most likely true. In other words, simplicity is a meta-scientific criterion by which scientists evaluate competing theories.
A distinction is often made by many persons. between two senses of simplicity: syntactic simplicity (the number and complexity of hypotheses), and ontological simplicity (the number and complexity of things postulated). These two aspects of simplicity are often referred to as elegance and parsimony respectively.
John von Neumann defines simplicity as an important esthetic criterion of scientific models:
In religion
Simplicity is a theme in the Christian religion. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, God is infinitely simple. The Roman Catholic and Anglican religious orders of Franciscans also strive for personal simplicity. Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) practice the Testimony of Simplicity, which involves simplifying one's life to focus on what is important and disregard or avoid what is least important. Simplicity is tenet of Anabaptistism, and some Anabaptist groups like the Bruderhof, make an effort to live simply.
Lifestyle
In the context of human lifestyle, simplicity can denote freedom from excessive material consumption and psychological distractions.
Notes
See also
Concision
Complexity
Degree of difficulty
Elegance
KISS principle
Minimalism
Occam's razor
Simple living
Simplicity theory
Testimony of Simplicity
Worse is better
John Maeda – 10 Laws of Simplicity
References
Craig, E. Ed. (1998) Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London, Routledge. simplicity (in Scientific Theory) p. 780–783
Dancy, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed.(1999) A Companion to Epistemology. Malden, Massachusetts, Blackwell Publishers Inc. simplicity p. 477–479.
Dowe, D. L., S. Gardner & G. Oppy (2007), "Bayes not Bust! Why Simplicity is no Problem for Bayesians", Br. J. Philos. Sci., Vol. 58, Dec. 2007, 46pp. [Among other things, this paper compares MML with AIC.]
Edwards, P., Ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York, The Macmillan Company. simplicity p. 445–448.
Hickey, Rich (2011) Simple Made Easy
Kim, J. a. E. S., Ed.(2000). A Companion to Metaphysics. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers. simplicity, parsimony p. 461–462.
Maeda, J., (2006) Laws of Simplicity, MIT Press
Newton-Smith, W. H., Ed. (2001). A Companion to the Philosophy of Science. Malden, Massachusetts, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. simplicity p. 433–441.
Richmond, Samuel A.(1996) "A Simplification of the Theory of Simplicity", Synthese 107 373–393.
Sarkar, S. Ed. (2002). The Philosophy of Science—An Encyclopedia. London, Routledge. simplicity
Schmölders, Claudia (1974). Simplizität, Naivetät, Einfalt – Studien zur ästhetischen Terminologie in Frankreich und in Deutschland, 1674–1771. PDF, 37MB
Scott, Brian(1996) "Technical Notes on a Theory of Simplicity", Synthese 109 281–289.
Simon, Herbert A (1962) The Architecture of Complexity Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106, 467–482.
Wilson, R. A. a. K., Frank C., (1999). The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press. parsimony and simplicity p. 627–629.
If Not God, Then What? (2007) by Joshua Fost, p. 93
External links
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Abstraction
Simple living
Razors (philosophy) | [
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238684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone%20Park%2C%20Queens | Ozone Park, Queens | Ozone Park is a neighborhood in the southwestern section of the New York City borough of Queens, New York, United States. It is next to the Aqueduct Racetrack in South Ozone Park, a popular spot for Thoroughbred racing and home to the Resorts World Casino & Hotel. A diverse neighborhood known for its large Italian-American population, Ozone Park has become a more diverse community made up of Caribbean, Hispanic, and East/South Asian residents.
While New York City neighborhoods do not have formal boundaries, Ozone Park is considered to have a northern border at Atlantic Avenue; the southern border is North Conduit Avenue, the western border is the Brooklyn/Queens border line; and the eastern border is up to 108th Street and Aqueduct Racetrack.
Ozone Park is in two community districts, divided by Liberty and 103rd Avenues. The southern half of the neighborhood is in Queens Community District 10, which is covered by New York City Police Department's 106th Precinct, while the northern half is in Queens Community District 9 and covered by the NYPD's 102nd Precinct. Its ZIP Codes are 11416 and 11417.
Etymology
The name "Ozone Park" was chosen for the development to "lure buyers with the idea of refreshing breezes blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean to a park-like community". The "Ozone" in the neighborhood's name referred to a park-like area with cool ocean breezes, an archaic definition that is not related to the present-day definition of the alternate form of oxygen.
History
Early history
An area now part of Ozone Park that pre-dated that community was called "Centreville". It was founded in the 1840s and was centered around Centreville Street and the Centreville Community Church. Part of Ozone Park is still called "Centreville".
In the 1870s, two immigrants from France named Charles Lalance and Florian Grosjean developed a factory in Woodhaven. The factory manufactured cooking materials and porcelain enamelware, but burned down in 1876. Lalance and Grosjean built a second factory, as well as a hundred houses for workers, at Atlantic Avenue and 92nd Street in modern-day Ozone Park.
During the 1870s, an economic depression caused residents of New York City to look for better housing opportunities in the suburbs of Manhattan and Brooklyn, where housing would be cheaper. In 1880, the New York, Woodhaven & Rockaway Railroad began service on the Montauk Branch and Rockaway Beach Branch from Long Island City to Howard Beach, Queens. Two years later, two wealthy partners named Benjamin W. Hitchcock and Charles C. Denton bought plots of land around what would later become the Woodhaven Junction station. The Rockaway Beach Branch's Ozone Park station opened in 1883. Advertisements for Ozone Park proclaimed that the development had "pure air" and "no malaria". Ozone Park was called "the Harlem of Brooklyn" because at the time, the borough of Queens did not yet exist, and Harlem was a thriving Jewish and Italian neighborhood in Manhattan. Hitchcock and Denton chose the "Ozone Park" name because in the 1880s, ozone was associated with breezes from the sea, and the Atlantic Ocean was located nearby.
Development
The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company's Fulton Street elevated railroad line above Liberty Avenue opened in 1915, with a station at Lefferts Avenue (now Lefferts Boulevard). The elevated train system only charged a 5-cent fare. The nickel fare was another major factor in the development of Ozone Park, as residents could travel across the entire elevated and subway system for 5 cents. After the opening of the elevated line, real estate developers began buying up all the lots on either side of Liberty Avenue in hopes the new station would attract more people to want to live in Ozone Park.
Extensive housing construction occurred in the 1920s. The houses featured enclosed front porches, open back porches and stained-glass windows in the living rooms. Most of the houses were single family detached or semi-detached (sharing a common wall - often called a twin or a semi) built to roughly the same plan, with the living room, dining room and kitchen all in line and three bedrooms and a bath upstairs. The stairs were usually in the dining room. One of the builders was named Weyerman.
During the 1920s, Woodhaven Avenue was the main north–south artery in the area, though its southern terminus was at Liberty Avenue. In conjunction with the extension of Woodhaven Avenue to the Rockaway Peninsula, the avenue was widened to and renamed Woodhaven Boulevard. The extension itself, named Cross Bay Boulevard, opened to traffic in 1925.
Because Ozone Park was now more accessible by car, the land became much more valuable, leading to a construction boom . Between 1921 and 1930, Ozone Park saw a population increase of over 180% from 40,000 to 112,950 people.
With this increase in population came the need for schools and sources of entertainment. In response to this demand came the construction of John Adams High School in 1930. This school was built just as the construction boom slowed down and right before the Great Depression. The 1,800-seat Cross-Bay Movie Theatre opened in December 1924, and a 2,000-seat theater at 102nd Street and Liberty Avenue was also built during this time.
One area of Ozone Park is known as "The Hole", and includes the area bounded by 75th (Ruby) Street, South Conduit Avenue, 78th Street and Linden Boulevard. It is named as such because the houses in this area were built below grade, with a ground level that is lower than the surrounding area. The area is run-down, and suffers from frequent flooding. In the 1930s, the city of New York decided to install sewers and sewer lines in Ozone Park to stop the serious flooding that was a major problem. In order to install the sewers, the houses had to be raised almost an entire floor. Owners were given a stipend to raise their homes but some chose not to do so. The first floor in some of the non-raised homes subsequently became basements. In 2004, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection made plans to connect the neighborhood to the city's sewer system to combat the flooding by raising the land.
Later years
The Centreville Community Church merged with the United Methodist Church of Ozone Park in 1957 and a new church, the Community Methodist Church of Ozone Park, was built at the Southeast corner of Sutter Avenue and Cross Bay Boulevard. It was completed for Christmas 1958. The old church and the property that surrounded it were sold to Aqueduct Racetrack and the old, historic church was torn down in mid-1959.
The Lalance and Grosjean factory closed in the 1960s and was left to deteriorate over two decades. In 1981, the factory complex was designated as a New York City Landmark. What remains is now "adaptively reused" as a medical clinic. Only the factory's old clock tower remains.
In 1996, a scandal broke surrounding two Ozone Park Jewish cemeteries, Mokom Sholom Cemetery and Bayside Cemetery, which share a coterminous tract bounded by 80th and 84th Streets and Liberty and Pitkin Avenues (the adjoining Acacia Cemetery was not involved). Allegations of the re-using of graves of long-dead mostly infants and small children from the mid-to-late 19th century, for re-sale to recent Russian Jewish immigrants, were made against the owners of Mokom Sholom. In addition, Mokom Sholom and Bayside had also been damaged by a combination of vandals, grave-robbers, and self-styled necromancers, though the former was affected to a greater extent. WABC-TV reported on damage to Mokom Sholom, while damage to Bayside was repaired through philanthropic efforts, headed by the late city councilman Al C. Stabile.
Demographics
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Ozone Park was 21,376, an increase of 324 (1.5%) from the 21,052 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .
The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 30.5% (6,511) White, 5.6% (1,188) African American, 0.4% (82) Native American, 19.4% (4,143) Asian, 0.0% (2) Pacific Islander, 2.6% (559) from other races, and 3.6% (779) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 37.9% (8,112) of the population.
The entirety of Community Board 10, which comprises Howard Beach, southern Ozone Park (south of 103rd Avenue), and South Ozone Park, had 125,603 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 81.7 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are youth and middle-aged adults: 22% are between the ages of between 0–17, 28% between 25 and 44, and 28% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 9% and 13% respectively.
As of 2017, the median household income in Community Board 10 was $73,891. In 2018, an estimated 19% of Ozone Park and Howard Beach residents lived in poverty, compared to 19% in all of Queens and 20% in all of New York City. One in ten residents (10%) were unemployed, compared to 8% in Queens and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 56% in Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, higher than the boroughwide and citywide rates of 53% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Ozone Park and Howard Beach are considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.
Demographic changes
Since its beginnings, Ozone Park has been largely populated by various groups of immigrants. The first wave were French immigrants associated with a pot factory on Atlantic Avenue. Germans and the Irish made up a large part of Ozone Park in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Eventually Italians started to migrate into Ozone Park from East New York, Brooklyn. Most of the current Italians in the neighborhood are originally from Brooklyn. A significant Polish population also developed based around Saint Stanislaus Bishop and Martyr Roman Catholic Church and its associated elementary school.
At the turn of the 21st century immigrants from Latin America, South Asia (Bangladesh), the West Indies, and South America (Indo-Guyanese & Indo-Surinamese) moved in, adding a diverse atmosphere to the neighborhood, which is especially apparent along 101st Avenue and Liberty Avenue near the neighborhood's border with Richmond Hill. The neighborhood remains largely Italian-American; however, these new arrivals have made Ozone Park become one of the fastest-growing and most ethnically diverse neighborhoods in New York City. Aside from these larger groups, there is a large Hispanic population in Ozone Park, mainly concentrated in the northern portion of the neighborhood near the Woodhaven border, and an African-American minority, spread throughout the neighborhood.
Residents vary from working-class to middle-class families, who own or rent private homes on the neighborhood's tree-lined residential streets.
Subsections
Census data from the late 18th century shows how Ozone Park was a sparsely populated neighborhood because of the lack of transportation. By 1915, the Fulton Street Line opened, connecting Ozone Park with the rest of New York City, thus starting the enormous influx by the Italians. Ozone Park then formed many smaller sub-neighborhoods with specific identities.
Other sections
Centreville, which still uses this name, is bordered by Aqueduct on the east, Cross Bay Boulevard on the west, North Conduit Avenue on the south, and Rockaway Boulevard on the north. Liberty Heights is a triangular area bordered by Liberty Avenue on the south, diagonal-running 101st Avenue (Jerome Avenue) from the southwest to the northeast, and Woodhaven Boulevard to the east. Balsam Village was named after Balsam Farms, which sold off parcels of land for development, and is bordered by Liberty Avenue and North Conduit Avenue on the north, 84th Street on the west, and Cross Bay Boulevard on the east.
Tudor Village, in southwestern Ozone Park, is extremely small, consisting of approximately two hundred and fifty homes; it spans only five residential streets and two avenues. Its population consists mostly of Italian Americans. Its residents consist of approximately six hundred people. The village was incorporated in the late 1800s and has since flourished. Tudor Village hosts suburban tree-lined streets with what is referred to as the "Tudor Malls" in its center, boasting floral arrangements throughout.
The village is also home to Tudor Park, a recreational park which features a baseball field, racquetball courts, picnic area, and a fountain as well as a playground. Located on the southeast end of the village are another baseball field and benches and shaded areas for resting. Tudor Village is on the border of Howard Beach.
Also inside of Ozone Park are areas named Magnolia Court (95th St & 150th Rd), Park Village (Tahoe St & North Conduit Ave), Kaybern Court (97-52 75th St), Ozone Plaza (84-23 103rd Ave), Dumont Village (Dumont Ave & 85th St), Greentree Condos (Albert Road & 95 St), Albert Gardens (94-20 Albert Rd), Newlyn Estates (85-22 Dumont Ave), and Sterling Manor (105-25 88th St).
Police and crime
Howard Beach, southern Ozone Park (south of 103rd Avenue), and South Ozone Park are patrolled by the 106th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 103-53 101 Street. The 106th Precinct ranked 26th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. The rate of car thefts is high because of the area's proximity to the Belt Parkway, a major travel corridor. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 32 per 100,000 people, Howard Beach and South Ozone Park's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 381 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.
The 106th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 81.3% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 6 murders, 16 rapes, 183 robberies, 246 felony assaults, 133 burglaries, 502 grand larcenies, and 97 grand larcenies auto in 2018.
In the 1980s, the 106th Precinct became the source and scene of several police brutality incidents, including the stun gunning of high schooler Mark Davidson on April 17, 1985, who was arrested on marijuana possession charges. The officer accused of stun-gunning Davidson was later acquitted.
Fire safety
Ozone Park contains a New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire station, Engine Co. 285/Ladder Co. 142, at 103-17 98th Street.
Health
, preterm births are more common in Ozone Park and Howard Beach than in other places citywide, though births to teenage mothers are less common. In Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, there were 97 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 14.2 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Ozone Park and Howard Beach have a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 8%, lower than the citywide rate of 12%.
The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Ozone Park and Howard Beach is , less than the city average. Twelve percent of Ozone Park and Howard Beach residents are smokers, which is lower than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, 27% of residents are obese, 19% are diabetic, and 34% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 22%, 8%, and 23% respectively. In addition, 21% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.
Eighty-three percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is less than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 77% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," about equal to the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, there are 8 bodegas.
The nearest major hospitals are Brookdale University Hospital and Medical Center in Brooklyn and Jamaica Hospital in Jamaica.
Post office and ZIP Codes
Ozone Park is covered by the ZIP Code 11416 north of 103rd Avenue and 11417 south of 103rd Avenue. The United States Post Office operates both zip codes out of the Ozone Park Station at 91-11 Liberty Avenue.
Transportation
Numerous New York City Bus routes stop in the area, such as the . The runs through the neighborhood without stopping. The New York City Subway's IND Fulton Street Line () and IND Rockaway Line () also run through the neighborhood.
Politics and government
In the 2016 Presidential election, most precincts in Ozone Park voted for the Democratic Party candidate, Hillary Clinton, over her Republican Party opponent Donald Trump by a margin of over 50%.
Ozone Park is split between 5th, 7th and 8th congressional districts. These districts are represented by Gregory Meeks, Nydia Velasquez, and Hakeem Jeffries respectively, .
Ozone Park is part of the 10th, 12th, and 15th State Senate districts, represented by James Sanders Jr., Michael N. Gianaris, and Joseph Addabbo Jr. respectively, and the 23rd, 31st, and 38th State Assembly districts, represented by Stacey Pheffer Amato, Khaleel Anderson, and Jenifer Rajkumar respectively. It is part of Districts 28 and 32 in the New York City Council, respectively represented by Adrienne Adams and Joann Ariola.
Education
Ozone Park and Howard Beach generally have a lower rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . While 28% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 23% have less than a high school education and 49% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 39% of Queens residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Ozone Park and Howard Beach students excelling in math rose from 33% in 2000 to 61% in 2011, and reading achievement rose from 37% to 48% during the same time period.
Ozone Park and Howard Beach's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is less than the rest of New York City. In Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, 18% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, lower than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 82% of high school students in Ozone Park and Howard Beach graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%.
Schools
Public schools
PS 63 Old South School (grades Pre-K to 5, and special education)
PS 64 Joseph P. Addabbo School (grades K-5, special education)
PS 65 The Raymond York Elementary School (grades K-5)
MS 137 America's School-Heroes (grades 6–8)
MS 202 Robert H. Goddard (grades 6–8)
JHS 210 Elizabeth Blackwell (grades 6–8)
PS 316 Queens Explorers Elementary School (grades Pre-K to 5, and special education)
Robert H. Goddard High School of Technology and Communications (grades 9–12)
John Adams High School (grades 9–12)
High School for Construction Trades, Engineering and Architecture (grades 9–12)
PS 377 (grades 3K, Pre-K to 1)
PS 335 (grades Pre-K to 5)
Private schools
St Elizabeth's RC Elementary
Divine Mercy Catholic Academy (originally Nativity B.V.M. and St. Stanislaus Schools, which were combined renamed in 2007)
Little Dolphin Pre-School
Our Lady of Perpetual Help Academy RC Elementary
Closed schools
Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary Parish School
Our Lady of Wisdom RC Secondary
St. Mary Gate of Heaven RC Elementary
St. Stanislaus Parish School
Library
The Queens Public Library operates the Ozone Park branch at 92-24 Rockaway Boulevard.
In popular culture
Ozone Park has served as the setting and subject of numerous media works.
Film
A Bronx Tale (1993) features a scene set at Aqueduct Racetrack.
A Shock to the System (1990) contains a scene filmed in the old Aqueduct Racetrack station.
Boss of Bosses (2001, starring Chazz Palminteri) features a scene with John Gotti in Ozone Park at the Bergin Hunt and Fish Club.
Goodfellas (1990) is an Academy Award-winning gangster film that takes place in and around Ozone Park.
Holy Rollers (2010) features external shots of the Gold and Zimmerman houses.
Lucky Number Slevin (2006) contains a scene at the beginning, wherein the father and son are at Aqueduct Racetrack.
This Is My Life (1992) starring Julie Kavner as Dottie Ingels living in Ozone Park
Television
Getting Gotti (1994 TV film starring Lorraine Bracco) is based on a real-life woman, Diane Giacalone, who grew up in Ozone Park and through the years watched Gotti rise to power on the streets of Ozone Park; she eventually became an Assistant US Attorney and built up a case against him.
The Perfect Crimes History Channel documentary features the Lufthansa heist and discusses the Lucchese crime family crews living, killing and running businesses in Ozone Park.
The Sopranos character, Rusty Millio (played by Frankie Valli), lives in Ozone Park, as revealed in the episode "Live Free or Die".
Notable events
Pope John Paul II celebrated mass for 75,000 people at Ozone Park's Aqueduct Racetrack in October 1995.
Notable people
Notable current and former residents of Ozone Park include:
Ray Abruzzo (born 1954), actor who appeared in The Sopranos
Joseph Patrick Addabbo (1925-1986), Congressman; P.S. 64 was named after him.
Joseph Addabbo Jr. (born 1964), member of the New York State Senate from the 15th District and of the New York City Council from the 32nd Council District. He is the son of Joseph Patrick Addabbo.
Pedro Beato (born 1986), relief pitcher of the Baltimore Orioles
Charles Camarda (born 1952), astronaut, Mission Specialist on STS-114.
The Capris, 1950s Doo Wop group.
Kvitka Cisyk (1953–1998), singer and actress
Gerald Edelman (1929–2014), 1972 winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Elizabeth Eden (1946–1987), real life character of Leon from the 1975 film Dog Day Afternoon.
Peter Facinelli (born 1973), actor
Mary Flaherty (1926–2000), player for two seasons in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League.
John Frascatore (born 1970), baseball player
John Gotti (1940–2002), Mafia boss (headed the Gambino crime family)
Neal Heaton (born 1960), former MLB baseball pitcher
Carol Heiss (born 1940), Olympics figure skater
Father Rob Keighron (born 1980), Roman Catholic priest, co-host/co-producer of The Catholic Guy
Jack Kerouac (1922–1969) - writer, lived in Ozone Park with his parents at 133-01 Cross Bay Boulevard for 11 years after discharge from the U.S. Navy in 1943. He wrote his first novel, The Town and the City, as well as the quintessential On the Road, while living in Ozone Park. His friends jokingly called him "The Wizard of Ozone Park".
Cyndi Lauper (born 1953), singer/actress.
Jack Lord (1920-1998), actor, star of the 1960s Hawaii Five-0 TV series, attended John Adams High School located on Rockaway Boulevard in Ozone Park
Joe Lo Truglio (born 1970), actor
Bernadette Peters (born 1948), actress/singer.
Peter Polaco (born 1973), professional wrestler better known by his ring name, "Justin Credible".
Tom Postilio, real estate broker and star of HGTV's Selling New York.
Nick Scotti (born 1966), actor, singer and model.
Ronald Spadafora (1954–2018), FDNY Chief
Anthony Trentacosta (1940–2005), Gambino crime family member
Eric Ulrich (born 1985), member of the New York City Council from the 32nd Council District.
Thomas Von Essen (born 1945), Senior Vice President at Giuliani Partners and 30th New York City Fire Commissioner.
Debra Wilson (born 1962), actress, comedian, voice actress and TV presenter
Notes
References
External links
Neighborhoods in Queens, New York
Little Italys in the United States | [
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|
238685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrin | Fibrin | Fibrin (also called Factor Ia) is a fibrous, non-globular protein involved in the clotting of blood. It is formed by the action of the protease thrombin on fibrinogen, which causes it to polymerize. The polymerized fibrin, together with platelets, forms a hemostatic plug or clot over a wound site.
When the lining of a blood vessel is broken, platelets are attracted, forming a platelet plug. These platelets have thrombin receptors on their surfaces that bind serum thrombin molecules, which in turn convert soluble fibrinogen in the serum into fibrin at the wound site. Fibrin forms long strands of tough insoluble protein that are bound to the platelets. Factor XIII completes the cross-linking of fibrin so that it hardens and contracts. The cross-linked fibrin forms a mesh atop the platelet plug that completes the clot.
Role in disease
Excessive generation of fibrin due to activation of the coagulation cascade leads to thrombosis, the blockage of a vessel by an agglutination of red blood cells, platelets, polymerized fibrin and other components. Ineffective generation or premature lysis of fibrin increases the likelihood of a hemorrhage.
Dysfunction or disease of the liver can lead to a decrease in the production of fibrin's inactive precursor, fibrinogen, or to the production of abnormal fibrinogen molecules with reduced activity (dysfibrinogenaemia). Hereditary abnormalities of fibrinogen (the gene is carried on chromosome 4) are both quantitative and qualitative in nature and include afibrinogenaemia, hypofibrinogenaemia, dysfibrinogenaemia, and hypodysfibrinogenemia.
Reduced, absent, or dysfunctional fibrin is likely to render patients as hemophiliacs.
Physiology
Fibrin from different animal sources is generally glycosylated with complex type biantennary asparagine-linked glycans. Variety is found in the degree of core fucosylation and in the type of sialic acid and galactose linkage.
Structure
The image at the left is a crystal structure of the double-d fragment from human fibrin with two bound ligands. The experimental method used to obtain the image was X-ray diffraction, and it has a resolution of 2.30 Å. The structure is mainly made up of single alpha helices shown in red and beta sheets shown in yellow. The two blue structures are the bound ligands. The chemical structures of the ligands are Ca2+ ion, alpha-D-mannose (C6H12O6), and D-glucosamine (C6H13NO5).
See also
D-dimer
Fibrin glue
Fibrin scaffold
Fibrinolysis
References
External links
TGW1916.net, Defibrinated blood harvested from sheep (video)
Fibrin: Molecule of the Month, by David Goodsell, RCSB Protein Data Bank
Coagulation system
Blood proteins
Acute-phase proteins | [
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|
238686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20number | Binary number | A binary number is a number expressed in the base-2 numeral system or binary numeral system, a method of mathematical expression which uses only two symbols: typically "0" (zero) and "1" (one).
The base-2 numeral system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Each digit is referred to as a bit, or binary digit. Because of its straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used by almost all modern computers and computer-based devices, as a preferred system of use, over various other human techniques of communication, because of the simplicity of the language.
History
The modern binary number system was studied in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries by Thomas Harriot, Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, and Gottfried Leibniz. However, systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, and India. Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching.
Egypt
The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions (not related to the binary number system) and Horus-Eye fractions (so called because many historians of mathematics believe that the symbols used for this system could be arranged to form the eye of Horus, although this has been disputed). Horus-Eye fractions are a binary numbering system for fractional quantities of grain, liquids, or other measures, in which a fraction of a hekat is expressed as a sum of the binary fractions 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64. Early forms of this system can be found in documents from the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt, approximately 2400 BC, and its fully developed hieroglyphic form dates to the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt, approximately 1200 BC.
The method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. In this method, multiplying one number by a second is performed by a sequence of steps in which a value (initially the first of the two numbers) is either doubled or has the first number added back into it; the order in which these steps are to be performed is given by the binary representation of the second number. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which dates to around 1650 BC.
China
The I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique.
It is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang.
Eight trigrams (Bagua) and a set of 64 hexagrams ("sixty-four" gua), analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China.
The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong (1011–1077) rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, although he did not intend his arrangement to be used mathematically. Viewing the least significant bit on top of single hexagrams in Shao Yong's square and reading along rows either from bottom right to top left with solid lines as 0 and broken lines as 1 or from top left to bottom right with solid lines as 1 and broken lines as 0 hexagrams can be interpreted as sequence from 0 to 63.
<ref name="Shao Yong’s ”Xiantian Tu'‘">{{cite book|last1=Zhonglian|first1=Shi|last2=Wenzhao|first2=Li|last3=Poser|first3=Hans|title=Leibniz' Binary System and Shao Yong's "Xiantian Tu in :Das Neueste über China: G.W. Leibnizens Novissima Sinica von 1697 : Internationales Symposium, Berlin 4. bis 7. Oktober 1997|date=2000|
publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|location=Stuttgart|isbn=3515074481|pages=165–170|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkIpP2SsGlIC&pg=PA165|ref=ID3515074481}}</ref>
India
The Indian scholar Pingala (c. 2nd century BC) developed a binary system for describing prosody.W. S. Anglin and J. Lambek, The Heritage of Thales, Springer, 1995, He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), making it similar to Morse code.Math for Poets and Drummers (pdf, 145KB) They were known as laghu (light) and guru (heavy) syllables.
Pingala's Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra (8.23) describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. "Chandaḥśāstra" literally translates to science of meters in Sanskrit. The binary representations in Pingala's system increases towards the right, and not to the left like in the binary numbers of the modern positional notation. In Pingala's system, the numbers start from number one, and not zero. Four short syllables "0000" is the first pattern and corresponds to the value one. The numerical value is obtained by adding one to the sum of place values.
Other cultures
The residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa and Asia.
Sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy.
Western predecessors to Leibniz
In the late 13th century Ramon Llull had the ambition to account for all wisdom in every branch of human knowledge of the time. For that purpose he developed a general method or 'Ars generalis' based on binary combinations of a number of simple basic principles or categories, for which he has been considered a predecessor of computing science and artificial intelligence.
In 1605 Francis Bacon discussed a system whereby letters of the alphabet could be reduced to sequences of binary digits, which could then be encoded as scarcely visible variations in the font in any random text. Importantly for the general theory of binary encoding, he added that this method could be used with any objects at all: "provided those objects be capable of a twofold difference only; as by Bells, by Trumpets, by Lights and Torches, by the report of Muskets, and any instruments of like nature". (See Bacon's cipher.)
John Napier in 1617 described a system he called location arithmetic for doing binary calculations using a non-positional representation by letters.
Thomas Harriot investigated several positional numbering systems, including binary, but did not publish his results; they were found later among his papers.
Possibly the first publication of the system in Europe was by Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, in 1700.
Leibniz and the I Ching
Leibniz studied binary numbering in 1679; his work appears in his article Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire (published in 1703).
The full title of Leibniz's article is translated into English as the "Explanation of Binary Arithmetic, which uses only the characters 1 and 0, with some remarks on its usefulness, and on the light it throws on the ancient Chinese figures of Fu Xi". Leibniz's system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system. An example of Leibniz's binary numeral system is as follows:
0 0 0 1 numerical value 20
0 0 1 0 numerical value 21
0 1 0 0 numerical value 22
1 0 0 0 numerical value 23
Leibniz interpreted the hexagrams of the I Ching as evidence of binary calculus.
As a Sinophile, Leibniz was aware of the I Ching, noted with fascination how its hexagrams correspond to the binary numbers from 0 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired. The relation was a central idea to his universal concept of a language or characteristica universalis, a popular idea that would be followed closely by his successors such as Gottlob Frege and George Boole in forming modern symbolic logic.
Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own religious beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibniz's theology. He believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing.
Later developments
In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a landmark paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra. His logical calculus was to become instrumental in the design of digital electronic circuitry.
In 1937, Claude Shannon produced his master's thesis at MIT that implemented Boolean algebra and binary arithmetic using electronic relays and switches for the first time in history. Entitled A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, Shannon's thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design.
In November 1937, George Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs, completed a relay-based computer he dubbed the "Model K" (for "Kitchen", where he had assembled it), which calculated using binary addition. Bell Labs authorized a full research program in late 1938 with Stibitz at the helm. Their Complex Number Computer, completed 8 January 1940, was able to calculate complex numbers. In a demonstration to the American Mathematical Society conference at Dartmouth College on 11 September 1940, Stibitz was able to send the Complex Number Calculator remote commands over telephone lines by a teletype. It was the first computing machine ever used remotely over a phone line. Some participants of the conference who witnessed the demonstration were John von Neumann, John Mauchly and Norbert Wiener, who wrote about it in his memoirs.
The Z1 computer, which was designed and built by Konrad Zuse between 1935 and 1938, used Boolean logic and binary floating point numbers.
Representation
Any number can be represented by a sequence of bits (binary digits), which in turn may be represented by any mechanism capable of being in two mutually exclusive states. Any of the following rows of symbols can be interpreted as the binary numeric value of 667:
The numeric value represented in each case is dependent upon the value assigned to each symbol. In the earlier days of computing, switches, punched holes and punched paper tapes were used to represent binary values. In a modern computer, the numeric values may be represented by two different voltages; on a magnetic disk, magnetic polarities may be used. A "positive", "yes", or "on" state is not necessarily equivalent to the numerical value of one; it depends on the architecture in use.
In keeping with customary representation of numerals using Arabic numerals, binary numbers are commonly written using the symbols 0 and 1. When written, binary numerals are often subscripted, prefixed or suffixed in order to indicate their base, or radix. The following notations are equivalent:
100101 binary (explicit statement of format)
100101b (a suffix indicating binary format; also known as Intel convention)
100101B (a suffix indicating binary format)
bin 100101 (a prefix indicating binary format)
1001012 (a subscript indicating base-2 (binary) notation)
%100101 (a prefix indicating binary format; also known as Motorola convention)
0b100101 (a prefix indicating binary format, common in programming languages)
6b100101 (a prefix indicating number of bits in binary format, common in programming languages)
#b100101 (a prefix indicating binary format, common in Lisp programming languages)
When spoken, binary numerals are usually read digit-by-digit, in order to distinguish them from decimal numerals. For example, the binary numeral 100 is pronounced one zero zero, rather than one hundred, to make its binary nature explicit, and for purposes of correctness. Since the binary numeral 100 represents the value four, it would be confusing to refer to the numeral as one hundred (a word that represents a completely different value, or amount). Alternatively, the binary numeral 100 can be read out as "four" (the correct value), but this does not make its binary nature explicit.
Counting in binary
Counting in binary is similar to counting in any other number system. Beginning with a single digit, counting proceeds through each symbol, in increasing order. Before examining binary counting, it is useful to briefly discuss the more familiar decimal counting system as a frame of reference.
Decimal counting
Decimal counting uses the ten symbols 0 through 9. Counting begins with the incremental substitution of the least significant digit (rightmost digit) which is often called the first digit. When the available symbols for this position are exhausted, the least significant digit is reset to 0, and the next digit of higher significance (one position to the left) is incremented (overflow), and incremental substitution of the low-order digit resumes. This method of reset and overflow is repeated for each digit of significance. Counting progresses as follows:
000, 001, 002, ... 007, 008, 009, (rightmost digit is reset to zero, and the digit to its left is incremented)
010, 011, 012, ...
...
090, 091, 092, ... 097, 098, 099, (rightmost two digits are reset to zeroes, and next digit is incremented)
100, 101, 102, ...
Binary counting
Binary counting follows the same procedure, except that only the two symbols 0 and 1 are available. Thus, after a digit reaches 1 in binary, an increment resets it to 0 but also causes an increment of the next digit to the left:
0000,
0001, (rightmost digit starts over, and next digit is incremented)
0010, 0011, (rightmost two digits start over, and next digit is incremented)
0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, (rightmost three digits start over, and the next digit is incremented)
1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 ...
In the binary system, each digit represents an increasing power of 2, with the rightmost digit representing 20, the next representing 21, then 22, and so on. The value of a binary number is the sum of the powers of 2 represented by each "1" digit. For example, the binary number 100101 is converted to decimal form as follows:
1001012 = [ ( 1 ) × 25 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 24 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 23 ] + [ ( 1 ) × 22 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 21 ] + [ ( 1 ) × 20 ]
1001012 = [ 1 × 32 ] + [ 0 × 16 ] + [ 0 × 8 ] + [ 1 × 4 ] + [ 0 × 2 ] + [ 1 × 1 ]
1001012 = 3710
Fractions
Fractions in binary arithmetic terminate only if 2 is the only prime factor in the denominator. As a result, 1/10 does not have a finite binary representation (10 has prime factors 2 and 5). This causes 10 × 0.1 not to precisely equal 1 in floating-point arithmetic. As an example, to interpret the binary expression for 1/3 = .010101..., this means: 1/3 = 0 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 + 0 × 2−3 + 1 × 2−4 + ... = 0.3125 + ... An exact value cannot be found with a sum of a finite number of inverse powers of two, the zeros and ones in the binary representation of 1/3 alternate forever.
Binary arithmetic
Arithmetic in binary is much like arithmetic in other numeral systems. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed on binary numerals.
Addition
The simplest arithmetic operation in binary is addition. Adding two single-digit binary numbers is relatively simple, using a form of carrying:
0 + 0 → 0
0 + 1 → 1
1 + 0 → 1
1 + 1 → 0, carry 1 (since 1 + 1 = 2 = 0 + (1 × 21) )
Adding two "1" digits produces a digit "0", while 1 will have to be added to the next column. This is similar to what happens in decimal when certain single-digit numbers are added together; if the result equals or exceeds the value of the radix (10), the digit to the left is incremented:
5 + 5 → 0, carry 1 (since 5 + 5 = 10 = 0 + (1 × 101) )
7 + 9 → 6, carry 1 (since 7 + 9 = 16 = 6 + (1 × 101) )
This is known as carrying. When the result of an addition exceeds the value of a digit, the procedure is to "carry" the excess amount divided by the radix (that is, 10/10) to the left, adding it to the next positional value. This is correct since the next position has a weight that is higher by a factor equal to the radix. Carrying works the same way in binary:
0 1 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 1
-------------
= 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 36
In this example, two numerals are being added together: 011012 (1310) and 101112 (2310). The top row shows the carry bits used. Starting in the rightmost column, 1 + 1 = 102. The 1 is carried to the left, and the 0 is written at the bottom of the rightmost column. The second column from the right is added: 1 + 0 + 1 = 102 again; the 1 is carried, and 0 is written at the bottom. The third column: 1 + 1 + 1 = 112. This time, a 1 is carried, and a 1 is written in the bottom row. Proceeding like this gives the final answer 1001002 (3610).
When computers must add two numbers, the rule that:
x xor y = (x + y) mod 2
for any two bits x and y allows for very fast calculation, as well.
Long carry method
A simplification for many binary addition problems is the Long Carry Method or Brookhouse Method of Binary Addition. This method is generally useful in any binary addition in which one of the numbers contains a long "string" of ones. It is based on the simple premise that under the binary system, when given a "string" of digits composed entirely of ones (where is any integer length), adding 1 will result in the number 1 followed by a string of zeros. That concept follows, logically, just as in the decimal system, where adding 1 to a string of 9s will result in the number 1 followed by a string of 0s:
Binary Decimal
1 1 1 1 1 likewise 9 9 9 9 9
+ 1 + 1
——————————— ———————————
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Such long strings are quite common in the binary system. From that one finds that large binary numbers can be added using two simple steps, without excessive carry operations. In the following example, two numerals are being added together: 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 02 (95810) and 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 12 (69110), using the traditional carry method on the left, and the long carry method on the right:
Traditional Carry Method Long Carry Method
vs.
carry the 1 until it is one digit past the "string" below
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 cross out the "string",
+ 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 + 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 and cross out the digit that was added to it
——————————————————————— ——————————————————————
= 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
The top row shows the carry bits used. Instead of the standard carry from one column to the next, the lowest-ordered "1" with a "1" in the corresponding place value beneath it may be added and a "1" may be carried to one digit past the end of the series. The "used" numbers must be crossed off, since they are already added. Other long strings may likewise be cancelled using the same technique. Then, simply add together any remaining digits normally. Proceeding in this manner gives the final answer of 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 12 (164910). In our simple example using small numbers, the traditional carry method required eight carry operations, yet the long carry method required only two, representing a substantial reduction of effort.
Addition table
The binary addition table is similar, but not the same, as the truth table of the logical disjunction operation . The difference is that , while .
Subtraction
Subtraction works in much the same way:
0 − 0 → 0
0 − 1 → 1, borrow 1
1 − 0 → 1
1 − 1 → 0
Subtracting a "1" digit from a "0" digit produces the digit "1", while 1 will have to be subtracted from the next column. This is known as borrowing. The principle is the same as for carrying. When the result of a subtraction is less than 0, the least possible value of a digit, the procedure is to "borrow" the deficit divided by the radix (that is, 10/10) from the left, subtracting it from the next positional value.
* * * * (starred columns are borrowed from)
1 1 0 1 1 1 0
− 1 0 1 1 1
----------------
= 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
* (starred columns are borrowed from)
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
- 1 0 1 0 1 1
----------------
= 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Subtracting a positive number is equivalent to adding a negative number of equal absolute value. Computers use signed number representations to handle negative numbers—most commonly the two's complement notation. Such representations eliminate the need for a separate "subtract" operation. Using two's complement notation subtraction can be summarized by the following formula:
Multiplication
Multiplication in binary is similar to its decimal counterpart. Two numbers and can be multiplied by partial products: for each digit in , the product of that digit in is calculated and written on a new line, shifted leftward so that its rightmost digit lines up with the digit in that was used. The sum of all these partial products gives the final result.
Since there are only two digits in binary, there are only two possible outcomes of each partial multiplication:
If the digit in is 0, the partial product is also 0
If the digit in is 1, the partial product is equal to
For example, the binary numbers 1011 and 1010 are multiplied as follows:
1 0 1 1 ()
× 1 0 1 0 ()
---------
0 0 0 0 ← Corresponds to the rightmost 'zero' in
+ 1 0 1 1 ← Corresponds to the next 'one' in
+ 0 0 0 0
+ 1 0 1 1
---------------
= 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Binary numbers can also be multiplied with bits after a binary point:
1 0 1 . 1 0 1 (5.625 in decimal)
× 1 1 0 . 0 1 (6.25 in decimal)
-------------------
1 . 0 1 1 0 1 ← Corresponds to a 'one' in
+ 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 ← Corresponds to a 'zero' in
+ 0 0 0 . 0 0 0
+ 1 0 1 1 . 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 0 . 1
---------------------------
= 1 0 0 0 1 1 . 0 0 1 0 1 (35.15625 in decimal)
See also Booth's multiplication algorithm.
Multiplication table
The binary multiplication table is the same as the truth table of the logical conjunction operation .
Division
Long division in binary is again similar to its decimal counterpart.
In the example below, the divisor is 1012, or 5 in decimal, while the dividend is 110112, or 27 in decimal. The procedure is the same as that of decimal long division; here, the divisor 1012 goes into the first three digits 1102 of the dividend one time, so a "1" is written on the top line. This result is multiplied by the divisor, and subtracted from the first three digits of the dividend; the next digit (a "1") is included to obtain a new three-digit sequence:
1
___
1 0 1 ) 1 1 0 1 1
− 1 0 1
-----
0 0 1
The procedure is then repeated with the new sequence, continuing until the digits in the dividend have been exhausted:
1 0 1
___
1 0 1 ) 1 1 0 1 1
− 1 0 1
-----
1 1 1
− 1 0 1
-----
0 1 0
Thus, the quotient of 110112 divided by 1012 is 1012, as shown on the top line, while the remainder, shown on the bottom line, is 102. In decimal, this corresponds to the fact that 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2.
Aside from long division, one can also devise the procedure so as to allow for over-subtracting from the partial remainder at each iteration, thereby leading to alternative methods which are less systematic, but more flexible as a result.
Square root
The process of taking a binary square root digit by digit is the same as for a decimal square root and is explained here. An example is:
1 0 0 1
---------
√ 1010001
1
---------
101 01
0
--------
1001 100
0
--------
10001 10001
10001
-------
0
Bitwise operations
Though not directly related to the numerical interpretation of binary symbols, sequences of bits may be manipulated using Boolean logical operators. When a string of binary symbols is manipulated in this way, it is called a bitwise operation; the logical operators AND, OR, and XOR may be performed on corresponding bits in two binary numerals provided as input. The logical NOT operation may be performed on individual bits in a single binary numeral provided as input. Sometimes, such operations may be used as arithmetic short-cuts, and may have other computational benefits as well. For example, an arithmetic shift left of a binary number is the equivalent of multiplication by a (positive, integral) power of 2.
Conversion to and from other numeral systems
Decimal to Binary
To convert from a base-10 integer to its base-2 (binary) equivalent, the number is divided by two. The remainder is the least-significant bit. The quotient is again divided by two; its remainder becomes the next least significant bit. This process repeats until a quotient of one is reached. The sequence of remainders (including the final quotient of one) forms the binary value, as each remainder must be either zero or one when dividing by two. For example, (357)10 is expressed as (101100101)2.
Binary to Decimal
Conversion from base-2 to base-10 simply inverts the preceding algorithm. The bits of the binary number are used one by one, starting with the most significant (leftmost) bit. Beginning with the value 0, the prior value is doubled, and the next bit is then added to produce the next value. This can be organized in a multi-column table. For example, to convert 100101011012 to decimal:
The result is 119710. The first Prior Value of 0 is simply an initial decimal value. This method is an application of the Horner scheme.
The fractional parts of a number are converted with similar methods. They are again based on the equivalence of shifting with doubling or halving.
In a fractional binary number such as 0.110101101012, the first digit is , the second , etc. So if there is a 1 in the first place after the decimal, then the number is at least , and vice versa. Double that number is at least 1. This suggests the algorithm: Repeatedly double the number to be converted, record if the result is at least 1, and then throw away the integer part.
For example, 10, in binary, is:
Thus the repeating decimal fraction 0.... is equivalent to the repeating binary fraction 0.... .
Or for example, 0.110, in binary, is:
This is also a repeating binary fraction 0.0... . It may come as a surprise that terminating decimal fractions can have repeating expansions in binary. It is for this reason that many are surprised to discover that 0.1 + ... + 0.1, (10 additions) differs from 1 in floating point arithmetic. In fact, the only binary fractions with terminating expansions are of the form of an integer divided by a power of 2, which 1/10 is not.
The final conversion is from binary to decimal fractions. The only difficulty arises with repeating fractions, but otherwise the method is to shift the fraction to an integer, convert it as above, and then divide by the appropriate power of two in the decimal base. For example:
Another way of converting from binary to decimal, often quicker for a person familiar with hexadecimal, is to do so indirectly—first converting ( in binary) into ( in hexadecimal) and then converting ( in hexadecimal) into ( in decimal).
For very large numbers, these simple methods are inefficient because they perform a large number of multiplications or divisions where one operand is very large. A simple divide-and-conquer algorithm is more effective asymptotically: given a binary number, it is divided by 10k, where k is chosen so that the quotient roughly equals the remainder; then each of these pieces is converted to decimal and the two are concatenated. Given a decimal number, it can be split into two pieces of about the same size, each of which is converted to binary, whereupon the first converted piece is multiplied by 10k and added to the second converted piece, where k is the number of decimal digits in the second, least-significant piece before conversion.
Hexadecimal
Binary may be converted to and from hexadecimal more easily. This is because the radix of the hexadecimal system (16) is a power of the radix of the binary system (2). More specifically, 16 = 24, so it takes four digits of binary to represent one digit of hexadecimal, as shown in the adjacent table.
To convert a hexadecimal number into its binary equivalent, simply substitute the corresponding binary digits:
3A16 = 0011 10102
E716 = 1110 01112
To convert a binary number into its hexadecimal equivalent, divide it into groups of four bits. If the number of bits isn't a multiple of four, simply insert extra 0 bits at the left (called padding). For example:
10100102 = 0101 0010 grouped with padding = 5216
110111012 = 1101 1101 grouped = DD16
To convert a hexadecimal number into its decimal equivalent, multiply the decimal equivalent of each hexadecimal digit by the corresponding power of 16 and add the resulting values:
C0E716 = (12 × 163) + (0 × 162) + (14 × 161) + (7 × 160) = (12 × 4096) + (0 × 256) + (14 × 16) + (7 × 1) = 49,38310
Octal
Binary is also easily converted to the octal numeral system, since octal uses a radix of 8, which is a power of two (namely, 23, so it takes exactly three binary digits to represent an octal digit). The correspondence between octal and binary numerals is the same as for the first eight digits of hexadecimal in the table above. Binary 000 is equivalent to the octal digit 0, binary 111 is equivalent to octal 7, and so forth.
Converting from octal to binary proceeds in the same fashion as it does for hexadecimal:
658 = 110 1012
178 = 001 1112
And from binary to octal:
1011002 = 101 1002 grouped = 548
100112 = 010 0112 grouped with padding = 238
And from octal to decimal:
658 = (6 × 81) + (5 × 80) = (6 × 8) + (5 × 1) = 5310
1278 = (1 × 82) + (2 × 81) + (7 × 80) = (1 × 64) + (2 × 8) + (7 × 1) = 8710
Representing real numbers
Non-integers can be represented by using negative powers, which are set off from the other digits by means of a radix point (called a decimal point in the decimal system). For example, the binary number 11.012 means:
For a total of 3.25 decimal.
All dyadic rational numbers have a terminating binary numeral—the binary representation has a finite number of terms after the radix point. Other rational numbers have binary representation, but instead of terminating, they recur'', with a finite sequence of digits repeating indefinitely. For instance
The phenomenon that the binary representation of any rational is either terminating or recurring also occurs in other radix-based numeral systems. See, for instance, the explanation in decimal. Another similarity is the existence of alternative representations for any terminating representation, relying on the fact that 0.111111... is the sum of the geometric series 2−1 + 2−2 + 2−3 + ... which is 1.
Binary numerals which neither terminate nor recur represent irrational numbers. For instance,
0.10100100010000100000100... does have a pattern, but it is not a fixed-length recurring pattern, so the number is irrational
1.0110101000001001111001100110011111110... is the binary representation of , the square root of 2, another irrational. It has no discernible pattern.
See also
Balanced ternary
Binary code
Binary-coded decimal
Finger binary
Gray code
IEEE 754
Linear-feedback shift register
Offset binary
Quibinary
Reduction of summands
Redundant binary representation
Repeating decimal
Two's complement
References
External links
Binary System at cut-the-knot
Conversion of Fractions at cut-the-knot
Sir Francis Bacon's BiLiteral Cypher system, predates binary number system.
Binary arithmetic
Computer arithmetic
Elementary arithmetic
Gottfried Leibniz
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238687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrinogen | Fibrinogen | Fibrinogen (factor I) is a glycoprotein complex, produced in the liver, that circulates in the blood of all vertebrates. During tissue and vascular injury, it is converted enzymatically by thrombin to fibrin and then to a fibrin-based blood clot. Fibrin clots function primarily to occlude blood vessels to stop bleeding. Fibrin also binds and reduces the activity of thrombin. This activity, sometimes referred to as antithrombin I, limits clotting. Fibrin also mediates blood platelet and endothelial cell spreading, tissue fibroblast proliferation, capillary tube formation, and angiogenesis and thereby promotes revascularization and wound healing.
Reduced and/or dysfunctional fibrinogens occur in various congenital and acquired human fibrinogen-related disorders. These disorders represent a group of rare conditions in which individuals may present with severe episodes of pathological bleeding and thrombosis; these conditions are treated by supplementing blood fibrinogen levels and inhibiting blood clotting, respectively. These disorders may also be the cause of certain liver and kidney diseases.
Fibrinogen is a "positive" acute-phase protein, i.e. its blood levels rise in response to systemic inflammation, tissue injury, and certain other events. It is also elevated in various cancers. Elevated levels of fibrinogen in inflammation as well as cancer and other conditions have been suggested to be the cause of thrombosis and vascular injury that accompanies these conditions.
Genes
Fibrinogen is made and secreted into the blood primarily by liver hepatocyte cells. Endothelium cells are also reported to make small amounts of fibrinogen, but this fibrinogen has not been fully characterized; blood platelets and their precursors, bone marrow megakaryocytes, while once thought to make fibrinogen, are now known to take up and store but not make the glycoprotein. The final secreted, hepatocyte-derived glycoprotein is composed of two trimers, with each trimer composed of three different polypeptide chains, the fibrinogen alpha chain (also termed the Aα or α chain) encoded by the FGA gene, the fibrinogen beta chain (also termed the Bβ or β chain) encoded by the FGB gene, and the fibrinogen gamma chain (also termed the γ chain) encoded by the FGG gene. All three genes are located on the long or "q" arm of human chromosome 4 (at positions 4q31.3, 4q31.3, and 4q32.1, respectively).
Alternate splicing of the FGA gene produces a minor expanded isoform of Aα termed AαE which replaces Aα in 1–3% of circulating fibrinogen; alternate splicing of FGG produces a minor isoform of γ termed γ' which replaces γ in 8–10% of circulating fibrinogen; FGB is not alternatively spliced. Hence, the final fibrinogen product is composed principally of Aα, Bβ, and γ chains with a small percentage of it containing AαE and/or γ' chains in place of Aα and/or γ chains, respectively. The three genes are transcribed and translated in co-ordination by a mechanism(s) which remains incompletely understood. The coordinated transcription of these three fibrinogen genes is rapidly and greatly increased by systemic conditions such as inflammation and tissue injury. Cytokines produced during these systemic conditions, such as interleukin 6 and interleukin 1β, appear responsible for up-regulating this transcription.
Structure
The Aα, Bβ, and γ chains are transcribed and translated coordinately on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), with their peptide chains being passed into the ER while their signal peptide portions are removed. Inside the ER, the three chains are assembled initially into Aαγ and Bβγ dimers, then to AαBβγ trimers, and finally to (AαBβγ)2 heximers, i.e. two AαBβγ trimers joined together by numerous disulfide bonds. The heximer is transferred to the Golgi where it is glycosylated, hydroxylated, sulfated, and phosphorylated to form the mature fibrinogen glycoprotein that is secreted into the blood. Mature fibrinogen is arranged as a long flexible protein array of three nodules held together by a very thin thread which is estimated to have a diameter between 8 and 15 Ångstrom (Å). The two end nodules (termed D regions or domains) are alike in consisting of Bβ and γ chains, while the center slightly smaller nodule (termed the E region or domain) consists of two intertwined Aα alpha chains. Measurements of shadow lengths indicate that nodule diameters are in the range 50 to 70 Å. The length of the dried molecule is 475 ± 25 Å.
The fibrinogen molecule circulates as a soluble plasma glycoprotein with a typical molecular weight of ~340-~420 kDa (kilo-daltons) (depending on its content of Aα verses AαE, γ versus γ' chains, and carbohydrate [~4-~10%w/w]). It has a rod-like shape with dimensions of 9 × 47.5 × 6 nm and has a negative net charge at physiological pH (its isoelectric point ~5.5-~6.5, e.g. pH 5.8). The normal concentration of fibrinogen in blood plasma is 150–400 mg/dl, with levels appreciably below or above this range associated with pathological bleeding and/or thrombosis. Fibrinogen has a circulating half-life of ~4 days.
Blood clot formation
During blood clotting, thrombin attacks the N-terminus of the Aα and Bβ chains in fibrinogen to form individual fibrin strands plus two small polypeptides, fibrinopeptides A and B derived from these respective chains. The individual fibrin strands then polymerize and are crosslinked with other fibrin strands by blood factor XIIIa to form an extensive interconnected fibrin network that is the basis for the formation of a mature fibrin clot. In addition to forming fibrin, fibrinogen also promotes blood clotting by forming bridges between, and activating, blood platelets through binding to their GpIIb/IIIa surface membrane fibrinogen receptor.
Fibrin participates in limiting blood clot formation and degrading formed blood clots by at least two important mechanisms. First, it possesses three low affinity binding sites (two in fibrin's E domain; one in its D domain) for thrombin; this binding sequesters thrombin from attacking fibrinogen. Second, fibrin's Aα chain accelerates by at least 100-fold the amount of plasmin activated by tissue plasminogen activator; plasmin breaks-down blood clots. Plasmin's attack on fibrin releases D-dimers (also termed DD dimers). The detection of these dimers in blood is used as a clinical test for fibrinolysis.
Fibrinogen disorders
Several disorders in the quantity and/or quality of fibrinogen cause pathological bleeding, pathological blood clotting, and/or the deposition of fibrinogen in the liver, kidneys, and other tissues.
Congenital afibrinogenemia
Congenital afibrinogenemia is a rare and generally autosomal recessive inherited disorder in which blood does not clot due to a lack of fibrinogen (plasma fibrinogen levels typically) but sometimes detected at extremely low levels, e.g. <10 mg/dl. This severe disorder is usually caused by mutations in both the maternal and paternal copies of either the FGA, FGB, or FBG gene. The mutations have virtually complete genetic penetrance with essentially all homozygous bearers experiencing frequent and sometimes life-threatening episodes of bleeding and/or thrombosis. Pathological bleeding occurs early in life, for example often being seen at birth with excessive hemorrhage from the navel.
Congenital hypofibrinogenemia
Congenital hypofibrinogenemia is a rare inherited disorder in which blood may not clot normally due to reduced levels of fibrinogen (plasma fibrinogen typically <150 but >50 mg/dl). The disorder reflects a disruptive mutation in only one of the two parental FGA, FGB, or FBG genes and has a low degree of genetic penetrance, i.e. only some family members with the defective gene ever exhibit symptoms. Symptoms of the disorder, which more often occurs in individuals with lower plasma fibrinogen levels, include episodic bleeding and thrombosis that typically begin in late childhood or adulthood.
Fibrinogen storage disease
Fibringogen storage disease is an extremely rare disorder. It is a form of congenital hypofibrinogenemia in which certain specific hereditary mutations in one copy of the FGG gene causes its fibrinogen product to accumulate in, and damage, liver cells. The disorder has not reported with FGA or FGB mutations. Symptoms of these FGG mutations have a low level of penetrance. The plasma fibrinogen levels (generally <150 but >50 mg/dl) detected in this disorder reflect the fibrinogen made by the normal gene. Fibrinogen storage disease may lead to abnormal bleeding and thrombosis but is distinguished by also sometimes leading to liver cirrhosis.
Congenital dysfibrinogenemia
Congenital dysfibrinogenemia is a rare autosomal dominant inherited disorder in which plasma fibrinogen is composed of a dysfunctional fibrinogen made by a mutated FGA, FGB, or FBG gene inherited from one parent plus a normal fibrinogen made by a normal gene inherited from the other parent. As a reflection of this duality, plasma fibrinogen levels measured by immunological methods are normal (>150 mg/dl) but are c. 50% lower when measured by clot formation methods. The disorder exhibits reduced penetrance, with only some individuals with the abnormal gene showing symptoms of abnormal bleeding and thrombosis.
Hereditary fibrinogen Aα-Chain amyloidosis
Hereditary fibrinogen Aα-Chain amyloidosis is an autosomal dominant extremely rare inherited disorder caused by a mutation in one of the two copies of the FGA gene. It is a form of congenital dysfibrinogenemia in which certain mutations lead to the production of an abnormal fibrinogen that circulates in the blood while gradually accumulating in the kidney. This accumulation leads over time to one form of familial renal amyloidosis. Plasma fibrinogen levels are similar to that seen in other forms of congenital dysfibrinogenemia. Fibrinogen Aα-Chain amyloidosis has not associated with abnormal bleeding or thrombosis.
Acquired dysfibrinogenemia
Acquired dysfibrinogenemia is a rare disorder in which circulating fibrinogen is composed at least in part of a dysfunctional fibrinogen due to various acquired diseases. One well-studied cause of the disorder is severe liver disease including hepatoma, chronic active hepatitis, cirrhosis, and jaundice due to biliary tract obstruction. The diseased liver synthesizes a fibrinogen which has a normally functional amino acid sequence but is incorrectly glycosylated (i.e. has a wrong amount of sugar residues) added to it during its passage through the Golgi. The incorrectly glycosalated fibrinogen is dysfunctional and may cause pathological episodes of bleeding and/or blood clotting. Other, less well understood, causes are plasma cell dyscrasias and autoimmune disorders in which a circulating abnormal immunoglobulin or other protein interferes with fibrinogen function, and rare cases of cancer and medication (isotretinoin, glucocorticoids, and antileukemic drugs) toxicities.
Congenital hypodysfibrinogenemia
Congenital hypodysfibrinogenemia is a rare inherited disorder in which low levels (i.e. <150 mg/dl) of immunologically detected plasma fibrinogen are composed at least in part of a dysfunctional fibrinogen. The disorder reflects mutations typically in both inherited fibrinogen genes, one of which produces a dysfunctional fibrinogen, while the other produces low amounts of fibrinogen. The disorder, while having reduced penetrance, is usually more severe than congenital dysfibrinogenemia, but like the latter disorder, causes pathological episodes of bleeding and/or blood clotting.
Cryofibrinogenemia
Cryofibrinogenemia is an acquired disorder in which fibrinogen precipitates at cold temperatures and may lead to the intravascular precipitation of fibrinogen, fibrin, and other circulating proteins, thereby causing the infarction of various tissues and bodily extremities. Cryoglobulonemia may occur without evidence of an underlying associated disorders, i.e. primary cryoglobulinemia (also termed essential cryoglobulinemia) or, far more commonly, with evidence of an underlying disease, i.e. secondary cryoglobulonemia. Secondary cryofibrinoenemia can develop in individuals suffering infection (c. 12% of cases), malignant or premalignant disorders (21%), vasculitis (25%), and autoimmune diseases (42%). In these cases, cryofibinogenema may or may not cause tissue injury and/or other symptoms and the actual cause-effect relationship between these diseases and the development of cryofibrinogenmia is unclear. Cryofibrinogenemia can also occur in association with the intake of certain drugs.
Acquired hypofibrinogenemia
Acquired hypofibrinogenemia is a deficiency in circulating fibrinogen due to excessive consumption that may occur as a result of trauma, certain phases of disseminated intravascular coagulation, and sepsis. It may also occur as a result of hemodilution as a result of blood losses and/or transfusions with packed red blood cells or other fibrinogen-poor whole blood replacements.
Laboratory tests
Clinical analyses of the fibrinogen disorders typically measure blood clotting using the following successive steps: Higher levels are, amongst others, associated with cardiovascular disease (>3.43 g/l). It may be elevated in any form of inflammation, as it is an acute-phase protein; for example, it is especially apparent in human gingival tissue during the initial phase of periodontal disease.
Blood clotting is measured using standard tests, e.g. prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, thrombin time, and/or reptilase time. Low fibrinogen levels and dysfunctional fibrinogens usually prolong these times, whereas the lack of fibrinogen (i.e. afibrinogenemia) renders these times infinitely prolonged.
Fibrinogen levels are measured in the plasma isolated from venous blood by immunoassays, or through clotting assays such as the Clauss fibrinogen assay or prothrombin based methods. Normal levels being about 1.5-3 g/l, depending on the method used. These levels are normal in dysfibrinogenemia (i.e. 1.5-3 g/l), decreased in hypofibrinogenemia and hypodysfibrinogenemia (i.e. <1.5 g/l), and absent (i.e. <0.02 g/l) in afibrinogenemia.
Functional levels of fibrinogen are measured on plasma induced to clot. The levels of clotted fibrinogen in this test should be decreased in hypofibrinogenemia, hypodysfibrinogenemia, and dysfibrinogenemia and undetectable in afibrinogenemia.
Functional fibrinogen/antigenic fibrinogen levels are <0.7 g/l in hypofibrinogenemia, hypodysfibrinogenemia, and dysfibrogenemia, and not applicable in afibrinogenemia.
Fibrinogen analysis can also be tested on whole-blood samples by thromboelastometry. This analysis investigates the interaction of coagulation factors, their inhibitors, anticoagulant drugs, and blood cells (specifically, platelets), during clotting and subsequent fibrinolysis as it occurs in whole blood. The test provides information on hemostatic efficacy and maximum clot firmness to give additional information on fibrin-platelet interactions and the rate of fibrinolysis (see Thromboelastometry).
Scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy of in vitro-formed clots can give information on fibrin clot density and architecture.
The fibrinogen uptake test or fibrinogen scan was formerly used to detect deep vein thrombosis. In this method, radioactively labeled fibrinogen, typically with radioiodine, is given to individuals, incorporated into a thrombus, and detected by scintigraphy.
Hyperfibrinogenemia
Levels of functionally normal fibrinogen increase in pregnancy to an average of 4.5 gram/liter (g/l) compared to an average of 3 g/l in non-pregnant people. They may also increase in various forms of cancer, particularly gastric, lung, prostate, and ovarian cancers. In these cases, the hyperfibrinogenemia may contribute to the development of pathological thrombosis. A particular pattern of migratory superficial vein thrombosis, termed trousseau's syndrome, occurs in, and may precede all other signs and symptoms of, these cancers. Hyperfibrinogenemia has also been linked as a cause of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn and post-operative thrombosis. High fibrinogen levels had been proposed as a predictor of hemorrhagic complications during catheter-directed thrombolysis for acute or subacute peripheral native artery and arterial bypass occlusions. However, a systematic review of the available literature until January 2016 found that the predictive value of plasma fibrinogen level for predicting hemorrhagic complications after catheter-directed thrombolysis is unproven.
History
Paul Morawitz in 1905 described fibrinogen.
References
External links
Jennifer McDowall/Interpro: [ https://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2006_11/Page1.htm Protein of the Month: Fibrinogen.]
Peter D'Eustachio/reactome: fibrinogen → fibrin monomer + 2 fibrinopeptide A + 2 fibrinopeptide B
Khan Academy Medicine (on YouTube): Clotting 1 - How do we make blood clots?
Acute-phase proteins
Blood proteins
Coagulation system
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|
238689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meselson%E2%80%93Stahl%20experiment | Meselson–Stahl experiment | The Meselson–Stahl experiment is an experiment by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl in 1958 which supported Watson and Crick's hypothesis that DNA replication was semiconservative. In semiconservative replication, when the double stranded DNA helix is replicated, each of the two new double-stranded DNA helices consisted of one strand from the original helix and one newly synthesized. It has been called "the most beautiful experiment in biology." Meselson and Stahl decided the best way to tag the parent DNA would be to change one of the atoms in the parent DNA molecule. Since nitrogen is found in the nitrogenous bases of each nucleotide, they decided to use an isotope of nitrogen to distinguish between parent and newly copied DNA. The isotope of nitrogen had an extra neutron in the nucleus, which made it heavier.
Hypothesis
Three hypotheses had been previously proposed for the method of replication of DNA.
In the semiconservative hypothesis, proposed by Watson and Crick, the two strands of a DNA molecule separate during replication. Each strand then acts as a template for synthesis of a new strand.
The conservative hypothesis proposed that the entire DNA molecule acted as a template for the synthesis of an entirely new one. According to this model, histone proteins bind to the DNA, revolving the strand and exposing the nucleotide bases (which normally line the interior) for hydrogen bonding.
The dispersive hypothesis is exemplified by a model proposed by Max Delbrück, which attempts to solve the problem of unwinding the two strands of the double helix by a mechanism that breaks the DNA backbone every 10 nucleotides or so, untwists the molecule, and attaches the old strand to the end of the newly synthesized one. This would synthesize the DNA in short pieces alternating from one strand to the other.
Each of these three models makes a different prediction about the distribution of the "old" DNA in molecules formed after replication. In the conservative hypothesis, after replication, one molecule is the entirely conserved "old" molecule, and the other is all newly synthesized DNA. The semiconservative hypothesis predicts that each molecule after replication will contain one old and one new strand. The dispersive model predicts that each strand of each new molecule will contain a mixture of old and new DNA.
Experimental procedure and results
Nitrogen is a major constituent of DNA. 14N is by far the most abundant isotope of nitrogen, but DNA with the heavier (but non-radioactive) 15N isotope is also functional.
E. coli was grown for several generations in a medium containing NH4Cl with 15N. When DNA is extracted from these cells and centrifuged on a salt (CsCl) density gradient, the DNA separates out at the point at which its density equals that of the salt solution. The DNA of the cells grown in 15N medium had a higher density than cells grown in normal 14N medium. After that, E. coli cells with only 15N in their DNA were transferred to a 14N medium and were allowed to divide; the progress of cell division was monitored by microscopic cell counts and by colony assay.
DNA was extracted periodically and was compared to pure 14N DNA and 15N DNA. After one replication, the DNA was found to have intermediate density. Since conservative replication would result in equal amounts of DNA of the higher and lower densities (but no DNA of an intermediate density), conservative replication was excluded. However, this result was consistent with both semiconservative and dispersive replication. Semiconservative replication would result in double-stranded DNA with one strand of 15N DNA, and one of 14N DNA, while dispersive replication would result in double-stranded DNA with both strands having mixtures of 15N and 14N DNA, either of which would have appeared as DNA of an intermediate density.
The authors continued to sample cells as replication continued. DNA from cells after two replications had been completed was found to consist of equal amounts of DNA with two different densities, one corresponding to the intermediate density of DNA of cells grown for only one division in 14N medium, the other corresponding to DNA from cells grown exclusively in 14N medium. This was inconsistent with dispersive replication, which would have resulted in a single density, lower than the intermediate density of the one-generation cells, but still higher than cells grown only in 14N DNA medium, as the original 15N DNA would have been split evenly among all DNA strands. The result was consistent with the semiconservative replication hypothesis.
References
External links
Matthew Meselson's Short Talk: "The Semi-Conservative Replication of DNA"
DNA From The Beginning An animation which explains the experiment.
The Meselson–Stahl Experiment Another useful animation.
Meselson and Stahl Experiment English Animation
Description of the Meselson-Stahl Experiment written by Nathan H. Lents, including original data from Visionlearning
DNA
DNA replication
Genetics experiments
History of genetics
1958 in biology | [
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238691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptoglobin | Haptoglobin | Haptoglobin (abbreviated as Hp) is the protein that in humans is encoded by the HP gene. In blood plasma, haptoglobin binds to free hemoglobin, compared to hemopexin that binds to free heme, released from erythrocytes with high affinity, and thereby inhibits its deleterious oxidative activity. The haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex will then be removed by the reticuloendothelial system (mostly the spleen).
In clinical settings, the haptoglobin assay is used to screen for and monitor intravascular hemolytic anemia. In intravascular hemolysis, free hemoglobin will be released into circulation and hence haptoglobin will bind the hemoglobin. This causes a decline in haptoglobin levels.
Function
Hemoglobin that has been released into the blood plasma by damaged red blood cells has harmful effects. The HP gene encodes a preproprotein that is processed to yield both alpha and beta chains, which subsequently combines as a tetramer to produce haptoglobin. Haptoglobin functions to bind the free plasma hemoglobin, which allows degradative enzymes to gain access to the hemoglobin while at the same time preventing loss of iron through the kidneys and protecting the kidneys from damage by hemoglobin.
The cellular receptor target of Hp is the monocyte/macrophage scavenger receptor, CD163. Following Hb-Hp binding to CD163, cellular internalization of the complex leads to globin and heme metabolism, which is followed by adaptive changes in antioxidant and iron metabolism pathways and macrophage phenotype polarization.
Differentiation with hemopexin
When hemoglobin is released from RBCs within the physiologic range of hemopexin, the potential deleterious effects of hemoglobin are prevented. However, during hyper-hemolytic conditions or with chronic hemolysis, hemoglobin is depleted and readily distributes to tissues where it might be exposed to oxidative conditions. In such conditions, heme can be released from ferric (Fe3+-bound) hemoglobin. The free heme can then accelerate tissue damage by promoting peroxidative reactions and activation of inflammatory cascades. Hemopexin (Hx) is another plasma glycoprotein, like hemoglobin, that is able to bind heme with high affinity. Hemopexin sequesters heme in an inert, non-toxic form and transports it to the liver for catabolism and excretion.
Synthesis
Haptoglobin is produced mostly by hepatic cells but also by other tissues such as skin, lung and kidney. In addition, the haptoglobin gene is expressed in murine and human adipose tissue.
Haptoglobin had been shown to be expressed in adipose tissue of cattle as well.
Structure
Haptoglobin, in its simplest form, consists of two alpha and two beta chains, connected by disulfide bridges. The chains originate from a common precursor protein, which is proteolytically cleaved during protein synthesis.
Hp exists in two allelic forms in the human population, so-called Hp1 and Hp2, the latter one having arisen due to the partial duplication of Hp1 gene. Three genotypes of Hp, therefore, are found in humans: Hp1-1, Hp2-1, and Hp2-2. Hp of different genotypes have been shown to bind hemoglobin with different affinities, with Hp2-2 being the weakest binder.
In other species
Hp has been found in all mammals studied so far, some birds, e.g., cormorant and ostrich but also, in its simpler form, in bony fish, e.g., zebrafish. Hp is absent in at least some amphibians (Xenopus) and neognathous birds (chicken and goose).
Clinical significance
Mutations in this gene or its regulatory regions cause ahaptoglobinemia or hypohaptoglobinemia. This gene has also been linked to diabetic nephropathy, the incidence of coronary artery disease in type 1 diabetes, Crohn's disease, inflammatory disease behavior, primary sclerosing cholangitis, susceptibility to idiopathic Parkinson's disease, and a reduced incidence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria.
Since the reticuloendothelial system will remove the haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex from the body, haptoglobin levels will be decreased in case of intravascular hemolysis or severe extravascular hemolysis. In the process of binding to free hemoglobin, haptoglobin sequesters the iron within hemoglobin, preventing iron-utilizing bacteria from benefiting from hemolysis. It is theorized that, because of this, haptoglobin has evolved into an acute-phase protein. HP has a protective influence on the hemolytic kidney.
The different haptoglobin phenotypes differ in their antioxidant, scavenging, and immunomodulatory properties. This aspect of haptoglobin may gain importance in immune suppressed conditions (such as liver cirrhosis) and the various phenotypes may result in different susceptibility levels towards bacterial infections.
Some studies associate certain haptoglobin phenotypes with the risk of developing schizophrenia.
Test protocol
Measuring the level of haptoglobin in a patient's blood is ordered whenever a patient exhibits symptoms of anemia, such as pallor, fatigue, or shortness of breath, along with physical signs of hemolysis, such as jaundice or dark-colored urine. The test is also commonly ordered as a hemolytic anemia battery, which also includes a reticulocyte count and a peripheral blood smear. It can also be ordered along with a direct antiglobulin test when a patient is suspected of having a transfusion reaction or symptoms of autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Also, it may be ordered in conjunction with a bilirubin.
Interpretation
A decrease in haptoglobin can support a diagnosis of intravascular hemolytic anemia, especially when correlated with a decreased red blood cell count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit, and also an increased reticulocyte count.
If the reticulocyte count is increased, but the haptoglobin level is normal, this may indicate that cellular destruction is occurring in the spleen and liver, which may indicate an extravascular hemolytic anemia, drug-induced hemolysis, or a red cell dysplasia. The spleen and liver recognize an error in the red cells (either drug coating the red cell membrane or a dysfunctional red cell membrane), and destroy the cell. This type of destruction does not release hemoglobin into the peripheral blood, so the haptoglobin cannot bind to it. Thus, the haptoglobin will stay normal if the hemolysis is not severe. In severe extra-vascular hemolysis, haptoglobin levels can also be low, when large amount of hemoglobin in the reticuloendothelial system leads to transfer of free hemoglobin into plasma.
If there are symptoms of anemia but both the reticulocyte count and the haptoglobin level are normal, the anemia is most likely not due to hemolysis, but instead some other error in cellular production, such as aplastic anemia.
Haptoglobin levels that are decreased but do not accompany signs of anemia may indicate liver damage, as the liver is not producing enough haptoglobin to begin with.
As haptoglobin is indeed an acute-phase protein, any inflammatory process (infection, extreme stress, burns, major crush injury, allergy, etc.) may increase the levels of plasma haptoglobin.
See also
Hemopexin
Haptoglobin-related protein
References
Further reading
External links
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|
238692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20presidents%20of%20Chile | List of presidents of Chile | This article contains a list of presidents of Chile from the establishment of the first government junta in 1810, at the beginning of the Chilean War of Independence, to the present day.
Patria Vieja (1810–1814)
Government Juntas (1810–1814)
Supreme directors (1814)
Reconquest (1814–1817)
Patria Nueva (1817–1826)
Supreme directors (1817–1826)
Presidents (1826–present)
Organization of the Republic (1826–1830)
Conservative Republic (1830–1861)
Liberal Republic (1861–1891)
Parliamentary Republic (1891–1925)
Presidential Republic (1925–1932)
Socialist Republic of Chile (1932)
Presidential Republic (1932–1973)
Military rule (1973–1990)
Presidential Republic (1990–present)
Timeline
See also
President of Chile
Presidents of Chile timeline
Vice President of Chile
Politics of Chile
List of government juntas of Chile
Lists of incumbents
Notes
Chile, List of Presidents of
List
Presidents of Chile, List of | [
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|
238695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20of%20a%20test | Power of a test | The statistical power of a binary hypothesis test is the probability that the test correctly rejects the null hypothesis () when a specific alternative hypothesis () is true. It is commonly denoted by , and represents the chances of a "true positive" detection conditional on the actual existence of an effect to detect. Statistical power ranges from 0 to 1, and as the power of a test increases, the probability of making a type II error by wrongly failing to reject the null hypothesis decreases.
Notation
This article uses the following notation
β = probability of a Type II error, known as a "false negative"
1-β = probability of a "true positive", i.e., correctly rejecting the null hypothesis. "1-β" is also known as the power of the test.
α = probability of a Type I error, known as a "false positive"
1-α = probability of a "true negative", i.e., correctly not rejecting the null hypothesis
Description
For a type II error probability of , the corresponding statistical power is 1 − . For example, if experiment E has a statistical power of 0.7, and experiment F has a statistical power of 0.95, then there is a stronger probability that experiment E had a type II error than experiment F. This reduces experiment E's sensitivity to detect significant effects. However, experiment E is consequently more reliable than experiment F due to its lower probability of a type I error. It can be equivalently thought of as the probability of accepting the alternative hypothesis () when it is true — that is, the ability of a test to detect a specific effect, if that specific effect actually exists. Thus,
If is not an equality but rather simply the negation of (so for example with for some unobserved population parameter we have simply ) then power cannot be calculated unless probabilities are known for all possible values of the parameter that violate the null hypothesis. Thus one generally refers to a test's power against a specific alternative hypothesis.
As the power increases, there is a decreasing probability of a type II error, also called the false negative rate () since the power is equal to 1 − . A similar concept is the type I error probability, also referred to as the false positive rate or the level of a test under the null hypothesis.
In the context of binary classification, the power of a test is called its statistical sensitivity, its true positive rate, or its probability of detection.
Power analysis
A related concept is "power analysis". Power analysis can be used to calculate the minimum sample size required so that one can be reasonably likely to detect an effect of a given size. For example: "How many times do I need to toss a coin to conclude it is rigged by a certain amount?" Power analysis can also be used to calculate the minimum effect size that is likely to be detected in a study using a given sample size. In addition, the concept of power is used to make comparisons between different statistical testing procedures: for example, between a parametric test and a nonparametric test of the same hypothesis.
Rule of thumb
Lehr's (rough) rule of thumb says that the sample size for a two-sided Two-sample t-test with power 80% () and significance level should be:
where is an estimate of the population variance and the to-be-detected difference in the mean values of both samples.
For a one sample t-test 16 is to be replaced with 8.
The advantage of the rule of thumb is that it can be memorized easily and that it can be rearranged for . For strict analysis always a full power analysis shall be performed.
Background
Statistical tests use data from samples to assess, or make inferences about, a statistical population. In the concrete setting of a two-sample comparison, the goal is to assess whether the mean values of some attribute obtained for individuals in two sub-populations differ. For example, to test the null hypothesis that the mean scores of men and women on a test do not differ, samples of men and women are drawn, the test is administered to them, and the mean score of one group is compared to that of the other group using a statistical test such as the two-sample z-test. The power of the test is the probability that the test will find a statistically significant difference between men and women, as a function of the size of the true difference between those two populations.
Factors influencing power
Statistical power may depend on a number of factors. Some factors may be particular to a specific testing situation, but at a minimum, power nearly always depends on the following three factors:
the statistical significance criterion used in the test
the magnitude of the effect of interest in the population
the sample size used to detect the effect
A significance criterion is a statement of how unlikely a positive result must be, if the null hypothesis of no effect is true, for the null hypothesis to be rejected. The most commonly used criteria are probabilities of 0.05 (5%, 1 in 20), 0.01 (1%, 1 in 100), and 0.001 (0.1%, 1 in 1000). If the criterion is 0.05, the probability of the data implying an effect at least as large as the observed effect when the null hypothesis is true must be less than 0.05, for the null hypothesis of no effect to be rejected. One easy way to increase the power of a test is to carry out a less conservative test by using a larger significance criterion, for example 0.10 instead of 0.05 . This increases the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis (obtaining a statistically significant result) when the null hypothesis is false; that is, it reduces the risk of a type II error (false negative regarding whether an effect exists). But it also increases the risk of obtaining a statistically significant result (rejecting the null hypothesis) when the null hypothesis is not false; that is, it increases the risk of a type I error (false positive).
The magnitude of the effect of interest in the population can be quantified in terms of an effect size, where there is greater power to detect larger effects. An effect size can be a direct value of the quantity of interest, or it can be a standardized measure that also accounts for the variability in the population. For example, in an analysis comparing outcomes in a treated and control population, the difference of outcome means would be a direct estimate of the effect size, whereas would be an estimated standardized effect size, where is the common standard deviation of the outcomes in the treated and control groups. If constructed appropriately, a standardized effect size, along with the sample size, will completely determine the power. An unstandardized (direct) effect size is rarely sufficient to determine the power, as it does not contain information about the variability in the measurements.
The sample size determines the amount of sampling error inherent in a test result. Other things being equal, effects are harder to detect in smaller samples. Increasing sample size is often the easiest way to boost the statistical power of a test. How increased sample size translates to higher power is a measure of the efficiency of the test — for example, the sample size required for a given power.
The precision with which the data are measured also influences statistical power. Consequently, power can often be improved by reducing the measurement error in the data. A related concept is to improve the "reliability" of the measure being assessed (as in psychometric reliability).
The design of an experiment or observational study often influences the power. For example, in a two-sample testing situation with a given total sample size , it is optimal to have equal numbers of observations from the two populations being compared (as long as the variances in the two populations are the same). In regression analysis and analysis of variance, there are extensive theories and practical strategies for improving the power based on optimally setting the values of the independent variables in the model.
Interpretation
Although there are no formal standards for power (sometimes referred to as ), most researchers assess the power of their tests using = 0.80 as a standard for adequacy. This convention implies a four-to-one trade off between -risk and -risk. ( is the probability of a type II error, and α is the probability of a type I error; 0.2 and 0.05 are conventional values for and ). However, there will be times when this 4-to-1 weighting is inappropriate. In medicine, for example, tests are often designed in such a way that no false negatives (type II errors) will be produced. But this inevitably raises the risk of obtaining a false positive (a type I error). The rationale is that it is better to tell a healthy patient "we may have found something—let's test further," than to tell a diseased patient "all is well."
Power analysis is appropriate when the concern is with the correct rejection of a false null hypothesis. In many contexts, the issue is less about determining if there is or is not a difference but rather with getting a more refined estimate of the population effect size. For example, if we were expecting a population correlation between intelligence and job performance of around 0.50, a sample size of 20 will give us approximately 80% power ( = 0.05, two-tail) to reject the null hypothesis of zero correlation. However, in doing this study we are probably more interested in knowing whether the correlation is 0.30 or 0.60 or 0.50 . In this context we would need a much larger sample size in order to reduce the confidence interval of our estimate to a range that is acceptable for our purposes. Techniques similar to those employed in a traditional power analysis can be used to determine the sample size required for the width of a confidence interval to be less than a given value.
Many statistical analyses involve the estimation of several unknown quantities. In simple cases, all but one of these quantities are nuisance parameters. In this setting, the only relevant power pertains to the single quantity that will undergo formal statistical inference. In some settings, particularly if the goals are more "exploratory", there may be a number of quantities of interest in the analysis. For example, in a multiple regression analysis we may include several covariates of potential interest. In situations such as this where several hypotheses are under consideration, it is common that the powers associated with the different hypotheses differ. For instance, in multiple regression analysis, the power for detecting an effect of a given size is related to the variance of the covariate. Since different covariates will have different variances, their powers will differ as well.
Any statistical analysis involving multiple hypotheses is subject to inflation of the type I error rate if appropriate measures are not taken. Such measures typically involve applying a higher threshold of stringency to reject a hypothesis in order to compensate for the multiple comparisons being made (e.g. as in the Bonferroni method). In this situation, the power analysis should reflect the multiple testing approach to be used. Thus, for example, a given study may be well powered to detect a certain effect size when only one test is to be made, but the same effect size may have much lower power if several tests are to be performed.
It is also important to consider the statistical power of a hypothesis test when interpreting its results. A test's power is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false; a test's power is influenced by the choice of significance level for the test, the size of the effect being measured, and the amount of data available. A hypothesis test may fail to reject the null, for example, if a true difference exists between two populations being compared by a t-test but the effect is small and the sample size is too small to distinguish the effect from random chance. Many clinical trials, for instance, have low statistical power to detect differences in adverse effects of treatments, since such effects may be rare and the number of affected patients small.
A priori vs. post hoc analysis
Power analysis can either be done before (a priori or prospective power analysis) or after (post hoc or retrospective power analysis) data are collected. A priori power analysis is conducted prior to the research study, and is typically used in estimating sufficient sample sizes to achieve adequate power. Post-hoc analysis of "observed power" is conducted after a study has been completed, and uses the obtained sample size and effect size to determine what the power was in the study, assuming the effect size in the sample is equal to the effect size in the population. Whereas the utility of prospective power analysis in experimental design is universally accepted, post hoc power analysis is fundamentally flawed. Falling for the temptation to use the statistical analysis of the collected data to estimate the power will result in uninformative and misleading values. In particular, it has been shown that post-hoc "observed power" is a one-to-one function of the p-value attained. This has been extended to show that all post-hoc power analyses suffer from what is called the "power approach paradox" (PAP), in which a study with a null result is thought to show more evidence that the null hypothesis is actually true when the p-value is smaller, since the apparent power to detect an actual effect would be higher. In fact, a smaller p-value is properly understood to make the null hypothesis relatively less likely to be true.
Application
Funding agencies, ethics boards and research review panels frequently request that a researcher perform a power analysis, for example to determine the minimum number of animal test subjects needed for an experiment to be informative. In frequentist statistics, an underpowered study is unlikely to allow one to choose between hypotheses at the desired significance level. In Bayesian statistics, hypothesis testing of the type used in classical power analysis is not done. In the Bayesian framework, one updates his or her prior beliefs using the data obtained in a given study. In principle, a study that would be deemed underpowered from the perspective of hypothesis testing could still be used in such an updating process. However, power remains a useful measure of how much a given experiment size can be expected to refine one's beliefs. A study with low power is unlikely to lead to a large change in beliefs.
Example
The following is an example that shows how to compute power for a randomized experiment: Suppose the goal of an experiment is to study the effect of a treatment on some quantity, and compare research subjects by measuring the quantity before and after the treatment, analyzing the data using a paired t-test. Let and denote the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures on subject , respectively. The possible effect of the treatment should be visible in the differences which are assumed to be independently distributed, all with the same expected mean value and variance.
The effect of the treatment can be analyzed using a one-sided t-test. The null hypothesis of no effect will be that the mean difference will be zero, i.e. In this case, the alternative hypothesis states a positive effect, corresponding to The test statistic is:
where
is the sample size and is the standard error. The test statistic under the null hypothesis follows a Student t-distribution with the additional assumption that the data is identically distributed . Furthermore, assume that the null hypothesis will be rejected at the significance level of Since is large, one can approximate the t-distribution by a normal distribution and calculate the critical value using the quantile function , the inverse of the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution. It turns out that the null hypothesis will be rejected if
Now suppose that the alternative hypothesis is true and . Then, the power is
For large , approximately follows a standard normal distribution when the alternative hypothesis is true, the approximate power can be calculated as
According to this formula, the power increases with the values of the parameter For a specific value of a higher power may be obtained by increasing the sample size .
It is not possible to guarantee a sufficient large power for all values of as may be very close to 0. The minimum (infimum) value of the power is equal to the confidence level of the test, in this example 0.05 . However, it is of no importance to distinguish between and small positive values. If it is desirable to have enough power, say at least 0.90, to detect values of the required sample size can be calculated approximately:
from which it follows that
Hence, using the quantile function
where is a standard normal quantile; refer to the Probit article for an explanation of the relationship between and z-values.
Extension
Bayesian power
In the frequentist setting, parameters are assumed to have a specific value which is unlikely to be true. This issue can be addressed by assuming the parameter has a distribution. The resulting power is sometimes referred to as Bayesian power which is commonly used in clinical trial design.
Predictive probability of success
Both frequentist power and Bayesian power use statistical significance as the success criterion. However, statistical significance is often not enough to define success. To address this issue, the power concept can be extended to the concept of predictive probability of success (PPOS). The success criterion for PPOS is not restricted to statistical significance and is commonly used in clinical trial designs.
Software for power and sample size calculations
Numerous free and/or open source programs are available for performing power and sample size calculations. These include
G*Power (https://www.gpower.hhu.de/)
WebPower Free online statistical power analysis (https://webpower.psychstat.org)
Free and open source online calculators (https://powerandsamplesize.com)
PowerUp! provides convenient excel-based functions to determine minimum detectable effect size and minimum required sample size for various experimental and quasi-experimental designs.
PowerUpR is R package version of PowerUp! and additionally includes functions to determine sample size for various multilevel randomized experiments with or without budgetary constraints.
R package pwr
R package WebPower
Python package statsmodels (https://www.statsmodels.org/)
See also
Cohen's h
Effect size
Efficiency
Neyman–Pearson lemma
Sample size
Uniformly most powerful test
References
Sources
External links
Statistical hypothesis testing | [
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238699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest%20Angle | Northwest Angle | The Northwest Angle, known simply as the Angle by locals, and coextensive with Angle Township, is a part of northern Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota. Except for surveying errors, it is the only place in the contiguous United States north of the 49th parallel, which forms the border between the U.S. and Canada from the Northwest Angle westward to the Strait of Georgia (between the U.S. state of Washington and the province of British Columbia). The land area of the Angle is separated from the rest of Minnesota by Lake of the Woods, but shares a land border with Canada. It is one of six non-island locations in the 48 contiguous states that are practical exclaves of the U.S. It is the northernmost township in Minnesota and contains the northernmost point in the contiguous 48 states. The unincorporated community of Angle Inlet is in the Northwest Angle.
Seventy percent of the land of the Angle is held in trust by the Red Lake Indian Reservation (Ojibwa).
Although the Angle is listed as one of several distinct regions of Minnesota, its total population was 119 at the 2010 census. The area is mostly water and the land is mostly forest.
Origin
Angle Township was designated as territory of the United States because negotiators of the initial Canada–U.S. border misunderstood the geography of the area. Benjamin Franklin and British representatives relied on the Mitchell Map of colonial American geographer John Mitchell, which did not indicate the source of the Mississippi River—thought to lie some distance to the northwest—or the true shape of Lake of the Woods, which was instead shown as roughly oval. The 1783 Treaty of Paris thus stated that the boundary between U.S. territory and the British possessions to the north would run "...through the Lake of the Woods to the northwesternmost point thereof, and from thence on a due west course to the river Mississippi..."
But the source of the Mississippi River, Lake Itasca (then unknown to European explorers), lies almost due south of Lake of the Woods, rather than north and west of it. Additionally, the irregular actual shape of the lake made the identification of its northwest corner difficult. A survey team led by David Thompson in 1824 mapped the lake and found four possibilities, but did not conclusively declare one location.
In 1825, a German astronomer in British service, Johann Ludwig Tiarks, surveyed the lake. Tiarks identified two possibilities for the northwesternmost point on the lake, based on Thompson's maps: the Angle Inlet and Rat Portage. To determine which point was the most northwestern, he drew a line from each point in the southwest–northeast direction. If the line intersected the lake at any point, it was not the most northwestern point. Tiarks determined that the only such line that did not intersect the lake was at the edge of a pond on the Angle Inlet. A 1940 academic study documents this point as being in the immediate vicinity of 49°23′51.324″N 95°9′12.20783″W (NAD83).
In the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, the error regarding the Mississippi River was corrected by having the boundary continue due south from the northwest point of the lake, but only to the 49th parallel and then westward along it. The Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842 reaffirmed this border. However, the placement of the northwestern corner and shape of the lake meant that this north–south line cut off a section of U.S. territory to its east, now known as the Northwest Angle.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, Angle Township has a total area of 596.3 square miles (1,544.5 km2) of which 123.09 square miles (318.81 km2) is land and 473.2 square miles (1,225.7 km2) (79.36%) is water. The land includes several islands, including Oak Island, and two small capes that are below (south of) the 49th parallel north in the extreme southwest part of the township, one of which is known as Elm Point, south of the southeast corner of Manitoba, and not far from the northeast corner of Roseau County. Of the 2000 census population of 152, there were 118 living on the mainland, and 34 persons on the islands in Lake of the Woods. All of the populated islands are north of the 49th parallel.
The mainland portion of the township north of the 49th parallel has an area of . The total land area of all islands is , and the two capes total . The township has the last one-room public school in the state.
Elm Point, in Lake of the Woods County, is a small cape southwest of the Northwest Angle. It borders Canada and is, together with a similar smaller cape to the west, separated by land from the continental United States.
Access
The Angle is accessible from the rest of Minnesota by one of two ways:
The Angle can be reached without crossing the international border by crossing the Lake of the Woods. This can be done by boat when the lake is free of ice, by ice road in the winter or by flying over it in a plane. No automobile ferries currently operate on the lake, so vehicles coming from the rest of Minnesota cannot reach the Angle without crossing the border except in winter. While the ice is forming in late autumn and breaking up in the spring, the lake's surface cannot be crossed safely at these times domestic access to the Angle is possible only by air. In January 2021, local US interests opened a toll road across the ice, at a round-trip charge of US$120 to $145, because the Canadian border was closed by COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. It was again opened, and lengthened to of road, in January 2022, and the toll set at $250.
To reach the Angle by land, travelers take Minnesota State Highway 313 northbound (Warroad, Minnesota, to Sprague, Manitoba) across the Warroad-Sprague Border Crossing connecting to Manitoba Highway 12 at the border, then to Provincial Road 308, to Provincial Road 525, then finally crossing back into the United States in the Northwest Angle south of Angle Inlet, Minnesota (Angle Inlet Township). The distance from Warroad or Roseau to the Angle proper is approximately through Minnesota and Manitoba back to the Angle's U.S. border. It is approximately from the actual border (intersection of Manitoba 525 and NWA Road Dawson) to the rural developments of the Northwest Angle. The border crossing is unstaffed. Travelers using the single gravel road in and out of the Angle are expected to use a telephone at Jim's Corner, Youngs Bay Marina, or Carlsons Landing to contact Canadian or U.S. Customs and make their declarations.
Political issues
Because of laws restricting fishing, some residents of the Northwest Angle suggested leaving the United States and joining Canada in 1997. The following year, then-U.S. representative Collin Peterson of Minnesota proposed legislation to allow the residents of the Northwest Angle, which was part of his district, to vote on seceding from the United States and joining Canada. This angered the leaders of Red Lake Indian Reservation, which holds most of the Northwest Angle's land. The incident resulted in fishing regulations being better synchronized across these waters.
Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 119 people, 66 households, and 37 families residing in the Angle. There were 404 housing units. The racial makeup of the township was 99.2% White (118 out of 119). Native American or Alaska Native of any race were 0.8% of the population (that is, 1 person).
Out of the 66 households, 10.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.5% were married couples living together, 0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.9% were non-families. 37.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.80, and the average family size was 2.32.
In the Angle the population is spread out, with 10.1% under the age of 18, 0.8% from 18 to 24, 10.1% from 25 to 44, 51.3% from 45 to 64, and 27.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 50 years. For every 100 females, there were 120.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 124.1 males.
The median income for a household in the township was $28,500, and the median income for a family was $31,250. Males had a median income of $28,500 versus $21,250 for females. The per capita income for the township was $13,932. About 13.3% of families and 12.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under the age of 18 or 65 and older.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, the Northwest Angle has a Warm-summer, Humid continental climate (Dfb). Dfb climates are characterized by at least one month having an average mean temperature ≤ , at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ , all months with an average mean temperature < and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. Although most summer days are comfortably humid in the Northwest Angle, episodes of heat and high humidity can occur with heat index values > . The Northwest Angle weather station is one of the newer ones, as it only began keeping records in 1981, in contrast with nearby International Falls which has been keeping records for over a century. Since 1981, the highest air temperature was on July 5, 1988, and the highest daily average mean dew point was on 4 August 2001. Since 1981, the wettest calendar day was on June 9, 2002. During the winter months, the average annual extreme minimum air temperature is . Since 1981, the coldest air temperature was on February 2, 2002. Episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values under . The average annual snowfall total (Sep–May) is between and .
Ecology
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, the Northwest Angle would have a dominant vegetation type of Great Lakes Spruce/Fir (93) with a dominant vegetation form of Northern Conifer Forest (22). The plant hardiness zone is 3a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of . The spring bloom typically peaks in mid-May and fall color usually peaks in late September.
Representation in other media
Ernie Pyle wrote several columns about the Northwest Angle and its residents, which were collected in Home Country (1947), published posthumously.
The American writer Tim O'Brien set his bestselling novel In the Lake of the Woods (1994) in the Angle. His short story "On the Rainy River" is also set there.
William Kent Krueger's novel Northwest Angle (2011) is set in the area.
The Danny Orlis series of books, a Christian fiction series for youth, were largely set in the Northwest Angle.
See also
Border irregularities of the United States
Extreme points of the United States
Height of Land Portage
Point Roberts, Washington, another practical exclave
References
Further reading
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
External links
Northwest Angle in MNopedia, Minnesota Historical Society
Angle Inlet School: Minnesota's last one-room school
"The Northwest Angle" (radio programme transcript), Minnesota Public Radio
Boundary Commission Coordinates, International Boundary Commission
"To the Nub", website – An account of an RV trip to Northwest Angle from Washington, DC
Northwest Angle Trip Report Visit to the extreme northernmost point of the Angle.
Canada–United States border
Regions of Minnesota
Geography of Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota
Townships in Minnesota
Border irregularities of the United States
Separatism in the United States
Exclaves in the United States
Borders of Minnesota
Borders of Ontario | [
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|
238700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Itasca | Lake Itasca | Lake Itasca is a small glacial lake, approximately in area. Located in southeastern Clearwater County, in the Headwaters area of north central Minnesota, it is notable for being the headwater of the Mississippi River. The lake is in Itasca State Park. It has an average depth of and is above sea level.
The Ojibwe name for "Lake Itasca" is Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan (Elk Lake); this was changed by Henry Schoolcraft to "Itasca", coined from a combination of the Latin words veritas caput ("true head [of the Mississippi]"). It is one of several examples of pseudo-Indian place names created by Schoolcraft.
Source of the Mississippi River
It is the primary source of the Mississippi River which flows 2,340 mi (3,770 km) to the Gulf of Mexico. There are several tributaries that flow (most or all of the year) into the lake, one of which, by most modern definitions, as with the Nile River and Amazon River, would be considered the actual source, though less dramatic than the lake's outflow. Henry Schoolcraft identified Lake Itasca as the river's primary source in 1832. He had been part of a previous expedition in 1820 led by General Lewis Cass that had named nearby Cass Lake (which is downstream from Itasca) as the source of the river. There exists a dissenting claim that fur trader William Morrison was the first person to discover the lake and identified it as the source of the Mississippi in 1804.
The western arm of the lake is fed by two streams on its south end. Nicollet Creek starts in a nearby spring. Another small stream leads into Itasca from Elk Lake, which in turn is fed by two other streams. The Ojibwa called Elk Lake and the stream Bekegamaag-zaaga'igan and Bekegamaag-ziibi (Sidelake Lake and Sidelake River), respectively. In 1887 Williard Glazier promoted a campaign to consider Elk Lake, which he called Glazier Lake, as the true source of the Mississippi. Its longest tributary originates at Little Elk Lake, which is 100 ft (30 m) higher in elevation and 11 km upstream from the Lake Itasca outflow, at and in the Mississippi watershed.
Jacob V. Brower, a land surveyor and president of the Minnesota Historical Society, after spending five months exploring the lakes, claimed that the lakes and streams further south of Lake Itasca were not the true source of the Mississippi because they were "too small". Modern explorers and geographers, however, have used the tiniest trickles of water to determine the source of the Amazon, Nile, and other rivers. Brower was to campaign aggressively to save the lake from logging. On April 21, 1891, the Minnesota Legislature officially made it a state park by a margin of one vote. Brower is now called the "Father of Lake Itasca" and the visitor center is named in his honor.
The channel of the Mississippi as it emerges from the lake was bulldozed in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps, to create a more "pleasant experience" for visitors. The project included the draining of the surrounding swamp, the digging of a new channel, and the installation of a man-made rock rapids. The rocks are used by tourists for walking across the Mississippi River.
Common ground for science
The lake is home to the University of Minnesota's Itasca Biological Station and Laboratories campus, which offers spring and summer courses and field research work year-round. The campus was established in 1909. Some of these buildings date from the 1930s and 40s, while others, including the largest building the Biome Center, were built more recently. The current Director of the biological station is Jonathan Schilling.
The Lake Itasca region claims a unique location, not only at the headwaters of the Mississippi River and amidst 25% of the old growth forest of Minnesota, but also at the juncture of the three great habitats of North America: the Great Plains, the Deciduous Forest of the south, and the Coniferous Forest of the north. Remnants of all three may be observed in the park.
The unique geography of the Lake Itasca region has found its way onto the classical music concert stage. Composer Ferde Grofe depicted the birthplace of the Mississippi River and the Native Americans who reside there in his popular classical epic the Mississippi Suite.
See also
List of Minnesota lakes
USRC Itasca (1907)
USCGC Itasca (1929)
Notes
References
External links
Lake Itasca
Lakes of Clearwater County, Minnesota
Lakes of Minnesota
Lakes of the Mississippi River
Lake Itasca
Glacial lakes of the United States | [
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238703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20of%20the%20Woods | Lake of the Woods | Lake of the Woods () is a lake occupying parts of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba and the U.S. state of Minnesota. Lake of the Woods is over long and wide, and contains more than 14,552 islands and of shoreline. It is fed by the Rainy River, Shoal Lake, Kakagi Lake and other smaller rivers. The lake drains into the Winnipeg River and then into Lake Winnipeg. Ultimately, its outflow goes north through the Nelson River to Hudson Bay.
Lake of the Woods is also the sixth largest freshwater lake located (at least partially) in the United States, after the five Great Lakes, and the 36th largest lake in the world by area. It separates a small land area of Minnesota from the rest of the United States. The Northwest Angle and the town of Angle Township can be reached from the rest of Minnesota only by crossing the lake or by traveling through Canada. The Northwest Angle is the northernmost part of the contiguous United States. Its "northwesternmost point" served as a problematic landmark in treaties defining the international border.
The lake's islands provide nesting habitats for the piping plover and large numbers of American white pelicans and as recently as the early 20th century also provided calving habitat to boreal woodland caribou. There are also several hundred nesting pairs of bald eagles in this area.
Lake of the Woods, a translation of the original French name , was so named from its wooded setting. However, it may have been a mistranslation of the Ojibwe name. "The earliest name we find the lake known by is that given by Verendrye in his journey in 1731. He says it was called Lake Minitic (Cree: ; Ojibwe: ) or Des Bois. (1) The former of these names, Minitic, seems to be Ojibwe, and to mean "Islands in a River", probably referring to the many islands found in the northern half of the lake. The other name (2) Lac des Bois, or Lake of the Woods, seems to have been a mistranslation of the Indian [sic] name (Ojibwe) by which the Lake was known." One of the names currently used in Ojibwe for this lake is meaning "Lake with Uneven Sand" referring to the lake's sand dunes.
Governance
The construction of dams at the Lake of the Woods outlets in present-day Kenora in the late 19th century led to concerns over high and low water levels on the lake early in the 20th century. The federal governments of Canada and the United States referred the matter to the International Joint Commission (IJC) in 1912. In 1917 the IJC recommended the creation of control boards and the operating conditions they would apply to lake level management. The first of these boards, the Lake of the Woods Control Board (LWCB), was established by Canadian Order-in-Council in 1919. Two additional acts provided statutory establishment of the LWCB, defined its jurisdiction and powers, and provided for board members appointed by Canada and Ontario: the Lake of the Woods Control Board Act, Canada, 1921, the Lake of the Woods Control Board Act, Ontario, 1922. In 1922 the Canada-Ontario-Manitoba Tripartite Agreement was signed by the respective governments. Initially, only Canada and Ontario appointed members to the board as, at that time, natural resources in Manitoba were administered by Canada. In 1958, having gained control over its natural resources, Manitoba passed its own Lake of the Woods Control Board Act. That same year, Canada and Ontario amended their original versions of the acts. As a result of these legislative changes, the LWCB now has one member appointed by Canada, two appointed by Ontario, and one appointed by Manitoba.
Following the IJC recommendations of 1917, discussions between the federal governments of Canada and the United States resulted in the 1925 Canada/USA Convention and Protocol regarding Lake of the Woods. This treaty established the water level operating range on Lake of the Woods, defined the purpose and general mode of operation, and provided for two boards to control regulation. The previously established Canadian LWCB was to regulate the lake on an ongoing basis, but its decisions were to be subject to approval by an International Lake of the Woods Control Board (ILWCB) whenever lake levels rose above or fell below certain limits. In cases where agreement could not be reached between Canadian and American members of the international board, the disputed matter would be referred to the IJC for the final decision. The International Lake of the Woods Control Board, however, is not a board created by the IJC. The board's members (one American and one Canadian) are appointed by the respective federal governments. Notably, at no point in this process were local Ojibwe populations consulted, despite the environmental impacts of the dams on nearby communities on the Winnipeg River, such as the Dalles 38C reserve.
Shoal Lake is adjacent to the Lake of the Woods and is the source for the City of Winnipeg drinking water via the Greater Winnipeg Water District Aqueduct, so the administration of the lake is a continuing interest of the governments of Winnipeg and Manitoba.
Communities near Lake of the Woods
Ontario
Northwest Angle 33 First Nation
Big Grassy First Nation
French Portage Narrows
Kenora
Minaki
Lake of the Woods
Anishnaabeg of Naongashiing First Nation
Naotkamegwanning First Nation
Sioux Narrows-Nestor Falls
Obashkaandagaang Bay First Nation
Niisaachewan Anishinaabe Nation
Ojibways of Onigaming First Nation
Rainy River
Northwest Angle 37 First Nation
Anishinabe of Wauzhushk Onigum First Nation
Manitoba
Middlebro
Buffalo Point First Nation
Minnesota
Angle Township
Hackett
Baudette
Warroad
Wheeler's Point
Lands within Lake of the Woods
Aulneau Peninsula
The largest land feature in Lake of the Woods is the Aulneau Peninsula. It is connected to the mainland with a tiny neck of land at its southeast corner, but a canal (Turtle Portage ) was cut through at this point, effectively making the Aulneau an island. The canal has now been filled back in. A manually run portage for small- to medium-sized boats is in its place. The Aulneau is approximately twenty miles long (32 km) and wide. It contains within it over eighty lakes, the largest of which is Arrow Lake, with thirteen islands in it.
The Aulneau Peninsula was named after the Jesuit Father Jean-Pierre Aulneau, a French Catholic priest, who was killed by natives on 8 June 1736 on Lake of the Woods. The Catholic Church in Warroad, Minnesota, is named Father Aulneau Memorial Church in his honour.
Other islands
Big Island
Bigsby Island
Brush Island, Minnesota
Chapel Island An island about 15 km out from Kenora, where a chapel once stood. When the natives would canoe from end to end for purposes of trading, Chapel Island was a rest stop where the white settlers would try to convert the Native population, and offered a refuge in bad weather. The chapel has since burnt down, and little remains.
Copeland Island, otherwise known as Camp Stephens. A Winnipeg YM-YWCA summer camp.
Flag Island, Minnesota
Garden Island, Minnesota
Little Oak Island, Minnesota
Magnuson's Island, site of the restored Fort St. Charles
Massacre Island, Ontario a small island in the middle of the lake, the possible site where twenty French men, as well as a group of Cree traders, were beheaded in the mid 18th century by Sioux. The site is marked by a large wooden cross in the middle of the island. This incident sparked decades of war between the Sioux and the Ojibway, allies of both the French and the Cree.
Oak Island, Minnesota
Penasse Island, site of American Point, formerly the most northern post office in the contiguous United States
Sultana Mine, a mine located on an island in the northern area of the lake in the late 1800s, before an accident shut down the mine. Stories about it being haunted by miners exist to this day.
Recreation on Lake of the Woods
Tourism is a large part of the local economy of Lake of the Woods, and there are many recreational opportunities available on the lake and in the surrounding countryside. Much of the lake is fairly remote, but resorts and equipment outfitters offer options for those who do not have access to their own boats and equipment.
Camping
Minnesota's Zippel Bay State Park offers a wide variety of services including campsites, toilet facilities, a marina with access to the Zippel River, and a beach. Minnesota and Ontario both offer state-sanctioned parks and campsites, which can be located through the respective governments. Backcountry campers can locate a prospective campsite on Lake of the Woods by boat, landing and examine the site in person. There is abundant wildlife even on the small islands on the lake.
Numerous marinas and resorts on the lake provide accommodation and dining, houseboat rentals, nautical charts, camping and fishing advice, and knowledge on how to most enjoy the lake.
Fishing
Lake of the Woods is home to walleye, northern pike, perch, sauger, crappie, panfish, smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, lake trout, lake sturgeon, and muskellunge.
Royal Lake of the Woods Yacht Club
Lake of the Woods is also home to the Royal Lake of the Woods Yacht Club.
See also
List of lakes in Minnesota
List of lakes in Ontario
Canada–United States border
Boundary Commission Trail
Northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods
List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
Lake Agassiz
References
Canada–United States border
Lakes of Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota
International lakes of North America
Lakes of Kenora District
Lakes of Manitoba
Lakes of Minnesota
Lakes of Rainy River District
Borders of Manitoba
Borders of Ontario
Borders of Minnesota | [
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|
238706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-fetoprotein | Alpha-fetoprotein | Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP, α-fetoprotein; also sometimes called alpha-1-fetoprotein, alpha-fetoglobulin, or alpha fetal protein) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AFP gene. The AFP gene is located on the q arm of chromosome 4 (4q25). Maternal AFP serum level is used to screen for Down syndrome, neural tube defects, and other chromosomal abnormalities.
AFP is a major plasma protein produced by the yolk sac and the fetal liver during fetal development. It is thought to be the fetal analog of serum albumin. AFP binds to copper, nickel, fatty acids and bilirubin and is found in monomeric, dimeric and trimeric forms.
Structure
AFP is a glycoprotein of 591 amino acids and a carbohydrate moiety.
Function
The function of AFP in adult humans is unknown. AFP is the most abundant plasma protein found in the human fetus. Maternal plasma levels peak near the end of the first trimester, and begin decreasing prenatally at that time, then decrease rapidly after birth. Normal adult levels in the newborn are usually reached by the age of 8 to 12 months. While the function in humans is unknown, in rodents it binds estradiol to prevent the transport of this hormone across the placenta to the fetus. The main function of this is to prevent the virilization of female fetuses. As human AFP does not bind estrogen, its function in humans is less clear.
The rodent AFP system can be overridden with massive injections of estrogen, which overwhelm the AFP system and will masculinize the fetus. The masculinizing effect of estrogens may seem counter-intuitive since estrogens are critical for the proper development of female secondary characteristics during puberty. However, this is not the case prenatally. Gonadal hormones from the testes, such as testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone, are required to cause development of a phenotypic male. Without these hormones, the fetus will develop into a phenotypic female even if genetically XY. The conversion of testosterone into estradiol by aromatase in many tissues may be an important step in masculinization of that tissue. Masculinization of the brain is thought to occur both by conversion of testosterone into estradiol by aromatase, but also by de novo synthesis of estrogens within the brain. Thus, AFP may protect the fetus from maternal estradiol that would otherwise have a masculinizing effect on the fetus, but its exact role is still controversial.
Serum levels
Maternal
In pregnant women, fetal AFP levels can be monitored in the urine of the pregnant woman. Since AFP is quickly cleared from the mother's serum via her kidneys, maternal urine AFP correlates with fetal serum levels, although the maternal urine level is much lower than the fetal serum level. AFP levels rise until about week 32. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP) screening is performed at 16 to 18 weeks of gestation. If MSAFP levels indicate an anomaly, amniocentesis may be offered to the patient.
Infants
The normal range of AFP for adults and children is variously reported as under 50, under 10, or under 5 ng/mL. At birth, normal infants have AFP levels four or more orders of magnitude above this normal range, that decreases to a normal range over the first year of life.
During this time, the normal range of AFP levels spans approximately two orders of magnitude. Correct evaluation of abnormal AFP levels in infants must take into account these normal patterns.
Very high AFP levels may be subject to hooking (see Tumor marker), which results in the level being reported significantly lower than the actual concentration. This is important for analysis of a series of AFP tumor marker tests, e.g. in the context of post-treatment early surveillance of cancer survivors, where the rate of decrease of AFP has diagnostic value.
Clinical significance
Measurement of AFP is generally used in two clinical contexts. First, it is measured in pregnant women through the analysis of maternal blood or amniotic fluid as a screening test for certain developmental abnormalities, such as aneuploidy. Second, serum AFP level is elevated in people with certain tumors, and so it is used as a biomarker to follow these diseases. Some of these diseases are listed below:
Developmental birth defects associated with elevated AFP
Omphalocele
Gastroschisis
Neural tube defects: ↑ α-fetoprotein in amniotic fluid and maternal serum
Tumors associated with elevated AFP
Hepatocellular carcinoma
Metastatic disease affecting the liver
Nonseminomatous germ cell tumors
Yolk sac tumor
Other conditions associated with elevated AFP
Ataxia telangiectasia: elevated AFP is used as one factor in diagnosis
A peptide derived from AFP that is referred to as AFPep is claimed to possess anti-cancer properties.
In the treatment of testicular cancer it is paramount to differentiate seminomatous and nonseminomatous tumors. This is typically done pathologically after removal of the testicle and confirmed by tumor markers. However if the pathology is pure seminoma, if the AFP is elevated, the tumor is treated as a nonseminomatous tumor because it contains yolk sac (nonseminomatous) components.
See also
Tumor marker
AFP-L3
Triple test
Advanced maternal age
AFP and AFP non-covalent complex as a drug
References
Further reading
External links
Glycoproteins
Tumor markers
Obstetrics
Midwifery | [
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|
238715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur%20Jr. | Dinosaur Jr. | Dinosaur Jr. is an American rock band formed in Amherst, Massachusetts, in 1984, originally simply called Dinosaur until legal issues forced a change in name.
The band was founded by J Mascis (guitar, vocals, primary songwriter), Lou Barlow (bass, vocals), and Murph (drums). After three albums on independent labels, the band earned a reputation as one of the formative influences on American alternative rock. Creative tension led to Mascis firing Barlow, who later formed Sebadoh and Folk Implosion. His replacement, Mike Johnson, came aboard for three major-label albums. Murph eventually quit, with Mascis taking over drum duties on the band's albums before the group disbanded in 1997. The original lineup reformed in 2005, releasing five albums thereafter.
Mascis's drawling vocals and distinct guitar sound, hearkening back to 1960s and 1970s classic rock and characterized by extensive use of feedback and distortion, were highly influential in the alternative rock movement of the 1990s.
History
Formation
Mascis and Barlow played together, on drums and guitar respectively, in the hardcore punk band Deep Wound, formed in 1982 while the pair were attending high school in western Massachusetts. After high school, they began exploring slower yet still aggressive music such as Black Sabbath, the Replacements, and Neil Young. Mascis's college friend Gerard Cosloy introduced him to psychedelic-influenced pop bands like Dream Syndicate, which Mascis in turn showed to Barlow. Barlow explained, "We loved speed metal ... and we loved wimpy-jangly stuff".
Deep Wound broke up in mid-1984. Cosloy had dropped out of the University of Massachusetts Amherst to focus on running his independent record label, Homestead Records, and promised Mascis that if he were to make a record Homestead would release it. Mascis wrote a number of songs by himself and showed them to Barlow, to whom he offered the bassist position. Barlow said the songs "were fucking brilliant ...They were so far beyond. I was still into two-chord songs and basic stuff like 'I'm so sad.' While I was really into my own little tragedy, J was operating in this whole other panorama." Mascis enlisted vocalist Charlie Nakajima, also formerly of Deep Wound, and drummer Emmett Patrick Murphy, otherwise known as Murph, to complete the band. Mascis explained the concept behind the group as "ear-bleeding country".
The band was initially named Mogo, and played their first show on University of Massachusetts Amherst campus in the first week of September 1984. However, Nakajima used the performance to launch an extended anti-police tirade. Mascis was so appalled by Nakajima's behavior at the show that he disbanded the group the next day. A few days later Mascis invited Barlow and Murph to form a new band without telling Nakajima. "I was kind of too wimpy to kick him out, exactly," Mascis later admitted. "Communicating with people has been a constant problem in the band." The trio named themselves Dinosaur, and Mascis and Barlow took over lead-vocal duties.
Dinosaur
Mascis took Cosloy up on his offer to release an album and Dinosaur recorded their debut album for $500 at a home studio in the woods outside Northampton, Massachusetts. Their debut album, Dinosaur, was released in 1985. Mascis wrote all of the songs. Vocals were done by Mascis in his trademark nasal drawl which was often compared to singer Neil Young. Mascis would sing most or all of the lead vocals on all of their subsequent releases. The album did not make much of an impact commercially or critically: it sold only about 1,500 copies in its first year and was largely ignored by the majority of the music press.
After the record's release, Dinosaur would often drive to New York City to perform shows. At one of their shows, the New York-based alternative rock band Sonic Youth was at first unimpressed by the first Dinosaur performance they saw, but after watching them play several months later, approached the band declaring themselves as fans. Sonic Youth invited Dinosaur to join them on tour in the American Northeast and northern Midwest in September 1986.
You're Living All Over Me
Dinosaur recorded much of their second album, You're Living All Over Me, with Sonic Youth engineer Wharton Tiers in New York. During the recording process, tension emerged between Mascis and Murph because Mascis had very specific ideas for the drum parts. Barlow recalled, "J controlled Murph's every drumbeat ... And Murph could not handle that. Murph wanted to kill J for the longest time." Gerard Cosloy was excited by the completed album, but was devastated when Mascis told him the band was going to release it on California-based SST Records. Mascis was reluctant to sign a two-album deal with Homestead, but Cosloy felt betrayed, "There was no way I couldn't take it personally." After the album's completion Mascis moved to New York, leaving the rest of the band feeling alienated.
You're Living All Over Me was released in 1987; early copies of the record in the Boston area were packaged with the Weed Forestin tape, the first release by Barlow's side project Sebadoh. The album received much more attention in the indie-rock community than the debut. Barlow also composed two songs: the hardcore-influenced "Lose" and an acoustic sonic collage entitled "Poledo" that anticipated his work with Sebadoh.
Immediately following the release of You're Living All Over Me, a supergroup called the Dinosaurs (featuring ex-members of Country Joe and the Fish, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Hot Tuna, Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane) sued Dinosaur over the use of the name, prompting the addition of "Jr."
Bug and Barlow's departure
Dinosaur Jr. had a major breakthrough in the United Kingdom with their debut single for Blast First, "Freak Scene", in 1988, a version with censored lyrics being issued for radio consumption. It reached number 4 in the UK independent chart, staying on the chart for 12 weeks. The band's third album, Bug, followed shortly afterwards, reaching number 1 on the UK independent chart and spending 38 weeks in the chart. The band's first UK singles chart placing came in 1989 with their cover of The Cure's "Just Like Heaven".
Bug was similar in musical style to You're Living All Over Me, with the contrast between the extremely distorted instruments and the melodic vocal parts intact, as was the band's unique blend of musical influences. However, this time out, there was even more melody and the song structures were more conventional. Mascis was exhibiting an even tighter control over the band's sound, singing lead vocals on all but one song and composing the parts for Murph and Lou to play. Barlow's only lead vocal was on the album's final track, featuring an overdriven, noise-rock backing track and Barlow screaming "Why don't you like me?"
Mascis has described Bug as his least favorite of the band's albums. In an interview in 2005, after the original line-up had reformed, he said, "Bug is my least favourite of all our records. I like some of the songs but, I dunno, I guess I really don't like the vibe of it."
Despite the album's success, tension between Mascis and Barlow began interfering with the band's productivity, and in 1989, after touring in support of Bug, Barlow was kicked out of the band. Barlow now focused all of his attention on the former side-project Sebadoh. "The Freed Pig", the opening track on 1991's Sebadoh III, documents Barlow's frustration with Mascis and feeling of being treated poorly in Dinosaur Jr.
Meanwhile, the band embarked on an Australian tour with Donna Dresch filling in for Barlow. In 1990, the band released a new single, "The Wagon" on Sub Pop, their first release since Barlow's departure. The single featured a short-lived lineup including guitarist Don Fleming and drummer Jay Spiegel from the band Gumball, in addition to Mascis and Murph.
Major label years
Despite the ongoing lineup turmoil, Dinosaur Jr. signed with Sire Records in 1990. They made their major-label debut Green Mind in 1991. The new record was virtually a J Mascis solo album, with Murph playing drums on only a few songs, as well as minimal contributions from Fleming and Spiegel, who were out of the band by the time the album was released. Mascis, whose first instrument was a drum kit, recorded many of the drum parts by himself, layering the various instrumental parts through overdubbing.
For touring purposes, Mascis first added Van Conner, and then Mike Johnson to handle the bass parts and embarked on several tours to support Green Mind, with support acts that included Nirvana. In 1991, Sire records released an EP titled Whatever's Cool with Me that featured old B-sides coupled with one new track. In 1992, the band was part of the Rollercoaster Tour, a package tour based on the successful Lollapolooza festival, which featured The Jesus and Mary Chain, My Bloody Valentine and Blur.
The band found their live shows well received in the changing musical climate of the early 1990s, and decided to record new material with the new lineup. This time, the recording sessions were with full participation from Murph and Johnson, with the former playing most of the drums and the latter playing all of the bass parts, singing harmony vocals and even contributing a few guitar solos. This material represented the peak of the band's commercial success, with the single "Start Choppin'" reaching the top 20 in the UK, and the album that followed, Where You Been, reaching the UK top 10 and the US top 50. The opening track, "Out There", had an accompanying video and was aired on MTV for a short time, as the show 120 Minutes was still popular as a late-night "alternative" video show. Although the new material was more accessible than the band's 1980s albums, in terms of playing it represented a partial return to the more unrestrained power-trio sound of the original lineup.
Murph left the band after touring for Where You Been and was replaced for the band's live shows by George Berz, leaving Mascis as the sole remaining original member. However, the band's subsequent albums would be recorded mostly by J Mascis on his own, playing everything except for the bass and some of the harmony vocals, which continued to be handled by Mike Johnson. The commercial success continued with 1994's Without a Sound, which placed well in both the US and UK album charts. After 1997's Hand It Over, Mascis finally retired the Dinosaur Jr. name, with the group's final live performance being an appearance on the American talk show The Jenny Jones Show. In 1999, Mascis released the first of two solo albums under the name J Mascis + The Fog.
2005 reunion and onward
The beginnings of a Mascis–Barlow détente started in the mid-'90s when Mascis began showing up at Sebadoh shows. "I think he was kind of aware of how much shit I was talking about him," Barlow noted in a 2005 interview, "but I don't think he really ever pursued any of it. One of the things that really triggered this, for me to finally just go, 'Hey, you know, maybe this could work,' is when I realized that maybe J wasn't really holding any kind of grudge against me because he didn't like me. I was thinking, maybe he just didn't realize what he had done, or maybe he wasn't really aware of how much he'd actually hurt me. And when I started to realize that, he kind of became more human to me."
In 2002, the two shared the stage for two shows in London, with Barlow singing I Wanna Be Your Dog along with Mascis, Ron Asheton, Scott Asheton and Mike Watt, who had been performing Stooges songs as "Asheton, Asheton, Mascis and Watt".
Mascis regained the master rights to the band's first three albums from SST in 2004, and arranged for their reissue on Merge early 2005. Later that year, he and Barlow shared the stage at benefit show for autism at Smith College organized by Barlow's mother in Northampton, Massachusetts, and played together as Deep Wound after Mascis and Sebadoh had completed their respective sets.
Following the reissues in 2005, Mascis, Barlow and Murph finally reunited to play on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on April 15, 2005, and in June that year, they kicked off a tour of Europe. While performing in New York City in 2006, much of the band's equipment was stolen while stored outside their hotel and has not yet been recovered. The band members were later among the curators of 2006's All Tomorrow's Parties festival.
In 2007, the original members of Dinosaur Jr. released Beyond on Fat Possum Records, their first album of new material as a trio since Bug in 1988. It was met with critical acclaim, rating an 8.4 from Pitchfork Media and garnering positive reviews from the music press as a whole. It was considered somewhat of a sonic paradox in that even though it featured the original members who produced "two records so drenched in noise they still sound like aural assaults decades after their original release," sonically it resembled the major label releases of the 1990s in both production values and stylistic range. On the other hand, while the sound was not as extreme as the original lineup's 1980s albums, it did feature a much bigger, more unrestrained, and more live-sounding feel than their 1990s albums, though Barlow's bass was noticeably quieter than in the old days. Barlow did make his mark on the music in other ways: for the first time since You're Living All Over Me, he contributed to the songwriting. The album went on to good commercial success, debuting on the Billboard 200 at number 69 its opening week.
In February 2009, the band signed with indie label Jagjaguwar. The band's first release on the new label was titled Farm and released on June 23, 2009. Murph said the album was recorded at Mascis's home and marks return to the heavier, Where You Been LP era. The album reached number 29 on the Billboard 200, making it the band's highest-charting album in the US. To promote the album, the band played Farm's lead-off track, "Pieces", on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on June 25, 2009.
Dinosaur Jr. released their second album for Jagjaguwar, I Bet on Sky, in September 2012, to favourable reviews.
In December 2015, Murph confirmed the band had entered the studio to begin working on their follow up to I Bet on Sky. The album Give a Glimpse of What Yer Not was released on August 5, 2016, on Jagjaguwar.
In February 2019, the song "Over Your Shoulder" from the band's 1994 album Without a Sound reached number 18 on Japan's Billboard charts. The cause is suspected to be the song's use on the Japanese TV show called Gachinko Fight Club.
In February 2021, the band announced their 12th album Sweep It Into Space, which was released on April 23, 2021. The album was originally scheduled for release in mid-2020 but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The album was preceded by the single "I Ran Away" on February 23, 2021, with a music video for the song being released on March 3, 2021. The second single, "Garden", was released with a music video on March 31, 2021. The band announced a 2021 North American tour to support the album was planned to begin in September 2021 and would conclude in February 2022.
Musical style and influences
Dinosaur Jr has been described as alternative rock, indie rock and noise rock, also noise pop, hardcore punk (first albums), and grunge (early nineties).
Dinosaur Jr. is considered to be an alternative rock band; however the band's musical style, compared to its underground contemporaries in the 1980s, differed in several ways. This included the influence of classic rock on the band's music, their use of feedback, extreme volume and the loud-quiet dynamic, and frontman Mascis's droning vocals. A characteristic of Mascis's vocal style is frequent use of vocal fry. Gerald Cosloy, head of Homestead Records, summarised the band's music: "It was its own bizarre hybrid. ... It wasn't exactly pop, it wasn't exactly punk rock—it was completely its own thing".
Mascis listened to classic rock artists such as the Rolling Stones and the Beach Boys, elements of which were incorporated into Dinosaur Jr.'s sound. In addition, Mascis was also a fan of many punk and hardcore bands such as The Birthday Party, and has frequently noted Nick Cave as an influence. Dinosaur Jr.'s members also combined elements of hardcore punk and noise rock in their songs, which often featured a large amount of feedback, distortion and extreme volume. When the master tape of You're Living All Over Me arrived at SST, the label's production manager noticed the level on the tape was so high it was distorting; however, Mascis confirmed it was the way he wanted the album to sound.
Similar to Mascis's guitar work, Barlow's bass lines, with their alternating heavily distorted, fast chords and pulverizing lows, draw heavily from both his hardcore past and musicians such as Lemmy from Motörhead and Johnny Ramone. "Johnny Ramone is my hero. I wanted to make that rhythmic chugging sound like he got playing guitar with the Ramones. And, I found that I got a bigger sound by strumming farther up the neck."
Mascis's vocals are another distinctive feature of Dinosaur Jr.'s music. He attributed his "whiny low-key drawl", the opposite of the hardcore punk "bark", to artists such as John Fogerty and Mick Jagger. His style also resembled Neil Young's, but Mascis disputed this, and later commented: "That got annoying, being compared all the time." His drawl epitomised the band's slacker ethos and relaxed attitude; author Michael Azerrad said "even Mascis seemed removed from the feelings he was conveying in the music".
Legacy
In a BBC review of their reissued albums You're Living All Over Me and Bug, Zoe Street called them "Frighteningly ahead of their time." The Seattle Times called them "one of post-punk’s most influential bands." According to Azerrad:Dinosaur Jr was one of the first, biggest, and best bands among the second generation of indie kids, the ones who took Black Flag and Minor Threat for granted, a generation for whom the Seventies, not the Sixties, was the nostalgic ideal. Their music continued a retrograde stylistic shift in the American underground that the Replacements and other bands had begun: renouncing the antihistorical tendencies of hardcore and fully embracing the music that everyone had grown up on. In particular, Dinosaur singer-guitarist J Mascis achieved the unthinkable in underground rock—he brought back the extended guitar solo.Dinosaur Jr's music has influenced many other musicians such as Kurt Cobain of Nirvana, Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins, Black Francis of Pixies, Radiohead, Graham Coxon of Blur, Doug Martsch of Built to Spill, Henry Rollins, Tad, Kevin Shields of My Bloody Valentine, Ride, Slowdive, Aidan Moffat of Belle and Sebastian, Swervedriver, Uncle Tupelo, Teenage Fanclub, The Lemonheads, Tom DeLonge of Blink-182, Snow Patrol, Band of Horses, Polvo, and Kurt Vile.
Their album You're Living All Over Me has been called possibly "the first perfect indie rock album." Spin named it one of "The 300 Best Albums of the Past 30 Years (1985-2014)". Pitchfork placed the album at number 40 on its Top 100 Albums of the 1980s list.
Band membersCurrent membersJ Mascis – lead vocals, guitars, keyboards (1984–1997, 2005–present); drums (studio, 1991, 1994–1997)
Lou Barlow – bass, backing and lead vocals (1984–1989, 2005–present)
Murph – drums (1984–1993, 2005–present)Former members'''
Mike Johnson – bass, backing vocals (1991–1997)
George Berz – drums (live, 1993–1997)
Van Conner - bass, backing vocals (live, 1990–1991)
DiscographyDinosaur (1985)You're Living All Over Me (1987)Bug (1988)Green Mind (1991)Where You Been (1993)Without a Sound (1994)Hand It Over (1997)Beyond (2007)Farm (2009)I Bet on Sky (2012)Give a Glimpse of What Yer Not (2016)Sweep It Into Space (2021)
Filmography
2020 Freakscene – The Story of Dinosaur Jr.'' Documentary. Dir.: Philipp Reichenheim
References
Sources
External links
Official Dinosaur Jr. site
Musical groups established in 1984
Musical groups disestablished in 1997
Musical groups reestablished in 2005
American musical trios
Alternative rock groups from Massachusetts
Homestead Records artists
SST Records artists
Blast First artists
Sire Records artists
Fat Possum Records artists
PIAS Recordings artists
American noise rock music groups
Indie rock musical groups from Massachusetts
Jagjaguwar artists
1984 establishments in Massachusetts
Merge Records artists | [
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|
238719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%3A%20Mindcrime | Operation: Mindcrime | Operation: Mindcrime is the third studio album by American heavy metal band Queensrÿche. Originally released on May 3, 1988, the album was reissued on May 6, 2003, with two bonus tracks, and again in 2006 as a deluxe box set.
Operation: Mindcrime is both a concept album and a rock opera. Its story follows Nikki, a drug addict who becomes disillusioned with the corrupt society of his time and reluctantly becomes involved with a revolutionary group as an assassin of political leaders. In January 1989, it ranked at No. 34 on Kerrang! magazine's "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time".
Operation: Mindcrime was Queensrÿche's breakthrough album, reaching number 50 on the Billboard 200 while its singles "Eyes of a Stranger" and "I Don't Believe in Love" served as the band's first charting hits in the United States. The album was certified by the RIAA as gold in early 1989, and was certified as platinum two years later. A sequel, Operation: Mindcrime II, was released on April 4, 2006.
Overview
Operation: Mindcrime was recorded digitally on a Sony 24-track digital tape machine. The album was also mixed and mastered in the digital format.
The band shot a one-off promotional video in 1988 for the song "Speak" using performance footage. It did not include a dramatization of any of the story's concepts.
During the tour promoting the 1990 album Empire, Operation: Mindcrime was performed in its entirety. The stage show featured video, animation and guest singer Pamela Moore as Sister Mary. A recording was released as Operation: Livecrime. The story was initially explored in a series of video clips for MTV in the 1989 VHS video, Video: Mindcrime.
In 2006, Operation: Mindcrime was re-released as a deluxe box set, containing the 2003 remaster, a live CD with the album played in its entirety at the Hammersmith Odeon on November 15, 1990, and a bonus DVD containing the 1989 Video: Mindcrime and bonus clips.
Inspiration
The idea for the album came to Geoff Tate after moving to Canada and listening to the loose talk of members of the militant Quebec separatist movement who had grown friendly with him, some of whom were in organizations which engaged in bombing and terrorism. He also incorporated some of his memories of friends who had become derelicts due to heavy drug use. While working on the basic storyline behind the album, Tate had to convince the rest of his bandmates on a one-on-one basis. Chris DeGarmo soon shared his enthusiasm for the project and the rest of the band eventually became interested.
Story
The album begins with the protagonist, Nikki, in a hospital. He lies in a near catatonic state, unable to remember anything but snippets from his past. Suddenly, Nikki's memories come flooding back in a torrent ("I Remember Now"). He remembers how, as a heroin addict and would-be political radical frustrated with contemporary society due to the economic inequality, corruption and hypocrisy around him, he was manipulated into joining a supposed secret organization dedicated to revolution ("Anarchy—X", "Revolution Calling"). At the head of this organization is a mysterious political and religious demagogue known only as Dr. X, who manipulates Nikki through a combination of his heroin addiction and brainwashing techniques to become an assassin. Whenever Dr. X uses the word "mindcrime", Nikki becomes his docile puppet, a state which Dr. X uses to command Nikki to undertake any murder that the Doctor wishes ("Operation: Mindcrime").
As his position within Dr. X's organization grows, so does Nikki's ego and adherence to his master's vision of the future ("Speak"). Through one of Dr. X's associates, a corrupt priest named Father William, Nikki is offered the services of a teenage prostitute-turned-nun named Sister Mary ("Spreading the Disease"). Through his friendship and growing affection toward Sister Mary, Nikki begins to question the nature of what he is doing, seeing that Dr. X has his own nefarious agenda ("The Mission"). Dr. X takes notice and, seeing a potential threat in Mary to his cult of personality, orders Nikki to kill both her and the priest. Nikki goes to Mary's church and kills the priest, but, after confronting Mary, he fails to comply with the command to murder her ("Suite Sister Mary"). He loves Mary and decides to leave the organization with her, so Nikki goes to Dr. X to tell him that they are out. Dr. X, however, reminds Nikki that the alternative is to go back to his bleak life as a self-loathing but helpless addict ("The Needle Lies"). Nikki leaves, conflicted and uncertain, and he returns to Mary only to find her dead ("Electric Requiem").
Nikki cannot cope with the loss, as well as the possibility that he himself may have killed her without knowing it (it was later revealed on the Mindcrime at the Moore DVD that Mary killed herself after Dr. X threatened to kill Nikki) and he begins to succumb to insanity. He runs through the streets calling her name ("Breaking the Silence"). The police arrive and attempt to subdue him. A gun is found on Nikki, and they take him into custody under suspicion of Mary's murder and the murders he committed for Dr. X ("I Don't Believe in Love"). Suffering from an almost complete loss of memory, Nikki is put into a mental hospital, where he retraces in his mind his last moments with Mary ("Waiting for 22", "My Empty Room"). Back in the present in the hospital room at the beginning of the story Nikki has regained his memory, but now stares at his image in a mirror, unable to recognize who he is and what he has become ("Eyes of a Stranger").
Reception
The album received widespread critical acclaim upon its release. Contemporary critics praised the band's musicianship, Geoff Tate's voice, the complex and well-developed storyline and Peter Collins' production. Rock Hard reviewer remarked how Queensrÿche's music featured "clever breaks, unusual song structures and ingenious arrangements", which was "an unmistakable sign that the band (did) not aim to the taste of the masses, but primarily (wanted) to publish intelligent, artistically demanding albums." Derek Oliver of Kerrang! found some flaws only in the apparently incomplete storyline and wondered if the "highly socio-political" topic could "be enough to clinch the continued support of their existing fan base and turn on a whole lot more". Bernard Doe of Metal Forces stated that Operation: Mindcrime "deserves to stand alongside the likes of The Who's Quadrophenia and Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon for its conceptual brilliance" and lauded Queensrÿche for "injecting new blood into old ideas and stamping their own authority over them."
In 2011, LA Weekly ranked the album at No. 14 on their Top 20 Hair Metal Albums Of All Time calling it "Queensyche's magnum opus" and "a masterpiece".
Modern reviews are equally positive. AllMusic's Steve Huey was sometimes taken aback by the lyrics and political observations "too serious and intellectual for their own good", but wrote that it is "a testament to Queensrÿche's creativity and talent that they can pull off a project of this magnitude." Canadian journalist Martin Popoff appreciated how "the involved, heavy-handed storytelling" was paired "with the band's most urgent, up-front metal display since the Queensrÿche EP", which he considered "quite an accomplishment for a concept record wrapped up in drugs and religion."
The song "I Don't Believe in Love" was nominated for a Grammy Award in 1990 in the category "Best Metal Performance".
In the United States, the album was certified Gold on April 14, 1989, and certified Platinum two years later.
In 2016, Classic Rock named it among the "10 essential progressive metal albums". In January 2017, Loudwire ranked Operation: Mindcrime as the best heavy metal album of 1988. In June 2017, Rolling Stone placed it 67th on their list of 'The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time.'
Operation: Mindcrime has been cited as an influence by Avenged Sevenfold and Ben Weinman of the Dillinger Escape Plan.
Sequel
A sequel, Operation: Mindcrime II, was released on April 4, 2006, with Ronnie James Dio taking over the role of Dr. X. The subsequent tour consisted of the band performing both Operation: Mindcrime and its sequel in their entirety, back-to-back, with actors, props, an elaborate stage set, and a video screen. The live act from that tour also portrayed Mary's death clearly for the first time. It was later released on the 2007 DVD Mindcrime at the Moore, which included a recording of Dio's only live performance of "The Chase".
Track listing
Personnel
Queensrÿche
Geoff Tate – lead vocals, keyboard, whistles and blurbs
Chris DeGarmo – guitars (six-string electric, six- and twelve-string acoustic guitar, lap steel guitar, guitar synthesizer
Michael Wilton – guitars (six-string electric, six- and twelve-string acoustic guitar)
Scott Rockenfield – keyboard (track 10), drums, percussion
Eddie Jackson – bass
Cast
Pamela Moore – as Sister Mary
Anthony Valentine – as Dr. X
Debbie Wheeler – as the Nurse
Mike Snyder – as the Anchorman
Scott Mateer – as Father William
The Moronic Monks of Morin Heights – choir
Production
Peter Collins – producer
Michael Kamen – orchestral arrangement, choir and cello conducting
James Barton – engineering, mixing
Paul Northfield – engineering
Jim Campbell – engineering assistance
Paul Milner – engineering assistance
Glen Robinson – engineering assistance
Ronald Prent – mixing assistance
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Charts
Album
Certifications
Accolades
References
External links
Another page explaining the Operation: Mindcrime story in detail
1988 albums
Queensrÿche albums
EMI Records albums
Manhattan Records albums
Concept albums
Rock operas
Albums produced by Peter Collins (record producer)
Albums recorded at Le Studio | [
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|
238721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ%20%28band%29 | IQ (band) | IQ are a British neo-progressive rock band founded by Mike Holmes and Martin Orford in 1981 following the dissolution of their original band The Lens. Although the band have never enjoyed major commercial success and had several lineup changes, IQ have built up a loyal following over the years and are still active as of 2020, currently with the original recording line-up (with the exception of Orford). In 2021/22, IQ are due to perform a series of concerts in the UK and Europe celebrating their 40th anniversary.
Neo-progressive movement
IQ were one of a number of British bands formed during the early 1980s, including Marillion, Pendragon, Twelfth Night, Pallas and Solstice, that continued with the progressive rock style forsaken by 1970s bands such as Genesis and Yes. The music press coined the phrase neo-progressive to describe these bands, often accusing them of simply copying the styles of other bands. This accusation has been strenuously denied by Martin Orford, who is against the use of the term "neo progressive" and claims the band have wide-ranging and eclectic selection of musical influences. Paul Stump's History of Progressive Rock, while affirming the band's categorization as neo-progressive, argued that IQ "did at least offer a more individual palette which, while just as derivative [as Marillion] in its way, gave the impression that the choice of arrangements was indivisible from the choice of notes played - that the similarities with older bands arose accidentally from their own personal approach to music." [emphasis in original]
Line-up
From 1982, the line-up consisted of Peter Nicholls (vocals), Mike Holmes (guitar), Martin Orford (keyboards), Paul Cook (not to be confused with the Sex Pistols' drummer of the same name) (drums), and Tim Esau (bass). Nicholls left in July 1985 to form a new band, Niadem's Ghost, and was replaced by Paul (P. L.) Menel, but subsequently returned in 1990. Nicholls also created the cover art for most of the albums on which he appears. In early 2005, member Paul Cook left the band and was replaced on drums by Andy Edwards (ex Robert Plant drummer). On 20 July 2007, Martin Orford announced that he was leaving IQ and he was replaced by Mark Westworth from prog-rock band Darwin's Radio. As of late 2009, Paul Cook has returned to replace Andy Edwards. On 7 October 2010, Mark Westworth announced on the band's official web site that he would be leaving the band and his final appearance with IQ was on 11 December 2010. On 1 January 2011, the band announced that Westworth's replacement on keyboards would be Neil Durant, from instrumental prog-fusion band Sphere³. On 7 January 2011, bassist of 19 years John Jowitt announced on the band's website that he had left the band, and that his last appearance with the band had also been the concert on 11 December 2010. He was replaced by original bassist Tim Esau in January 2011.
Musical style
The band's musical style, especially earlier in their career, was reminiscent of Peter Gabriel and Steve Hackett era Genesis because of singer Peter Nicholls' vocal and stage-presence similarities to Gabriel and keyboardist Martin Orford's grandiose keyboarding. However, guitarist Mike Holmes' role was far more assertive in the band, giving them a harder edge musically. After Nicholls' departure, the band's style became increasingly commercial and radio-friendly — albeit without much success — on Nomzamo (1987) and Are You Sitting Comfortably? (1989), although each album still featured some progressive rock-style tracks. Beginning with Nicholls's return on 1993's Ever, the band returned to its prog rock roots, with longer tracks featuring intricate arrangements and complex musicianship.
Personnel
Members
Current members
Mike Holmes – guitars (1981–present)
Tim Esau – bass guitar (1981–1989, 2011–present)
Peter Nicholls – lead and backing vocals (1981–1985, 1990–present)
Paul Cook – drums (1982–2005, 2009–present)
Neil Durant - keyboards (2010–present)
Former members
Martin Orford – keyboards, backing vocals (1981–2007)
Mark Ridout – drums (1981–1982)
Paul (P.L.) Menel – lead and backing vocals (1985–1990)
Les 'Ledge' Marshall – bass guitar (1989-1991)
John Jowitt – bass guitar, backing vocals (1991–2011)
Andy Edwards – drums (2005–2009)
Mark Westworth – keyboards (2007–2010)
Lineups
Timeline
Discography
Albums
Seven Stories into Eight (1982 demo cassette)
Tales from the Lush Attic (1983)
The Wake (1985)
Nomzamo (1987)
Are You Sitting Comfortably? (1989)
Ever (1993)
Subterranea (1997)
Seven Stories into '98 (1998)
The Seventh House (2000)
Dark Matter (2004)
Frequency (2009)
The Road of Bones (2014)
Resistance (2019)
Compilations
Nine in a Pond is Here (1985) ("official bootleg" of demos etc., CD version is abridged)
The Lost Attic (1999) (rarities)
Limited edition Frequency Tour CD 1 (2008) (rarities and live tracks)
Limited edition Frequency Tour CD 2 (2008) (rarities and live tracks)
Live albums
Living Proof (1986)
J'ai Pollette d'Arnu (1991) (b-sides and live tracks)
Forever Live (1996)
Subterranea: The Concert (2000)
The Archive Collection: IQ20 (2003) ("official bootleg" of live concert)
The Wake: Live at De Boerderij (2010)
The Archive Collection: IQ30 (2012) ("official bootleg" of live concert)
The Archive Collection: Live on The Road of Bones (2016)
The Archive Collection: A Show of Resistance (2020)
Videos
Forever Live (VHS/CD set 1996, DVD set 2007)
Subterranea: The Concert (DVD, 2000)
IQ20 - The Twentieth Anniversary Show (DVD 2004)
Live from London (DVD, recorded 13 May 1985 in London, 2005)
IQ Stage (DVD, 2006)
Forever Live (DVD, 2007)
The Wake in Concert (DVD, 2010)
Scrape Across the Sky (Blu-ray, 2017)
Live Like This (Blu-ray, 2021)
Singles
"Barbell Is In" (1984)
"Corners" (1985)
"Passing Strangers" (1987)
"Promises (As the Years Go By)" (1987)
"Sold on You" (1989)
References
External links
Official IQ web site
The Museum of the band IQ
Collection of IQ MIDI files (archived)
English progressive rock groups
Musical groups established in 1981
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Vertigo Records artists
Mercury Records artists
Inside Out Music artists | [
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|
238722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivid%20%28Living%20Colour%20album%29 | Vivid (Living Colour album) | Vivid is the debut studio album by the American rock band Living Colour, released on May 3, 1988, through Epic Records. It was one of the most popular albums of 1988, peaking at #6 on the US Billboard 200 chart and certified double platinum by the RIAA.
Music
Vivid has been described as a hard rock, funk metal, heavy metal, and glam metal album, with elements of funk, soul, jazz, avant-garde jazz, pop, arena rock, and punk rock, and rap.
Reception
The album is also featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Track listing
(Note: Track 10 runs 3:56 on original CD issues, and 1:41 on original vinyl and remastered CD issues.)
Personnel
Living Colour
Corey Glover – vocals
Vernon Reid – guitars
Muzz Skillings – bass
Will Calhoun – drums
Additional personnel
Mick Jagger – harmonica on track 8, backing vocals on track 9
Chuck D – rapping on track 6
Flavor Flav – social commentary on track 6
The Fowler Family – additional backing vocals on tracks 2 and 5
Dennis Diamond – carnival barker on track 8
Production
Ed Stasium – producer and engineer on tracks 1-8 and 10, mixing on tracks 9 and 11
Mick Jagger – producer on tracks 9 and 11
Ron St. Germain – engineer on tracks 9 and 11
Paul Hamingson – engineer on tracks 1-8 and 10, mixing
Danny Mormando, Debi Cornish, Stephen Immerwahr, Mike McMackin, Tom Durack, U.E. Natasi – assistant engineers
Greg Calbi – mastering
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
Certifications
Awards and accolades
Grammy Awards
References
External links
"Vivid" at discogs
Living Colour albums
1988 debut albums
Albums produced by Ed Stasium
Albums produced by Mick Jagger
Epic Records albums
Funk metal albums
Heavy metal albums by American artists | [
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|
238723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violator%20%28album%29 | Violator (album) | Violator is the seventh studio album by English electronic music band Depeche Mode. It was first released on 19 March 1990 through Mute Records internationally, and through Sire and Reprise Records in the United States.
Preceded by the singles "Personal Jesus" and "Enjoy the Silence" (a top-10 entry in both the United Kingdom and the United States), the album propelled the band into international stardom, and also yielded the singles "Policy of Truth" and "World in My Eyes". Violator reached number two on the UK Albums Chart, and was the band's first album to chart inside the top 10 of the Billboard 200, peaking at number seven. The album was supported by the World Violation Tour.
Background and recording
Compared to previous efforts, the band decided to try a new approach to recording. Alan Wilder said, "Usually we begin the making of a record by having extensive pre-production meetings where we decide what the record will actually sound like, then go into a programming studio. This time we decided to keep all pre-production work to a minimum. We were beginning to have a problem with boredom in that we felt we'd reached a certain level of achievement in doing things a certain way." Martin Gore elaborated, "Over the last five years I think we'd perfected a formula; my demos, a month in a programming studio, etc. etc. We decided that our first record of the '90s ought to be different."
With co-producer Flood, Wilder began a complementary working relationship, with Flood able to provide the technical know-how and Wilder working on the arrangements and song textures. "That's how we made the group work at that time", clarified Wilder, "by accepting that we all had different roles and not actually all trying to do the same thing. So we ended up with this unwritten agreement in the band, where we'd all throw together a few ideas at the beginning of a track. Then Fletch and Mart would go away, and they'd come back after we'd worked on it for a while to give an opinion."
There was also a notable change in Gore's demos. After the rigid, limiting effects of almost-finished demos for Music for the Masses, Gore, agreeing to Wilder's request, kept them less complete this time around. Several of the basic recordings consisted of vocals over a simple guitar or organ part, with the odd percussion loop, but less sequenced material. The sparse demos allowed the band to take creative liberties with the songs. For instance, "Enjoy the Silence" started out as a slow ballad, but at Wilder's suggestion became a pulsating, up-tempo track.
The band convened to work on the record with Flood at Mute's WorldWide programming room in London for three weeks after which they flew to Milan for the new sessions at Logic studios. According to Flood, they did not do a substantial amount of work in Milan, except for the song "Personal Jesus", which was crucial in setting the tone and spirit of the album. "Everybody was feeling each other out, because they wanted to try working in a different way. The idea was to work hard and party hard and we all enjoyed ourselves to the full." After Milan the band relocated to Puk studios in northern Denmark, where most of the album was recorded.
Composition
Musically, Violator has been described as synth-pop, alternative rock, dance, and gothic rock. Gore called the track "World in My Eyes" a very positive song. "It's saying that love and sex and pleasure are positive things." The song "Blue Dress", which Gore called "pervy", is simply about "watching a girl dress and realising that this is 'what makes the world turn.'" With "Halo", Gore said, "I'm saying 'let's give in to this' but there's also a real feeling of wrongfulness [...] I suppose my songs do seem to advocate immorality but if you listen there's always a sense of guilt." The closing track, "Clean", was inspired by Pink Floyd's song "One of These Days", from their 1971 album Meddle. Said Wilder, "they [Pink Floyd] were doing something very different to anyone else at that time – you can hear electronics in there, and the influence of classical music. It's got a very repetitive, synthesised sound, and the bass riffs with the echo have a very hypnotic groove that underpins it. We basically nicked that idea [for 'Clean']".
Regarding the album's title, Gore said, "We called it Violator as a joke. We wanted to come up with the most extreme, ridiculously Heavy Metal title that we could. I'll be surprised if people will get the joke."
Reception
Critical
In a contemporary review for Melody Maker, music critic Paul Lester called Violator "Depeche Mode's most arresting work to date." Tim Nicholson of Record Mirror was enthused by the stripped-down quality of the songs and called the album a "compromise between pop music and something a little more sinister", adding: "There are no noises out of place in this perfectly formed void." Ian Cranna of Q magazine found the music subtly clever and deemed Violator "a fine record which may not set the world on fire but deserves to singe it a bit." NME writer Helen Mead felt that the album "seems almost a step back, in that it's cleaner, sparser, more clinical" than Music for the Masses, but concluded that "there is security in the knowledge that everything is very clear cut in Depeche Mode's blue and white world." In a less enthusiastic review, Robert Christgau said that Depeche Mode conceded to fickle teenage demographics on Violator. Rolling Stone magazine's Chuck Eddy said that, despite the album's "ambient charm", Gahan sounds "slimy and self-involved", and in their attempt to make listeners dance, Depeche Mode "revert to morose pop psychology and then never tell you how come they're so sad." Entertainment Weeklys Greg Sandow found that the music is over-reliant on "distinctive and curious", but ultimately trivial, sound effects.
Violator was ranked number 342 on Rolling Stones 2003 and 2012 lists of the 500 greatest albums of all time and number 57 on the magazine's 2010 list of the 100 best albums of the 1990s. It was ranked number 167 on Rolling Stones 2020 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. Violator has also featured on lists of the greatest albums of all time made by publications such as Q and Spin. In a retrospective review, The Austin Chronicles Christopher Gray cited Violator as Depeche Mode's "career peak", while The Guardians Dorian Lynskey called it the band's best album, "encasing Martin Gore's favourite tropes – guilt, salvation, obsession and the virtues of keeping your mouth shut – in production as black and shiny as a beetle's shell." Barry Walters of Rolling Stone complimented its "heavier hooks, cinematic arrangements and sleek sonic detail." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the album "a quintessential benchmark of pop, rock and electronic music." It is included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Commercial
As a sign of their rising popularity when Violator was released, a signing party for fans at a Wherehouse record store in Los Angeles that was expected to draw only a few thousand fans ended up drawing around 17,000. The band were forced to withdraw from the event due to security concerns, and their early exit nearly caused a riot. Violator reached number 17 on the Billboard 200-year-end chart of 1990, and was the first Depeche Mode album to sell a million copies in the United States.
The success of Violator introduced the band to a wider audience, and this increased exposure led to their 1993 follow-up album Songs of Faith and Devotion debuting at the top of the charts in both the United States and United Kingdom. "Before this, we'd been going along quite nicely," recalled Andy Fletcher. "Then when it came to Violator we inexplicably went huge. It was just incredible, and in many ways we never really recovered from that. After that, we just felt like we wanted to muck it up a bit."
Re-release
As part of Mute's 2006 reissue schedule, Violator was re-released as a hybrid Super Audio CD + DVD-Video package on 3 April 2006 that included two-channel and 5.1 surround mixes of the album. The six B-sides to the Violator singles—"Dangerous", "Memphisto", "Sibeling", "Kaleid", "Happiest Girl", and "Sea of Sin"—also appear, albeit without the surround sound treatment. The reissue did not reach the US until 6 June 2006. The US version lacked the hybrid SACD and instead included a separate CD and DVD. The DVD was identical to the European DVD but in NTSC format instead of PAL. The lack of SACD is due to the titles being distributed in North America by Warner, who do not support the SACD format.
A 32-minute short film, entitled Depeche Mode 1989–90 (If You Wanna Use Guitars, Use Guitars), featured interviews with the band, Daniel Miller, Flood, François Kevorkian (who mixed the album), Anton Corbijn (who directed the music videos and did the album's photography/cover), and others. It also includes news footage from the infamous "riot" in Los Angeles, which gave the band media publicity the day before Violator came out. The band were scheduled to do autographs in an LA music store, and the line became extremely long, stretching towards twenty-thousand people, and the event had to be cancelled shortly after it began due to problems keeping them in order. There is also footage from Strange Too, notably clips from the music videos for "Halo" and "Clean".
The remastered album was released on "deluxe" vinyl on 2 March 2007 in Germany and on 5 March 2007 internationally.
Track listing
This is the rare first Japanese pressing of Depeche Mode's Violator double-disc set. It comes in a thick double CD jewel case with the twelve-page lyric inlay booklet, sixteen-page Japanese insert, "Enjoy the Silence" insert and forty-page 1991 picture calendar. The second edition double CD was fixed and included "Enjoy the Silence" (Hands and Feet Mix) instead of the edited Ecstatic Dub Mix.
Notes
"Enjoy the Silence" includes the hidden track "Interlude #2 (Crucified)" starting at 4:21.
"Blue Dress" includes the hidden track "Interlude #3" starting at 4:18.
According to the band's website, the original title for "Waiting for the Night" was "Waiting for the Night to Fall" and the rest of the title was omitted due to a printing error. However, during an online Q&A session, Alan Wilder claimed that the story was "incorrect."
Both the original US and the original UK vinyl editions have a shorter version of "Personal Jesus".
2006 reissue
Disc one is a hybrid SACD/CD with a multi-channel SACD layer, with the same track listing as the 1990 release. Bonus tracks are in PCM Stereo (48 kHz/16bit).
Disc two is a DVD which includes the documentary Depeche Mode 1989–90 (If You Wanna Use Guitars, Use Guitars), Violator in DTS 5.1, Dolby Digital 5.1 and PCM Stereo (48 kHz/24bit) plus the following bonus tracks:
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Violator.
Depeche Mode
Alan Wilder
David Gahan
Andrew Fletcher
Martin Gore
Technical
Depeche Mode – production
Flood – production ; mixing
François Kevorkian – mixing
Daniel Miller – mixing
Pino Pischetola – engineering
Peter Iversen – engineering
Steve Lyon – engineering
Goh Hotoda – engineering
Alan Gregorie – engineering
Dennis Mitchell – engineering
Phil Legg – engineering
Daryl Bamonte – engineering assistance
Dick Meaney – engineering assistance
David Browne – engineering assistance
Mark Flannery – engineering assistance
Artwork
Anton Corbijn – sleeve
Area – sleeve
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
References
Bibliography
External links
Album information from the official Depeche Mode website
Official remaster info
1990 albums
Albums produced by Flood (producer)
Depeche Mode albums
Mute Records albums
Reprise Records albums
Sire Records albums | [
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|
238724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputum | Sputum | Sputum is mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways (the trachea and bronchi). In medicine, sputum samples are usually used for naked eye exam, microbiological investigation of respiratory infections and cytological investigations of respiratory systems. It is crucial that the specimen not include any mucoid material from the nose.
Naked eye exam of sputum can be done at home by a patient in order to note the various colors (see below). Any hint of yellow or green color (pus) suggests an airway infection (but does not indicate the type of organism causing it). Such color hints are best detected when the sputum is viewed on a very white background such as white paper, a white pot or a white sink surface. The more intense the yellow color, the more likely it is a bacterial infection (bronchitis, bronchopneumonia or pneumonia).
Description
The best sputum samples contain very little saliva, as saliva contaminates the sample with oral bacteria. This is especially true for samples for laboratory testing in cytology or microbiology. Specimen adequacy is assessed by the laboratory technologists by examining a Gram stain or cytology stain of the sputum. More than 25 squamous epithelial cells at low power magnification exam under the microscope strongly suggests salivary contamination. Sputum samples have been used to quantify the degree of airway inflammation in human diseases such as asthma. Specifically, this work has demonstrated that a sub group of severe asthma patients have airway inflammation that is resistant to treatment with corticosteroids.
When a sputum specimen is plated out in microbiology, it is best to get the portion of the sample that most looks like yellow pus onto the swab. If there is any blood in the sputum, this should also be on the swab. Microbiological sputum samples are used to look for infections, such as Moraxella catarrhalis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae. Other pathogens can also be found.
Purulent sputum contains pus, composed of white blood cells, cellular debris, dead tissue, serous fluid, and viscous liquid (mucus). Purulent sputum is typically yellow or green. It is seen in cases of pneumonia, bronchiectasis, lung abscess, or an advanced stage of bronchitis.
Interpretation
Sputum can be (when examined by the naked eye):
Bloody (hemoptysis)
Blood-streaked sputum – inflammation of throat (larynx and/or trachea) or bronchi; lung cancer; other bleeding erosions, ulcers, or tumors of the lower airway.
Pink sputum – sputum evenly mixed with blood from alveoli and/or small peripheral bronchi as is seen in pulmonary edema.
Massive blood – cavitary tuberculosis or tumor such as lung cancer, or lung abscess; bronchiectasis; lung infarction; pulmonary embolism.
Red, jelly-like sputum - pneumonia caused by Klebsiella.
Green or greenish colored - indicative of longstanding respiratory infection (green from degenerative changes in cell debris) as in pneumonia, ruptured lung abscess, chronic infectious bronchitis, and infected bronchiectasis or cystic fibrosis.
Rust colored – usually caused by pneumococcal bacteria (in pneumonia), pulmonary embolism, lung cancer or pulmonary tuberculosis.
Brownish – chronic bronchitis (greenish/yellowish/brown); chronic pneumonia (whitish-brown); tuberculosis; lung cancer.
Yellow, yellowish purulent – containing pus. "The sputum color of patients with acute cough and no underlying chronic lung disease does not imply therapeutic consequences such as prescription of antibiotics." The color can provide hints as to effective treatment in chronic bronchitis patients:
A yellow-greenish (mucopurulent) color suggests that treatment with antibiotics can reduce symptoms. The green color is caused by degenerating neutrophil verdoperoxidase.
Whitish gray sputum color against a white color background (such as a white sink surface) tends to indicate either a specimen from someone who is dehydrated, and/or from an older person, and/or a specimen with a mixed, modest number of eosinophils and maybe some acute inflammatory neutrophil cells (this last choice tends to suggest a chronic allergic bronchitis).
A white, milky, or opaque (mucoid) appearance means that antibiotics are less likely to be effective in treatment because the likelihood is greater of a viral infection or allergy (even asthma...thick sputum) than of antibiotic-responsive micro-organisms.
Foamy white – may come from earlier-phase pulmonary edema.
Frothy pink – may indicate more severe pulmonary edema. Antibiotics may not be necessary at this time.
Clear – pulmonary embolism (clear to frothy); COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (clear to gray); viral respiratory infection (clear to whitish and sometimes a hint of yellow); asthma (thick and white to yellowish).
See also
Phlegm
References
External links
Symptoms and signs: Respiratory system | [
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|
238725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loebner%20Prize | Loebner Prize | The Loebner Prize was an annual competition in artificial intelligence that awards prizes to the computer programs considered by the judges to be the most human-like. The prize is reported as defunct since 2020. The format of the competition was that of a standard Turing test. In each round, a human judge simultaneously holds textual conversations with a computer program and a human being via computer. Based upon the responses, the judge must decide which is which.
The contest was launched in 1990 by Hugh Loebner in conjunction with the Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies, Massachusetts, United States. Since 2014 it has been organised by the AISB at Bletchley Park.
It has also been associated with Flinders University, Dartmouth College, the Science Museum in London, University of Reading and Ulster University, Magee Campus, Derry, UK City of Culture.
In 2004 and 2005, it was held in Loebner's apartment in New York City. Within the field of artificial intelligence, the Loebner Prize is somewhat controversial; the most prominent critic, Marvin Minsky, called it a publicity stunt that does not help the field along.
In 2019 the format of the competition changed. There was no panel of judges. Instead, the chatbots were judged by the public and there were to be no human competitors.
Prizes
Originally, $2,000 was awarded for the most human-seeming program in the competition. The prize was $3,000 in 2005 and $2,250 in 2006. In 2008, $3,000 was awarded.
In addition, there are two one-time-only prizes that have never been awarded. $25,000 is offered for the first program that judges cannot distinguish from a real human and which can convince judges that the human is the computer program. $100,000 is the reward for the first program that judges cannot distinguish from a real human in a Turing test that includes deciphering and understanding text, visual, and auditory input. Once this is achieved, the annual competition will end.
Competition rules and restrictions
The rules have varied over the years and early competitions featured restricted conversation Turing tests but since 1995 the discussion has been unrestricted.
For the three entries in 2007, Robert Medeksza, Noah Duncan and Rollo Carpenter, some basic "screening questions" were used by the sponsor to evaluate the state of the technology. These included simple questions about the time, what round of the contest it is, etc.; general knowledge ("What is a hammer for?"); comparisons ("Which is faster, a train or a plane?"); and questions demonstrating memory for preceding parts of the same conversation. "All nouns, adjectives and verbs will come from a dictionary suitable for children or adolescents under the age of 12." Entries did not need to respond "intelligently" to the questions to be accepted.
For the first time in 2008 the sponsor allowed introduction of a preliminary phase to the contest opening up the competition to previously disallowed web-based entries judged by a variety of invited interrogators. The available rules do not state how interrogators are selected or instructed. Interrogators (who judge the systems) have limited time: 5 minutes per entity in the 2003 competition, 20+ per pair in 2004–2007 competitions, 5 minutes to conduct simultaneous conversations with a human and the program in 2008–2009, increased to 25 minutes of simultaneous conversation since 2010.
Criticisms
The prize has long been scorned by experts in the field, for a variety of reasons.
It is regarded by many as a publicity stunt. Marvin Minsky scathingly offered a "prize" to anyone who could stop the competition. Loebner responded by jokingly observing that Minsky's offering a prize to stop the competition effectively made him a co-sponsor.
The rules of the competition have encouraged poorly qualified judges to make rapid judgements. Interactions between judges and competitors was originally very brief, for example effectively 2.5 mins of questioning, which permitted only a few questions. Questioning was initially restricted to "whimsical conversation", a domain suiting standard chatbot tricks.
Competition entrants do not aim at understanding or intelligence but resort to basic ELIZA style tricks, and successful entrants find deception and pretense is rewarded.
Reporting of the annual competition often confuses the imitation test with intelligence, a typical example being Brian Christian's introduction to his article "Mind vs. Machine" in The Atlantic, March 2011, stating that "in the race to build computers that can think like humans, the proving ground is the Turing Test".
Contests
2006
In 2006, the contest was organised by Tim Child (CEO of Televirtual) and Huma Shah. On August 30, the four finalists were announced:
Rollo Carpenter
Richard Churchill and Marie-Claire Jenkins
Noah Duncan
Robert Medeksza
The contest was held on 17 September in the VR theatre, Torrington Place campus of University College London. The judges included the University of Reading's cybernetics professor, Kevin Warwick, a professor of artificial intelligence, John Barnden (specialist in metaphor research at the University of Birmingham), a barrister, Victoria Butler-Cole and a journalist, Graham Duncan-Rowe. The latter's experience of the event can be found in an article in Technology Review. The winner was 'Joan', based on Jabberwacky, both created by Rollo Carpenter.
2007
The 2007 competition was held on October 21 in New York City. The judges were: computer science professor Russ Abbott, philosophy professor Hartry Field, psychology assistant professor Clayton Curtis and English lecturer Scott Hutchins.
No bot passed the Turing test, but the judges ranked the three contestants as follows:
1st: Robert Medeksza, creator of Ultra Hal
2nd: Noah Duncan, a private entry, creator of Cletus
3rd: Rollo Carpenter from Icogno, creator of Jabberwacky
The winner received $2,250 and the annual medal. The runners-up received $250 each.
2008
The 2008 competition was organised by professor Kevin Warwick, coordinated by Huma Shah and held on October 12 at the University of Reading, UK. After testing by over one hundred judges during the preliminary phase, in June and July 2008, six finalists were selected from thirteen original entrants - artificial conversational entity (ACE). Five of those invited competed in the finals:
Brother Jerome, Peter Cole and Benji Adams
Elbot, Fred Roberts / Artificial Solutions
Eugene Goostman, Vladimir Veselov, Eugene Demchenko and Sergey Ulasen
Jabberwacky, Rollo Carpenter
Ultra Hal, Robert Medeksza
In the finals, each of the judges was given five minutes to conduct simultaneous, split-screen conversations with two hidden entities. Elbot of Artificial Solutions won the 2008 Loebner Prize bronze award, for most human-like artificial conversational entity, through fooling three of the twelve judges who interrogated it (in the human-parallel comparisons) into believing it was human. This is coming very close to the 30% traditionally required to consider that a program has actually passed the Turing test. Eugene Goostman and Ultra Hal both deceived one judge each that it was the human.
Will Pavia, a journalist for The Times, has written about his experience; a Loebner finals' judge, he was deceived by Elbot and Eugene. Kevin Warwick and Huma Shah have reported on the parallel-paired Turing tests.
2009
The 2009 Loebner Prize Competition was held September 6, 2009, at the Brighton Centre, Brighton UK in conjunction with the Interspeech 2009 conference. The prize amount for 2009 was $3,000.
Entrants were David Levy, Rollo Carpenter, and Mohan Embar, who finished in that order.
The writer Brian Christian participated in the 2009 Loebner Prize Competition as a human confederate, and described his experiences at the competition in his book The Most Human Human.
2010
The 2010 Loebner Prize Competition was held on October 23 at California State University, Los Angeles. The 2010 competition was the 20th running of the contest. The winner was Bruce Wilcox with Suzette.
2011
The 2011 Loebner Prize Competition was held on October 19 at the University of Exeter, Devon, United Kingdom. The prize amount for 2011 was $4,000.
The four finalists and their chatterbots were Bruce Wilcox (Rosette), Adeena Mignogna (Zoe), Mohan Embar (Chip Vivant) and Ron Lee (Tutor), who finished in that order.
That year there was an addition of a panel of junior judges, namely Georgia-Mae Lindfield, William Dunne, Sam Keat and Kirill Jerdev. The results of the junior contest were markedly different from the main contest, with chatterbots Tutor and Zoe tying for first place and Chip Vivant and Rosette coming in third and fourth place, respectively.
2012
The 2012 Loebner Prize Competition was held on the 15th of May in Bletchley Park in Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, England, in honor of the Alan Turing centenary celebrations. The prize amount for 2012 was $5,000. The local arrangements organizer was David Levy, who won the Loebner Prize in 1997 and 2009.
The four finalists and their chatterbots were Mohan Embar (Chip Vivant), Bruce Wilcox (Angela), Daniel Burke (Adam), M. Allan (Linguo), who finished in that order.
That year, a team from the University of Exeter's computer science department (Ed Keedwell, Max Dupenois and Kent McClymont) conducted the first-ever live webcast of the conversations.
2013
The 2013 Loebner Prize Competition was held, for the only time on the Island of Ireland, on September 14 at the Ulster University, Magee College, Derry, Northern Ireland, UK.
The four finalists and their chatbots were Steve Worswick (Mitsuku), Dr. Ron C. Lee (Tutor), Bruce Wilcox (Rose) and Brian Rigsby (Izar), who finished in that order.
The judges were Professor Roger Schank (Socratic Arts), Professor Noel Sharkey (Sheffield University), Professor Minhua (Eunice) Ma (Huddersfield University, then University of Glasgow)
and Professor Mike McTear (Ulster University).
For the 2013 Junior Loebner Prize Competition the chatbots Mitsuku and Tutor tied for first place with Rose and Izar in 3rd and 4th place respectively.
2014
The 2014 Loebner Prize Competition was held at Bletchley Park, England, on Saturday 15 November 2014. The event was filmed live by Sky News. The guest judge was television presenter and broadcaster James May.
After 2 hours of judging, 'Rose' by Bruce Wilcox was declared the winner. Bruce will receive a cheque for $4000 and a bronze medal. The ranks were as follows:
Rose - Rank 1 ($4000 & Bronze Medal);
Izar - Rank 2.25 ($1500);
Uberbot - Rank 3.25 ($1000); and
Mitsuku - Rank 3.5 ($500).
The Judges were Dr Ian Hocking, Writer & Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Christ Church College, Canterbury;
Dr Ghita Kouadri-Mostefaoui, Lecturer in Computer Science and Technology, University of Bedfordshire;
Mr James May, Television Presenter and Broadcaster; and
Dr Paul Sant, Dean of UCMK, University of Bedfordshire.
2015
The 2015 Loebner Prize Competition was again won by 'Rose' by Bruce Wilcox.
The judges were Jacob Aaron, Physical sciences reporter for New Scientist; Rory Cellan-Jones, Technology correspondent for the BBC; Brett Marty, Film Director and Photographer; Ariadne Tampion, Writer.
2016
The 2016 Loebner Prize was held at Bletchley Park on 17 September 2016. After 2 hours of judging the final results were announced.
The ranks were as follows:
1st place: Mitsuku
2nd place: Tutor
3rd place: Rose
Winners
Official list of winners.
See also
List of computer science awards
Artificial intelligence
Glossary of artificial intelligence
Robot
Artificial general intelligence
Confederate effect
Computer game bot Turing Test
References
External links
Computer science competitions
Computer science awards
Artificial intelligence
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238726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20Head%20%28album%29 | Machine Head (album) | Machine Head is the sixth studio album released by the English rock band Deep Purple. It was recorded in December 1971 at Montreux, Switzerland, and released on 25 March 1972 on Purple Records.
As previous recording sessions had been slotted into the group's gigging schedule, Deep Purple wanted to dedicate time to record an album away from the typical studio environment, hoping it would result in a sound closer to their live shows. They hired the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio for recording, and block-booked the Montreux Casino as a venue, but during a Frank Zappa concert immediately before the sessions, the casino burned to the ground. After a week of searching for an alternative venue, including a session at a nearby theatre that was abandoned due to noise complaints, the band managed to book the Grand Hotel, closed for the winter, and converted it into a live room suitable for recording. These events, particularly the casino fire, became the inspiration for the song "Smoke on the Water".
Machine Head is Deep Purple's most commercially successful album, topping the charts in several countries, including number one in the UK. Influential in the development of traditional metal, it continues to be viewed favourably by music critics and has been reissued several times.
Background
By 1971, Deep Purple had been touring for two years and earlier studio albums, such as Deep Purple in Rock (1970) and Fireball (1971) were recorded in between live shows. The band felt that prior studio work did not sound as good as their live performances, and wanted to record in a stage environment. Drummer Ian Paice recorded his kit in the corridor for some of the Fireball sessions, believing it sounded better, and he wanted to find an alternative recording environment away from a typical sound-proofed studio. Deep Purple were advised to record outside the United Kingdom, as they would not have to pay as much income tax.
The group toured the UK from September to October 1971, and previewed some new material that was ultimately released on Machine Head. They then began a tour of the United States, which ended up being cancelled after two gigs due to singer Ian Gillan contracting hepatitis. Guitarist Ritchie Blackmore started to think about possible solo work for the future, and Deep Purple as a whole looked forward to a dedicated block of time to record, getting away from the pressures of touring.
Deep Purple initially planned to record Machine Head at Montreux Casino in Switzerland during December 1971. They had booked the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio and made hotel reservations. The casino was a large arena, containing several entertainment facilities. The band had performed there in May 1971, and befriended Claude Nobs, founder and general manager of the Montreux Jazz Festival. Among others, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, and Black Sabbath had all performed at the casino, and it closed for refurbishments each winter, allowing it to be used as a recording venue. Deep Purple arrived there on 3 December 1971. After a final concert, they would have the location to themselves. In return, the band tentatively proposed to perform a show at the casino, which would have allowed them to release a double album, half live and half studio.
Recording
The last gig at Montreux Casino was a matinée performance by Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention. At the time, the group included singers Flo & Eddie, multi-instrumentalist Ian Underwood and drummer Aynsley Dunbar. During the show, a member of the audience fired a flare into the building's roof. Although the audience were initially unaware of the incident because the roof was covered by a false bamboo ceiling, about an hour into the set, people started seeing sparks emerging. The group stopped playing; according to bassist Roger Glover, Zappa said that "no-one should panic, but ..... FIRE!" After this, management ordered a controlled evacuation. There were no fatalities, but a group were briefly trapped in the casino's basement before being rescued by Nobs. Shortly after everyone had been safely evacuated, the building went up in flames.
Nobs relocated Deep Purple to the Pavilion, a nearby theatre, where they recorded the basic tracks for a song provisionally named "Title No. 1". Glover recalled waking up one morning saying the title "Smoke on the Water" out loud. From this, Gillan wrote the lyrics which describe the experience in Montreux. A photograph of the burning Montreux Casino was included in the album's gatefold cover.
The Pavilion proved to be impractical to record in, as nearby residents complained to the police about the noise. Although roadies tried to prevent the police entering by holding the doors shut, the band were quickly evicted. They searched for other recording locations and settled with the empty Grand Hotel, on the edge of Montreux. With the mobile unit parked at the main entrance, Deep Purple set up at the end of one of the corridors off the main lobby. An assortment of equipment and sound-insulating mattresses were installed, which meant the band had to walk through bedrooms and across balconies to get to the recording van. This proved so arduous that Deep Purple stopped listening to playbacks of their recordings, instead performing until they were satisfied. A closed-circuit television system was set up so the band could communicate with engineer Martin Birch and allow staff in the studio control room to see them.
Songs
The opening track, "Highway Star" was written while the group were on a coach travelling to their opening UK tour date in Portsmouth on 13 September 1971. The band's management arranged for them to travel to the gig with a group of music journalists who could interview the band at their leisure. One of them asked Blackmore how he wrote songs, upon which he said, "like this", picked up the guitar and played the song's opening riff. Gillan improvised a set of lyrics around: "We're on the road, we're a rock'n'roll band". The rest of the band completed the arrangement during rehearsals and it was added to the show on the evening of the gig. Blackmore based his guitar solo around a figure that he learned from Johnny Burnette, and liked its resemblance to Johann Sebastian Bach.
"Maybe I'm A Leo" went under the working title of "One Just Before Midnight", which appears in a picture of a recording sheet on the album sleeve. The finished title and lyrics refer to Gillan's birth sign. Glover wrote the song's main riff after listening to John Lennon's "How Do You Sleep?", and he enjoyed that the riff did not start on the first beat of the bar. The song was played live once in 1972 at a BBC In Concert performance. It became a live favourite years later, after Joe Satriani temporarily joined the band in 1993.
"Pictures of Home" describes the sights and images of the local area around Montreux, far away from home. The track was initially recorded with a drum introduction, which was left off the original recording; however, it was added for the 25th anniversary reissue. The track was also played live after Satriani joined Deep Purple. "Never Before" was considered by the band to be the most commercial track on the album, and was released as a single. The song was played live once at the BBC In Concert show.
"Smoke on the Water" documents the experiences of recording Machine Head, including the casino fire and evacuation, and the sessions at the Grand Hotel. The title referred to thick black smoke from the fire hanging over the shore of Lake Geneva. The backing track was the only usable material that came from the Pavilion recordings, before police shut the sessions down. Blackmore contributed the opening guitar riff, and later said it was popular due to being simple and based around four notes, comparing it to the opening musical phrasing of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Although the track is one of the most famous by Deep Purple, and of rock music in general, the band did not think it had much commercial potential, and it was one of the last of the tracks from Machine Head to be played live. The song was subsequently a major chart hit in the US, reaching number four on the Billboard Hot 100. As well as Deep Purple, Gillan has performed the song live as part of his solo career, and during his brief time with Black Sabbath in 1983.
"Lazy" was first played live during the 1971 UK tour, and retained throughout the following year. It was performed towards the end of the live show, replacing the instrumental workout "Wring That Neck", and was later moved mid-set in early 1972. Glover said the song was roughly based on an Oscar Brown song, "Sleepy", while Blackmore stated it was inspired by Eric Clapton's "Stepping Out". The song was designed to be a vehicle for various instrumental showcases, including an unaccompanied organ introduction and Gillan's harmonica. Blackmore recorded the guitar solos in sections on two different days, which were then joined.
"Space Truckin'" was written as a pastiche of 1950s rock 'n' roll lyrics, but with a science fiction theme. Deep Purple began thinking of nonsense phrases such as "music in our solar system" that would fit. Paice played a short drum solo on the track. It was first played live in January 1972 at the next gig following the Montreux sessions, and led into the instrumental section of the earlier live showcase "Mandrake Root" as the closing number. The song remained the last number in the set after Gillan and Glover left the band in 1973, including a memorable performance at the California Jam the following year, where Blackmore set fire to his amplifiers and destroyed a TV camera with his guitar. The song was regularly played as a wakeup call by the crew on board the Space Shuttle program flight STS-107 in 2003.
A ballad entitled "When a Blind Man Cries" was recorded during the Machine Head sessions, but was not included on the album. Instead, it was used as the B-side on the "Never Before" single. The song appears as a bonus track on the 25th anniversary edition of Machine Head.
Release and artwork
The album was released in the UK on 25 March 1972. A US tour for March and April that year was postponed after Blackmore fell ill. The first shows in the UK, promoting the album were at the Rainbow Theatre in June 1972. Two months later, the band toured Japan for the first time, recordings of which become the double live album Made in Japan. Four songs from Machine Head ("Highway Star", "Smoke on the Water", "Lazy" and "Space Truckin'") were included in the album.
The cover art was created by stamping the album title into a polished metal sheet, which was held up to act as a mirror in front of which the group stood. The photographer Shepard Sherbell then took a picture of the reflection; a small trace of him can be made out on the finished picture (just below the "Head" text). The album's inner sleeve was mostly designed by Glover and manager Tony Edwards, and features a selection of mug shots that were previously used for record company contact sheets. It included a picture of Nobs, to whom Machine Head was dedicated. The initial pressings also had a hand-printed lyric sheet.
Critical reception
Machine Head reached number one on the UK Albums Chart within seven days of its release, remaining there for two weeks before returning in May 1972 for a further week. In the US, during its initial release in 1972, the album reached number 34; the album then peaked at number 7 in 1973 when "Smoke on the Water" became a hit, and Machine Head remained on the Billboard charts for over two years. The first single released from the album, "Never Before", reached number 35 in the UK and did not chart in the US. Prompted by heavy radio play of "Smoke on the Water" as an album cut, Warner Brothers eventually released it as a single in May 1973. The song became a hit in North America, reaching number two on the Canadian RPM chart and number four on the US Billboard Hot 100.
The album was met with positive reviews from critics. Rolling Stone's Lester Bangs praised the lyrics to "Highway Star" and "Space Truckin'" as well as all the music, although he was less complimentary about the lyrics of the remaining songs: "In between those two Deep Purple classics lies nothing but good, hard-socking music, although some of the lyrics may leave a bit to be desired." Concluding his review, he admitted: "I do know that this very banality is half the fun of rock 'n' roll. And I am confident that I will love the next five Deep Purple albums madly so long as they sound exactly like these last three." Robert Christgau wrote of the album: "I approve of their speeding, and Ritchie Blackmore has copped some self-discipline as well as a few suspicious-sounding licks from his buddies in London." AllMusic critic Eduardo Rivadavia called Machine Head "one of the essential hard rock albums of all time."
Blackmore noted that Machine Head was recorded in about three weeks, remarking that "everything was natural and it all worked." He further stated, "I didn't like Fireball very much because we were just working too much. But we had about a month off before Machine Head, which allowed me to get my head together and write some stuff."
Kerrang! magazine ranked Machine Head at number 35 on their "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time" list in 1989. In an Observer Music Monthly Greatest British Albums poll, Ozzy Osbourne chose the album as one of his 10 favourite British records of all time. Machine Head became the subject of one of the Classic Albums series of documentaries about the making of famous albums. In 2001, Machine Head was mentioned in Qs "50 Heaviest Albums of All Time", while in 2007, it featured in The Guardians 2007 edition of 1000 Albums to Hear Before You Die. Based on its appearances in professional rankings and listings, the aggregate website Acclaimed Music lists Machine Head as 9th most acclaimed album of 1972, the 99th most acclaimed album of the 1970s and the 337th most acclaimed album in history.
Reissues
The album was released on the multichannel formats DVD-Audio (2001), in a new 5.1 channel mix and Super Audio CD (SACD) (2003) with the European quadraphonic mix. It was later released via SACD on 17 August 2011, through Warner Music Group in the Warner Premium Sound series of the label, which has the same 5.1 channel mix as the 2001 DVD-Audio version.
The 40th anniversary edition of Machine Head was released in October 2012 by EMI; this is a five-disc set, accompanied by an illustrated 60-page hardback booklet. Its contents include: Original album 2012 remaster (CD1), Roger Glover's 1997 mixes (CD2), Original album quad SQ stereo (2012 remaster) (CD3), In Concert '72 from Paris Theatre, London, 9 March 1972 – 2012 mix (CD4), 2012 high-resolution remaster and surround mixes (DVD, audio only). To celebrate the 40th anniversary, a tribute album Re-Machined: A Tribute to Deep Purple's Machine Head was released in September 2012, through Eagle Rock Entertainment.
Track listing
Personnel
Deep Purple
Ritchie Blackmore – guitar
Ian Gillan – vocals, harmonica
Roger Glover – bass
Jon Lord – keyboards, Hammond organ
Ian Paice – drums, percussion
Production
Martin Birch – engineering, mixing with Deep Purple
Jeremy "Bear" Gee – assistant engineer
Nick Watterton – technician, Rolling Stones Mobile Studio operator
Ian Hansford, Rob Cooksey, Colin Hart – equipment technicians
Shephard Sherbell – photography
Roger Glover and John Coletta – cover design
Peter Denenberg and Roger Glover – remixing (1997)
Peter Mew – remastering at Abbey Road Studios, London (1997)
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Certifications
Accolades
References
Bibliography
Deep Purple albums
EMI Records albums
1972 albums
Warner Records albums
Purple Records albums | [
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|
238727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvertone%20%28album%29 | Silvertone (album) | Silvertone is the debut album by American musician Chris Isaak, released in 1985, and named after his three-piece backup band. The US edition includes the song "Another Idea" as track 13 and early CD editions of the album utilized CD+G technology. The album peaked at #77 in Australia in June 1986.
Tracks in popular culture
The album was not a hit until the song "Gone Ridin was featured in the 1986 David Lynch film Blue Velvet, the first of many Isaak/Lynch collaborations, though the song had previously appeared on the soundtrack to the film American Flyers the year before. ‘Livin’ For Your Lover’ is also featured in the former. "Dancin appeared in the film Modern Girls released the same year, but wasn't included on the soundtrack. It also appeared in the season 2 episode of Miami Vice 'Payback'. "Gone Ridin was used in the 1987 comedy Morgan Stewart's Coming Home. Two songs from this album were played on the Fox's long running teen drama Beverly Hills, 90210 including "Gone Ridin, which was played in the Season 2 episode "Pass, Not Pass"; and "Dancin which was played in the Season 3 episode "Castles in the Sand".
Track listing
All songs written by Chris Isaak.
"Dancin – 3:44
"Talk to Me" – 3:04
"Livin' for Your Lover" – 2:56
"Back on Your Side" – 3:14
"Voodoo" – 2:44
"Funeral in the Rain" – 3:18
"The Lonely Ones" – 3:12
"Unhappiness" – 3:10
"Tears" – 2:44
"Gone Ridin – 2:36
"Pretty Girls Don't Cry" – 2:24
"Western Stars" – 3:12
"Another Idea" – 2:53 (U.S. edition only)
Personnel
Musicians
Chris Isaak – vocals, guitar
James Calvin Wilsey – lead guitar, lap steel guitar
Prairie Prince – drums
Chris Solberg – bass
Pee Wee Ellis – saxophone
Jim Keltner – drums on "Livin' for Your Lover"
Pat Craig – organ
Production
Produced by Erik Jacobsen
Engineered by Tom Mallon, Mark Needham, Lee Herschberg, Dave Carlson & Pat Craig
Mastered by Greg Fulginiti at Artisan Sound Recorders
Inner Booklet photography by Michael Zagaris
Charts
Certifications
References
Chris Isaak albums
1985 debut albums
Warner Records albums
Albums produced by Erik Jacobsen | [
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238728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lita%20Ford | Lita Ford | Lita Rossana Ford (born 19 September 1958) is an English-born American guitarist, vocalist and songwriter. She was the lead guitarist for the all-female rock band the Runaways in the late 1970s, before embarking on a successful glam metal solo career that hit its peak in the late 1980s. The 1989 single "Close My Eyes Forever", a duet with Ozzy Osbourne, remains Ford's most successful song, reaching No. 8 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
Early life
Ford was born to Harry Lenard Ford and Isabella Benvenuto in London, England; her father was British and her mother was Italian. When she was in second grade, she moved with her family to the United States, eventually settling in Long Beach, California.
Inspired by Ritchie Blackmore's work with Deep Purple, she began playing the guitar at the age of 11. Her vocal range is mezzo-soprano.
Music career
The Runaways (1975–1979)
In 1975, at age sixteen, Ford was recruited by recording impresario Kim Fowley to join the all-female rock band The Runaways. The band soon secured a recording contract and released their first album in 1976. The band garnered significant media attention and the Runaways became a successful recording and touring act during their late-1970s heyday. Ford's lead-guitar playing became an integral element of the band's sound until their eventual break-up in April 1979.
In 1977, internal conflicts were erupting within the Runaways, who had by that time already parted ways with producer Fowley, lead singer Cherie Currie, and bassist Jackie Fox. Vocalist/guitarist Joan Jett wanted the band to shift to a more Ramones-influenced punk rock sound, while Ford and drummer Sandy West wanted to continue playing the hard rock-oriented songs the band had become known for. With neither faction willing to compromise, the band finally broke up in April 1979.
Solo career (1982–1995)
In 1982, Ford signed with Mercury Records and set about launching a solo career. Her debut solo album, Out for Blood, released in 1983, was a commercial disappointment. Her next release, Dancin' on the Edge (1984) achieved moderate success, and Ford's popularity began to rise. Dancin' on the Edge included the single "Fire in My Heart", which reached the Top 10 in several countries outside the United States. The follow-up single, "Gotta Let Go", performed better, reaching number one on the Mainstream Rock charts. Ford said in an interview that she recorded an unreleased album with RCA Records, and Tony Iommi did not perform on it.
Ford signed with RCA Records, hired Sharon Osbourne Management, and re-emerged with a more radio-friendly pop-metal sound. In 1988, she released her most commercially successful album, the self-produced Lita. The album featured several singles including "Kiss Me Deadly", "Back to the Cave", "Close My Eyes Forever", and "Falling in and Out of Love", a song co-written by Nikki Sixx of Mötley Crüe. The ballad "Close My Eyes Forever", a duet with Ozzy Osbourne, remains her most successful song, reaching No. 8 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
Ford followed up the success of Lita with the album Stiletto (1990). Stiletto featured the singles "Hungry" and "Lisa" (a song dedicated to her mother). However, the album failed to match the success of her previous release. Ford's next release was Dangerous Curves (1991), which featured her last charting single to date, "Shot of Poison". Ford's final album prior to a lengthy recording hiatus was Black on the German ZYX Records.
Long hiatus (1996–2007)
By the mid-1990s, Ford had turned her attention towards raising her two young sons, causing her music career to become less of a priority. Following the release of Black in 1995, Ford did not release new material until Wicked Wonderland in 2009.
Return to stage (2008–present)
In June 2008, Ford re-emerged with a new band with Stet Howland (W.A.S.P.) on drums, playing several warm-up gigs under the moniker Kiss Me Deadly prior to Rocklahoma in Pryor, Oklahoma. In June 2009, she toured the United States and Europe with a new line-up on her last fourteen shows, consisting of former Guns N' Roses guitarist Ron "Bumblefoot" Thal, drummer Dennis Leeflang, and Deepfield bassist PJ Farley.
After a long recording hiatus, Ford released Wicked Wonderland on 6 October 2009, on the JLRG Entertainment label. In an interview with ExclusiveMagazine.com, Ford spoke about her new material: "I just wanted to kick ass! I don't know what's popular, or the flavor of the day. I just wanted the music to rock! The lyrics are very personal and that's it. I wasn't going to come out in sandals with hairy armpits!"
In May 2011, Ford promised to release a "real comeback album" later in the year with drummer Chuck Spradlin, saying that 2009's nu metal-inspired Wicked Wonderland was too much of a collective project with ex-husband Jim Gillette. "A lot of people have told me that they want a real Lita Ford album, and I know what they mean. They are going to get it", she was quoted as saying at the time.
Living Like a Runaway was released in June 2012 on SPV/Steamhammer Records. True to her word, the album was much more in line with her earlier work. The title is also celebratory, as Ford had recently settled differences with her former Runaways' bandmates. During 2014, she was bestowed with The Certified Legend Award by Guitar Player.
In November 2014, Heaven Below guitarist Patrick Kennison joined Ford's band.
In 2016, Ford released Time Capsule, a collection of songs she discovered on old analogue tapes from the 1980s, featuring recordings she had made with Billy Sheehan, Gene Simmons, Bruce Kulick, Robin Zander, Rick Nielsen, Dave Navarro, Rodger Carter, and Jeff Scott Soto.
Personal life
In the mid-1980s, Ford was briefly engaged to guitarist Tony Iommi of Black Sabbath. Iommi co-produced her album The Bride Wore Black, which was never released. Ford said in a 1989 interview with Kerrang! that "there's a certain amount of bad blood between Tony and I".
Ford was married to W.A.S.P. guitarist Chris Holmes in the early 1990s for a short time. After the couple divorced, Ford met former Nitro vocalist Jim Gillette in 1994; the couple were married after knowing each other for only two weeks. They have two sons, James and Rocco. The family moved to Turks and Caicos, where Gillette operated a small construction and real estate development business.
The marriage to Gillette began to crumble after he entered into negotiations with TLC for a reality TV show, tentatively titled The Gillettes: An Extreme American Family. In a March 2011 interview on the Classic Rock Revisited website, Ford claimed that she had taken a business trip to Los Angeles to discuss the show with TLC executives, and returned home to find her husband and sons not speaking to her. Ford also claimed that Gillette turned the couple's children against her, claiming that she was going to do harm to them, after she had assumed a greater level of control in the proposed series. She subsequently claimed that Gillette began encouraging her sons to physically attack her, a situation which prompted her to seek a divorce. In a February 2011 radio interview, Ford acknowledged that her marriage to Gillette was indeed over, ending any plans for a television series. Following the end of her relationship with Gillette, Ford became an advocate for the awareness of parental alienation.
In 2016, Ford published her autobiography, Living Like a Runaway: A Memoir, through Dey Street Books. In the book, Ford claimed that she left The Runaways temporarily in 1976, after coming to the conclusion that her bandmates "were all gay", a situation she didn't feel comfortable with. She wrote that she found it "strange" that they never spoke about boys with her and were "always giggling about other girls".
Acting and other projects
During her solo career, Ford endorsed musical instrument manufacturer B.C. Rich and exclusively used several of the brand's guitars, most notably the Warlock. The 1992 TV series Howie, starring Howie Mandel, saw Ford as a regular guitarist for the house band. Ford also had a small role in the 1992 horror/comedy film Highway to Hell, playing a character called "The Hitchhiker". Ford was also asked by VH-1 to join the cast of the seventh season of the reality television program The Surreal Life in 2007, to which she declined.
Ford contributed her likeness and voice to the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and PC video game Brütal Legend. She appears as the character Rima, alongside Jack Black, Tim Curry, Ozzy Osbourne, Rob Halford, and Lemmy Kilmister. Her song "Betrayal" is also one of the 100+ songs that appear in the game.
In 2010, a major Hollywood motion picture chronicling the career of Ford's first band, The Runaways, was produced. Ford was portrayed by actress Scout Taylor-Compton in the movie, entitled The Runaways. Ford is featured extensively in the 2005 documentary film Edgeplay: A Film About the Runaways, in which she spoke candidly about her time in the all-female band. Among other things, she alludes to verbal and sexual abuse endured by the band members at the hands of their management, specifically Kim Fowley.
In 2013, Ford reunited with former Runaways bandmate Cherie Currie to record a Christmas single. The single tied into work Currie and Ford both have done on behalf of Toys for Tots, a charity run by the US Marine Corps, which gives holiday toys to children of need.
Ford appeared on the May/June 2013 cover of Making Music Magazine to discuss her life and career.
In 2014, Ford narrated The Life, Blood, and Rhythm of Randy Castillo.
Ford competed on the reality cooking show Chopped in hopes of raising $10,000 for her charity. Ford made it through the first round, but was eliminated in the second round.
Ford released her autobiography Living Like a Runaway in June 2016.
In 2018, Ford and Jim Cara started Lita Ford Guitars, creating guitars and experiences for fans and players.
Discography
Out for Blood (1983)
Dancin' on the Edge (1984)
Lita (1988)
Stiletto (1990)
Dangerous Curves (1991)
Black (1995)
Wicked Wonderland (2009)
Living Like a Runaway (2012)
Time Capsule (2016)
Filmography
Video game
See also
List of British Italians
List of glam metal bands and artists
List of Italian-American entertainers
References
External links
"Lita Ford: Living Like A Runaway, a Memoir" autobiography book review / Rocker Magazine
Lita Ford Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2015/2017)
1958 births
Living people
American actresses
American women heavy metal singers
American women rock singers
American heavy metal guitarists
American mezzo-sopranos
American people of Italian descent
English actresses
English emigrants to the United States
English women guitarists
English heavy metal guitarists
Glam metal musicians
English mezzo-sopranos
English people of Italian descent
Italian British musicians
Lead guitarists
Mercury Records artists
Musicians from London
People with acquired American citizenship
RCA Records artists
The Runaways members
20th-century American women guitarists
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American women singers
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
ZYX Music artists
Cleopatra Records artists
Steamhammer Records artists | [
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238729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eosinophil | Eosinophil | Eosinophils, sometimes called eosinophiles or, less commonly, acidophils, are a variety of white blood cells (WBCs) and one of the immune system components responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. Along with mast cells and basophils, they also control mechanisms associated with allergy and asthma. They are granulocytes that develop during hematopoiesis in the bone marrow before migrating into blood, after which they are terminally differentiated and do not multiply. They form about 2 to 3% of WBCs.
These cells are eosinophilic or "acid-loving" due to their large acidophilic cytoplasmic granules, which show their affinity for acids by their affinity to coal tar dyes: Normally transparent, it is this affinity that causes them to appear brick-red after staining with eosin, a red dye, using the Romanowsky method. The staining is concentrated in small granules within the cellular cytoplasm, which contain many chemical mediators, such as eosinophil peroxidase, ribonuclease (RNase), deoxyribonucleases (DNase), lipase, plasminogen, and major basic protein. These mediators are released by a process called degranulation following activation of the eosinophil, and are toxic to both parasite and host tissues.
In normal individuals, eosinophils make up about 1–3% of white blood cells, and are about 12–17 micrometres in size with bilobed nuclei. While they are released into the bloodstream as neutrophils, eosinophils reside in tissue. They are found in the medulla and the junction between the cortex and medulla of the thymus, and, in the lower gastrointestinal tract, ovaries, uterus, spleen, and lymph nodes, but not in the lungs, skin, esophagus, or some other internal organs under normal conditions. The presence of eosinophils in these latter organs is associated with disease. For instance, patients with eosinophilic asthma have high levels of eosinophils that lead to inflammation and tissue damage, making it more difficult for patients to breathe. Eosinophils persist in the circulation for 8–12 hours, and can survive in tissue for an additional 8–12 days in the absence of stimulation. Pioneering work in the 1980s elucidated that eosinophils were unique granulocytes, having the capacity to survive for extended periods of time after their maturation as demonstrated by ex-vivo culture experiments.
Development
TH2 and ILC2 cells both express the transcription factor GATA-3, which promotes the production of TH2 cytokines, including the interleukins (ILs). IL-5 controls the development of eosinophils in the bone marrow, as they differentiate from myeloid precursor cells. Their lineage fate is determined by transcription factors, including GATA and C/EBP. Eosinophils produce and store many secondary granule proteins prior to their exit from the bone marrow. After maturation, eosinophils circulate in blood and migrate to inflammatory sites in tissues, or to sites of helminth infection in response to chemokines like CCL11 (eotaxin-1), CCL24 (eotaxin-2), CCL5 (RANTES), 5-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid and 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid, and certain leukotrienes like leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and MCP1/4. Interleukin-13, another TH2 cytokine, primes eosinophilic exit from the bone marrow by lining vessel walls with adhesion molecules such as VCAM-1 and ICAM-1.
When eosinophils are activated, they undergo cytolysis, where the breaking of the cell releases eosinophilic granules found in extracellular DNA traps. High concentrations of these DNA traps are known to cause cellular damage, as the granules they contain are responsible for the ligand-induced secretion of eosinophilic toxins which cause structural damage. There is evidence to suggest that eosinophil granule protein expression is regulated by the non-coding RNA EGOT.
Function
Following activation, eosinophils effector functions include production of the following:
Cationic granule proteins and their release by degranulation
Reactive oxygen species such as hypobromite, superoxide, and peroxide (hypobromous acid, which is preferentially produced by eosinophil peroxidase)
Lipid mediators like the eicosanoids from the leukotriene (e.g., LTC4, LTD4, LTE4) and prostaglandin (e.g., PGE2) families
Enzymes, such as elastase
Growth factors such as TGF beta, VEGF, and PDGF
Cytokines such as IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-13, and TNF alpha
There are also eosinophils that play a role in fighting viral infections, which is evident from the abundance of RNases they contain within their granules, and in fibrin removal during inflammation. Eosinophils, along with basophils and mast cells, are important mediators of allergic responses and asthma pathogenesis and are associated with disease severity. They also fight helminth (worm) colonization and may be slightly elevated in the presence of certain parasites. Eosinophils are also involved in many other biological processes, including postpubertal mammary gland development, oestrus cycling, allograft rejection and neoplasia. They have also been implicated in antigen presentation to T cells.
Eosinophils are responsible for tissue damage and inflammation in many diseases, including asthma. High levels of interleukin-5 has been observed to up regulate the expression of adhesion molecules, which then facilitate the adhesion of eosinophils to endothelial cells, thereby causing inflammation and tissue damage.
An accumulation of eosinophils in the nasal mucosa is considered a major diagnostic criterion for allergic rhinitis (nasal allergies).
Granule proteins
Following activation by an immune stimulus, eosinophils degranulate to release an array of cytotoxic granule cationic proteins that are capable of inducing tissue damage and dysfunction. These include:
major basic protein (MBP)
eosinophil cationic protein (ECP)
eosinophil peroxidase (EPX)
eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN)
Major basic protein, eosinophil peroxidase, and eosinophil cationic protein are toxic to many tissues. Eosinophil cationic protein and eosinophil-derived neurotoxin are ribonucleases with antiviral activity. Major basic protein induces mast cell and basophil degranulation, and is implicated in peripheral nerve remodelling. Eosinophil cationic protein creates toxic pores in the membranes of target cells, allowing potential entry of other cytotoxic molecules to the cell, can inhibit proliferation of T cells, suppress antibody production by B cells, induce degranulation by mast cells, and stimulate fibroblast cells to secrete mucus and glycosaminoglycan. Eosinophil peroxidase forms reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen intermediates that promote oxidative stress in the target, causing cell death by apoptosis and necrosis.
Clinical significance
Eosinophilia
An increase in eosinophils, i.e., the presence of more than 500 eosinophils/microlitre of blood is called an eosinophilia, and is typically seen in people with a parasitic infestation of the intestines; autoimmune and collagen vascular disease (such as rheumatoid arthritis) and Systemic lupus erythematosus; malignant diseases such as eosinophilic leukemia, clonal hypereosinophilia, and Hodgkin's disease; lymphocyte-variant hypereosinophilia; extensive skin diseases (such as exfoliative dermatitis); Addison's disease and other causes of low corticosteroid production (corticosteroids suppress blood eosinophil levels); reflux esophagitis (in which eosinophils will be found in the squamous epithelium of the esophagus) and eosinophilic esophagitis; and with the use of certain drugs such as penicillin. But, perhaps the most common cause for eosinophilia is an allergic condition such as asthma. In 1989, contaminated L-tryptophan supplements caused a deadly form of eosinophilia known as eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome, which was reminiscent of the toxic oil syndrome in Spain in 1981.
Eosinophils play an important role in asthma as the number of accumulated eosinophils corresponds to the severity of asthmatic reaction. Eosinophilia in mice models are shown to be associated with high interleukin-5 levels. Furthermore, mucosal bronchial biopsies conducted on patients with diseases such as asthma have been found to have higher levels of interleukin-5 leading to higher levels of eosinophils. The infiltration of eosinophils at these high concentrations causes an inflammatory reaction. This ultimately leads to airway remodelling and difficulty of breathing.
Eosinophils can also cause tissue damage in the lungs of asthmatic patients. High concentrations of eosinophil major basic protein and eosinophil-derived neurotoxin that approach cytotoxic levels are observed at degranulation sites in the lungs as well as in the asthmatic sputum.
Treatment
Treatments used to combat autoimmune diseases and conditions caused by eosinophils include:
corticosteroids – promote apoptosis. Numbers of eosinophils in blood are rapidly reduced
monoclonal antibody therapy – e.g., mepolizumab or reslizumab against IL-5, prevents eosinophilopoiesis
antagonists of leukotriene synthesis or receptors
imatinib (STI571) – inhibits PDGF-BB in hypereosinophilic leukemia
Monoclonal antibodies such as dupilumab and lebrikizumab target IL-13 and its receptor, which reduces eosinophilic inflammation in patients with asthma due to lowering the number of adhesion molecules present for eosinophils to bind to, thereby decreasing inflammation. Mepolizumab and benralizumab are other treatment options that target the alpha subunit of the IL-5 receptor, thereby inhibiting its function and reducing the number of developing eosinophils as well as the number of eosinophils leading to inflammation through antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and eosinophilic apoptosis.
Animal studies
Within the fat (adipose) tissue of CCR2 deficient mice, there is an increased number of eosinophils, greater alternative macrophage activation, and a propensity towards type 2 cytokine expression. Furthermore, this effect was exaggerated when the mice became obese from a high fat diet.
Mouse models of eosinophilia from mice infected with T. canis showed an increase in IL-5 mRNA in mice spleen. Mouse models of asthma from OVA show a higher TH2 response. When mice are administered IL-12 to induce the TH1 response, the TH2 response becomes suppressed, showing that mice without TH2 cytokines are significantly less likely to express asthma symptoms.
See also
Eosinopenia, decrease in eosinophil blood count
Eosinophilia, increase (>500 cells per microliter) in eosinophil blood count
Hypereosinophilia, extreme increase (>1,500 cells per microliter) in eosinophil blood count
Clonal hypereosinophilia, presence of a premalignant or malignant clone of eosinophils in bone marrow and blood
Chronic eosinophilic leukemia
References
External links
Histology at ucsf.edu
"What is an eosinophil?" at the Cincinnati Center for Eosinophilic Disorders
Cell biology
Granulocytes
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|
238730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lita%20%28album%29 | Lita (album) | Lita is the third solo studio album by the American glam metal singer and guitarist Lita Ford. Originally released in February 1988, it was her first for RCA Records and her first published with the supervision of new manager Sharon Osbourne. Musicians Don Nossov and Myron Grombacher, who were best known for being the rhythm section of the successful American singer Pat Benatar, joined Ford for the recording sessions while Charles Dalba and Tommy Caradonna played drums and bass during the promotional tour.
The album is Ford's most successful, reaching No. 29 on the US Billboard 200 chart and being certified platinum. It produced the hit singles "Close My Eyes Forever" (a duet with Ozzy Osbourne) and "Kiss Me Deadly" which peaked at numbers 8 and 12 respectively on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Kiss Me Deadly" was named the 76th best hard rock song of all time by VH1 and "Close My Eyes Forever" is featured on the video game Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol Encore.
Track listing
Personnel
Band members
Lita Ford – guitar, vocals
David Ezrin – keyboards
Don Nossov – bass guitar
Myron Grombacher – drums
Additional musicians
Craig Krampf – additional percussion and drums
Ozzy Osbourne – duet vocals on "Close My Eyes Forever"
Llory McDonald, Mike Chapman– background vocals
Production
Mike Chapman – producer
George Tutko – engineer, mixing at Village Recorders & One on One Recording Studios, Los Angeles
Brett Swain, Charlie Brocco, Jimmy Hoyson, Toby Wright – assistant engineers
George Marino – mastering at Sterling Sound, New York
Ria Lewerke - art direction
Moshe Brakha - photography
Charts
Album
Singles
Certifications
References
1988 albums
Lita Ford albums
Albums produced by Mike Chapman
RCA Records albums | [
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|
238731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goo%20Goo%20Dolls | Goo Goo Dolls | The Goo Goo Dolls are an American rock band formed in 1986 in Buffalo, New York, by guitarist/vocalist John Rzeznik, bassist/vocalist Robby Takac, and drummer George Tutuska.
After starting off as a cover band and then developing a punk sound, The Goo Goo Dolls experienced mainstream success following the 1995 release of their breakthrough single, "Name". The band is renowned for its biggest hit, "Iris", released in 1998. The song spent nearly 12 straight months on the Billboard charts and held the number one position on the Hot 100 Airplay chart for 18 weeks. In October 2012, "Iris" was ranked #1 on Billboards "Top 100 Pop Songs 1992–2012" chart. Other notable singles include "Slide", "Black Balloon", and "Broadway" from 1998's Dizzy Up the Girl; "Here Is Gone" from 2002's Gutterflower; and "Better Days", "Give a Little Bit", and "Stay with You" from 2006's Let Love In.
The band has had 19 top ten singles on various charts has sold 15 million records worldwide, and has been nominated for four Grammy Awards.
Origins and early music (1986–1993)
The band's original lineup included John Rzeznik (guitar, vocals), Robby Takac (bass, vocals), and George Tutuska (drums, percussion). Takac and Tutuska had been long-time friends in school and met Rzeznik while he was playing in the band The Beaumonts with Takac's cousin, Paul Takac and close friend Michael Harvey who was the inspiration for the band. The trio picked their name from a True Detective ad for a toy called a Goo Goo Doll. "We were young and we were a garage band not trying to get a deal. We had a gig that night and needed a name. It's the best we came up with, and for some reason it stuck. If I had five more minutes, I definitely would have picked a better name", said Rzeznik.
The band started out playing covers, but went on to develop a punk sound. With Takac as their lead singer, the band released their first album, Goo Goo Dolls, in 1987 on Mercenary Records, but was picked up in 1988 by Celluloid Records, a larger record company. They played around Buffalo's underground music circuit and across the country opening for punk bands such as Gang Green, SNFU, Dag Nasty, Bad Religion, Motörhead, ALL, The Dead Milkmen, Doughboys, Big Drill Car, The Gun Club, Uniform Choice, The Dickies, and DRI and playing with fellow Buffalo bands. The band released its second album, Jed, in 1989.
The band released its third album, Hold Me Up, in 1990 and featured Rzeznik as the lead vocalist on five tracks, including the single "There You Are"—as well as their then-concert favorite, "Two Days in February". After being embraced by local college radio and punk scenes (including such venues as CBGB), the Goo Goo Dolls incorporated elements of heavy metal, pop rock, and punk rock into the album. In 1991, the song "I'm Awake Now" was recorded for the soundtrack of Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare.
Superstar Car Wash, released in 1993, received significant media attention. The critical success and encouraging sales of their last album resulted in a larger budget from Metal Blade Records. The album was partially recorded at Metalworks Studios in Mississauga, Ontario. The single "We Are the Normal" received a major push toward play on college and independent radio, and its video was displayed on MTV's 120 Minutes program. "Fallin' Down" made it onto the 1993 soundtrack of Pauly Shore's hit film Son in Law.
Mainstream success (1993–2010)
A Boy Named Goo, legal issues, and Tutuska's departure (1993–1997)
Just before A Boy Named Goo'''s release, Tutuska was fired from the band and replaced by Mike Malinin. Prior to Tutuska's departure, there was a payment dispute between him and Rzeznik over Tutuska's contribution to the writing of the Superstar Car Wash single "Fallin' Down". During the completion of A Boy Named Goo, Tutuska had told band management that he would not tour behind the album unless royalties were to be split evenly among the three members, a practice Tutuska said had been the band's standard practice ever since the release of its self-titled debut in 1987. Tutuska has said that when he told Rzeznik he had not received royalties from "Fallin' Down", Rzeznik admitted that he had been receiving such royalties for two years.A Boy Named Goo, released in 1995, had a catchy rock sound, and became one of the most successful alternative rock albums of the mid-1990s. A Boy Named Goo became the first album in Metal Blade history to achieve double-platinum status. This success, however, proved bittersweet, as the band found themselves in a legal battle with Metal Blade records. The band filed suit against Metal Blade, claiming they had not earned any royalties from their album's sales, which was attributed to a "grossly unfair, one-sided and unenforceable contract" which had been signed by the band in 1987. The two sides reached a settlement which had the band signed to the Metal Blade's distributing label, Warner Bros. Records, under which the band released their sixth album, Dizzy Up the Girl, in 1998.
The Goo Goo Dolls experienced mainstream success following the 1995 release of their breakthrough single, "Name. The success of "Name" marked a fundamental change in the band's sound from alternative rock to a more mainstream, adult-oriented direction; this disappointed many of the original fans of the band. "Name" made the band popular, and led to guest appearances on Beverly Hills, 90210 and Charmed.
Dizzy Up the Girl and Gutterflower (1997–2005)
Rzeznik was approached to write a song for the City of Angels soundtrack, and the end product was "Iris". This song continued the band's fame, as it stayed on top of Billboard Hot 100 Airplay charts for a record-breaking 18 weeks and spent 4 weeks at No. 1 on Billboard's Pop Songs chart. Iris held the record for the most weeks on the radio for almost 22 years before The Weeknd released "Blinding Lights" and broke the long-standing record on August 22, 2020. Shortly after Iris was released in 1998, it was nominated for three Grammys. According to several interviews with Rzeznik, he was experiencing serious bouts of writer's block when he was approached, and was on the verge of quitting the band days before he wrote the song.
"Iris" was included on the quadruple-platinum Dizzy Up the Girl, considered their most successful album, and was among top-ten hits "Slide", "Black Balloon", "Broadway", and "Dizzy" from the same album. In 2001, the Goos released their first ever compilation CD, What I Learned About Ego, Opinion, Art & Commerce. Next, Gutterflower (2002) achieved gold certification, producing the hits "Here Is Gone", "Sympathy", and "Big Machine". On July 4, 2004, the band performed a free concert in Buffalo, playing through a deluge of rain that can be seen on the DVD released later that year. The DVD also contained a studio version of the Goo Goo Dolls' cover of "Give a Little Bit" by Supertramp. The single reached the top of the Adult Top 40 chart in 2005. July 4, 2004 has been proclaimed "Goo Goo Dolls Day" in their native Buffalo, New York.
Let Love In (2005–2007)
In 2006, the Goo Goo Dolls marked their 20th anniversary with their new album Let Love In, which included the studio recording of "Give a Little Bit" as well as other top 10 radio singles "Better Days", "Stay with You", and "Let Love In". With their third consecutive single ("Let Love In") from the album, the Goo Goo Dolls hit a record 12 top 10 hits in Adult Top 40 history; upon the release of "Before It's Too Late", that total increased to 13. Goo Goo Dolls performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on June 8, 2007, and at The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on June 22, 2007.
On June 27, 2007, the Goo Goo Dolls performed to a sold-out crowd at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison, Colorado. The entire concert was released as a DVD on the limited edition version of their 2008 release, Vol.2. Though the album has not (as of 2007) been certified by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), various music sites have asserted that it has gone gold.
Greatest hits albums (2007–2008)
On November 13, 2007, the Goo Goo Dolls released a greatest hits album entitled Greatest Hits Volume One: The Singles, which includes a new version of "Name" recorded and mixed by Paul David Hager, and a remix of "Feel the Silence" by Michael Brauer.
The band performed "Better Days" and "Stay With You" at the halftime of the Detroit Lions' 2007 Thanksgiving Day game at Ford Field, which focused on the United Way and the NFL's commitment to youth health and fitness.
Something for the Rest of Us (2008–2010)
The Goo Goo Dolls announced recording sessions for a new album, on their official website, unrelated to their Volume Two in 2008. In addition, the band performed as part of the O2 Wireless Festival in London's Hyde Park in the summer of 2008.
Something for the Rest of Us was released on August 31, 2010. While the album was full of the pop-rock that has sustained the band for decades, lead singer/guitarist Rzeznik's songwriting took on a more somber, serious tone. Something for the Rest of Us included the single "Home", which extended the band's record to 14 top ten hits at the Hot AC radio format (more than any other artist in the history of that format).
The band performed a live mini-concert at the Apple Store in Manhattan, New York on December 2, 2010.
Later career (2010–present)
Magnetic and Malinin's departure (2010–2015)
The album Magnetic was released on June 11, 2013 and debuted at #8 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums chart. On July 19, 2013, the band released the second single off of Magnetic, "Come to Me".
In December 2013, Malinin announced his departure from the band. In November 2014, Malinin sued the band for wrongful termination, claiming that he was fired after requesting paternity leave.
The Goo Goo Dolls contributed to the soundtrack of the broadway musical Finding Neverland in 2015. The soundtrack, released June 9, 2015, contained the song "If the World Turned Upside Down."
Boxes, 20th anniversary of A Boy Named Goo and touring (2015–2017)
The band spent the majority of 2015 in the studio writing and recording their eleventh studio album, Boxes, at Bear Creek Studio in Woodinville, Washington. The album was released on May 6, 2016.
The Goo Goo Dolls celebrated the 20th anniversary of the release of A Boy Named Goo by releasing a special edition of the album on November 27, 2015.
Goo Goo Dolls released an exclusive vinyl box set for Record Store Day on April 22, 2017 entitled Pick Pockets, Petty Thieves, and Tiny Victories (1987–1995).
You Should Be Happy, Miracle Pill, and Christmas album (2017–2021)
On May 12, 2017, Goo Goo Dolls released a five-song EP entitled You Should Be Happy. In support of the EP, the band toured throughout the summer of 2017 on the "Long Way Home" tour with Phillip Phillips. With 2018 marking the 20th anniversary of Dizzy Up the Girl, the band embarked on a commemorative tour where they performed the album in its entirety. Also in 2018, the band released two live albums: The Audience is This Way in June, and The Audience is That Way in November.
At the beginning of 2019, the Goo Goo Dolls announced that they were working on a twelfth studio album. On record store day (April 13, 2019), a vinyl box limited to 1000 copies under the name Topography was released.
On August 24, 2020, the band announced its first Christmas album: It's Christmas All Over, which was released on October 30. Later that year, Rzeznik sat down with Atwood Magazine to discuss the band's 35th anniversary.
In May 2021, the band announced that Rarities, a double compilation featuring rare and unheard songs spanning from 1995 to 2007, would be released on June 25, 2021.
New album (2022)
In a June 2021 interview published on YouTube, singer John Rzeznik revealed that the band was working on their 14th studio album, which would be released sometime in 2022. When asked about how the album differs from the band's previous work, Rzeznik claimed that the band had decided to approach both writing and recording in an alternative way. Specifically, the band used earlier forms of production which they utilized prior to the digital era in the music industry.
In a November 2021 Spin interview, Rzeznik stated that he produced most of the album himself. He added that the album would sound more experimental than the band's past releases, hinting that he did not believe it would receive much radio airplay.
Band members
Current members
John Rzeznik – guitar, lead vocals, occasional keyboards (1986–present)
Robby Takac – bass, vocals, occasional guitar (1986–present)
Current touring members
Brad Fernquist – guitar, mandolin, backing vocals (2006–present)
Craig Macintyre – drums, percussion (2014–present)
Jim McGorman – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (2018–present)
Former members
George Tutuska – drums, percussion, vocals (1986–1995)
Mike Malinin – drums, percussion (1995–2013)
Former touring members
Lance Diamond – vocals (1986–2014)
Nathan December – guitar, mandolin, backing vocals (1998–2000)
Dave Schulz – keyboards, backing vocals (1998–2000)
Jason Freese – keyboards, accordion, saxophone, backing vocals (2001–2004)
Greg Suran – guitar, mandolin, percussion, backing vocals (2002–2006)
Paul Gordon – keyboards, backing vocals (2004–2006)
Korel Tunador – keyboards, guitar, saxophone, backing vocals (2006–2018)
Scott Eric Olivier – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (2009)
Rick Woolstenhulme Jr. – drums, percussion (2013–2014)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Goo Goo Dolls (1987)
Jed (1989)
Hold Me Up (1990)
Superstar Car Wash (1993)
A Boy Named Goo (1995)
Dizzy Up the Girl (1998)
Gutterflower (2002)
Let Love In (2006)
Something for the Rest of Us (2010)
Magnetic (2013)
Boxes (2016)
Miracle Pill (2019)
It’s Christmas All Over (2020)
Accolades, awards, and nominations
"Iris", the band's 1998 hit single, enjoyed critical acclaim. At the 41st Grammy Awards, "Iris" received nominations for "Record of the Year" and "Pop Performance by a Duo or Group." The song also garnered John Rzeznik a "Song of the Year" nomination. The song was ranked at number 39 on Rolling Stones list of the 100 greatest pop songs.
In October 2012, "Iris" was ranked number one on Billboards "Top 100 Pop Songs 1992–2012" chart, which ranked the top songs of the first 20 years of the Mainstream Top 40/Pop Songs chart. The list also featured the Goo Goo Dolls' hits "Slide", ranking at number nine, and "Name" at number 24. The Goo Goo Dolls are the only musicians to have three songs on the list, two breaking the top 10 and all three falling within the top 25. They are also the only musicians that have back to back singles (Iris, 1998 and Slide, 1999) featured on the list.
Billboard Music Awards
|-
| 1995
| "Name"
| Top Modern Rock Track
|
|-
| rowspan=3|1998
| rowspan=2|"Iris"
| Top Hot 100 Airplay Track
|
|-
| Top Adult Top 40 Track
|
|-
| rowspan=5|Themselves
| rowspan=2|Top Adult Top 40 Artist
|
|-
| rowspan=7|1999
|
|-
| Top Hot Top 40 Artist
|
|-
| Top Hot 100 Singles Artist
|
|-
| Top Hot 100 Singles Artist – Duo/Group
|
|-
| rowspan=3|"Slide"
| Top Hot 100 Airplay Track
|
|-
| Top Hot Top 40 Track
|
|-
| Top Adult Top 40 Track
|
Other awards
References
External links
1986 establishments in New York (state)
Alternative rock groups from New York (state)
American pop rock music groups
American post-grunge musical groups
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Autism activists
Metal Blade Records artists
Musical groups established in 1986
Musical groups from Buffalo, New York
Punk rock groups from New York (state)
Warner Records artists | [
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238735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20feral%20children | List of fictional feral children | Feral children, children who have lived from a young age without human contact, appear in mythological and fictional works, usually as human characters who have been raised by animals. Often their dual heritage is a benefit to them, protecting them from the corrupting influence of human society (Tarzan), or permitting the development and expression of their own animal nature (Enkidu), or providing access to the wisdom and lore by which animals survive in the wild (Mowgli).
In most tales, the child is lost (Tarzan) or abandoned (Romulus and Remus) before being found and adopted in a chance encounter with a sympathetic wild animal. In some stories, the child chooses to abandon human society (Where the Wild Things Are) or refuses to enter society altogether (Peter Pan). The child usually returns to civilization, but may decide to return again to life in the wild (Tarzan). In some cases, they find themselves trapped between worlds unable to enter entirely into either human society or animal society (Mowgli).
In mythology and ancient literature
Enkidu, raised by unspecified beasts, becomes the friend of the hero Gilgamesh. (see also Epic of Gilgamesh)
Iranian šāhnāmeh "The Book of Kings / The king of books", introduces Zaal, the mythical hero of Iran, raised by Simurgh, a very large and wise bird which darkens the sky when flying, said to be related to the phoenix.
In Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, Hayy is raised by a gazelle on a desert island and becomes an autodidactic philosopher.
In Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus, Kamil is also raised by animals on a deserted island, and becomes an autodidactic scientist and theologian.
According to American folklore, Pecos Bill was raised by coyotes.
In Greek mythology, Atalanta was raised by a she bear after her father abandoned her in a forest until the day she was found by kindly hunters.
In Mongolian Oirat mythology, the hero Jangar is taught to roar by a tiger, taught to hunt by an eagle, taught to run by antelope, suckled by she-wolves, and fed fruit by deer.
In modern prose
In 1879, Albert Robida created The Adventures of Saturnin Farandoul. Saturnin Farandoul a child raised by orangutans who becomes king of the apes.
H. Rider Haggard's 1889 novelette, "Allan's Wife," features the antagonist Hendrika, a white Boer child who was stolen and raised by baboons. She is later rescued and "civilized" by an English family, but she retains baboon-like behavior and the ability to communicate with baboons.
An early modern example of a feral child comes from Rudyard Kipling's 1894 short story collection The Jungle Book. His protagonist Mowgli is raised by wolves and becomes the ruler of the jungle.
Peter Pan, created by J. M. Barrie in 1902, is a boy who fled to the magical Neverland and refused to grow up.
The Blue Lagoon, created by H. de Vere Stacpoole in (1908) tells the story of two English children, a boy and a girl, stranded on a deserted tropical island in the Polynesia.
Tarzan, of Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Tarzan of the Apes (1912), has become an iconic hero of novels, comic strips, and motion pictures.
Shasta of the Wolves (1919) by Olaf Baker, in which a Native American boy is raised by a wolf pack in the Pacific Northwest.
The Garden of God (1923), a sequel of The Blue Lagoon which features a new British child couple, descendants of the British child couple from the previous book generated by incest who live a new adventure on the same Polynesian island.
Jungle Born (1924) by John Eyton, in which a boy raised by rhesus macaques in northern India inadvertently saves a teenage girl from her abusive father.
The House Without Windows & Eepersip's Life There (1927) by Barbara Newhall Follett, in which Eepersip, runs away from home to live in idyllic Nature (successively, a meadow, the sea, and, finally, the mountains).
Bijeli jelen / "White Deer" (1947) by Vladimir Nazor, in which a six-year-old girl named Anka was lost in the forest while herding a flock of geese. She is adopted by deer and soon befriends most of animals in the forest. Her main antagonist is a wolf, while her closest ally is a white deer. After growing up she becomes a powerful forest-warrior who helps both animals and humans living in the forest.
In Howard Fast's 1960 short story "The First Men", a tale of a wolf-child starts off the series of letters.
In Robert A. Heinlein's 1961 novel Stranger in a Strange Land, Valentine Michael Smith is a human raised by Martians on Mars, as he returns to Earth in early adulthood. The novel explores his interaction with — and eventual transformation of — human culture.
In Boris and Arkady Strugatsky's 1971 novel The Little One (also known as Space Mowgly), a human from Earth, Piere Semyonov, has been raised by an alien non-humanoid civilization after his parents' spaceship crashed onto an uncharted planet. After his discovery by the Terran scientists, several attempts to integrate him back to human society were undertaken, but all were in vain.
The theme of young adolescent runaways seeking shelter with wild animals and learning their ways is seen in novels such as the Newbery Medal-winning novel Julie of the Wolves by Jean Craighead George (1972).
Philip Jose Farmer's anthology Mother Was A Lovely Beast: A Feral Man Anthology, Fiction And Fact About Humans Raised By Animals (1974) collects several stories of fictional feral children.
Jane Yolen's Passager (1996), the first of the Young Merlin trilogy of short novels, depicts a slightly more realistic view of such childhood. Abandoned in a Welsh forest at the age of seven years, the boy who will become Merlin lives in the forest for a year nearly as well as its natives, until a falconer who is used to domesticating animals captures him and begins the long and difficult task of educating him in human behavior.
In Karen Hesse's The Music of Dolphins (1996), a young girl called Mila is found after having been raised by dolphins for over a decade. In the book, Mila is taken to a clinic with other undomesticated human young, none of whom adapt to mainstream humanity as easily as she does. At the end of the book, Mila returns to the dolphin pod, showing her rejection of human society.
In the "Firekeeper Saga" starting with Through Wolf's Eyes (2001) by author Jane Lindskold, the family of a young girl named Firekeeper and her colony are killed by a fire, and she is the only survivor. She is then taken in by the "Royal Wolves" who speak their own language with gestures and signals. Because Firekeeper had already learned a human language before going to live with the wolves, she was able to return to human society and became a valuable asset to the royalty, but she found that humans were not as noble as the wolves she loved as family. Firekeeper is always barefoot and tends to throw fits whenever she is told to wear shoes. It is her greatest wish to become a wolf herself and leave the humans behind again.
Wild Angel (2001) by Pat Murphy tells the story of a young girl raised by wolves from the age of four in gold-rush-era California.
World War Z by Max Brooks contain many references to feral children - in this case, children who were separated from normal humanity at some point during the zombie war, and were forced to live in the wild, contending not just with the problems of survival but also the hazard posed by the walking dead. The novel suggests they formed a kind of rudimentary social or "pack" structure with basic tool-using abilities, and in most cases were capable of being slowly rehabilitated.
In the 2006 book Dogboy by Victor Kelleher, a young boy is abandoned at birth by his mother and is raised by a half domestic dog in a litter of puppies. He is later brought back to a nearby human settlement by the dog, searching for a home with her owner once again, and her only surviving pup but is rejected as an abomination.
Camilla Way's 2008 novel Little Bird concerns a girl kidnapped as a toddler by a mute and held captive until the age of twelve.
In 2009 Eva Hornung's novel Dogboy, set in Moscow, tells the story of two feral children who live with a pack of dogs. One of the children was abandoned at the age of 4 and the other is brought to the lair, as a baby, by the dominant female in the pack. The children eventually come under the notice of two scientists working in a centre that rehabilitates abandoned children.
The Dictator's Moustaches, a 2009 Italian novel by Anna Russo concerns an abandoned baby rescued and brought up by dogs.
Magic Hour by Kristin Hannah concerns a young girl who appears out of the forest, with no information as to her origins. She is called 'wolf girl'; she is cared for and eventually loved by fallen psychologist Julia.
In Victor Robert Lee's 2013 novel Performance Anomalies, protagonist Cono 7Q becomes an orphan as a young boy in northeast Brazil, surviving alone in the forest by hunting small animals.
In the Steven Bauer book Satyrday, Derin was raised by a satyr named Matthew, after an evil great horned owl killed his family and destroyed his clan..
In comics
"The Wild Wonders" in the 1970s British comic book series Valiant are two boys lost on a Scottish island and raised in a normal environment, developing their own language. Returned to human civilization at about a decade old, they become superb athletes and enjoy many comic adventures.
In "Fishboy", written by Scott Goodall, (1968 - 1975 in Buster), the hero of the title was abandoned on a remote island as a baby, implausibly learned how to breathe underwater and to communicate with aquatic fauna, and grew webbed fingers and toes.
Goodall also created "Kid Chameleon" (1970–1972) in Cor!! Raised by reptiles in the Kalahari Desert after the murder of his parents, Kid Chameleon wears a suit of lizard scales that can change colour to camouflage him like his namesake the chameleon.
The French comic book (bande dessinée) Pyrénée (1998), by Regis Loisel and Philippe Sternis, features a girl who is raised by a bear and taught wisdom by a blind old eagle in the French Pyrenees, the bear having named her after the mountains without the "s". This story has won critical acclaim and has been translated into German and Dutch, but has also drawn some criticism over the girl's nudity.
Little Dee is a webcomic where a prevocal human who was lost in a forest is adopted by a bear, dog, and vulture. The strip contains purely fantastic elements (the characters live in a cave but occasionally fly planes or cook food) and focuses more on the natives and their issues of handling a human.
In DC Comics' Elseworlds story Superman: The Feral Man of Steel (1994), Kal-El (Clark Kent) is raised by wolves in 19th century India, in an homage to The Jungle Book, until he is discovered by an expedition led by Lex Luthor and Lois Lane and brought back to Britain.
In the Marvel Comics universe, a Tarzan-inspired character Ka-Zar is raised by a sabertooth tiger named Zabu in the Savage Land, a vast tropical jungle hidden from the world in the depths of Antarctica. He goes on to have many adventures including features in the popular X-Men series where he also has some encounters with Spider-Man.
The Quality Comics hero Black Condor, was a boy raised in Mongolia by highly intelligent condors, gains the improbable power of flight and later becomes a superhero. Secret Origins #21 revealed that Condor's flight ability was due to a radioactive meteorite near the condors' nest.
Holyoke Publishing's hero Cat-Man was orphaned at a young age and raised by Burmese tigers. He adapted to life in the wild by developing super-strength, enhanced vision, and other talents which served him well when he returned to the US and became a superhero.
The Hexagon Comics hero Zembla was a boy raised by lions.
Cassandra Cain, the third Batgirl, was raised by her father David Cain to be the perfect assassin, taught to read body language instead of learning human speech and isolated from anyone who might talk to her until she was eight years old. In her initial appearances she was unable to speak, capable of picking up combat skills easily and predicting opponents' moves in a fight simply from the way they stood but unable to understand spoken language, but has since been shown to have learned how to speak and think in English with help from a psychic 'rewiring' her brain to accept language.
Trolls de Troy features a human girl named Waha, who was accidentally raised by Trolls from infancy.
In the Japanese manga Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba, Inosuke Hashibara was raised by wild boars, wearing the hide of his boar mother after her death.
In film
These films have fiction and one is based on the true story:
The 1965 film Mara of the Wilderness featuring Mara Wade (played by Lori Saunders) who was raised by wolves in the Alaskan wilderness (ever since her parents were killed in a bear attack) where she lives barefoot and only wearing a fur dress. Mara later befriends an anthropologist named Ken Williams (played by Adam West) who is interested in teaching her what is in the world. Ken also discovers that she is hunted by a ruthless carnival worker named Jarnagan (played by Theo Marcuse).
L'Enfant Sauvage, a 1970 French film directed by François Truffaut, is based on the true story of a nude feral boy (played by Jean-Pierre Cargol) discovered living in the forests of 18th century France. A doctor (played by François Truffaut) who is a deaf specialist tries to socialize the boy who cannot speak. Based on the account of Dr. Jean Marc Gaspard Itard.
The Blue Lagoon, a 1980 film directed by Randal Kleiser, two cousins Emmeline and Richard Lestrange left since Paddy died after a drunken bringe.
The 1982 Italian comedy Bingo Bongo features a man who grew up among chimpanzees in the African jungle after escaping a plane crash as a baby.
In the Kennedy–Miller film Mad Max 2, a character called the "Feral Kid" lives in the wasteland near the refinery settlement. He flips, growls when displeased and has a fascination for the Gyro Captain's autogyro. The Feral Kid wears shorts and boots made from hide, hunts and defends himself using a lethal metal boomerang.
On the Mexican "clone" of Tarzan called El Rey de Los Gorilas also known as El Simio Blanco (means The King of the Gorillas and also known as The White Ape), a baby survived in the canoe that drifted away from the "Black Forest", the territory of the fearsome cannibal tribe called "The Plant Men". The gorilla that found the baby tore off the baby's clothes and the baby boy was naked. The narrator named him Ape. He grew up in a green loincloth with back length hair as a 12-year-old child and later sported a beard, shoulder blade-length hair, and a different loincloth as a man. Ape rescued a woman named Eva from the Plant Men to the jungle and they fell in love. Some months later, they had a son.
In the Tarzan parody George of the Jungle, the main protagonist George (as depicted in the live-action film) was traveling in the airplane above Bukuvu (a fictional nation in Africa) and the plane crashed. None of the passengers died, but George was lost. He was raised by an ape named "APE" who could speak in human language and even read books and played violin. In one episode of the 2007 reboot of the series, he came here in a monsoon of orphans.
Walk Like a Man is a 1987 comedy film starring Howie Mandel about a man who was raised by wild dogs.
Bad Boy Bubby is a 1993 Australian film by director Rolf de Heer in which the title character is subjected to lifelong social isolation by his mother. Events in the film lead Bubby to venture into the world where many of his interactions take on a darkly comical aspect.
Nell is a film in which a young woman (portrayed by Jodie Foster) is raised by her extremely androphobic mother in an isolated cabin, and has to face other human beings for the first time after her mother's death.
In the Friday the 13th film series, the main character Jason Voorhees was presumed drowned when he was 11 years old, but survived the drowning and grew up living in the woods.
In Batman Returns, the film's version of Penguin spent his childhood among penguins in Gotham City's sewers after being abandoned by his parents due to his deformity and vicious nature as an infant.
In the Steven Spielberg film The Flintstones, Barney and Betty Rubble adopt a feral child named Bamm-Bamm, who was raised by wild mastodons.
In Jumanji, the character Alan Parrish is lost in an alternate realm for 26 years due to the consequences of the eponymous board game where the clue read "In the Jungle You Must Wait Till the Dice Reads 5 or 8." After escaping, Alan (played by Robin Williams) seems relatively normal if a little bit eccentric and paranoid. The character Danny Budwing suffers a similar fate in Zathura.
The title character of Hayao Miyazaki's 1997 anime film Princess Mononoke, called San, was raised by a wolf goddess along with her two wolf pups. San is drawn into a deadly conflict between the forest gods and the humans whose presence seems to threaten them.
In Human Nature, a man (Toby Huss) experiences a psychological breakdown from the stresses of modern living as well as the Assassination of John F. Kennedy. He kidnaps his son to raise him in the woods. This boy (portrayed by Rhys Ifans) is eventually discovered by Dr. Nathan Bronfman (portrayed by Tim Robbins) and Lila Jute (portrayed by Patricia Arquette). Upon being named Puff, he is used by Dr. Bronfman as a living example of socialization's ability to "civilize" a wild human being.
In The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D, Sharkboy (portrayed by Taylor Lautner) is a young warrior who was raised by sharks after he was separated from his father, a marine biologist, when a waterspout sunk their floating laboratory. He has many shark-like adaptations to his body including gills, fins, sharpened teeth, claws (although they seem to only be attached to his gloves), peak strength, highly trained sense of hearing, strong sense of smell, agility, reflexes and swimming ability. Sharkboy can also communicate with marine life and is not affected by deep sea pressure.
In the film Barbie as the Island Princess, six-year-old Ro was shipwrecked on an island and raised by a red panda, peacock, and an elephant. Ro has no memory of her past and ten years later a prince discovers the island and takes her back to his kingdom. She is later revealed to be a long-lost princess who was lost at sea.
In the 2013 horror film Mama, young girls Victoria and Lilly are raised in the forest for 5 years by a spirit they call "Mama" after the spirit killed their depressed father before he could commit murder-suicide on them. As Victoria's glasses were taken from her, she mistook the spirit as the ghost of her mother. During that time, Victoria and Lily end up developing their own language, start acting like animals, and gain a filthy appearance while wearing what's left of their clothes. When they are discovered by trackers hired by their uncle and brought back to society, Victoria is able to reintegrate while Lily (whose only memories are of being raised in the forest and who sees the spirit as her true mother) is not.
In the 2013 Disney film Frozen, a young boy Kristoff had been raised along with his reindeer pet, Sven, by Rock Trolls in a valley until he grew up and left them to start his career as an ice harvester.
In the film Barefoot, the character Daisy Kensington (portrayed by Evan Rachel Wood) was raised in isolation all of her life and has been barefoot since childhood.
In the film The Boxtrolls, the main character Eggs is raised by the title characters in their underground cavernous home following the kidnapping of his father when he was a baby.
In the film The Good Dinosaur, a little feral caveboy named Spot befriends the main character Arlo the Apatosaurus who behaves like a dog.
In the film Storks, a girl named Tulip (voiced by Katie Crown) is the only human among the storks at Cornerstore on Stork Mountain after her homing location beacon was accidentally destroyed and was kept on Stork Mountain until she turned 18 to be returned to the human world but instead helps a top delivery stork deliver an unauthorized baby.
In the 2016 film Pete's Dragon, a boy named Pete survived a car accident that killed his parents and was chased by a pack of wolves into the woods, until he was saved by a dragon. The dragon, whom Pete named Elliot from his favorite book he still has, took him in and raised him in the woods for six years. Then Pete was found by a forest ranger named Grace Meacham (Bryce Dallas Howard) and brought him to a nearby town.
In the Pokémon film "Pokémon the Movie: Secrets of the Jungle,"Ash and Pikachu discover a feral boy named Koko, Koko’s real name is Al Molybden who was raised by the Mythical Pokémon called: Zarude in the Okoya Forest with the other Jungle Pokémon, originally Koko had parents who are researchers named: Chrom and Phossa Molybden, but Dr. Zed killed the couple by running them off a road leaving them wounded, Before Zed could reach them, Chrom and Phossa sent their son down a river inside a cradle to protect him along with their research contained in Phossa Molybden's pendant, Dr. Zed stole their sample supply of the healing spring water and left Chrom and Phossa Molybden to die in an explosion of their wrecked car. leading Al Molybden to found by Zarude, where Koko sported a loincloth, arm bands, and tribal paint on his face and torso resembling Zarude. Being raised by a Zarude caused Koko to think that he is a Pokémon, Koko is the ever first human to used a Pokémon move called: Jungle Healing.
In the film Satyrday, Derin was raised by a satyr named Matthew, after an evil great horned owl killed his family and destroyed his clan, same with Vera, the duerotagonist, who was raised by a magical white arctic fox.
In the film The Troll Story, Sun-Eye, the main protagonist, was raised by a troll woman named Troll-Mum, in Troll Forest.
In the film Crusoe, six-year-old Nick was shipwrecked on an island and raised by a Bengal tiger, an Indian porcupine, a striped hyena, a rhesus macaque, and an Indian elephant. Nick has no memory of his past and twenty years later a young woman discovers the island and takes him back to her country. He is later revealed to be a long-lost son of a businessman who was lost at sea.
In the French animated film, Le Jour Des Corneilles, Pierre, the boy, was raised by his father, who turned into an ogre-like creature due to being maddened by his wife's death of childbirth, and later brings him to a town to heal him and meets a girl named Malon. Though he is raised by his father, Pierre does have some feral childlike traits.
In the 2021 film Raya and the Last Dragon, Noi was raised in the streets of Talon by the monkey-like Orginis after the Druun petrified her mother.
In television
In the Gilligan's Island episode "Gilligan Meets Jungle Boy," Gilligan encounters a boy (portrayed by a younger Kurt Russell) living in the jungles of the island wearing only a loincloth. Not much was known of the jungle boy's background before his encounter with Gilligan. The jungle boy can mimic words said by the main characters when they try to teach him human manners. Yet when he sees himself in a mirror by Mary-Ann, he screams and runs out of the hut. The jungle boy shows Gilligan a natural helium outlet in the jungle which means the Professor decides to make a balloon out of the castaways' raincoats glued together with tree sap. By the time the Professor finishes his balloon, the jungle boy is shown wearing civilian clothes. As it ends up, the jungle boy unknowingly takes off in the balloon and lands on a Navy carrier. The radio news states that he only knows the words "boy boy, girl girl, no no."
The protagonist of the 1977–78 American television series Lucan was a young man who had been raised by wolves in Northern Minnesota and then captured/rescued by a research institute which spent ten years acclimatizing him to civilized society.
In The Six Million Dollar Man episode "The Wolf Boy," there was a boy named Gary (portrayed by Buddy Foster) who was reported to be living with wolves on the Japanese island of Hoyoko. He is shown to have long blonde hair and only wearing what's left of his pants. Steve Austin believes the youth to be the son of a U.S. ambassador and his wife who were found dead in the wilderness. Steve and Kuroda were able to get Gary to remember his past while protecting him from some people that want him dead. After all that has happened, Gary is seen in some new clothes as Kuroda plans to re-educate him in the woods until some human behavior specialists from the United States can arrive to help him and re-introduce him to society.
In Tales of the Gold Monkey episode "Ape Boy", a young man was raised by a fictional-species of monkey who mistook main-character Sarah to be his real-mother, though Sarah, Jake and Corky reunite him with a relative.
In the second episode of the original Star Trek, "Charlie X", the Enterprise takes aboard the title character, a 17-year-old boy named Charlie, the sole survivor of a crash on a remote planet which occurred in his infancy. He claims to have survived and learned language via the ship's computer records, but in actuality was taken in by an advanced alien race, who taught him psychic abilities.
Smurfs introduced a character called "Wild Smurf" who was stranded in the forest when a rainstorm caused the stork to lose the baby Smurf, whereupon he was raised by a family of squirrels. Wild Smurf can only speak in the squirrel's language is at home in the forest, but eventually learns to befriend and interact with his fellow Smurfs, who in turn appreciate his wilderness survival abilities in dangerous situations.
The TV shows that involved Michael Berk and Douglas Schwartz had feral children as a plot for an episode of theirs shows:
In the Manimal episode "Female of the Species", a boat accident on the Ganges River caused by Stanford Langly (portrayed by Michael McGuire) kills the parents of the four-year-old Sarah Evers, causing her to be raised by wolves and living in the Sultanpur district's forests naked, untamed, and acting less than human. When the long-haired wolf girl (portrayed by Laura Cushing) in an age somewhere between her late teens and early 20s is captured years later by a hunting party led by Professor Barta (portrayed by Rick Jason), she is the subject at his university and has been dressed in a jungle bikini since she rips whatever clothes they offer her. Stanford tries to orchestrate another attempt on her life which is thwarted by Jonathan Chase. Jonathan manages to protect her and gain her trust. Though Jonathan did have to get Sarah into getting acquainted with Tyrone (who thought Sarah was a part of Jonathan's own masquerade party). After Brooke gave Sarah Evers a bath, she tells Jonathan that she tried to put her in a dress which she ripped. After hearing from Brooke that the girl doesn't seem to like wearing clothes, Jonathan ends up donating his shirt and some other minor clothes to her with his scent on him followed by him starting her reeducation while brushing her long hair while Brooke looks into her past. With the help of some action figures he obtained following an attempt on her life, Jonathan ends up using the figures to reenact the boat accident. After this, Sarah splashed the water near the boat and broke down in tears. Stanford's men later infiltrate Jonathan's house and capture her while knocking her out. With the help of Tyrone and Brooke, Jonathan caught up to Stanford's boat where his men push a crate that Sarah was placed in into the ocean. In the form of a dolphin, Jonathan rescued Sarah as she swam to Brooke's boat while Stanford and his men are arrested by the approaching police. When in some new clothes, Sarah says her first words "Sarah, girl" as Jonathan, Brooke, and Tyrone prepare to reunite her with one of her relatives.
A similar plotline written by Michael Berk and Douglas Schwartz (who also wrote the episode above) had occurred in The Wizard episode "Endangered Species." A similar accident in 1977 caused by Mr. Deshays (portrayed by Gerald Gordon) had happened to the parents of a younger Linda Winthrope, causing her to be raised by wolves and living in the Sultanpur district's forests naked, untamed, filthy, and acting less than human. When the wolf girl (portrayed by Priscilla Weems) is captured, she becomes a subject at the university where she is held and has been dressed in a leopard-skinned dress since she rips whatever clothes is offered to it. She ends up nearly killed by someone hired by Mr. Deshays and gains the trust of Simon McKay. Linda is saved from being drowned in the ocean and Mr. Deshays and his men are arrested by the coast guard. When in some new clothes, Linda says her first words "Linda, girl" as Simon prepares to reunite her with one of her relatives.
In the Thunder in Paradise episode "Endangered Species," an ill-fated expedition had left a young Tommy Ralston (played by Alexander Sommer) orphaned and raised by wolves. Some years later, poachers have found Tommy Ralston (who now has long hair and longer fingernails) living with wolves while hunting and managed to catch him. He is freed by Randolph J. Spencer who makes it his mission to find out the boy's identity and find out who wants him dead.
In the Star Wars animated spin-off series Ewoks Kneessa's older sister, Asha, was raised by wolf-like creatures korrinas, after being swiped down a river while escaping a hanadak, she was later found by Kneessa and her friend Wicket and returned with them to Bright Tree Village.
In the She-Ra: Princess of Power episode "Wild Child," Princess Allegra (voiced by Linda Gary) is the daughter of the Green Island Kingdom's ruler King Arbor (voiced by George DiCenzo) who was presumed missing following a shipwreck at the age of 7. In truth, she was rescued by the White Fangs and lived with them in the Whispering Woods while sporting a feral dress. Even though she can speak the language of the White Fangs even when speaking with her "sister" Ayla, she still maintains her English language. 5 years later, she makes herself known to Adora, Bow, and Mermista when the local woodsmen have accused the White Fangs into causing all plants in the Whispering Woods to wither. She was taken to the Great Rebellion's camp to await her reunion with her father where she was freshened up by Perfuma and beat some children in a foot race. When Ayla was caught by the woodsmen, Allegra and She-Ra came to her defense until it was discovered that lava was flowing underneath the Whispering Woods. After She-Ra and Swift Wind extinguished the lava, Allega was reunited with her father and went home with him. She did speak to Ayla in White Fang language one more time that she'll be with their pack in spirit.
In the DuckTales episode "Jungle Duck", Mrs. Beakley is reunited with a feral duck (voiced by Frank Welker) whom she worked as a nanny to at a young age. The character is effectively Tarzan re-imagined in the DuckTales world, and is even stated to be the heir to the royal house of "Greydrake" (a send-up of Tarzan's role as Lord of Greystoke).
In the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Time's Orphan", an eight-year-old child of a couple in the crew of the ship falls through a time portal from which she emerges ten years older having experienced a decade in solitary existence. She was wild and uncontrollable, needing institutional care, so her parents returned her to the void she had become accustomed to, where she instead succeeded in preventing the incident (through a time-travel paradox).
An episode of The Pretender titled" Wild Child" featured a young wild girl that was named Violet (portrayed by Lindsey Evanson). Jarod witnesses her being dragged away in a police car after being caught by hunters near their trailer. The wild girl was shown to be barefoot, had back-length hair, and was wearing some type of ripped dress. Upon being brought to the hospital, the wild girl tries to escape only to collide with a window. Jarod pretends to be a state appointed psychiatrist Dr. Jarod Bell to work with the girl (who had been cleaned up, put in some hospital clothes, and her hair had been cut to chin length) and to help her. He works with Dr. Bennett (portrayed by Michael Phenicie) and Dr. Wolverton (portrayed by Richard Doyle). Jarod gets a good contact with the found girl and named her Violet in the same time befriending with a female doctor in the staff named Dr. Anne Sulvane (portrayed by Françoise Robertson) who tended to Violet's ankle injury. The wild girl tries to communicate and gets a seizure as Jarod discovers it to be caused by a mix of 12 different viruses that the girl's doll was infected with. Jarod thinks that was made to prevent her from communicating and steals her from the hospital. Jarod searches the girl's "home" in the woods near a hot spring and discovers a photo depicting Violet as a baby with her parents, the girl leads Jarod and the female doctor to a plane crash site. Jarod discovers in the vicinity of the girls "home" a camera and research materials that include an article about a missing family of three with the surveillance tapes revealing that the observer is Dr. Wolverton where the final footage showed him freeing her foot from a bear trap which would explain the ankle wound she had when she was discovered. Jarod plots a payback to Dr. Wolverton. He shoots Dr. Wolverton with a tranquilizer dart. When he wakes up, he finds himself trapped in a cave. Jarod gets a confession and leaves Dr. Wolverton a doll to spend the night with. The next day, Dr. Wolverton is arrested for the abuse of Violet and Dr. Anne Sulvane becomes Violet's legal guardian as Violet is now seen in a dress. Jarod gives the girl a new doll and drives away.
In The Wild Thornberrys, Donnie (voiced by Flea), the youngest in the family, spent most of his early years with orangutans. His history was revealed in the TV movie "The Origin of Donnie" where his human parents were killed by two poachers when saving some orangutans. Though the natives held a funeral for the two, Donnie was taken in by a bunch of orangutans living in the nude until he was discovered by the Thornberry family and sporting his trademark leopard-print shorts.
The Sheena episode "The Feral King" featured Sheena's encounter with a teenage wild man named Jared Chambers (played by Rick Perkins). When Jared was eight, Jared's cousin Roland (played by Peter Penuel) and his partner Bixby (played by Ron Ely) end up rigging the plane carrying Jared, his father Raymond, and his unnamed mother where it crashed somewhere in the Torags region of Africa with Jared as the only survivor. 10 years later, Jared is sporting a loincloth, a pair of animal hide boots, and shoulder blade-length hair. Sheena and Max Cutter work with Jared's former babysitter Andrea (played by Justine Eyre) to keep Jared from being disposed of by Roland, Bixby, and their ally Lou (played by Robert Herrick) which ends with Sheena's Darak'na form killing Roland, Bixby, and Lou. Afterwards, Jared makes a fumbling attempt to say Andrea's name. After Andrea thanks Max Cutter and Sheena, she brings out Jared in civilized clothes and his hair is in ponytail at shoulder length. When Andrea states that she plans to bring Jared back to Africa someday, Sheena tells Jared that he'll always have a home in Africa and not to forget his wild life there.
The Monarch from the Cartoon Network Adult Swim show The Venture Bros. was raised by monarch butterflies in his youth. He wears a monarch butterfly costume with a crown, showing his "royal" status.
In Juken Sentai Gekiranger, a show in Toei Company's Super Sentai franchise, Kandou Jan/GekiRed was, as a young child, the sole survivor when his village was destroyed, and was raised in the nearby forest by tigers and pandas. Growing up in the company of animals has taught him to feel with his body rather than his heart, which is something he must re-learn. One of his notable idiosyncrasies is his personal 'Jan-ish' language, using onomatopoeia in place of many of the words he does not know.
In The Mighty Boosh, the main character Vince Noir claims to have been raised in the forest by Bryan Ferry and various animals, whilst living in a tree house made out of bus tickets.
The Pokémon episode "The Kangaskhan Kid" featured a boy named Tommy (voiced by Jimmy Zoppi in the English dub) who is raised by Pokémon called Kangaskhan in a reserve that is near the Safari Zone.
In Digimon Data Squad (Digimon Savers in Japan), the character Keenan Crier (Ikuto Noguchi in Savers) was brought into the Digital World as an infant and raised by the Digimon Frigimon to believe that he is a Digimon. After Frigimon's death at the hands of one of Akihiro Kurata's Gizumon, Keenan was raised by Merukimon. When brought back to the human world around the age of eleven, he greatly protested being treated as a human and having to act as one, coming off as very wild, and (at least in Savers) spoke in a very stilted manner from his lack of communication with humans.
In a Season 4 episode of Supernatural, two humans (portrayed by Mandy Playdon and Mark Wynn) are found in a house thought to be haunted. Instead, it is discovered the two children were the product of Bill Gibson (portrayed by Gerry Rousseau) impregnating his daughter Rebecca, mother of the children, who later committed suicide. The children, though never explicitly described as feral, lack the ability to speak, survive off rats, and are extremely violent. They were held captive in the walls and basement of their house, but broke free and killed their father, and started to terrorize the Carter family that moved there where they killed Uncle Ted. Eventually, the boy is shot dead in self-defense by Dean Winchester while the girl is stabbed to death by the father of the family after she goes after his wife and daughter where he pulled her away. They were described as likely having never seen the light of day and "barely human."
In Deadman Wonderland, Gazuchi Mōzuri of the Undertakers was a wild man abandoned by his mother and raised by bears who was sent to Deadman Wonderland for the murder of several hunters and campers at age ten. The one camper he spared was the snake-like Shinagawa Dōkoku who assisted Gazuchi with his killing.
In the China, IL episode "Prom Face/Off," Mark "Baby" Cakes finds a feral girl dressed in only a shirt and shorts in a condemned building where the staff-only prom was being held. Mark names her Maddie and plans to make her be his date. When Mark gets her cleaned up and she is seen only wearing a dress, his father Professor Leonard Cakes recognized her and learned where the prom is being held. It is soon discovered during the prom that she was part of a group of feral hippies that Professor Cakes had worked on in the condemned building as part of an anti-hippie experiment and faked their destruction. When the feral hippies attacked where they started ripping off people's parts, some of the people held their own against them until Professor Cakes arrived. After Professor Cakes had gotten the feral hippies back in line, he admitted to having faked their destruction and even had a secret affair with a female feral hippie named Haystack that was the mother of Maddie and some of the other feral hippies.
The ABC series Once Upon a Time gives the Huntsman from Snow White a backstory of being raised by wolves.
In the Total Drama episode "African Lying Safari", Ezekiel has completely devolved into a feral-state and stays feral for the rest of the series. His appearance also devolved into a disheveled, zombie-like appearance based on Gollum from Lord of the Rings.
In the Liv and Maddie episode "Howl-A-Rooney," the character Emmy "Fangs" Wulfert (portrayed by Laura Marano) is a teenage "wolf girl" who was raised by wolves ever since she wandered away from her camp when she was little. She penned a book about her experience and still has some of her wolf traits like rolling around in the dirt, marking her territory, traveling in a dog cage when being flown out to locations because it was cheaper to fly this way for Fangs, getting used to how new people smell, eating meat off the ground, and howling enough to cause every dog in the area to howl. Fangs' appearance has her with dirty skin, dirty and ripped clothes, dirty and messy hair, fake claws on her fingers, and is always barefoot. She is invited to Stevens Point by Liv Rooney in an effort to teach her how to act like a wolf in preparation for Liv's audition for the film adaption of Space Werewolves. She eventually helps Liv master her howling by competing for the role of Tristan Lycanth.
In the animated series Phineas and Ferb, the character Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz claims to have been abandoned by his parents and raised by ocelots, among other "tragic backstories" that he has almost every episode. Because many of his backstories involve his human family, it can be presumed that his time with the ocelots was brief, if it happened at all.
In the Cartoon Network Series Adventure Time, Finn the human, was raised by magical dogs.
In the Netflix animated series The Adventures of the Leafeans, one of the main characters, Prince Gwin, was raised by a troll called Ivan since infancy, though he's trying to learn the ways of men, he still maintains his English vocabulary, the same thing happened to Grimbeard the Ghastly's son, Darek, who was raised by dragons ever since he was abandoned as a baby because he was a runt.
In the Netflix original series Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts, one of the main characters named Wolf was raised by wolves.
In the Netflix original series DreamWorks Dragons: Rescue Riders, the twins Dak and Leyla have been raised by dragons.
In games
In the popular fighting game Street Fighter the character named Blanka was raised by the animals in the Amazon rainforest. His skin turned green, and he received electrical powers by being exposed to electric eels.
The story of the 1994 video game Final Fantasy VI includes a character named Gau, a 13-year-old boy who lives wild on a fictional savanna called the Veldt (or Wild West in Japan). Abandoned shortly after birth, Gau raises himself among the fauna of the plain, learning how to fight in the exact style of many different monsters. At the age of 13 he encounters travelers Sabin Rene Figaro and Cyan Garamonde, and chooses to travel with them after they feed him some dried meat. Gau is capable of rudimentary human language, but has no social skills. Gau is later taught elementary manners to prepare him for reintroduction to his father who abandoned him, only to find that the man has been completely insane since Gau was born.
In Legend of Legaia, the character Noa was an orphan who had been raised by the Ra-Seru, Terra (テルマ, Teruma?)-- who, while raising Noa, attached itself to a female wolf. Due to living most of her life alone in Snowdrift Cave with Terra the wolf, Noa is childish and ignorant; the outside world is new to her. She wants to see the world and meet her parents, who call to her in her dreams. She uses claws or tonfa batons to fight, and her Ra-Seru, Terra, is a wind elemental. Later in the game, she discovers that she is the long-lost daughter of the King and Queen of Conkram.
In the Warhammer 40,000 Universe, Lion El Jonson, the Primarch of the Dark Angels Space Marine Legion, was abandoned in the dark jungles of Caliban for much of his early life. He could only roar and scream in rage and frustration and it was at adolescence where he had his first human contact. He became rather civilized after being found by the Paladins of Caliban, but still possessed a terrible inner rage and many other traits he had acquired while within the jungles.
Arietta The Wild from the game Tales of the Abyss is born to humans and raised by ligers from childhood before being found and taught human languages. Her past allows her to control monsters to aid her in battle. In the Japanese version of the game, she is shown having an irregular speech pattern.
Miscellaneous
In Cave Club, the cavegirl Roaralei is revealed to be raised by Smilodons.
See also
Feral child
Infant exposure
Mowgli Syndrome
Psychogenic dwarfism
References
Further reading
Mother was A Lovely Beast (subtitled 'A Feral Man Anthology Fiction and Fact About Humans Raised By Animals') edited by Philip José Farmer (1974)
Biography of Geoff Bass - A Life History
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|
238737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lemonheads | The Lemonheads | The Lemonheads are an American alternative rock band formed in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1986 by Evan Dando, Ben Deily, and Jesse Peretz. Dando has remained the band's only constant member.
After their initial punk-influenced releases and tours as an independent/college rock band in the late 1980s, the Lemonheads' popularity with a mass audience grew in 1992 with the major label album It's a Shame about Ray, which was produced, engineered, and mixed by The Robb Brothers (Bruce Robb, Dee, and Joe). This was followed by a cover of Simon and Garfunkel's "Mrs. Robinson", which eventually became one of the band's most successful singles. Then Lemonheads were active until 1997 before going on hiatus, but reformed with a new lineup in 2005 and released The Lemonheads the following year. The band released its latest album, Varshons 2, in February 2019.
Since its formation, recording and touring lineups of the band have included co-founders Deily and Peretz, John Strohm (Blake Babies), Doug Trachten, Corey Loog Brennan, Byron Hoagland (Folks On Fire), Ben Daughtrey (Squirrel Bait), Juliana Hatfield (Blake Babies), Nic Dalton (Godstar, Sneeze, The Plunderers), David Ryan (Fuzzy), Patrick "Murph" Murphy (Dinosaur Jr), George Berz (Dinosaur Jr, Gobblehoof), Josh Lattanzi, Bill Gibson (The Eastern Dark), Mark 'Budola' Newman, Kenny Lyon, Vess Ruhtenberg, Devon Ashley, Karl Alvarez and Bill Stevenson (Descendents), P. David Hazel, Farley Glavin, and various others.
History
Early years (1986–1991)
Evan Dando, Ben Deily and Jesse Peretz formed the Lemonheads as teenagers at the Commonwealth School in Boston. The band was originally called the Whelps, until inspiration came from a brand of candy, which Dando noted was "sweet on the inside and sour on the outside." The band recorded and self-released the 7" EP Laughing All the Way to the Cleaners. The band's first show was played on August 19, 1986.
After high school, Dando enrolled at Skidmore College but could not maintain his grades and dropped out to pursue a musical career. Having signed to local label Taang! Records, the Lemonheads released the albums Hate Your Friends (1987), Creator (1988), and Lick (1989) with Deily and Dando sharing lead vocals and songwriting duties. Initially they also shared lead guitar and drumming duties as well, but when this became unworkable, they hired drummers such as Doug Trachten, John Strohm, and Mark Natola to fill out the lineup. As all three albums were compiled from various recording sessions from 1986 onward, the lineups on each album varied considerably from song to song. The band enjoyed a good deal of college radio airplay and were popular in the burgeoning indie rock scene, up until Deily left the band in 1989. Dando then recruited David Ryan on drums, and Corey Loog Brennan as a second guitarist, and signed to major label Atlantic Records, releasing the album Lovey in August 1990. Straddling punk rock, country music and heavy metal, Lovey was released a year before the commercial explosion of grunge, and failed to chart or produce any songs with serious airplay.
Breakthrough and height of fame (1992–1997)
Dando cut his losses and flew to Australia to write some songs with friends Nic Dalton and Tom Morgan. These songs formed the basis for It's a Shame about Ray, the Lemonheads' breakthrough album. In the intervening time, Jesse Peretz had left music, and had taken up a career in photography and film; he would remain as the band photographer, and would eventually go on to direct music videos, TV shows, and feature films. Replacing Peretz in the band was Juliana Hatfield, who provided bass and backing vocals. Hatfield would leave the band shortly after recording the album to found her own band, The Juliana Hatfield Three, she would be replaced on bass by Nic Dalton. A cover of "Mrs. Robinson" (recorded to promote the video release of The Graduate) was released as a single and got them the most exposure they had had so far. This cover was also used in the film Wayne's World 2 and in Martin Scorsese's 2013 film The Wolf of Wall Street. When the Ray album was reissued, the track was tacked on to the end. The band enjoyed some success on college radio as well as mainstream exposure. The title track, "It's a Shame About Ray," also saw commercial success. During 1992–1993, Dando's face graced many magazine covers, and he was included in Peoples 50 Most Beautiful People list.
Now consisting of Dando, Dalton, and Ryan, the band officially renamed themselves from "Lemonheads" to "The Lemonheads" prior to the release of Come on Feel the Lemonheads in October 1993. Though no longer playing bass, Hatfield did appear as a backing singer on many of the tracks. The album also featured guest appearances by steel guitarist Sneaky Pete Kleinow and singers Belinda Carlisle and Rick James. This was a successful album with tracks such as "Big Gay Heart" and "It's About Time." The band enjoyed modest mainstream success, this time with the single "Into Your Arms" (their highest charting UK hit to date). Writer Robyn St. Clare made the first recording of this song in 1990 as part of Love Positions with Nic Dalton.
Dando befriended Oasis and appeared at the band's live shows. The cracks were beginning to show, and after one particularly disjointed interview with Dando almost unable to speak, having lost his voice after smoking crack cocaine, he admitted to having a drug problem. The band went on hiatus and Dando went into rehab.
In 1996, Dando re-formed The Lemonheads with a completely new lineup, including drummer Murph (formerly of Dinosaur Jr), bassist Bill Gibson (formerly of The Eastern Dark), and guitarist John Strohm (formerly of the Blake Babies; Strohm had also played drums with the Lemonheads during their early years). This band produced another Lemonheads album, Car Button Cloth. While featuring jangly guitar songs such as "If I Could Talk I'd Tell You," this set also showed off the darker side of Dando's writing.
The band contributed to Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks, a 1996 tribute album for Schoolhouse Rock! creator Thomas G. Yohe, which contained remakes of many popular Schoolhouse Rock! songs – The Lemonheads offered their take on "My Hero Zero." Previously, the band had contributed to a Kiss tribute album, recording Kiss' 1977 song "Plaster Caster" for Kiss My Ass: Classic Kiss Regrooved (1994).
The band toured successfully in 1997 and played a final gig at the UK's Reading Festival. Following a cameo line in the BBC's all-star cover version of Lou Reed's "Perfect Day" (which reached number one in the UK Singles Chart), Dando continued to play live solo shows.
Hiatus (1998–2004)
Atlantic released The Best Of The Lemonheads in August 1998. Through 1998 and 2004 Evan Dando undertook some solo tours performing the band's songs but an official reunion was never confirmed. During this time, Dando released a live album Live at the Brattle Theatre in 2001, and a solo album in 2003, titled Baby I'm Bored. He also co-wrote the song "The Last High" with Courtney Taylor-Taylor of The Dandy Warhols for the album Welcome to the Monkey House by The Dandy Warhols.
Return (2005–present)
After a nine-year hiatus, the band reformed in the summer of 2005 with a recording lineup bolstered by Bill Stevenson and Karl Alvarez, members of Descendents. The live lineup during this period fluctuated, with Stevenson and George Berz (Dinosaur Jr) both sitting in on drums during 2005, while Josh Lattanzi—chiefly known for his work with Ben Kweller—has frequently taken on bass duties for live shows.
On September 14 and 15, 2005, Dando, Stevenson and Lattanzi performed two shows at Shepherd's Bush Empire in London as part of the ATP Don't Look Back series, where they played It's a Shame About Ray in its entirety.
In April 2006, The Lemonheads were signed to Vagrant Records. The album, simply titled The Lemonheads, was released on September 26, 2006 in the United States and one day earlier in the UK; the album featured special guests Garth Hudson and J Mascis on select tracks. To promote the album Dando toured the UK, Europe and US in late 2006 with a band consisting of Vess Ruhtenberg (bass) and Devon Ashley (drums) of The Pieces. In the US, they toured with Vietnam and Hymns (band) as support. The same line-up toured again in 2007 and 2008. The recording line-up of Dando, Alvarez and Stevenson played live for the first time together on a 20-date US tour in late 2007.
While The Lemonheads reformed, co-founder Deily received a degree from Harvard University. He currently works as an Associate Creative Director in the advertising industry. His power pop/punk band, Varsity Drag, completed a 25-city European tour during January and February 2007, performing their own material alongside several Deily compositions from the first four Lemonheads releases. Varsity Drag continues to perform periodically in the Boston Area.
A deluxe reissue of Lemonheads' 1992 album It's a Shame About Ray was released in March 2008 (US) and April 2008 (UK) on Rhino Records, which features demos, B-sides and a DVD issue of the previously VHS-only Two Weeks In Australia, featuring footage from the band's Australian tour in the wake of their breakthrough album's release. To promote the reissue, the line-up of Dando, Ruhtenberg and Ashley performed the album in full at a number gigs between March and May 2008. Later in 2008 the band toured again in Europe with Vess Ruhtenberg and P. David Hazel (drums) of Beta Male.
On April 23, 2008, at the inaugural NME US Awards ceremony at the El Rey in Los Angeles, Dando received the classic album award for It's A Shame About Ray, and also performed "My Drug Buddy" and the album's title track acoustically. According to reports, soon after receiving the award, Dando deposited it into a garbage can, telling a minder "I don't want this".
On June 23, 2009, The Lemonheads released Varshons – a collection of eleven covers, including tracks by Gram Parsons, Wire, GG Allin, and Christina Aguilera. The album also featured actress Liv Tyler performing a duet on Leonard Cohen's "Hey That's No Way To Say Goodbye". Despite several websites reporting a release date of September 13, 2008, the album was not released on this date. Later, in a blog post on the band's MySpace page, Dando hinted at a March 2009 release. On March 27, 2009, it was announced that Varshons would be released on June 23 on The End Records.
In an August 2007 interview, drummer Bill Stevenson stated that he was going to produce the Lemonhead's ninth album of original material. As of August 2010, however, announcements of a new album have not yet been released.
In September 2010 the Lemonheads announced an Australian tour playing all thirteen songs from the 1992 album It's a Shame about Ray, plus a selection of songs from other albums.
On February 7, 2012, The Lemonheads will release Hotel Sessions on Hall of Records/Breath of Saltwater – an intimate recording documenting a Sunday night that Evan Dando spent recording new songs with just an acoustic guitar (and some revealing commentary) in a hotel room in Bondi Beach, Australia. The 14 songs include some that never made it to an official Lemonheads album, but Dando says, “the "Into Your Arms" I did here is better than the one on the album (I like it anyway).”
The Lemonheads completed a 9-week U.S. tour in spring of 2012 playing all thirteen songs from the 1992 album It's a Shame about Ray, plus a selection of songs from other albums. Lead singer Evan Dando recruited drummer Chuck Treece and former Taking Back Sunday lead guitarist Fred Mascherino to play bass.
Juliana Hatfield rejoined The Lemonheads for a late 2012 tour supporting The Psychedelic Furs.
On September 17, 2012 Ryan Adams tweeted that he would be playing drums on a new 'punker sounding' Lemonheads album as well as producing it. He also announced that Evan Dando would be joined on the record by Juliana Hatfield and, for the first time since 1989's Lick, co-founder and original co-songwriter Ben Deily. Like the earlier Bill Stevenson produced sessions, however, no album was released.
The Lemonheads played a seven-date tour in Ireland and the UK in October 2015.
On August 14, 2017, Atlantic Records divested the Lemonheads' back catalogue to Fire Records, which released several of the band's albums in the UK.
A second album of covers (the band's first album in a decade), titled Varshons 2, was released in 2019.
Musical style
Musically, the band as been classified as alternative rock, grunge, jangle pop, power pop, and pop-punk.
Personnel
During the earliest years, the band consisted of Evan Dando, Ben Deily, and Jesse Peretz. Dando and Deily shared singing and songwriting duties; when recording or performing live each would sing and play guitar on their own compositions while the other would play drums. When the arrangement became unworkable, they hired additional drummers including Doug Trachten and John Strohm. On most of the first three albums (released by independent label TAANG!), songs from various recording sessions and live tracks are mixed, so instrumentation varies considerably from track-to-track depending on who was in the band when the tracks were recorded. CD versions of these albums were also released with bonus tracks from even later line-ups of the band.
When Deily quit the band in 1989, Dando replaced him with guitarist Corey Loog Brennan and drummer Mark Natola. Natola would be replaced by drummer David Ryan prior to the band's first major label album, Lovey. Following the recording of Lovey, founding bass player Jesse Peretz left the band to pursue a career in photography and filmmaking, and Brennan left to concentrate on his career as a college professor.
On their breakout album, It's a Shame About Ray, Juliana Hatfield had joined on bass guitar and backing vocals. She would remain the backing vocalist for the follow-up album Come on Feel the Lemonheads, but would be replaced on bass guitar by Nic Dalton. John Strohm, who had previously played drums with the band during their early years, toured with the band as a second guitarist in support of these albums.
Starting with 1996's Car Button Cloth and continuing through the present, the band membership has been fluid, with the name The Lemonheads generally being used by whomever Evan Dando had recruited to record and/or play with at the time. Their last official release was 2019's collection of cover songs Varshons 2, which followed on from their prior release, 2009's Varshons. Several announcements of albums of new material or tours involving any number of musicians have been announced over the years since then, most recently a 2012 project involving Ben Deily, Juliana Hatfield, and Ryan Adams, but as yet no major recordings or substantial tours have materialized.
Below is an approximate timeline of membership in The Lemonheads. Other than Evan Dando, the band has rarely had a stable line-up. The timeline below shows only members which were primary recording or touring members. It does not include guest musicians, or ephemeral line-ups which only appeared on stage under The Lemonheads moniker for one-off shows or brief appearances. Dates of membership are approximate based on known shows and recordings.
Evan Dando
Vocals (1986–present)
Guitar (1986–present)
Drums (1986–1989)
Ben Deily
Vocals (1986–1989)
Guitar (1986–1989)
Drums (1986–1989)
Jesse Peretz
Bass (1986–1991)
Doug Trachten
Drums (1987)
John Strohm
Drums (1988)
Guitar (1994–1997)
Mark Natola
Drums (1989)
Corey "Loog" Brennan
Guitar (1989–1991)
Juliana Hatfield
Bass (1991–1992)
Backing vocals (1991–1993)
David Ryan
Drums (1989–1994)
Nic Dalton
Bass (1992–1994)
Patrick "Murph" Murphy
Drums (1996–1998)
Bill Gibson
Bass (1996–1998)
Bill Stevenson
Drums (2005–2007)
Karl Alvarez
Bass (2005–2007)
Devon Ashley
Drums (2008–2010)
Vess Ruhtenberg
Bass (2008–2010)
Farley Glavin
Bass (2014-present)
Membership timeline
DiscographyStudio albums'''Hate Your Friends (1987)Creator (1988)Lick (1989)Lovey (1990)It's a Shame About Ray (1992)Come on Feel the Lemonheads (1993)Car Button Cloth (1996)The Lemonheads (2006)Varshons (2009)Varshons 2'' (2019)
References
External links
The Lemonheads official site
Ben Deily official site
Alternative rock groups from Massachusetts
Punk rock groups from Massachusetts
Musical groups from Boston
Musical groups established in 1986
American pop punk groups
American grunge groups
American power pop groups
Jangle pop groups | [
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|
238738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvertone | Silvertone | Silvertone may refer to:
Silvertone (brand), consumer electronics and musical instruments by Sears, Roebuck and Company
The Silvertones, a Jamaican reggae harmony group
The Silvertones, a Canadian rock band that became The Guess Who
Silvertone (album), by Chris Isaak, 1985
Silvertone, Chris Isaak's first band
Silvertone Records (disambiguation), the name of three different record labels
See also
Silver (color) | [
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|
238739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective%20Soul | Collective Soul | Collective Soul is an American rock band originally from Stockbridge, Georgia. Now based in Atlanta, the group consists of lead vocalist Ed Roland, rhythm guitarist Dean Roland, bassist Will Turpin, drummer Johnny Rabb, and lead guitarist Jesse Triplett. Formed in 1992, Collective Soul released their Hints, Allegations, and Things Left Unsaid album on the independent label Rising Storm Records in 1993. The band went from obscurity to popularity that year after the song "Shine" became an underground hit based on radio play. The album was re-released in 1994 under major label Atlantic Records.
Collective Soul released a self-titled album in March 1995. Considered by Ed Roland to be the band's true debut album, Collective Soul spent 76 weeks on the Billboard 200 charts and went triple-platinum, becoming the band's highest-selling album. The singles "December", "The World I Know", and "Where the River Flows" each reached No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock charts. About two years later, Collective Soul released Disciplined Breakdown. Although not as successful in sales as their previous two albums, Disciplined Breakdown contained two No. 1 Mainstream Rock chart hits with "Precious Declaration" and "Listen". The band released a fourth studio album, Dosage, in 1999. The album's first single, "Heavy", spent a then record-breaking 15 weeks on the top spot of the Mainstream Rock charts.
The band released Blender in 2000, their fifth and final album with the original starting lineup, as lead guitarist Ross Childress left the band in 2001. About two weeks after Childress' departure, Collective Soul released Seven Year Itch, a compilation of their greatest hits between 1994 and 2001. Collective Soul established their own label, El Music Group, prior to releasing Youth in 2004. The band recorded a live album with the Atlanta Symphony Youth Orchestra in 2005, titled Home, and released it in 2006. Original drummer Shane Evans departed from the band at the end of 2005. Collective Soul has since released four more albums: Afterwords (2007), a second self-titled album (2009), See What You Started by Continuing (2015), and Blood (2019).
History
Early years
Before forming Collective Soul, singer Ed Roland studied music composition and guitar at the Berklee College of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. Since the mid-1980s, Roland was involved in Atlanta's underground music scene making demos and performing. He also worked at Real 2 Reel Studios in Stockbridge, which was owned by bassist Will Turpin's father, Bill Turpin. Roland's duties were producing, mixing, and engineering for local Atlanta artists. He recorded his demos and released an independent solo album Ed-E Roland in 1991.
Roland recruited keyboard player and backing vocalist Christopher Dykes, drummer Tony Caporale, and bassist Skip Godwin to play live in clubs and showcase for A/R personnel from various record companies. At this time the group was simply known as "Ed-E". They played several local shows, played a part in a CBS Movie of the Week, and were guests on the local Atlanta television program Music Peachtree Style (where local Atlanta-based artists were interviewed and profiled). That initial version of the "Ed-E" band dissolved in the mid-to-late 1980s due to incompatible musical tastes among other differences. Roland subsequently formed Marching Two-Step which included original Collective Soul drummer Shane Evans, Michele Rhea Caplinger, and Matt Serletic.
Marching Two-Step were a local gigging band for a few years, but never managed to grow beyond the club scene. Roland's early attempts to be signed to a recording contract by a label faced rejections. Caplinger would become a music industry publicist and was later appointed executive director of the Atlanta Chapter of the Recording Academy in 2000. Serletic would go on to become a Grammy Award-winning producer for Collective Soul, Matchbox Twenty, Blessid Union of Souls, and Edwin McCain, and landed executive positions with record companies.
1993–1994: Hints, Allegations, and Things Left Unsaid and signing to Atlantic Records
After the demise of Roland's previous music collaborations, he enlisted musicians to record a demo in a basement. The group made for the demo took its name from a phrase in The Fountainhead, with Roland explaining that "we're not preaching Ayn Rand, objectivism, egoism, or anything...we just dug the name." Roland initially intended to sell the songs to a publishing company and had no immediate plans of forming a band out of it. The demo was submitted to WRAS (FM), 88.5's Amy Staehling, host of the long running and popular Georgia Music Show at Georgia State University's 100,000 watt student radio station in Atlanta, the largest student run radio station in the country, where she added the song "Shine" to the local rotation. It was an instant listener favorite. The demo was also passed along to WJRR in Orlando, Florida which began playing "Shine", soon to be its most requested song. Amidst the surprise popularity, Roland agreed to perform live shows, enlisting his brother Dean Roland on rhythm guitar, drummer Shane Evans, bassist Will Turpin, and lead guitarist Ross Childress, in what would be the first official lineup of Collective Soul. Atlantic Records took note of the popularity of "Shine" and subsequently signed them to a contract.
Upon Collective Soul's signing, Atlantic wished to capitalize on the band's success and quickly re-released the 1993 demo Hints, Allegations, and Things Left Unsaid as their first studio album. Although reluctant to have the unpolished demo represent their new lineup, Collective Soul gained international recognition and double-platinum status with their debut, which peaked at number 15 on the Billboard 200. "Shine" had topped the rock charts and also peaked at No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100, while the second single "Breathe" peaked at No. 12 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart. The band quickly began work on what they would consider their true debut record and were invited to perform at Woodstock 1994. They toured extensively across North America, and also served as an opener for Aerosmith in late 1994.
1995–1999: Collective Soul, Disciplined Breakdown, and Dosage
The group's self-titled second album issued the following year, was certified RIAA triple platinum, and logged a 76-week run on the Billboard 200. Notable singles from Collective Soul included Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts No. 1 hits "December", "Where the River Flows", and "The World I Know", along with the No. 2 hit "Gel" and the No. 8 hit "Smashing Young Man". During the album's release, the band was the opener for Van Halen for three months. Afterwards, they embarked on their own tour as headliners.
Following a split with their manager, Collective Soul found their tour dates canceled and were called into the courtroom to face a legal battle that lasted into 1996, presumably with said ex-manager Bill Richardson. While the legal battles continued, the band went to a cabin, in the middle of of cow pasture in Stockbridge, and began recording. They recorded into a computer their impromptu efforts of songs Roland penned, and these became Disciplined Breakdown. The legal case was eventually settled, and both parties were instructed not to discuss the outcome.
Disciplined Breakdown, released in 1997, did not sell as well as their previous records despite debuting higher on the charts. The album eventually achieved platinum certification, and produced two more No. 1 singles on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart: "Precious Declaration" and "Listen", along with No. 11 hit "Blame". The album eventually peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard 200.
Collective Soul took a break from touring and had only played a handful of dates throughout 1998. They had instead focused on recording. The band's fourth album was 1999's platinum certified Dosage. The first single "Heavy" set a new high mark for 15 weeks at No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock chart. Singles such as "Run", "No More, No Less", and "Tremble for My Beloved" gained notable positions on the rock charts as well. The album was produced by Anthony J. Resta, known for his work with Duran Duran and others. The band also performed at the Woodstock 1999 festival, where they performed "Heavy", a cover of Ozzy Osbourne's song "Crazy Train", and a cover of U2's song "I Will Follow".
2000–2003: Blender, first lineup change, and departure from Atlantic Records
The group then released their fifth studio album, Blender, in October 2000. It did not sell as well as previous albums, although the first single "Why, Pt. 2" reached No. 2 on the Mainstream Rock chart. They achieved additional hits with "Vent" and "Perfect Day", the latter being a duet between Roland and Elton John. The album became RIAA certified gold. The album was their second effort with Resta producing. The song "You Speak My Language" was a cover of a song written by Mark Sandman, who formed Morphine in 1989. The song was originally on Morphine's 1992 album, Good.
In 2001, Collective Soul released their greatest hits compilation, Seven Year Itch: Greatest Hits 1994–2001 (the title being stylized as 7even Year Itch), which featured two new songs, the single "Next Homecoming" and "Energy". The record marked the end of the group's contract with Atlantic Records and the departure of lead guitarist Childress due to private personal differences. The band promoted their longtime guitar technician, Joel Kosche from Jovian Storm, to be the new lead guitarist.
2004–2009: Formation of El Music Group, Youth, Afterwords, and Collective Soul II
In 2004 Collective Soul created their independent label El Music Group, which allowed the band greater control over the production and distribution of their music. In November of that year, they released their sixth studio album, Youth, which debuted at No. 66 on the Billboard 200. Due to personal issues, additional drum tracks on the album were by session musician Ryan Hoyle, who would play a more prominent place in the band increasingly. "Counting the Days" was the first and most successful single, as it peaked at No. 8 on the Mainstream Rock chart. The second single "Better Now" received significant airplay on the Adult Top 40 chart as it peaked at No. 9 and was used in commercials for the cereal Special K. The resultant US and Canadian tours lasted over two years. The third single "How Do You Love" peaked at No. 16 on the Adult Top 40 chart.
In May 2005, they released an eight-song acoustic EP compilation titled From the Ground Up, which had acoustic versions of past favorites, plus a new track "Youth". Collective Soul performed two shows with the Atlanta Symphony Youth Orchestra on April 23 and 24, 2005. A DVD and double disc CD of the performances, entitled Home: A Live Concert Recording With The Atlanta Symphony Youth Orchestra was released in February 2006. At the end of 2005, Evans was dismissed from the band due to extensive drug use. His place was filled by Hoyle, who was in the studio for the 2004 Youth album and had substituted on different occasions for Evans.
Collective Soul's seventh studio album, Afterwords, was released in August 2007. It was co-produced again by Resta who also contributed synthesizers, percussion, and lead guitar on the song "Bearing Witness". The band made a deal in the US with Target stores, making it the "exclusive physical retailer" of Afterwords for one year. The album was immediately available in digital form on iTunes. The record debuted at No. 25 on the Billboard Comprehensive Albums chart (as albums available only from a single retailer were ineligible for the Billboard 200 at the time). Billboard would later amend this rule due to similar successes of other artists via similar agreements.
The Adult Top 40 pop-rock single "Hollywood" was released in May. It became the theme song for the hit T.V. show American Idol. The band then made an appearance on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on August 31 to promote the album where they performed "Hollywood". They were also the musical guest on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson. The second single "All That I Know" was released in November and charted lower than the prior single. In 2008, drummer Hoyle had left the band and was replaced by Cheney Brannon.
Collective Soul released their eighth studio album, another self-titled album, but designated on August 25, 2009 with Roadrunner Records, a subsidiary of their previous label Atlantic Records. The album debuted at No. 24 on the Billboard 200. The first single was "Staring Down" and the second single was "Welcome All Again". "Staring Down" charted at No. 18 on the Adult Top 40 chart. The third single, "You", also charted briefly on the Adult Top 40.
Collective Soul were inducted into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame in September 2009. In their induction speech, Roland thanked a long list of former members and collaborators who had been involved over the past three decades, including Childress, Hoyle, and Brannon. He also invited Evans on the stage to celebrate with the band.
2010–2013: Focus on side projects and touring
Collective Soul returned to El Music Group in 2010, and in December that year, the band released a re-recorded version of "Tremble for My Beloved" (originally from Dosage) as both a single and a video on iTunes. The video was also included on the DVD Music Videos and Performances from The Twilight Saga Soundtracks, Vol. 1. In 2012, the band embarked on the Dosage Tour, with touring member Johnny Rabb replacing Brannon on drums.
The band members were then involved with other projects. Kosche and Turpin began their own solo careers, releasing the albums Fight Years (2010) and The Lighthouse (2011) respectively. Dean Roland was a part of the rock band Magnets and Ghosts, alongside Ryan Potesta. The duo formed in 2010 and released their debut album Mass in November 2011. In 2011, Ed Roland began recording and touring with friends Christopher Alan Yates, Brian Biskey, Grant Reynolds, and Mike Rizzi. The group, Ed Roland and the Sweet Tea Project, released their debut album Devils 'n Darlins on September 3, 2013.
2014–present: See What You Started by Continuing and Blood
The band kicked off their 2014 winter tour on January 15, 2014 at Belly Up in Aspen, Colorado, where lead guitarist Jesse Triplett made his live debut as a member of Collective Soul. Triplett replaced Kosche, who had been with the band since replacing original lead guitarist Childress in 2001. On February 6, Collective Soul publicly confirmed Kosche's departure from the band. On May 27, Kosche broke his silence regarding his departure from the band, saying it was not an amicable split and that it had nothing to do with him wanting to pursue a solo career or wanting to "move on in the world of music."
The band's ninth studio album, See What You Started by Continuing, was released on October 2, 2015 by Vanguard Records and peaked at No. 25 on the Billboard 200. The album's lead single, "This", made its premiere on July 15, 2015 at USA Today. The band then made the single as a free download on their official website. The band's live album, Collective Soul: Live, was released on December 8, 2017 by Suretone Records. The recordings were selected by the band as their best over the course of 160 shows they performed in two years.
In 2018 the band joined 3 Doors Down to co-headline the Rock & Roll Express Tour, with support from Soul Asylum. In 2019 the band headlined the Now's the Time Tour to celebrate their 25th anniversary, with support from Gin Blossoms.
The band's tenth studio album, Blood, was released on June 21, 2019 and it peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Top Independent Albums chart. Blood was originally meant to be a double album but the band's management had talked them out of releasing it as such. After a 14 year absence, the lead single "Right as Rain" marked the band's return to the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart, as it peaked at the No. 32 spot. In August 2020, the band released a Record Store Day exclusive vinyl called Half & Half featuring two cover songs ("Opera Star" and "One I Love") and two originals ("Let Her Out" and "Back Again").
Awards and Nominations
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Nominee(s)
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"|
|-
! scope="row"|ASCAP Pop Music Awards
| 1996
| "Shine"
| Most Performed Song
|
|
|-
!scope="row" rowspan=3|BMI Pop Awards
| rowspan=3|2020
| "Shine"
| rowspan=3|Million-Air Award
|
| rowspan=3|
|-
| "December"
|
|-
| "The World I Know"
|
|-
!scope="row" rowspan=6|Billboard Music Awards
| 1994
| "Shine"
| rowspan=2|Top Rock Song
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2|1995
| "December"
|
| rowspan=2|
|-
| rowspan=2|Themselves
| rowspan=2|Top Rock Artist
|
|-
| rowspan=2|1999
|
| rowspan=2|
|-
| "Heavy"
| Top Rock Song
|
Band members
Ed Roland – lead vocals, additional guitars, keyboards (1992–present)
Dean Roland – rhythm guitar (1992–present)
Will Turpin – bass, backing vocals (1992–present)
Johnny Rabb – drums, percussion (2012–present)
Jesse Triplett – lead guitar, backing vocals (2014–present)
Former members
Ross Childress – lead guitar, backing vocals (1992–2001)
Shane Evans – drums, percussion (1992–2005)
Joel Kosche – lead guitar, backing vocals (2001–2014)
Ryan Hoyle – drums, percussion (2005–2008)
Cheney Brannon – drums, percussion (2008–2012)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Hints Allegations and Things Left Unsaid (1994)
Collective Soul (1995)
Disciplined Breakdown (1997)
Dosage (1999)
Blender (2000)
Youth (2004)
Afterwords (2007)
Collective Soul (2009)
See What You Started by Continuing (2015)
Blood (2019)
See also
List of alternative rock artists
List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart
List of former Atlantic Records artists
List of hard rock musicians
List of post-grunge bands
References
External links
1992 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Alternative rock groups from Georgia (U.S. state)
American hard rock musical groups
American post-grunge musical groups
Atlantic Records artists
Musical groups established in 1992
Musical groups from Atlanta
Musical quintets
Roadrunner Records artists
Stockbridge, Georgia
Vanguard Records artists | [
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238741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhasa | Lhasa | Lhasa (; Lhasa dialect: ; ) is the urban center of the prefecture-level Lhasa City and the administrative capital of Tibet. The inner urban area of Lhasa City is equivalent to the administrative borders of Chengguan District (), which is part of the wider prefectural Lhasa City.
Lhasa is the second most populous urban area on the Tibetan Plateau after Xining and, at an altitude of , Lhasa is one of the highest cities in the world. The city has been the religious and administrative capital of Tibet since the mid-17th century. It contains many culturally significant Tibetan Buddhist sites such as the Potala Palace, Jokhang Temple and Norbulingka Palaces.
Toponymy
Lhasa literally translates to "place of gods" ( , god; , place) in the Tibetan language. Chengguan literally translates to "urban gateway" () in the Chinese language. Ancient Tibetan documents and inscriptions demonstrate that the place was called Rasa (), which meant “goat’s place,” as it was a herding site.. The name was changed to Lhasa, which means “place of gods” upon its establishment as the capital of Tibet, and construction of the Jokhang temple was completed, which housed a holy statue of the Buddha.<ref>Anne-Marie Blondeau and Yonten Gyatso, 'Lhasa, Legend and History,' in Françoise Pommaret-Imaeda (ed.)Lhasa in the seventeenth century: the capital of the Dalai Lamas, BRILL, 2003, pp.15–38, pp.21–22.</ref> Lhasa is first recorded as the name, referring to the area's temple of Jowo, in a treaty drawn up between China and Tibet in 822 C.E.
History
By the mid 7th century, Songtsen Gampo became the leader of the Tibetan Empire that had risen to power in the Brahmaputra River (locally known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River) Valley. After conquering the kingdom of Zhangzhung in the west, he moved the capital from the Chingwa Taktsé Castle in Chongye County (pinyin: Qióngjié Xiàn), southwest of Yarlung, to Rasa (Lhasa) where in 637 he raised the first structures on the site of what is now the Potala Palace on Mount Marpori.
In CE 639 and 641, Songtsen Gampo, who by this time had conquered the whole Tibetan region, is said to have contracted two alliance marriages, firstly to a Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal, and then, two years later, to Princess Wencheng of the Imperial Tang court. Bhrikuti is said to have converted him to Buddhism, which was also the faith attributed to his second wife Wencheng. In 641 he constructed the Jokhang (or Rasa Trülnang Tsulagkhang) and Ramoche Temples in Lhasa in order to house two Buddha statues, the Akshobhya Vajra (depicting the Buddha at the age of eight) and the Jowo Sakyamuni (depicting Buddha at the age of twelve), respectively brought to his court by the princesses.Amund Sinding-Larsen, The Lhasa atlas: : traditional Tibetan architecture and townscape, Serindia Publications, Inc., 2001 p.14 Lhasa suffered extensive damage under the reign of Langdarma in the 9th century, when the sacred sites were destroyed and desecrated and the empire fragmented.
A Tibetan tradition mentions that after Songtsen Gampo's death in 649 C.E., Chinese troops captured Lhasa and burnt the Red Palace. Chinese and Tibetan scholars have noted that the event is mentioned neither in the Chinese annals nor in the Tibetan manuscripts of Dunhuang. Lǐ suggested that this tradition may derive from an interpolation. Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa believes that "those histories reporting the arrival of Chinese troops are not correct."
From the fall of the monarchy in the 9th century to the accession of the 5th Dalai Lama, the centre of political power in the Tibetan region was not situated in Lhasa. However, the importance of Lhasa as a religious site became increasingly significant as the centuries progressed. It was known as the centre of Tibet where Padmasambhava magically pinned down the earth demoness and built the foundation of the Jokhang Temple over her heart. Islam has been present since the 11th century in what is considered to have always been a monolithically Buddhist culture. Two Tibetan Muslim communities have lived in Lhasa with distinct homes, food and clothing, language, education, trade and traditional herbal medicine.
By the 15th century, the city of Lhasa had risen to prominence following the founding of three large Gelugpa monasteries by Je Tsongkhapa and his disciples. The three monasteries are Ganden, Sera and Drepung which were built as part of the puritanical Buddhist revival in Tibet. The scholarly achievements and political know-how of this Gelugpa Lineage eventually pushed Lhasa once more to centre stage.
The 5th Dalai Lama, Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682), unified Tibet and moved the centre of his administration to Lhasa in 1642 with the help of Güshi Khan of the Khoshut. With Güshi Khan as a largely uninvolved overlord, the 5th Dalai Lama and his intimates established a civil administration which is referred to by historians as the Lhasa state. The core leadership of this government is also referred to as the Ganden Phodrang, and Lhasa thereafter became both the religious and political capital. In 1645, the reconstruction of the Potala Palace began on Red Hill. In 1648, the Potrang Karpo (White Palace) of the Potala was completed, and the Potala was used as a winter palace by the Dalai Lama from that time onwards. The Potrang Marpo (Red Palace) was added between 1690 and 1694. The name Potala is derived from Mount Potalaka, the mythical abode of the Dalai Lama's divine prototype, the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. The Jokhang Temple was also greatly expanded around this time. Although some wooden carvings and lintels of the Jokhang Temple date to the 7th century, the oldest of Lhasa's extant buildings, such as within the Potala Palace, the Jokhang and some of the monasteries and properties in the Old Quarter date to this second flowering in Lhasa's history.
By the end of the 17th century, Lhasa's Barkhor area formed a bustling market for foreign goods. The Jesuit missionary, Ippolito Desideri reported in 1716 that the city had a cosmopolitan community of Mongol, Chinese, Muscovite, Armenian, Kashmiri, Nepalese and Northern Indian traders. Tibet was exporting musk, gold, medicinal plants, furs and yak tails to far-flung markets, in exchange for sugar, tea, saffron, Persian turquoise, European amber and Mediterranean coral. The Qing dynasty army entered Lhasa in 1720, and the Qing government sent resident commissioners, called the Ambans, to Lhasa. In November 11 of 1750, the murder of the regent by the Ambans triggered a riot in the city that left more than a hundred people killed, including the Ambans. After suppressing the rebels, Qing Qianlong Emperor reorganized the Tibetan government and set up the governing council called Kashag in Lhasa in 1751.
In January 1904, a British expeditionary force invaded and captured Lhasa during the British expedition to Tibet. The expedition's leader, Sir Francis Younghusband negotiated the Convention Between Great Britain and Tibet with the remaining Tibetan officials after the Dalai Lama had fled to the countryside. The treaty was subsequently repudiated and was succeeded by a 1906 Anglo-Chinese treaty. All Qing troops left Lhasa after the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil in 1912.
By the 20th century, Lhasa, long a beacon for both Tibetan and foreign Buddhists, had numerous ethnically and religiously distinct communities, among them Kashmiri Muslims, Ladakhi merchants, Sikh converts to Islam, and Chinese traders and officials. The Kashmiri Muslims (Khache) trace their arrival in Lhasa to the Muslim saint of Patna, Khair ud-Din, contemporary with the 5th Dalai Lama. Chinese Muslims lived in a quarter to the south, and Newar merchants from Kathmandu to the north of the Barkhor market. Residents of the Lubu neighbourhood were descended from Chinese vegetable farmers who stayed over after accompanying an Amban from Sichuan in the mid-nineteenth century; some later intermarried with Tibetan women and spoke Tibetan as their first language. The city's merchants catered to all kinds of tastes, importing even Australian butter and Scottish whisky. In the 1940s, according to Heinrich Harrer:-
'There is nothing one cannot buy, or at least order. One even finds the Elizabeth Arden specialties, and there is a keen demand for them. . .You can order, too, sewing machines, radio sets and gramophones and hunt up Bing Crosby records.'
After the establishment of Communist Chinese People's Republic of China, "(...) the People's Liberation Army (PLA) invaded the country in 1950. In March 1959, an uprising centered on the capital, Lhasa, prompted a massive crackdown, during which the Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), fled into exile." Such markets and consumerism came to an abrupt end after the arrival of Chinese government troops and administrative cadres in 1950. Food rations and poorly stocked government stores replaced the old markets, until the 1990s when commerce in international wares once more returned to Lhasa, and arcades and malls with a cornucopia of goods sprang up.
Of the 22 parks (lingkas) which surrounded the city of Lhasa, most of them over half a mile in length, where the people of Lhasa were accustomed to picnic, only three survive today: the Norbulingka, Dalai Lama's Summer Palace, constructed by the 7th Dalai Lama; a small part of the Shugtri Lingka, and the Lukhang. Dormitory blocks, offices and army barracks are built over the rest.
The Guāndì miào (關帝廟) or Gesar Lhakhang temple was erected by the Amban in 1792 atop Mount Bamare south of the Potala to celebrate the defeat of an invading Gurkha army.
The main gate to the city of Lhasa used to run through the large Pargo Kaling chorten and contained holy relics of the Buddha Mindukpa.
Between 1987 and 1989, Lhasa experienced major demonstrations, led by monks and nuns, against the Chinese Government. After Deng Xiaoping's southern tour in 1992, Lhasa was mandated by the government to undergo economic liberalization. All government employees, their families and students were forbidden from practicing their religion, while monks and nuns were not allowed to enter government offices and the Tibet University campus. Subsequent to the introduction of the economic development policies, the influx of migrants has dramatically altered the city's ethnic mix in Lhasa.
In 2000 the urbanised area covered , with a population of around 170,000. Official statistics of the metropolitan area report that 70 percent are Tibetan, 24.3 are Han, and the remaining 2.7 Hui, though outside observers suspect that non-Tibetans account for some 50–70 percent. Among the Han immigrants, Lhasa is known as 'Little Sichuan'.
Geography
Lhasa has an elevation of about and lies in the centre of the Tibetan Plateau with the surrounding mountains rising to . The air only contains 68 percent of the oxygen compared to sea level. The Lhasa River, also Kyi River or Kyi Chu, a tributary of the Yarlung Zangbo River (Brahmaputra River), runs through the southern part of the city. This river, known to local Tibetans as the "merry blue waves", flows through the snow-covered peaks and gullies of the Nyainqêntanglha mountains, extending , and emptying into the Yarlung Zangbo River at Qüxü, forms an area of great scenic beauty. The marshlands, mostly uninhabited, are to the north. Ingress and egress roads run east and west, while to the north, the road infrastructure is less developed.
Administration
Chengguan District is located on the middle reaches of the Lhasa River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra River, with land that rises to the north and south of the river.
It is from east to west and from north to south.
Chengguan District is bordered by Doilungdêqên District to the west, Dagzê County to the east and Lhünzhub County to the north.
Gonggar County of Lhoka (Shannan) Prefecture lies to the south.
Chengguan District has an elevation of and covers .
The urban built-up area covers .
The average annual temperature of .
Annual precipitation is about , mostly falling between July and September.
The term "Chengguan District" is the administrative term for the inner urban area or the urban centre within a prefecture, in this case the Prefectural-city of Lhasa. Outside of the urban area much of Chengguan District is mainly mountainous with a near nonexistent rural population.
Chengguan District is at the same administrative level as a county.
Chengguan District of Lhasa was established on 23 April 1961.
It currently has 12 fully urban subdistricts.
Climate
Owing to its very high elevation, Lhasa has a borderline cool semi-arid (Köppen: BSk)/monsoon-influenced continental climate (Köppen: Dwb) using the isotherm with frosty winters and mild summers, yet the valley location protects the city from intense cold or heat and strong winds. Monthly possible sunshine ranges from 53 percent in July to 84 percent in November, and the city receives nearly 3,000 hours of sunlight annually. It is thus sometimes called the "sunlit city" by Tibetans. The coldest month is January with an average temperature of and the warmest month is June with a daily average of , though nights have generally been warmer in July. The annual mean temperature is , with extreme temperatures ranging from . Lhasa has an annual precipitation of with rain falling mainly in July, August and September. The driest month is December at and the wettest month is August, at . Summer is widely regarded the "best" of the year as rains come mostly at night and Lhasa is still sunny during the daytime.
Demographics
Demographics in the past
The 11th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica published between 1910 and 1911 noted the total population of Lhasa, including the lamas in the city and vicinity was about 30,000; a census in 1854 made the figure 42,000, but it is known to have greatly decreased since. Britannica noted that within Lhasa, there were about a total of 1,500 resident Tibetan laymen and about 5,500 Tibetan women. The permanent population also included Chinese families (about 2,000). The city's residents included traders from Nepal and Ladak (about 800), and a few from Bhutan, Mongolia and other places. The Britannica noted with interest that the Chinese had a crowded burial-ground at Lhasa, tended carefully after their manner and that the Nepalese supplied mechanics and metal-workers at that time.
In the first half of the 20th century, several Western explorers made celebrated journeys to the city, including William Montgomery McGovern, Francis Younghusband, Alexandra David-Néel, and Heinrich Harrer. Lhasa was the centre of Tibetan Buddhism as nearly half of its population were monks, Though this figure may include monks from surrounding monasteries who travelled to Lhasa for various celebrations and were not ordinarily resident there.
The majority of the pre-1950 Chinese population of Lhasa were merchants and officials. In the Lubu section of Lhasa, the inhabitants were descendants of Chinese vegetable farmers, some of whom married Tibetan wives. They came to Lhasa in the 1840s–1860s after a Chinese official was appointed to the position of Amban.
According to one writer, the population of the city was about 10,000, with some 10,000 monks at Drepung and Sera monasteries in 1959. Hugh Richardson, on the other hand, puts the population of Lhasa in 1952, at "some 25,000–30,000—about 45,000–50,000 if the population of the great monasteries on its outskirts be included."
Contemporary demographics
The total population of Lhasa Prefecture-level City is 521,500 (including known migrant population but excluding military garrisons). Of this, 257,400 are in the urban area (including a migrant population of 100,700), while 264,100 are outside. Nearly half of Lhasa Prefecture-level City's population lives in Chengguan District, which is the administrative division that contains the urban area of Lhasa (i.e. the actual city).
The urban area is populated by ethnic Tibetans, Han, Hui and other ethnic groups. The 2000 official census gave a total population of 223,001, of which 171,719 lived in the areas administered by city street offices and city neighborhood committees.
133,603 had urban registrations and 86,395 had rural registrations, based on their place of origin.
The census was taken in November, when many of the ethnic Han workers in seasonal industries such as construction would have been away from Tibet, and did not count the military.
A 2011 book estimated that up to two-thirds of the city's residents are non-Tibetan, although the government states that Chengguan District as a whole is still 63% ethnic Tibetan. , half of Tibet's Han population resided in Chengguan District of Lhasa, where bilingual or wholly Chinese teaching was common in the schools.
Economy
Competitive industry together with feature economy play key roles in the development of Lhasa. With the view to maintaining a balance between population growth and the environment, tourism and service industries are emphasised as growth engines for the future.
Many of Lhasa's rural residents practice traditional agriculture and animal husbandry. Lhasa is also the traditional hub of the Tibetan trading network. For many years, chemical and car making plants operated in the area and this resulted in significant pollution, a factor which has changed in recent years. Copper, lead and zinc are mined nearby and there is ongoing experimentation regarding new methods of mineral mining and geothermal heat extraction.
Agriculture and animal husbandry in Lhasa are considered to be of a high standard. People mainly plant highland barley and winter wheat. The resources of water conservancy, geothermal heating, solar energy and various mines are abundant. There is widespread electricity together with the use of both machinery and traditional methods in the production of such things as textiles, leathers, plastics, matches and embroidery. The production of national handicrafts has made great progress.
With the growth of tourism and service sectors, the sunset industries which cause serious pollution are expected to fade in the hope of building a healthy ecological system. Environmental problems such as soil erosion, acidification, and loss of vegetation are being addressed. The tourism industry now brings significant business to the region, building on the attractiveness of the Potala Palace, the Jokang, the Norbulingka Summer Palace and surrounding large monasteries as well the spectacular Himalayan landscape together with the many wild plants and animals native to the high altitudes of Central Asia. Tourism to Tibet dropped sharply following the crackdown on protests in 2008, but as early as 2009, the industry was recovering. Chinese authorities plan an ambitious growth of tourism in the region aiming at 10 million visitors by 2020; these visitors are expected to be domestic. With renovation around historic sites, such as the Potala Palace, UNESCO has expressed "concerns about the deterioration of Lhasa's traditional cityscape."
Lhasa contains several hotels. Lhasa Hotel is a 4-star hotel located northeast of Norbulingka in the western suburbs of the city. Completed in September 1985, it is the flagship of CITS's installations in Tibet. It accommodates about 1000 guests and visitors to Lhasa. There are over 450 rooms (suites) in the hotel, and all are equipped with air conditioning, mini-bar and other basic facilities. Some of the rooms are decorated in traditional Tibetan style. The hotel was operated by Holiday Inn from 1986 to 1997 and is the subject of a book, The Hotel on the Roof of the World. Another hotel of note is the historical Banak Shöl Hotel, located at 8 Beijing Road in the city. It is known for its distinctive wooden verandas. The Nam-tso Restaurant is located in the vicinity of the hotel and is frequented especially by Chinese tourists visiting Lhasa.
Lhasa contains several businesses of note. Lhasa Carpet Factory, a factory south of Yanhe Dong Lu near the Tibet University, produces traditional Tibetan rugs that are exported worldwide. It is a modern factory, the largest manufacturer of rugs throughout Tibet, employing some 300 workers. Traditionally Tibetan women were the weavers, and men the spinners, but both work on the rugs today.
The Lhasa Brewery Company was established in 1988 on the northern outskirts of Lhasa, south of Sera Monastery and is the highest commercial brewery in the world at and accounts for 85 percent of contemporary beer production in Tibet. The brewery, consisting of five-story buildings, cost an estimated US$20–25 million, and by 1994, production had reached 30,000 bottles per day, employing some 200 workers by this time. Since 2000, the Carlsberg group has increased its stronghold in the Chinese market and has become increasingly influential in the country with investment and expertise. Carlsberg invested in the Lhasa Brewery in recent years and has drastically improved the brewing facility and working conditions, renovating and expanding the building to what now covers 62,240 square metres (15.3 acres).
Architecture and cityscape
Lhasa has many sites of historic interest, including the Potala Palace, Jokhang Temple, Sera Monastery and Norbulingka. The Potala Palace, Jokhang Temple and the Norbulingka are UNESCO world heritage sites. However, many important sites were damaged or destroyed mostly, but not solely, during China's Cultural Revolution of the 1960s.Keith Dowman. The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide, (1988) pp. 8–13. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., London and New York. . Many have been restored since the 1980s.
The Potala Palace, named after Mount Potala, the abode of Chenresig or Avalokitesvara, was the chief residence of the Dalai Lama. After the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India during the 1959 Tibetan uprising, the government converted the palace into a museum. The site was used as a meditation retreat by King Songtsen Gampo, who in 637 built the first palace there in order to greet his bride Princess Wen Cheng of the Tang dynasty of China. Lozang Gyatso, the Great Fifth Dalai Lama, started the construction of the Potala Palace in 1645 after one of his spiritual advisers, Konchog Chophel (d. 1646), pointed out that the site was ideal as a seat of government, situated as it is between Drepung and Sera monasteries and the old city of Lhasa. The palace underwent restoration works between 1989 and 1994, costing RMB55 million (US$6.875 million) and was inscribed to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994.
The Lhasa Zhol Pillar, below the Potala, dates as far back as circa 764 CE. and is inscribed with what may be the oldest known example of Tibetan writing. The pillar contains dedications to a famous Tibetan general and gives an account of his services to the king including campaigns against China which culminated in the brief capture of the Chinese capital Chang'an (modern Xian) in 763 CE during which the Tibetans temporarily installed as Emperor a relative of Princess Jincheng Gongzhu (Kim-sheng Kong co), the Chinese wife of Trisong Detsen's father, Me Agtsom.Beckwith (1987), p. 148.
Chokpori, meaning 'Iron Mountain', is a sacred hill, located south of the Potala. It is considered to be one of the four holy mountains of central Tibet and along with two other hills in Lhasa represent the "Three Protectors of Tibet.", Chokpori (Vajrapani), Pongwari (Manjushri), and Marpori (Chenresig or Avalokiteshvara). It was the site of the most famous medical school Tibet, known as the Mentsikhang, which was founded in 1413. It was conceived of by Lobsang Gyatso, the "Great" 5th Dalai Lama, and completed by the Regent Sangye Gyatso (Sangs-rgyas rgya-mtsho) shortly before 1697.
Lingkhor is a sacred path, most commonly used to name the outer pilgrim road in Lhasa matching its inner twin, Barkhor. The Lingkhor in Lhasa was long enclosing Old Lhasa, the Potala and Chokpori hill. In former times it was crowded with men and women covering its length in prostrations, beggars and pilgrims approaching the city for the first time. The road passed through willow-shaded parks where the Tibetans used to picnic in summer and watch open air operas on festival days. New Lhasa has obliterated most of Lingkhor, but one stretch still remains west of Chokpori.
The Norbulingka palace and surrounding park is situated in the west side of Lhasa, a short distance to the southwest of Potala Palace and with an area of around , it is considered to be the largest man made garden in Tibet.
It was built from 1755. and served as the traditional summer residence of the successive Dalai Lamas until the 14th's self-imposed exile. Norbulingka was declared a 'National Important Cultural Relic Unit", in 1988 by the State council. In 2001, the Central Committee of the Chinese Government in its 4th Tibet Session resolved to restore the complex to its original glory. The Sho Dun Festival (popularly known as the "yogurt festival") is an annual festival held at Norbulingka during the seventh Tibetan month in the first seven days of the Full Moon period, which corresponds to dates in July/August according to the Gregorian calendar.
The Barkhor is an area of narrow streets and a public square in the old part of the city located around Jokhang Temple and was the most popular devotional circumambulation for pilgrims and locals. The walk was about one kilometre () long and encircled the entire Jokhang, the former seat of the State Oracle in Lhasa called the Muru Nyingba Monastery, and a number of nobles' houses including Tromzikhang and Jamkhang. There were four large incense burners (sangkangs) in the four cardinal directions, with incense burning constantly, to please the gods protecting the Jokhang. Most of the old streets and buildings have been demolished in recent times and replaced with wider streets and new buildings. Some buildings in the Barkhor were damaged in the 2008 unrest.
The Jokhang is located on Barkhor Square in the old town section of Lhasa. For most Tibetans it is the most sacred and important temple in Tibet. It is in some regards pan-sectarian, but is presently controlled by the Gelug school. Along with the Potala Palace, it is probably the most popular tourist attraction in Lhasa. It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace," and a spiritual centre of Lhasa. This temple has remained a key center of Buddhist pilgrimage for centuries. The circumambulation route is known as the "kora" in Tibetan and is marked by four large stone incense burners placed at the corners of the temple complex. The Jokhang temple is a four-story construction, with roofs covered with gilded bronze tiles. The architectural style is based on the Indian vihara design, and was later extended resulting in a blend of Nepalese and Tang dynasty styles. It possesses the statues of Chenresig, Padmasambhava and King Songtsan Gampo and his two foreign brides, Princess Wen Cheng (niece of Emperor Taizong of Tang) and Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal and other important items.
Ramoche Temple is considered the most important temple in Lhasa after the Jokhang Temple. Situated in the northwest of the city, it is east of the Potala and north of the Jokhang, covering a total area of 4,000 square meters (almost one acre). The temple was gutted and partially destroyed in the 1960s and its famous bronze statue disappeared. In 1983 the lower part of it was said to have been found in a Lhasa rubbish tip, and the upper half in Beijing. They have now been joined and the statue is housed in the Ramoche Temple, which was partially restored in 1986, and still showed severe damage in 1993. Following the major restoration of 1986, the main building in the temple now has three stories.
The Tibet Museum in Lhasa is the official museum of the Tibet Autonomous Region and was inaugurated on October 5, 1999. It is the first large, modern museum in the Tibet Autonomous Region and has a permanent collection of around 1000 artefacts, from examples of Tibetan art to architectural design throughout history such as Tibetan doors and construction beams. It is located in an L-shaped building west of the Potala Palace on the corner of Norbulingkha Road. The museum is organized into three main sections: a main exhibition hall, a folk cultural garden and administrative offices.
The Monument to the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet was unveiled in the Potala Square in May 2002 to celebrate the 51st anniversary of the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, and the work in the development of the autonomous region since then. The 37-metre-high concrete monument is shaped as an abstract Mount Everest and its name is engraved with the calligraphy of former CCP general secretary and PRC president Jiang Zemin, while an inscription describes the socioeconomic development experienced in Tibet in the past fifty years.
There are four mosques in and around Lhasa. The earliest mosque, called Khache Lingka, dates to 1650 and is located west of the city, and consists of two compounds. The Lhasa Great Mosque is the most prominent and built by the early 1700s. The Dokdé Mosque, north of Lhasa, has an adjacent cemetery and is dated to 1716. The fourth mosque, commonly known as "Small Mosque" (but also Barkor or Rapsel Alley Mosque) was built in the early 1900s.
Culture
Music and dance
There are some night spots that feature cabaret acts in which performers sing in Chinese, Tibetan, and English. Dancers wear traditional Tibetan costume with long flowing cloth extending from their arms. There are a number of small bars that feature live music, although they typically have limited drink menus and cater mostly to foreign tourists.
Education
Tibet University
Tibet University (Tibetan: བོད་ལྗོངས་སློབ་གྲྭ་ཆེན་མོ་) is the main university of Tibet. Its campus is in Chengguan District, Lhasa, east of the city-centre. A forerunner was created in 1952 and the university was officially established in 1985, funded by the Chinese government. About 8000 students are enrolled at the university.
Tibet University is a comprehensive university with the highest academic level in Tibet. It is a member of the prestigious Project 211, and is sponsored under the Double First Class Disciplines initiative.
Transport
Rail
Lhasa has been served by rail since 2006, when the Qinghai–Tibet Railway opened for passenger operations. Reaching an elevation of 5,072 metres above sea level, the Qinghai-Tibet railway is the world's highest railway by elevation. It connects Lhasa with Xining, the capital of Qinghai Province, some away, and ultimately links Lhasa with other major cities with China's extensive railway network. Five trains arrive at and depart from Lhasa railway station each day. Train number Z21 takes 40 hours and 53 minutes from Beijing West, arriving in Lhasa at 13:03 every day. Train Z22 from Lhasa to Beijing West departs at 15:30 and arrives in Beijing at 08:20 on the third day, taking 40 hours, 50 minutes. Trains also arrive in Lhasa from Chengdu, Chongqing, Lanzhou, Xining, Guangzhou, Shanghai and other cities. To counter the problem of altitude differences giving passengers altitude sickness, extra oxygen is pumped in through the ventilation system and available directly on each berth with close open control by a flap for convenience of passenger, and personal oxygen masks are available on request. Within the soft sleeper cabins there are 64 seats per train, which have an electrical plug for electronics. Lhasa is also connected to the second largest city in Tibet, Xigazê, by rail service, since 2014. A third railway, the Sichuan-Tibet Railway, which links Lhasa with Nyingchi County and into the interior ultimately terminating in Chengdu, began construction in June 2015.
For onward rail travel in South Asia, the closest major station in India is New Jalpaiguri, Siliguri in West Bengal. However, extension of the Indian railway system to Sikkim will make it easier for onward connections through the South Asian railway network. There are preliminary plans to link Lhasa by rail with Kathmandu.
As per a Chinese Tibetan spokesperson, extension of this rail line to Kathmandu with tunnelling under Mount Everest was expected to be completed by 2020.
Air
Lhasa Gonggar Airport (IATA: LXA), built in 1965, is the aviation hub of Tibet. It is located south of the city proper. It takes around half an hour to get there by car via the Lhasa Airport Expressway; prior to the completion of the expressway in 2011, the trip to the airport took over an hour. , there are daily flights serving major Chinese cities including Beijing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, and Shanghai, and there are also occasional scheduled services to Kathmandu in Nepal. Lhasa Airport is the hub of Tibet Airlines, which offers regional services to other destinations in Tibet such as Nyingchi, Ngari Prefecture, Shigatse, and Qamdo.
Road
The Qinghai–Tibet Highway (part of G109) runs northeast toward Xining and eventually to Beijing and is the most-used road in Tibet. The Sichuan–Tibet Highway (part of G318) runs east towards Chengdu and eventually to Shanghai. G318 also runs west to Zhangmu on the Nepal border. The Xinjiang-Tibet Highway (G219) runs north from Lhasa to Yecheng, and then to Xinjiang. This road is rarely used due to the lack of amenities and petrol stations. A new , four-lane highway between Lhasa and the Gonggar Airport was built by the Transportation Department of Tibet at a cost of RMB 1.5 billion. This road is part of National Highway 318 and starts from the Lhasa railway station, passes through Caina Township in Qushui County, terminating between the north entrance of the Gala Mountain Tunnel and the south bridgehead of the Lhasa River Bridge, and en route goes over the first overpass of Lhasa at Liuwu Overpass.
Maritime
The closest seaports are Kolkata and Haldia in West Bengal, India. The Nathu La pass offers Chinese companies access to the port of Kolkata (Calcutta), situated about from Lhasa, for trans-shipments to and from Tibet.
Sports
The Lhasa Stadium, which has a capacity of 20,000, is located in Lhasa. It is used mostly for football matches.
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
McLeod Ganj
Leh, India
Mustang, Nepal
Drapchi Prison or Lhasa Prison No.1
References
Citations
Sources
Das, Sarat Chandra. 1902. Lhasa and Central Tibet. Reprint: Mehra Offset Press, Delhi. 1988.
Dorje, Gyurme. 1999. Footprint Tibet Handbook. 2nd Edition. Bath, England. . Also published in Chicago, U.S.A. .
Dowman, Keith. 1988. The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide, p. 59. Routledge & Kegan Paul. London. (ppk).
Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2
Jianqiang, Liu (2006). chinadialogue - Preserving Lhasa's history (part one).
Miles, Paul. (April 9, 2005). "Tourism drive 'is destroying Tibet' Unesco fears for Lhasa's World Heritage sites as the Chinese try to pull in 10 million visitors a year by 2020". Daily Telegraph (London), p. 4.
Pelliot, Paul. (1961) Histoire ancienne du Tibet. Libraire d'Amérique et d'orient. Paris.
Richardson, Hugh E (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated. Shambhala Publications, Boston. .
Richardson, Hugh E (1997). Lhasa. In Encyclopedia Americana international edition, (Vol. 17, pp. 281–282). Danbury, CT: Grolier Inc.
Stein, R. A. (1972). Tibetan Civilization, p. 38. Reprint 1972. Stanford University Press. (cloth); (paper).
Tuladhar, Kamal Ratna (2011). Caravan to Lhasa: A Merchant of Kathmandu in Traditional Tibet. Kathmandu: Lijala & Tisa. .
Tung, Rosemary Jones. 1980. A Portrait of Lost Tibet. Thomas and Hudson, London. .
Vitali, Roberto. 1990. Early Temples of Central Tibet. Serindia Publications. London. .
(2006). Lhasa – Lhasa Intro
von Schroeder, Ulrich. (1981). Indo-Tibetan Bronzes. (608 pages, 1244 illustrations). Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications Ltd.
von Schroeder, Ulrich. (2001). Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Vol. One: India & Nepal; Vol. Two: Tibet & China. (Volume One: 655 pages with 766 illustrations; Volume Two: 675 pages with 987 illustrations). Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.).
von Schroeder, Ulrich. 2008. 108 Buddhist Statues in Tibet. (212 p., 112 colour illustrations) (DVD with 527 digital photographs). Chicago: Serindia Publications.
Further reading
Desideri (1932). An Account of Tibet: The Travels of Ippolito Desideri 1712-1727. Ippolito Desideri. Edited by Filippo De Filippi. Introduction by C. Wessels. Reproduced by Rupa & Co, New Delhi. 2005
Le Sueur, Alec (2013). The Hotel on the Roof of the World – Five Years in Tibet.'' Chichester: Summersdale. . Oakland: RDR Books.
External links
People's Government of Chengguan District, Lhasa Official Website
Lhasa Nights art exhibition
Grand temple of Buddha at Lhasa in 1902, Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection
Tibet Travel Permit
Maps and aerial photos
Map central Lhasa
Old map of central Lhasa from 1959
Chengguan District, Lhasa
Populated places in Tibet
Holy cities
Prefecture-level divisions of Tibet
Capitals of former nations | [
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|
238745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniontown | Uniontown | Uniontown may refer to:
Uniontown, Alabama
Uniontown, Arkansas
Uniontown, California
Uniontown, former name of Lotus, California
Uniontown, Jackson County, Indiana
Uniontown, Perry County, Indiana
Uniontown, Kansas
Uniontown, Kentucky
Uniontown, Maryland
Uniontown, Missouri
Uniontown, Ohio
Uniontown, Belmont County, Ohio
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
Uniontown, Washington
Uniontown, the original name of the Anacostia Historic District neighborhood in Washington, D.C. | [
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|
238748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanowsky%20stain | Romanowsky stain | Romanowsky staining, also known as Romanowsky–Giemsa staining, is a prototypical staining technique that was the forerunner of several distinct but similar stains widely used in hematology (the study of blood) and cytopathology (the study of diseased cells). Romanowsky-type stains are used to differentiate cells for microscopic examination in pathological specimens, especially blood and bone marrow films, and to detect parasites such as malaria within the blood. Stains that are related to or derived from the Romanowsky-type stains include Giemsa, Jenner, Wright, Field, May–Grünwald and Leishman stains. The staining technique is named after the Russian physician Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky (1861–1921), who was one of the first to recognize its potential for use as a blood stain.
Mechanism
The value of Romanowsky staining lies in its ability to produce a wide range of hues, allowing cellular components to be easily differentiated. This phenomenon is referred to as the Romanowsky effect, or more generally as metachromasia.
Romanowsky effect
In 1891 Romanowsky developed a stain using a mixture of eosin (typically eosin Y) and aged solutions of methylene blue that formed hues unattributable to the staining components alone: distinctive shades of purple in the chromatin of the cell nucleus and within granules in the cytoplasm of some white blood cells. This became known as the Romanowsky or Romanowsky-Giemsa effect. Eosin and pure methylene blue alone (or in combination) do not produce the Romanowsky effect, and the active stains which produce the effect are now considered to be azure B and eosin.
Polychromed methylene blue
Romanowsky-type stains can be made from either a combination of pure dyes, or from methylene blue that has been subject to oxidative demethylation, which results in the breakdown of methylene blue into multiple other stains, some of which are necessary to produce the Romanowsky effect. Methylene blue that has undergone this oxidative process is known as "polychromed methylene blue". Polychromed methylene blue may contain up to 11 dyes, including methylene blue, azure A, azure B, azure C, thionine, methylene violet Bernthesen, methyl thionoline and thionoline. The exact composition of polychromed methylene blue depends on the method used, and even batches of the stain from the same manufacturer may vary in composition.
Although azure B and eosin have been shown to be the required components to produce the Romanowsky effect, these stains in their pure forms have not always been used in the formulation of the staining solutions. The original sources of azure B (one of the oxidation products of methylene blue) were from polychromed methylene blue solutions, which were treated with oxidizing agents or allowed to naturally age in the case of Romanowsky. Ernst Malachowsky in 1891 was the first to purposely polychrome methylene blue for use in a Romanowsky-type stain.
Types
May-Grünwald-Giemsa
The May-Grünwald-Giemsa stain is a two step procedure that includes first staining with May-Grünwald stain, which does not produce the Romanowsky effect, followed by staining the Giemsa stain which does produce the Romanowsky effect.
Wright's and Wright-Giemsa stains
Wright's stain can be used alone or in combination with the Giemsa stain, which is known as the Wright-Giemsa stain. Wright's stain is named after James Homer Wright who in 1902 published a method using heat to produce polychromed methylene blue, which is combined with eosin Y. The polychromed methylene blue is combined with eosin and allowed to precipitate, forming an eosinate which is redissolved in methanol. The addition of Giemsa to Wright's stain increases the brightness of the "reddish-purple" color of the cytoplasmic granules. The Wright's and Wright-Giemsa stains are two of the Romanowsky-type stains in common use in the United States and are mainly used for the staining of blood and bone marrow films.
Leishman stain
In 1901 William Leishman developed a stain that was similar to Louis Jenner's but with the replacement of pure methylene blue with polychromed methylene blue. Leishman's stain is prepared from the eosinate of polychromed methylene blue and eosin Y using methanol as the solvent.
Giemsa stain
Giemsa stain is composed of "Azure II" and eosin Y with methanol and glycerol as the solvent. "Azure II" is thought to be a mixture of azure B (which Giemsa called "azure I") and methylene blue, although the exact composition of "azure I" is considered a trade secret. Comparable formulations using known dyes have been published and are commercially available. Giemsa stain is considered to be the standard stain for detection and identification of the malaria parasite.
Clinical importances
Blood and bone marrow pathology
Romanowsky-type stains are widely used in the examination of blood, in the form of blood films, and in the microscopic examination of bone marrow biopsies and aspirate smears. Examination of both blood and bone marrow can be of importance in the diagnosis of a variety of blood diseases. In the United States the Wright and Wright-Giemsa variants of the Romanowsky-type stains are widely used, while in Europe Giemsa stain is commonly employed.
Detection of malaria and other parasites
Of the Romanowsky-type stains, the Giemsa stain is especially important in the detection and identification of malaria parasites in blood samples. Malaria antigen detection tests are an alternative to the staining and microscopic examination of blood films for the detection of malaria.
Use in cytopathology
Romanowsky-type stains are also used for the staining of cytopathologic specimens such as those produced from fine-needle aspirates and cerebrospinal fluid from lumbar punctures.
History
Although debate exists as to who deserves credit for this general staining method, popular usage has attributed it to Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky.
In the 1870s Paul Ehrlich used a mixture of acidic and basic dyes including acid fuchsin (acid dye) and methylene blue (basic dye) to examine blood films. In 1888 Cheslav Ivanovich Chenzinsky used methylene blue, but substituted the acid fuchsin used by Ehrlich with eosin. Chenzinsky's stain combination was able to stain the malaria parasite (a member of the genus Plasmodium). Neither Ehrlich's or Chenzinsky's stains produced the Romanowsky effect as the methylene blue they used was not polychromed.
Dmitri Romanowsky in 1890 published preliminary findings of his blood stain (a combination of aged methylene blue and eosin), including the results when applied to malaria infected blood. This use of polychromed methylene blue differentiated Romanowsky's stain (and the subsequent formulations) from those of Ehrlich and Chenzinsky, which lacked the purple hue associated with the Romanowsky effect. Romanowsky's 1890 publication did not include a description of how he modified his methylene blue solution, but in his 1891 doctoral thesis he described methylene blue best as used after mold began forming on the surface. Other than the use of an aged methylene blue solution, Romanowsky's stain was based on Chenzinsky's stain technique. Romanowsky's use of his method to study the malaria parasite has been attributed to the continued interest in his staining method.
Ernst Malachowsky has been credited with independently observing the same stain combination as Dmitri Romanowsky in 1891, although he has also been credited with being the first to do so. Malachowsky was the first to use a deliberately polychromed methylene blue solution, which Malachowsky accomplished by the addition of borax to the staining mixture. Malachowsky is reported to have demonstrated the stain on June 15, 1890, and in the same year to have published a paper "describing his public demonstration". Both the Romanowsky and Malachowsky methods were able to stain the nucleus and cytoplasm of the malaria parasite, when until this point the stains used had only colored the cytoplasm.
In 1899, Louis Leopold Jenner developed a more stable version of the methylene blue and eosin stain by collecting the precipitate that forms in water-based mixtures and redissolving it in methanol. Romanowsky-type stains prepared from the collected precipitates are sometimes known as eosinates. Besides increasing the stability of the stain, the use of methanol in Jenner's stain had the effect of fixing the blood samples, although Jenner's version of the stain does not produce the Romanowsky effect.
Richard May and Ludwig Grünwald in 1892 published a version of the stain (now known as the May–Grünwald stain) which is similar to the version proposed by Jenner in 1899, and likewise does not produce the Romanowsky effect.
In 1901, both Karl Reuter and William Leishman developed stains that combined Louis Jenner's use of alcohol as the solvent and Malachowsky's use of polychromed methylene blue. Reuter's stain differed from Jenner's in using ethyl alcohol instead of methanol, and Leishman's differed from Jenner's by using eosin B instead of eosin Y.
James Homer Wright in 1902 published a method using heat to polychrome the methylene blue, which he combined with eosin Y. This technique is known as Wright's stain.
Gustav Giemsa's name has also become associated with the stain as he is credited with publishing a useful formulation and protocol in 1902. Giemsa attempted to use combinations of pure dyes rather than polychromed methylene blue solutions which are highly variable in composition. Giemsa sold the rights to produce his stain, but never fully published details on how he produced it, although it is thought that he used a combination of azure B and methylene blue. Giemsa published a number of modifications of his stains between 1902 and 1934. In 1904 he suggested adding glycerin to his stain, along with the methanol, to increase its stability.
Giemsa stain powders produced in Germany were widely used in the United States until the interruption of the supply during World War I, which caused increased utilization of James Homer Wright's method for polychroming methylene blue.
See also
Liu's stain
Malaria antigen detection tests
Papanicolaou stain
Staining (biology)
References
Anatomical pathology
Cytopathology
Hematology
Hematopathology
Histology
Romanowsky stains
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|
238749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhasa%20%28computing%29 | Lhasa (computing) | In computing, Lhasa () refers to two different applications.
File archives
Lhasa is a Japanese computer program used to "unpack" or decompress compressed files in LHA, ZIP, and other formats.
Synthetic analysis
It is also the name of a computer program developed in the research group of Elias James Corey at the Harvard University Department of Chemistry which uses AI techniques to discover sequences of reactions which may be used to synthesize a compound. LHASA in this case is an acronym for Logic and Heuristics Applied to Synthetic Analysis. This program was one of the first to use a graphical interface to input and display chemical structures.
External links
Susie no heya — author of Lhasa
Data compression software | [
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|
238751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrap%20Protocol | Bootstrap Protocol | The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a computer networking protocol used in Internet Protocol networks to automatically assign an IP address to network devices from a configuration server. The BOOTP was originally defined in RFC 951.
When a network-connected computer boots-up, its IP-stack broadcasts BOOTP network-messages requesting an IP-address assignment. A BOOTP configuration-server replies to the request by assigning an IP address from a pool of addresses, which is preconfigured by an administrator.
BOOTP is implemented using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for transport protocol, port number 67 is used by the (DHCP) server for receiving client-requests and port number 68 is used by the client for receiving (DHCP) server responses. BOOTP operates only on IPv4 networks.
Historically, BOOTP has also been used for Unix-like diskless workstations to obtain the network location of their boot image, in addition to the IP address assignment. Enterprises used it to roll out a pre-configured client (e.g., Windows) installation to newly installed PCs.
Initially requiring the use of a boot floppy disk to establish the initial network connection, manufacturers of network cards later embedded the protocol in the BIOS of the interface cards as well as system boards with on-board network adapters, thus allowing direct network booting.
While some parts of BOOTP have been effectively superseded by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), which adds the feature of leases, parts of BOOTP are used to provide service to the DHCP protocol. DHCP servers also provide the legacy BOOTP functionality.
History
The BOOTP was first defined in September 1985 in RFC 951 as a replacement for the Reverse Address Resolution Protocol RARP, published in RFC 903 in June 1984. The primary motivation for replacing RARP with BOOTP is that RARP was a link layer protocol. This made implementation difficult on many server platforms, and required that a server be present on each individual IP subnet. BOOTP introduced the innovation of relay agents, which forwarded BOOTP packets from the local network using standard IP routing, so that one central BOOTP server could serve hosts on many subnets.
Operation
Case 1 Client and server on same network
When a BOOTP client is started, it has no IP address, so it broadcasts a message containing its MAC address onto the network. This message is called a “BOOTP request”, and it is picked up by the BOOTP server, which replies to the client with the following information that the client needs:
The client’s IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway address.
The IP address and host name of the BOOTP server.
The IP address of the server that has the boot image, which the client needs to load its operating system.
When the client receives this information from the BOOTP server, it configures and initializes its TCP/IP protocol stack, and then connects to the server on which the boot image is shared. The client loads the boot image and uses this information to load and start its operating system.
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) was developed as an extension of BOOTP. BOOTP is defined in Request for Comments (RFC) 951 and 1084.
Case 2 Client and server on different networks
Problem with the bootp request is that the request is broadcast. A broadcast IP datagram cannot pass through any router. The router discards this packet.
To solve this problem, there is a need for an intermediary (relay).
One of the host or router can be configured at application layer to operate as relay agent.
The relay agent knows the uni-cast address of bootp server and listens for broadcast message on port 67.
When it receives this broadcast packet, it encapsulates the message in unicast datagram and sends request to bootp server.
The packet carrying a unicast destination address is routed by any router and reaches the bootp server.
The relay agent, after receiving the reply, sends it to bootp client.
IETF standards documentation
See also
Preboot Execution Environment (PXE)
Remote Initial Program Load (RIPL)
UDP Helper Address — a tool for routing BOOTP requests across subnet boundaries
Boot Service Discovery Protocol (BSDP)
Maintenance Operations Protocol (MOP)
References
External links
BOOTP Sequence Diagram (PDF)
Multicast BOOTP for configuring a network device
Multicast BOOTP server and client
Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Network booting | [
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|
238753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%20Lion%20rouge | Le Lion rouge | "" (), usually known as "" (), is the national anthem of Senegal. It was adopted in 1960.
Development
The lyrics were written by Léopold Sédar Senghor, who became Senegal's first president. The music is composed by the French composer Herbert Pepper, who also composed the national anthem of the Central African Republic, "". The kora (a type of harp) and balafon (wooden xylophone) are Senegalese musical instruments.
References
External links
Senegal: Pincez Tous vos Koras, Frappez les Balafons - Audio of the national anthem of Senegal, with information and lyrics
National anthems
Senegalese songs
National symbols of Senegal
1960 songs
African anthems
National anthem compositions in E-flat major | [
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|
238755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20pathologists | List of pathologists | A list of people notable in the field of pathology.
A
John Abercrombie, Scottish physician, neuropathologist and philosopher.
Maude Abbott (1869–1940), Canadian pathologist, one of the earliest women graduated in Medicine, expert in congenital heart diseases.
Emile Achard (1860–1944), French internist and pathologist.
A. Bernard Ackerman (1936–2008), American dermatopathologist & dermatologist
Lauren Ackerman (1905–1993), American pathologist and one of the fathers of Surgical pathology.
Theodor Ackermann (1825–1896), German pathologist.
Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz (1850–1921), Polish pathologist, (see Artery of Adamkiewicz).
W. Stewart Alexander, contemporary British pathologist (see Alexander disease).
Dame Ingrid Allen, Northern Irish neuropathologist.
Friedrich August von Ammon (1799–1861), German ophthalmologist and pathologist.
Gabriel Andral (1797–1876) French pathologist.
Nikolay Anichkov (1885–1964), Russian pathologist.
Julius Arnold (1835–1915), German pathologist.
Ludwig Aschoff (1866–1942), German pathologist, discoverer of the Aschoff body and the Atrioventricular node in the heart.
Max Askanazy (1865–1940), German pathologist (see Askanazy cell).
E. Ask-Upmark, 20th-century Swedish pathologist (see Ask-Upmark kidney).
B
Heinrich von Bamberger (1822–1888), Austrian pathologist from Prague.
Paul Clemens von Baumgarten (1848–1928), German pathologist.
John Bruce Beckwith (born 1933), American pathologist (see Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome).
Franz Best (1878–1920), German pathologist (see Best's disease).
Xavier Bichat (1771–1802), French anatomist and physiologist, remembered as father of modern histology and pathology.
Max Bielschowsky (1869–1940), German neuropathologist & developer of histochemical stains.
Edmund Biernacki (1866–1912), Polish pathologist (see Biernacki Reaction).
Felix Victor Birch-Hirschfeld (1842–1899), German pathologist.
Giulio Bizzozero (1846–1901), Italian doctor and medical researcher.
Otto Bollinger (1843–1909), German pathologist.
Charles-Joseph Bouchard (1837–1915), French pathologist.
William Boyd (1885–1979), Scottish-Canadian physician, pathologist, academic and author of several 20th-century textbooks on general and surgical pathology.
Erich Franz Eugen Bracht (1882–1969), German pathologist and gynaecologist.
Fritz Brenner (1877–1969), German pathologist (see Brenner tumor).
Alexander Breslow (1928–1980), American pathologist (see Breslow's depth).
Richard Bright (1789–1858), British internist and pathologist (see Bright's disease).
Ludwig von Buhl (1816–1880), German pathologist.
C
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), Spanish pathologist and Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine 1906
Francis Camps (1905–1972), English forensic pathologist.
Myrtelle Canavan (1879–1953), American physician, medical researcher, one of the first female pathologists (see Canavan disease).
Karl Friedrich Canstatt (1807–1850), German physician, pathologist and medical author.
Marie Cassidy (born 1959), Irish forensic pathologist.
Benjamin Castleman (1906–1982), American surgical pathologist and eponymist of Castleman's disease.
Hans Chiari (1851–1916), Austrian pathologist (see Arnold–Chiari malformation, Budd–Chiari syndrome).
Jacob Churg (1910–2005), Russian-born American pathologist (see Churg–Strauss syndrome).
Giuseppe Vincenzo Ciaccio (1824–1901), Italian anatomist and histologist.
Julius Friedrich Cohnheim (1839–1884), German pathologist.
Albert Coons (1912–1978), American physician, immunologist, & immunopathologist.
Astley Cooper (1768–1841), English surgeon, anatomist & pathologist.
Victor André Cornil (1837–1908), French pathologist and histologist.
Dominic Corrigan (1802–1880), Irish physician & pathologist (see Corrigan's pulse).
Ramzi Cotran, American pathologist
William Thomas Councilman (1854–1933), American pathologist (see Councilman body).
Jean Cruveilhier (1791–1874), French anatomist and pathologist (see Cruveilhier's sign, Cruveilhier–Baumgarten disease).
D
David C. Dahlin (1917–2003) American surgical & orthopedic pathologist.
Jean Baptiste Hippolyte Dance (1797–1832) French pathologist.
Ferdinand-Jean Darier (1856–1938), French pathologist and dermatologist.
James R. Dawson (1908–1986), American pathologist (see Dawson encephalitis).
Francis Delafield (1841–1915), American physician & pathologist.
Franz Dittrich (1815–1859), Austrian-Bohemian-German pathologist.
Karl Gottfried Paul Döhle (1855–1928), German pathologist & histologist (see Döhle bodies).
William L. Donohue (1906–1985), Canadian pathologist (see Donohue syndrome).
Georges Dreyer (1873–1934), Danish pathologist, professor of pathology at Oxford University.
I. N. Dubin (born 1913), American pathologist (see Dubin–Johnson syndrome).
Cuthbert Dukes (1890–1977), English physician and pathologist for whom the Dukes classification for colorectal cancer is named.
Guillaume Dupuytren (1777–1835), French military surgeon & surgical pathologist.
E
Karl Joseph Eberth (1835–1926), German pathologist and bacteriologist.
William E. Ehrich (1900–1967), German-American pathologist, professor of Pathology at Philadelphia General Hospital and the Graduate School of Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania.
Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), German physician, researcher and pathologist, Nobel laureate, one of the founders of immunology & laboratory medicine.
Jakob Erdheim (1874–1937), Austrian pathologist (see Erdheim–Chester disease).
James Ewing (1866–1943), American surgical pathologist, first professor of Pathology at Cornell University, eponymist of Ewing's sarcoma, one of the founders of AACR.
F
Robert (Robin) Sanno Fåhræus (1888–1968), Swedish pathologist (see Fåhræus effect and Fåhræus–Lindqvist effect).
Sidney Farber (1903–1973), American pediatric pathologist, regarded as the father of modern chemotherapy, and after whom the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute is named.
Martin J. Fettman (born 1956), American veterinarian, veterinary pathologist, and astronaut
Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger (1867–1928), Danish physician & pathologist, Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine 1926.
Paul Flechsig (1847–1929), German neuroanatomist, psychiatrist and neuropathologist.
Christopher D. M. Fletcher, Anglo-American pathologist
Friedrich Theodor von Frerichs (1819–1885), German pathologist.
Nikolaus Friedreich (1825–1882), German pathologist and neurologist.
August von Froriep (1849–1917), German anatomist.
Robert Froriep (1804–1861), German anatomist and medical publisher.
G
Carl Jakob Adolf Christian Gerhardt (1833–1902), German pathologist
Joseph von Gerlach (1820–1896), German professor of anatomy, pioneer of histological staining and micrography
Gustav Giemsa (1867–1948), German physician, pathologist, & histochemist (see Giemsa stain)
Anthony Gill (born 1972), Australian pathologist and medical researcher
Camillo Golgi (1843–1926), Italian neuropathologist & Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine, 1906
Ernest Goodpasture (1886–1960), American pathologist, eponymist of Goodpasture's syndrome
Austin Gresham (1925–2009), English forensic pathologist
H
Hakaru Hashimoto (1881–1934), Japanese medical scientist.
Ludvig Hektoen (1863–1951), American researcher on pathology of infectious diseases.
Arnold Ludwig Gotthilf Heller (1840–1913), German anatomist and pathologist.
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle (1809–1885), German physician, pathologist and anatomist.
Richard L. Heschl (1824–1881), Austrian anatomist & pathologist.
Thomas Hodgkin (1798–1866), English physician & pathologist; eponymist of Hodgkin's disease.
Friedrich Albin Hoffmann (1843–1924), German internist and pathologist.
Jason Hornick, American pathologist and researcher
Karl Hürthle (1860–1945), German physiologist and histologist.
Helen Hart (1900–1971), American plant pathologist
J
Elaine Jaffe, American pathologist, expert in research, diagnostics and classification of lymphomas, particularly follicular lymphoma.
K
Fujiro Katsurada (1867–1946), Japanese pathologist.
Eduard Kaufmann (1860–1931), German pathologist.
Ernest Kennaway (1881–1958), English clinical chemist and researcher on carcinogenesis.
Jack Kevorkian (1928–2011), American pathologist, controversial advocate of euthanasia.
Theodor Albrecht Edwin Klebs (1834–1913), German-Swiss pathologist.
Julius von Kossa 19th-century Austro-Hungarian pathologist (see Von Kossa stain).
Leiv Kreyberg (1896–1984), Norwegian war hero, humanitarian and pathologist known for typology of lung cancer.
Hans Kundrat (1845–1893), Austrian pathologist.
Kathleen Coard (born 1952), Grenadian pathologist.
L
Paul Eston Lacy (1924–2005), former chairperson of pathology at Washington University and diabetes researcher.
Paul Langerhans (1847–1888), German pathologist, physiologist and biologist.
William Boog Leishman (1865–1926), English authority on the pathology of human parasitic diseases (see leishmaniasis)
George Lignac (1891–1954), Dutch pathologist-anatomist.
Henrique da Rocha Lima (1879–1956), Brazilian physician, pathologist and infectologist
James Linder (born 1954), American cytopathologist and technological developer
Leo Loeb (1869–1959), American pathologist and early cancer researcher.
M
Frank Burr Mallory (1862–1941), American surgical pathologist & histochemist (see Mallory bodies)
Rod Markin (born 1956) American pioneer in laboratory automation.
Alexander A. Maximow (1874–1928), Russian-American scientist, histologist and embryologist.
John McCrae (1872–1918), Canadian pathologist, physician, soldier and poet, author of [In Flanders Fields].
Frances Gertrude McGill (1882–1959), pioneering Canadian pathologist and criminologist
Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771), Italian pathologist, considered the father of modern Anatomical Pathology
N
Heijiro Nakayama (1871–1956), Japanese pathologist.
Bernhard Naunyn (1839–1925), German pathologist.
Franz Ernst Christian Neumann (1834–1918), German pathologist.
Thomas Noguchi (born 1927), Japanese American forensic pathologist & medical examiner.
O
Shuji Ogino (born 1968), Japanese pathologist, epidemiologist, Harvard University professor, and pioneer in molecular pathological epidemiology.
Eugene Lindsay Opie (1873–1971), American pathologist and researcher on tuberculosis.
Johannes Orth (1847–1923), German pathologist.
William Osler (1849–1919), Canadian physician and pathologist, founder professor at Johns Hopkins Hospital.
P
Richard Paltauf (1858–1924), Austrian pathologist and bacteriologist.
George Nicolas Papanicolaou (1883–1962), Greek-American cytopathologist & developer of the Papanicolaou cervical smear (see Pap smear)
Artur Pappenheim (1870–1916), German physician, developer of histochemical stains.
Lukáš Plank (born 1951), Slovak pathologist specializing in oncopathology and hematopathology.
Emil Ponfick (1844–1913), German pathologist.
R
Louis-Antoine Ranvier (1835–1922), French physician, pathologist, anatomist and histologist, discoverer of nodes of Ranvier.
Ronald Rapini (1948–present), US dermatopathologist. discoverer of sclerotic fibroma.
Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen (1833–1910), German pathologist.
Benno Reinhardt (1819–1852), German physician, specialized in the field of pathological anatomy.
Donald Rix (1931–2009), founder of a Canadian commercial pathology laboratory
Carl von Rokitansky (1804–1878), Bohemian autopsy pathologist
Juan Rosai (1940-2020), Italian-American surgical pathologist, discoverer of Rosai-Dorfman disease and the desmoplastic small round cell tumor.
Gustave Roussy (1874–1948), Swiss-French neuropathologist.
S
Christian Georg Schmorl (1861–1932), German pathologist.
Richard Scolyer, Australian pathologist
Johann Lukas Schönlein (1793–1864), German naturalist, and pathologist.
Charles Scott Sherrington (1857–1952), English neuropathologist & Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine 1932
Richard Shope (1901–1966), American virologist and pathologist.
Keith Simpson (1907–1985), English forensic pathologist.
Lee J. Slavutin (born 1951), Australian pathologist.
Maud Slye (1879–1954), American experimental pathologist.
Theobald Smith (1859–1934), American pioneering epidemiologist and pathologist.
Kim Solez (born 1946), American pathologist, father of the Banff Classification of Transplantation Pathology.
Sir Bernard Spilsbury (1877–1947), British pathologist.
Sophie Spitz (1910–1956), American surgical pathologist, eponymist of Spitz nevus
Edward Stafne (born 1894, date of death unknown), American oral pathologist (see Stafne defect).
Allen Starry (1890–1973), American pathologist (see Warthin–Starry stain).
Javier Arias Stella (1924–2020), Peruvian pathologist, describer of the Arias Stella reaction in the endometrium.
Stephen Sternberg (1920–2021), American pathologist, founding Editor-in-Chief of The American Journal of Surgical Pathology and editor of several 20th-century pathology textbooks.
Arthur Purdy Stout (1885–1967). American surgeon and pathologist, & one of the fathers of modern Surgical pathology.
Lotte Strauss (1913–1985), American pathologist (see Churg–Strauss syndrome).
T
Sunao Tawara (1873–1952), Japanese pathologist, discoverer of the Atrioventricular node.
Donald Teare (1911–1979), British pathologist.
Jacques-René Tenon (1724–1816), French surgeon and pathologist.
Ludwig Traube (1818–1876), German physician, co-founder of the experimental pathology in Germany.
Václav Treitz (1819–1872), Czech pathologist.
Charles Emile Troisier (1844–1919), French doctor.
U
Johann Paul Uhle (1827–1861), German physician and pathologist.
Paul Gerson Unna (1850–1929), one of the founders of dermatopathology.
V
José Verocay (1876–1927), Czechoslovakian pathologist (see Verocay body).
Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), German physician, politician, & the father of "cellular" pathology.
Adolf Vossius (1855–1925), German pathologist (see Vossius ring).
W
Erik Waaler (1903–1997), Norwegian professor of medicine.
Hermann Julius Gustav Wächter (born 1878, date of death unknown), German physician (see Bracht-Wachter bodies.
Ernst Leberecht Wagner (1829–1888), German pathologist.
Heinrich von Waldeyer-Hartz (1836–1921), German anatomist.
Robin Warren (born 1937), Australian gastrointestinal pathologist & Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine, 2005.
Aldred Scott Warthin (1866–1931), American pathologist (see Warthin–Starry stain).
David Weatherall (1933–2013), British physician and researcher
Friedrich Wegener (1907–1990), German pathologist (see granulomatosis with polyangiitis).
Anton Weichselbaum (1845–1920), Austrian pathologist and bacteriologist.
Carl Weigert (1845–1904), developer of histochemical stains.
Adolf Weil (1848–1916), German physician and pathologist (see Weil's disease).
Ronald S. Weinstein (born 1938), American pathologist, inventor, educator (see Telepathology).
Sharon Weiss (born 1945), American surgical pathologist, expert on soft tissue pathology (see Sarcoma).
William Henry Welch (1850–1934), American physician, pathologist, bacteriologist, medical school administrator, founder professor at Johns Hopkins Hospital.
Max Westenhöfer, (1871–1957), German pathologist, disciple of Rudolf Virchow, author of the aquatic ape hypothesis and influential on the development of pathology and social medicine in Chile.
George Whipple (1878–1976), American physician, pathologist, biomedical researcher, and medical school educator and administrator, Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine, 1934.
James Homer Wright (1869–1928), surgical pathologist and developer of histochemical stains (see Wright stain).
Y
Yamagiwa Katsusaburō (1863–1930) Japanese pathologist, developed the concept of chemical carcinogenesis.
Z
Friedrich Wilhelm Zahn (1845–1904), German pathologist.
Friedrich Albert von Zenker (1825–1898), German pathologist and physician.
Hugo Wilhelm von Ziemssen (1829–1902), German pathologist and physician.
See also
Lists of people by occupation
Pathologists
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238760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visakhapatnam | Visakhapatnam | Visakhapatnam , formerly known as Vizagapatam (also known as Vizag, Viśākha or Waltair)is the largest and most populous city in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, and its proposed administrative capital. It is between the Eastern Ghats and the coast of the Bay of Bengal. It is the second-largest city on the east coast of India after Chennai, and the fourth-largest in South India. It is one of the four smart cities of Andhra Pradesh selected under the Smart Cities Mission and serves as the headquarters of Visakhapatnam district. With an estimated output of $43.5 billion, it is the ninth-largest contributor to India's gross domestic product as of 2016.
Visakhapatnam's history began in the 6th century BCE, when it was considered part of the Kalinga Kingdom, and later ruled by the Vengi, the Pallava and Eastern Ganga dynasties. Archaeological records suggest that the present city was built around the 11th and 12th centuries, with its control alternating between the Chola dynasty and the Gajapati Kingdom, until its conquest by the Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century. In the 16th century, after the decline of the Vijayanagara empire and the Gajapatis, the coastal region of North Andhra, including Visakhapatnam, was annexed by the Jeypore Kingdom and remained part of it until the arrival of the British in 1711. Evidently, the Maharaja of Jeypore was commonly referred to as the Maharaja of Visakhapatnam until the dissolution of the princely state in 1947. European powers eventually established trade operations in the city, and by the end of the 18th century it had come under French colonial rule. Control passed to the East India Company in 1804 and it remained under British colonial rule until Indian independence in 1947.
The city is home to some reputed Central and State educational institutions of the state, including Andhra University (AU), Andhra Medical College (AMC), Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy (IIPE), Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University (DSNLU), Indian Maritime University (IMU), and the National Institute of Oceanography among others. Visakhapatnam serves as the headquarters for the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command. The city also serves as the zonal headquarters of South Coast Railway Zone (SCoR). The city is also home to the oldest shipyard and the only natural harbour on the east coast of India. Visakhapatnam Port is the fifth-busiest cargo port in India. The city is a major tourist destination and is particularly known for its beaches, ancient Buddhist sites, and the natural beauty of the surrounding Eastern Ghats. It is nicknamed as the "City of Destiny" and the "Jewel of the East Coast". According to the Swachh Survekshan rankings of 2020, it is the ninth cleanest city in India among cities with a population of more than 1 million. In 2020, it was a finalist in the Living and Inclusion category of the World Smart City Awards.
Etymology
The local belief behind the name of the city states, there was a king of 4th century, who on his pilgrimage halted at Lawson's Bay and built a temple dedicated to Vaisakha, which was submerged under the sea, but the name of the temple was got to the settlement. Other such names are, Kulotungapatnam, named by the Chola King Kulotuna I; Ishakapatnam, based on a Muslim Saint, Syed Ali Madani (Ishak Madani). During the East India Company rule in India, the city was known with the name, Vizagapatam. The suburb Waltair is another such name which was derived from the name the British colonial government used. "Vizagapatam" could also be spelled Visakhapatnam in the West European alphabet. The name was popularly shortened to Vizag and this form was in use right from the earliest days of British colonial rule in the district in the late eighteenth century. It is still referred to as Vizag by locals too, however since independence, people have reverted to calling it by its Indian name of Visakhapatnam.
History
Visakhapatnam's history stretches back to the 6th century B.C.E. and the city finds mention in ancient texts such as the 4th century B.C.E. writings of Pāṇini and Katyayana. Historically considered part of the Kalinga region, it was ruled by the Vengi kingdom and the Pallava and Eastern Ganga dynasties during medieval times. Archaeological records suggest that the present city was built around the 11th and 12th centuries C.E. by the Chola dynasty king Kulothunga I. Control over the city fluctuated between the Chola dynasty of Tamil Nadu and the Gajapati Kingdom of Odisha until its conquest by the Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century. European powers eventually set up trading interests in the city and Visakhapatnam came under French rule at the end of the 18th century.
The city was ruled by the Andhra Kings of Vengi and Pallavas. The city is named after Sri Visakha Varma. Legend has it that Radha and Viśakha were born on the same day and were equally beautiful. Sri Visakka Sakhi is the second most important gopi of the eight main gopis. She carries messages between Radha and Krishna and is the most expert gopi messenger. Local residents believe that an Andhra king built a temple to pay homage to his family deity Viśakha. This is now inundated under sea water near R K Beach. Another theory is that it is named after a woman disciple of Buddha named Viśakha. Later it was ruled by Qutb Shahis (1571-1674), Kingdom of Jeypore (1535-1571) & (1674-1711), Mughal Empire (1711-1724), Nizam (1724–1757) and France (1757–1765) before being captured by the British in 1765. European powers eventually established trading operations in the city and Visakhapatnam came under French colonial rule at the end of the 18th century.
The British East India Company captured Visakhapatnam after the 1804 Battle of Vizagapatam and it remained under British colonial rule until Indian independence in 1947 which was a part of the Northern Circars.
Buddhist influence
Hindu texts state that during the fifth century BC, the Visakhapatnam region was part of Kalinga territory, which extended to the Godavari river. Relics found in the area also prove the existence of a Buddhist empire in the region. Kalinga later lost the territory to King Ashoka in the bloodiest battle of its time, which prompted Ashoka to embrace Buddhism. Visakhapatnam is surrounded by ancient Buddhist sites, most of which have been excavated recently and illustrate the legacy of Buddhism in the region.
Pavurallakonda
Pavurallakonda ("pigeon hill") is a hillock west of Bhimli, about from Visakhapatnam. The Buddhist settlement found here is estimated to date back from the first century BC to the second century AD. On the hillock (which overlooks the coastline) are 16 rock-cut cisterns for collecting rainwater. Gopalapatnam, on the Tandava River, is a village surrounded by brick stupas, viharas, pottery and other Buddhist artefacts.
Sankaram
In 1907 British archaeologist Alexander Rea unearthed Sankaram, a 2,000-year-old Buddhist site. The name "Śankaram" derives from the Sangharama (temple or monastery). Located south of Visakhapatnam, it is known locally as Bojjannakonda and is a significant Buddhist site in Andhra Pradesh. The three major schools of Buddhism (Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana) flourished here. The complex is known for its monolithic stupas, rock-cut caves and brick structures. The primary stupa was initially carved out of rock and covered with bricks. Excavations yielded historic pottery and Satavahana coins from the first century AD. At Lingalakonda, there are also rock-cut monolithic stupas in rows spread over the hill. The vihara was active for about 1,000 years.
Nearby is another Buddhist site, Bojjannakonda, with a number of images of the Buddha carved on the rock face of the caves. At Ligalametta there are hundreds of rock-cut monolithic stupas in rows, spread across the hill. Among other Buddhist attractions are a relic casket, three chaitya halls, votive platforms, stupas and Vajrayana sculptures.
Bavikonda
Bavikonda is an important Buddhist heritage site located on a hill about , northeast from Visakhapatnam city. Here the Buddhist habitation is noticed on a 16 ha flat terraced area. The Hinayana school of Buddhism was practised at the monastery between the 3rd century B.C. and the 3rd century A.D. Bavikonda has remains of an entire Buddhist complex, comprising 26 structures belonging to three phases. A piece of bone stored in an urn recovered here is believed to belong to the mortal remains of the Buddha. The word Bavikonda in Telugu means "a hill of wells". Fitting its name, Bavikonda is a hill with wells for the collection of rainwater. It is located from Visakhapatnam and is a significant Buddhist site.
Excavation carried out from 1982 to 1987 revealed a Buddhist establishment including a mahachaitya embedded with relic caskets, a large vihara complex, numerous votive stupas, a stone-pillared congregation and rectangular halls and a refectory. Artifacts recovered from the site include Roman and Satavahana coins and pottery dating from the third century BC to the second century AD. A significant finding was a piece of bone (with a large quantity of ash) in an urn, which is believed to be the remains of the Buddha. The Bavikonda site is considered one of the oldest Buddhist sites in Asia. It is a reminder of the Buddhist civilisation which once existed in southern India, and also reminiscent of Borobudur in Indonesia.
Thotlakonda
About from Visakhapatnam is Thotlakonda, a Buddhist complex situated on top of a hill. The Buddhist complex on the Mangamaripeta hilltop, locally known as Totlakonda, lies about from Visakhapatnam on Visakhapatnam-Bheemili Beach Road. After its discovery (during an aerial survey), the Government of Andhra Pradesh declared the 48 ha site as a protected monument in 1978. Excavations in 1988 to 1992 exposed structural remains and artefacts, classified as Religious, Secular and Civil. These structures include the Stupa, Chaityagrihas, pillared congregation halls, bhandagaras, refectory (bhojanasala), drainage and stone pathways. The site covers an area of , and has been declared a protected area by the government of Andhra Pradesh. Excavations have revealed three kinds of structural remains: religious, secular and civil. Structures include a mahastupa, sixteen votive stupas, a stone-pillared congregation hall, eleven rock-cut cisterns, well-paved stone pathways, an apsidal chaitya-griha, three round chaitgya-grihas, two votive platforms, ten viharas and a kitchen complex with three halls and a refectory (dining hall). Apart from the structures, Buddhist treasures excavated include nine Satavahana and five Roman silver coins, terracotta tiles, stucco decorative pieces, sculptured panels, miniature stupa models in stone, Buddha padas depicted with ashtamangala symbols (i.e. the eight auspicious symbols of Swastika, Shrivasta, Nandhyavarta, Vardhamanaka, Bhadrasana, Kalasha, Minyugala and Darpan) and early pottery.
Later history
The territory of Visakhapatnam then came under the Andhra rulers of Vengi, and Chalukyas and Pallavas ruled the land. The region was ruled by the Eastern Ganga king and the Gajapati kings of Odisha from the 10th century to the 16th centuries AD. Based on archaeological evidence, the Prabhakar and the Eastern Ganga Kings of Odisha built temples in the city in the 11th and 12th centuries. In the late 16th century, it came under the direct rule of the Suryavanshi king, Maharaja Vishwanath Dev Gajapati of Jeypore. However, from 1571 to 1674 it fell under the control and administration of the Qutb Shahi kings of Golconda who appointed a governor or Faujdar to collect taxes in the region. This Faujdar governed the area from Srikakulam or Chicacole as it was then known. In 1674, the Maharaja of Jeypore, Vishwambhar Dev defeated the Foujdar and claimed sovereignty from the deteriorating Qutb Shahis. Vishwambhar is also said to have defeated the Dutch East India Company who allegedly abducted locals, mostly fishermen living by the sea-shore. Later his descendant, Maharaja Raghunath Krishna Dev defeated the Seer Lascer appointed by the Mughals and maintained his rule over the region. Therefore, Visakhapatnam remained a part of the Kingdom of Jeypore until the death of Maharaja Ram Chandra Dev I in 1711 after which it was taken over by the Nizam of Hyderabad who could only govern it for a few decades before transferring it to the British. Even in the colonial era, the kings of Jeypore were referred to as the Maharaja or Raja of Vizagapatam. European merchants from France, Holland and the East India Company used the natural port to export tobacco, paddy, coal, iron ore, ivory, muslin and other textile products. The British developed Visakhapatnam as a prominent harbour of the east coast. The old port in Jalari Peta was built and used by the Maharaja of Jeypore who also owned a number of ships. During the First World War, Maharaja Vikram Dev III sent his fleet of ships to aid the British and later donated the port to the British government of Madras. It is now a popular fish market.
Local legend tells that an Andhra king, on his way to Benares, rested at Visakhapatnam and was so enchanted by its beauty that he ordered a temple to be built in honour of his family deity, Viśakha. Archaeological sources, however, reveal that the temple was probably built between the 11th and 12th centuries by the Cholas. A shipping merchant, Sankarayya Chetty, built one of the mandapams (pillared halls) of the temple. Although it no longer exists (possibly washed away about 100 years ago by a cyclonic storm), elderly residents of Visakhapatnam remember visits to the ancient shrine by their grandparents (although author Ganapatiraju Atchuta Rama Raju denies this).
During the 18th century Visakhapatnam was part of the Northern Circars, a region comprising coastal Andhra and southern coastal Odisha which was first under French control and later British. Visakhapatnam became a district in the Madras Presidency of British India. In September 1804, British and French squadrons fought the naval Battle of Vizagapatam near the harbour. After India's independence it was the largest district in the country and was subsequently divided into the districts of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam.
Part of the city is known by its colonial British name, Waltair; during the colonial era, the city's hub was the Waltair railway station and a part of the city is still called Waltair.
On 7 May 2020, the city suffered an industrial accident when a polymer plant leaked toxic styrene gas, as it restarted operations after the Coronavirus lockdown. This gas leak killed at least eleven people, and drew comparisons to the Bhopal disaster.
Geography
The city is situated between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The city coordinates lies between 17.7041 N and 83.2977 E.
Climate
Visakhapatnam has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen Aw). The annual mean temperatures ranges between , with the maximum in the month of May and the minimum in January; the minimum temperatures ranges between . The highest maximum temperature ever recorded was in 1978, and the lowest was on 6th January 1962. It receives rainfall from the South-west and North-east monsoons and the average annual rainfall recorded is . In October 2014 Cyclone Hudhud made landfall near Visakhapatnam.
Demographics
census of India, Visakhapatnam had a population of 1,728,128, of which males were 873,599 and females were 854,529 – a sex ratio of 978 females per 1000 males. The population density was . There were 164,129 children in the age group of 0–6 years, with 84,298 boys and 79,831 girls – a sex ratio was 947 girls per 1000 boys. The average literacy rate stood at 81.79% with a total of 1,279,137 literates, of which 688,678 were males and 590,459 were females. It is ranked 122 in the list of fastest-growing cities in the world. The total slum population covers 44.61% of the total population which implies 770,971 people reside in slums.
The population crossed two million mark after expansion of the city limits and stands at 2,035,922.
Language and religion
Telugu is the official and the most predominantly spoken language by the native speakers. Two dialects of Telugu are spoken by the people, the common dialect and the Uttarandhra (North Eastern Andhra) dialect. The latter is mainly spoken by the people who originally belong to the districts of Vizianagaram and Srikakulam. A cosmopolitan population of Visakhapatnam comprises Tamils, Malayalis, Sindhis, Kannadigas, Odias, Bengalis and Bihari migrants from other regions of India. There is also an Anglo-Indian community, regarded as the first cosmopolitans of the city.
According to 2011 census, Telugu is the most spoken language in the city, with 92.72% speakers, followed by Urdu (2.52%), Hindi (2.15%), Odia (1.00%), Tamil (0.33%), Malayalam (0.32%), and Bengali (0.31%).
Hinduism is practised by the majority of its citizens, followed by Islam and Christianity. The area practised Buddhism in the ancient past, as evidenced by the many Buddhist sangharamas in the outlying areas but the population of Buddhists has waned, with approximately 0.03% population in the entire city based on the recent census.
Administration
Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) is the civic body that oversees the civic needs of the city. One of the earliest municipalities in this area, the Vizag (Visakhapatnam) Municipality was set up in 1858 to fulfil the basic infrastructural needs of the people. It was converted into a municipal corporation in 1979. Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation came into existence on 21 November 2005 after the release of G.O by Govt of Andhra Pradesh.
It has a jurisdictional area of , which includes the merged municipalities of Gajuwaka, Anakapalle and Bheemunipatnam. Although as per the 2011 census, it is mentioned in the district town amenities hand book of Andhra Pradesh, portraying a rise in area covered by the municipal corporation in these years
The municipal corporation of Vishakapatnam is governed by three acts. First is the State Municipal Act, the Andhra Pradesh Municipalities Act 1965, Andhra Pradesh Municipal Corporations 1994 Act, as well as an act specific to Vishakapatnam Municipal Corporation Act 1979.
The city is divided into 9 zones, In a recent agglomeration of five Bheemili villages with a population of 19,000 into the GVMC jurisdiction the number of wards has increased to 98.
Municipal elections and civic government officials
The previous Municipal Elections were held in 2007. After a larger gap of 13 years the elections were scheduled to happen on 23 March 2020. The results of the latest municipal elections for 145 municipalities and 10 municipal corporations across Andhra Pradesh were held on March 30 and the results were announced on Monday. Of the 92 municipalities in Seemandhra, TDP won 65 municipalities and YSR Congress nineteen. Of the seven municipal corporations, TDP bagged five and YSR Congress two.
The City governance structure of GVMC consists of an elected wing headed by the Mayor and administrative wing headed by the Administrative Commissioner, 4 Additional commissioners, and 8 zonal commissioners. Mayor elections were planned to be carried out in the month of March, 2020 but details are yet to be declared. The present municipal commissioner of the city is G Srijana. The municipal commissioner looks after the administration of the municipal corporation.
The executive wing has departments for Engineering, Public health, revenue, town planning, horticulture, education, finance, general administration, projects, IT E governance and Urban Community Development.
The organisational structure of the GVMC includes standing committees, ward committees and special committees, The corporation wards committees must be of not less than ten wards, special committees are appointed by the corporation out of their own body, and a standing committee consisting of chairpersons from all wards.
Municipal budget
The GVMC estimated a budget of for the financial year 2020–21. It shows an increase of compared to the last budget for 2019–20. The Revenue Department of GVMC generates its revenue by levying of Property Tax, Vacant Land Tax and it is collection and dealing with Remunerative Enterprises, Water Charges etc.
Masterplan
In 2019, the Planning wing of the Visakhapatnam Metropolitan Region Development Authority (VMRDA) started preparing a 'perspective plan 2051' which is a 30-year strategic plan, apart from another 'master plan 2041'. The 'perspective plan' is expected to include provisions for resource conservation, regional growth, economic growth and transportation strategies, coastal zone regulations, disaster management strategies, population forecast and distribution, broad structure plan, and implementation plan.
The 'master plan' proposes growth strategy with transit-oriented development strategies, expansion of satellite towns such as Vizianagaram, Anakapalli, Bheemili, etc., theme-based economic nodes along the proposed metro-rail corridor, bus-based public transport, tourism destination development, a comprehensive rural agenda and resilient city planning.
Yet another proposal includes a transit corridor connecting Bhogapuram Airport with the existing business centres of the city and the industrial clusters in Atchutapuram under Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC).
District Administration
The district area is . The Sub-Division is divided into Mandals. Visakhapatnam District Consists of 43 mandals, each headed by a Tahsildar. It also has one Municipal Corporation and two Municipalities. There are four revenue divisions in the district. A Revenue division is headed by Revenue Divisional Officer in the rank of Sub–Collector in the cadre of I.A.S. or a Deputy Collector. He is the Sub Divisional Magistrate having jurisdiction over his division.
Law and order
Law and order in the city is dealt by Visakhapatnam City Police, equipped with a Police Commissionerate with Commissioner of Police as the head and with assisted by three deputy commissioners for different zones. The current City Police Commissioner is Mr. Manish Kumar Sinha. Visakhapatnam Metropolitan Region Development Authority (VMRDA) is an urban planning agency that covers the GVMC and its suburbs covering, two corporations, one municipality, one nagar panchayat and 895 villages from two districts of Visakhapatnam and Vizianagaram. The expanded area of the city, Visakhapatnam Metropolitan Region extends to with a population of 50,18,000 (Western: 5,018,000) and is under the administration of Visakhapatnam Metropolitan Region Development Authority.
The District & Sessions Court are located in Vishakapatnam city and it also includes family courts.
Legislative Assembly
The city has eight assembly constituencies in its limits. In the legislative elections Mr. M Srinivasa Rao of YSRCP was elected to the assembly from Bhimli constituency Mr. Ganesh Kumar of TDP was elected to the Assembly from Visakhapatnam South segment in 2014 and 2019 polls. For Vizag East Mr. Ramakrishna Babu Velgapudi was elected. For Vizag; Vizag North Ganta Srinivasa Rao and for Vizag west P.G.V.R Naidu was elected. For Gajuwaka Mr. T Nagireddy was elected; for Pendurthi Mr. A Adeep Raj was elected and for Anakapalle constituency Mr. G Amarnath was elected. Out of these eight constituencies Anakapalli and Pendurthi fall under Anakapalli Lok Sabha Constituency. The current Lok Sabha Elective Vishakhapatnam is Mr. M. V. V. Satyanarayana. While four MLAs are from the TDP party,remaining four are from the YSRCP. The incumbent MP is from YSRCP.
Civic utilities
The Andhra Pradesh Eastern Power Distribution Company Limited (APEPDCL) supplies power to the city of Visakhapatnam. The fire services in the city is carried out by the state fire department, the Andhra Pradesh State Disaster Response and Fire Department, Eastern region (AP Fire).
The city water supply is essentially stored in the three service reservoirs – Town Service Reservoir, Dwarakanagar; High Level Service Reservoir, T.B. Road, Uplands and Circuit House Reservoir, Waltair Uplands. The city is divided into 14 blocks according to contours and each block is served by separate reservoirs. There are 35 reservoirs serving the different segments of the system. Domestic water supply is mainly through public taps and house service connections.
There are about 2072 bore wells as ground water sources. As per a report from 2015, "GVMC relies mostly on surface water for its raw water supply and serves 54.9 percent of the city through household-level piped connections. There is a supply gap of almost 66 million liters per day (MLD)
, only 50 per cent of the city has access to underground drainage. This is after the city grew over the last decade and Bheemili and Anakapalli among other peripheral villages came under the GVMC's jurisdiction. The GVMC has taken up a project to extend the underground drainage network with a budget of . The new project will provide underground drainage access to an estimated 8,000 households. The network will be built under the command area of pumping stations at Venkata Puram and Vimannagar and its vicinity.
In the year 2015, the municipal corporation generated 920 tons of waste per day. Waste generated from all the wards is disposed at the dumpsite in Kapuluppada since 2007.
Economy
Visakhapatnam is one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world, which has a GDP of $43.5 billion. It is the 9th richest city in India. The usual seafood exporting capacity of the harbour is and during the FY 2015, it topped seafood exports in terms of value among other ports. Visakhapatnam Port and Gangavaram Port are the two ports of the city and the former one topped charts which handled of cargo during the financial year 2016–17. The Hindustan Shipyard undertakes building and repairing of Naval fleet.
Information technology
The growth in the IT sector in the recent times boosting the local economy. In 2016–17, the IT industry in Visakhapatnam witnessed an increase in its turnover which recorded as with more than 350 firms, in contrast to 2013–14 figures of . Sunrise Startup Village, an incubation centre and Fintech Valley Vizag were established to promote the city as a global fintech capital in the Andhra Pradesh state. Millennium IT Towers 1 is inaugurated by the then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh N. Chandrababu Naidu on 15 February 2019 and Millennium IT Towers 2 is in pipeline to promote fintech investments in the city.
There are many national and multi–national IT/ITes and fintech firms such as IBM, Wipro, Tech Mahindra, Kenexa, Infotech, Conduent, Cyient, Paytm, Concentrix, Sutherland, HSBC, etc. Some more investments are in line, like Google x, Lalith Ahuja's ANSR Consulting, Franklin Templeton, Innova Solutions, etc. at Fintech Valley in the city. The Brandix India Apparel City is the largest textile park in the country and holds the record for employing more than 15,000 women employees at a single location.
Pharma Industries
The Jawaharlal Nehru Pharma City (JNPC) developed at Parawada near Visakhapatnam in has major pharma companies like, Hospira, Mylan, Eisai, Reddy's Lab, Aurobindo Pharma, Torrent pharma, Divis Lab, etc. Andhra Pradesh Medtech Zone Limited, is the India's first Ultra Modern Medical Equipment Manufacturing & Testing Facility, open to Manufacturers & Innovators.
The prevalence of ferroalloy plants is due to the availability of manganese ore near Visakhapatnam. Aluminium refineries such as AnRak Aluminium and Jindal Aluminium are developing because of the bauxite reserves around the city. Visakhapatnam is a part of the Petroleum, Chemical and Petrochemical Investment Region (PCPIR), proposed between Visakhapatnam and Kakinada. The PCPIR is expected to generate 1.2 million jobs and require a projected investment of . Simhadri Super Thermal Power Station of NTPC Limited is expanding from 1,000 to 2,000 MW at a cost of . Hindujas has begun construction of a 1,070 MW thermal power plant in Visakhapatnam district at a cost of . NTPC is establishing 4×1,000 MW imported coal-based thermal power plant in Visakhapatnam district, which requires an investment of .
Cityscape
Neighbourhoods
Over the years, Visakhapatnam has turned from a fishing village into a commercial city with busy streets. Most notable areas of the city include urban areas like Allipuram, Arilova, Asilmetta, Dwaraka Nagar, Gajuwaka, Gopalapatnam, Jagadamba Centre, Lawsons Bay Colony, Maddilapalem, Madhurawada, MVP Colony, Rushikonda, Seethammadhara, Siripuram and semi-rural suburbs such as Anakapalle, Bheemunipatnam, Duvvada, Parawada, Pendurthi and Thagarapuvalasa .
Landmarks
Visakhapatnam is one of the main tourism destinations in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The city is famous for beaches, caves and the Eastern Ghats as well as wildlife sanctuaries. About 30% of the city is covered with greenery.
Major landmarks in the city include Dolphin's Nose, lighthouse, Kailasagiri, Beach Road, VMRDA Park, Visakha Museum and Matsyadarsini (an aquarium). The INS Kursura Submarine Museum and Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft TU 142 Aircraft Museum opposite to each other is the only one of its kind in the world, conceptualising the hunted and hunter of the wars. Indira Gandhi Zoological Park in the city has variety of wildlife species. Erra Matti Dibbalu (Red sand dunes) are situated between Visakhapatnam and Bheemunipatnam are one of the geo-heritage sites in the country. This tourist spot is now protected and preserved as a heritage site. Dr. Ramanaidu Film Studio in 33 acres space off the Visakha-Bhimili beach road is one of the film shootings destination. Telugu Samskruthika Niketanam on atop Kailasagiri was developed by World Telugu Federation and Visakhapatnam Urban Development Authority, Adding one more feather to its cap, Visakhapatnam is home to India's tallest musical fountain opened in the Vuda City Central Park. Oscillating vertically at 360 degrees, the fountain dances to the tune of digital music in different colours.
Beaches along the coastline of the Bay of Bengal include RK Beach, Rushikonda Beach and Mangamaripeta Beach. Others are Yarada, Bheemili, Lawson's Bay, Tenneti, Sagar Nagar, Thotlakonda and Gangavaram beaches. Borra Caves are caves discovered by British geologist William King in 1807. Tyda (an Eco tourism project), Kambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary under Andhra Pradesh Forest Department are wildlife conservation sites near the city.
Culture
Poets
Some of the notable poets from the city include Sri Sri, Gollapudi Maruti Rao, Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry.
Religious sites
Some of the religious sites are also of great importance like Simhachalam temple of Lord Narasimha north of the city, and Sri Kanaka Maha Lakshmi Temple. Recent archaeological excavations of Buddhist shrines revealed Buddhist dominance in this area and these are recognised as heritage sites that include Boudharamam, Saligudam, Sankaram and Devipuram etc.
Transport
The city commuters prefer city buses and auto rickshaws as the primary mode of transport, followed by two-wheelers and cars. Road and rail are preferred for long-distance commuting and are supported by Dwaraka bus station and Visakhapatnam railway station respectively. It also has sea and air travel infrastructure such as, Visakhapatnam Port and Visakhapatnam Airport.
The APSRTC operates city, district and inter-state bus services from Dwaraka bus station. Over 600 city buses operate over 150 routes, in addition to Bus Rapid Transit System in two corridors of Pendurthi and Simhachalam. A planned Integrated Bus Terminal Complex would be built at Maddilapalem. Apart from buses, there are about 25,000 auto rickshaws plying on the city roads which provide intermediate public transport.
Visakhapatnam is the headquarters of South Coast Railway zone of Indian railways. Visakhapatnam railway station is as an A1 station with the highest gross revenue in the Waltair railway division. It serves an average of 20,000–25,000 passengers daily and may rise up to 40,000 during festivals. It has the country's largest diesel locomotive shed with a capacity of 206. Visakhapatnam Metro is a planned metro rail project.
, the percentage of transport mode shares in the city are, 18% buses, 9% autos, 15% two wheelers, 2% cars and 55% non-motorised transport (bicycles and pedestrians). The total road network accounts for a total length of . NH16, a major highway and a part of the Golden Quadrilateral system bypasses the city.
Visakhapatnam Airport had served a total of 2,815,205 passengers in 2018, an increase of 16.8% from the previous year. It handled a total of 23,264 aircraft during that year.
Visakhapatnam Port is one of 13 major ports in India and the only major port of Andhra Pradesh. It is India's second-largest port by volume of cargo handled. It is located on the east coast of India and is located midway between the Chennai and Kolkata Ports. Cruise shipping is operational between Visakhapatnam and Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Education
The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the School Education Department of the state. As per the school information report for the academic year 2016–17, urban Visakhapatnam had 1,44,268 (Western: 144,268) students enrolled in 434 schools. The Central Board of Secondary Education, Secondary School Certificate or the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education are the different types of syllabus followed by different schools. The medium of instruction followed by schools are English and Telugu. The St. Aloysius Anglo Indian Boys High School is the oldest school in the city to have established in the year 1847. The Visakhapatnam District Central Library is supported by the government and is located at Dwaraka Nagar.
There are tens of junior colleges under Government, Andhra Pradesh Social Welfare Residential and private undertakings. Andhra University is the only autonomous college approved under Universities Grant Commission scheme. Mrs. A. V. N. College is one of the oldest educational institution in the city.
The GITAM University and the Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering are other technical-education institutions in the city. Visakhapatnam is also home to Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University (DSNLU), which is the National Law University for the state of Andhra Pradesh. DSNLU takes entrance through Common Law Admission Test and ranks 15th by order of establishment among the 17 National Law Universities. The city is due to get India's first packaging park with an Indian Institute of Packaging, IIP and BITS Pilani & Birla International School under the aegis of Sarala Birla Academy.
The Indian Maritime University (IMU) was established as a central university by the government of India by an act of Parliament (the Indian Maritime University Act 2008). IMU is poised to play a role in the development of human resources for the maritime sector. The city also has the National Institute of Oceanography. The Indian Institute of Management, Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy are the other institutions of national importance.
Defence and research
Naval base
Visakhapatnam is the headquarters of the Eastern Naval Command, the Naval Science and Technological Laboratory (a DRDO Lab), a Chief Quality Assurance Establishment (CQAE), an EFS office, a Naval Dockyard (established in 1949) and Naval Bases including INS Virbahu, INS Karna, INS Kalinga, INS Samudrika, INS Satavahana, and INS Dega. A new base at INS Rambilli is being built on with an investment of , as the first dedicated nuclear submarine base in India. India's first nuclear submarine INS Arihant was launched in the Naval Dockyard, and Bharat Dynamics has begun manufacturing torpedoes. The city also has presence of the Indian Coast Guard including ships and offices. Multiple naval training establishments, such as the Navy ShipWright School, are also situated here.
Research organisations
The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) has its second research facility in the country (after Trombay) in Atchutapuram mandal in the district. There are also offices of the National Institute of Oceanography and the India Meteorological Department.
Sports
Cricket is the most popular sport, followed by tennis and football. Visakhapatnam is home to a number of local cricket teams participating in district and zonal matches. Gully cricket (a form of cricket played in streets or parks) is a popular sport among local youth. Visakhapatnam co-hosted the 32nd National Games alongside Hyderabad in 2002. The city has seven cricket stadiums, which are used for Ranji Trophy matches; two of these stadiums have been used for one day international (ODI) matches. Indira Priyadarshini Stadium, also known as the Municipal Corporation Stadium, hosted the first ODI match on 9 December 1988 and the last ODI on 3 April 2001. The stadium has been discontinued in favour of the new Dr. Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy International Cricket Stadium, PM Palem.
Dr. Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy International Cricket Stadium is the home of Andhra Cricket Association. It regularly hosts Ranji Trophy, One Day Internationals and Test Internationals. The stadium is the home ground of Andhra cricket team. The stadium also hosted IPL matches as a neutral venue. It hosted its first test match against England beginning on 17 November 2016.
Port Trust Golden Jubilee Stadium is the second largest stadium in Visakhapatnam, which has hosted Under-19 Youth Internationals. It also hosted the 2014 Pro Kabaddi League season as the home ground for the Telugu Titans.Swarna Bharathi Indoor Stadium, built by the Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation, is used for various indoor sports, and the GVMC Aqua Sports Complex, an aquatic centre for swimming and diving, is near the beach road.
Surfing activities are common at the Rushikonda beach. Scuba diving at Chintapalli in the scenic city has been attracting tourists from all over.
Media
The Telugu dailies publishers in the city are Eenadu, Andhra Jyothy, Sakshi, Andhra Bhoomi, Andhra Prabha, Vaartha, Suryaa, Prajasakti and Visalaandhra. Apart from the local language, there are also English papers such as The Hindu, The Times of India, Deccan Chronicle, The Hindu Business Line, The New Indian Express and The Hans India.
FM stations
Radio City – 91.1 – Telugu/Hindi
Big 92.7 FM – 92.7 – Telugu/Hindi
Red FM – 93.5 – Telugu/Hindi
Radio Mirchi – 98.3 – Telugu
AIR Primary – 101.6 – Telugu
AIR FM Rainbow – 102.0 – Telugu
Visakha FM – 105.6 – Telugu
Gyan Vani – 106.4 – Telugu/English/Hindi
Notable people
Alluri Sitarama Raju
M. V. V. S. Murthi
Gurajada Apparao
Concordia Merrel
Sir C. V. Raman
Gam Malludora
Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Tenneti Viswanadham
Sri Sri
Aarudhra
Gollapudi Maruti Rao
Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry
Venkaiah Naidu
Ramana Gogula
Saketh Myneni
P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar
Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao
Kambhampati Hari Babu
Nookala Chinna Satyanarayana
Sri Kantha Krishnamacharyulu
Devika Rani
L. V. Revanth
Venugopal Rao
Satyadev Kancharana
Chandini Chowdary
See also
List of most populous cities in India
List of municipal corporations in India
List of tourist attractions and events in Visakhapatnam
List of neighbourhoods in Visakhapatnam
List of Cities in Andhra Pradesh
Notes
References
Further reading
*
External links
This contains a detailed description of the town and district under British rule.
Official website of Visakhapatnam Urban Development Authority
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011
Cities in Andhra Pradesh
District headquarters of Andhra Pradesh
Populated coastal places in India
Port cities in India
Metropolitan cities in India | [
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|
238762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nannayya | Nannayya | Nannaya Bhattaraka (sometimes spelled Nannayya or Nannaiah; ca. 11th century AD) was a Telugu poet and the author of the first Andhra mahabharatam, a Telugu retelling of the Mahabharata. Nannaya is the first of Trinity of poets (Kavitrayam). Nannaya is held in high regard as the person who revived the Telugu language. This work, which is rendered in the Champu style, is chaste and polished and of a high literary merit.
The first treatise on Telugu grammar, the "Andhra Shabda Chintamani", was written in Sanskrit by Nannaya, who was considered first poet and translator of Telugu in the 11th century A.D. There was no grammatical work in Telugu prior to it. This grammar followed the patterns which existed in grammatical treatises like Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vālmīkivyākaranam but unlike Pāṇini, Nannaya divided his work into five chapters, covering samjnā, sandhi, ajanta, halanta and kriya.
He is also known as Adi Kavi in recognition of his great literary work. He also holds the titles Sabda Sasanudu and Vaganu Sasanudu (Law giver of the language) after his Telugu grammar work Andhra Sabda Chintamani.
The advanced and well-developed language used by Nannaya suggests that Nannaya Mahabharatamu may not be the beginning of Telugu literature. Unfortunately, no Telugu literature prior to Nannaya is available, except royal grants and decrees, though Telugu language started to develop even before the Common Era.
Political reason
Pulakesin II (609–642) of Chalukya Dynasty, the ruler of Vatapi (Badami of Karnataka) conquered Vengi (Andhra) and sent Kubja Vishnuvardhana, his brother, as viceroy for the Vengi region. Later in 634 AD, Vishnuvardhana declared himself independent and established Eastern Chalukya Dynasty in Andhra Pradesh that lasted for five centuries. Rajaraja Narendra of Eastern Chalukya Dynasty ascended to the throne in 1022 AD. At the time of Rajaraja Narendra, two literary works in Kannada language, viz., Vikramarjuna Vijaya and Gadayudda already popularized the story of Sanskrit Mahabharata in Karnataka. Kannada translations of Mahabharata were available by the Seventh and Eighth centuries. But, Puranaas were not available in Telugu. Brahmins used to recite Puranaas such as Sanskrit Mahabharata in Temples and courts.
Eastern Chalukya Dynasty supported Jainism and Shaivism (Veera Shaivism). Rajaraja Narendra was a Shaivite. He respected Brahmins, and went on patronizing Shaivism and Sanskrit language. He learned from the success of Jains and Buddhists that the only way to popularize the new religions and Puranaas was to translate them into Telugu. Even a thousand years before, Buddhism and Jainism became very popular using local languages for their sermons and teachings. So, Rajaraja Narendra requested his teacher, adviser and court poet Nannaya Bhattaraka to translate Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu for his subjects.
Nannaya Bhattaraka took the challenge very seriously. He scrutinized all the Telugu vocabulary that was in usage at that time, introduced Sanskrit vocabulary, and took characteristics of already well developed Kannada literature. Thus he developed a distinct literary style, meter and grammar. Nannaya translated about 142 verses of Aadi, Sabha and Aranya chapters of Sanskrit Mahabharata. But, he didn't stick to the original. He almost created his own version of Andhra Mahabharatamu by modification, addition and deletion, while maintaining the story line.
It took 300 more years and two more writers, Thikkana and Errana, to complete the work started by Nannaya. Nannaya died while working on the 3rd (aranya parvam) and it was rumored subsequently that it is inauspicious (leading to immediate death) to touch on that episode. So Tikkanna who undertook the completion of this great work, started the work from chapter 4. Yerrapragada, later completed the half portion of the 3rd chapter and lived a full life. This period was known as period of translations, because during this period various Sanskrit texts and Puranaas were translated into Telugu by scholars. This resulted in a very long lasting impact of Sanskrit on Telugu language and literature and the beginning of a new era in the history of Telugu literature. Nannaya was the first to translate a Sanskrit text into Telugu language and he rightly holds the titles Aadi Kavi (the First Poet) and Vaaganusaasanudu (the dictator of the language).
See also
Telugu Literature
Kavitrayam
Adikavi Nannaya University
References
Sources
History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh, P. R. Rao
Andhrula Saanghika Charitra, Pratapareddy Suravaram
Andhra Vagmaya Charitramu, Dr. Venkatavadhani Divakarla
Andhra Pradesh Darshini, Parts 1 and 2, Chief Editor Y. V. Krishnarao
Telugu people
Telugu poets
Telugu writers
11th-century Indian writers
Indian male writers
People from Rajahmundry
Writers from Andhra Pradesh
Sanskrit-Telugu translators | [
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|
238763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikkana | Tikkana | Tikkana (or Tikkana Somayaji) (1205–1288) was a 13th century Telugu poet. Born into a Telugu-speaking Niyogi Brahmin family during the golden age of the Kakatiya dynasty, he was the second poet of the "Trinity of Poets (Kavi Trayam)" that translated Mahabharata into Telugu. Nannaya Bhattaraka, the first, translated two and a half chapters of Mahabharata. Tikkana translated the final 15 chapters, but did not undertake translating the half-finished Aranya Parvamu. The Telugu people remained without this last translation for more than a century, until it was translated by Errana.
Tikkana is also called Tikkana Somayaji, as he completed the Somayaga. Tikkana's titles were Kavibrahma and Ubhaya Kavi Mitrudu.
Religious conflict
Tikkana was born in 1205 in Patur village, Kovur, Nellore district during the Golden Age of the Kakatiya dynasty. During this time conflict occurred between the two sects of Sanātana Dharma, Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Tikkana attempted to bring peace to the warring Shivaites and Vaishnavites.
Political situation
Most of Northern India came under Muslim rule, but strong Kakatiya, Chalukya and Chola empires in the South held back the Muslims. Emperor Ganapatideva (1199–1261) of the Kakatiya dynasty brought all the Telugu kingdoms under his rule for the first time. Clashes between smaller kingdoms were controlled, making way for prosperity and the development of art and literature.
Tikkana was the prime minister (hence the title Tikkanamatya) of Manumasiddhi, king of Nellore and a descendant of the Kakatiya dynasty. When Manumasiddhi was dethroned by his cousins, Tikkana visited Orugallu (the capital of Kakatiya dynasty and today's Warangal) to request the help of Ganapatideva. The Emperor welcomed him in Warangal and restored the throne of Nellore to Manumasiddhi.
Tikkana dedicated his first literary work Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu, to Ganapatideva. In this work he narrated the later part of Ramayanamu, the story of Sita's banishment to the forests and the birth of Lava and Kusa. Later, Tikkana translated the Mahabharatamu and dedicated it to Hariharanadha.
Writing style
His writing style was mostly Telugu, unlike Nannayya whose work was mostly sanskritized. Tikkana used Telugu words even to express very difficult ideas. He used Telugu words and parables extensively. He is titled Ubhayabashakavimitrudu, as his poetic style pleases both Sanskrit and Telugu poets.
Examples
The flavor of Telugu similes spice up his poetry:
madugu cheerayandu masi thaakintlu- as if pure white cheera (sari) is touched by soot,
paalalo padina balli vidhambuna-like the lizard in the milk,
neyvosina yagni bhangi- like the fire in which neyyi (clarified butter) was poured,
mantalo midutalu chochchinatlayina- fate of locusts flew into the fire,
kantikin reppayu bole- like the eyelid for the eye,
nooti kappa vidhambuna- like a frog in the well
Philosophy
During the reign of Emperor Ganapatideva, Shaivites, Vaishnvites and Jains had meetings to discuss different philosophies. Tikkana participated in those religious meetings and defeated the Buddhist and Jain participants and established Hinduism. During this time he proposed the unity of God. He preached that Lord Shiva (Hara) and Lord Vishnu (Hari) were one and that the apparent differences in names were made up and were untrue. This philosophy is known as "Hariharaadvaitamu (the Unity of Hari and Hara)Hariharaanadhudu called him Thikka Sharma please dedicate to me." To firmly establish this principle, Tikkana translated Mahabharatamu into Telugu. This was a great contribution to the peace and unity of Telugus.
Other works
Tikkana's other literary contributions include Vijayasenamu, Kavivaagbandhamu, Krishnasatakamu, etc. Though he was second to Nannayya in attempting to translate Mahabharatamu and second poet among the Trinity of Poets, he is second to none in his political, religious and literary accomplishments.
Legacy and depictions in popular culture
There is a library named after him in Guntur. It is maintained by a committee headed by Machiraju Sitapati and Kurakula Guraviah, an ex-corporator. In 2013 they celebrated 100 years of the library's functioning.
There was a television series made on the life of Tikkana.
See also
Kavitrayam
Telugu literature
References
Telugu people
Telugu poets
Telugu writers
1205 births
1288 deaths
13th-century Indian poets
People from Nellore
Indian male poets
Poets from Andhra Pradesh
13th-century Indian translators
Sanskrit-Telugu translators | [
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|
238764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerrapragada | Yerrapragada | Errapragada Erranna was a Telugu poet in the court of King Prolaya Vema Reddy (1325–1353). The surname of Erranna was Yerrapragada or Errapregada, which are epithets of the fair-skinned Lord Skanda in the Telugu language, but became attached to his paternal family due its having notable members with fair or red-skinned complexions. He was honoured with the title Prabandha-paramēśvara ("Master of historical anecdotes") and Śambhudāsuḍu ("Servant of Lord Śiva").
Birth and Ancestors
Errapragada Erranna was born in the village of Gudlur, located in Pakanadu (presently Prakasam district), and lived in Chadalawada, Prakasam district. He belonged to the Śrīvatsa-gotra and Āpastamba-sūtra of the Niyogī Brahma-bandhu caste. His father was Errapragada Suranna and mother was Errapragada Potamma. His grandfather was Errapragada Errapotanna whose name was given to him and his grandmother was Errapragada Peramma. His great-grandparents were Errapragada Bolanna and Errapragada Polamma and his great-great-grandfather was Errapragada Bhimanna. His family followed the Smārta tradition of the Vedic religion. Although Erranna was a devotee of Lord Śiva, he also worshipped the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Contributions
The Sanskrit Mahabharata was translated into Telugu over a period of several centuries (from the 11th to 14th centuries CE). Erranna was one of the kavitrayam ("Trinity of Poets") who rendered the Mahabharatam from Sanskrit into Telugu. The other two poets were Nannaya and Tikkana of the Andhra Mahabharatam ("Andhra Mahabharat"). Tikkana translated the remaining books starting from the 4th, leaving the third book titled the Aranya Parvamu ("Book of the Forest") half-finished, for Erranna to complete. Tikkana did not touch this part because it was considered to be inauspicious to translate this book, which was left half-finished by Nannaya. Erranna started the remaining half of the Aranya Parvamu with the style of Nannaya and ended it with the style of Tikkana as a bridge between the parts translated by Nannaya and Tikkana. Just like Nannaya and Tikkanna, he used half Sanskrit and half Telugu in his Telugu translation of the Sanskrit Mahabharata. He translated the Harivamsamu and Ramayanamu from Sanskrit, dedicating both works to the founder of the Reddy Dynasty, King Prolaya Vemareddy.
Nrusimhapuranamu was his own independent work. Erranna received his inspiration for the Nrusimhapuranam from his grandfather Errapotanna. According to tradition, one day when Erranna was meditating, his grandfather appeared and advised him to write the Narisimhapuranamu. This work was based on the Brahmandapuranamu and the Vishnupuranamu.
According to the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, King Hiraṇyakaśipu was the powerful demonic sovereign of the Earth millions of year ago at the beginning of the Yuga Cycle. The subjects of the Earth were described as Manavas ("descendants of Manu"; "humans"). The subjects of King Indra were described as Devatas. King Hiraṇyakaśipu fought a war with King Indra and, having emerged victorious, took over the heavenly planets. Under the rule of King Hiraṇyakaśipu, most of the Devatas either "converted to" or disguised themselves as Manavas for the fear of King Hiraṇyakaśipu. Another contemporary of King Hiraṇyakaśipu was also gate keeper of Śvetadvīpa, the Vaikuṇṭha planet in this universe, in a previous life, Śrī-hari who ruled in the Kṣīra-sāgara (the "Sea of Milk").
References
See also
Reddy dynasty
Telugu literature
Kavitrayam
Telugu poets
Telugu writers
People from Prakasam district
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Poets from Andhra Pradesh
14th-century Indian poets
14th-century Indian translators
Sanskrit-Telugu translators | [
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238765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%20LaVey | Anton LaVey | Anton Szandor LaVey (born Howard Stanton Levey; April 11, 1930 – October 29, 1997) was an American author, musician, and occultist. He was the founder of the Church of Satan and the religion of Satanism. He authored several books, including The Satanic Bible, The Satanic Rituals, The Satanic Witch, The Devil's Notebook, and Satan Speaks! In addition, he released three albums, including The Satanic Mass, Satan Takes a Holiday, and Strange Music. He played a minor on-screen role and served as technical advisor for the 1975 film The Devil's Rain and served as host and narrator for Nick Bougas' 1989 mondo film Death Scenes.
LaVey was the subject of numerous articles in news media throughout the world, including popular magazines such as Look, McCall's, Newsweek, and Time, and men's magazines. He also appeared on talk shows such as The Joe Pyne Show, Donahue and The Tonight Show, and in two feature-length documentaries: Satanis in 1969 and Speak of the Devil: The Canon of Anton LaVey in 1993. Two official biographies have been written on LaVey: The Devil's Avenger by Burton H. Wolfe, published in 1974, and The Secret Life of a Satanist by Blanche Barton, published in 1990.
Historian of Satanism Gareth J. Medway described LaVey as a "born showman", with anthropologist Jean La Fontaine describing him as a "colourful figure of considerable personal magnetism". Academic scholars of Satanism Per Faxneld and Jesper Aa. Petersen described LaVey as "the most iconic figure in the Satanic milieu". LaVey was labeled many things by journalists, religious detractors, and Satanists alike, including "The Father of Satanism", the "St. Paul of Satanism", "The Black Pope", and the "evilest man in the world".
Early life
LaVey was born Howard Stanton Levey on April 11, 1930 in Chicago, Illinois. His father, Michael Joseph Levey (1903–1992), from Chicago, Illinois, married LaVey's mother, the former Gertrude Augusta Coultron, who was born to a Chechen father and Ukrainian mother, who had immigrated to Ohio in 1893; both became naturalized American citizens in 1900. His parents supported his musical interests, as he tried a number of instruments; his favorites were keyboards such as the piano and accordion. Anton may have played piano in a Baptist church as a boy. He attended Tamalpais High School in Mill Valley, California, until the age of 16. LaVey claimed he left high school to join a circus and later carnivals, first as a roustabout and cage boy in an act with the big cats, then as a musician playing the calliope. He played tunes such as "Harlem Nocturne" by Earle Hagen. LaVey later claimed to have seen that many of the same men attended both the bawdy Saturday night shows and the tent revival meetings on Sunday mornings, which reinforced his increasingly cynical view of religion. In the foreword to the German language edition of The Satanic Bible, he cites this as the impetus to defy Christian religion as he knew it. He explains why church-goers employ moral double standards. However, journalist Lawrence Wright investigated LaVey's background and found no evidence LaVey ever worked in a circus either as a musician or a cage boy.
In the winter of 1948, LaVey began to work as an organist in bars, lounges, and nightclubs. His "genius" on keyboards helped him attain gigs. While playing organ in Los Angeles burlesque houses, he allegedly had a brief affair with then-unknown Marilyn Monroe, when she was a dancer at the Mayan Theater. This is challenged by those who then knew Monroe, as well as the manager of the Mayan, Paul Valentine, who said she had never been one of his dancers, nor had the theater ever been used as a burlesque house.
According to his biography, LaVey moved back to San Francisco. In 1950, LaVey met Carole Lansing. They married the following year, when Lansing was fifteen years old. Lansing gave birth to LaVey's first daughter, Karla LaVey, born in 1952. In order to avoid the Korean War draft, he studied criminology at City College of San Francisco. LaVey then attained a job as a photographer for the San Francisco Police Department (SFPD), where he worked for three years. He dabbled as a psychic investigator, looking into "800 calls" referred to him by SFPD. Later biographers questioned whether LaVey ever worked with the SFPD, as there are no records substantiating the claim.
During this period, LaVey was friends with a number of writers associated with Weird Tales magazine; a picture of him with George Haas, Robert Barbour Johnson, and Clark Ashton Smith appears in Blanche Barton's biography The Secret Life of a Satanist.
LaVey and Carole divorced in 1960, after LaVey became entranced by Diane Hegarty. Hegarty and LaVey never married, however she was his companion for 24 years and mothered his second daughter, Zeena Galatea Schreck (nee LaVey) (born in 1963). At the end of their relationship, Hegarty sued for palimony.
Church of Satan
Anton Lavey became a local celebrity in San Francisco through his paranormal research and live performances as an organist, including playing the Wurlitzer at the Lost Weekend cocktail lounge. He was also a publicly noticeable figure; he drove a coroner's van around town, and he walked his pet black leopard, named Zoltan. He attracted many San Francisco notables to his parties. Guests included Carin de Plessin, Michael Harner, Chester A. Arthur III, Forrest J Ackerman, Fritz Leiber, Cecil E. Nixon, and Kenneth Anger. LaVey formed a group called the Order of the Trapezoid, which later evolved into the governing body of the Church of Satan. According to Faxneld and Petersen, the Church of Satan represented "the first public, highly visible, and long-lasting organisation which propounded a coherent Satanic discourse".
LaVey began presenting Friday night lectures on the occult and rituals. A member of this circle suggested that he had the basis for a new religion. According to LaVey himself, on Walpurgisnacht, April 30, 1966, he ritualistically shaved his head, allegedly "in the tradition of ancient executioners", declared the founding of the Church of Satan and proclaimed 1966 as "the Year One", Anno Satanas-the first year of the Age of Satan (it was later demonstrated that LaVey in fact shaved his head because he lost a bet and made up the "ancient executioners" story after the fact). LaVey's image has been described as "Mephistophelian," and may have been inspired by an occult-themed episode of the television show The Wild Wild West titled "The Night of the Druid's Blood" which originally aired on March 25, 1966 and starred Don Rickles as the evil
magician and Satanic cult leader Asmodeus, whose Mephistophelean persona is virtually identical to that which LaVey adopted one month later. Media attention followed the subsequent Satanic wedding ceremony of journalist John Raymond to New York City socialite Judith Case on February 1, 1967. The Los Angeles Times and San Francisco Chronicle were among the newspapers that printed articles dubbing him "The Black Pope". LaVey performed Satanic baptisms (including the first Satanic baptism in history for his three-year-old daughter Zeena, dedicating her to Satan and the Left-Hand Path, which garnered worldwide publicity and was originally recorded on The Satanic Mass LP) and Satanic funerals (including one for naval Machinist-Repairman Third-Class Edward Olsen, complete with a chrome-helmeted honor guard), and released a record album entitled The Satanic Mass.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, LaVey melded ideological influences from Friedrich Nietzsche, Ayn Rand, H. L. Mencken, and Social Darwinism with the ideology and ritual practices of the Church of Satan. He wrote essays introduced with reworked excerpts from Ragnar Redbeard's Might Is Right and concluded with "Satanized" versions of John Dee's Enochian Keys to create books such as The Complete Witch (re-released in 1989 as The Satanic Witch), and The Satanic Rituals. The latter book also included rituals drawing on the work of H. P. Lovecraft. Admitting his use of Might is Right, LaVey stated that he did so in order to "immortalize a writer who had profoundly reached me".
In 1972, the public work at LaVey's Black House in San Francisco was curtailed and work was continued via sanctioned regional "grottoes". In early 1975 LaVey announced that higher degrees of initiation could be given in return for a financial contribution. In June 1975, editor of the Church's newsletter, Michael Aquino, left the Church of Satan and formed the theistic Temple of Set, claiming to take an unknown number of dissenters with him. The Church maintains this policy announcement was designed to "clean house" of members who didn't understand Satanic philosophy.
Later life and death
In 1980 the FBI interviewed LaVey in connection with an alleged plot to murder Ted Kennedy. LaVey told the agents that most of the church's followers were "fanatics, cultists, and weirdos". The agents reported that LaVey’s "interest in the Church of Satan is strictly from a monetary point of view," and that he spent "most of his time furnishing interviews, writing material, and lately has become interested in photography."
In July 1984, Hegarty issued a restraining order against LaVey, which he did not contest. LaVey's third and final companion was Blanche Barton. On November 1, 1993, Barton gave birth to Satan Xerxes Carnacki LaVey. Barton succeeded LaVey as the head of the Church after his death and has since stepped down from that role and handed it to Magus Peter H. Gilmore.
Anton LaVey died on October 29, 1997, in St. Mary's Medical Center in San Francisco of pulmonary edema. He was taken to St. Mary's, a Catholic hospital, because it was the closest available. A secret Satanic funeral, attended by invitation only, was held in Colma, after which LaVey's body was cremated.
On February 2, 1998, his estranged daughter Zeena Schreck and her then husband Nikolas Schreck published a nine-page "fact sheet", in which they endorsed Wright's earlier allegations and claimed that many more of LaVey's stories about his life had been false.
Thought
LaVey included references to other esoteric and religious groups throughout his writings, claiming for instance that the Yezidis and Knight's Templar were carriers of a Satanic tradition that had been passed down to the twentieth-century. Scholar of Satanism Per Faxneld believed that these references were deliberately tongue-in-cheek and ironic, however he noted that many Satanists who had read LaVey's writings had taken them to be literal historical claims about the past. Although he regularly derided older esotericists, LaVey also relied upon their work; for instance making use of John Dee's Enochian system in The Satanic Bible. Faxneld therefore believed that there was a tension in LaVey's thought between his desire to establish prestigious Satanic predecessors and his desire to be seen as the founder of the first real Satanic society.
Dyrendel argued that LaVey partook in conspiracy culture as he grew older, for he was greatly concerned with modern society's impact on individual agency. LaVey was conservative in his attitude to law and order, and was opposed to drug use. He supported eugenics and believed that it would be a necessity in the future. LaVey hated rock and metal music, with or without "Satanic" lyrics, and often expressed his distaste for it.
Reception and legacy
Historian of Satanism Gareth J. Medway described LaVey as "A born showman", with anthropologist Jean La Fontaine describing him as "A colourful figure of considerable personal magnetism". Medway contrasted LaVey from the likes of Jim Jones, David Koresh, and Charles Manson, noting that whereas the latter were the charismatic leaders of apocalyptic communes, within the Church of Satan, "No one hung onto [LaVey's] every word, and church members [were] allowed considerable autonomy."
Academic scholars of Satanism Per Faxneld and Jesper Aa. Petersen described LaVey as "the most iconic figure in the Satanic milieu", while Asbjørn Dyrendel described him as "the founder of modern Satanism".
In his 2001 examination of Satanists, the sociologist James R. Lewis noted that, to his surprise, his findings "consistently pointed to the centrality of LaVey's influence on modern Satanism". As a result he "concluded that - despite his heavy dependence on prior thinkers - LaVey was directly responsible for the genesis of Satanism as a serious religious (as opposed to a purely literary) movement".
His books The Satanic Bible and The Satanic Rituals have been cited as having "an influence far beyond" the Church of Satan's membership. In 1995, the religious studies scholar Graham Harvey wrote that although the Church had no organized presence in Britain, LaVey's writings were widely accessible in British bookshops.
Due to increasing visibility through his books, LaVey was the subject of numerous articles in the news media throughout the world, including popular magazines such as Look, McCall's, Newsweek, and Time, and men's magazines. He also appeared on talk shows such as The Joe Pyne Show, Donahue, and The Tonight Show, and in a feature-length documentary called Satanis in 1970. He would be credited for the mainstreaming of Satanism and witchcraft in the U.S. during the 1960s, 1970s, and after. LaVey claimed that he had been appointed consultant to the film Rosemary's Baby, which revolved around a group of fictional Satanists, and that he also had a cameo appearance in the film as the Devil, however critics have argued that none of this was true. In an article published in Rolling Stone magazine in 1991, the journalist Lawrence Wright revealed that through his own investigative work, he found that many of LaVey's claims about his life had been untrue. Two official biographies have been written on LaVey, including The Devil's Avenger by Burton H. Wolfe, published in 1974 and The Secret Life of a Satanist by Blanche Barton, published in 1990.
Politics
LaVey was a friend of James Madole, leader of the National Renaissance Party. Due to Madole's opposition to Christianity, he sought new religious ideas, and was attracted to an infusion of fascism and Satanism.
In popular culture
In Season 8 of American Horror Story (American Horror Story: Apocalypse), Episode "Return To Murder House" (2018) LaVey is portrayed by Carlo Rota.
In the feature film Polanski Unauthorized, where he is shown as an advisor on Polanski's movie Rosemary's Baby, LaVey is portrayed by Tom Druilhet.
LaVey-related books
Books by LaVey
The Satanic Bible (1969) (Avon, )
The Satanic Rituals (1972) (Avon, )
The Satanic Witch (1989) (Feral House, )
The Devil's Notebook (1992) (Feral House, )
Satan Speaks! (1998) (Feral House, )
Letters from the Devil (2010) (Underworld Amusements , )
Books featuring writings by LaVey
"Misanthropia", Rants and Incendiary Tracts: Voices of Desperate Illuminations 1558-present!, edited by Bob Black and Adam Parfrey (Amok Press and Loompanics Unlimited, 1989, )
"The Invisible War", Apocalypse Culture: Expanded & revised edition, edited by Adam Parfrey (Amok Press, 1990, )
"Foreword", Might Is Right, or The Survival of the Fittest by Ragnar Redbeard, LL.D., edited by Katja Lane (M.H.P. & Co., Ltd, 1996, )
Books about LaVey
The Devil's Avenger: A Biography of Anton Szandor LaVey by Burton H. Wolfe (Pyramid Books, 1974, , Out of print)
The Black Pope by Burton H. Wolfe (a drastically revised and updated edition of The Devil's Avenger);
The Secret Life Of A Satanist: The Authorized Biography of Anton LaVey by Blanche Barton (Feral House, 1990, ).
Popular Witchcraft: Straight from the Witch's Mouth by Jack Fritscher ; featuring Anton LaVey (University of Wisconsin Press : Popular Press, 2004, , hardcover, , paperback)
The 2009 play 'Debate' by Irish author Sean Ferrick features LaVey as a character. He is one of four witnesses in a case between God and The Devil, and events from both his life and after his death are used as evidence. He was portrayed by Mark O'Brien and Fiachra MacNamara
Letters From the Devil: The Lost Writing of Anton Szandor LaVey by Anton Szandor LaVey, 2010, softcover, paperback
California Infernal: Anton LaVey & Jayne Mansfield: As Portrayed by Walter Fischer, 2017, hardcover
Recordings of Anton LaVey
The Satanic Mass, LP (Murgenstrumm Records, 1968; re-released on CD with one bonus track, "Hymn of the Satanic Empire, or The Battle Hymn of the Apocalypse", by Amarillo Records, 1994; Mephisto Media, 2001)
Answer Me/Honolulu Baby, 7" single (Amarillo Records, 1993)
Strange Music, 10" EP (Amarillo Records, 1994; now available through Reptilian Records)
Satan Takes A Holiday, CD (Amarillo Records, 1995; now available through Reptilian Records)
Anton Szandor Lavey The Devil Speaks (& Plays), LP (2017; Aberrant Records Limited)
Films starring LaVey
Speak of the Devil: The Canon of Anton LaVey, a documentary directed by Nick Bougas.
Death Scenes, a mondo film directed by Nick Bougas.
Invocation of My Demon Brother, directed by Kenneth Anger.
The Devil's Rain, directed by Robert Fuest.
Iconoclast, directed by Larry Wessel.
An American Satan, directed by Aram Garriga.
Religious office succession
See also
Satanism
Left-hand path
Church of Satan
LaVeyan Satanism
Peter H. Gilmore
The Satanic Bible
References
Sources
External links
Writings by LaVey
The Nine Satanic Statements
The Eleven Satanic Rules of the Earth
The Nine Satanic Sins
Pentagonal Revisionism: A Five-Point Program, 1988
The World's Most Powerful Religion
Enochian Pronunciation Guide
Letters From The Devil from The National Insider, Vol. 14, No. 17, April 27, 1969.
On Occultism of the Past from The Cloven Hoof, September 1971 c.e., Volume Three, Number Nine.
Interviews with LaVey
Section concerning Anton LaVey in Chapter XII (Satan in the Suburbs) of "Occult America" by John Godwin (Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1972)
Section concerning Anton LaVey in "Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Sorcery, But Were Afraid to Ask" by Arlene J. Fitzgerald (Manor Books, 1973)
"Anton LaVey: America's Satanic Master of Devils, Magic, Music, and Madness" by Walt Harrington in "The Washington Post Magazine", February 23, 1986.
"Anton LaVey / The Church of Satan Interview" by Eugene Robinson in "The Birth of Tragedy", No. 4 "The God Issue", November 1986 - January 1987
"Dinner with the Devil: An evening with Anton Szandor LaVey, the High Priest of the Church of Satan" by Reverend Bob Johnson in "High Society", August 1994.
"The Doctor is in......" by Shane & Amy Bugbee in "MF Magazine" #3, Summer 1997.
Interview with Anton LaVey by Michelle Carr and Elvia Lahman, originally published in the September 11, 1997 Velvet Hammer souvenir programme.
About LaVey
Anton Szandor LaVey: A Biographical Sketch by Magus Peter H. Gilmore, on the Church of Satan's official website.
Anton Lavey by Alex Burns at disinformation.
People of Significance entry for LaVey
Short biographical sketch with particular focus on his influence on Marilyn Manson, taken from "Spin magazine" (February 1998, pg. 64).
1930 births
1997 deaths
American atheists
American eugenicists
American occult writers
American occultists
American organists
American male organists
American people of Georgian (country) descent
American people of Ukrainian descent
American LaVeyan Satanists
Church of Satan
Deaths from pulmonary edema
Founders of new religious movements
People from San Francisco
Satanist religious leaders
Tamalpais High School alumni
Writers from Chicago
Writers from San Francisco
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American writers
Science fiction fans
Critics of Christianity
Critics of the Catholic Church
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century pseudonymous writers | [
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|
238766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%20file%20input/output | C file input/output | The C programming language provides many standard library functions for file input and output. These functions make up the bulk of the C standard library header . The functionality descends from a "portable I/O package" written by Mike Lesk at Bell Labs in the early 1970s, and officially became part of the Unix operating system in Version 7.
The I/O functionality of C is fairly low-level by modern standards; C abstracts all file operations into operations on streams of bytes, which may be "input streams" or "output streams". Unlike some earlier programming languages, C has no direct support for random-access data files; to read from a record in the middle of a file, the programmer must create a stream, seek to the middle of the file, and then read bytes in sequence from the stream.
The stream model of file I/O was popularized by Unix, which was developed concurrently with the C programming language itself. The vast majority of modern operating systems have inherited streams from Unix, and many languages in the C programming language family have inherited C's file I/O interface with few if any changes (for example, PHP).
Overview
This library uses what are called streams to operate with physical devices such as keyboards, printers, terminals or with any other type of files supported by the system. Streams are an abstraction to interact with these in a uniform way. All streams have similar properties independent of the individual characteristics of the physical media they are associated with.
Functions
Most of the C file input/output functions are defined in (or in the C++ header , which contains the standard C functionality but in the namespace).
Constants
Constants defined in the header include:
Variables
Variables defined in the header include:
Member types
Data types defined in the header include:
– also known as a file handle, this is an opaque type containing the information about a file or text stream needed to perform input or output operations on it, including:
platform-specific identifier of the associated I/O device, such as a file descriptor
the buffer
stream orientation indicator (unset, narrow, or wide)
stream buffering state indicator (unbuffered, line buffered, fully buffered)
I/O mode indicator (input stream, output stream, or update stream)
binary/text mode indicator
end-of-file indicator
error indicator
the current stream position and multibyte conversion state (an object of type mbstate_t)
reentrant lock (required as of C11)
– a non-array type capable of uniquely identifying the position of every byte in a file and every conversion state that can occur in all supported multibyte character encodings
– an unsigned integer type which is the type of the result of the operator.
Extensions
The POSIX standard defines several extensions to in its Base Definitions, among which are a function that allocates memory, the and functions that establish the link between objects and file descriptors, and a group of functions for creating objects that refer to in-memory buffers.
Example
The following C program opens a binary file called myfile, reads five bytes from it, and then closes the file.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void) {
char buffer[5];
FILE* fp = fopen("myfile", "rb");
if (fp == NULL) {
perror("Failed to open file \"myfile\"");
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
int rc = getc(fp);
if (rc == EOF) {
fputs("An error occurred while reading the file.\n", stderr);
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
buffer[i] = rc;
}
fclose(fp);
printf("The bytes read were... %x %x %x %x %x\n", buffer[0], buffer[1],
buffer[2], buffer[3], buffer[4]);
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
Alternatives to stdio
Several alternatives to have been developed. Among these is the C++ library, part of the ISO C++ standard. ISO C++ still requires the functionality.
Other alternatives include the SFIO (A Safe/Fast I/O Library) library from AT&T Bell Laboratories. This library, introduced in 1991, aimed to avoid inconsistencies, unsafe practices and inefficiencies in the design of . Among its features is the possibility to insert callback functions into a stream to customize the handling of data read from or written to the stream. It was released to the outside world in 1997, and the last release was 1 February 2005.
See also
printf format string
scanf format string
References
External links
C standard library
Input/output
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|
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